Postgraduate Research Paper by Priya Renga

CITIES+URBANISM IDEOLOGIES AND FUTURES

RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES+EVENTS PRIYA KANNU RENGANATHAN

DECLARATION No portion of the work referred to in the research paper has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or to any other university or other institute of learning. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without permission of the copyright holder, the author.

STRUCTURE Declaration

CITIES AND URBANISM : IDEOLOGIES AND FUTURES

Chapter 1: Review 1.1.Introduction and abstract 1.2.Why the Twenties? 1.3.The Necessary Conditions? 1.4.1925 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1932 : Social Condensers 1.5.Town and Revolution 1.6.Dream and Reality

10 11 13 15 17 19

Chapter 2: Critical Comparison 2.1.Analysis of Anatole Kopp and Tony Garnier 2.2.The Le Corbusier effect

22 25

Chapter 3: Conclusion

RESEARCH METHODOLGIES AND EVENTS

Chapter 4: Theoretical understanding 4.1.From text written on subject 4.2.From course curriculum

34 37

Chapter 5: Practical application 5.1.During course of MA dissertation 5.2.Additional methods along course Chapter 6: Bibliography

40 45 47

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 01 Figure 02 Figure 03 Figure 04 Figure 05 Figure 06 Figure 07 Figure 08Figure 09Figure 10Figure 11Figure 12Figure 13Figure 14Figure 15Figure 16Figure 17Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23 Figure 24 Figure 25Figure 26Figure 27Figure 28Figure 29Figure 30Figure 31Figure 32Figure 33Figure 34Figure 35Figure 36Figure 37-

The Author : Anatole Kopp The October Revolution P.Pashkov and S.Gerasimov: Propoganda train Vladmir Tatlin : Tatlin’s Tower A .Shukov : Radio Tower Alexander, Leonid, Vesnin : Palace of Labor Konstantin Melkinov: Melkinov Residence Lenin Central Library First Communal house in Moscow Central Factory kitchen The Dneprostroi M.Barshch and V.Vladimirov: Communal house M.Barshch and Moses Ginzburg: Green city I.Leonidov – Futuristic vision in elevation I.Leonidov – Futuristic vision in plan B.Yofan,V.Gel’freikh and V.Shchuko: Palace of the Soviets Anatole Kopp Tony Garnier T.Garnier : Cité Industrielle theatre view M.Ginzburg and G.Hassenpflug : Palace of Soviets entry M.Shirov : Moscow Plan, view T. Garnier : Cité Industrielle Plan, view Garnier : Cité Industrielle Residential Quarters Narkomfin Apartment Building Reference books on research methodologies Quantitative and Qualitative Paradigm Assumptions Research Framework Site surveying of NQ Regeneration cycle Quantitative research for NQ : Site and history Qualitative research for NQ : Environmental analysis Quantitative research for NQ : Conservation zone Quantitative research for NQ : Surveys Current and proposed master plan for NQ Quantitative research : Figure ground mapping Qualitative research for NQ : Public Consultation Qualitative research for NQ : Public Consultation

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CITIES AND URBANISM : IDEOLOGIES AND FUTURES

01 REVIEW

â&#x20AC;&#x153;The architecture of the U.S.S.R. of that period was one of the means employed in the service of the noblest goal that humanity had ever set itself: to build a society based on social justice, equality, and progress â&#x20AC;&#x153;- Anatole Kopp

Figure 01 : The author, Anatole Kopp.

1.1.INTRODUCTION AND ABSTRACT

“It is good to remember that utopia is nothing but the reality of tomorrow & that today’s reality is yesterday’s utopia “

Published in 1967, and later translated to English in 1970, this book is credited to being one of most clearest and conclusive renditions of the relationship between the October Revolution and the modern architectural movement of Russia from 1917 up until the rise of Stalinism in the Soviet world in 1937.The author begins by dedicating the book to the memory of pioneers of a new architecture born amidst the October Revolution, and states his belief that there is still much to be learned from this architecture. He further goes on to mention that the designers and authors of realized and imagined projects gave a new meaning to the term “architect” as they aimed to reconstruct the very notion of what society was and could be. The October Revolution lays the stage for the book to unravel. The successful movement, impacting all realms of creativity and design, instigated change from the grassroots levels of society and at last there seemed to be an ideology. A classless society is now born, and Kopp questions the very notions of this society - But what were the needs? How could they be translated outside of architectural interventions? What method is more appropriate or more effective? .To better answer these he selects critical architects of the period to review and understand in the course of the book, ones who have tried to create a “new space” that was in harmony with the revolution. The book attempts to lay down the historical facts of the new change in society and change in ideas of architecture while crediting the architects and technical advancements with being pivotal in attempting to create a utopian reality. Kopp states that he has deliberately put together this book in a format where the countries history unfolds against the backdrop of the illustrations and photographs, as the buildings constitute an important page in history. The basic goals that he aimed to achieve through this massive undertaking was to look at the architecture that acted as a tool for “transforming man-kind”, to explore the “social condensers” and their originality and to try to rescue from oblivion this forgotten segment of contemporary architecture.

1.2.WHY THE TWENTIES ? Understanding the context

Figure 02 : The October Revolution (The Daily Dispatch)

“We will build our own world, a new world” – Internationale – sang the October Revolutionaries.

“The thunder of the ten days that shook the world” A statement so powerful and evocative of the October Revolution, this signifies the collapse of the old way of life and marks the start of a new era. This instigator is what made Soviet architecture of the 20’s not only into landmarks of modern architecture, but also into historical evidence of a time when the world “turned upside down”. Kopp talks about how the 20’s was the rise of “new architecture”, a movement that is still ongoing 40 years later. The period immediately following WW1 is where his interest lay. Kopp felt it important to understand how and why the modern movement disappeared to better grasp the roots of the new socialist movement of architecture. He also strongly felt that this period was condemned unjustly at the time, as the resulting architecture of this period is now a source of inspiration - an object of study. Kopp realised through his research that this epoch, the 20’s soviet, deserved its rightful place in history, as it was a uniquely complex time where human achievement worked hand in hand with its economic, social, political and cultural context. As the book progresses, the author draws parallels between the Soviet and the rest of the world in terms of technological advances, the generation of new typologies and the development of capitalism. He then mentions:

“In writing of this period, Soviet architectural historians epitomize it in one word: eclecticism”

Kopp felt this commentary on the Russian architects approach to new designs in the late 19th and early 20th century was overly gracious as the end products did not do justice to the true meaning of the term, he states that they were merely ornamental. He goes on to talk about the two sects of architects that emerged in the wake of the October Revolution – the lesser known “academicians” who continued their work in the Soviet Union, and the more well connected who followed their rich clientele into exile. He focusses on a few of the architects who stayed, and became the arbiters and inspirers of architecture giving socialism a new form.

1.3.THE NECESSARY CONDITIONS ? The impetus to architectural development

Figure 03 : P.Pashkov and S.Gerasimov: Propoganda train

“Comrades To the barricades To the barricades of hearts and souls…. Enough footslogging, Futurists, Into the future with a bound! Drag the piano into the street, Through the window with a drum!”

Kopp starts to help make the reader understand that there is no synthesis of all the architecture that came about between 1920 and 1925 as the old and the new overlapped freely in different and also the same projects. There was a lack of novelty of expression, and the architects merely undertook the task ahead of them. A passion for “architecture for the times” was being sought after by people from all walks of life. Kopp goes on to quote Mayakovsky as he best encapsulated the notion of the “new way of life” that was desperately being sought.

“Down with your love”-“Down with your art”“Down with your government”-“Down with your religion”

This wave resulted in a decree of fundamental importance for master planning, aimed directly at establishing a new “order of things”. A festering need for equality amongst masses forced the decree into reality, where new cities were superimposed onto older moulds resulting in gestures that read as empty and without benefit. Kopp comments on how the designers were by products of an old school of thought and thus they were slow to grasp the opportunities the revolution had to offer to them. It was a period of “paper” architecture and “expressionism” where nothing was built - the creative were given free rein to imagine buildings without the technical consequences, only functional justifications. This led to symbolism and romanticism, giving rise to some of the iconic architecture associated with this time.

Figure 04 : Vladmir Tatlin: Tatlin’s Tower

Figure 05 : A .Shukov: Radio Tower

Figure 06 : Alexander, Leonid, Vesnin: Palace of Labor

1.4.1925 – 1932: NEW SOCIAL CONDENSORS Transformation of the way of life

Figure 07 : Konstantin Melkinov: Melkinov Residence

This seven year period that the author focusses on, is referred to by him as “the great period of modern architecture in the U.S.S.R”. It was the setting for the first 5 year plan, the time of foreign capital, the rapid architectural development. Kopp now begins to delve into impact of the revolution on architectural academics, Contemporary Association of architects (O.S.A) and writings on architecture of the time. He questions whether the period can be judged based on the writings of a few philosophers with homemade theories and conflicts. He concludes this train of thought by focussing on Melkinov, a member of Asnova, and the Vesnin brothers who played an important role in O.S.A, the community that pushed the ideas of prefabrication, industrialization and standardization in the U.S.S.R.

“For us the goal consists in the complete overthrow of old concepts usually established by a program that sets the limits within which the architect can exercise his own creative initiative”

Figure 08 : Lenin Central Library

â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Laws of October had liberated the women, and the infamous Laws of the bourgeoisie have been completely obliterated.â&#x20AC;?

Kopp starts to analyse the change in society in terms of demographics and jobs, as women needed to work out of the economic necessity of a labor shortage as well as to be emancipated. He correlates this change to the creation of a new social institutions in the U.S.S.R â&#x20AC;&#x201C; canteens, day-care centers, nursery schools. Then Kopp highlights the 3 New Social Condensers - workers clubs (social power plant), communal houses (Don Kommuna) and factories (true social condenser), within the city (general condenser). Kopp comments on how Soviet architects should know better than to think the mere act of designing new architecture would make its residents shed their old habits and change. The book then goes into a detailed study on the typologies of each condenser, projects that were realised and imagined, architects credited for bringing about the change, with excerpts from supporting documents to provide a better understanding of the context. Kopp comments on their relevance forty years after their inception to understand which designs were able to stand the test of time in turn helping him single out reasons for their relevance today.

Figure 09 : First Communal house in Moscow

Figure 10 : Central Factory kitchen

Figure 11 : Victor Vesnin, Nicholos Kolly, G.Orlov, S.Andreyevsky and V.Korshinsky: The Dneprostroi

1.5.TOWN AND REVOLUTION The Urbanist and De-Urbanist

Kopp starts to break down the Soviet approach to city planning, comparing it to progress made in neighbouring countries at the time. He looks at the goals achieved by the 5 year plan, the old towns that were still centers of construction, the new towns that were built on virgin land and the start of utopian approaches to master planning.

“The novelty of the problem, the lack of research facilities, and the desire to find an immediate solution from which projects already underway could benefit – this was the combination of factors that nudged a number of first rate architects along the slippery path to utopia.”

The later years of the movement focused on socialist resettlement – designing new cities and bettering old ones. This created two schools of thought – urbanist and deurbanists – both equally unrealistic and utopian, both in search of absolute solutions to the problem at hand. Today the radical proposals drawn up by these two are referred to as controlled development – naïve, utopian and full of confidence in man’s perfectibility. The main examples that the author covers is the Urbanist - Socialist Reconstruction of Moscow, and the De-Urbanist -New city of Magnitogorsk.

Figure 12: M.Barshch and V.Vladimirov: Communal house – example of self-contained super communes of Urbanists

Figure 13 : M.Barshch and M.Ginzburg: Green city – Individual homes and a collective city centre of De-Urbanists

Ivan Leonidov entered Soviet architecture in 1929, and is given a separate chapter in the book as Kopp felt he was entitled to special place in any account of architecture of the 20’s – stating his role had the potential to match Le Corbusiers, albeit the fact that Leonidovs creative period spanned a few years and not decades. His untimely demise left behind a series of unrealised projects. Kopp concludes the chapter by justifying his decision to place importance on Leonidov – by stating that a new phase, a new leap forward was possible due to him in Soviet architecture, and Leonidovs appearance is proof of the success of the constructivist movement.

Figure 14 : I.Leonidov – Futuristic vision in elevation

Figure 15 : I.Leonidov – Futuristic vision in plan

1.6.DREAM AND REALITY From the 20’s to early 2000

Towards the end of the book Kopp starts to highlight how modern architecture in the U.S.S.R was faltering as it was impossible to pay for industrialization while providing the necessary housing and services that were needed to “transform the way of life”. Simultaneously the diversity of the people of the Soviet Union came to light in terms of economic, social and cultural development – amidst regions, within neighbourhoods, trickling down to within apartments. Kopp reinforces Leonidov and the too soon and too late comparison – the citizen the architects were designing for was yet to be born, and the era of experimentation was past. He comments that the road was longer than they had anticipated, with more roundabouts and strewn with unsuspected traps.

“Not that light had remained unchanged, not that considerable progress had not been made, but between the progress and great ideal of a society transformed there was all the difference that perennially separates dream from reality.”

The evolution of Soviet architecture is seen as a permanent struggle between “realism” and “formalism” where realists worked in constructivist styles without affiliating with constructivist research. In the political climate of the 30’s Kopp observed that there was a need for architecture to be an ideological tool – one that is expressive, representative and oratorical, in turn being monumental and not modest in function.

“A period when within less than ten years all the most productive concepts of modern city planning were first advanced, when innumerable designs were produced, and when a not inconsiderable number of buildings, including some of the highest quality were built in the face of the severest technical and material difficulties.”

Kopp concludes his book by questioning whether the period was a golden age of Soviet architecture, one that sprang up out of nowhere and vanished just as quickly. He continues this questioning to probe into the U.S.S.R architecture forty years later, past three 5 year plans, to see how much progress was made. He talks about the full circle where slogans of the past like “housing of a new type” reappear in discourse. The book ends with Kopp crediting the architects of the Soviet modern architecture with the bravery to build not only the framework for a new society, but the society itself. He praises them and compares their success against the architect of the 1960’s who lack originality and essentialness.

Figure 16 : B.Yofan,V.Gel’freikh and V.Shchuko: Palace of the Soviets

“Almost 40 years have passed since a small group of Russians with no special preparation for the task set out to give the word architect a new meaning.”

CRITICAL COMPARISON “In the Utopias of this period, fundamental, natural and primitive conditions were stressed; the emphasis on exercise, health, and physical well-being was a corollary to the awakening interest in natural life.” – Garnier “A new man of whom we have spoken. A man who was to divide his time among productive labor, individual or collective study, cultural recreation, sports and physical training.” – Kopp

Figure 17 : Anatole Kopp.

Figure 18 : Tony Garnier

2.1.ANALYSIS OF ANATOLE KOPP AND TONY GARNIER Town and Revoltuion : Un Cité Industrielle

Written at different periods in time, by men from different backgrounds, with an overlapping area of interest, the two books make relating the U.S.S.R and France in the early 1900’s legible and understandable. While Town and Revolution is more of a commentary on the Soviets and their architecture and way of life from 1917 – 1935, Un Cité Industrielle is a book that encapsulates the workings of Garniers mind and his creativity in designing a brand new city in a context envisioned purely by him. Anatole Kopp was born in St.Petersburg, Russia in 1915, while Garnier was born in Lyon, France in 1869. Both of the authors were acclaimed architects and urban planners of their time, with formal architectural educations and experience in architectural firms. The cities they grew up in had a lasting infuence on them,deciding the direction of the books they wrote. Kopp covered Soviet Architecture of the 20’s that resulted out of the October Revolution and modernization. Garnier on the other hand conceived a visionary city driven by textile and metal industries, the two being synonymous with Lyon. Garnier published a two volume work on this idea, titled “Une Cité Industrielle” in the year 1917, the year that piqued Soviet Modern architecture and resulted in the research novel of Kopp. Garnier attempted to explore the idea of a utopian-socialist foundation for a city, something that Kopp analysed and explained as the principals of the Soviet Urbanists. The similarity further extends to the Deurbanist movement as Garnier wanted the cities function to relate, for them to be separated from each other by location and circulation patterns. Two very opposing ideologies in Russia, they are seen to work together in this hypothetical design proposal. At a larger level, when Garnier spoke about planning for the city, he proposed zoning norms – an idea unheard of at the time – this broke the city down into work, housing, health and leisure. As previously discussed, the Soviets tried to bring their revolutionary change to the way of life through social condensers which broke down mans need into similar categories as proposed by Garnier. The dreamers dreamt of a similar future for cities.

The belief in the “goodness of man”, and the birth of a new society, is what pushed the Soviets of the 20’s and Garnier towards the utopian side of design. The notion that the inhabitants could be reformed, to believe that crime and poverty could be eradicated and that primitive behaviour could be changed, seems a naïve mind-set when designing a new city. The simple act of designing new architecture, and abolishing class and hierarchy, would make man shed his faulty ways and adopt a new persona, was the common belief. The need to make man free from his present labour, to make him more useful, to make all men equal, is on par with the October Revolution. Yuri Larin spoke about how women and men were unable to work to their maximum capacity as they were trapped in everyday life. J.F.Held spoke about how workers of all ages should be made to feel like members of a collective. Garnier designed his city in a way that property was owned by no one and public conveniences were for all. This perhaps stems from his own upbringing in the workers section of his city, the root for his tendency toward socialism. In his planning of the city Garnier proposed that building typologies be zoned based on similarities and then separated with the help of green belts. A similar proposal was made by M.Shirov in his 1929 master plan for the city of Moscow. Surface level parallels in projects can be drawn between the books. Concrete began to play a large role in the conception of new cities as both books covered regions that were in the wake of industrialization. Another parallel was that Kopp wrote about the Dneprostrol, the largest river dam in the world at one point. At the same time, in Lyon, a hydro-electric dam was being constructed, which in turn led to Garnier stating that his Cité would be idealised along the river on Rhone. An interesting factor that is noted is that both books fail to highlight is the presence of religion and religious structures in the design of new cities.

Figure 19 : T.Garnier: Cité Industrielle theatre view

Figure 20 : Moses Ginzburg and Gustav Hassenpflug : Palace of Soviets entry

In the period that Garnier was working on his book France was facing technical and hygienic improvements, and was supporting the creation of public and educational institutions. This translated into new buildings appearing in Garniers master planning. The Soviet era on the other hand dealt the architects a blank slate to work with, and this in turn did not seem to result in ingenious approaches to changing the way of life, but rather in creating designs that tackled immediate problems. The designs of Garnier can be related to the ideologies of Albert Shaw and the organic growth of cities, Patrick Geddes and city decentralization, to Ebenezer Howard and his emancipation of man. It is this third comparison that seems most intriguing.

Figure 21 : M.Shirov : Moscow Plan, view

Figure 22 : T. Garnier : CitĂŠ Industrielle Plan, view

2.2.THE LE CORBUSIER EFFECT A change in mindset

Both books draw relations to Le Corbusier and his works that overlapped with the time. Kopp’s commentary on architecture being a “play of volumes”, to Le Corbusiers fight for new architecture in an atmosphere of narrow minded conservatism, and his works in France is the perfect segue to discuss how Le Corbusier visited Garnier in 1907, and discussed Une Cité Industrielle. Corbusiers theories on city planning bear a resemblance to Garnier’s, amidst a myriad of other complex theories. To better understand the mind-set of the European against the Russian we can compare how the Soviet architects tackled the problem of housing against Garnier interpretation of industrial residences. Kopp laid out the basic goals that the period tried to achieve – minimizing interior layouts to bare minimum amenities, split level apartments to reduce ceiling heights, prefabricated construction to save time and cost. These standardized apartments had interior streets or corridors for social functions and the building was deemed communal with libraries, canteens and nurseries housed within it. Garnier on the other hand had three principles to design housing – each bedroom was to have one window, all spaces were to be lit from the exterior and not via courts or light wells, all interior surfaces were to be of smooth materials with rounded corners. Buildings were rectangular in form and their plot footprint was such that they were to have gardens and public passages. U.S.S.R was in a desperate need to prove itself as the city fabric was filled with old construction and there was a lack of technology or monetary investment – this is directly reflected in their approach to designing the homes. The Europeans on the other hand were breaking ground in all these fields, as well civil and medical realms – creating a more holistic and well-rounded platform for Garnier to design his city.

“It is not justifiable for each house to have a different floor plan, a different shape, different building materials, and a different ‘style’. To do this is to practice waste and to put a false emphasis on individuality” – Walter Gropius

This quote perhaps would be the modern day take to designing for the masses, the justification for standardization and prefabrication and for the cookie- cutter mentality of designing housing. Another aspect to consider is the way education was tackled in the new cities. While Garnier catered to conventional means of designing the institution, Kopp showcased how drastic the Russian approach was. Garnier laid out schools, for different grades, special schools, higher education institutions and colleges. There were professional arts schools and industrial schools. In Russia however the answer to educational problems seemed to lay in sending children away to live communities apart from adults, organized by state, so as to give the children a better life and free floorarea in apartments for more adults. Kopp later details out Leonidovs proposal for a new workers club – one where adults and workers could gain new skills in laboratories, gain exposure to lectures, museums, competitions and campaigns, resulting in their growth and education. These different approaches can be boiled down to the essence of how Russians were facing a deadline, a slowing of momentum if no intervention happened – resulting in creating and building of quick, simple architecture. Garnier on the other hand was only a slave to his mind, and could design and imagine his city and the buildings as more humane entities. When the Russians were pushed to design out of their comfort zone, to design in a time of uncertainty, to design for a new future – they felt held back by the past, felt unsure of the direction to take, and when they did break free and design architecture that was futuristic they lacked technical know-how. Garnier on the other hand designed his city down to the details, with materials and construction detailing, and grounded designs emerging from the confines of his imagination. Anatole Kopp and Tony Garnier both saw an idea, a moment in time that held so much potential and so much inspiration for future generations to learn from. They broke down this idea and disseminated it through a compilation of drawings, pictures and text that was carefully curated. At their time in history, the approach to designing new cities that was taken was deemed irrelevant, impractical, and futuristic and both countries brushed off the significance of what was being ideated. The architects tried to build the framework for the society, while building for the society. Taking a step back and in retrospect we can truly understand that their direction was correct – their position in tackling real problems of contemporary architecture and city planning was oriented towards the root of the issues. The vision anticipated the needs of the future, the designs envisioned a healthier context and the goals, if not attainable at the time, helps us ground ourselves today by being a part of the history of the site.

Figure 23 : Garnier : CitĂŠ Industrielle Residential Quarters

Figure 24 : Narkomfin Apartment Building

CONCLUSION

“There is no logic that can be superimposed on the city; people make it, and it is to them, not buildings, that we must fit our plans” – Jane Jacobs

Master planning and city planning are concepts that modern day designers still struggle to deal with. The multi-faceted proposal houses layers of complexities, with a myriad of issues to tackle, which is overwhelming at the very least. In the early 1900’s when industrialization and modern architecture were making their foray into the world, the architects rose to the challenge. Russians and their slow change in mind-set and embracing of the freedom to design new buildings, Europeans and their academic strides to conceptualize city planning – there were big advances made. Unknowingly similar design strategies cropped up in different parts of the globe when similar issues presented themselves. Architects influenced each other, if not directly, and ideas traversed boundaries. Reflecting back on the epoch, and studying the data that’s available at hand, parallels can be drawn today. Ideologies of architects like Garnier were replicated and reinterpreted, while research of architects like Kopp shed light on a time that no one thought to pay attention to. In the past century a considerable amount of change has occurred in the way of life, but the principles and ideologies of the 1900’s are still deemed relevant. The architects of this era had utopian ideas and futuristic designs, proposals unimaginable and ahead of its times, and today these seem attainable. Some of their buildings that got built weathered the times, while some were less fortunate and couldn’t withstand the test of time. These give us the opportunity to understand what works and what does not when designing a building – be it in terms of material, internal planning or plain site location. Learning from the works of architects of different periods in time helps give one a better perspective and a fresh outlook to tackling modern day issues, with a well-rounded idea of how styles and movements interlink. Be it revolutionary ideas of Ebenezer Howard, to the Haussmanization of Paris, to historic compilations of Soviet architecture – there is a lesson to be learnt from every movement. We can understand what aspects of city planning is relevant to the times, and which aspects were important and stressed on at a certain period in time. To understand where we are headed I believe it is important to know where we came from - our roots. The one important lesson that I think readers should take away from the designs of the 1900’s is the importance that was placed on the men and women that the cities were being designed for. People were honoured, people were considered, people were consulted. Inhabitants were consciously considered at every stage, with designs aimed at improving their quality of life. There was openness in how society was interpreted, how families were structured, how life was to unravel. In today’s fast paced growth this very essence of design has been lost. The belief in man’s goodness is one that has since faded, a long gone memory.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES AND EVENTS

THEORETICAL UNDERSTANDING

Figure 25 : Reference books on research methodologies

4.1.FROM TEXT WRITTEN ON THE SUBJECT

James Snyder says research in its very essence is a “systematic inquiry directed toward the creation of knowledge.”

A research report is one that relies on shared facts and truths and is not purely subjective. There is a process of reasoning behind it and progressive evidence collection aids in ones goal to prove a hypothesis. Research methodologies are a series of strategies used to conduct said research on any topic, and are used at every stage of inquiry – from generating a broad hypothesis, collecting data, analysing findings and interpreting results. In a purely scientific realm of study research approaches are classified into two distinct labels – Quantitative research and Qualitative research. Broadly, the quantitative approach deals with numbers and ‘hard’ science, while the qualitative approach is associated with using words and is termed ‘soft’ science. The architecture realm however draws from a wide network of disciplines and thus there is one more classification – Mixed methods approach – a category that utilizes the approaches of two seemingly opposing realms of study.

Question

Quantitative

Ontology: What is the nature of reality?

Reality is objective and singular, Reality is subjective and multiple apart from the researcher. as seen by participants in a study.

Epistemology: What is the relationship of the researcher to what is being researched?

Researcher is independent from that being researched.

Methodology: Deductive process: cause + What is the process of research? effect.

Qualitative

Researcher interacts with that being researched.

Inductive process: Mutual simultaneous shaping of factors.

Figure 26 : Quantitative and Qualitative Paradigm Assumptions. (Interpreted by Groat and Wang, initially by J.W.Creswell)

â&#x20AC;&#x153;..there is a historical evolution to both approachesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;with the quantitative approaches dominating the forms of research in the social sciences from the late 19th century up until the mid-20th century. During the latter half of the 20th century, interest in qualitative research increased and along with it, the development of mixed methods research.â&#x20AC;? (J.W.Creswell, p.32, 2014)

These three approaches are the foundation to pursuing any research or scholarly paper, and it is crucial to understand their qualities so as to best select which suits ones research undertaking. They broadly encompass the following characteristics: 1.Quantitative research: a.This is the approach suited for objective goals where a set of variables are to be examined. These are ones that can be measured using parameters, which in turn will result in hard numerical data that can be analysed to give rise to statistical findings. These research papers are structured strictly with a systematic approach, with the goals being to control the narrative and create a duplicable template. b.Examples: True experimental, quasi experimental. c.Methods: Surveys, experiments, sampling, field experiment 2.Qualitative research: a.This is the approach suited for navigating the social aspect of the research where group or individual notions are to be understood and examined. Utilizing questions, questionnaires and surveys, a general analysis can be made of the setting and the findings can conform to particular areas of interest. These research papers are flexible in their structure, and the aim is towards deriving meaning and understanding complexities. b.Examples: Phenomenology, ethnographies, case studies. c.Methods: Observations, interviews, documents, focus groups, case study, oral history 3.Mixed methods research: a.This approach is one where the above two forms of data come together to create a theoretical framework to support a philosophical assumption. This in turn generates a more wholesome understanding of the research question. b.Examples: Explanatory, exploratory, transformative. c.Method: Convergent parallel

Based on the area of focus of the research, one of the above three approaches will be deemed relevant. Quantitative approaches are best suited for identifying factors, predicting outcomes, testing theories. Qualitative approaches are best suited for an open ended hypothesis, where the topic is relatively unexplored with no data to back it. Mixed method research is best suited for a complex topic that need to draw on qualitative techniques to generate a wider understandings and quantitative techniques to fine tune the research. Each of these approaches come with a set of pros and cons though. For example, quantitative methods cannot account for a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s thought or perception on the topic, and does not place importance on the why and how aspect of a phenomenon. Drawbacks with regard to this realm are inconsistencies in older research, inability to validate findings, questionable reliability on other peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s processes etc. Qualitative approaches on the other hand are open ended questions, and thus there is no pre conceived structure and in turn requires extreme caution so as to not divert from the initial research question. Ethical issues, intrusiveness into subjectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lives, lack of good observatory skills, gaining second hand information, lack of articulation etc are some of the disadvantages associated with this approach. Mixing these two methods is a very complex approach, and interpreting data subjectively and objectively, to complement each other, rather than to use them independently at different stages of research, is difficult for novice researchers.

Figure 27 : Research Framework -The Interconnection of Worldviews, Design, and Research Methods (J.W.Creswell)

4.2.FROM COURSE CURRICULUM

Groat and Wang believe that “And as future professionals, students will need to develop the ability to critically review and understand the basic research foundation of all manner of architectural products and processes. “

The Research Methodologies and Events segment of the program gave an introduction to the realm of scholarly writing, and aided in the pursuit of writing a post graduate dissertation. Exposure from past and current Ph.D. applicants on their unique methodologies opened up new avenues of exploration. Dr. Mazin – Al – Saffar presented his paper an “Integrated smart and sustainable urbanism framework in the historic centre”, using Baghdad Old Rusafa as a case study. This paper utilized historic data collection and analysis to understand evolution of a context, diagrammatic explorations to interpret growth patterns, on site drawings to understand scale and hierarchy of architecture, literature reviews to create a theoretical understanding of the topic, case studies to understand implementation of approaches, Ven diagrams to understand inclusive and exclusive elements in a framework amongst other research methods. Architect Demtra Kourrisova presented her current Ph.D. on “Mobility Infrastructures as Sociotechnical Mediators – Unfolding the Blanka Tunnel Controversy”. A systematic approach to research, with an objective standpoint, she explored the many layers of evolution and its relationship to the context and stakeholders, via a timeline web. Mapping of data to produce numeric content to analyse, and on site field work and case studies to understand the context, were guiding tools in her paper. These approaches were clearly mixed methods of research, with each step targeting a specific area of interest, designed in such a way to yield the best results. Along the course, the basis of writing dissertations was laid and the most important takeaway and distinction that helped inform my dissertation was:

“A method is simply the tool used to answer your research question….A methodology is the rationale for the research approach and the lens through which the analysis occurs.“ (Brookshier, 2018)

From these lecture series a better understanding on how to plan ones research began to formulate. The broad steps that were understood from the course were: 1.The framing of an initial observation or research hypothesis a.Giving the preliminary context for delving deeper into. b.This lays the foundation for all that is to follow and requires time and careful consideration. 2.Understanding which of the three unique approach the paper falls into is the second and most crucial step. Should the research question be : a.Deductive and purely analytical: quantitative b.Inductive and question norms and notions: qualitative. c.More complex and not fall within the purview of any one approach: mixed methods. 3.Exploring appropriate literature and theories on the topic – using the three approaches. a.Finding the gap in current literature and architectural and urban principles. b.Using methodologies to break down available content to support and back findings. c.This stage paints a picture on how the world views the area of study the paper is exploring. 4.Selecting appropriate case studies. a.This depends on the type of paper and is flexible. b.It could else be a singular case study approach, like the Ph.D. presentations. c.Or it could be multiple case studies to explain the current scenario in the area of interest. 5.Selecting appropriate methods to generate data to back the paper / data collection – surveying, experiments, interviews, focus groups etc. 6.Projecting, analysing and interpreting the data – this stage is when the work and records kept can be showcased. 7.Disseminating data 8.Concluding the paper.

PRACTICAL UNDERSTANDING

Figure 28 : Site surveying of Northern Quarter (Creative Tourist)

5.1.DURING THE COURSE OF M.A DISSERTATION

My post graduate dissertation explored the concept of a full cycle, using Manchester’s Northern Quarter as a case study. This was similar to the singular case study approaches showcased in the lecture series. The first step in this endeavour was identifying my research problem. The research focussed on answering the question of “What follows obsolescence?” Further, through a series of research driven steps, I aimed to dissect and formalize my findings in a legible and appropriate manner to benefit the people and the context of my case study in particular. In the current world of architecture and urban design the concept of built obsolescence and urban regeneration have gained traction. This is becoming an everyday problem, relatable by people from all walks of life –in specific, it is seen in the urban fabric of the UK as industrialization has died down and in its wake are the remnants of a bygone era of architecture and land use. Manchester was severely impacted by this change, and within it, the Northern Quarter suffered a tremendous loss in identity. In not discussing and shedding light on this issue I felt there would be an inevitable negative impact on the context.The dissertation laid out three main objectives: 1.To study the role of the city centres and their built heritage and to understand how this impacts the course of urban regeneration in the Northern Quarter. 2.To document different development guides drawn up for the Northern Quarter. 3.To present a consolidated document on the next stages of progress for the region.

Figure 29 : Regeneration cycle (Author)

To justify my research and reinforce its legitimate and detailed approach a set of steps was used. Referencing forerunners in their areas of expertise, referring to existing policy and media reports, quoting reputable sources, exploring existing literature on the topics, providing detailed information on the context and its condition were few of the techniques used to reinforce the authenticity and factual justifications of my dissertation. A mixed research approach with parallel convergent method was selected as it seemed relevant to the aim of the paper. Utilizing only quantitative or qualitative approaches to study the issue seemed inadequate as the paper aimed to look at the world view of the phenomenon of obsolescence, but also narrow it down to a specific context. Quantitative and qualitative findings were gathered simultaneously and later merged to provide a wholesome picture. Some of the research methods used were: 1.Quantitative research : a.Cross Sectional Survey: This was selected to gain the split up of a sample of the population in the region with regard to whether they live, work or play in the area and in turn was used to generalize the ratio of each category of users. b.Documentation: On site conditions were examined through detailed measure drawings to infer scale, architectural style, materiality and build-up of the context. c.Questionnaires: The aim of using this method was to understand the inclinations of the population when presented with future proposals in the mode of close ended questions. d.Records: The Manchester City Council webpage was perused to gain insights on council policies, strategic regeneration frameworks, future proposals and heritage building listings. 2.Qualitative research : a.Overt Observation: The context was visited at different hours of the day, and on different days, to understand how user groups use the built and open, use resources, personalize the space etc. This was selected over the covert approach so as to avoid ethical issues. b.Public consultation: This was selected as the middle ground between interviews and focus groups so as to interact one-on-one with people of the context and gain their feedback and input. This was used to take into consideration the peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s aspirations and views. c.Literature reviews: This tactic helped create a narrative of the evolution of the context over time and how stakeholders and the location changed and grew. d.Case studies: Similar projects that resonated with the essence of the case study were selected and studied to guide the research, these were looked at with specific aims and goals.

Figure 30 : Quantitative research for Northern Quarter : Site and history (Author)

Figure 31 : Qualitative research for Northern Quarter : Environmental analysis (Author)

In an attempt to personalize the dissertation to the case study, a first-hand interactive stance was taken and thus covert approached of observations and generalized data sampling was not preferred. An interactive, opinionated and site specific approach was taken for the most part to ensure the context and the issue plaguing it were understood in their entirety. This in turn meant surveys, questionnaires and public consultations were aimed at people who were stakeholders in the community and locality, it was not open ended to the general public and a variety was sought within the micro context of Manchester. Essentially it was a quantitative approach within the boundaries of a qualitative dissertation. The collected data was analysed and inferred using a variety of tools. Mapping of master plans, creating figure ground evolutions, tabulating findings, graphical translation of policies, visualization of findings etc. helped read the collected data better. This gave rise to numerical content: the number of disused buildings, available public infrastructure, crime rate etc. Breaking down the findings into the simplest terms gave rise to people centric data: what land uses were missing, how do users relate to the environment, what aspirations they house and so on. The combination of the hard and soft data helped generate the next stage of the document where proposals and strategies were put forth to tackle the issue within the context.

Figure 32 : Quantitative research for Northern Quarter : Conservation zone documentation (Author)

5.2.ADDITIONAL METHODS ALONG THE COURSE Techniques used during Northern Quarter study

Figure 33 : Quantitative research for Northern Quarter : Surveys (MSA)

Figure 34 : Current and proposed master plan for Northern Quarter : (MSA)

Figure 35 : Quantitative research : Figure ground mapping : Urban fabric evolution (Deloitte)

Figure 36 : Qualitative research for Northern Quarter : Public consultation (Author)

Figure 37 : Qualitative research for Northern Quarter : Public consultation (MSA)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS, DOCUMENTS AND PAPERS 1.Creswell. J. W., (2003). Research Design. Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approach. California: SAGE Publications, Inc. 2.Cullen. G., (1961). Townscape. London: The Architectural Press. 3.Groat. L. and Wang. D., (2013) Architectural Research Methods. New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 4.Herrold. G. H., (1935). Obsolescence in cities. Planners Journal 1. No.4, 73. 5.Schon. D. A., (1999). The Reflective Practitioner. How professionals think in action. England: Ashgate Publishing Limited. 6.Snyder.J., (1984), Architectural Research. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 7.Turabian. K. L., (2007). A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses and Dissertations. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

ONLINE DOCUMENTS 1.English Heritage., (2008). Manchesters Northern Quarter [online]. Belgium: DeckersSnoeck. [Viewed 18 October 2018]. Available from: https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/manchesters-northern-quarter/manchesters-northern-quarter/ 2.Manchester City Council., Smithfield Conservation Area [online]. Manchester City Council. [Viewed 24 October 2018]. Available from: https://secure.manchester.gov.uk/info/511/conservation_areas/1156/smithfield_conservation_ area 3.Manchester City Council., Stevenson Square Conservation Area [online]. Manchester City Council. [Viewed 24 October 2018]. Available from: https://secure.manchester.gov.uk/info/511/conservation_areas/ 1208/stevenson_square_conservation_area 4.Manchester School of Architecture., (2018). Northern Quarter?. [online]. Manchester: Issuu. [Viewed 1 January 2019]. Available from: https://issuu.com/msaarchitectureurbanism2017-18/docs/northern_quarter-_brochure