CROWN HEIGHTS
Exploring the Grid
Antrees Engelen Koen Moesen Pieter Van den Poel Arnout Van Soom Sofie Verjans
Essay
© Copyright by K.U.Leuven Without written permission of the promoters and the authors it is forbidden to reproduce or adapt in any form or by any means any part of this publication. Requests for obtaining the right to reproduce or utilize parts of this publication should be addressed to K.U.Leuven, Faculty of Engineering – Kasteelpark Arenberg 1, B-3001 Heverlee (België). Telefoon +3216-32 13 50 & Fax. +32-16-32 19 88. A written permission of the promotor is also required to use the methods, products, schematics and programs described in this work for industrial or commercial use, and for submitting this publication in scientific contests. All images in this booklet are, unless credits are given, made or drawn by the authors (Studio Brooklyn).
CROWN HEIGHTS
Exploring the Grid
Antrees Engelen Koen Moesen Pieter Van den Poel Arnout Van Soom Sofie Verjans
EXPERIMENTS 13 EXPERIMENTS
Red Hook
The Studio Brooklyn Graduation Project consists of a series of books and thirteen postcards. First of is Five Chapters on a City Life, created by the complete group that works around the observations we did on our trip. The book also holds thirteen postcards, each freezing a memory of an urban experiment we experienced during our stay in New York. The second book contains twelve case studies on a wide array of topics, relevant to the condition in Brooklyn. Then there are three site analyzes carried out by three to five students in the neighborhoods of Red Hook, Studio Graduation Project Crown HeightsThe and East New Brooklyn York. Throughout the different documents we jump consists of a series of books and thirteen in three scales: the borough, our strip from postcards. First is “Five Chapters on a City old port to airport and finally the three chosen neighborhoods.
Crown Heights East New York
BROOKLYN 101 SOCIAL ENCLAVES
COLLECTIVE CULTURE
PLANNING THE CITY
LIVING MODELS
CITY ECOLOGY
SITE ANALYSIS
Red Hook
SITE ANALYSIS
Crown Heights
PREFACE
This analysis starts with an overview of Crown Heights’ cultural history, from the original inhabitants in the 1700s until the ethnic
Life”, created by the complete group that works
diversity today. Maps of the population of
around the observations we did on our trip.
Crown Heights show different trends that are
The second book contains twelve case studies
currently occurring. In the following chapter,
on a wide array of topics, relevant to the
the infrastructure of the neighborhood is set
condition in Brooklyn. Then there are three site
out in various maps, coupled with the land use.
analyses carried out by three to five students
Subsequently the different typologies in the
in the neighborhoods of Red Hook, Crown
neighborhood are explored, and to conclude
Heights and East New York.
our analysis, some shifting tendencies are
This booklet is a specific analysis of the
examined.
neighborhood Crown Heights.
SITE ANALYSIS
We made this booklet to gain insight in the
East New York
Throughout the different documents we jump
neighborhood Crown Heights, to start our
in three scales: the borough, our strip from
individual design proposals with proper
CASE STUDIES
old port to airport and finally the three chosen
knowledge.
12 CASE STUDIES
neighborhoods. Our neighborhood Crown
EXPERIMENTS
Heights is located in the center of Brooklyn, and presents itself mostly as a black neighborhood.
13 EXPERIMENTS
Red Hook
Crown Heights East New York
The Studio Brooklyn Graduation Project consists of a series of books and thirteen postcards. First of is Five Chapters on a City Life, created by the complete group that works around the observations we did on our trip. The book also holds thirteen postcards, each freezing a memory of an urban experiment we experienced during our stay in New York. The second book contains twelve case studies on a wide array of topics, relevant to
5
P5 Location of Crown Heights
P11 Crown Heights Grid
P15 Historical Map 1845
P17 Historical Map 1890
P19 Map 2012
P23 Ethnic Diversity
P27 Transportation
P29 Subway Lines
P31 Long Island Railroad
P33 Bike Routes
P37 Residential Landuse
P39 Public Housing
P43 Unemployment and Public Safety
P45 Level of Education
P47 Spatial Indicators of Gentrification
CONTENTS
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Cultural History
Infrastructure
Typologies
Shifting Tendencies
References
Mindmap
P09
Crown Heights Grid
P11
Historical Map 1845
P15
Historical Map 1890
P17
Map 2012
P19
Timeline
P21
Ethnic Diversity
P23
Transportation
P27
Subway lines
P29
Long Island Railroad
P31
Bike routes
P33
Residential Land Use
P37
Public Housing
P39
Unemployment and Public Safety
P43
Level of Education
P45
Spatial indicators of gentrification
P47
8
INTRODUCTION | Mindmap
The analysis presented in this booklet is an introduction to 5 design proposals located in Crown Heights. The designs are all on different scales, and they deal with various topics. A first approach to analyse Crown Heights was to define the borders of the neighborhood. This approach taught us that neighborhoods with the grid as only structure don’t have specific borders. The aspects that form these borders can change in a very short period of time. That is why we changed our area of analysis to a larger area, including parts of adjacent neighborhoods:
Bed-Stuy,
Brownsville,
Prospect Heights, East Flatbush and Lefferts Garden.
10
INTRODUCTION | Crown Heights Grid
CULTURAL HISTORY
Historical Map 1845 Historical Map 1890 Map 2012 Timeline Ethnic Diversity
In 1609, the English explorer Henry Hudson arrived in what is now called the New York Harbor. By the 1630’s, Dutch and English settlers were exploring the west of Long Island. Crown Heights was then a hilly forested area inhabited by Lenape Indians. By the 1660’-s, the area around the northwestern corner of Crown Heights became known as Bedford. Its roads were based on the Lenape’s hunting paths, which on their turn were based on the topography. The settlement was located along one of Long Island’s most important road which connected Jamaica with the East River ferries. By the time of the American Revolution (1775-1783) Brooklyn was an agricultural community, housing about four thousand inhabitants. Bedford Corners was a small village with a tavern, a blacksmith, a school, a brewery, and a couple of farmhouses. In the early 1800’s, Bedford was the home of many prominent Dutch families like the Lefferts family. In 1836, the Brooklyn & Jamaica Railroad (later part of the Long Island Rail Road LIRR) opened and connected the East River’s South Ferry with Jamaica. Although Bedford had a train station, not much development took place. Downtown Brooklyn’s development would eventually reach Bedford.
14
CULTURAL HISTORY | Map 1845
[1] Bedfort Corners in 1776
City planners designed the street grid in 1855 to stimulate urban development. The grid was based on the main streets of the small existing villages, which on their turn were based on the topography, like the Brooklyn’s Green Mountains before it was flattened. Although Brooklyn’s population grew to about 400.000 in 1870, Crown Heights only developed slowly. The Eastern Parkway and Prospect Park, both designed by Olmsted and Vaux, were completed around 1868. By the 1870’s, an extensive network of horse car routes and three city railroads linked North Crown Heights with the many East River ferries. The area was being promoted as a first-class neighborhood and became one of Manhattan’s suburbs. But its growth appeared to be limited by the unreliability of the ferries, which were dependent on the weather. The completion of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883 offered a solution to this problem. Residential construction increased although North Crown Heights’ largest development only came after the opening of the Kings County Elevated Railway in 1888, which went from the Fulton Ferry to Nostrand Avenue. By the mid-1890’-s, the former rural area was transformed into a suburban and urban neighborhood. Transportation improvements, like the electrification of the horse car lines and construction of the street grid continued throughout the 1890’-s. 16
CULTURAL HISTORY | Map 1890
[1] Bedfort Corners in 1776 and 1916
In 1898, the year in which Brooklyn fused with the four other boroughs into New York City, the first electrified Kings County Railway train crossed the Brooklyn Bridge. The direct ride from Crown Heights North to Lower Manhattan made the neighborhood an even more desirable residential area. The area developed from towards Eastern Parkway in the south, and to west and east along the Kings County Railway. Even after the completion of the street grid, residential typologies continued to evolve: in the 1920’-s, developers began demolishing the largest mansions in former exclusive residential streets in order to build apartment houses. Housing development in south Crown Heights around Eastern Parkway strongly increased with the opening of the subway line in 1920. But the neighborhood declined through the 1960’-s as apartment buildings were abandoned and the community steadily became poorer. This is also represented by the construction of public housing throughout the 1970’-s. Nowadays, north Crown Heights experiences a gentrification wave from Prospect Heights towards the historic districts in the center of Crown Heights.
18
CULTURAL HISTORY | Map 2012
As mentioned before, Crown Heights was the
Crown Heights increased with the opening of
And since then the Hispanic population kept
former home of the western Long Islands’
the subway line under the Eastern Parkway in
growing until what it is today: the largest West
native Lenape Indians. Their tribes and paths
1920. Many Jews migrated from the heavily
Indian neighbourhood in the city. The third
ran across the area until it was purchased in
Jewish
Williamsburg,
factor of the demographic transformation of
1700 by Leffert Pieterse, to be farmed by African
Brownsville and Manhattan’s Lower East Side.
Crown Heights was the growth of the Lubavitch
American slaves. The opening of the reliable
From the 1920s to the 1960s, Crown Heights
Jewish community. The opening of the subway
steam driven Fulton Ferry in 1814 caused a
was a mainly white neighbourhood, largely
in 1920 and the immigration of European and
flow of people towards Brooklyn. The state New
composed of Protestants, Catholics, and Jews.
Russian Jews after World War II vastly increased
York prohibited slavery in 1827, 38 years before
In the 1940s, Jews even represented 42% of
the number of Lubavitch Jews. Racial tension
the official nationwide prohibition in 1865.
the white population in Crown Heights. Many
between the Jews and African Americans
Some of the African Americans purchased
were Chabad-Lubavitch (Ultra-Orthodox) Jews
came to a tragic climax in august 1991 when a
property and founded two black communities
who had emigrated from the Soviet Union. 770
Guyanese child was killed by a car driven by an
known as Weeksville and Carrville in the
Eastern Parkway became their headquarters
important Lubavitch Rabbi. The following riot
northeast
Crown
from then on. After World War II, three
lasted three days in which a visiting Australian
Heights. The area became known as Crow
developments rapidly changed Crown Heights’
Jew was killed. Neighbourhood organizations
Hill, probably because the white people called
ethnic composition. The first development
responded to the tensions with community-
the African Americans ‘crows’. City planners
was the White Flight: the expanding black
building ventures like the annual Unity Day.
designed the street grid in 1855. The northern
population of Bed-Stuy pushed southward
Nevertheless racial tensions were seen again
section quickly became a desirable residential
while many veterans moved to the suburbs
in 2008 when a black man was assaulted by
area: mansions and limestone row houses were
with the assistance of the G.I. Bill. The second
Ludavitch Jews because a Jewish teenager was
built to replace the old farms. Eastern Parkway
development was the 1965 Immigration and
robbed and beaten by black teenagers the week
was completed in 1868. The boulevard made
Nationality Act, which reformed America’s
before. Today, racial tensions have decreased
the northern part of Crown Heights an even
immigration policy. The Act resulted in a sharp
due to frequent meetings between the black and
more desirable residential area, and more
increase in the number of immigrants and their
Jewish community leaders but are nonetheless
large houses were built. The opening of the
ethnic structure. Whereas immigrants before
still strongly present in a few blocks. Since
Brooklyn Bridge in 1883 and the unification of
1965 came primarily from Europe, after 1965,
1990, there is a gentrification wave noticeable
the five boroughs into New York City caused
more than 80 % came from Asia, South and
from Park Slope in the west, through Prospect
a second flow of people from Manhattan to
Central America, Africa, and the Caribbean.
Heights in the past decade, and nowadays
Brooklyn. Many brick and brownstone row
In 1969, the first West Indian-American Day
entering North Crown Heights towards its
houses were built. The attractiveness of south
Carnival on Eastern Parkway was organized.
historic districts.
corner
of
present-day
neighbourhoods
of
Total Population (100%) White (%)
20
CULTURAL HISTORY | Timeline
Black (%) Hispanic (%)
512.000 people 128.000 32.000 8.000 2.000 500
Lenape Indians
1700 Leffert Pieterse
1814 Fulton Ferry
1827 Weeksville & Carrville
1855 Street Grid
1868 1883 Eastern ParkwayBrooklyn Bridge
1898 Consolidation of NYC
1920 Opening Subway
1945 White Flight
1965 Immigration and Nationality Act
1991 Crown Heights Riots
2008 Increased Racial Tensions
21
Overall, Crown Heights is a black neighborhood with a gradient of 50% blacks in the western part to 90% in the eastern part. Though Crown Heights is mostly a black neighborhood, there are some noticeable differences: The east of Bedford Avenue, there live almost 50% whites due to the spreading gentrification process. In the center of Crown Heights, south of the Eastern Parkway, lives a strong concentration of whites, the Lubavitch Jew community.
In the eastern part of Crown
Heights, the 10% non-blacks are generally Hispanic. In Bushwick, the north-east of
[1] Lubavitch Jew Kids
the map, the majority of the people are also Hispanic. The opening of the subway in 1920 and the immigration of European and Russian Jews after World War II increased the number of Lubavitch Jews. They did not move out of Crown Heights like other white people because the cultural gap between them and their black neighbors was so wide that there was a small chance that younger Lubavitchers would absorb values of the black majority.
White White 100 % 100%
Mosque
22
CULTURAL HISTORY | Ethnic Diversity
Church Synagogue
Black Black 100 % 100%
Hispanic Hispanic 100 % 100%
INFRASTRUCTURE
Transportation Subway lines Long Island Railroad Bike routes
By car every neighborhood in Brooklyn is reachable from Crown Heights within thirty minutes. The second fastest way to get to other neighborhoods is by bike. By public transport almost every neighborhood is reachable within one hour. The slowest way of transportation is obviously by foot. Some neighborhoods are even more than a 90 minutes walking distance away [1]. The streetgrid of Crown Heights is for a major part defined by different ways of transportation. The differences in car traffic intensity, the subway lines, the partially elevated Long Island Railroad, and the amount of bus traffic shape the grid.
[1] Time-distance from Crown Heights to other neighborhoods in Brooklyn
min 9090min
min 6060min
min 3030min
INFRASTRUCTURE | Transportation
min 5 5min min 1010min
26
min 2020min
Time-distance Time-distance from from Crown Crown Heights Heights to to other other neighborhoods neighborhoods by by car/ car/ by by bike bike // by by public public transport transport // by by foot foot
Subway lines Elevated Subway lines Bus lines Traffic Intensity
The development of the commercial streets in Crown Heights is linked with the subway stations. The A and C lines run along Fulton Street, and the 3 and 4 lines run along Eastern Parkway. Between the subway stations of both lines, commercial activity has been developed over time. So the commercial streets form connections between the subway stations. The bus lines running through Crown Heights are complementary to the subway lines. While the subway lines run east-west, the bus lines mostly run north-south, along the commercial
[1] Commercial activity at Nostrand Avenue
streets.
[2] Subway station at Kingston Avenue at Eastern Parkway
28
INFRASTRUCTURE | Subway lines
Subway lines
Mixed commercial
Elevated Subway lines
and residential
Bus lines
Commerical
The partially elevated Long Island Railroad runs along Atlantic Avenue from East to West all the way through Crown Heights. Small industries like auto repair shops and storage facilities create a buffer between the noisy train and traffic and the residential neighborhood surrounding it. The same is to be noted for the elevated subway lines, shown on the map.
[1] Atlantic Avenue
[2] The elevated Long Island Railroad along Atlantic Avenue Elevated subway lines LIRR
30
INFRASTRUCTURE | Long Island Railroad
Transporation and Utility Industrial and Manufacturing
The Brooklyn-Queens Greenway is a network of bicycle and pedestrian pathways that connects parks and communities. This network runs from Coney Island in the south of Brooklyn, along Prospect Park and the eastern parkway, all the way up to Fort Totten on the Long Island Sound in Queens [1]. The Greenway holds all sorts of amenities, cultural
experiences,
and
passes
parks,
botanical gardens, the Brooklyn museum, the New York Hall of Science, and different ethnic and historic neighborhoods. The greenways connecting these aminities are multi-use paths for pedestrians, joggers, cyclists, skaters, and
[1] Brooklyn-Queens Greenway
[2] Logo Greenway at Eastern Parkway
wheelchair users. Greenways are natural and constructed linear corridors, where people walk, stroll, or bike for recreation, exercise, and commuting. In Crown Heights, this greenway is interrupted from Ralph Avenue (the end of the Eastern Parkway) until the Highland Park in Queens. To connect this interruption, Mayor Bloomberg proposed a masterplan for the Eastern Parkway Extension, using the existing bike paths that mostly run from east to west. Apart from the great Prospect Park, Crown Heights doesn’t have a lot of green open spaces. But the few present parks and playgrounds are well spread across the neighborhood. [3] Prospect Park
32
INFRASTRUCTURE | Bike Routes
Planned connecting Bike Routes
Open Space and Outdoor Recreation
Northern and Southern Route to
Existing Bike Routes
connect the greenway
Eastern Parkway
TYPOLOGIES
Residential Land Use Public Housing
The fairly equally sized blocks of Crown Height are mainly covered with a residential use. One is able to note three significant different morphological strategies. The first one is a (neo-)traditional development of row houses, which is surely the most prominent. The second one is the Modernist tower-in-the-
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
park approach. The third one is a rather more suburban condition of detached units and is only to be found in a small part of the Jewish neighborhood. On a smaller morphological scale, Crown Heights is a historical collage of the typical typologies of New York City. The original tenements for low income people with its small air shafts originate from the 19th century. Since then they have been regulated and the poor living conditions have been improved by several Tenement Laws. In contrary to the tenement, the garden apartment was designed for moderate incomes. The single-family
TYPOLOGY
CROWN HEIGHTS Exploring the grid
Brownstone and its similar multi-family row house developments, also provided better living conditions. From the 1950s to the 1970s the slum clearance program resulted in many towers, looming over the skyline of Crown Heights.
36
TYPOLOGIES | Residential Landuse
One and two family buildings Multi-family buildings
[1]
[5] [2]
[6] [3]
[4]
The New York City Housing Authority (NYCHA) has been providing public housing since 1934. The slum clearance program boosted the amount of public housing, mostly in the shape of Modernist towers-in-the-park. The map shows the success of the NYCHA’s ability to create and maintain housing for the poor. Unfortunately this strategy has led to areas of concentrated poverty, not only attracting crime and violence, but also enlarging the racial segregation in public housing. Like many other Housing Authorities all over the U.S., the NYCHA is suffering from its own success.
[1] Prospect Plaza towers
Today, many federal programs are therefore focusing on the demolition of the problematic towers-in-the-park,
often
resulting
in
a
displacement of 90% of the former residents. The NYCHA is resisting this national trend towards demolition with a preservation and maintenance policy. Unfortunately, despite the crucial role of the NYCHA, a continuously disinvestment by the government in the NCYHA is resulting in the disrepair of many of its buildings, making the living conditions in these concentrated areas of poverty even worse.
[2] Albany I & II NYCHA Public Housing Median Household income 2005-2009:
38
TYPOLOGIES | Public Housing
< $25000 $25000 - $45000
SHIFTING TENDENCIES
Unemployment and Public Safety Level of Education Spatial indicators of gentrification
The median household income is evidently related
to
the
number
of
unemployed
inhabitants. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s notable that the unemployment rate follows a gradient from very low in eastern part of Crown Heights near Prospect Heights to very high in the western part near Brownsville. According to the New York Times the number of murders in Crown Heights has decreased during the last years. The map shows the location of murders from 2007 to 2011. The murders are clearly following the same pattern as the unemployment rate. Therefore the surroundings of Prospect Heights are
[1] Surveillance Cameras
a far more safer area than the area near Brownsville. An interesting anomaly is the significant absence of murders in the Jewish neighborhood. The unemployment rate in the Jewish neighborhood is also remarkably low. Note the resemblance of the unemployment map and the map of the ethnic diversity.
Unemployment: the percentage unemployed (census 2000)
42
SHIFTING TENDENCIES | Unemployment and Public Safety
C,M,Y,K = 15,22,0,0
0 - 10 %
C,M,Y,K = 30,45,0,0 C,M,Y,K = 60,90,0,20
10 - 20 % 20 - 30 %
C,M,Y,K = 60,90,0,40
30 - 40 Murdered by%firearm
C,M,Y,K = 60,90,0,60
+40 % by knife Murdered
Unemployment percentages:
murdered by firearm murdered by knife
0-10% ... + 40%
The level of education in Crown Heights is clearly a determining factor for the unemployment rate, as the percentage of inhabitants with an educational level less than High School appears to show a similar gradient from Prospect Heights to Brownsville. When inspecting the physical presence of schools in the different areas, one is surprisingly able to conclude that there is no correlation between the presence of the 18 High Schools and the level of education. This seems also to be true for the 88 Elementary Schools, the 16 Middle Schools and the 13 K-12 Schools.
[1] School playground
Although upon looking to the physical presence of a possible higher educational program, it is noticeable that the colleges and universities are only situated in the west part of Crown Heights. It can be concluded that the level of education is not largely influenced by the physical presence of schools, but rather by other factors like median household income or family configuration. One can for example note that the inhabitants of the Jewish neighborhood are higher educated than the surrounding area. Education: the percentage less than High School (census 2000) C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,10 C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,15 Percentage less than High School Degree: C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,20 5-10% ...
44
SHIFTING TENDENCIES | Level of Education
50-60%
C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,28 C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,38
5 - 10 % 10 - 15 % 15 - 20 School % Elementary 20 - 30 School % Middle - 40 % (HS) High30School
C,M,Y,K = K-12 0,0,0,48 40 - 50HS % / HS Schools and Junior 60 % C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,60 College50/-univeristy
Elementary School Middle School High School (HS) K-12 Schools and Junior College / University
most gentrified neighborhoods in Brooklyn.
Ralph Av
average household size: 2,33
Utica Av
Heights and North Crown Heights are the
Bedfort Av
8,8%
and CHPC 2009 gentrification model”, Prospect
Washington Av
Park Slope
Vanderbilt Av
According to an unpublished “Kontokosta, C.E.
8,8% of total households are with female householder and related children
35 %
white 54,8%
28 %
foreign born 16,4%
Crown Heights has several Historic Districts, which have a strong attraction to first wave
21 % 14 %
black 15,9%
hispanic 25,6% asian 3,2%
gentrifiers, and proximity to public transport
$ 80.072
median household income
and to Manhattan. Moreover the proximity to gentrified areas like Park Slope accelerates the gentrification through a ‘spillover effect’.
27,4% own his housing unit
42,6% of all families has a vehicle available
22%
1000
white 6,8%
black 78%
800
hispanic 10,4% 600
asian 4,8%
400
$ 39.270
INMOVERS
median household income
25% 15,6% own his housing unit
31,1% of all families has a vehicle available
10 % 8% 6%
34% average household size: 2,96
4%
34% of total households are with female householder and related children
VACANCY RATE
2%
foreign born 27% 12
black 81%
white 0,9% 8
hispanic 17,2%
the area of Brownsville.
4
asian 0,9%
0
$ 25.954
-4
median household income
36% 15,7% own his housing unit
33,8% of all families has a vehicle available
2000
SHIFTING TENDENCIES | Spatial Indicators of Gentrification
200
12 %
25% of the people lives below the poverty level
Brownsville
shows, besides the gentrified area near Prospect
46
$ 250
1200
going to Crown Heights’ Historic Districts.
Heights, also a drastic increase in population in
MONTLY RENT
foreign born 32,2%
vacancy rate (physical). These indicators result
The 2000-2010 difference in population density
$ 350
22% of total households are with female householder and related children
inmovers (moving pattern), and the decrease of
a gentrification wave from Prospect Heights
$ 550 $ 450
average household size: 2,58
gross rent (economic), increase in number of
in the spatial gentrification index, which shows
$ 650
12% of the people lives below the poverty level
crown heights
Prospect Heights are the increase in ownership rate (demographic), increase in monthly
6%
$ 750
12%
For 1990-2000, four possible spatial indicators of gentrification in North Crown Heights and
OWNERSHIP RATE
1990 Historical Districts
36% of the people lives below the poverty level
SPACIAL GENTRIFICATION INDEX
PROSPECT HEIGHTS
Population Density evolution 2000-2010:
CROWN HEIGHTS
Increase with 1 to 20%
Decrease with 1 to 20%
Decrease with more than 50%
Increase with more than 50%
-6
e Rockaway Avenue
Ralph Avenue
Utica Avenue
Nostrand Avenue
e
ord A venu
n Avenu
Bedf
e
rbilt A venu
Vand e
to Washing
REFERENCES
P11
GOOGLE MAPS Sattelite Image of Crown Heights, Brooklyn, NYC, http://www.google.be/maps, last visited 12/04/12.
P14
WIKIPEDIA, South Ferry, Brooklyn, 2010, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Ferry,_Brooklyn, last visited: 12/04/12.
relations-in-crown-heights, last visited: 12/04/12. RULE, Sheila, The Voices and Faces of Crown Heights, 1994, http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/15/ arts/the-voices-and-faces-of-crown-heights.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm, last visited: 12/04/12. UNKNOWN, Crown Heights North, http://www.crownheightsnorth.com/history2.html, last visited: 12/04/12.
GOLDSCHMIDT, Henry, Race and Religion Among the Chosen People of Crown Heights, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 2006.
WALLABOUT HISTORIC DISTRICT, Designation Report, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/down loads/pdf/reports/wallabout.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.
KELLY, Wilhelmena, Images of America: Crown Heights and Weeksville, Arcadia Publishing, Portsmouth, San Franscisco, 2009.
NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www. archive.org/stream/bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.
SHAPIRO, Edward, Crown Heights, Blacks, Jews, and the 1991 Brooklyn Riot, Brandeis University Press, Waltham, Massachusetts, 2006.
NYCLPC, Landmark Designation Report, 1986, http://www.flickr.com/photos/emilio_guer ra/5473377527/, last visited: 12/04/12.
GROSSMAN, Elizabeth, MECHIK, Leonid, YUCE, Veysel, A History of Tension: Race Relations in Crown Heights, 2012, http://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledgebase/80-a-history-of-tension-racerelations-in-crown-heights, last visited: 12/04/12.
[Image P16] STILES, Map of Bedford Corners in 1776-77 and 1916, 1916, van NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www.archive.org/stream/ bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.
RULE, Sheila, The Voices and Faces of Crown Heights, 1994, http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/15/ arts/the-voices-and-faces-of-crown-heights.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm, last visited: 12/04/12. UNKNOWN, Crown Heights North, http://www.crownheightsnorth.com/history2.html, last visited: 12/04/12.
P17
Bien, Joseph Rudolf; The Narrows to Jamaica Bay-Coney Island, north to Brooklyn from the David Rumsey Historical Map Collection, 1890, http://www.davidrumsey.com/, last visited: 12/04/12.
WALLABOUT HISTORIC DISTRICT, Designation Report, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/down loads/pdf/reports/wallabout.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.
P18
GOLDSCHMIDT, Henry, Race and Religion Among the Chosen People of Crown Heights, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 2006.
NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www. archive.org/stream/bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.
KELLY, Wilhelmena, Images of America: Crown Heights and Weeksville, Arcadia Publishing, Portsmouth, San Franscisco, 2009.
NYCLPC, Landmark Designation Report, 1986, http://www.flickr.com/photos/emilio_guer ra/5473377527/, last visited: 12/04/12.
SHAPIRO, Edward, Crown Heights, Blacks, Jews, and the 1991 Brooklyn Riot, Brandeis University Press, Waltham, Massachusetts, 2006.
[Image P14] STILES, Bedford corners in 1776, 1867, van NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www.archive.org/stream/bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/ mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.
GROSSMAN, Elizabeth, MECHIK, Leonid, YUCE, Veysel, A History of Tension: Race Relations in Crown Heights, 2012, http://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledgebase/80-a-history-of-tension-racerelations-in-crown-heights, last visited: 12/04/12.
P15
BACH, A. D.; HASSLER, F. R., New York Bay Harbor, from the David Rumsey Historical Map Collection, 1845, http://www.davidrumsey.com/, last visited: 12/04/12.
P16
GOLDSCHMIDT, Henry, Race and Religion Among the Chosen People of Crown Heights, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 2006. KELLY, Wilhelmena, Images of America: Crown Heights and Weeksville, Arcadia Publishing, Portsmouth, San Franscisco, 2009. SHAPIRO, Edward, Crown Heights, Blacks, Jews, and the 1991 Brooklyn Riot, Brandeis University Press, Waltham, Massachusetts, 2006. GROSSMAN, Elizabeth, MECHIK, Leonid, YUCE, Veysel, A History of Tension: Race Relations in Crown Heights, 2012, http://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledgebase/80-a-history-of-tension-race-
RULE, Sheila, The Voices and Faces of Crown Heights, 1994, http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/15/ arts/the-voices-and-faces-of-crown-heights.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm, last visited: 12/04/12. UNKNOWN, Crown Heights North, http://www.crownheightsnorth.com/history2.html, last visited: 12/04/12. WALLABOUT HISTORIC DISTRICT, Designation Report, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/down loads/pdf/reports/wallabout.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12. NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www. archive.org/stream/bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11. NYCLPC, Landmark Designation Report, 1986, http://www.flickr.com/photos/emilio_guer ra/5473377527/, last visited: 12/04/12.
P20
GOLDSCHMIDT, Henry, Race and Religion Among the Chosen People of Crown Heights, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 2006.
P23
KELLY, Wilhelmena, Images of America: Crown Heights and Weeksville, Arcadia Publishing, Portsmouth, San Franscisco, 2009. SHAPIRO, Edward, Crown Heights, Blacks, Jews, and the 1991 Brooklyn Riot, Brandeis University Press, Waltham, Massachusetts, 2006. GROSSMAN, Elizabeth, MECHIK, Leonid, YUCE, Veysel, A History of Tension: Race Relations in Crown Heights, 2012, http://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledgebase/80-a-history-of-tension-racerelations-in-crown-heights, last visited: 12/04/12. RULE, Sheila, The Voices and Faces of Crown Heights, 1994, http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/15/ arts/the-voices-and-faces-of-crown-heights.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm, last visited: 12/04/12. UNKNOWN, Crown Heights North, http://www.crownheightsnorth.com/history2.html, last visited: 12/04/12.
UNKNOWN, Map Churches Crown Heights, 2012, http://maps.google.be/maps, last visited 12/04/12. References Land Use, see P29 - Public Institutions. P26
GOOGLE MAPS - Directions, Brooklyn, NYC, http://www.google.be/maps, last visited 12/04/12.
P27
METROPOLITAN TRANSPORTATION AUTHORITY, Brooklyn Bus Map, 2011, http://www.mta.info/ nyct/maps/busbkln.pdf, last visited: 23/11/2011. METROPOLITAN TRANSPORTATION AUTHORITY, New York City Subway, with railroad connections, 2011, http://www.mta.info/nyct/maps/subwaymap.pdf, last visited: 10/11/2011.
P29
New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 4, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/ lucds/bk4profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.
NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www. archive.org/stream/bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.
New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 8, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/ lucds/bk8profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.
NYCLPC, Landmark Designation Report, 1986, http://www.flickr.com/photos/emilio_guer ra/5473377527/, last visited: 12/04/12.
New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 9, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/ lucds/bk9profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.
WRIGHT, Henry, Fulton Ferry, New York, 1890, http://www.postaprint.co.uk/ilnimages/i901343.jpg, last visited 12/04/12.
New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 16, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/ pdf/lucds/bk16profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.
STILES, Edward, Town of Brooklyn and Part of Long Island, 1867, http://www.geographicus-archive. com/P/AntiqueMap/BrooklynTwn-stiles-1867, last visited 12/04/12. SCHUSZLER, Alajos, Shoe Shine, Eastern Parkway, 1938, http://www.nycgovparks.org/photo/archives the_african_american_experience/photo-15292-Shoe-Shine#more_text, last visited 12/04/12. ILLMAN, Thomas, Twenty Five Miles Round The City Of New York, 1835, http://www.davidrumsey. com/luna/servlet/detail/RUMSEY~8~1~3302~400119:Map-of-the-Country-Twenty-Five-Mile, last visited 12/04/12. UNKNOWN, Aerial view of Levittown, 1959, http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/ LevittownPA.jpg, last visited 12/04/12.
New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 17, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/ pdf/lucds/bk17profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012. P31
UNKNOWN, Crown Heights Protest, 2008, https://picasaweb.google.com/VosIzNeias.Com/Crown HeightsProtes5162008#5201526732365990162, last visited 12/04/12.
References Land Use, see P29 - Industrial Land Use. METROPOLITAN TRANSPORTATION AUTHORITY, New York City Subway, with railroad connections, 2011, http://www.mta.info/nyct/maps/subwaymap.pdf, last visited: 10/11/2011.
P32
OKAMOTO, Yoichi, President Johnson signing the 1965 Immigration Act, 1965, http://www.new america.umd.edu/themes.html, last visited 12/04/12. UNKNOWN, Crown Heights Riots 1991, 1991, http://www.crownheights.info/index.php?itemid=366, last visited 12/04/12.
New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 2, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/ lucds/bk2profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012. New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 3, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/ lucds/bk3profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.
WALLABOUT HISTORIC DISTRICT, Designation Report, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/down loads/pdf/reports/wallabout.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.
P21
THE U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, t_pl_p3a_ct.xlsx, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/download/census census2010/t_pl_p3a_ct.xlsx, last visited: 05/04/2012.
CITY OF NEW YORK PARKS & RECREATION, Brooklyn-Queens Greenway Guide, 2007, http://www. nycgovparks.org/sub_things_to_do/facilities/images/Brooklyn_Queens_GreenwayGuide.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12. NYC Bicyce Master Plan, The Greenway System, 2003, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/bike/green sys.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.
P33
NYC Department of City Planning, The Brooklyn-Queens Greenway, Eastern Parkway Extension Mastern Plan, 2006, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/html/transportation/td_eastern_pkwy_extention. shtml, last visited: 12/04/12. References Land Use, see P29 - Open space and recreation.
P37
NYC DEPARTMENT OF CITY PLANNING AND TRANSPORTATION, NYC Cycling Map, 2011, http:// www.nyc.gov/html/dot/downloads/pdf/2012_nyc-cycling-map.pdf, last visited: 23/11/2011.
New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 6, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/ pdf/lucds/bk6profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.
References Land Use, see P27 - Residential Land Use.
New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 8, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/ pdf/lucds/bk8profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.
PLUNZ, Richard, A History of Housing in New York City, Columbia University Press, New York, 1992.
New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 16, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/ pdf/lucds/bk16profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.
BING MAPS, Bird’s eye, 2012, http://be.bing.com/maps/, last visited: 12/04/2012. P39
SORKIN, Michael, All Over The Map, Verso, New York, 2011. DODGE, David, An Overview of New York Public Housing - Submitted by the Right to the City Alliance to Marguerite Casey Foundation, September 2009, http://www.cdp-ny.org/report/NYpublic housing_sept09.pdf, last visited: 12/04/2012. PRATT CENTER FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT, Building communities of opportunity, 2009, http://prattcenter.net/sites/default/files/publications/PrattCenterPublicHousing.pdf, p13, last visited: 04/04/2012. NEW YORK CITY HOUSING AUTHORITY, NYCHA Housing Developments, 2012, http://www.nyc.gov/ htmlnycha/html/developments/dev_guide.shtml, last visited: 12/04/2012. NYC OASIS, Median Household Income (2005-09), http://www.oasisnyc.net/map.aspx, last visited: 12/04/2012.
P43
NEW YORK TIMES, Murder: New York City, http://projects.nytimes.com/crime/homicides/map, last visited: 13/04/2012. SOCIAL EXPLORER, 2000 Census Tract - % Unemployed, http://www.socialexplorer.com, last visited: 13/04/2012.
P45
SOCIAL EXPLORER, 2000 Census Tract - % Less than High School, http://www.socialexplorer.com, last visited: 13/04/2012.
P46
HESSE, Hannah, Gentrification - Chance & Rick for a New York City neighborhood - A case study of North Crown Heights | Prospect Heights, 2009, http://hannah-hesse.com/Urban%20Planning/ thesis_excerpt.pdf, last visited: 12/04/2012, used with written permission.
References Land Use, see P29 - Public Institutions.
THE U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, t_pl_p1_ct.xlsx, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/download/census/ census2010/t_pl_p1_ct.xlsx, last visited: 05/04/2012. Juravich, Nick, Crown Heights, Riots, Gentrification: Some Fresh Takes on the Usual Topics, 2001, http://ilovefranklinave.blogspot.com/2011/10/crown-heights-riots-gentrification-some.html, last visited: 12/04/12. Juravich, Nick, Two Years of Commercial Development on Franklin, 2010, http://ilovefranklinave. blogspot.com/2010/11/two-years-of-commercial-development-on.html, last visited: 12/04/12. The Citizen Housing and Planning Council (CHPC), Kontokosta, C.E. and CHPC 2009 gentrificationmodel, http://www.chpcny.org/, last visited: 12/04/12.
P47
UNKNOWN, Historic Districts Council Brooklyn, 2012, http://hdc.org/hdc-across-nyc/brooklyn, last visited: 12/04/12. THE U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, t_pl_p1_ct.xlsx, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/download/census/ census2010/t_pl_p1_ct.xlsx, last visited: 05/04/2012.