SITE_CH

CROWN HEIGHTS

Exploring the Grid

Antrees Engelen Koen Moesen Pieter Van den Poel Arnout Van Soom Sofie Verjans

Essay

© Copyright by K.U.Leuven Without written permission of the promoters and the authors it is forbidden to reproduce or adapt in any form or by any means any part of this publication. Requests for obtaining the right to reproduce or utilize parts of this publication should be addressed to K.U.Leuven, Faculty of Engineering – Kasteelpark Arenberg 1, B-3001 Heverlee (België). Telefoon +3216-32 13 50 & Fax. +32-16-32 19 88.

A written permission of the promotor is also required to use the methods, products, schematics and programs described in this work for industrial or commercial use, and for submitting this publication in scientific contests.

All images in this booklet are, unless credits are given, made or drawn by the authors (Studio Brooklyn).

CROWN HEIGHTS

Exploring the Grid

Antrees Engelen Koen Moesen Pieter Van den Poel Arnout Van Soom Sofie Verjans

EXPERIMENTS 13 EXPERIMENTS

Red Hook

The Studio Brooklyn Graduation Project consists of a series of books and thirteen postcards. First of is Five Chapters on a City Life, created by the complete group that works around the observations we did on our trip. The book also holds thirteen postcards, each freezing a memory of an urban experiment we experienced during our stay in New York.

The second book contains twelve case studies on a wide array of topics, relevant to the condition in Brooklyn. Then there are three site analyzes carried out by three to five students in the neighborhoods of Red Hook, Studio Graduation Project Crown HeightsThe and East New Brooklyn York.

Throughout the different documents we jump consists of a series of books and thirteen in three scales: the borough, our strip from postcards.

First is “Five Chapters on a City old port to airport and finally the three chosen neighborhoods.

Crown Heights East New York

BROOKLYN 101 SOCIAL ENCLAVES

COLLECTIVE CULTURE

PLANNING THE CITY

LIVING MODELS

CITY ECOLOGY

SITE ANALYSIS

Red Hook

SITE ANALYSIS

Crown Heights

PREFACE

This analysis starts with an overview of Crown Heights’ cultural history, from the original inhabitants in the 1700s until the ethnic

Life”, created by the complete group that works

diversity today. Maps of the population of

around the observations we did on our trip.

Crown Heights show different trends that are

The second book contains twelve case studies

currently occurring. In the following chapter,

on a wide array of topics, relevant to the

the infrastructure of the neighborhood is set

condition in Brooklyn. Then there are three site

out in various maps, coupled with the land use.

analyses carried out by three to five students

Subsequently the different typologies in the

in the neighborhoods of Red Hook, Crown

neighborhood are explored, and to conclude

Heights and East New York.

our analysis, some shifting tendencies are

This booklet is a specific analysis of the

examined.

neighborhood Crown Heights.

SITE ANALYSIS

We made this booklet to gain insight in the

East New York

Throughout the different documents we jump

neighborhood Crown Heights, to start our

in three scales: the borough, our strip from

individual design proposals with proper

CASE STUDIES

old port to airport and finally the three chosen

knowledge.

12 CASE STUDIES

neighborhoods. Our neighborhood Crown

EXPERIMENTS

Heights is located in the center of Brooklyn, and presents itself mostly as a black neighborhood.

13 EXPERIMENTS

Red Hook

Crown Heights East New York

The Studio Brooklyn Graduation Project consists of a series of books and thirteen postcards. First of is Five Chapters on a City Life, created by the complete group that works around the observations we did on our trip. The book also holds thirteen postcards, each freezing a memory of an urban experiment we experienced during our stay in New York.

The second book contains twelve case studies on a wide array of topics, relevant to

5

P5 Location of Crown Heights

P11 Crown Heights Grid

P15 Historical Map 1845

P17 Historical Map 1890

P19 Map 2012

P23 Ethnic Diversity

P27 Transportation

P29 Subway Lines

P31 Long Island Railroad

P33 Bike Routes

P37 Residential Landuse

P39 Public Housing

P43 Unemployment and Public Safety

P45 Level of Education

P47 Spatial Indicators of Gentrification

CONTENTS

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

Cultural History

Infrastructure

Typologies

Shifting Tendencies

References

Mindmap

P09

Crown Heights Grid

P11

Historical Map 1845

P15

Historical Map 1890

P17

Map 2012

P19

Timeline

P21

Ethnic Diversity

P23

Transportation

P27

Subway lines

P29

Long Island Railroad

P31

Bike routes

P33

Residential Land Use

P37

Public Housing

P39

Unemployment and Public Safety

P43

Level of Education

P45

Spatial indicators of gentrification

P47

8

INTRODUCTION | Mindmap

The analysis presented in this booklet is an introduction to 5 design proposals located in Crown Heights. The designs are all on different scales, and they deal with various topics.

A first approach to analyse Crown Heights was to define the borders of the neighborhood. This approach taught us that neighborhoods with the grid as only structure don’t have specific borders. The aspects that form these borders can change in a very short period of time.

That is why we changed our area of analysis to a larger area, including parts of adjacent neighborhoods:

Bed-Stuy,

Brownsville,

Prospect Heights, East Flatbush and Lefferts Garden.

10

INTRODUCTION | Crown Heights Grid

CULTURAL HISTORY

Historical Map 1845 Historical Map 1890 Map 2012 Timeline Ethnic Diversity

In 1609, the English explorer Henry Hudson arrived in what is now called the New York Harbor. By the 1630’s, Dutch and English settlers were exploring the west of Long Island.

Crown Heights was then a hilly forested area inhabited by Lenape Indians. By the 1660’-s, the area around the northwestern corner of Crown Heights became known as Bedford.

Its roads were based on the Lenape’s hunting paths, which on their turn were based on the topography. The settlement was located along one of Long Island’s most important road which connected Jamaica with the East River ferries. By the time of the American Revolution (1775-1783) Brooklyn was an agricultural community, housing about four thousand inhabitants. Bedford Corners was a small village with a tavern, a blacksmith, a school, a brewery, and a couple of farmhouses. In the early 1800’s, Bedford was the home of many prominent Dutch families like the Lefferts family. In 1836, the Brooklyn & Jamaica Railroad (later part of the Long Island Rail Road LIRR) opened and connected the East River’s South Ferry with Jamaica. Although Bedford had a train station, not much development took place. Downtown Brooklyn’s development would eventually reach Bedford.

14

CULTURAL HISTORY | Map 1845

[1] Bedfort Corners in 1776

City planners designed the street grid in 1855 to stimulate urban development. The grid was based on the main streets of the small existing villages, which on their turn were based on the topography, like the Brooklyn’s Green Mountains before it was flattened. Although Brooklyn’s population grew to about 400.000 in 1870, Crown Heights only developed slowly. The Eastern Parkway and Prospect Park, both designed by Olmsted and Vaux, were completed around 1868. By the 1870’s, an extensive network of horse car routes and three city railroads linked North Crown Heights with the many East River ferries.

The area was being promoted as a first-class neighborhood and became one of Manhattan’s suburbs. But its growth appeared to be limited by the unreliability of the ferries, which were dependent on the weather. The completion of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883 offered a solution to this problem. Residential construction increased although North Crown Heights’ largest development only came after the opening of the Kings County Elevated Railway in 1888, which went from the Fulton Ferry to Nostrand Avenue. By the mid-1890’-s, the former rural area was transformed into a suburban and urban neighborhood. Transportation improvements, like the electrification of the horse car lines and construction of the street grid continued throughout the 1890’-s.

16

CULTURAL HISTORY | Map 1890

[1] Bedfort Corners in 1776 and 1916

In 1898, the year in which Brooklyn fused with the four other boroughs into New York City, the first electrified Kings County Railway train crossed the Brooklyn Bridge. The direct ride from Crown Heights North to Lower Manhattan made the neighborhood an even more desirable residential area. The area developed from towards Eastern Parkway in the south, and to west and east along the Kings County Railway.

Even after the completion of the street grid, residential typologies continued to evolve: in the 1920’-s, developers began demolishing the largest mansions in former exclusive residential streets in order to build apartment houses.

Housing development in south Crown Heights around Eastern Parkway strongly increased with the opening of the subway line in 1920.

But the neighborhood declined through the 1960’-s as apartment buildings were abandoned and the community steadily became poorer.

This is also represented by the construction of public housing throughout the 1970’-s.

Nowadays, north Crown Heights experiences a gentrification wave from Prospect Heights towards the historic districts in the center of Crown Heights.

18

CULTURAL HISTORY | Map 2012

As mentioned before, Crown Heights was the

Crown Heights increased with the opening of

And since then the Hispanic population kept

former home of the western Long Islands’

the subway line under the Eastern Parkway in

growing until what it is today: the largest West

native Lenape Indians. Their tribes and paths

1920. Many Jews migrated from the heavily

Indian neighbourhood in the city. The third

ran across the area until it was purchased in

Jewish

Williamsburg,

factor of the demographic transformation of

1700 by Leffert Pieterse, to be farmed by African

Brownsville and Manhattan’s Lower East Side.

Crown Heights was the growth of the Lubavitch

American slaves. The opening of the reliable

From the 1920s to the 1960s, Crown Heights

Jewish community. The opening of the subway

steam driven Fulton Ferry in 1814 caused a

was a mainly white neighbourhood, largely

in 1920 and the immigration of European and

flow of people towards Brooklyn. The state New

composed of Protestants, Catholics, and Jews.

Russian Jews after World War II vastly increased

York prohibited slavery in 1827, 38 years before

In the 1940s, Jews even represented 42% of

the number of Lubavitch Jews. Racial tension

the official nationwide prohibition in 1865.

the white population in Crown Heights. Many

between the Jews and African Americans

Some of the African Americans purchased

were Chabad-Lubavitch (Ultra-Orthodox) Jews

came to a tragic climax in august 1991 when a

property and founded two black communities

who had emigrated from the Soviet Union. 770

Guyanese child was killed by a car driven by an

known as Weeksville and Carrville in the

Eastern Parkway became their headquarters

important Lubavitch Rabbi. The following riot

northeast

Crown

from then on. After World War II, three

lasted three days in which a visiting Australian

Heights. The area became known as Crow

developments rapidly changed Crown Heights’

Jew was killed. Neighbourhood organizations

Hill, probably because the white people called

ethnic composition. The first development

responded to the tensions with community-

the African Americans ‘crows’. City planners

was the White Flight: the expanding black

building ventures like the annual Unity Day.

designed the street grid in 1855. The northern

population of Bed-Stuy pushed southward

Nevertheless racial tensions were seen again

section quickly became a desirable residential

while many veterans moved to the suburbs

in 2008 when a black man was assaulted by

area: mansions and limestone row houses were

with the assistance of the G.I. Bill. The second

Ludavitch Jews because a Jewish teenager was

built to replace the old farms. Eastern Parkway

development was the 1965 Immigration and

robbed and beaten by black teenagers the week

was completed in 1868. The boulevard made

Nationality Act, which reformed America’s

before. Today, racial tensions have decreased

the northern part of Crown Heights an even

immigration policy. The Act resulted in a sharp

due to frequent meetings between the black and

more desirable residential area, and more

increase in the number of immigrants and their

Jewish community leaders but are nonetheless

large houses were built. The opening of the

ethnic structure. Whereas immigrants before

still strongly present in a few blocks. Since

Brooklyn Bridge in 1883 and the unification of

1965 came primarily from Europe, after 1965,

1990, there is a gentrification wave noticeable

the five boroughs into New York City caused

more than 80 % came from Asia, South and

from Park Slope in the west, through Prospect

a second flow of people from Manhattan to

Central America, Africa, and the Caribbean.

Heights in the past decade, and nowadays

Brooklyn. Many brick and brownstone row

In 1969, the first West Indian-American Day

entering North Crown Heights towards its

houses were built. The attractiveness of south

Carnival on Eastern Parkway was organized.

historic districts.

corner

of

present-day

neighbourhoods

of

Total Population (100%) White (%)

20

CULTURAL HISTORY | Timeline

Black (%) Hispanic (%)

512.000 people 128.000 32.000 8.000 2.000 500

Lenape Indians

1700 Leffert Pieterse

1814 Fulton Ferry

1827 Weeksville & Carrville

1855 Street Grid

1868 1883 Eastern ParkwayBrooklyn Bridge

1898 Consolidation of NYC

1920 Opening Subway

1945 White Flight

1965 Immigration and Nationality Act

1991 Crown Heights Riots

2008 Increased Racial Tensions

21

Overall, Crown Heights is a black neighborhood with a gradient of 50% blacks in the western part to 90% in the eastern part.

Though Crown Heights is mostly a black neighborhood, there are some noticeable differences: The east of Bedford Avenue, there live almost 50% whites due to the spreading gentrification process. In the center of Crown Heights, south of the Eastern Parkway, lives a strong concentration of whites, the Lubavitch Jew community.

In the eastern part of Crown

Heights, the 10% non-blacks are generally Hispanic. In Bushwick, the north-east of

[1] Lubavitch Jew Kids

the map, the majority of the people are also Hispanic.

The opening of the subway in 1920 and the immigration of European and Russian Jews after World War II increased the number of Lubavitch Jews. They did not move out of Crown Heights like other white people because the cultural gap between them and their black neighbors was so wide that there was a small chance that younger Lubavitchers would absorb values of the black majority.

White White 100 % 100%

Mosque

22

CULTURAL HISTORY | Ethnic Diversity

Church Synagogue

Black Black 100 % 100%

Hispanic Hispanic 100 % 100%

INFRASTRUCTURE

Transportation Subway lines Long Island Railroad Bike routes

By car every neighborhood in Brooklyn is reachable from Crown Heights within thirty minutes. The second fastest way to get to other neighborhoods is by bike. By public transport almost every neighborhood is reachable within one hour. The slowest way of transportation is obviously by foot. Some neighborhoods are even more than a 90 minutes walking distance away [1].

The streetgrid of Crown Heights is for a major part defined by different ways of transportation.

The differences in car traffic intensity, the subway lines, the partially elevated Long Island Railroad, and the amount of bus traffic shape the grid.

[1] Time-distance from Crown Heights to other neighborhoods in Brooklyn

min 9090min

min 6060min

min 3030min

INFRASTRUCTURE | Transportation

min 5 5min min 1010min

26

min 2020min

Time-distance Time-distance from from Crown Crown Heights Heights to to other other neighborhoods neighborhoods by by car/ car/ by by bike bike // by by public public transport transport // by by foot foot

Subway lines Elevated Subway lines Bus lines Traffic Intensity

The development of the commercial streets in Crown Heights is linked with the subway stations.

The A and C lines run along Fulton Street, and the 3 and 4 lines run along Eastern Parkway.

Between the subway stations of both lines, commercial activity has been developed over time. So the commercial streets form connections between the subway stations.

The bus lines running through Crown Heights are complementary to the subway lines. While the subway lines run east-west, the bus lines mostly run north-south, along the commercial

[1] Commercial activity at Nostrand Avenue

streets.

[2] Subway station at Kingston Avenue at Eastern Parkway

28

INFRASTRUCTURE | Subway lines

Subway lines

Mixed commercial

Elevated Subway lines

and residential

Bus lines

Commerical

The partially elevated Long Island Railroad runs along Atlantic Avenue from East to West all the way through Crown Heights.

Small industries like auto repair shops and storage facilities create a buffer between the noisy train and traffic and the residential neighborhood surrounding it.

The same is to be noted for the elevated subway lines, shown on the map.

[1] Atlantic Avenue

[2] The elevated Long Island Railroad along Atlantic Avenue Elevated subway lines LIRR

30

INFRASTRUCTURE | Long Island Railroad

Transporation and Utility Industrial and Manufacturing

The Brooklyn-Queens Greenway is a network of bicycle and pedestrian pathways that connects parks and communities.

This network runs from Coney Island in the south of Brooklyn, along Prospect Park and the eastern parkway, all the way up to Fort Totten on the Long Island Sound in Queens [1]. The Greenway holds all sorts of amenities, cultural

experiences,

and

passes

parks,

botanical gardens, the Brooklyn museum, the New York Hall of Science, and different ethnic and historic neighborhoods. The greenways connecting these aminities are multi-use paths for pedestrians, joggers, cyclists, skaters, and

[1] Brooklyn-Queens Greenway

[2] Logo Greenway at Eastern Parkway

wheelchair users. Greenways are natural and constructed linear corridors, where people walk, stroll, or bike for recreation, exercise, and commuting. In Crown Heights, this greenway is interrupted from Ralph Avenue (the end of the Eastern Parkway) until the Highland Park in Queens. To connect this interruption, Mayor Bloomberg proposed a masterplan for the Eastern Parkway Extension, using the existing bike paths that mostly run from east to west.

Apart from the great Prospect Park, Crown Heights doesn’t have a lot of green open spaces.

But the few present parks and playgrounds are well spread across the neighborhood.

[3] Prospect Park

32

INFRASTRUCTURE | Bike Routes

Planned connecting Bike Routes

Open Space and Outdoor Recreation

Northern and Southern Route to

Existing Bike Routes

connect the greenway

Eastern Parkway

TYPOLOGIES

Residential Land Use Public Housing

The fairly equally sized blocks of Crown Height are mainly covered with a residential use.

One is able to note three significant different morphological strategies. The first one is a (neo-)traditional development of row houses, which is surely the most prominent. The second one is the Modernist tower-in-the-

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

park approach. The third one is a rather more suburban condition of detached units and is only to be found in a small part of the Jewish neighborhood.

On a smaller morphological scale, Crown Heights is a historical collage of the typical typologies of New York City. The original tenements for low income people with its small air shafts originate from the 19th century.

Since then they have been regulated and the poor living conditions have been improved by several Tenement Laws. In contrary to the tenement, the garden apartment was designed for moderate incomes. The single-family

TYPOLOGY

CROWN HEIGHTS Exploring the grid

Brownstone and its similar multi-family row house developments, also provided better living conditions. From the 1950s to the 1970s the slum clearance program resulted in many towers, looming over the skyline of Crown Heights.

36

TYPOLOGIES | Residential Landuse

One and two family buildings Multi-family buildings

[1]

[5] [2]

[6] [3]

[4]

The New York City Housing Authority (NYCHA) has been providing public housing since 1934. The slum clearance program boosted the amount of public housing, mostly in the shape of Modernist towers-in-the-park.

The map shows the success of the NYCHA’s ability to create and maintain housing for the poor. Unfortunately this strategy has led to areas of concentrated poverty, not only attracting crime and violence, but also enlarging the racial segregation in public housing. Like many other Housing Authorities all over the U.S., the NYCHA is suffering from its own success.

[1] Prospect Plaza towers

Today, many federal programs are therefore focusing on the demolition of the problematic towers-in-the-park,

often

resulting

in

a

displacement of 90% of the former residents.

The NYCHA is resisting this national trend towards demolition with a preservation and maintenance policy. Unfortunately, despite the crucial role of the NYCHA, a continuously disinvestment by the government in the NCYHA is resulting in the disrepair of many of its buildings, making the living conditions in these concentrated areas of poverty even worse.

[2] Albany I & II NYCHA Public Housing Median Household income 2005-2009:

38

TYPOLOGIES | Public Housing

< $25000 $25000 - $45000

SHIFTING TENDENCIES

Unemployment and Public Safety Level of Education Spatial indicators of gentrification

The median household income is evidently related

to

the

number

of

unemployed

inhabitants. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s notable that the unemployment rate follows a gradient from very low in eastern part of Crown Heights near Prospect Heights to very high in the western part near Brownsville.

According to the New York Times the number of murders in Crown Heights has decreased during the last years. The map shows the location of murders from 2007 to 2011.

The murders are clearly following the same pattern as the unemployment rate. Therefore the surroundings of Prospect Heights are

[1] Surveillance Cameras

a far more safer area than the area near Brownsville. An interesting anomaly is the significant absence of murders in the Jewish neighborhood. The unemployment rate in the Jewish neighborhood is also remarkably low.

Note the resemblance of the unemployment map and the map of the ethnic diversity.

Unemployment: the percentage unemployed (census 2000)

42

SHIFTING TENDENCIES | Unemployment and Public Safety

C,M,Y,K = 15,22,0,0

0 - 10 %

C,M,Y,K = 30,45,0,0 C,M,Y,K = 60,90,0,20

10 - 20 % 20 - 30 %

C,M,Y,K = 60,90,0,40

30 - 40 Murdered by%firearm

C,M,Y,K = 60,90,0,60

+40 % by knife Murdered

Unemployment percentages:

murdered by firearm murdered by knife

0-10% ... + 40%

The level of education in Crown Heights is clearly a determining factor for the unemployment rate, as the percentage of inhabitants with an educational level less than High School appears to show a similar gradient from Prospect Heights to Brownsville.

When inspecting the physical presence of schools in the different areas, one is surprisingly able to conclude that there is no correlation between the presence of the 18 High Schools and the level of education. This seems also to be true for the 88 Elementary Schools, the 16 Middle Schools and the 13 K-12 Schools.

[1] School playground

Although upon looking to the physical presence of a possible higher educational program, it is noticeable that the colleges and universities are only situated in the west part of Crown Heights.

It can be concluded that the level of education is not largely influenced by the physical presence of schools, but rather by other factors like median household income or family configuration. One can for example note that the inhabitants of the Jewish neighborhood are higher educated than the surrounding area.

Education: the percentage less than High School (census 2000) C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,10 C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,15 Percentage less than High School Degree: C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,20 5-10% ...

44

SHIFTING TENDENCIES | Level of Education

50-60%

C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,28 C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,38

5 - 10 % 10 - 15 % 15 - 20 School % Elementary 20 - 30 School % Middle - 40 % (HS) High30School

C,M,Y,K = K-12 0,0,0,48 40 - 50HS % / HS Schools and Junior 60 % C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,60 College50/-univeristy

Elementary School Middle School High School (HS) K-12 Schools and Junior College / University

most gentrified neighborhoods in Brooklyn.

Ralph Av

average household size: 2,33

Utica Av

Heights and North Crown Heights are the

Bedfort Av

8,8%

and CHPC 2009 gentrification model”, Prospect

Washington Av

Park Slope

Vanderbilt Av

According to an unpublished “Kontokosta, C.E.

8,8% of total households are with female householder and related children

35 %

white 54,8%

28 %

foreign born 16,4%

Crown Heights has several Historic Districts, which have a strong attraction to first wave

21 % 14 %

black 15,9%

hispanic 25,6% asian 3,2%

gentrifiers, and proximity to public transport

$ 80.072

median household income

and to Manhattan. Moreover the proximity to gentrified areas like Park Slope accelerates the gentrification through a ‘spillover effect’.

27,4% own his housing unit

42,6% of all families has a vehicle available

22%

1000

white 6,8%

black 78%

800

hispanic 10,4% 600

asian 4,8%

400

$ 39.270

INMOVERS

median household income

25% 15,6% own his housing unit

31,1% of all families has a vehicle available

10 % 8% 6%

34% average household size: 2,96

4%

34% of total households are with female householder and related children

VACANCY RATE

2%

foreign born 27% 12

black 81%

white 0,9% 8

hispanic 17,2%

the area of Brownsville.

4

asian 0,9%

0

$ 25.954

-4

median household income

36% 15,7% own his housing unit

33,8% of all families has a vehicle available

2000

SHIFTING TENDENCIES | Spatial Indicators of Gentrification

200

12 %

25% of the people lives below the poverty level

Brownsville

shows, besides the gentrified area near Prospect

46

$ 250

1200

going to Crown Heights’ Historic Districts.

Heights, also a drastic increase in population in

MONTLY RENT

foreign born 32,2%

vacancy rate (physical). These indicators result

The 2000-2010 difference in population density

$ 350

22% of total households are with female householder and related children

inmovers (moving pattern), and the decrease of

a gentrification wave from Prospect Heights

$ 550 $ 450

average household size: 2,58

gross rent (economic), increase in number of

in the spatial gentrification index, which shows

$ 650

12% of the people lives below the poverty level

crown heights

Prospect Heights are the increase in ownership rate (demographic), increase in monthly

6%

$ 750

12%

For 1990-2000, four possible spatial indicators of gentrification in North Crown Heights and

OWNERSHIP RATE

1990 Historical Districts

36% of the people lives below the poverty level

SPACIAL GENTRIFICATION INDEX

PROSPECT HEIGHTS

Population Density evolution 2000-2010:

CROWN HEIGHTS

Increase with 1 to 20%

Decrease with 1 to 20%

Decrease with more than 50%

Increase with more than 50%

-6

e Rockaway Avenue

Ralph Avenue

Utica Avenue

Nostrand Avenue

e

ord A venu

n Avenu

Bedf

e

rbilt A venu

Vand e

to Washing

REFERENCES

P11

GOOGLE MAPS Sattelite Image of Crown Heights, Brooklyn, NYC, http://www.google.be/maps, last visited 12/04/12.

P14

WIKIPEDIA, South Ferry, Brooklyn, 2010, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Ferry,_Brooklyn, last visited: 12/04/12.

relations-in-crown-heights, last visited: 12/04/12.

RULE, Sheila, The Voices and Faces of Crown Heights, 1994, http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/15/ arts/the-voices-and-faces-of-crown-heights.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm, last visited: 12/04/12.

UNKNOWN, Crown Heights North, http://www.crownheightsnorth.com/history2.html, last visited: 12/04/12.

GOLDSCHMIDT, Henry, Race and Religion Among the Chosen People of Crown Heights, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 2006.

WALLABOUT HISTORIC DISTRICT, Designation Report, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/down loads/pdf/reports/wallabout.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.

KELLY, Wilhelmena, Images of America: Crown Heights and Weeksville, Arcadia Publishing, Portsmouth, San Franscisco, 2009.

NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www. archive.org/stream/bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.

SHAPIRO, Edward, Crown Heights, Blacks, Jews, and the 1991 Brooklyn Riot, Brandeis University Press, Waltham, Massachusetts, 2006.

NYCLPC, Landmark Designation Report, 1986, http://www.flickr.com/photos/emilio_guer ra/5473377527/, last visited: 12/04/12.

GROSSMAN, Elizabeth, MECHIK, Leonid, YUCE, Veysel, A History of Tension: Race Relations in Crown Heights, 2012, http://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledgebase/80-a-history-of-tension-racerelations-in-crown-heights, last visited: 12/04/12.

[Image P16] STILES, Map of Bedford Corners in 1776-77 and 1916, 1916, van NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www.archive.org/stream/ bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.

RULE, Sheila, The Voices and Faces of Crown Heights, 1994, http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/15/ arts/the-voices-and-faces-of-crown-heights.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm, last visited: 12/04/12.

UNKNOWN, Crown Heights North, http://www.crownheightsnorth.com/history2.html, last visited: 12/04/12.

P17

Bien, Joseph Rudolf; The Narrows to Jamaica Bay-Coney Island, north to Brooklyn from the David Rumsey Historical Map Collection, 1890, http://www.davidrumsey.com/, last visited: 12/04/12.

WALLABOUT HISTORIC DISTRICT, Designation Report, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/down loads/pdf/reports/wallabout.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.

P18

GOLDSCHMIDT, Henry, Race and Religion Among the Chosen People of Crown Heights, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 2006.

NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www. archive.org/stream/bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.

KELLY, Wilhelmena, Images of America: Crown Heights and Weeksville, Arcadia Publishing, Portsmouth, San Franscisco, 2009.

NYCLPC, Landmark Designation Report, 1986, http://www.flickr.com/photos/emilio_guer ra/5473377527/, last visited: 12/04/12.

SHAPIRO, Edward, Crown Heights, Blacks, Jews, and the 1991 Brooklyn Riot, Brandeis University Press, Waltham, Massachusetts, 2006.

[Image P14] STILES, Bedford corners in 1776, 1867, van NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www.archive.org/stream/bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/ mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.

GROSSMAN, Elizabeth, MECHIK, Leonid, YUCE, Veysel, A History of Tension: Race Relations in Crown Heights, 2012, http://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledgebase/80-a-history-of-tension-racerelations-in-crown-heights, last visited: 12/04/12.

P15

BACH, A. D.; HASSLER, F. R., New York Bay Harbor, from the David Rumsey Historical Map Collection, 1845, http://www.davidrumsey.com/, last visited: 12/04/12.

P16

GOLDSCHMIDT, Henry, Race and Religion Among the Chosen People of Crown Heights, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 2006.

KELLY, Wilhelmena, Images of America: Crown Heights and Weeksville, Arcadia Publishing, Portsmouth, San Franscisco, 2009.

SHAPIRO, Edward, Crown Heights, Blacks, Jews, and the 1991 Brooklyn Riot, Brandeis University Press, Waltham, Massachusetts, 2006.

GROSSMAN, Elizabeth, MECHIK, Leonid, YUCE, Veysel, A History of Tension: Race Relations in Crown Heights, 2012, http://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledgebase/80-a-history-of-tension-race-

RULE, Sheila, The Voices and Faces of Crown Heights, 1994, http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/15/ arts/the-voices-and-faces-of-crown-heights.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm, last visited: 12/04/12.

UNKNOWN, Crown Heights North, http://www.crownheightsnorth.com/history2.html, last visited: 12/04/12.

WALLABOUT HISTORIC DISTRICT, Designation Report, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/down loads/pdf/reports/wallabout.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.

NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www. archive.org/stream/bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.

NYCLPC, Landmark Designation Report, 1986, http://www.flickr.com/photos/emilio_guer ra/5473377527/, last visited: 12/04/12.

P20

GOLDSCHMIDT, Henry, Race and Religion Among the Chosen People of Crown Heights, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 2006.

P23

KELLY, Wilhelmena, Images of America: Crown Heights and Weeksville, Arcadia Publishing, Portsmouth, San Franscisco, 2009.

SHAPIRO, Edward, Crown Heights, Blacks, Jews, and the 1991 Brooklyn Riot, Brandeis University Press, Waltham, Massachusetts, 2006.

GROSSMAN, Elizabeth, MECHIK, Leonid, YUCE, Veysel, A History of Tension: Race Relations in Crown Heights, 2012, http://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledgebase/80-a-history-of-tension-racerelations-in-crown-heights, last visited: 12/04/12.

RULE, Sheila, The Voices and Faces of Crown Heights, 1994, http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/15/ arts/the-voices-and-faces-of-crown-heights.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm, last visited: 12/04/12.

UNKNOWN, Crown Heights North, http://www.crownheightsnorth.com/history2.html, last visited: 12/04/12.

UNKNOWN, Map Churches Crown Heights, 2012, http://maps.google.be/maps, last visited 12/04/12.

References Land Use, see P29 - Public Institutions.

P26

GOOGLE MAPS - Directions, Brooklyn, NYC, http://www.google.be/maps, last visited 12/04/12.

P27

METROPOLITAN TRANSPORTATION AUTHORITY, Brooklyn Bus Map, 2011, http://www.mta.info/ nyct/maps/busbkln.pdf, last visited: 23/11/2011.

METROPOLITAN TRANSPORTATION AUTHORITY, New York City Subway, with railroad connections, 2011, http://www.mta.info/nyct/maps/subwaymap.pdf, last visited: 10/11/2011.

P29

New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 4, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/ lucds/bk4profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.

NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www. archive.org/stream/bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.

New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 8, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/ lucds/bk8profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.

NYCLPC, Landmark Designation Report, 1986, http://www.flickr.com/photos/emilio_guer ra/5473377527/, last visited: 12/04/12.

New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 9, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/ lucds/bk9profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.

WRIGHT, Henry, Fulton Ferry, New York, 1890, http://www.postaprint.co.uk/ilnimages/i901343.jpg, last visited 12/04/12.

New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 16, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/ pdf/lucds/bk16profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.

STILES, Edward, Town of Brooklyn and Part of Long Island, 1867, http://www.geographicus-archive. com/P/AntiqueMap/BrooklynTwn-stiles-1867, last visited 12/04/12.

SCHUSZLER, Alajos, Shoe Shine, Eastern Parkway, 1938, http://www.nycgovparks.org/photo/archives the_african_american_experience/photo-15292-Shoe-Shine#more_text, last visited 12/04/12.

ILLMAN, Thomas, Twenty Five Miles Round The City Of New York, 1835, http://www.davidrumsey. com/luna/servlet/detail/RUMSEY~8~1~3302~400119:Map-of-the-Country-Twenty-Five-Mile, last visited 12/04/12.

UNKNOWN, Aerial view of Levittown, 1959, http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/ LevittownPA.jpg, last visited 12/04/12.

New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 17, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/ pdf/lucds/bk17profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.

P31

UNKNOWN, Crown Heights Protest, 2008, https://picasaweb.google.com/VosIzNeias.Com/Crown HeightsProtes5162008#5201526732365990162, last visited 12/04/12.

References Land Use, see P29 - Industrial Land Use. METROPOLITAN TRANSPORTATION AUTHORITY, New York City Subway, with railroad connections, 2011, http://www.mta.info/nyct/maps/subwaymap.pdf, last visited: 10/11/2011.

P32

OKAMOTO, Yoichi, President Johnson signing the 1965 Immigration Act, 1965, http://www.new america.umd.edu/themes.html, last visited 12/04/12.

UNKNOWN, Crown Heights Riots 1991, 1991, http://www.crownheights.info/index.php?itemid=366, last visited 12/04/12.

New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 2, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/ lucds/bk2profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.

New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 3, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/ lucds/bk3profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.

WALLABOUT HISTORIC DISTRICT, Designation Report, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/down loads/pdf/reports/wallabout.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.

P21

THE U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, t_pl_p3a_ct.xlsx, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/download/census census2010/t_pl_p3a_ct.xlsx, last visited: 05/04/2012.

CITY OF NEW YORK PARKS & RECREATION, Brooklyn-Queens Greenway Guide, 2007, http://www. nycgovparks.org/sub_things_to_do/facilities/images/Brooklyn_Queens_GreenwayGuide.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.

NYC Bicyce Master Plan, The Greenway System, 2003, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/bike/green sys.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.

P33

NYC Department of City Planning, The Brooklyn-Queens Greenway, Eastern Parkway Extension Mastern Plan, 2006, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/html/transportation/td_eastern_pkwy_extention. shtml, last visited: 12/04/12.

References Land Use, see P29 - Open space and recreation.

P37

NYC DEPARTMENT OF CITY PLANNING AND TRANSPORTATION, NYC Cycling Map, 2011, http:// www.nyc.gov/html/dot/downloads/pdf/2012_nyc-cycling-map.pdf, last visited: 23/11/2011.

New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 6, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/ pdf/lucds/bk6profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.

References Land Use, see P27 - Residential Land Use.

New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 8, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/ pdf/lucds/bk8profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.

PLUNZ, Richard, A History of Housing in New York City, Columbia University Press, New York, 1992.

New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 16, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/ pdf/lucds/bk16profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.

BING MAPS, Bird’s eye, 2012, http://be.bing.com/maps/, last visited: 12/04/2012.

P39

SORKIN, Michael, All Over The Map, Verso, New York, 2011.

DODGE, David, An Overview of New York Public Housing - Submitted by the Right to the City Alliance to Marguerite Casey Foundation, September 2009, http://www.cdp-ny.org/report/NYpublic housing_sept09.pdf, last visited: 12/04/2012.

PRATT CENTER FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT, Building communities of opportunity, 2009, http://prattcenter.net/sites/default/files/publications/PrattCenterPublicHousing.pdf, p13, last visited: 04/04/2012.

NEW YORK CITY HOUSING AUTHORITY, NYCHA Housing Developments, 2012, http://www.nyc.gov/ htmlnycha/html/developments/dev_guide.shtml, last visited: 12/04/2012.

NYC OASIS, Median Household Income (2005-09), http://www.oasisnyc.net/map.aspx, last visited: 12/04/2012.

P43

NEW YORK TIMES, Murder: New York City, http://projects.nytimes.com/crime/homicides/map, last visited: 13/04/2012.

SOCIAL EXPLORER, 2000 Census Tract - % Unemployed, http://www.socialexplorer.com, last visited: 13/04/2012.

P45

SOCIAL EXPLORER, 2000 Census Tract - % Less than High School, http://www.socialexplorer.com, last visited: 13/04/2012.

P46

HESSE, Hannah, Gentrification - Chance & Rick for a New York City neighborhood - A case study of North Crown Heights | Prospect Heights, 2009, http://hannah-hesse.com/Urban%20Planning/ thesis_excerpt.pdf, last visited: 12/04/2012, used with written permission.

References Land Use, see P29 - Public Institutions.

THE U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, t_pl_p1_ct.xlsx, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/download/census/ census2010/t_pl_p1_ct.xlsx, last visited: 05/04/2012.

Juravich, Nick, Crown Heights, Riots, Gentrification: Some Fresh Takes on the Usual Topics, 2001, http://ilovefranklinave.blogspot.com/2011/10/crown-heights-riots-gentrification-some.html, last visited: 12/04/12.

Juravich, Nick, Two Years of Commercial Development on Franklin, 2010, http://ilovefranklinave. blogspot.com/2010/11/two-years-of-commercial-development-on.html, last visited: 12/04/12.

The Citizen Housing and Planning Council (CHPC), Kontokosta, C.E. and CHPC 2009 gentrificationmodel, http://www.chpcny.org/, last visited: 12/04/12.

P47

UNKNOWN, Historic Districts Council Brooklyn, 2012, http://hdc.org/hdc-across-nyc/brooklyn, last visited: 12/04/12.

THE U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, t_pl_p1_ct.xlsx, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/​dcp/download/census/​ census2010/t_pl_p1_ct.xlsx, last visited: 05/04/2012.