The place of play in the Secondary English classroom?

Research shows us that play is essential to the physical, intellectual (Piaget & Inhelder, 1966) and socioemotional development of children (Vygotsky, 1929; Dewey, 1938). While Plato (427348 B.C.) first proposed play (paidia) to be intrinsic to children’s (paides) social development (D’Angous 2013, p. 239), developmental psychologist, Vygostky (1993/1978, p. 104), affirmed play as the very medium through which children learn: “The child moves forward through play activity… [it] does not die away but permeates… attitudes towards reality”. Contemporary researcher, Villasin (2020, p. 12), reinforces that “play is natural, play is foundational, and… children learn best through [it]”. Yet, play remains marginalised in secondary educational discourse and policy due to the demands of high-stakes testing, standardised assessments and other factors (Middleton & Curwood 2020; Miller & Almon 2009). As such, there exists a critical divide between the learning methods that have been scholastically validated and what is actually practised in schools (King-Sears, 2001). With this in mind, I considered two driving questions: 1 When and why did play lose its significance in secondary education when qualitative and quantitative data proves its efficiency for childhood learning?

2 How could I integrate play in the secondary English classroom to enhance learning and wellbeing in a way that was practical, effective and supported by peer-reviewed evidence (Harris, 2016)?

Similar to the preservice teachers that Villasin (2020, p. 345) interviewed, I needed to “shift [my] ideas about planning” and move towards creating learning experiences and environments alongside my students which nurture wellbeing and differentiated learning. While initially unsure as to how and whether play was viable in a secondary English classroom, a conversation with Justine showed me that it was indeed possible to link theory to practice through free-choice play activities and drama pedagogy (Dutton, 2017).

Drama is a powerful tool for the development of adolescents’ social, emotional, moral and intellectual development as it allows for play within structure (Lambert et al., 2019). Dutton and Rushton (2018) point to dramabased pedagogy as an effective teaching and learning tool to develop student identity and their exploration of identity texts. Using a dramatic method to study Shakespeare, in particular, has been seen to increase student enthusiasm and language development (Dunn & Stinson, 2011; Ewing, 2012), and deepen knowledge of plot and humour, and provoke a more meaningful interpretation of characters.

Drawing from Justine’s experience, we decided to facilitate a drama activity which required students to re-enact a chosen scene from A Midsummer Night’s Dream and perform it as part of a class production (Lee, Patall, Cawthon & Steingut, 2015). Students were given almost total freedom in representing the power dynamics within their scene using props, scene backdrops, music and special effects, costuming and dialogue. Drama workshops, including embodiment activities like ‘walking in role’, functioned to increase students’ confidence and their understanding of their characters’ motivations, flaws, status and role in the play (Dutton & Rushton, 2018). This process of embodiment – the “integration of the physical or biological body and the phenomenal experiential body” – has gained currency as a theoretical, practical and methodological concept in educational research as it enhances a student’s creativity, problemsolving, self-regulation and social skills (Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Krafft & Berk, 1998; Varela, Thompson & Rosch, 1991). Student testimonials and the laughter heard between the Year 7 students also show us that embodiment and performance processes are enjoyable and fun as they were less inhibited to think creatively and independently (Lytle 1942; Everett, 2007).

With this in mind, I believe that the integration of play into my lessons for Year 7 was incredibly effective and heightened my ability to support both student learning and wellbeing. Play not only belongs to children but to our teenagers. It remains foundational to true creativity, experimentation and independent thinking, and I am excited to continue to draw on play pedagogy in the future (Lytle, 1942). Mathilda: How do you integrate an element of playfulness into your own teaching?

Justine: I have always been acutely aware of the connection that exists between theatre and English, particularly as many of the texts taught across Stages 4, 5 and 6 of English feature a dramatic focus, including Shakespeare’s plays, as well as contemporary dramatic literature produced across differing cultural contexts. We often encourage students to bring to life dramatic texts through the engagement of performance processes as this builds confidence and can promote greater self-efficacy, adaptability and, therefore, resilience. As Stinson and Freebody (2006, p. 27) state, “involving students in the negotiating and co-constructing of a process drama allows them insights into the relationship between context and language, and enables them to link the language they are learning with their own lives and with the world around them”.

I, too, believe that this is a powerful vehicle for us to enhance the connection that exists between the outside world and the classroom (Maley & Duff, 1978) and, therefore, build on students’ knowledge of self and others which increases empathy. Playfulness exists in differing ways in the context of the English classroom and I love how the term itself can transform our knowledge of students’ learning experiences. For example, when analysing texts, the facilitation of open-ended questions is important as this encourages a playfulness of thought as multiple and varied perspectives can emerge.

As Badger and Thomas (1991, p. 2) reflect, “educators and philosophers interested in the reading process have refined and expanded the ideas and concepts about reading and thinking”. They highlight that “two main themes have emerged from this research: Readers assume constantly shifting attitudes while trying to understand any text. Literature is a powerful context for teaching and learning critical thought”.

A range of actions and interactions occur during the reading process. Langer (1989, p. 1) describes this as “being out and stepping back into”. This means that readers use a combination of their own backgrounds and experiences, as well as information from the text, to make a connection with the author’s words. For effective reading and understanding, it is vital that readers connect with what the author means through building their own relationship with the character, plot, setting and other elements. This helps readers to make their own sense of the author’s meaning. Fiction texts are especially important in this domain as they encourage the reader to use every bit of information to think more expansively about issues including perspective, motivation and causality. This reading process was evident in our Year 7 students’ exploration of scenes as the collaborative process of constructing a performance in itself allowed for each member of the ensemble to deconstruct, question and create, thus enabling all of these processes to emerge in an interactive and playful way. Badger and Thomas (1991, p. 2) reflecting on Langer’s research, articulate the additional process of “being in and stepping out”. They state that “readers relate the text to their own knowledge and experiences. Readers of fiction use what they read in the text to reflect on their own lives, on the lives of others, or on the human condition in general”. They establish that the representation of this is also evident in non-fiction texts, whereby “readers use the text information to rethink information they already know” and describe this as “stepping out and going beyond”, explaining that this is when “readers distance themselves from the text and assume a critical stance, judging the text and relating it to other texts or experiences”. Our goal to create critical readers means we assist students to raise a variety of interpretations amongst endless possibilities. Badger and Thomas (1991, p. 2) reflect that “in their view, literary thinking is a complex reasoning process that involves analysing, synthesising, reformulating, linking, and generalising ideas”.

I have often applied these reading processes to the nature of role-play in the classroom. By providing students with opportunities to experiment with differing dramatic approaches, their shared collaborative experiences can lead to their development of a broader understanding of self and others and a platform for open-ended, studentdriven thinking emerges. The art of being playful in itself can lead to an openness of thought, whereby students are encouraged to take positive risks with their thinking and connect this to their broader experiences. I have found that if students are able to roleplay and negotiate meaning through a collaborative dynamic, their capacity to interpret texts independently reveals an authentic understanding and therefore, significant growth is enabled. The act of experimenting highlights the importance of valuing differing perspectives and it is this process that enables students to feel confident and empowered.

In the introductory drama workshops, we encouraged students to experiment with gesture and movement in order to embody the emotional landscape of a character. The reason I wanted them to experiment with interacting via differing levels was to signify how power-plays and tension can emerge through the incorporation of gestures alongside spoken language. Berry and Brown (2019, p. 1) state that “during the process of acting, actors have to embody the characters that they are portraying by changing their vocal and gestural features to match standard conceptions of characters”. Their findings reveal that “vocal gesturing during character portrayal … demonstrate that actors reliably manipulate prosodic cues in a contrastive manner to differentiate characters based on their personality traits” (p. 1). I find this research helpful in the context of reflecting on the importance of play in a secondary setting. Berry and Brown (2019) reveal that playfulness in itself, through experimental processes, can create a more complex interpretation of character and I see this as the link to developing students’ understanding of self and others.

The psychology of enacting a character also contributes to student empathy and this can be seen through creative writing as well, such as when students experiment with their written compositions. Drawing on the notion of playfulness allows scope for flexibility as students are more likely to reflect on personal experiences, or experiment with differing perspectives, when relaxed with their writing processes. This, too, can encourage students to take positive experimental risks with their writing and promote growth through the nurturing of their individualism and cultural expression.

Justine: How did seeing students draw on the concept of play reaffirm your understanding of its importance?

Mathilda: My educational philosophy has always recognised the importance of nurturing wellbeing and experiential learning through differentiated and student-directed activities, free-choice and low-risk tasks which promote a love of learning and reduce unnecessary stress and anxiety. I strongly believe that wellbeing goes hand-in-hand with learning and is essential to providing positive learning spaces and experiences. Throughout my time at Macquarie University, prescribed readings and assessments had asserted the role of play and informal learning as undeniably important for socioemotional, mental and personal development. Yet, it was through my practicum at Pymble and my work with Justine, Sarah and Year 7 that I acquired the practical tools and selfconfidence to implement play in the classroom. The collaborative, kinaesthetic and student-centred nature of this approach also facilitated greater opportunities for me to differentiate learning to students’ unique needs and styles as it allowed for “multiple means of engagement… representation…” and “action and expression” in accordance with the Universal Design of Learning (UDL) Guidelines (CAST, 2018, p. 3). It also allowed for “peer-assisted learning” whereby students could work comfortably within their “zone of proximal development” as well as be extended and/ or supported by “more knowledgeable other[s]” in the group (Vygotsky, 1980). Piaget and Inhelder’s (1966) theory of cognitive development reinforces that social learning incites moments of ‘cognitive conflict’ or ‘disequilibrium’ whereby students develop new mental structures by accommodating to newlyassimilated information.

Before commencing the drama activity, I had already implemented a range of collaborative and student-centred tasks which scaffolded learning in accordance with the UDL model (CAST, 2018) and Piaget and Inhelder’s (1966) accommodation/assimilation theory whereby peer-assisted and social learning promotes ‘disequilibrium’ and cognitive development. For instance, supported by small workshops on script-writing and storyboarding, small groups of Year 7 students were assigned a genre before devising their own story concepts, scripts and storyboards. I also utilised See/ Think/Wonder activities, Mentimetre.com discussion forums and class discussions with open-ended questions to encourage independent thinking. It was because of my previous experience with Year 7 and support from Justine that I felt comfortable to loosen task guidelines and structure to allow for more freedom when students were preparing their chosen scenes.

Due to prior experience and rapport with me, students had greater confidence in completing the task. Although they were initially confronted when I told them “just have fun with it!” – with several students asking me, “are you sure we can evolve the scene?” and “are we allowed to do…” – they soon embraced the opportunity to play with enthusiasm and ease. Seeing them become invested in the project was exciting, fun and incredibly insightful, and actively reaffirmed that play not only belongs in the context of early childhood education but the English secondary classroom. The integration of playfulness also amplifies the effectiveness of other pedagogical strategies which aim to place the student at the centre of their learning, and promote socioemotional and cognitive development through collaborative and experiential processes. I thoroughly enjoyed experimenting with and gaining confidence using play pedagogy as a means to facilitate both learning and wellbeing, and observed it to be an effective tool for supporting and/or extending socioemotional and cognitive development for my students.

“While we as teachers have curricular requirements to fulfil, we also have an obligation to support student wellbeing”

Mathilda: What was your experience working with a practicum teacher who showed a desire to integrate playfulness into the Year 7 novel study?

Justine: The whole process has been really exciting as having Mathilda as a practicum teacher allowed for a meaningful reflection of my own classroom practice. I have especially valued Mathilda’s inquisitiveness and her desire to enhance her own teaching skills in order to nurture a playful learning environment, one that is adaptable and flexible, where students are given differentiated and challenging opportunities to become empowered as learners. I also appreciated Mathilda’s trust in the process of freeing the instructional parameters relating to the performance scenes we provided, as this meant students had to be more autonomous and independent in their approach. I, therefore, valued Mathilda’s trust and acknowledgment of the impact of this process as this enabled enriching learning experiences which enhanced students’ confidence, adaptability and autonomy. It was wonderful to see students motivated and engaged through their own learning choices and creative decisions. I am also very thankful to Mathilda for the way she embraced the opportunity to witness a variety of students’ experiences across the College and bring her perceptive observations to our English classroom; an enriching dialogue emerged and this benefitted our skills as practitioners and significantly enhanced student growth and enjoyment. Sarah: What were some of your most memorable experiences using a playful approach?

Mathilda and Justine: When reflecting on whether she enjoyed the project, one student shared that “it was just really fun” with a smile, and we would have to agree with her! We will always remember the laughter from the Year 7 students as they role-played their characters, designed their backdrops and props, and prepared their scenes for their rendition of A Midsummer Night’s Dream. It was just as fun to teach as it was as fun for the students to learn.

We will also always be grateful for the opportunity to experiment with the role of play in the classroom and are both thankful to Sarah for suggesting we document it in a way that was also fun and playful. We reflected on ways we could better facilitate play and fun in the secondary classroom in a way that reduced the stress and anxiety of students, allowed for various levels of differentiation, creative and critical thinking, and developed the skills necessary for self-regulation for lifelong learning. It was a memorable and enlightening experience to discover and experiment with a pedagogy which facilitates all these aspects and produces such enthusiasm from students.

We further reflected on the importance of embedding play as essential to our own learning, our own lives and wellbeing, and therefore, our approach to teaching. If we are to encourage life-long learning and support students’ sense of self and others to promote resilience and wellbeing, we must provide freedom within the structure; it must be fun and enjoyable for it to be purposeful in the minds of our students. While we as teachers have curricular requirements to fulfil, we also have an obligation to support student wellbeing (as well as our own) through the implementation of play-pedagogy which reduces stress from learning and instead prioritises enjoyment, and therefore, meaningful learning. We hope that we continue to hear such laughter from our students in the future, and this experience has been pivotal in cultivating that expectation. Mathilda and Justine: What do you see as most valuable in the collaborative processes that exist between the teacher mentor and practicum student in exploring the role of play?

Sarah: What I saw evolving between you was a rich space in which you were both learners and both teachers for one another. The third element in the teacher mentor-practicum student relationship, however, was the presence of our students and your joint focus to make the learning relevant for the students in this class. The exploration of play was prompted by a visit Mathilda took with me to Pymble’s OSHC Centre after school one day. Through sharing stories with our OSHC Educators, Mathilda quickly made a connection to her English teaching and a desire to explore play in the context of the Year 7 class. It was wonderful when Justine affirmed Mathilda’s enquiry as valid and important and encouraged the opportunity to delve into play through the unit currently under preparation. The way in which Justine did this was playful in itself and showed a willingness to co-create and respond flexibly to an offer. I noticed this allowed Mathilda to think broadly about play in the English classroom and to bring a delight in being playful into her evolving pedagogical tool kit.

“What I saw evolving between you was a rich space in which you were both learners and both teachers for one another.”

Student reflections:

“We got to connect with a certain character in a more meaningful way, looking from their viewpoint rather than an outsider’s. Performing with other people gave me insight into the different relationships with people within the play, which reflected the connections between characters in the novel, King of Shadows.” - Allison Wang

“We had to think about [the characters] on a physical and emotional level, responding to the other characters onstage, in character. Particularly, the characters’ power dynamics onstage, depending on their social status or hierarchy in the play, were greatly focused on in the workshop we did. This all assisted me in analysing King of Shadows and the ‘Elizabethan period’ (16th century language) and increased my confidence when performing and thinking creatively.” - Erika Nakamaru “I absolutely loved this task as it gave us so much creative freedom in how we showed our character. It also showed us a greater insight into Shakespeare’s life and his mind by showing his work and his words in our language and on our terms.” - Remy Meagher

“I also enjoyed creating our own backdrops and props for the play and seeing it performed through different perspectives. I got to learn about the characters and their personalities and how they move, act and talk.” - Talia Luo

“Being an audience member was a great experience and I loved watching my peers perform. It helped us imagine the world of A Midsummer Night’s Dream.” - Christiana Soo

“This was a different and enjoyable experience as we got to think outside the box and produce our own plays.” - Ollisha Muthukuda

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Out of their seats and asking great questions:

Fostering critical thinking and cognitive wellbeing through Embodied Pedagogies

BY DR JANET DUTTON (MACQUARIE UNIVERSITY), LUKE DERRICK (INITIAL TEACHER EDUCATION STUDENT MACQUARIE UNIVERSITY), DR KATHLEEN RUSHTON (UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY)

Critical thinking is at the core of most intellectual activity that involves students learning to recognise or develop an argument, use evidence in support of that argument, draw reasoned conclusions, and use information to solve problems. Examples of critical thinking skills are interpreting, analysing, evaluating, explaining, sequencing, reasoning, comparing, questioning, inferring, hypothesising, appraising, testing and generalising. (ACARA Australian Curriculum, 2014)

Cognitive wellbeing is associated with achievement and success, how information is processed and judgements are made, informed by motivation and persistence to achieve and is important for attaining knowledge and experiencing positive learning. (NSW Government, n.d) As teachers we often find ourselves framing questions as a way to prompt critical thinking and develop cognitive wellbeing. Most often these questions – especially given the curriculum narrowing pressure of high stakes testing contexts – are answered in the spoken mode during discussions or written mode through focus questions. They are usually asked and answered with students seated at their desks … but … have you considered using embodied pedagogies in your classroom?

Nguyen and Larson (2015) refer to embodied pedagogies as those which invite “learning that joins body and mind in a physical and mental act of knowledge construction’’ (p. 332). They describe three conceptual elements of embodied pedagogy that emphasise its value for classroom contexts in all stages and subject areas:

• bodily and spatial awareness of sensation and movement

• unification of mind/body in learning

• the body’s role as sociocultural context in teaching (Nguyen and Larson, 2015, p. 332).

In this article we offer a researchinformed justification for the implementation of embodied pedagogies as normalised teaching practices and offer ‘Conscience Alley’ as an effective embodied activity that can be used in your classroom tomorrow. PDHPE

Should school uniforms be compulsory?

- Yes. They offer consistency, shape equity and are cost effective.

- No. They drive compliance, silence individuality and are uncomfortable.

SO WHY EMPLOY EMBODIED PEDAGOGY?

Traditional classroom pedagogy often establishes a mind/body dichotomy with the body being ellipsed or subordinated in the drive to focus on the functions of the mind. “Embodied pedagogy joins body and mind in a physical and mental act of knowledge construction” (Nguyen & Larsen, 2015, p. 331). “By highlighting elements of unified mind/body learning, critical theory, and constructivism one can draw a historical pedagogical trajectory moving from Dewey and Freire [unified action] to recent scholarship” (Nguyen & Larsen, 2015, p. 332). Embodied pedagogy involves inviting students out of their seats to engage in well planned learning activities that bring into play body, space and social context (Dutton & Rushton, 2018). These approaches allow students to employ their senses – described as the ‘avenues of knowledge’ by Dewey (1916, p. 147) – and ‘feel’ knowledge, internalise it and commit it to memory’. (Nguyen & Larsen, 2015, p. 332). To begin, we invite you to search through the questions below and find one or more question that suits or could be adapted to your teaching area. Keep this question in mind as you learn more about the possibilities for embodied pedagogy.

Should athletes be allowed to use performance enhancing drugs in sports?

- Yes. Athletes should be allowed to use performance enhancing drugs. Many athletes are naturally taller, stronger or faster and athletes should be able to make use of scientific advances to enhance their competitiveness.

- No. Athletes should not be allowed to use performance enhancing drugs as these substances give them an unfair advantage over other athletes who do not want to use potentially harmful substances on their bodies.

History

Should Australia have supported America and sent conscripted troops to serve in the Vietnam War?

- Yes. Australia was right to support a key ally, America, and help the South Vietnamese troops against the Vietcong who aimed to spread communism into South Vietnam. - No. Australia was wrong to conscript troops as 521 Australian lives were lost for ultimately very little gain and conscription infringes individual rights.

Geography

Environmental laws need to be strengthened to remedy the loss of habitat being caused by land clearing.

- Yes. The laws need to be reviewed and strengthened.

- No. The current laws are adequate but better education needs to be undertaken to ensure landowners are cognisant of their responsibilities.

Science

Should animals be used for testing of medicines, cosmetics and other products?

- Yes. Animals should be used for testing as it is a better option than testing on humans and these items need to be tested on a living being to ensure safety before being sold to the public.

- No. Animals should not be tested on as they are living beings as well and we, as humans, should not be taking advantage of them, especially for non-essential items such as cosmetics.

Mathematics

What is the easiest/fastest way to measure an irregular floor area in preparation for tiling?

- Mathematical approach 1: calculate the floor space as full quadrilateral shapes and subtract irregular shapes.