HERGENHAHN AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY 9TH EDITION BY TRACEY HENLEY TEST BANK

TEST BANK Hergenhahn's An Introduction to the History of Psychology 9th Edition by Tracy Henley

TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: The Ancient World Chapter 3: Rome and the Middle Ages Chapter 4: Renaissance Science and Philosophy Chapter 5: Empiricism, Sensationalism, and Positivism Chapter 6: Rationalism Chapter 8: Physiology and Psychophysics Chapter 9: Early Approaches to Psychology Chapter 10: Evolution and Individual Differences Chapter 11: American Psychology and Functionalism Chapter 12: Behaviorism Chapter 13: Neobehaviorism Chapter 14: Gestalt Psychology Chapter 16: Psychoanalysis Chapter 17: Humanistic Psychology Chapter 18: Psychobiology Chapter 19: Cognitive Psychology Chapter 20: Psychology Today

Chapter 01: Introduction

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. Historiography is: a. another term for psychology b. the study of the proper way to write history c. the use of photographs in presenting history d. another term for historicism 2. Presentism maintains that: a. the present state of a discipline is the most important b. to truly understand something, you must be present to observe it c. it is important to understand the past in terms of contemporary knowledge and standards d. history should be studied for its own sake without regard for how historical events relate to present events 3. Historicism refers to the belief that: a. the present state of a discipline should act as a guide in writing that discipline's history b. the present state of a discipline represents its highest and best state of development c. only the past is important d. the past should be studied for its own sake without attempting to show the relationship between past and present 4. Zeitgeist means: a. the spirit of the times b. about the same thing as presentism c. that the history of anything must be selective d. about the same thing as historicism 5. The approach to studying the history of psychology that involves showing how various individuals or events contributed to changes in an idea throughout the years is called: a. the great person approach b. the zeitgeist approach c. the historical development approach d. historicism 6. The approach to writing a history of psychology that takes the best from a variety of viewpoints is referred to as: a. presentism b. the eclectic approach c. historicism d. the zeitgeist approach 7. Dr. Zhu believes that the best way to understand the history of psychology is by studying the brilliant individuals who contributed to the progress of psychology. This is most consistent with which approach? a. Great person approach b. Zeitgeist approach c. Historical development approach Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 01: Introduction d. Historicism approach 8. Dr. Corelli believes that the best way to understand the history of psychology is by studying the context in which advances occurred, such as the developments in other sciences, the political climate, and socioeconomic conditions. This is most consistent with which approach? a. Great person approach b. Zeitgeist approach c. Historical development approach d. Historicism approach 9. Dr. Lopez believes that the best way to understand the history of psychology is by studying how the understanding of a particular idea has changed over time. Dr. Lopez is particularly interested in how our conceptualization of intelligence has changed from the ancient Greeks to today. This is most consistent with which approach? a. Great person approach b. Zeitgeist approach c. Historical development approach d. Historicism approach 10. Which approach to studying the history of psychology emphasizes the contributions of individuals? a. Great person approach b. Zeitgeist approach c. Historical development approach d. Historicism approach 11. Which approach to studying the history of psychology emphasizes the overall conditions of society at a given time, including the political and socioeconomic climates? a. Great person approach b. Zeitgeist approach c. Historical development approach d. Historicism approach 12. The field that involves studying archaeological data from a psychological viewpoint is called: a. humanistic archaeology b. conceptual archaeology c. schematic archaeology d. cognitive archaeology 13. Why is it important to study the history of psychology? a. For a deeper understanding of concepts and ideas, to recognize fads, and to avoid the repetition of mistakes b. For a deeper appreciation of how ideas are typically born fully developed and how quickly the big questions have been answered in psychology c. To recognize how the field of psychology has been immune to the fads that typically plague other academic fields d. To recognize why there is only one true and correct approach to psychology today

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Chapter 01: Introduction 14. According to the text, science has two major aspects: a. empirical observation and law b. empirical observation and theory c. rationalism and empiricism d. correlational laws and causal laws 15. Which two methods of attaining knowledge are combined in science? a. Intuition and rationalism b. Rationalism and empiricism c. Introspection and controlled observation d. Empiricism and faith 16. A consistently observed relationship between two or more classes of empirical events defines a: a. scientific theory b. scientific law c. scientific problem d. rational deduction 17. A researcher notices that there is a relationship between stress and sleep such as stress increases, sleep decreases, but the researcher doesn't know if lack of sleep causes more stress or if higher stress levels cause people to sleep less. The relationship the researcher identified can best be described as a: a. deterministic law b. teleological law c. causal law d. correlational law 18. A clinical psychologist has determined that if a client takes a particular drug, then that client will cease having a particular troubling symptom. This psychologist has identified a: a. relativist law b. preparadigmatic law c. correlational law d. causal law 19. The person who assumes that everything that occurs is a function of a finite number of causes is a: a. determinist b. rationalist c. empiricist d. realist 20. Popper disagreed with the traditional view that scientific activity starts with: a. a problem b. empirical observation c. logical deduction d. a theory Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 01: Introduction 21. Popper saw the scientific method as involving three stages: a. problems, theories, and criticism b. objective analysis, theories, and criticism c. observation, problem, and criticism d. problems, theories, and postdiction 22. Which statement best describes Popperian science? a. Science is an unending search for better and better solutions to problems. b. Science is only useful if it has a practical application to improve lives. c. Science is a set of irrefutable facts rather than myths that have yet to be disproven. d. Science is immune to Kuhn's idea of a paradigm.

23. According to Popper, what distinguishes a scientific theory from a nonscientific theory? a. Clarity b. The use of mathematical symbols c. The principle of falsifiability d. The assumption of determinism 24. Because a psychoanalyst could claim that any observed behavior supported their theory, Popper considered Freud’s psychoanalytic theories to be: a. weak b. deterministic c. strong d. falsifiable 25. According to Popper, the highest status that a scientific theory can attain is: a. confirmed b. not yet disconfirmed c. scientific law d. falsifiability 26. According to Popper, the theories of Freud and Adler cannot be considered scientific because they: a. make too many risky predictions b. make postdictions rather than predictions c. make predictions rather than postdictions d. are too easily falsified 27. Explaining phenomena after they have already occurred is called: a. prediction b. hindsight bias c. postdiction d. falsifiability 28. For Popper, a nonscientific theory: a. is insignificant Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 01: Introduction b. is unimportant c. can still be useful d. is especially useful 29. Before Thomas Kuhn, scientific activity was guided by the: a. paradigm shift theory b. correspondence theory of truth c. skepticism of knowledge theory d. subjectivity theory of science 30. Which statement would Thomas Kuhn most likely support? a. “Science is a highly subjective enterprise.” b. “The scientific method guarantees objectivity.” c. “Each scientific enterprise is so unique that scientists cannot share a common set of assumptions.” d. “Once a paradigm has been established, further experimentation becomes unnecessary.”

31. According to Kuhn, the set of beliefs, values, assumptions, and a particular way of doing research that are accepted by a group of scientists is called: a. a metaphysical orientation b. the religious component of science c. a paradigm d. a correlational law 32. Persistent observations that a currently accepted paradigm cannot explain are called: a. anomalies b. paradigms c. anachronisms d. revolutions 33. During the preparadigmatic stage of the development of a science: a. researchers are not concerned with falsifiability b. rival camps compete with each other for dominion of the discipline c. no theories or rival camps have been established d. irrefutable answers have been identified for the field's big questions 34. According to Khun, what happens during the paradigmatic stage of science? a. Random facts are gathered. b. Puzzle-solving activity occurs. c. Existing paradigms are displaced. d. Existing paradigms are solidified.

35. According to Khun, what happens during the revolutionary stage of science? a. Researchers begin to form theories and rival camps. b. Researchers begin conducting studies to explore the field.

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Chapter 01: Introduction c. An existing paradigm is replaced by a new paradigm. d. The first paradigm in the field is established.

36. According to the author of your text, contemporary psychology is: a. a preparadigmatic discipline b. a multiparadigmatic science c. in the revolutionary stage of development d. a single paradigmatic science 37. Who is most likely to support the statement, “Our genetic predisposition determines our behavior?” a. A psychical determinist b. A sociocultural determinist c. An environmental determinist d. A biological determinist 38. Who stresses a person's beliefs, emotions, perceptions, values, and goals as determinants of behavior? a. An indeterminist b. A nondeterminist c. A physical determinist d. A psychical determinist 39. A psychologist who believes that human behavior is indeed determined but the causes can never be accurately known would be a(n): a. indeterminist b. psychical determinist c. nondeterminist d. physical determinist 40. The belief that humans have free will would be proposed by a(n): a. indeterminist b. nondeterminist c. psychical determinist d. physical determinist 41. Of the following, who would be most likely to take the position that humans are responsible for their actions? a. Nondeterminist and hard determinist b. Hard determinist and mechanist c. Soft determinist and mechanist d. Nondeterminist and soft determinist 42. People who are termed neurodivergent and who have a disorder such as autism spectrum disorder may state that they think and respond differently because their nervous systems are wired differently from birth. This is most consistent with the position of a(n): a. psychical determinist b. sociocultural determinist Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 01: Introduction c. environmental determinist d. biological determinist 43. David has attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but several family members have taken David’s parents to task. They claim that there is no such thing as ADHD and that parents today are simply too lazy and indulgent to teach their children how they ought to behave. If parents established and enforced rules, ADHD would disappear. This is most consistent with the position of a(n): a. psychical determinist b. sociocultural determinist c. experiential determinist d. biological determinist 44. There are those who say that people with substance use disorder use alcohol and other drugs because they like it and that if you make their using uncomfortable enough, they will naturally quit using. This type of behavioral focus is most consistent with the position of a(n): a. psychical determinist b. sociocultural determinist c. environmental determinist d. biological determinist 45. Which of the following represents a dualistic position on the mind-body question? a. Idealism b. Materialism c. Monism d. Epiphenomenalism 46. Some believe that although cognitive events are a result of brain activity, such events cannot cause behavior. Such a belief represents: a. materialism b. interactionism c. epiphenomenalism d. occasionalism 47. If you are a monist with regard to the mind-body question, your position most likely represents: a. materialism b. occasionalism c. psychophysical parallelism d. interactionism 48. The view that cognitive events that emerge from brain activity can cause behavior is representative of: a. materialism b. interactionism c. epiphenomenalism d. free will Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 01: Introduction 49. A contemporary and popular way of explaining mind-body relationships that claims mental states arise from brain activity is called: a. reification b. emergentism c. naive realism d. namification 50. The position on the mind-body question claiming that both mental events and bodily responses occur simultaneously even though the two events are independent of each other is called: a. interactionism b. epiphenomenalism c. psychophysical parallelism d. double aspectism 51. The position that states that mental and physiological reactions are two aspects of the same experience and cannot be separated is called: a. preestablished harmony b. double aspectism c. epiphenomenalism d. psychophysical parallelism 52. The position on the mind-body question claiming that mental and bodily events are coordinated through God's intervention is called: a. interactionism b. interventionism c. epiphenomenalism d. occasionalism 53. Yuki believes that living things contain a vital force that does not exist in inanimate objects and living things can never be reduced to mechanical laws. The school of thought that best reflects Yuki's ideas is called: a. vitalism b. determinism c. monism d. materialism 54. Which of the following stresses the emotional or unconscious determinants of human behavior? a. Naive realism b. Irrationalism c. Mechanism d. Vitalism 55. An important difference between nativists and empiricists is the extent to which they emphasize: a. inheritance vs. experience b. cognition vs. affect c. deism vs. atheism Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 01: Introduction d. freewill vs. determinism 56. The study of knowledge is called: a. epistemology b. psychophysics c. metaphysics d. rationalism 57. The contention that what we experience mentally accurately reflects the physical world is called: a. epiphenomenalism b. naive realism c. irrationalism d. preestablished harmony 58. The school of psychology that most strongly believes that we can learn a lot about ourselves by studying nonhuman animals is called: a. humanism b. behaviorism c. gestaltism d. psychoanalysis 59. The school of thought that contends that there are no general laws that govern everything in the universe, or if there are, they can never be known, is called: a. universalism b. double aspectism c. relativism d. idealism

60. Explain the difference between presentism and historicism.

61. Explain the difference between the great person and the zeitgeist approach.

62. Why do issues related to diversity and inclusion present such a challenge to the history of psychology?

63. Why is it important to study the history of psychology?

64. Is psychology a science? Justify your answer in terms of the criteria discussed in the text.

65. Explain the major sources of contention between Popper and Kuhn.

66. Compare and contrast hard determinism and soft determinism as it relates to personal responsibility.

67. Describe the major positions toward the mind-body question (materialism, idealism, dualism, interactionism, and emergentism).

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Chapter 01: Introduction 68. What is your position on the mind-body debate? Justify your response with evidence.

69. Define and provide examples of physical, environmental, and sociocultural determinism.

70. What is your position on the nature-nurture debate? Justify your response with evidence.

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Chapter 01: Introduction Answer Key 1. b 2. c 3. d 4. a 5. c 6. b 7. a 8. b 9. c 10. a 11. b 12. d 13. a 14. b 15. b 16. b 17. d 18. d 19. a 20. b 21. a 22. a 23. c 24. a 25. b Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 01: Introduction 26. b 27. c 28. c 29. b 30. a 31. c 32. a 33. b 34. b 35. c 36. b 37. d 38. d 39. a 40. b 41. d 42. d 43. b 44. c 45. d 46. c 47. a 48. b 49. b 50. c 51. b Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 01: Introduction 52. d 53. a 54. b 55. a 56. a 57. b 58. b 59. c 60. Presentism involves interpreting historical events in terms of contemporary knowledge and standards. Historicism involves studying the past for its own sake, without trying to interpret it in terms of today’s knowledge and standards.

61. The great person approach concentrates on the contributions of the most prominent individuals to a science, while the zeitgeist approach focuses on understanding how factors like political and social conditions influence the development of the science.

62. Much of academic psychology is Eurocentric and, historically, has been dominated by men of European descent.

Histories of psychology typically include few people of color and women. Although this issue abates somewhat in more recent years, it remains important.

63. Studying the history of psychology helps us gain a richer understanding of the subject matter of psychology

and helps us understand both the rise and demise of ideas.

64. Answers will vary.

65. A major source of disagreement between Popper and Kuhn was Kuhn's concept of normal science. According to Popper, doing science is nothing like doing a puzzle because he sees science as having no restrictions in terms of what counts as a solution or what procedures can be used to solve a problem; rather, science is a highly imaginative and creative endeavor. In addition, for Kuhn, there is no such thing as neutral scientific observation—everything is observed through a psychological and sociological lens. In contrast, Popper believes that problems and solutions exist independently of the individual who is doing science.

66. Proponents of hard determinism contend that the causes of human behavior function in an automatic, mechanistic manner, which means that we don't have any personal responsibility over our actions. In contrast, proponents of soft determinism argue that cognitive processes such as intentions, motives, beliefs, and values intervene between experience and behavior. For proponents of soft determinism, people can choose between the given options in a situation; therefore, people bear responsibility for their actions.

67. Materialists believe that matter is the only reality, therefore everything, even mental events, must be explained in terms of matter. Materialists believe that mental events are ultimately just physics and chemistry. On the opposite side of the continuum are the idealists, who believe that even physical reality results from perceived ideas; idealists explain everything in terms of consciousness. In the middle are the dualists, who believe that there are both physical and mental events. Two popular forms of dualism are interactionism, which claims that the mind influences the body, and the body Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 01: Introduction influences the mind, and emergentism, which argues that mental states emerge from physical brain states.

68. Answers will vary.

69. Biological determinism stresses the biochemical, genetic, physiological, and anatomic determinants of behavior.

Environmental determinism stresses causes of behavior that are external to the organism. Sociocultural determinism is a type of environmental determinism that stresses cultural or societal rules, customs, regulations, or expectations as the causes of behavior.

70. Answers will vary.

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Chapter 02: The Ancient World

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. The Neolithic Revolution refers to the time when humans: a. first developed a theory of mind b. transitioned from a nomadic life to building villages and cities c. switched from animism to anthropomorphism as a religion d. began using logic and rational thought to develop formal philosophies 2. Viewing all of nature as though it were alive is called: a. anthropomorphism b. animism c. primitivism d. mysticism 3. An ancient person believes that rocks, trees, streams, and rivers have human thoughts and emotions such as jealousy, love, and vengefulness. This person is practicing: a. anthropomorphism b. idealism c. primitivism d. vitalism 4. When Tonya gets home from visiting a friend who has dogs, her own dog sniffs her thoroughly and walks away. Tonya claims that her dog, who she says loves her very much, is jealous and mad at her for being unfaithful. This is an example of: a. anthropomorphism b. idealism c. primitivism d. vitalism 5. Which statement below accurately describes the social division in ancient Greek religion? a. The Greek peasants were more likely to follow the Olympian religion, whereas the nobility were more likely to follow the Dionysiac-Orphic religion. b. The Greek nobility were more likely to follow the Olympian religion, whereas the peasants were more likely to follow the Dionysiac-Orphic religion. c. Greek men were more likely to follow the Olympian religion, whereas women were more likely to follow the Dionysiac-Orphic religion. d. Greek women were more likely to follow the Olympian religion, whereas men were more likely to follow the Dionysiac-Orphic religion.

6. Which element of the Dionysiac-Orphic religion influenced Judaism and Christianity? a. The idea of the physis b. The idea of orderly, rational gods c. The theory of mind d. The transmigration of the soul 7. Which religion believed in gods that were irascible and amoral and had little concern for humans?

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Chapter 02: The Ancient World a. Olympian b. Animistic c. Anthropomorphic d. Dionysiac-Orphic 8. Which religion taught that the soul longed to return from earthly life to a transcendent and pure existence among the gods? a. Olympian b. Animistic c. Anthropomorphic d. Dionysiac-Orphic 9. Philosophy began: a. to explain how the supernatural controls natural events b. with the introduction of deductive reasoning c. when logos replaced mythos d. with the discovery of the brain as the center of intelligence 10. Who was the first to emphasize natural explanations and to minimize supernatural explanations? a. Heraclitus b. Anaximander c. Thales d. Democritus 11. The early Greek philosophers referred to a substance from which everything else is derived as a(n): a. spirit b. atom c. universal d. physis 12. According to Anaximander, the physis was something that: a. was too complex to explain life b. was incapable of deriving into anything c. had a finite number of possibilities d. had the capability of becoming anything 13. According to Anaximenes, which of the following had primacy? a. Earth b. Air c. Fire d. Water 14. What important epistemological question was raised by Heraclitus’s philosophy? a. What does it mean to me?

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Chapter 02: The Ancient World b. How can something be known if it is constantly changing? c. Why would a man want to step into the same river more than once? d. What constitutes the good life?

15. Parmenides believed that knowledge is attained only through rational thought because sensory experience: a. is a supernatural force b. provides illusion c. is illogical d. is a distracter from the truth 16. In order for an object to pass from point A to point B, it must first traverse half the distance between those two points, and then half of the remaining distance, and so forth. Therefore, A can never logically reach point B. This scenario best illustrates: a. the relativity of truth b. philosophical inconsistency c. a Kuhnian paradigm clash d. Zeno’s paradox 17. Zeno’s paradox led Zeno to conclude that: a. either logic, mathematics, and reason were correct or the senses were correct b. it is impossible to know the truth of any matter except through divine revelation c. the mind’s innate ideas can never be contradicted by sensory information d. more complex ideas are made of a sort of mental physis that can be depleted 18. Pythagoras and his followers applied which of the following to almost every aspect of human existence? a. Inductive reasoning b. Mathematical principles c. Religious teachings d. Their answer to the mind-body problem 19. Who proposed what might have been the first psychophysical law, relating physical events to psychological ones? a. Pythagoras b. Parmenides c. Zeno d. Heraclitus 20. Pythagoreans believed that good health resulted from: a. living according to societal rules b. the favor of the gods c. harmonious workings of the body d. simple, random chance 21. Which aspect of Empedocles’s philosophy might be used to explain the types of intrapersonal and extrapersonal conflicts described later in history by Freud? a. The transmigration of the soul Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 02: The Ancient World b. The forces of love and strife that wax and wane within us c. The elements of earth, fire, air, and water d. The clashes of atoms 22. Empedocles assumed that perception results when: a. vibrations from external objects stimulate sense receptors b. sensory information is analyzed by the brain c. eidola enter the pores of the body and mix with elements found in the blood d. sensations interact with memories of prior experiences 23. No matter how complex something is, Democritus believed that it can be explained in terms of atoms and their activity. This view is referred to as: a. solipsism b. animism c. elementism d. material cause 24. Because Democritus attempted to explain events occurring in one domain (observable phenomena) in terms of events occurring in another domain (the arrangements of atoms), he is considered a(n): a. elementist b. reductionist c. physicist d. Orphist 25. For Democritus, perception occurred when atoms emanating from the surface of objects entered the: a. pores of the body and were transmitted to the heart b. sensory systems of the body and were transmitted to the brain c. pores of the body and were transmitted to the liver d. sensory systems of the body and were transmitted to the heart 26. The early physician Alcmaeon proposed: a. that health resulted from a balance of qualities in the body b. the physician’s job was to help the patient focus energy on the mind c. that sensation, memory, thinking, and understanding occurred in the heart d. mental acuity was achieved when our physical state disconnects from our mental state 27. The Hippocratics believed that physical illness was caused by: a. possession by evil spirits b. a life characterized by hedonism c. an imbalance of the four bodily humors d. the patient’s inner desire to be ill 28. According to the Hippocratics, physicians assign supernatural causes to a disease in order to: a. charge larger fees for their services b. make the disease more comprehensible to their patient Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 02: The Ancient World c. mask their ignorance concerning the nature of the disease d. cure the disease more effectively 29. The “cures” proposed by the Hippocratics included: a. fervent prayer and supplication to the Gods b. traveling to special holy sites c. rest, proper diet, exercise, fresh air, massage, and baths d. putting their essence in connection with the essence of the Gods 30. Who associated the four humors with temperament? a. Hippocrates b. Maimonides c. Galen d. Avicenna 31. According to the Sophists, what is it that determines if an idea is accepted as the truth? a. The truthfulness of the idea b. How effectively the idea is communicated c. The scientific evidence offered to support the idea d. The idea’s usefulness 32. Protagoras, the best-known Sophist, presented the Sophist’s position. Which of the following statements best represents his position? a. Truth depends on the physical reality, not on the perceiver. b. What is truth should not be affected by the culture one lives in. c. Perceptions vary from person to person because previous experiences affect perceptions. d. Perceptions are similar from person to person because we all share a similar reality.

33. Sophists exemplify which of the following when they assert that the self can be aware of nothing but its own experiences and mental states? a. Solipsism b. Reactionism c. Dualism d. Reductionism 34. Which statement best represents the beliefs of Gorgias? a. If animals could describe their gods, those gods would have animal characteristics. b. There is no objective way of determining truth. c. We share a reality and a similar perception of reality. d. Empirical evidence is the determinant of truth.

35. Xenophanes believed that: a. religious and moral “truths” are innate b. if animals could convey their impression of gods, those gods would have animal characteristics c. using the techniques of inductive definition, objective truth can be ascertained Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 02: The Ancient World d. the only way to arrive at truth is to introspect on the contents of the soul 36. Xenophanes believed that religion is: a. a relativistic human invention b. essential for society to prosper c. a matter or eternal truth d. valid if divinely revealed 37. Which method did Socrates use to determine what all examples of a concept such as beauty have in common? a. Sophistry b. Inductive definition c. Introspection d. Logical deduction 38. For Socrates, essences were: a. impossible to determine b. something’s basic nature c. transcendental truths d. unimportant 39. For Socrates, the goal of life was to: a. experience pleasure b. refine the soul c. gain knowledge d. help others 40. Plato’s theory of forms is best represented by the statement: The cats that we see are: a. superior copies of an abstract incomplete form of “catness” b. inferior copies of an abstract pure idea of “catness” c. manifestations of our sensory processes but in actuality we cannot know if they exist d. concrete forms born of our sensory processes, proving their existence 41. Who had a huge influence on Plato’s thinking in different stages of his life? a. Heraclitus and the Epicureans b. Aristotle and the Scholastics c. Socrates and the Pythagoreans d. Gorgias and the Cynics 42. The allegory of the cave demonstrates: a. how difficult it is to deliver humans from ignorance b. there is no objective truth c. that most humans have a passionate desire to know the truth d. that learning is remembering

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Chapter 02: The Ancient World 43. Plato’s analogy of the divided line illustrates: a. the influences of the soul b. an existence in the shadows of reality c. the need for sensory experience d. a hierarchy of understanding 44. According to Plato’s reminiscence theory of knowledge, all knowledge is: a. personal opinion b. innate c. derived from sensory experience d. culturally determined 45. According to Plato, whether one is a philosopher-king, a soldier, or a slave is largely determined by: a. personal effort b. educational experience c. the social influence of one’s parents d. biological inheritance 46. Plato believed that the ideal society would be governed by: a. the gods b. common people c. philosopher-kings d. soldiers 47. According to Plato, the supreme goal in life should be to: a. give all components of the soul equal expression b. return to the world beyond the world c. be courageous in the face of danger d. free the soul as much as possible from the adulterations of the flesh 48. According to Aristotle, the particular form or pattern of an object is its: a. material cause b. formal cause c. efficient cause d. final cause 49. According to Aristotle, the energy of the baker who creates a magnificent wedding cake is the: a. material cause of the cake b. formal cause of the cake c. efficient cause of the cake d. final cause of the cake 50. If the reason a bicycle is created is to transport a person from point A to point B, then the purpose of the bicycle is its: a. material cause Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 02: The Ancient World b. formal cause c. efficient cause d. final cause 51. According to Aristotle, which of the following kept an object moving or developing in its prescribed direction until its full potential was reached? a. Entelechy b. Instincts c. Form of the good d. Rational mind 52. Because Aristotle assumed that everything in nature exists for a purpose, his theory is labeled: a. religious b. empirical c. teleological d. nativistic 53. According to Aristotle, we perceive environmental objects because: a. tiny copies of them enter the pores of the body b. their movement influences a medium, which in turn stimulates one or more of the five senses c. their eidola go through one or more of the five senses and then to the heart d. their eidola go through one or more of the five senses and then to the brain 54. Aristotle postulated which of the following as the mechanism that coordinates information from the five senses? a. The mind b. The soul c. The entelechy d. Common sense 55. For Aristotle, sensory experience: a. is the only thing necessary for attaining knowledge b. is unnecessary for attaining knowledge c. is necessary but not sufficient for attaining knowledge d. inhibits the attainment of knowledge 56. According to Aristotle, the unmoved mover: a. is God b. is nature c. sets nature in motion and does little else d. has distinctly human qualities 57. According to Aristotle, which of the following is a spontaneous recollection of something that had been previously experienced? a. Recall b. Remembering Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 02: The Ancient World c. Reminiscence d. Association 58. According to Aristotle, which of the following involves an actual mental search for a past experience? a. Remembering b. Recall c. Reminiscence d. Association 59. Which law states that if we think of something, we will also tend to recall the things we experienced along with it? a. Similarity b. Frequency c. Contrast d. Contiguity 60. What aspect of Aristotle’s philosophy became the cornerstone of most modern theories of learning? a. The reminiscence theory of knowledge b. The laws of association c. The notion of common sense d. The assumption that the souls of the living organisms are arranged in a hierarchy 61. According to Aristotle, which of the following is explained as the lingering effects of sensory experience? a. Common sense b. Imagination c. Scala naturae d. Entelechy

62. Why were the early Greek philosophers important to the field of psychology?

63. Describe the relationship between the four humors and physical health and the relationship between the four humors and temperament.

64. Describe the Socratic search for the essence of things.

65. What was the basic difference between Plato and Aristotle?

66. Describe Aristotle’s three types of souls and the kinds of attributes living things with each type of soul possess.

67. Describe the allegory of the cave.

68. What are Aristotle’s four elements of causation?

69. Discuss Aristotle’s work on perception and reason.

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Chapter 02: The Ancient World Answer Key 1. b 2. b 3. a 4. a 5. b 6. d 7. a 8. a 9. c 10. c 11. d 12. d 13. b 14. b 15. b 16. d 17. a 18. b 19. a 20. c 21. b 22. c 23. c 24. b 25. b Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 02: The Ancient World 26. a 27. c 28. c 29. c 30. c 31. b 32. c 33. c 34. b 35. b 36. a 37. b 38. b 39. c 40. b 41. c 42. a 43. d 44. b 45. d 46. c 47. d 48. b 49. c 50. d 51. a Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 02: The Ancient World 52. c 53. b 54. d 55. c 56. c 57. b 58. b 59. d 60. b 61. b 62. According to Popper, science began when humans first began to question the stories they were told about themselves and the world. The tradition of critically discussing issues, especially with Thales’s encouragement of criticism, opened up the possibility that our scientific inquiry would never have an end, but would always be capable of improvement.

63. The Hippocratics agreed with Empedocles that everything is made from four elements—earth, air, fire, and water— and that humans, too, are made up of these elements. However, the Hippocratics also associated the four elements with four humors in the body. They associated earth with black bile, air with yellow bile, fire with blood, and water with phlegm. Individuals for whom the humors are properly balanced are healthy; an imbalance among the humors results in illness.

About 500 years after Hippocrates, Galen (ca. A.D. 130–200) associated the four humors of the body with four temperaments. Galen’s extension of Hippocrates’s views created a rudimentary theory of personality, as well as a way of diagnosing illness that was to dominate medicine for the next fifteen centuries. In fact, within the realm of personality theory, Galen’s ideas continue to be influential.

64. What Socrates sought was the essence of such things as beauty, justice, and truth. The essence of something is its basic nature—its identifying, enduring characteristics. To truly know something, according to Socrates, is to understand its essence. It is not enough to identify something as beautiful; one must know why it is beautiful. One must know what all instances of beauty have in common; one must know the essence of beauty.

65. While both Plato and Aristotle were interested in essences, they went about discovering those essences very differently. For Plato, essences corresponded to forms that existed independently of nature and could only be arrived at through introspection. For Aristotle, essences could best be known by studying nature.

66. According to Aristotle, the three types of souls are vegetative, sensitive, and rational. The vegetative soul is possessed by plants and allows only for growth, assimilation of food, and reproduction. The sensitive soul is possessed by nonhuman animals. It allows for everything the vegetative soul can do and in addition can sense and respond to the environment, experience pleasure and pain, and have a memory. The rational soul is possessed by humans alone. It allows for everything the sensitive soul can do and in addition allows thinking or rational thought.

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Chapter 02: The Ancient World 67. In the allegory of the cave, Plato describes fictitious prisoners who have lived their entire lives in the depths of a cave.

The prisoners are chained such that they can look only forward. Behind them is a path over which individuals pass, carrying a variety of objects. Behind the path a fire is blazing, causing a projection of shadows of the travelers and the objects onto the wall in front of the prisoners. For the prisoners, the projected shadows constitute their reality as it is all they can see. This corresponds to the lowest form of understanding in the divided line. Plato then describes what might happen if one of the prisoners were to escape his bondage and leave the cave. Turning toward the fire would cause his eyes to ache, and he might decide to return to his world of shadows. If not, he would eventually adjust to the flames and see the actual individuals and objects of which he had previously seen only shadows. This represents an understanding of empirical events. The fire is like the sun, which illuminates those events. Plato then asks us to suppose that the prisoner continues his escape and leaves the cave. Once in the “upper world,” the prisoner would be blinded by true reality. Only after a period of adjustment could he see things in this world and recognize that they were more real than the shadows that he had experienced in the cave. Finally, Plato asks us to imagine what might happen to the escaped prisoner if he went back into the cave to enlighten his fellow prisoners. Still partially blinded by such an illuminating experience, the prisoner would find it difficult to readjust to the previous life of shadows. He would make mistakes in describing the shadows and in predicting which objects would follow which. This would be evidence enough for his fellow prisoners that no good could come from leaving the world of shadows.

68. Material cause is the kind of matter of which a thing is made. For example, a statue is made of marble. Formal cause is the particular form, or pattern, of a thing. For example, a given marble statue may be in the form of Aphrodite. Efficient cause is the force that transforms the material thing into a certain form—for example, the energy of a sculptor. Final cause is the purpose for which a thing exists. In the case of a statue of Aphrodite, the purpose may be to arouse pleasure in those who view it. The final cause is that for the sake of which something exists.

69. Aristotle studied sensation and perception. He thought that perception was explained by the motion of objects that stimulate one of the senses. The movement of environmental objects creates movements through different media, and each of the senses is maximally sensitive to movements in a certain medium. For example, seeing results from the movement of light caused by an object in relation to the sensory abilities of the eye. In this way, Aristotle explained how we could actually sense environmental objects without those objects sending off physical copies of themselves.

Aristotle studied reason and the acquisition of knowledge. Aristotle postulated common sense as the mechanism that coordinated the information from all the senses. The common sense, like all other mental functions, was assumed to be located in the heart. The job of common sense is to integrate and synthesize sensory experience, thereby making it more meaningful. However, sensory information, even after synthesized by common sense, could provide information only about particular instances of things. Passive reason involves the utilization of synthesized experience for getting along effectively in everyday life, but it does not result in an understanding of essences, or first principles. The abstraction of first principles from one’s many experiences can only be accomplished by active reason, which Aristotle considers the highest form of thinking.

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Chapter 03: Rome and the Middle Ages

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. Both Skepticism and Cynicism: a. were critical of other philosophies b. encouraged people not to believe anything c. promoted a retreat from society d. encouraged people to build strong morals 2. The main target of skepticism was dogmatism. A dogmatist is anyone who: a. equates essences with verbal definitions b. confuses names with real things c. claims to have arrived at an indisputable truth d. lives a life of excess instead of moderation 3. Who is usually considered the founder of Skepticism? a. Avicenna b. Pyrrho c. Epicurus d. Maimonides 4. The Skeptics suggested that one could avoid the frustration of being wrong by: a. arriving at one’s beliefs very carefully b. believing only in ideas held by the majority of people c. following one’s own natural impulses d. not believing in anything 5. What did the Skeptics use as their guide(s) for living? a. Philosophical truth and appearances b. Philosophical truth and convention c. Cognitions and philosophical truth d. Appearances and convention 6.

Which statement is most consistent with a Cynic’s point of view? a. People need rules and regulations by which to live their lives. b. Anything natural is good. c. Courage in the face of adversity is the highest virtue. d. The only things worth living for are patriotism, sacrifices for others, and devotion to a common cause.

7. Who was given the nickname “Cynic” and lived a self-sufficient, publicly outrageous life? a. Antisthenes b. Gorgias c. Diogenes d. Epicurus 8. Who preferred naturalistic explanations to supernatural ones and earned the title “Destroyer of Religion”?

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Chapter 03: Rome and the Middle Ages a. Antisthenes b. Gorgias c. Diogenes d. Epicurus 9. Hedonism, according to Epicurus, is: a. pleasure in having one’s basic needs satisfied and avoiding pain b. avoiding pain at all costs c. seeking extreme pleasure d. attaining a relationship with a higher power 10. What did the Stoics consider to be the highest virtue? a. The enjoyment of a simple life b. The ability to withdraw from society c. Courage in the face of danger d. Kindness despite adversity 11. For the Stoics, the basic moral choice a person makes is: a. to act or not to act in accordance with nature’s plan b. to live or not to live in accordance with the principle of free will c. to seek pleasure or to avoid pain d. to follow one’s personal impulses or to conform to society’s values 12. Neoplatonism is a philosophy that emphasized the most: a. empirical aspects of Plato’s philosophy b. empathetic aspects of Plato’s philosophy c. rational aspects of Plato’s philosophy d. mystical aspects of Plato’s philosophy 13. According to Philo, the way to true knowledge is by: a. introspection of the innate truth b. a purified, passive mind receiving divine illumination c. engaging in active reason d. combining empirical observation with rational deliberation 14. Turning away from the empirical world and entering a union with the eternal things that dwell beyond the world of the flesh was characteristic of the good life for: a. Zeno of Citium b. Epicurus c. Diogenes d. Plotinus 15. The religion in which individuals are caught in an eternal struggle between wisdom and correctness as well as ignorance and evil is called: a. Vedantism Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 03: Rome and the Middle Ages b. mystery religions c. Zoroastrianism d. cult of Mithras 16. The religion that teaches perfection can be approximated by entering into semi-trances is: a. Vedantism b. mystery religions c. Zoroastrianism d. cult of Mithras 17. Early Christianity was strongly influenced by the: a. Ancient Greek religions b. mystery religions c. animist religions d. Ancient Egyptian religions 18. According to the text, Jesus can be best thought of as a(n): a. philosopher with a focus on God b. empathetic ruler c. complex man with multifaceted goals d. simple man with focused goals 19. Which of the following did St. Paul add to the Judaic tradition? a. One God created the universe. b. God is omniscient, omnipresent, and omnipotent. c. Hymans fell from a state of grace in the Garden of Eden. d. God sacrificed his son to atone for our shared transgressions.

20. The fact that St. Paul valued which of the following would have been abhorrent to most Greek philosophers? a. Faith above reason b. Reason above faith c. Intuition above empirical observation d. Epicureanism above Stoicism 21. For St. Paul, the most sinful pleasure was: a. sexual pleasure b. gluttony c. greed d. wrath 22. Early Christians were viewed by Romans as: a. quirky deviants b. odd but harmless c. spiritual usurpers Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 03: Rome and the Middle Ages d. nonconformist atheists 23. Largely due to this man’s efforts, Christianity was defined by a single set of beliefs and documents. a. Constantine b. St. Augustine c. Thomas Aquinas d. St. Paul 24. The purpose of Constantine’s Edict was to: a. establish Christianity as the official religion b. promote religious tolerance c. appoint himself as the first pope d. declare war on Christianity 25. St. Jerome was very concerned about the influence of: a. secular law on society’s morals b. pagan writings on Christians c. faith on scientific reason d. government on religion 26. According to St. Augustine, evil exists because: a. God created it to test the faith of humans b. humans choose it c. at times, the devil is more powerful than God d. humans are basically animals 27. St. Augustine believed that: a. people should feel guilty about their sins throughout their lives b. people could be forgiven for sin through confession c. acts such as extramarital relations and stealing were not actually sins d. it was not possible for humans to sin 28. According to St. Augustine: a. there is no true good in the world b. there is no evil in the world c. people are destined to be good or evil d. people are free to choose between good and evil 29. For St. Augustine, the primary goal of human existence is to: a. seek pleasure and avoid pain b. accept one’s fate c. enter into a personal, emotional union with God d. engage in active reason

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Chapter 03: Rome and the Middle Ages 30. According to St. Augustine, humans can have conceptions of the past and future because: a. we are made in God’s image b. we live in the eternal present c. of the remnants of sensory experiences d. man is the measure of all things 31. Where was Aristotle’s philosophy highly influential during the so-called Dark Ages? a. The Western world b. The Roman Empire c. The Islamic world d. Alexandria 32. In analyzing human thinking, Avicenna started with five external senses then postulated: a. three rational states b. seven internal senses c. four senses that bridge internal and external experience d. the active intellect 33. According to Avicenna, the active intellect was: a. the mechanism by which humans enter into a relationship with God b. essentially as Aristotle had described it c. less important than common sense d. nonexistent except as an allegory 34. Which of the following is true of Averroës’s philosophy? a. It was basically Aristotelian. b. It was basically Platonistic. c. It denied the existence of a soul. d. It was supported by many Christians.

35. Who discovered that the retina, not the lens, is the light-sensitive part of the eye and that inoculation might prevent disease? a. Avicenna b. Averroës c. Maimonides d. St. Anselm 36. Who sought to reconcile Judaism and Aristotelian philosophy? a. Avicenna b. Averroës c. St. Anselm d. Maimonides 37. Who proposed an explanation for psychosomatic disorders based on the relationship between ethical living and mental health?

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Chapter 03: Rome and the Middle Ages a. Avicenna b. Averroës c. St. Anselm d. Maimonides 38. During the Middle Ages in Europe, the Roman Catholic Church: a. was largely irrelevant b. was beginning to establish a foothold c. was a minority faith d. wielded tremendous power 39. Maimonides attempted to show that many verses in the Old Testament and Talmud: a. could be understood rationally and need not be accepted by faith alone b. had to be accepted by faith alone, or the faith would be brittle c. were a matter of divine revelation and not subject to human understanding d. were based on tribal traditions and not relevant in the Middle Ages 40. Who was responsible for the ontological argument for the existence of God? a. St. Augustine b. St. Anselm c. Lombard d. Abelard 41. The major assumption made in the ontological argument for the existence of God is that: a. one can find God by studying nature b. faith and reason are essentially the same process c. if one can think of something, it must exist d. the Aristotelian conception of God is the only correct conception of God 42. Which statement would Peter Lombard most likely agree with? a. There is no place for pagan philosophy in religion. b. Faith alone can bring one closer to understanding God. c. The use of reason interferes with faith. d. One can learn about God by studying the empirical world.

43. The attempt to synthesize Aristotelian philosophy and Christian theology is referred to as: a. Neoplatonism b. Averroism c. Scholasticism d. Paganism 44. To remove inconsistencies in church dogma, Abelard used: a. the direct examination of nature b. a careful study of the Bible Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 03: Rome and the Middle Ages c. the dialectic method d. the acceptance of Aristotle’s philosophy 45. Who believed that so-called universals were nothing more than convenient verbal labels? a. Nominalists b. Realists c. Rationalists d. Nativists 46. The belief that abstract universals (essences) exist and that empirical events are only manifestations of those universals is called: a. reification b. conceptualism c. nominalism d. realism 47. Abelard’s proposed compromise between nominalism (concepts summarize individual experience) and realism (once concepts are formed, they exist apart from individual experience), is called: a. conceptualism b. scholasticism c. the ontological argument d. the dialectic 48. Who was one of the first Western philosophers to make a comprehensive review of both Aristotle’s works and the Islamic and Jewish scholars’ interpretations of them? a. St. Anselm b. Lombard c. Abelard d. Magnus 49. Once Aristotle’s ideas were assimilated into church dogma, they were: a. less important b. no longer challengeable c. completely understood d. considered supernatural 50. Why did Aristotle’s work put the church in a difficult position? a. It supported only one Christian sect. b. It focused on the supernatural. c. It emphasized reason. d. It reinforced Plato’s philosophy.

51. What was a goal of St. Thomas Aquinas? a. To convert a large number of Aristotelians to Christianity b. To demonstrate that Christianity existed in accordance with other religions Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 03: Rome and the Middle Ages c. To apply the scientific method in solving theological problems d. To strengthen the position of the church through reason 52. According to Aquinas, predestination maintains that: a. God has preordained which people will be granted salvation b. good deeds can bring one closer to salvation c. salvation will come if one accepts Jesus as the son of God d. sin must precede repentance and salvation 53. Which of the following was true of Aquinas’s theology? a. It united faith and reason. b. It deplored the study of nature. c. It demonstrated that church dogma was debatable. d. It argued that the Christian church should be as it had been described by St. Augustine.

54. William of Occam sided on the side of nominalists, arguing that: a. individual empirical experiences were only manifestations of universal principles b. it was vital to assume that universals had an independent existence c. so-called universals were nothing more than verbal labels d. there are pure ideas that exist beyond our experiences 55. The belief that extraneous assumptions should be eliminated from explanations is called: a. Scholasticism b. Occam’s razor c. nominalism d. realism 56. Occam’s views were widely taught and can be viewed as the beginning of: a. Cynicism b. Stoicism c. Scholasticism d. empirical philosophy 57. During the period before the Renaissance, which of the following was true? a. Astrology was met with great skepticism. b. Superstition influenced most everyone from peasants to kings and the clergy. c. People were classified into three groups: believers, nonbelievers, or questioners. d. Scientific inquiry and reason were encouraged.

58. Which statement best reflects Kuhn’s views of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries? a. There was a complete shift from a Christian paradigm to a scientific paradigm. b. Anomalies began to arise with the Christian paradigm. c. The scientific paradigm coexisted with the Christian paradigm. d. The scientific paradigm began to lose momentum because of the strength of the Christian paradigm.

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Chapter 03: Rome and the Middle Ages

59. Compare and contrast Skepticism and Cynicism.

60. What did the Epicureans believe?

61. What did the Stoics believe?

62. Describe the impact that Constantine had on Christianity.

63. Describe the contributions of Avicenna.

64. Describe the contributions of Maimonides.

65. What effects did St. Thomas Aquinas’s work have?

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Chapter 03: Rome and the Middle Ages Answer Key 1. a 2. c 3. b 4. d 5. d 6. b 7. c 8. d 9. a 10. c 11. a 12. d 13. b 14. d 15. c 16. a 17. b 18. d 19. d 20. a 21. a 22. d 23. a 24. b 25. b Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 03: Rome and the Middle Ages 26. b 27. b 28. d 29. c 30. c 31. c 32. b 33. a 34. a 35. b 36. d 37. d 38. d 39. d 40. b 41. c 42. d 43. c 44. c 45. a 46. d 47. a 48. d 49. b 50. c 51. d Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 03: Rome and the Middle Ages 52. a 53. c 54. c 55. b 56. d 57. b 58. b 59. Both Skepticism and Cynicism were critical of other philosophies, contending that they were either completely false or irrelevant to human needs. However, the two schools differ in their solution to this problem. Skepticism promoted believing in nothing, and Cynicism promoted a retreat from society.

60. Epicurus asserted that the atoms that make up humans never lost their ability to move freely and thus posited free will for humans. The nature of atoms and atomic activity give humans their free will, not a soul. In this way, Epicurus answered the question of an afterlife—the atoms that make humans are never created or destroyed, only rearranged.

Epicureans preferred naturalistic explanations compared to supernatural ones and strongly protested against magic, astrology, and divination. They lived simple lives and avoided intense pleasure because uncommon pleasures would make common ones less pleasurable by comparison. Thus, the pleasure seeking of Epicureanism was associated with the pleasure of having one’s basic needs satisfied simply. The goal of life was individual, long-term happiness that could be achieved only by avoiding extremes.

61. Stoics believed that the world was ruled by a divine plan and that everything in nature, including humans, was there for a reason. They believed that living in accordance with nature was the ultimate virtue, and that whatever happens, happens for a reason. There are no accidents. Everything must be accepted as a part of “the plan.” To live a good life, one must accept one’s fate with indifference, even if the fate involves suffering.

62. Constantine had a major impact on Christianity. For example, he signed an edict making Christianity an accepted religion (although Theodosius made Christianity the official religion decades later), he convened the Nicaean council to decide the official version of Christianity and to decide which Gospels would be included in the Bible (although the Constantine Bible is lost to history). As a result of his efforts, Christianity became an established and popular religion.

63. Avicenna was a physician/philosopher who wrote many books on various topics including medicine, mathematics, logic and metaphysics, Islamic theology, astronomy, politics, and linguistics. He proposed a hierarchy of intelligence, discovered the role of the retina in vision, and observed that those who had smallpox would not get it again, suggesting the possibility of immunization.

64. Maimonides was a physician who considered the relationship between mental health and ethical living, specifically addressing personality development and psychosomatic disorders. He sought to show how many passages in the Torah and the Talmud could be understood logically. For example, he argued that Jewish dietary laws were simply what a good physician would recommend.

65. The work of St. Thomas Aquinas had several effects: (1) It divided reason and faith, making it possible to study them separately; (2) it made the study of nature respectable; and (3) it showed the world that argument over church dogma was possible. His work also inadvertently weakened the position of the church by promoting reason.

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Chapter 03: Rome and the Middle Ages

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Chapter 04: Renaissance Science and Philosophy

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. During the Renaissance, Europe gradually switched from being: a. God-centered to being human-centered b. knowledge-centered to being feeling-centered c. individual-centered to being society-centered d. philosophy-centered to being art-centered 2. The term renaissance means: a. rebirth b. reconceptualization c. reform d. redistribution 3. During the Renaissance, Europe moved toward the method of inquiry favored by the ancient: a. Greeks b. Mesoamericans c. Egyptians d. Chinese 4. What two broad events were key factors in the acceptance of the objective study of nature, ultimately weakening the authority of the church? a. Exploration and medicine b. Exploration and printing c. War and medicine d. War and printing 5. European exploration led to challenges to church authority because it produced evidence of: a. the universality of religion b. diverse peoples and cultures c. natural resources that were previously unknown d. opportunities for economic exploitation 6. The invention of the printing press was important in weakening church authority because it led to: a. increases in book prices b. decreases in books in the vernacular c. increases in literacy d. decreases in opportunities for authors 7. Printing facilitated: a. the exchange of ideas b. church authority c. the power of priests d. wealth consolidation Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 04: Renaissance Science and Philosophy 8. How did the Renaissance humanists want religion to change? a. They wanted a wider range of religions to be acceptable in society. b. They wanted religious institutions to have more power in society. c. They wanted science to make religion obsolete for educated people. d. They wanted religion to be more personal and less formal.

9. Which of the following phrases best captures the spirit of Renaissance humanism? a. “We the people have the power to bring great change to the world.” b. “We must treat others with respect, sensitivity, and dignity.” c. “Do not look to the past for answers; we must only look ahead to the future.” d. “We must follow an Aristotelian way of life.”

10. How did Renaissance humanists see Aristotle's philosophy? a. They thought the Church had embraced Aristotle's philosophy too much. b. They thought Aristotle's philosophy was far too underrated by the Church. c. They wanted to revive Aristotle's philosophy in scientific inquiry. d. They considered Aristotle's philosophy to be as authoritative as the Bible.

11. Which philosopher was particularly influential during the Renaissance? a. Democritus b. Hippocrates c. Socrates d. Plato 12. According to Renaissance humanists, the systems derived from Aristotle’s philosophy had become:c a. as important as the teachings of the Bible b. far too liberal in their implications c. largely unimportant is the wake of church dogma d. an outstanding replacement for heathen beliefs 13. According to Renaissance humanists, the rules and regulations derived from Aristotle’s philosophy had become: a. an impediment to a personal relationship with God b. a standard that was too low for good Christians c. gentle suggestions that might be beneficial d. positive ideas to put into practice 14. Petrarch believed in which of the following? a. Life in this world serves the purpose of preparing for life after death. b. Religion should reflect the philosophy described by St. Paul. c. The human spirit should be freed from medieval traditions. d. Scholasticism contained most of the solutions to human problems.

15. Petrarch believed in which of the following? a. a personal religion Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 04: Renaissance Science and Philosophy b. absolute church authority c. spiritual diversity d. Scholasticism 16. Petrarch facilitated the Renaissance explosion in the arts and science by emphasizing: a. Christian supremacy b. personal revelations c. religious dogma d. human potential 17. Pico argued that: a. God had granted humans a unique position in the universe b. humans are not capable of change c. humans do not have freedom to choose from a variety of lifestyles d. individuals with differing viewpoints cannot be tolerated 18. According to Pico, humans are unique in their: a. capacity to change b. perfection c. inability to make choices d. lack of need for religion 19. Pico argued that angels: a. had no need to change b. were ruled by instincts c. could be corrupted d. needed divine guidance 20. According to Erasmus, who is LEAST likely to speak the truth? a. Fools b. Children c. Drunkards d. Philosophers 21. Erasmus claimed that wars were rooted in: a. fanaticism b. greed c. power d. arrogance 22. Who is often described as laying the foundations for the Reformation? a. Petrarch b. Pico c. Ficino Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 04: Renaissance Science and Philosophy d. Erasmus 23. Erasmus was sharply critical of: a. the excesses of Catholicism b. the pride of women c. the wealth of nobles d. the ancient philosophers 24. For Luther, what is the major reason for the downfall of Catholicism? a. Catholicism did not follow the teachings of St. Aquinas closely enough. b. Catholicism did not have enough formal rituals. c. Catholicism assimilated Aristotelian philosophy. d. Catholicism placed too much emphasis on the New Testament.

25. Luther's new religious movement that denied the authority of the pope was called: a. Protestantism b. Reformation c. Puritanism d. Catholicism 26. Early Protestantism: a. put reason before faith b. insisted on accepting the existence of God on faith alone c. raised the level of individual happiness dramatically d. accepted Aristotle's philosophy as dogma 27. A fundamental difference between the views of Erasmus and the views of Luther concerned the: a. practices of the Catholic church b. role of free will in religion c. existence of God d. need for celibacy 28. Luther asserted that people should: a. be forgiven for their sins via penance b. purchase indulgences when they have sinned c. recognize that sins are Satan’s fault, not theirs d. suffer the consequences of their sins 29. Luther disagreed with the Catholic church on: a. compulsory celibacy for priests and nuns b. the existence of Satan c. the truth of the Bible d. the doctrine of original sin

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Chapter 04: Renaissance Science and Philosophy 30. Protestantism insisted on: a. the right of everyone to interpret the Bible for themselves b. the absolute infallibility of Protestant clergy c. the importance of the enjoyment of life d. the need for confession to clergy 31. Among the Renaissance humanists, Skepticism was most clearly demonstrated by: a. Montaigne b. Pico c. Petrarch d. Luther 32. Both Bacon and Descartes sought to develop a system of thought that: a. was compatible with Scripture b. was compatible with classical Greek philosophy c. questioned the authority of the church d. was impervious to the doubts of the Skeptics 33. According to Clements (1967), which Renaissance humanist is correctly paired with their area of great influence? a. Da Vinci and pedagogy b. Machiavelli and medicine c. Vives and psychology d. Shakespeare and science 34. Which of the following was true of the Ptolemaic system? a. It was unable to make accurate astronomical predictions. b. It was unable to make predictions in accordance with the testimony of the senses. c. It was congenial to Christian theology because it gave humans a central place in the universe. d. It was considered a heretical view of the universe because it relied on the senses rather than religious explanations.

35. Who was the astronomer who suggested that the earth revolves around the sun 1700 years before Copernicus? a. Ptolemy b. Aristarchus of Samos c. Aristotle d. Bruno 36. Copernicus argued for: a. Aristotelian theory b. geocentric theory c. heliocentric theory d. Newtonian theory 37. Giordano Bruno would most likely agree with which statement? a. “The earth is the center of the universe.”

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Chapter 04: Renaissance Science and Philosophy b. “The sun is divine.” c. “Science upholds the heliocentric theory.” d. “Man is the sole life force in the universe.”

38. What would Copernicus say is the only justification for accepting his heliocentric theory? a. It makes accurate astronomical predictions. b. It is compatible with church dogma. c. It explains known astrological facts in a simpler, more harmonious, mathematical order. d. It was consistent with the evidence of the senses.

39. Who were among the first to accept Copernicus's heliocentric theory? a. The Scholastics b. The mathematicians who embraced Pythagorean-Platonic philosophy c. The Renaissance humanists d. Those embracing nonmathematical Aristotelian philosophy 40. Although it took some time, perhaps because of its mathematical complexity, the church eventually realized that Copernicus’s heliocentric theory: a. could be used to prove the existence of God b. questioned the traditional place of humankind in the universe c. clearly challenged the infallibility of the papacy d. was consistent with church teachings on creation 41. What factor most influenced Kepler’s acceptance of Copernicus's heliocentric theory? a. Kepler was a Platonist seeking mathematical simplicity and harmony. b. Kepler was a Lutheran minister. c. Kepler believed that the heliocentric theory explained humans as the center of the universe. d. Kepler was a Hermetic.

42. How did Galileo's work cause a major philosophical shift concerning man's place in the world? a. His work caused people to see humans as the center of the universe. b. His work caused people to reaffirm their strong belief in the existence of God. c. His work caused people to consider human experiences as inferior to the natural world. d. His work caused people to focus on inductive reasoning rather than deductive reasoning.

43. In his explanation of physical events, Galileo emphasized: a. forces external to physical events b. natural places c. essences d. purposes 44. Galileo used experiments to do which of the following? a. Demonstrate the existence of God b. Convince Skeptics that scientific laws are useless Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 04: Renaissance Science and Philosophy c. Show the uselessness of metaphysics in science d. Show that essences are important for explanations 45. Galileo can best be described as: a. metaphysical b. nominalist c. Aristotelian d. Platonic 46. According to the work of Galileo, which set best illustrates the concepts of primary quality and secondary quality? a. Primary quality: subjective; secondary quality: objective b. Primary quality: sensation; secondary quality: perception c. Primary quality: size; secondary quality: color d. Primary quality: taste; secondary quality: shape 47. According to Galileo, secondary qualities: a. are superior to primary qualities b. cannot be measured objectively c. can be defined with certainty d. are psychological constructs 48. Galileo was among the first to suggest that: a. the world of appearance was inferior to a perfect abstract world b. a science of psychology (conscious experience) was impossible c. secondary qualities were superior to primary qualities d. human pleasures, passions, and ambitions can be, and should be, studied objectively 49. According to Galileo, which of the following exists independently of anyone’s perception of it? a. Objective reality b. Subjective reality c. Qualitative reality d. Quantitative reality 50. According to Galileo, secondary qualities are a matter of: a. opinion b. fact c. mathematics d. logic 51. According to Galileo, in studying the physical world, secondary qualities are: a. irrelevant b. crucial c. central d. factual Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 04: Renaissance Science and Philosophy 52. Galileo would regard much of what is not included in psychology as: a. impossible to study scientifically b. central to an understanding of the world c. the proper study of medicine d. crucial to proof of the existence of God 53. According to deism: a. God created the universe but thereafter had no involvement with it b. religious revelation is an important source of information concerning the workings of the universe c. the laws governing the universe can never be known because they are based on God’s perceptions d. God does not exist 54. Newton believed that the universe: a. is a machine created by natural forces independent of God b. operates according to principles that humans could discover c. is too complex to be understood by anyone but God d. operates according to principles that cannot be expressed in mathematical terms 55. Newton believed that his work: a. revealed nature's secrets b. proved that there was no God c. showed that the universe was anything but a machine d. showed that a mathematical analysis of the material world was impossible 56. Newton believed that: a. there are no exceptions to natural laws b. Occam's razor should be ignored c. classification is the same as explanation d. natural events can be explained by inherent properties 57. Newton believed that explanations of natural phenomena must be: a. as simple as possible b. mathematically complex c. consistent with church teachings d. understandable to everyone 58. According to Bacon, science should utilize: a. bold theories b. hypotheses c. mathematical analyses d. only the direct observation of nature 59. According to Bacon, accepting a scientific theory: a. acts as an effective guide for scientific research Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 04: Renaissance Science and Philosophy b. is likely to bias one’s observations c. is constructive only if it is nonmathematical d. is constructive only if it yields deductions 60. Later in history, Bacon's approach to science was called: a. romanticism b. positivism c. dialectics d. metaphysical 61. According to Bacon, the personal biases that result from one's own experiences and education constitutes the: a. idols of the cave b. idols of the tribe c. idols of the marketplace d. idols of the theater 62. According to Bacon, the human tendency to see events as they would like them to be constitutes the: a. idols of the cave b. idols of the tribe c. idols of the marketplace d. idols of the theater 63. According to Bacon, blind allegiance to dogma, authority, or tradition constitutes the: a. idols of the cave b. idols of the tribe c. idols of the marketplace d. idols of the theater 64. According to Bacon, the biases that result from being overly influenced by the traditional meanings of words constitutes the: a. idols of the cave b. idols of the tribe c. idols of the marketplace d. idols of the theater 65. Shreya bases her beliefs about why people behave the way they do on her own experiences with people and her gut feelings about why they behave the way they do. This is most consistent with which of Bacon’s idols? a. Idols of the cave b. Idols of the tribe c. Idols of the marketplace d. Idols of the theater 66. Dani bases their beliefs about why people behave the way they do on the religious teachings they were raised with, no matter what the behavior and no matter how tenuous the explanation might seem to others. This is most consistent with which of Bacon’s idols?

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Chapter 04: Renaissance Science and Philosophy a. Idols of the cave b. Idols of the tribe c. Idols of the marketplace d. Idols of the theater 67. Bacon relied primarily on which of the following to develop his theories? a. Induction b. Deduction c. Religious faith d. The writings of great scholars 68. Which famous psychologist later adopted Bacon's approach to science? a. Freud b. Watson c. Skinner d. Pavlov 69. After a painful search, Descartes concluded that the only thing of which he could be certain was: a. that God is a myth b. the mind and the body are a unit c. the fact that he doubted d. the existence of God 70. Descartes concluded that we could trust sensory information because: a. God will not deceive us b. it is always clear and distinct c. it is compatible with innate ideas d. it makes common sense to do so 71. Descartes believed that innate ideas: a. are figments of the imagination b. have a strong biological component c. come from experience d. are revealed by God 72. According to Descartes, when a sense receptor is stimulated, "delicate threads" are pulled and cavities in the brain are opened, thereby releasing which of the following into the nerves? a. Electrical activity b. Animal spirits c. Chemicals d. Eidola 73. Descartes explained all animal behavior and much human behavior in terms of which type of principles? a. Innate Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 04: Renaissance Science and Philosophy b. Mechanical c. Religious d. Rational 74. Which part of the human body did Descartes identify as the house for the mind? a. Heart b. Pineal gland c. Ventricles d. Cerebral cortex 75. Descartes believed that: a. the mind is nonmaterial b. the mind is equated with the brain c. the mind’s existence can be logically demonstrated d. even animals possess a rudimentary mind 76. How did the Church react to Descartes's writings? a. It approved of his theories. b. It was neutral toward his work. c. It burned him at the stake. d. It banned his books.

77. Describe the four major themes that characterized Renaissance humanism.

78. How did Baconian science differ from Galilean science?

79. Describe Descartes's contributions to the field of psychology, including the specific subfields that his work has influenced.

80. Why did Erasmus believe fools were better off than scholars?

81. Summarize the positive and negative aspects of early Protestantism.

82. What did Montaigne believe about humans and human nature?

83. Why was Copernicus’s theory a problem for the church?

84. What did Kepler learn about vision and perception in general?

85. What were Galileo’s views on objective and subjective reality?

86. Identify three principles of Newtonian science.

87. Describe Bacon’s four idols.

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Chapter 04: Renaissance Science and Philosophy Answer Key 1. a 2. a 3. a 4. b 5. b 6. c 7. b 8. d 9. a 10. a 11. d 12. a 13. a 14. c 15. a 16. d 17. a 18. a 19. a 20. d 21. a 22. d 23. a 24. c 25. a Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 04: Renaissance Science and Philosophy 26. b 27. b 28. d 29. a 30. a 31. a 32. d 33. c 34. c 35. b 36. c 37. b 38. c 39. b 40. b 41. a 42. c 43. a 44. c 45. d 46. c 47. b 48. b 49. a 50. a 51. a Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 04: Renaissance Science and Philosophy 52. a 53. a 54. b 55. a 56. a 57. a 58. d 59. b 60. b 61. a 62. b 63. d 64. c 65. a 66. d 67. a 68. c 69. c 70. a 71. d 72. b 73. b 74. b 75. a 76. d Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 04: Renaissance Science and Philosophy 77. The four themes of Renaissance humanism are individualism, personal religion, intense interest in the past, and antiAristotelianism. Individualism refers to the concern with human potential and achievement and the belief that individuals could make a positive difference in the world. Personal religion refers to the desire for religion to be personally experienced rather than a formal and ritualistic entity that was imposed on people by the church hierarchy. Intense interest in the past refers to the humanists' desire to revisit the works of early Greek and Roman poets, philosophers, and politicians, with the aim of reading the writers' own words rather than official interpretations of their work. AntiAristotelianism refers to the belief that Aristotle's philosophy had been too deeply interwoven into church dogma.

78. Galileo relied on deduction and mathematics to create theories. In contrast, Bacon thought science should rely on induction based solely on observation. Bacon mistrusted mathematics because of its emphasis on symbols, and he thought that if a scientist approached observation with a theory in mind, that theory would bias the scientist's observations (the scientist would tend to see nature in light of their preconceived notions).

79. Descartes made many contributions to the field of psychology; for example, stimulus-response and behavioristic psychology stemmed from his mechanistic analysis of reflexive behavior, modern empiricism and modern sensationalism were formed as reactions to his notion of innate ideas, physiological and comparative psychology stem from his method of investigating animal bodies in order to learn more about human bodies, the study of consciousness stems from the fact that he made the study of purely subjective experience respectable again, and phenomenology was influenced by his use of introspection to find clear and distinct ideas.

80. He made the case that fools are better off than so-called wise persons because fools live in accordance with their true feelings instead of religious or philosophical doctrines. Fools, he said, are also happier because they do not fear death; they are not tormented by guilt; they do not fear ghosts, spirits, and goblins; and they are not concerned about the future.

Also, like nonhuman animals, drunkards, and young children, fools are spontaneous and speak the truth.

81. Early Protestantism had at least two negative aspects. First, as a religion, it was austere, harsh, and unforgiving. In terms of individual happiness, it is difficult to imagine its adherents being any better off than those embracing Catholicism. Second, Protestantism insisted on accepting the existence of God on faith alone; attempting to understand him through reason or empirical observations was to be avoided. Thus, if one believed that the acceptance of reason and the observation of nature as ways of knowing God exemplified progress, then Protestantism exemplified regression. On the other hand, however, Protestantism was a liberating influence in the sense that it challenged the long-established authority of the Catholic church and of Aristotle as dogma; replacing them was the belief that individual feelings can provide the only truth needed in living one’s life.

82. In sharp contrast to most earlier Renaissance humanists, Montaigne did not glorify human nature, nor did he believe humans to be superior to other animals (in this he was in agreement with Erasmus). In fact, he argued that it was human rationality that caused most human problems (such as the holy wars) and that because nonhuman animals lack rational powers, they are superior to humans. He analyzed the most famous philosophical doctrines, pointed out the contradictions within and among them, and showed them to be open to multiple interpretations.

83. In De Revolutionibus, Copernicus argued successfully that, rather than the sun revolving around the earth (the geocentric theory), the earth revolved around the sun (the heliocentric theory). This argument, of course, was a clear contradiction of church dogma. Only gradually was it realized that Copernicus’s heliocentric theory questioned the traditional place of humankind in the universe. Once this realization occurred, a number of related questions followed: Were we not favored by God and therefore placed in the center of the universe? If not, why not? If the church was wrong about this vital fact, was it also wrong about other things? Were there other solar systems that contained life? If so, how were they related to ours, and which did God favor?

84. Kepler studied vision directly and found that environmental objects project an inverted image onto the retina. This observation contrasted with earlier theories that explained vision as the result of the projection of exact copies of objects directly into the sense receptors. Kepler also questioned humans’ ability to perceive things correctly when the image Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 04: Renaissance Science and Philosophy projected onto the retina is upside down, but he left that problem for others to solve.

85. Galileo made a sharp distinction between objective and subjective reality. Objective reality exists independently of anyone’s perception of it, and its attributes are what later in history were called primary qualities. Primary qualities are absolute, objective, immutable, and capable of precise mathematical description. They include quantity, shape, size, position, and motion or rest. Besides the primary qualities (which constitute physical reality), another type of reality is created by the sensing organism; this reality consists of what came to be called secondary qualities. Secondary qualities (which constitute subjective reality) are purely psychological experiences and have no counterparts in the physical world.

Examples of secondary qualities include the experiences of color, sound, temperature, smell, and taste. According to Galileo, secondary qualities are relative, subjective, and fluctuating. Of primary qualities (like Plato’s forms), we can have true knowledge; of secondary qualities, there is only opinion and appearance.

86.86.  

  

Although God is the creator of the world, he does not actively intervene in the events of the world (deism). It is therefore inappropriate to invoke his will as an explanation of any particular thing or event in the material world.

The material world is governed by natural laws, and there are no exceptions to these laws.

There is no place for purpose in natural law, and therefore Aristotle’s final causes must be rejected. In other words, natural events can never be explained by postulating properties inherent in them. Bodies fall, for example, not because of an inherent tendency to fall but because of various forces acting on them. That is, as a Newtonian scientist, one must not invoke teleological explanations.

Occam’s razor is to be accepted. Explanations must always be as simple as possible.

Natural laws are absolute, but at any given time our understanding is imperfect. Therefore, scientists often need to settle for probabilities rather than certainty. This is because of human ignorance, not because of any variance in natural laws.

Classification is not explanation.

87.87.   



The idols of the cave are personal biases that arise from a person’s intellectual endowment, experiences, education, and feelings.

The idols of the tribe are biases due to human nature. All humans have in common the abilities to imagine, to will, and to hope, and these human attributes can and usually do distort perceptions.

The idols of the marketplace are biases that result from being overly influenced by the meaning assigned to words. Verbal labels and descriptions can influence one’s understanding of the world and distort one’s observations of it. Bacon believed that many philosophical disputes were over the definitions of words rather than over the nature of reality.

The idols of the theater are biases that result from blind allegiance to any viewpoint, whether it be philosophical or theological.

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Chapter 05: Empiricism, Sensationalism, and Positivism

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. What was true of the British empiricists? a. They attempted to explain the functioning of the mind according to Newton’s principles. b. They rectified the existence of divine intervention with sensory experience. c. They believed that sensory experience distorted the truth. d. They denied the existence of mental events.

2. After visiting with Galileo, Hobbes became convinced that: a. humans could not simply be described as machines b. humans could be completely understood employing only the concepts of matter and motion c. expressing one's true beliefs could be very dangerous d. Descartes was correct about the innateness of ideas in the universe 3. Hobbes's approach to studying humans was: a. inductive b. Baconian c. deductive d. metaphysical 4. How did Hobbes feel about democracy? a. He thought it was too time consuming. b. He thought it was dangerous. c. He thought it was best for small tribes. d. He thought it was the only way for people to live.

5. With regard to the mind-body relationship, Hobbes denied the existence of a nonmaterial mind; therefore, he was a(n): a. interactionist b. epiphenomenalist c. psychophysical parallelist d. physical monist 6. Hobbes's theory of human motivation was: a. teleological b. based on the assumption that innate ideas exist c. called physical monism d. hedonistic 7. Hobbes believed that people: a. have some limited amount of free will b. do not have free will c. have free will, but animals do not d. make choices based on appetites and aversions 8. Which of the following labels accurately describes Hobbes?

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Chapter 05: Empiricism, Sensationalism, and Positivism a. Immaterialist b. Emergentist c. Rationalist d. Hedonist 9. Locke's major argument against the existence of innate ideas was that: a. they cannot be empirically tested b. there is no God c. humans do not share the same ideas d. they place reason above faith 10. For Locke, all ideas come from: a. sensation and attention b. reflection and association c. sensation and reflection d. attention and association 11. What is true of Locke's beliefs concerning the mind? a. The mind neither creates nor destroys ideas. b. The mind arranges ideas into a finite predetermined number of configurations. c. The mind clarifies innate ideas. d. The mind creates simple ideas that exist independently of complex ideas.

12. Locke believed that all human emotions were derived from: a. sensory experience b. feelings of pleasure and pain c. innate moral principles d. despair and hope 13. According to John Locke, primary qualities: a. are attributes of a physical reality b. produce ideas c. create ideas of physical attributes d. are created by divine intervention 14. According to John Locke, secondary qualities: a. are attributes of a subjective reality b. merely influence ideas c. create ideas with no physical counterpart d. are created by mankind 15. In Locke's philosophy, the concept of association explains: a. faulty beliefs b. moral principles Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 05: Empiricism, Sensationalism, and Positivism c. mental phenomena d. primary and secondary qualities 16. Which statement best describes Locke's philosophy toward education? a. Children should spend a large amount of time in nature to sharpen their minds. b. Children should be allowed to feel discomfort to prepare them for the inevitable hardships of life. c. Children should be severely punished for any form of disobedience. d. Children should receive physical education because the body and the mind affect each other.

17. Berkeley believed that which of the following was responsible for the widespread religious skepticism and atheism of his day? a. Romanticism b. Materialism c. Idealism d. Rationalism 18. According to Berkeley, in order for something to exist, it must: a. be perceived b. consist of primary qualities c. consist of matter d. exist spiritually 19. According to Berkeley, external reality exists because: a. it makes common sense to assume that it does b. God perceives it c. without it, there would be no primary qualities d. humans invent it 20. Hume's goal was to create a science of human nature by combining: a. rational philosophy with principles of association b. empirical philosophy with principles of association c. empirical philosophy with principles of; Newtonian science d. innate ideas with principles of Newtonian science 21. According to Hume, which of the following refers to strong, vivid perceptions? a. Schemes b. Inspirations c. Ideas d. Impressions 22. According to Hume, which of the following refers to relatively weak perceptions? a. Inspirations b. Schemes c. Impressions Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 05: Empiricism, Sensationalism, and Positivism d. Ideas 23. Which law and scenario pairing best illustrates one of Hume’s laws of associations? a. Law of resemblance: Trevor thinks of his favorite gift, a pocketknife, stimulating thoughts of his friend Jim, who gave him the gift. b. Law of contiguity: Nancy thinks of her friend Grace and instantly recalls her friend Neal. c. Law of cause and effect: Gertrude sees lighting and consequently expects thunder. d. Law of constructive association: At the grocery store, Jada comes across eggs, flour, and sugar, causing her to remember that she is supposed to bake a cake.

24. According to Hume, the mind is: a. a set of perceptions that a person is having at any given moment b. a nonmaterial entity that exists independently of the body c. that part of a person that organizes his or her experiences d. responsible for human rationality 25. What, according to Hume, is the ultimate cause of behavior? a. Ideas b. Impressions c. Passions d. Instincts 26. Hume considered which of the following as the only type of knowledge that can effectively guide our conduct in the world? a. Demonstrative knowledge b. Empirical knowledge c. Innate knowledge d. Associative knowledge 27. Hartley believed that vibrations in the brain continued after the external stimulation that caused them had ceased. He called these lingering vibrations: a. pulsatories b. associations c. vibratiuncles d. potentials 28. For Hartley, the only process that converts simple ideas into complex ideas is: a. abstract thought b. reflection c. association d. imagination 29. Hartley's account of association was different from those that preceded his because it: a. emphasized the law of contiguity b. attempted to correlate mental activity with neurophysiological activity Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 05: Empiricism, Sensationalism, and Positivism c. accepted the existence of innate ideas d. utilized a Newtonian approach toward moral philosophy 30. According to Hartley, as ideas or stimuli came to elicit behaviors not originally associated with them: a. voluntary behavior was converted into involuntary behavior b. involuntary behavior was converted into voluntary behavior c. basic behavior was converted into refined behavior d. refined behavior was converted into basic behavior 31. With which of the following statements would Bentham have agreed? a. Behavior is guided by innate moral principles. b. Happiness depends on experiencing pleasure and avoiding pain. c. Hedonism should be admonished. d. Government and religions should be closely linked.

32. According to which of the following was the best government one that provides the greatest amount of happiness to the greatest number of people? a. Empiricism b. Utilitarianism c. Rationalism d. Interactionism 33. James Mill maintained that any mental experience can be reduced to: a. Primary qualities b. Neural mechanisms c. Vibratiuncles d. Simple ideas 34. Which concept associated with John Stuart Mill emancipated associationistic psychology from the strict mental mechanics proposed by James Mill and others? a. Free will b. Imagination c. Mental chemistry d. Utilitarianism 35. According to John Stuart Mill, which of the following create variations in observable phenomena that cause predictions to be probabilistic rather than certain? a. Primary laws b. Secondary laws c. First principles d. Essences 36. J. S. Mill believed that discrimination against women is: a. justified because women are biologically inferior to men b. justified because it is in accordance with church dogma Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 05: Empiricism, Sensationalism, and Positivism c. basically wrong d. supported by the science of ethology 37. Bain's goal was to: a. show that a science of ethology was possible b. describe the physiological correlates of mental and behavioral phenomena c. show the compatibility between J. S. Mill's concept of mental chemistry and Cartesian philosophy d. show that mental and behavioral phenomena could be explained without employing the law of contiguity 38. Which of Bain’s laws stated that although individual experiences may be too weak to revive a memory, several weak associations may combine and thereby be strong enough to recall it? a. Contiguity b. Frequency c. Constructive association d. Compound association 39. Which of Bain’s laws, according to Bain, accounted for the creativity that characterizes poets, artists and inventors? a. Similarity b. Constructive association c. Compound association d. Mental chemistry 40. Bain's explanation of voluntary behavior combined: a. empiricism and rationalism b. free will and determinism c. constructive and compound associations d. spontaneous activity and hedonism 41. Which statement best illustrates Gassendi’s beliefs? a. The mind has knowledge of extended objects. b. The immaterial mind explains human activity. c. Spiritual forces directly influence physical matter. d. Humans consist of nothing but matter.

42. La Mettrie believed that if Descartes had consistently and thoroughly followed his own method, he would have concluded that: a. nonhuman animals have minds just as humans do b. nonhuman animals have innate ideas just as humans do c. both human and nonhuman animals are machines d. intelligence and brain size are highly correlated 43. La Mettrie believed that: a. humans are morally superior to nonhuman animals b. religion has done much to improve the human condition c. atheism has done much to worsen the human condition Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 05: Empiricism, Sensationalism, and Positivism d. accepting atheism and materialism will lead to a more humane world 44. Condillac felt that Locke: a. was too materialistic b. gave too much credit to innate morality c. gave the mind unnecessary innate powers d. overemphasized the role of the senses 45. According to Helvétius, the contents of the mind were controlled by: a. experience b. instincts c. past lives d. faculties of the mind 46. Scientism is the belief that: a. the only valid knowledge is scientific knowledge, and that science can solve all human problems b. science has room for both deductive and inductive reasoning in theory generation c. science is one way, but not the only valid way, of understanding the world around us d. truth can be found both through introspection and reason and empirical observation of nature 47. For Comte, we can be certain only of things that are: a. publicly observable b. divinely revealed c. logically deduced d. experienced through introspection 48. Because Comte believed that science should be practical and nonspeculative, his view of science was very similar to that of: a. the Scholastics b. Popper c. Bacon d. Descartes 49. According to Comte's law of three stages, to understand the world, a culture at the highest stage of development used: a. theological arguments b. metaphysical beliefs c. scientific description d. sociological observations 50. What was true of Comte's proposed utopian society? a. God became a figure of forgiveness, not condemnation. b. Science and Catholicism coexisted peacefully. c. The natural selflessness and the moral resolution of women was emphasized. d. The main political philosophy was utilitarianism.

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Chapter 05: Empiricism, Sensationalism, and Positivism 51. If what is meant by psychology is the introspective analysis of the mind, then according to Comte, psychology constitutes: a. metaphysical nonsense b. a possibility c. a valid scientific analysis of the mind d. the groundwork from which a positivistic science could develop 52. Comte and Mach had in common the belief that: a. only overt behavior can be studied objectively b. only the immediate conscious experience of a scientist can be studied c. metaphysical speculation must be avoided d. the only valid tool available for studying humans is introspection

53. What did Locke think about innate ideas? Where did he believe ideas came from?

54. What was Locke’s thought experiment on basins and what did it demonstrate?

55. According to Berkeley, if a tree falls in the woods and no one is around, does it still make a sound?

56. What did Hobbes believe about the best form of government and why?

57. What criteria did Hume give for demonstrating causation?

58. Describe Hume's three laws of association that influence our thoughts.

59. Describe John Stuart Mill’s mental chemistry.

60. What was Gassendi’s position on the mind?

61. How did Bentham describe the best government?

62. How did Mach's brand of positivism differ from Comte's?

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Chapter 05: Empiricism, Sensationalism, and Positivism Answer Key 1. a 2. b 3. c 4. b 5. d 6. d 7. b 8. d 9. c 10. c 11. a 12. b 13. c 14. c 15. a 16. b 17. b 18. a 19. b 20. c 21. d 22. d 23. c 24. a 25. c Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 05: Empiricism, Sensationalism, and Positivism 26. a 27. c 28. c 29. b 30. b 31. b 32. b 33. d 34. c 35. b 36. c 37. b 38. d 39. b 40. d 41. d 42. c 43. d 44. c 45. a 46. a 47. a 48. c 49. a 50. c 51. a Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 05: Empiricism, Sensationalism, and Positivism 52. c 53. Locke argued against the notion that humans came pre-stocked with innate ideas. He argued that if that were the case, then all humans would have the same ideas, and we clearly do not. Instead, Locke argued that all ideas come from direct sensory stimulation or by reflection on the remnants of prior sensory stimulation.

54. Locke asked that we imagine basins filled with water of varying temperatures. He argued that our subjective perception of the temperature of the water would depend on our previous experiences. Warm water might be perceived as warmer or cooler, depending on whether we had first touched hot or cold water. This was taken to indicate that the perception of temperature depends on the perceiving person and is therefore a secondary quality, not a primary one.

55. According to Berkeley, reality exists only in our perceptions. Therefore, if no one hears the tree fall, it does not make a sound.

56. Hobbes believed the best form of government was absolute monarchy. People were seen as naturally aggressive, selfish, and greedy, making democracy dangerous.

57. 1. Cause and effect must be contiguous in space and time.

2. Cause must precede the effect.

3. The relationship must be consistent.

4. The same cause produces the same effect and the same never arises but from the same cause.

58. According to Hume, the three laws of association that influence our thoughts are the law of resemblance, the law of contiguity, and the law of cause and effect. The law of resemblance states that our thoughts run easily from one idea to other similar ideas. The law of contiguity states that when one thinks of an object, there is a tendency to recall other objects that were experienced at the same time and place as the object being pondered. Finally, the law of cause and effect states that when we think of an outcome (effect), we tend to also think of the events that typically precede that outcome.

59. Mental chemistry is the process by which individual sensations combine to form a new sensation that is different from any of the sensations that contributed to it. This contrasts with the mental physics of James Mill, which took a more mechanistic approach.

60. Gassendi was critical of mind-body dualism and saw no reason to posit an immaterial mind when the operations that could be attributed to the mind could be accounted for by the functioning of the brain.

61. Bentham rejected all philosophical and theological arguments for morality, government, and social institutions and instead posited the Greek idea of hedonism. He argued that nature was ruled by pain and pleasure and defined human happiness in terms of the ability to gain pleasure and avoid pain. Thus, the best government would be the one that resulted in the most pleasure for the most people.

62. Both Comte and Mach insisted that science should concentrate only on what could be known with certainty; however, unlike Comte, Mach believed that we could never experience the physical world directly—we only experience sensations or mental phenomena; therefore, the scientist's job is to note which sensations typically cluster together and describe the relationships between them in precise mathematical terms. Mach's brand of positivism became known as logical positivism.

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Chapter 06: Rationalism

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. What philosophical position postulates an active mind that transforms sensory information and is capable of understanding abstract principles or concepts not attainable from sensory information alone? a. Sensationalism b. Positivism c. Rationalism d. Empiricism 2. Which statement best reflects the use of induction or deduction by empiricists and rationalists? a. Empiricists used induction via a “bottom-up” approach; rationalists used deduction via a “top-down” approach. b. Empiricists used induction via a “top-down” approach; rationalists used deduction via a “bottom-up” approach. c. Empiricists used deduction via a “bottom-up” approach; rationalists used induction via a “top-down” approach. d. Empiricists used deduction via a “top-down” approach; rationalists used induction via a “bottom-up” approach.

3. Rationalists assumed: a. some acts are more desirable than others b. experience determines how we think c. there is no such thing as an innate idea d. hedonism plays a role in determining morality 4. Empiricists generally viewed the mind as: a. passive and acting in a mechanical way b. adding to sensory experiences to give them meaning c. filled with innate ideas that give meaning to experience d. functioning solely to process incoming sensory data 5. Pantheism is the belief that: a. God is everywhere and in everything b. God created the universe but is no longer concerned with it c. humans attribute human characteristics to God d. a concept of God is unnecessary 6. Which analogy best illustrates the concept of double aspectism? a. The body is the vessel that holds the soul (mind). b. The mind is the Garden of Eden, and the body is the serpent. c. The mind and the body are like two sides of a coin. d. The mind and the body are like apples and oranges.

7. Spinoza believed the mind and body were: a. two distinct entities Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 06: Rationalism b. the same thing c. two different aspects of the same thing d. an artificial and unnecessary concept 8. Panpsychism is the belief that: a. God is everywhere and in everything b. everything in nature has consciousness (mental processes) c. humans created God in their own image d. only humans possess a mind 9. For Spinoza, free will: a. is a fiction b. is absolute c. comes to those who are enlightened d. questions the existence of God 10. According to Spinoza, finding clear ideas: a. brings us closer to God b. gives us pleasure c. is not possible for human beings d. can be achieved only through introspection 11. According to Spinoza, all human emotions are derived from: a. notions of good and evil b. experiences of pleasure and pain c. passions d. love and hate 12. According to Spinoza, which of the following guides behavior and thoughts and is conducive to survival? a. Clear thinking b. Faith c. Passion d. Reason 13. According to Spinoza, which of the following guides thoughts and behaviors but is not conducive to survival? a. Clear thinking b. Reason c. Faith d. Passion 14. Which concept of Spinoza might be called unconscious determinants of behavior in Freud’s psychoanalysis? a. Emotion b. Reason c. Panpsychism Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 06: Rationalism d. Passion 15. According to Spinoza, which of the following is linked to specific thoughts, such as a child’s love for their

mother? a. Emotion b. Reason c. Panpsychism d. Passion 16. According to Spinoza, which of the following is not associated with specific thoughts and may reduce

chances of survival? a. Emotion b. Reason c. Panpsychism d. Passion 17. According to Bernard, Spinoza’s belief in which of the following did much to influence the development of scientific psychology? a. Panpsychism b. Pantheism c. Psychic determinism d. Self-preservation 18. Leibniz’s first work was a rebuttal of whose philosophy? a. Descartes’s b. Hobbes’s c. Locke’s d. Bacon’s 19. According to Leibniz, there is nothing in the mind that is not first in the senses except for: a. mathematical knowledge b. the mind itself c. what God has revealed d. the knowledge of moral principles 20. For Leibniz, sensory experience is important because it: a. produces the ideas that occur in the mind b. provides the pleasurable and painful experiences that guide our behavior c. allows the potential ideas within us to become actualized d. provides another way of knowing God 21. Leibniz proposed that the universe was made up of an infinite number of life units called: a. monads b. atoms Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 06: Rationalism c. tabulas rasas d. psychophysical particles 22. According to Leibniz, how can monads become clearer? a. Through knowing God b. Through formal education c. By actualizing their potential d. Through experience 23. Which of the following is true concerning monads? a. Next to God, humans possess the monads capable of the clearest thinking. b. Inanimate objects do not possess monads. c. Only God possesses enough monads for clear thinking. d. Monads are influenced by sensory experience.

24. According to the text, what was a criticism of monadology? a. It did not attempt to reconcile science and God but assumed they were irreconcilable. b. It asserted that because God created the world, it cannot be improved on. c. It ignored God’s influence on the mind. d. It denied the importance of science.

25. Who rejected Malebranche’s occasionalism and used the notion of preestablished harmony to explain the mind-body relationship? a. Leibniz b. Locke c. Spinoza d. Reid 26. On the mind-body issue, Leibniz believed that they never influence each other; it only seems as if they do. This is called: a. psychophysical parallelism b. epiphenomenalism c. interactionism d. occasionalism 27. According to Leibniz, the mind and body act in concert because of: a. preestablished harmony b. epiphenomenalism c. psychic induction d. occasionalism 28. According to Leibniz, a conscious experience always: a. combines primary and secondary qualities b. reflects the culmination of a number of unconscious experiences c. involves a human experience Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 06: Rationalism d. elicits either a feeling of pleasure or pain 29. According to Leibniz’s law of continuity: a. events experienced together are remembered together b. our thoughts run from one event to similar events c. there are no leaps or gaps in nature d. the mind and the body are one 30. Leibniz’s term for awareness was: a. petites perceptions b. limen c. apperception d. epiphenomenon 31. Leibniz referred to the point at which an experience becomes strong enough to cause awareness as the: a. limen b. preconscious c. petites perceptions d. modular level 32. According to Reid, the mind reasons and the stomach digests food because: a. both are related to survival b. they are innately designed to do so c. of the forces of natural selection d. both the stomach and the mind are machines 33. Reid suggested that those who claim that reasoning does not exist: a. go against the core beliefs of empiricism b. know only the physical world c. are in fact using reasoning to doubt its existence d. denigrate this great gift given to man by God 34. According to Reid, we could trust our notions about the physical world because: a. of the acuteness of the senses b. it made common sense to do so c. Hume’s logic was faulty d. such notions are innate 35. Direct realism is the belief that: a. the world is as we immediately experience it b. we only perceive a small fraction of the stimuli around us c. our perceptions become clearer through experience d. we can never directly experience the real world

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Chapter 06: Rationalism 36. Which of the following is a common misconception regarding the views of faculty psychologists? a. Faculty psychologists are those who refer to various mental abilities in their descriptions of the mind. b. Faculty psychologists refer to faculty as a classification category. c. Faculty psychologists believe that a faculty of the mind is housed in a specific location in the brain. d. Faculty psychologists believe that mental faculties are active powers of the mind.

37. Reid viewed faculties of the mind as: a. nonsense b. separate entities c. aspects of a unified mind d. sensory experiences 38. Kant stated that a mind without concepts would: a. have no capacity to think b. be lost without sensory data c. be lost without empirical data d. not be able to use the word all 39. Kant agreed with Hume that: a. we can never experience the physical world directly b. humans have no notion of causation c. all knowledge is derived from sensory experience alone d. some truths are based on subjective experience 40. According to Kant, our phenomenological experience results from: a. sensory experience alone b. innate ideas c. categories of thought alone d. the interaction between sensations and the categories of thought 41. Kant believed that the categories of thought are: a. relatively unimportant b. derived from experience c. innate d. present everywhere in nature 42. According to Kant: a. we are forever ignorant of the true physical reality b. Hume’s contention that we can never know the physical world is incorrect c. physical reality is just as we perceive it to be d. God shapes our physical reality and thus our perceptions 43. According to Kant, the experiences of space and time: a. provide the context for all dialectic processes Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 06: Rationalism b. are produced by psychic mechanisms c. result from sensations acted on by the laws of association d. are produced by innate categories of thought 44. What was Kant’s categorical imperative? a. The limit between what people can and cannot perceive b. The principle that should govern moral behavior c. The process for forming thoughts from sensations d. The tendency for people to classify objects and events based on similarities 45. Kant believed: a. that in order for psychology to be a science, it must focus on empirical research b. that in order for psychology to be a science, it must focus on the categories of thought c. psychology could not become an experimental science d. that the mind must be studied scientifically through introspection 46. Kant discussed such topics as gender differences, marriage, insanity, and the production and control of human behavior in a discipline he referred to as: a. philosophy b. anthropology c. monadology d. direct realism 47. For Hegel, the only true understanding is an understanding of: a. natural law b. the dialectic process c. the Absolute d. the forms 48. According to Hegel, when one cycle of the dialectic process is complete, the last stage of that cycle becomes what for the next cycle? a. Thesis b. Antithesis c. Synthesis d. Absolute 49. Which concept refers to the mind’s realization that it exists apart from the Absolute? a. Alienation b. Separation c. Dialection d. Actualization 50. Herbart’s notion that ideas had the power to attract or repel other ideas is known as: a. psychic mechanics b. psychophysical parallelism Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 06: Rationalism c. petite perception d. preestablished harmony 51. According to Herbart, which of the following contains all of the ideas to which we are attending? a. Mind b. Empirical ego c. Apperceptive mass d. Transcendental ego 52. According to Herbart, an idea is allowed to enter consciousness if it is: a. compatible with a person’s moral code b. adaptive c. compatible with the apperceptive mass d. clear and intense 53. What term did Herbart use to describe the force that holds ideas incompatible with the apperceptive mass in the unconscious? a. Limen b. Apperceptive mass c. Repression d. Psychic mechanics 54. What term did Herbart use to describe the border between the conscious and unconscious mind? a. Limen b. Apperceptive mass c. Repression d. Psychic mechanics 55. Herbart was one of the first to: a. apply a mathematical model to psychology b. use the concept of threshold c. claim that some ideas were innate d. propose an experimental science of psychology 56. According to Herbart, if material presented to a student is not compatible with his or her apperceptive mass, the material will: a. cause anxiety b. be rejected or at least will not be understood c. create an approach-avoidance conflict d. cause a creative change in the apperceptive mass 57. Herbart’s concepts of the unconscious, repression, and conflict most likely affected the theory of: a. Fechner b. Freud c. Watson Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 06: Rationalism d. Titchener 58. Which of the following is consistent with Herbart’s advice to teachers? a. The student will benefit most if they review material themselves. b. The student should postulate the content of upcoming material. c. Relate new material to what has already been learned. d. Show applications of new material before the concepts have been described.

59. How did Spinoza approach the mind-body problem?

60. How did Leibniz approach the mind-body problem?

61. What were Leibniz’s monads?

62. Describe Kant’s notion of categories of thought, and explain how he used that notion to explain perceptions of time and space.

63. Explain Hegel’s dialectic process.

64. Explain Reid’s idea of direct realism.

65. According to Herbart, how should teachers best educate their students?

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Chapter 06: Rationalism Answer Key 1. c 2. a 3. a 4. a 5. a 6. c 7. c 8. b 9. a 10. b 11. b 12. d 13. d 14. d 15. a 16. d 17. c 18. c 19. b 20. c 21. a 22. c 23. a 24. b 25. a Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 06: Rationalism 26. a 27. a 28. b 29. c 30. c 31. a 32. b 33. c 34. b 35. a 36. c 37. c 38. a 39. a 40. d 41. c 42. a 43. d 44. b 45. c 46. b 47. c 48. a 49. a 50. a 51. c Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 06: Rationalism 52. c 53. c 54. a 55. a 56. b 57. b 58. c 59. Spinoza assumed the mind and body were different aspects of the same thing (the living human being). This position is known as double aspectism.

60. Leibniz assumed psychophysical parallelism operating according to pre-established harmony. He believed that the entire universe was created by God to be in perfect harmony, yet nothing influences anything else. There is a correspondence between each monad’s internal state and external conditions, but those perceptions only mirror the external events rather than being caused by them.

61. According to Leibniz, the universe consisted of an infinite number of life units he called monads. Monads are like living atoms and are active and conscious, but they vary in the clarity and distinctiveness of the ideas they are capable of having. All monads seek to clarify their thoughts because clarity leads to pleasure. Leibniz viewed monads as potentials seeking to be actualized, thus positing a final cause or purpose for nature.

62. Kant believed that humans are equipped with innate categories of thought (not innate ideas), which must interact with our sensations to create sensory impressions. The notions of time and space are two of the categories of thought that Kant argued were innate. For Kant, the human mind was the center of the universe, and our minds create the universe as we experience it.

63. The dialectic process involves attempting to arrive at the truth by back-and-forth argumentation among conflicting views. For Hegel, the process involved a thesis (one point of view), an antithesis (the opposite point of view), and synthesis (a resolution between the thesis and the antithesis). When the cycle was completed, the previous synthesis becomes the thesis for the next cycle.

64. Reid did not believe that the rational mind was necessary to experience the environment accurately nor did he believe that the laws of association need be applied. Rather he believed that we experience objects immediately as objects because of our innate powers of perception. We perceive the world directly in terms of meaningful units, not as isolated sensations that are combined.

65. Herbart suggested that teachers use the following steps to apply his theories to education: (1) review the material that has already been learned; (2) prepare the student for new material by giving an overview of what is coming next—this creates a receptive apperceptive mass; (3) present the new material; (4) relate the new material to what has already been learned; and (5) show applications of the new material and give an overview of what is to be learned next.

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Chapter 07: Romanticism and Existentialism

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. The Enlightenment is also referred to as the: a. Age of Reason b. Age of the Romantic c. Age of Freedom d. Age of the Human 2. The romantic philosophers considered which human characteristic as most important? a. Irrational feelings b. Rational thought c. Refinement d. Benevolence 3. For the romantics, a person who did which of the following was living the good life? a. Lived in harmony with nature b. Followed a literal interpretation of the Bible c. Lived according to their own inner nature d. Rejected moral principles 4. Who is generally thought to be the father of romanticism? a. Hegel b. Goethe c. Rousseau d. Kierkegaard 5. The statement “Man is born free and yet we see him everywhere in chains” is associated with: a. Hume b. Locke c. Goethe d. Rousseau 6. According to Rousseau, all the governments of his time were based on the faulty assumption that: a. humans are rational b. a limited government benefits everyone c. humans need to be governed d. government and free will can coexist 7. For Rousseau, the only justifiable government was one that: a. controls behavior with incentives b. allows humans to reach their full potential and express free will c. allows people to express hedonistic pursuits d. rules by categorical imperative 8. Rousseau trusted which of the following most as a guide for human conduct?

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Chapter 07: Romanticism and Existentialism a. Mathematics b. Personal feelings c. Logic and reasoning d. God’s word 9. Rousseau supported Protestantism because: a. God’s existence could be defended on the basis of individual feelings b. in contrast to Catholicism, Protestantism accepted free will c. Protestantism reconciled God and individual feelings d. unlike local officials, the church governed with compassion 10. Hobbes, along with many theologians and philosophers, believed human nature to be: a. rational b. good c. animalistic d. god-like 11. Rousseau believed human nature to be basically: a. impulsive b. animalistic c. good d. selfish 12. For Rousseau, a noble savage was: a. a person who followed his or her animal instincts b. a hypothetical human who was uncontaminated by society c. someone who was uneducated but made good choices d. someone who had risen above civilization through introspection 13. In Rousseau’s opinion, if people surrendered their individual will to the general will: a. we would all be noble savages b. society would break down c. democracy would be impossible d. we could have a utopian society 14. Which of Rousseau’s concepts refers to the innate tendency to live harmoniously with one’s fellow humans? a. Perspectivism b. The ethical stage c. The aesthetic stage d. The general will 15. According to Rousseau, an effective government must be based on: a. an absolute monarchy b. the private will Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 07: Romanticism and Existentialism c. the general will d. unanimous agreement among members of the community 16. Rousseau believed that education should: a. stimulate the development of a child’s natural impulses b. strengthen the mental faculties c. provide the child with time-tested, culturally relevant information d. emphasize the basic skills such as reading, writing, and arithmetic 17. Rousseau’s novel Emile was written about: a. love b. patriotism c. free will d. education 18. According to Rousseau, which of the following provides the optimal condition for learning? a. Professionals as teachers b. A child’s natural interests c. A setting free of distractions d. A curriculum designed to teach basic knowledge 19. Who viewed life as consisting of opposing forces such as love and hate, or good and evil? a. Rousseau b. Nietzsche c. Goethe d. Schopenhauer 20. Goethe viewed which of the following as the ultimate source of happiness? a. Vast material wealth b. Hedonism c. A union with God d. Liberty 21. Goethe viewed science as: a. the new religion b. useless c. useful but limited d. the only valid way of attaining accurate knowledge 22. Goethe’s idea to embrace the opposing forces present in life had a direct influence on: a. Freud b. Jung c. Schopenhauer d. Nietzsche Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 07: Romanticism and Existentialism 23. Schopenhauer’s philosophy was based on the distinction between the noumenal and phenomenal worlds proposed by: a. Kant b. Rousseau c. Goethe d. Freud 24. According to Schopenhauer, when the blind, aimless universal manifests itself in a particular organism, it becomes: a. a communion with God b. the will to survive c. a revealed truth d. what the empiricists called an idea 25. According to Schopenhauer, the will to survive causes: a. humans to seek a union with God b. human rationality c. an unending cycle of needs and need satisfaction d. a feeling of kinship between humans and nonhuman animals 26. According to Schopenhauer, when all of our needs are temporarily satisfied, we feel: a. bored b. self-actualized c. at one with God d. extreme pleasure 27. According to Schopenhauer, which state is characterized by freedom from irrational strivings? a. Nirvana b. Self-actualization c. Reification d. Pleasure 28. According to Schopenhauer, who suffers the most? a. Intelligent humans b. Unintelligent humans c. Nonhuman animals d. Plants 29. Schopenhauer believed that life is best viewed as: a. an opportunity to become self-actualized b. the postponement of death c. an opportunity to do God’s work d. something that only truly begins after death 30. Schopenhauer believed that most people cling to life because: a. not to do so is a sin Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 07: Romanticism and Existentialism b. it is so enjoyable c. they fear death d. that is what they have been taught to do 31. When Schopenhauer said that we could at least partially escape the irrational forces within us by immersing ourselves in such things as music, poetry, or art, he anticipated Freud’s concept of: a. repression b. resistance c. compensation d. sublimation 32. Schopenhauer stated that we may repress undesirable thoughts into the: a. subconscious b. unconscious c. apperceptive mass d. soul 33. According to Kierkegaard, the ultimate state of being is achieved when an individual decides to: a. return to nature b. embrace God and take God’s existence on faith c. live a life based on rational principles d. seek pleasure and avoid pain 34. Kierkegaard believed that the existence of which of the following has to be taken on faith? a. Consciousness b. Free will c. God d. Subconsciousness 35. According to Kierkegaard, God gives humans a way of dealing with the “absolute paradox” with: a. faith b. consciousness c. reasoning ability d. guilt 36. Which of the following is the correct arrangement of the stages Kierkegaard suggested for the development of human freedom? a. Aesthetic → ethical → religious b. Religious → aesthetic → ethical c. Ethical → aesthetic → religious d. Religious → ethical → aesthetic 37. According to Kierkegaard, in which stage are people open to experiences and seek out many forms of pleasure, but do not recognize their ability to choose? a. Aesthetic Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 07: Romanticism and Existentialism b. Ethical c. Religious d. Secular 38. According to Kierkegaard, in which stage do people accept the responsibilities of making choices, but use ethical principles established by others as their guide? a. Aesthetic b. Ethical c. Religious d. Secular 39. According to Kierkegaard, which stage consists of people recognizing and accepting their freedom and entering into a personal relationship with God? a. Aesthetic b. Ethical c. Religious d. Secular 40. Nietzsche believed that which aspect of human nature manifests itself in the desire for predictability and orderliness? a. Apollonian b. Dionysian c. Existential d. Romantic 41. Nietzsche believed that the best life reflects: a. rationality b. irrationality c. controlled passion d. the love of God 42. Nietzsche primarily considered himself a: a. psychologist b. philosopher c. theologian d. priest 43. At the heart of Nietzsche’s psychology is the tension between: a. Apollonian and Dionysian tendencies b. the church and the state c. science and religion d. good and evil 44. Nietzsche believed that: a. all human behavior is determined b. life without the restraints of religion is certain to be chaotic Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 07: Romanticism and Existentialism c. people are their own creation d. the only free people are artists 45. According to Nietzsche, the difference between freedom and slavery is: a. freedom b. an illusion c. a matter of choice d. a miracle 46. Nietzsche believed natural instincts should be: a. nurtured b. expressed c. repressed d. eliminated 47. Which of Nietzsche’s ideas was clearly contrary to Enlightenment philosophy? a. Perspectivism b. Emphasis on human rationality c. Belief in God d. Determinism 48. For Nietzsche, the most basic motive for human behavior was: a. the will to survive b. the will to power c. hedonism d. to act in accordance with God’s will 49. For Nietzsche, people approaching their full potential are: a. pseudogods b. supermen c. fully functional d. self-actualized 50. Nietzsche believed that many human problems would be solved if: a. every individual strives to be all that they could be b. philosophers became kings c. fewer individuals strive to become supermen d. materialistic philosophy is accepted 51. Kierkegaard and Nietzsche had what in common? a. An acceptance of Hegel’s philosophy b. An unfavorable opinion of psychology c. A criticism of the organized church and science d. A belief in God Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 07: Romanticism and Existentialism 52. What did romanticism and existentialism have in common? a. The importance of subjective experience b. A belief in fate c. The respect for rationalism d. A quest for scientific truth

53. Explain Rousseau’s notion of the general will and how he envisioned the general will functioning in self-government.

54. Discuss Goethe’s phenomenology.

55. Discuss Schopenhauer’s view of the unconscious mind.

56. Describe Kierkegaard’s stages of personal freedom.

57. What were supermen, according to Nietzsche? How did supermen live their lives?

58. What did Kierkegaard and Nietzsche have in common? What was the major difference between them?

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Chapter 07: Romanticism and Existentialism Answer Key 1. a 2. a 3. c 4. c 5. d 6. c 7. b 8. b 9. a 10. c 11. c 12. b 13. d 14. d 15. c 16. a 17. d 18. b 19. c 20. d 21. c 22. b 23. a 24. b 25. c Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 07: Romanticism and Existentialism 26. a 27. a 28. a 29. b 30. c 31. d 32. b 33. b 34. c 35. a 36. a 37. a 38. b 39. c 40. a 41. c 42. a 43. a 44. c 45. c 46. b 47. a 48. b 49. b 50. a 51. c Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 07: Romanticism and Existentialism 52. a 53. For Rousseau, the general will is what is best for a community rather than what is best for an individual or even what a community may think is best for itself. Rousseau argued that if every member of society operated with the general will in mind rather than their own private will, we would live in a utopian society.

54. Goethe demonstrated that sensory experiences could be systematically studied using a form of introspection. He insisted that intact, meaningful psychological experiences should be investigated and not taken as isolated sensations. This insistence of whole meaningful experiences came to be known as phenomenology.

55. Schopenhauer observed that all humans have positive (intellectual, rational) and negative (animalistic) impulses and in this way, anticipated Freud. Schopenhauer likened consciousness to the surface of the mind and asserted that we could not know the mind’s interior. He spoke of repressing undesirable thoughts into the unconscious and of the difficulty (resistance) encountered when attempting to recognize repressed ideas.

56. According to Kierkegaard, the first stage in the growth toward full personal freedom is the aesthetic stage. At this stage, the person delights in many experiences but does not exercise their freedom.

The second stage is the ethical stage. At this stage, the person makes ethical decisions but uses principles developed by others as a guide in making them.

The third stage is the religious stage. At this stage, the person recognizes their freedom and chooses to enter into a personal relationship with God. 57. For Nietzsche, supermen were those individuals who have the courage to rise above conventional morality and herd conformity and to follow their own inclinations instead. That meant exploring both positive and negative thoughts and impulses, exploring as many of life’s possibilities as possible, and learning from the experiences.

58. Although Nietzsche was apparently unaware of Kierkegaard’s work, they were similar in several ways; for example, they both rejected what was conventionally accepted, such as the organized church and science. In addition, Hegelian philosophy was a favorite target for both men, and both men preached reliance on direct, personal experience. The major difference between the two was that Kierkegaard accepted the existence of God, whereas for Nietzsche, God did not exist.

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Chapter 08: Physiology and Psychophysics

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. Bessel used personal equations to: a. select the most skillful astronomers b. correct differences in the reaction times among various observers c. ensure that his assistants had exactly the same reaction times d. demonstrate the value of experimental psychology 2. What provided the link between mental philosophy and the science of psychology in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries? a. Astronomy b. Physiology c. Physics d. Mathematics 3. Why is the Bell-Magendie law significant? a. It solved the mind-body problem. b. It confirmed Hartley’s view of nerve conduction. c. It demonstrated that specific mental functions are mediated by different anatomical structures. d. It allowed individual differences in reaction times among individuals to be equalized.

4. Bell demonstrated that sensory and motor nerves: a. are the same b. are functionally but not anatomically distinct c. are functionally and anatomically distinct d. are anatomically but not functionally distinct 5. Bell’s results were similar to the studies of: a. horseshoe crabs by Makous b. rabbits by Gormezano c. gladiators by Galen d. frogs by Washburn 6. What name is used for Müller’s proposition that there are five types of sensory nerves, each containing a characteristic energy? a. The Bell-Magendie law b. The doctrine of specific nerve energies c. The principle of the conservation of energy d. The law of forward conduction 7. For Müller, the type of stimulation to which a sensory system is most sensitive is known as: a. conscious stimulation b. reactive stimulation c. adequate stimulation d. receptive stimulation Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 08: Physiology and Psychophysics 8. According to Müller, we are directly aware of: a. objects in the physical world b. sensory impulses c. primary qualities d. categories of thought 9. Müller believed that, with his doctrine of specific nerve energies, he had discovered the: a. solution to the mind-body problem b. seat of consciousness c. physiological equivalent of Kant’s categories of thought d. vibrations that Hartley and Newton had postulated in their analysis of nerve conduction 10. Kant’s nativism stressed mental categories, whereas Müller stressed: a. consciousness b. physiological mechanisms c. psychophysics d. adequate stimulation 11. The vitalists maintained that: a. a non-physical mind did not exist b. the human body and mind were like machines in most ways c. life could not be explained by the interactions of physical and chemical properties alone d. a person’s mental faculties could be assessed by examining the shape and size of their skull 12. The vitalism-materialism problem in physics is similar to which recurring question in psychology? a. Nature-nurture b. Mind-body c. Continuity-stages d. Nomothetic-idiographic 13. Helmholtz is best described as: a. mechanistic-vitalistic b. irrationalistic-vitalistic c. irrationalistic-materialistic d. mechanistic-materialistic 14. According to the principle of conservation of energy: a. energy should never be expended unnecessarily b. energy is perceived differently by the different senses c. energy does not exist unless it is perceived by a living organism d. energy is never created or lost, but is only transformed from one form to another 15. Concerning the rate of nerve conduction, Helmholtz found that: Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 08: Physiology and Psychophysics a. it is measurable in frogs but not in humans b. it is almost instantaneous and therefore not measurable c. it is measurable and that it is fairly slow d. it is essentially what Müller thought it to be 16. Helmholtz found that when individuals who have been blind since birth acquire sight, they: a. need to learn to perceive b. immediately perceive normally c. can perceive normally only while wearing distorted lenses d. can never perceive normally 17. Helmholtz found that when individuals with normal sight wear distorted lenses, they: a. continue to perceive normally b. make perceptual mistakes at first but then adapt and perceive normally c. make perceptual mistakes until the lenses came off d. cannot make any correct judgments of object distances 18. Kant and Helmholtz agreed that: a. the faculties of the mind are innate b. the perceiver transforms what the senses provide c. perception is explained by unconscious inference d. nativism provides a better explanation of perception than does empiricism 19. Concerning Kant’s proposed categories of thought, Helmholtz demonstrated that: a. they are innate as Kant suggested b. some are innate, but most are learned from experience c. they are all derived from experience d. the only one that is innate concerns the axioms of geometry 20. Whose theory of color vision theory of did Helmholtz change slightly and support with experimental evidence? a. Kant b. Hering c. Young d. Weber 21. To account for color vision, Helmholtz postulated the existence of: a. three types of color receptors corresponding to three primary colors b. separate receptors for each wavelength in the visual spectrum c. one type of receptor that responded to all of the wavelengths in the visual spectrum d. receptors that process pairs of opposing colors 22. Helmholtz expressed amazement over the fact that: a. sensations so accurately reflect physical reality b. physiological mechanisms provide feedback with minimal stimulation Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 08: Physiology and Psychophysics c. sensory systems distort our knowledge of the physical world to such a great extent d. the faculties of the mind can correct our distorted sensory information about the physical world 23. Which theory maintains that the tiny fibers on the basilar membrane of the inner ear are stimulated by different frequencies of sound, with shorter fibers responding to higher frequencies? a. Doctrine of specific nerve energies b. Resonance place theory c. Auditory harp theory d. Trichromatic theory 24. According to Helmholtz, perception is sensation plus: a. overt processing b. unconscious inference c. innate ideas d. conscious categorization 25. For Hering, space perception results from information from the retina about: a. the distribution of primary colors b. height, left-right position, and depth c. brightness and darkness d. shape, brightness, and color 26. According to which physiologist must a theory of vision account for both normal vision and “abnormal” phenomena such as illusions and afterimages? a. Pavlov b. Wundt c. Purkinje d. Fechner 27. According to Hering’s theory of color vision, if a person stares at something for a considerable time and then looks away, they will experience an afterimage. Which of the following correctly pairs the color of the initial image with the color of the afterimage? a. Green and yellow b. Blue and red c. Red and green d. Purple and blue 28. Which of the following did Ladd-Franklin propose was the most primitive type of vision? a. Dimensional vision b. Peripheral vision c. Foveal vision d. Color vision 29. Whose theory of color vision was based on evolutionary theory? a. Helmholtz Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 08: Physiology and Psychophysics b. Hering c. Ladd-Franklin d. Weber 30. According to Ladd-Franklin, which of the following sequences accurately describes the evolution of vision? a. Red-green sensitivity → blue-yellow sensitivity → achromatic vision b. Achromatic vision → red-green sensitivity → blue-yellow sensitivity c. Blue-yellow sensitivity → achromatic vision → red-green sensitivity d. Achromatic vision → blue-yellow sensitivity → red-green sensitivity 31. Determining a person’s character by analyzing their facial features, bodily structure, posture, and movement, is called: a. physiognomy b. the theory of signs c. unconscious inference d. vitalism 32. What does phrenology examine to determine the strength of a person’s faculties? a. The color of a person’s skin b. The length of the bones in the legs c. The shape and strength of the eye d. The protrusions and depressions of the skull 33. Gall believed which of the following? a. There is no relationship between the size of the cortex and intelligence. b. The faculties of the mind are aspects of the soul, not of the brain. c. The bumps and indentations on the skull indicate the magnitude of the underlying faculties. d. The mind functions as an indivisible whole.

34. The belief that educational experiences can be arranged so that they strengthen certain faculties of the mind is called: a. phrenology b. formal discipline c. faculty psychology d. cortical expansion 35. What did Flourens’s brain research reveal that was incompatible with phrenology? a. There are many localized cortical functions. b. Protrusions of the skull do not correlate well with brain structure. c. The cortical area of the brain functions as a whole. d. There are vast individual differences among human brains.

36. The idea of physiognomy persisted into the twentieth century with Sheldon showing significant correlations between: a. facial characteristics and personality b. height and intelligence c. body shape and personality Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 08: Physiology and Psychophysics d. body mass and social skills 37. The case of Phineas Gage best supports the idea that: a. dualism has a place in science b. the cortex functions as a whole unit c. individual brain areas have specialized functions d. the brain has regenerative capabilities 38. Broca is best known for: a. studying the brains of lower animals to learn about human brains b. equating cortical size with intelligence c. discovering a brain area responsible for a specific disorder d. suggesting the cortex functioned as a whole 39. The part of the cortex known as Broca’s area is associated with: a. speech comprehension b. visual analysis c. speech articulation d. motor movement differentiation 40. The part of the cortex associated with speech comprehension is known as: a. Wernicke’s area b. Fritsch’s area c. Hitzig’s area d. Ferrier’s area 41. Broca’s research in craniometry found erroneously that: a. the brain is smaller in mature adults b. the brain is larger in eminent men and supposedly superior races c. the brain is larger in women d. there is no relationship between intelligence and the volume of the brain 42. The work of such researchers as Broca, Fritsch, Hitzig, and Ferrier demonstrated localized brain function, which was somewhat similar to the predictions made by: a. mathematicians b. nominalists c. existentialists d. phrenologists 43. What was one important discovery of Fritsch and Hitzig? a. They stimulated the cortex and found that movements are elicited from the opposite side of the body. b. They used electrical stimulation to produce a more articulated map of the motor cortex. c. They mapped cortical regions to the senses. d. They performed autopsies on humans to determine the cause of behavioral deficits.

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Chapter 08: Physiology and Psychophysics 44. What was an important discovery of David Ferrier? a. He stimulated the cortex and found that movements were elicited from the opposite side of the body. b. He used electrical stimulation to produce a more articulated map of the motor cortex. c. He mapped cortical regions to the senses. d. He performed autopsies on humans to determine the cause of behavioral deficits.

45. What did Weber called the smallest distance between two points at which a subject reported sensing two points instead of one? a. Just noticeable difference b. Two-point threshold c. Psychophysical threshold d. Localization of experience 46. In his work on the two-point threshold, Weber found that the most sensitive area (smallest threshold) was the: a. forearm b. nose c. fingertip d. tongue 47. In his work on the two-point threshold, Weber found that the least sensitive area (largest threshold) was the: a. forearm b. tongue c. ear lobe d. middle of the back 48. Weber called the smallest difference that could be detected between two stimuli the: a. two-point threshold b. just noticeable difference c. limen d. psychophysical threshold 49. Weber found that subjects could detect much smaller weight differences when they lifted the weights than when the weights were simply placed in their hands. He attributed this increased sensitivity to: a. kinesthesis b. the two-point threshold c. the method of adjustment d. unconscious inference 50. During his work on kinesthesis, Weber made the startling observation that the just noticeable difference is a constant fraction of the standard weight. For lifted weights, that fraction is: a. 1/20 b. 1/30 c. 1/35 d. 1/40 Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 08: Physiology and Psychophysics 51. Following in the path of Spinoza, Fechner believed that: a. only matter existed b. only consciousness existed c. consciousness is as prevalent in the universe as is matter d. bodily and mental events were parallel to each other and therefore did not interact 52. Fechner found that for the magnitude of a sensation to rise arithmetically, the magnitude of stimulation must rise: a. arithmetically b. geometrically c. algebraically d. exponentially 53. What is the study of the relationship between physical and psychological events? a. Philosophy b. Materialism c. Epistemology d. Psychophysics 54. Fechner called the lowest intensity at which a stimulus can be detected the: a. differential threshold b. absolute threshold c. just noticeable difference d. petites perceptions 55. Fechner called sensations that occurred below the absolute threshold: a. negative sensations b. just noticeable differences c. petites perceptions d. impossible 56. Suppose that pairs of stimuli are presented to the subject. One stimulus remains the same, the standard, and the other varies from one presentation to the next. What method is this? a. Limits b. Constant stimuli c. Adjustments d. Stimulus fixation 57. Suppose a subject is instructed to change a variable stimulus so that its magnitude appears to equal that of a standard stimulus. After this, the average difference between the variable stimuli and the standard is determined. What method is this? a. Adjustment b. Limits c. Constant fixation d. Stimulus fixation Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 08: Physiology and Psychophysics 58. Fechner attempted to quantify the variables that determine the extent to which a work of art is appealing. In so doing, he created the field of: a. psychophysics b. experimental aesthetics c. phrenological art d. art psychology

59. What were the two prominent theories of what nerves were prior to the Bell-Magendie law? What did the BellMagendie law demonstrate?

60. What is the doctrine of specific nerve energies?

61. Describe the functions of Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area, and describe how they were found.

62. Describe Ladd-Franklin’s theory of color vision.

63. What does the Young-Helmholtz theory of color vision state? How about Hering’s theory of color vision?

64. What three crucial and ground-breaking assumptions did Gall make?

65. What is Weber’s law, and why is it significant to the history of psychology?

66. What are the absolute threshold and the differential threshold?

67. Describe the method of adjustment, the method of constant stimuli, and the method of limits.

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Chapter 08: Physiology and Psychophysics Answer Key 1. b 2. b 3. c 4. c 5. c 6. b 7. c 8. b 9. c 10. b 11. b 12. b 13. d 14. d 15. c 16. a 17. b 18. b 19. c 20. c 21. a 22. c 23. b 24. b 25. b Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 08: Physiology and Psychophysics 26. c 27. c 28. b 29. c 30. d 31. a 32. d 33. c 34. b 35. c 36. c 37. c 38. c 39. c 40. a 41. b 42. d 43. a 44. b 45. b 46. d 47. d 48. b 49. a 50. d 51. c Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 08: Physiology and Psychophysics 52. b 53. d 54. b 55. a 56. b 57. a 58. b 59. Before the Bell-Magendie law, the two prominent theories were Descartes’s view that nerves were hollow fibers that transmitted animal spirits from the brain to the muscles, and Hartley’s view that nerves were the means by which “vibrations” were conducted from the sense receptors to the brain and from the brain to the muscles. The Bell-Magendie law demonstrated that sensory nerves carried impulses forward from the sense receptors to the brain, and motor nerves carried impulses forward from the brain to the muscles and glands. It demonstrated separate sensory and motor tracts in the spinal cord and suggested separate sensory and motor regions in the brain.

60. The doctrine of specific nerve energies specifies that no matter how a specific sensory nerve is stimulated, it will respond in its own way. For example, hitting a person in the eye will produce sensations of vision just as shining a bright light eye in the eye or delivering an electrical stimulus to the optic nerve would.

61. Broca’s area is involved in the production of speech, while Wernicke’s area is involved in the comprehension of speech. Both areas were discovered using the clinical method in which a patient with a specific behavioral deficit, like the inability to produce speech, is found and then, after the patient dies, their brain is examined to find lesions or other reasons for the dysfunction.

62. Ladd-Franklin proposed a theory of color vision that was based on evolutionary theory. She proposed that achromatic vision was the most primitive and noted that peripheral vision, which is less sensitive to color but excellent for night vision and detecting motion, is most crucial for survival. She proposed that color vision developed later.

63. The Young-Helmholtz theory of color vision states that separate receptor systems on the retina are responsive to each of the three primary colors: red, green, and blue-violet. Hering proposed that there are three types of color receptors on the retina and that perceiving certain colors either causes a “tearing down” (catabolic process) or a “building up” (anabolic process) in their respective receptors.

64. 1. Mental faculties do not exist to the same extent in all people.

2. Mental faculties are housed in specific areas of the brain.

3. If a faculty is well developed, a person will have a bump or protrusion on the corresponding part of the skull. If a faculty is underdeveloped, a hollow or depression will appear on the corresponding part of the skull.

65. Weber’s law is the finding that just noticeable differences correspond to a constant fraction of a standard stimulus.

This law is important because, as the first statement of a systematic relationship between physical stimulation and a psychological experience, it can be considered the first quantitative law in psychology’s history.

66. The absolute threshold is the smallest amount of stimulation that can be detected by an organism. The differential threshold is the amount that stimulation needs to change before a difference in that stimulation can be detected.

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Chapter 08: Physiology and Psychophysics 67. Method of adjustment: An observer adjusts a variable stimulus until it appears to be equal to a standard stimulus.

Method of constant stimuli: A stimulus is presented at different intensities along with a standard stimulus, and the observer reports if it appears to be greater than, less than, or equal to the standard.

Method of limits: A stimulus is presented at varying intensities along with a standard (constant) stimulus to determine the range of intensities judged to be the same as the standard.

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Chapter 09: Early Approaches to Psychology

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. From the experiment with the pendulum clock (thought meter), Wundt concluded that: a. experimental psychology was not feasible b. attention is involuntary c. time is a dimension to be studied d. experimental psychology must stress selective attention 2. Which of the following philosophies most influenced Wundt? a. Materialism b. Rationalism c. Empiricism d. Sensationalism 3. According to Wundt, empiricism lacked an appreciation of: a. innate ideas b. the laws of association c. volitional processes d. secondary qualities 4. The central concept on Wundt’s voluntarism was: a. association b. involuntary behavior c. will d. apperceptive mass 5. Which of the following did Wundt believe about experimental psychology? a. It was useless in understanding higher mental processes. b. It represented the only worthwhile type of psychology. c. It was impossible. d. It could be used only to investigate the higher mental processes.

6. Wundt began the first journal devoted to experimental psychology originally called: a. Psychological Studies b. Philosophical Studies c. Philological Studies d. Journal of Experimental Psychology 7. To study the higher mental processes, Wundt believed that we must use: a. rationalistic introspection b. immediate analysis c. naturalistic observation of various forms d. controlled experimentation 8. According to Wundt, sciences like physics were based on which type of experience?

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Chapter 09: Early Approaches to Psychology a. Immediate b. Mediate c. Sensory d. Physiological 9. According to Wundt, psychology should be based on which type of experience? a. Mediate b. Immediate c. Emotional d. Physiological 10. Wundt’s use of introspection most closely resembled that of: a. St. Augustine b. the British empiricists c. Descartes d. Helmholtzian physiologists 11. According to Wundt, sensation occurs: a. only if a person feels an emotion along with the stimulus b. only if a person is consciously attending to a stimulus c. whenever a sense organ is stimulated, and the resulting impulse reaches the brain d. whenever a stimulus is present, even if a person does not perceive the stimulus 12. Describing a stimulus in terms of which of the following defines the modality of the stimulus, rather than its intensity? a. Whether it is visual or auditory b. How loud it is c. How bright it is d. How smooth or rough it is 13. Wundt believed that feelings are: a. related to survival b. remnants of an earlier evolutionary period and were nonfunctional in modern society c. various combinations of three attributes d. unitary experiences that could not be reduced to anything more basic 14. According to Wundt, sensation is: a. learned over time b. creative and artistic c. conscious d. passive and automatic 15. According to Wundt, apperception is: a. innate b. consciously memorized Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 09: Early Approaches to Psychology c. unconscious d. active and voluntary 16. The part of the perceptual field that the individual attends to is: a. perceived b. apperceived c. instinctive d. modal 17. The process of creative synthesis involves: a. combining sensory stimuli into one piece of art b. seeing or hearing stimuli you have never encountered before c. shifting one’s attention to arrange and rearrange elements of thought d. imagining something one has seen before rather than perceiving it in the moment 18. Because Wundt believed that individuals could direct their attention anywhere they wished, he referred to his brand of psychology as: a. functionalism b. voluntarism c. structuralism d. bold and creative 19. Wundt believed that which of the following might be explained as a breakdown of the attentional processes? a. Hysteria b. Bipolar disorder c. Schizophrenia d. Phobias 20. According to Donders, the time it takes to perform the mental act of discrimination is determined by: a. subtracting simple reaction time from the reaction time that involves discrimination b. computing the choice reaction time c. computing the mental chronometry d. presenting several different stimuli to subjects, but allowing them to only respond to one, and timing their response 21. Wundt’s concept of mental chronometry is: a. the amount of time it takes to respond to a stimulus b. the addition of sensations into one perception c. the time it takes to apperceive an object d. an accurate cataloging of the time it took to perform various mental acts 22. Wundt believed that physical and psychological causality are: a. essentially the same b. experienced only in the mind c. polar opposites Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 09: Early Approaches to Psychology d. intrinsically related 23. According to which principle of Wundt does something usually occur during goal-directed behavior that changes the entire motivational pattern? a. The heterogony of ends b. Creative resultants c. Contrasts d. Development of opposites 24. Which of Wundt’s principles states that prolonged experiences of one type cause one to seek the opposite type of experience? a. Contrasts b. The development of opposites c. Creative resultants d. The heterogony of ends 25. Wundt was a(n): a. vitalist b. determinist c. empiricist d. dualist 26. Concerning verbal communication, Wundt referred to the unified idea that one wishes to convey as a(n): a. general impression b. unconscious inference c. Völkerpsychologie d. creative synthesis 27. As evidence for his views on verbal communication, Wundt pointed out that we remember: a. specific words and not meanings b. meanings and not specific words c. verbal labels and not images d. images and not verbal labels 28. Titchener formed “The Experimentalists” because: a. he believed the APA was too friendly toward applied topics b. the APA disagreed with him on what should be included in experimental psychology c. the APA wanted to grant membership to women d. he could not gather enough votes to become the APA president 29. Titchener defined which of the following as the sum total of mental experience at any given moment? a. The mind b. The consciousness c. The apperceptive mass d. General impression Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 09: Early Approaches to Psychology 30. Titchener defined the mind as: a. consciousness b. our subconscious desires c. the center of emotion d. the accumulated experiences of a lifetime 31. For Titchener, which aspect of psychology involved a search for the neurological correlates of mental events? a. The what b. The how c. The why d. The when 32. For Titchener, if a person allowed the meaning of an object to influence their introspective analysis of that object, then which of the following had occurred? a. Stimulus error b. Mental set c. Mediate experience d. Creative synthesis 33. Titchener concluded that there are about how many identifiable sensations? a. 1,200 related to audition b. 40,000 related to audition c. 400 related to vision d. 40,000 related to vision 34. According to Titchener, all feelings can be explained by employing the dimension of: a. tension-relaxation b. excitement-calm c. pleasantness-unpleasantness d. joy-sadness 35. For Titchener, attention is: a. a clearness of sensation b. the result of apperception c. explained by the faculties and functions of the mind d. a function of innate ideas 36. In explaining how the elements of thought combine, Titchener emphasized: a. apperception b. creative synthesis c. traditional associationism d. an active mind 37. Regarding the mind-body issue, Titchener referred to himself as a(n): Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 09: Early Approaches to Psychology a. interactionist b. epiphenomenologist c. occasionalist d. psychophysical parallelist 38. According to the text, the most important reason for the demise of structuralism was its failure to: a. study mental disorders b. seek pure rather than practical knowledge c. generalize findings d. assimilate the doctrine of evolution 39. What term did Brentano use to describe the fact that every mental act refers to something outside itself? a. Act psychology b. Intentionality c. Phenomenology d. Functionalism 40. To study mental acts and intentionality, Brentano used: a. the principle of contrasts b. pure phenomenology c. phenomenological methods d. the Clever Hans phenomena 41. For Stumpf, the proper objects of study for psychology are: a. the elements of thought b. elemental feelings c. mental phenomena d. physiological mechanisms 42. The supposed intelligent behavior of a nonhuman animal has often been found to be nothing more than the animal’s responses to subtle cues (consciously or unconsciously) provided by its trainer. This observation is called the: a. self-fulfilling prophecy b. Clever Hans phenomenon c. Stumpf phenomenon d. Würzburg phenomenon 43. According to Husserl, experimental psychology: a. is impossible b. the only valid type of psychology c. must precede a search for the essence of consciousness d. must be preceded by phenomenological analysis 44. According to Husserl, the study of intentionality: a. could lead only to an understanding of the person turned inward Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 09: Early Approaches to Psychology b. was the only true subject matter of psychology c. was more properly termed physiology than psychology d. could not lead to an understanding of the person turned inward 45. Husserl’s goal was to: a. create an anatomic portrait of the brain b. understand the neurophysiology of the mind c. identify the relationship between the mind and brain d. create a taxonomy of the mind 46. Husserl called the construct through which people experience themselves, other people, and the world: a. schema b. cognitive processes c. categories d. mental essences 47. Which of Külpe’s techniques involves giving subjects problems to solve and then asking them to report the mental operations they engage in to solve them? a. Subtractive reaction time b. Intentionality c. Systematic experimental introspection d. Pure phenomenology 48. According to Külpe, searching, doubting, hesitation, and confidence are all examples of: a. affective cognitions b. unconscious intentionality c. imageless thoughts d. cognitive phenomenology 49. According to Külpe, people who are given a problem-solving strategy that can be induced by instructions or by experience and that is used without a person’s awareness is called a: a. biased view b. mental set c. phenomenological schema d. apperceptive factor 50. The fact that a person can perform a task without being aware that they are performing the component tasks, like balancing their financial accounts without being aware that they are adding or subtracting, is consistent with Külpe’s idea of: a. mental chronometry b. unconscious inference c. cognitive consciousness d. a mental set 51. Which of the following best describes Vaihinger’s attitude toward “fictions”?

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Chapter 09: Early Approaches to Psychology a. They are acceptable in religion but not in science. b. They are the greatest cause of human distress. c. Without them, societal living would be impossible. d. They represent a distorted reality created by sensations.

52. According to Vaihinger, which fiction is at the heart of such concepts as morality and jurisprudence? a. Causality b. Freedom c. God d. Compassion 53. Vaihinger’s fictions were at the center of the personality theory of: a. Freud b. Rogers c. Adler d. Skinner 54. Ebbinghaus was the first to study learning and memory: a. from a neuroanatomical perspective b. as associative processes c. as they occur d. from a theological point of view 55. Ebbinghaus invented nonsense material to free his research material from the influence of: a. experimenter bias b. prior learning c. neurophysiological delay d. introspection 56. By plotting savings as a function of time, Ebbinghaus created psychology’s first: a. learning curve b. psychological law c. retention curve d. study of meaningfulness 57. Who was the first to demonstrate retroactive inhibition? a. Husserl b. Vaihinger c. Ebbinghaus d. Müller 58. Ebbinghaus is often mistaken for a(n): a. empiricist, but he was in fact a rationalist b. rationalist, but he was in fact an empiricist Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 09: Early Approaches to Psychology c. structuralist, but he was in fact an empiricist d. empiricist, but he was in fact a structuralist 59. Ebbinghaus referred to the difference between the number of trials it took to learn a list of nonsense syllables the first time and the number of trials it took to relearn the syllables later as: a. retention b. secondary memory c. savings d. meaningfulness memory

60. Describe the three stages of communication as described by Wundt.

61. How did Titchener explain meaning?

62. Describe Brentano’s act psychology.

63. Describe Külpe’s systematic experimental introspection.

64. What is the Clever Hans phenomenon, and what are its implications for psychological experimentation?

65. Why were mental essences so important to Husserl?

66. Describe the methods used by Ebbinghaus and what he found using these methods.

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Chapter 09: Early Approaches to Psychology Answer Key 1. d 2. b 3. c 4. c 5. a 6. b 7. c 8. b 9. b 10. d 11. c 12. a 13. c 14. d 15. d 16. b 17. c 18. b 19. c 20. a 21. d 22. c 23. a 24. b 25. b Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 09: Early Approaches to Psychology 26. a 27. b 28. a 29. b 30. d 31. c 32. a 33. d 34. c 35. a 36. c 37. d 38. d 39. b 40. c 41. c 42. b 43. d 44. d 45. d 46. d 47. c 48. c 49. b 50. d 51. c Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 09: Early Approaches to Psychology 52. b 53. c 54. c 55. b 56. c 57. d 58. a 59. c 60. Wundt argued that verbal communication was a three-stage process: (1) The speaker must apperceive his or her own general impression; (2) the speaker chooses words and sentence structures to express the general impression; and (3) the listener, after hearing the words and sentences, must apperceive the speaker’s general impression.

61. In his context theory of meaning, Titchener argued that, in accordance with the law of contiguity, every sensation tends to elicit images of sensations that were previously experienced along with the sensation. A vivid sensation or group of sensations forms a core, and the elicited images form a context that gives the core meaning. For example, a picture of a loved one tends to elicit a wide variety of images related to the loved one’s words and activities, thus giving the picture meaning.

62. Brentano called his approach act psychology because he believed that all mental processes are aimed at performing some function. He included judging, inferring, expecting, hoping, loving, and hating as among the mental processes and further stated that each mental act referred to an object outside itself. He used the term intentionality to refer to the fact that every mental act incorporates something outside itself. Thus, he distinguished between seeing the color red and the color red that is seen.

63. Külpe gave subjects problems to solve and asked them to report on the mental processes they engaged in to solve the problems. They were asked to report on the different types of processes they engaged in at different stages of the problem solving as well as their mental experiences while waiting for the problem to be presented, during the solving of the problem, and after the problem had been solved.

64. The Clever Hans phenomenon refers to apparent high-level intellectual feats by animals having been explained as responses to cues provided consciously or unconsciously by their trainers. This has an important implication for psychological experimentation because an experimenter may unwittingly provide subtle cues that convey his or her expectations to research participants, thereby influencing the outcome of the experiment.

65. Husserl described mental essences as the means by which people experience themselves, other people, and the word around them. He believed the study of mental essences had to precede any attempt to understand how people interact with the environment and indeed believed it was necessary to the study of all sciences, because all sciences ultimately rely on human understanding.

66. Ebbinghaus created a set of 2,300 nonsense syllables from which he selected a series to be learned. Using himself as the subject, he presented each syllable briefly, always in the same order, and continued this process until he could recite the whole list (mastery). At various time intervals following mastery, Ebbinghaus relearned the list. He called the Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 09: Early Approaches to Psychology difference between the number of trials to initially master the list and the time it took him to relearn the list savings. By plotting savings as a function of time, he produced the first retention curve. He also found that overlearning (continuing to practice the list after initial mastery occurred) reduced the rate of forgetting and that using meaningful stimuli reduced the number of trials it took to achieve mastery.

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Chapter 10: Evolution and Individual Differences

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. According to Lamarck, if an adult member of a species develops a trait, such as powerful muscles, that makes its survival more likely, the trait can be passed down to the adult’s offspring. This phenomenon is called: a. survival of the fittest b. the inheritance of acquired characteristics c. natural selection d. the law of effect 2. According to the idea of evolutionary associationism: a. advantageous traits are handed down from parents to offspring b. the organisms with the best adapted features will be more likely to survive and reproduce c. societies should function like species in nature, with the best adapted individuals thriving d. a person will persist in behaviors that increase their likelihood of survival and abandon behaviors that do not 3. According to the Spencer-Bain principle: a. the probability of a behavior is increased if it is followed with a pleasurable outcome and decreased if it is followed by painful outcome b. the organisms with the best adapted features will be more likely to survive and reproduce c. advantageous traits are handed down from parents to offspring, resulting in a better adapted species over time d. a person will persist in behaviors that increase their likelihood of survival and abandon behaviors that do not 4. Who coined the term survival of the fittest? a. Lamarck b. Erasmus Darwin c. Spencer d. Charles Darwin 5. Spencer’s application of the notion of survival of the fittest to the study of human societal behavior is known as: a. premature b. social Darwinism c. Lamarckianism d. the Spencer-Bain principle 6. Spencer believed that if the principle of evolution was allowed to operate freely: a. the world would be a jungle b. humans would become more animalistic c. animals would have become more like humans d. all living organisms and societies would approximate perfection 7. According to Spencer, the best government is one that: a. protects the weak b. protects people from their own animal instincts c. allows free competition among all its citizens d. is elected by a majority of reasonable people Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 10: Evolution and Individual Differences 8. Which of the following best describes the views of U.S. industrialists such as John D. Rockefeller and Andrew Carnegie regarding survival of the fittest? a. The development of large corporations and the elimination of smaller ones simply demonstrates survival of the fittest and is not evil, but rather the result of the application of the laws of nature. b. Employers have an obligation to provide employees with ample money to satisfy their needs. Healthy, happy employees are likely to produce healthy, happy offspring who will, in turn, become the skilled workforce of the future. c. Wealthy industrialists should be permitted to encourage the brightest, hardest workers to have more children by paying them more for each child they have, thus increasing the pool of bright, hardworking individuals. d. Belief in the theory of evolution rather than in creation by a divine being invites the wrath of the divine being and therefore bad for business.

9. What provided Darwin with the principle he needed to tie his many observations together? a. Lyell’s Principles of Geology b. Malthus’ Essay on the Principle of Population c. Spencer’s Principles of Psychology d. Lamarck’s notion of the inheritance of acquired characteristics 10. Who formulated a theory of evolution similar to Darwin’s at about the same time that Darwin formulated his own theory? a. Lamarck b. Spencer c. Malthus d. Wallace 11. According to Darwin, there is a struggle for survival because: a. there are individual differences among members of a species b. there are many more offspring than can survive in a given environment c. animals of any species are hardwired to try to kill one another to survive d. humans must decide which animals survive and which ones do not 12. Which of the following will be most helpful to an individual’s survival in a given environment? a. Being the fastest b. Being the most aggressive c. Having the best adaptive features d. Having the most strength 13. According to Darwin, evolution resulted from which of the following with respect to those accidental variations that proved to have survival value? a. Natural selection b. Sharing c. Inhibition d. Extinction 14. Which of the following best summarizes Darwin’s view of the evolutionary process?

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Chapter 10: Evolution and Individual Differences a. To evolve is to progress. b. Evolution just happens. c. Evolution always occurs in the direction of increased perfection. d. Evolution always occurs in the direction of increased differentiation.

15. One of the earliest conflicts Darwin had with organized religion was over: a. the age of the earth b. his study of animals c. his refusal to be a church member d. his comparison of humans and animals 16. Which of the following did Darwin believe about human emotions? a. Emotions are particularly important in modern society. b. At one time in the course of human evolution, emotions aided in survival. c. The expression of emotions is highly variable from culture to culture. d. The emotions of humans are qualitatively different from the emotions of nonhuman animals.

17. Which of the following did Darwin believe? a. Humans possess rational powers that make them qualitatively different from other animals. b. The difference between humans and other animals is only one of degree. c. Only humans have evolved long enough to have lost their aggressive instincts. d. Nothing significant can be learned about humans by studying nonhuman animals.

18. Which of the following is true of the relationship between Darwin’s work and the work of his contemporaries? a. Wallace’s work on evolution was largely plagiarized from Darwin’s work. b. Malthus’s ideas about competition for limited resources was elaborated on by Darwin. c. FitzRoy was an outspoken defender of Darwin’s work. d. Lamarck adamantly believed that species did not and could not change over time.

19. Which field depends heavily on inclusive fitness in their explanation of human social behavior? a. Behaviorism b. Sociobiology c. Psychoanalysis d. Cognitive psychology 20. What term did Galton use for the improvement of living organisms through selective breeding? a. Phrenology b. Eugenics c. Anthropometry d. Sociobiology 21. Which of the following did Galton believe about individual differences? a. They cannot be the result of evolution nor can they be inherited. b. They should be studied only if they involve positive attributes.

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Chapter 10: Evolution and Individual Differences c. If they are important, they should be measured. d. Their measurement is detrimental to society and should be avoided at all costs.

22. Which of the following did Galton conclude based on his survey of the knowledge and attitudes of 200 eminent scientists? a. The environment, including families and schools, plays an important role in intellectual achievement. b. Intellectual potential is only heritable for those with intellectual disabilities. c. Intelligence and scientific achievement have very little correlation. d. Schools that emphasize rote learning and strict discipline promote intellectual achievement.

23. Which of the following did Galton conclude based on his word association test? a. Responses can illuminate aspects of the mind that are not revealed by other methods. b. Responses tend to be closely related to the setting in which the test is given. c. Responses are so variable within a single individual as to make the test worthless. d. Responses are closely related to intelligence, so word association tests can be used to test intelligence.

24. What did Galton find about mental imagery? a. Only people with what we now call autism were able to use mental imagery. b. The ability to make and use mentally images is normally distributed. c. While children often use mental images extensively, adults rarely do. d. The ability to use mental images is strongly correlated with intelligence.

25. Which of the following is true of Galton’s “anthropometric laboratory”? a. In order to collect sufficient data, he paid participants to participate. b. He used extensive written tests similar to what would become Binet’s intelligence test. c. He studied male–female differences as well as the relationships among measures. d. He refused to provide individuals with their own test results for fear they would be discouraged or upset.

26. When changes in one variable are usually accompanied by changes in the same direction in another variable, the variables are said to be: a. correlated b. causally related c. regressing toward the mean d. genetically determined 27. Which of the following situations best illustrates regression toward the mean? a. Very tall parents tend to have children that are not quite as tall as they are. b. A very tall person is more likely to have children with another tall person. c. Attributes like height are inherited, but environmental factors also play a big role. d. Very tall children are more likely to have come from short parents.

28. Pearson devised: a. the F for variance b. the regression toward the mean c. the coefficient of correlation (r) Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 10: Evolution and Individual Differences d. the standard variation 29. Galton’s work has been described as idiographic. What does that mean? a. He was interested in the study of individual differences. b. His focus was on the commonalities in people. c. He rejected the study of those he regarded as abnormal. d. He believed science should serve the needs of society.

30. The approach to studying psychology that looks for generalized, common elements of the mind is referred to as: a. nomothetic b. correlational c. idiographic d. individualistic 31. The approach to studying psychology that looks for individual differences in the mind is referred to as: a. nomothetic b. correlational c. idiographic d. individualistic 32. Which of the following best characterizes Cattell’s approach to intelligence? a. He was adamantly opposed to Galton’s ideas that intelligence could be inherited. b. He believed it was unrelated to measures of sensory acuity or reaction time. c. He believed that systematic measurement was essential to the study of intelligence. d. He believed that intelligence was far too complex to be measured.

33. When Wissler evaluated Cattell’s measures of intelligence, he found that they: a. were very highly correlated with each other b. were far more useful with men than women c. predicted success in college with considerable accuracy d. were neither highly correlated with each other nor useful in predicting college success 34. In his research on hypnotism, effects that Binet believed were due to the power of a magnet were found to be due to: a. perceptual abnormalities b. suggestion c. low intelligence d. craniometry 35. Binet conducted his first studies of intelligence on: a. identical twins b. normal children c. children with intellectual disabilities d. his daughters

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Chapter 10: Evolution and Individual Differences 36. The goal of the 1905 version of the Binet-Simon scale of intelligence was to: a. distinguish between normal and children with intellectual disabilities b. distinguish among levels of intelligence for normal children c. distinguish among levels of intelligence for children with intellectual disabilities d. help children make reasonable career choices 37. The goal of the 1908 version of the Binet-Simon scale was to: a. distinguish between normal and children with intellectual disabilities b. distinguish among levels of intelligence for normal children c. distinguish among levels of intelligence for children with intellectual disabilities d. help children make reasonable career choices 38. The concepts of mental age and the intelligence quotient were introduced by: a. Binet b. Simon c. Terman d. Stern 39. Binet disagreed with Stern’s use of the intelligence quotient because: a. he believed intelligence was too complex to be represented by a number b. he thought the equation was too complex c. there was not enough data to support the quotient d. the quotient could not distinguish between normal and intellectually disabled children 40. Binet believed disadvantaged students could be taught the skills they needed to succeed in school through the use of: a. severe discipline b. mental orthopedics c. simplified assignments d. parental involvement 41. Which of the following was true of Spearman? a. He believed intelligence is largely inherited. b. He emphasized the importance of subjective measures of intelligence. c. He believed there was little reason to measure intelligence. d. He opposed the use of statistical methods in psychology.

42. Which of the following did Burt believe? a. Special education could substantially improve the performance of children with intellectual disabilities. b. The “g” or general factor of intelligence was largely inherited. c. Students with high intelligence should be paired with students with low intelligence so the former could help the latter. d. Data from the study of identical twins largely refuted the idea that intelligence is inherited.

43. The “Burt scandal” was based on the accusation that Burt: a. plagiarized other researchers Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 10: Evolution and Individual Differences b. had affairs with his research participants c. relied heavily on introspection d. fabricated data 44. Goddard’s study of the Kallikak family confirmed his belief that: a. the government must provide for the less fortunate b. intelligence level is determined mainly by experience c. intelligence is largely inherited d. intellectual disability can be overcome by special education 45. Goddard, along with several leading scientists of the day, believed that individuals with intellectual disabilities should: a. be given the same rights as any other citizen b. not be allowed to hold even menial jobs c. not be allowed to reproduce d. be identified and placed in special education programs 46. In what way did Terman revise the Binet-Simon scale of intelligence? a. He translated it into English. b. He added and deleted items until the average score for each age group was 100. c. He made it applicable to adults as well as to children. d. He freed it from cultural biases.

47. Terman believed that those with low intelligence: a. could not be moral people b. should have help from the government c. should receive special help in school d. did not need any special help because intelligence is not that important 48. The major conclusion from Terman’s study of genius was that: a. gifted children became gifted adults b. gifted children became more average as they grew older c. although gifted children remained gifted as adults, they tended to have more emotional problems than did average individuals d. “early ripe, early rot” 49. Who made significant contributions toward the understanding and education of intellectually gifted children? a. Goddard b. Wechsler c. Hollingworth d. Yerkes 50. Yerkes believed that immigration: a. was important to the vitality of the United States b. introduced new genes and couple build intelligence and creativity Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 10: Evolution and Individual Differences c. was morally imperative that all persons who wanted entry to the United States be allowed entry d. should be restricted so those with low intelligence could be refused 51. Which of the following is most consistent with the ideas of Herrnstein and Murray’s book The Bell Curve? a. It is crucial to provide early intervention services to at-risk infants and toddlers. b. There is very little evidence that intelligence is inherited. c. Because of the Internet, IQ tests have become obsolete. d. The best jobs with the highest pay go to the intellectual elite.

52. Which of the following did Wechsler contribute to intelligence testing? a. He developed the Army Alpha and Beta tests. b. He created separate tests for men and women. c. He created separate tests for heritable and non-heritable intelligence. d. He resolved some of the psychometric issues in earlier intelligence measures.

53. List and discuss two ways in which Darwin influenced the development of psychology.

54. Discuss sociobiology and evolutionary psychology.

55. How does Darwin’s notion of evolution differ from social Darwinism?

56. List three “firsts” of Galton.

57. Discuss Galton’s position on eugenics.

58. What did Galton propose about the nature of intelligence? What did his own research show?

59. Describe the nomothetic and idiographic approaches and how they have been used in the study of intelligence.

60. Explain Binet’s reservations about intelligence testing.

61. Describe Hollingworth’s work.

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Chapter 10: Evolution and Individual Differences Answer Key 1. b 2. d 3. a 4. c 5. b 6. d 7. c 8. a 9. b 10. d 11. b 12. c 13. a 14. b 15. a 16. b 17. b 18. b 19. b 20. b 21. c 22. a 23. a 24. b 25. c Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 10: Evolution and Individual Differences 26. a 27. a 28. c 29. a 30. a 31. c 32. c 33. d 34. b 35. d 36. a 37. b 38. d 39. a 40. b 41. a 42. b 43. d 44. c 45. c 46. b 47. a 48. a 49. c 50. d 51. d Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 10: Evolution and Individual Differences 52. d 53. Darwin asserted that humans were different from nonhuman animals only in a matter of degree, and thus much could be learned about humans by studying nonhuman animals. This was associated with the development of comparative and animal psychology.

Darwin carefully observed the development of his own son and noted when various reflexes, motor abilities, and cognitive abilities emerged. This was associated with the development of developmental psychology.

54. Sociobiology and evolutionary psychology propose that fitness is determined by how successful one is at reproducing one’s genes but not necessarily how successful one is at producing offspring. By emphasizing one’s genes, sociobiologists/evolutionary psychologists place an emphasis on kin relationships, since kin carry some of the same genes.

Thus, helping kin survive and reproduce helps perpetuate one’s own genes. Using this idea of inclusive fitness, it is possible to explain love, altruism, warfare, xenophobia, and a wide range of human phenomena.

55. Whereas Darwin himself believed that evolution was neutral rather than positive, proponents of social Darwinism believed that evolution means progress, and that societies would become perfect if less well-adapted individuals were allowed to fail in the competition for survival.

56. Galton invented the weather map and developed the concepts of pressure highs, lows, and fronts.

Galton proposed the use of fingerprints for personal identification.

Galton used composite portraiture and found that the more photographs he combined, the more attractive the resultant portrait was perceived to be.

Galton tried to determine which country had the most beautiful women.

Galton measured the degree of boredom at scientific meetings.

Galton measured the effectiveness of prayer.

57. Galton believed that intelligence was inherited, and this raised the possibility of the selective breeding of humans. He proposed that the general intelligence of people could be improved by encouraging bright people to have children and discouraging less intelligent people from having children. Galton called this eugenics. He proposed that couples be scientifically paired and that the government pay bright couples to have children and to pay for the education of those children.

58. Galton assumed that intelligence is a matter of sensory acuity because humans can experience the world only through their senses. The more acute the senses, the more intelligent the person. Further, Galton assumed that because sensory acuity is a matter of natural endowment, intelligence is inherited and, if intelligence is inherited, patterns of intelligence must run in families. Galton assumed that eminence was a surrogate for intelligence and studied how often the children of eminent families became eminent themselves. He found that the children of illustrious families were more likely to become illustrious than were the children of non-illustrious parents. Thus, Galton took an extreme nativist point of view.

59. The nomothetic approach looks for generalized, common elements of the mind, while the idiographic approach looks at individual differences. Galton, with his focus on the differences between children’s intelligence based on the eminence of their parents, was idiographic in his approach. Wundt and Titchener, who looked for overarching laws related to sensation and perception, were nomothetic in their approach.

60. While Binet believed that inheritance may place an upper limit on a person’s intellectual ability, he believed that almost everyone functions below their intellectual capabilities; therefore, everyone can grow intellectually, regardless of how they score on an intelligence test. Binet worried that teachers might give up on students who received low scores on an intelligence test. He thought that intelligence was too complex to be represented by a simple term or number (as in the IQ). He warned that extreme caution should be used when interpreting a child’s intellectual age because it was quite common for students to have an intellectual age that was lower than their chronological age, and that poor test Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 10: Evolution and Individual Differences performance did not necessarily mean that a child had intellectual deficiencies.

61. Hollingworth observed that just labeling a child as gifted was not enough, and she worked to develop educational strategies to help teachers meet the needs of intellectually superior children. She also argued against the idea that intelligence was largely inherited and that women were intellectually inferior to men, arguing instead that women reach prominent positions less often than men due to the social roles assigned to them than to any intellectual inferiority.

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Chapter 11: American Psychology and Functionalism

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. During which stage of early American psychology was the statement “Psychology exists for the sake of logic, and logic for the sake of God” true? a. Stage One: Moral and mental philosophy b. Stage Two: Intellectual philosophy c. Stage Three: The U.S. Renaissance d. Stage Four: U.S. functionalism 2. During which stage did psychology become a separate discipline? a. Stage One: Moral and mental philosophy b. Stage Two: Intellectual philosophy c. Stage Three: The U.S. Renaissance d. Stage Four: U.S. functionalism 3. During which stage did American psychology begin to emphasize individual differences, adaptation to the environment, and practicality? a. Stage One: Moral and mental philosophy b. Stage Two: Intellectual philosophy c. Stage Three: The U.S. Renaissance d. Stage Four: U.S. functionalism 4. The overlap between structuralism and functionalism illustrates Kuhn’s idea of paradigms because: a. they both researched the same topics but came to very different conclusions b. their assumptions, goals, and methodologies were distinctly different c. their adherents often got into spirited debates over the purpose of psychology d. they each came to the same conclusions using very different assumptions 5. Sahakian marks the beginning of the school of functionalism with the publication of: a. Dewey’s article “The Reflex Arc in Psychology” b. James’s book The Principles of Psychology c. Stewart’s book Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind d. The first issue of the American Journal of Psychology 6. While structuralists emphasized the contents of the mind, functionalists emphasized: a. the psychology of the mind b. what the mind is for c. the neurology of the mind d. what the mind means 7.

Which statement accurately describes a common theme among functionalist research? a. Functionalists were primarily concerned with describing the contents of the mind. b. Functionalists were more interested in what the mind “is” rather than what it “is for.” c. Functionalists wanted psychology to include research on animals, children, and psychopathology. d. Functionalists wanted psychology to be a pure science rather than an applied science.

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Chapter 11: American Psychology and Functionalism 8. According to which of the following should an idea be evaluated in terms of its usefulness? a. Structuralism b. Realism c. Pragmatism d. Nativism 9. According to which of James’s ideas were all consistently reported aspects of human experience worthy of study? a. Radical empiricism b. Religion c. Positivism d. Materialism 10. According to James, the most important thing about consciousness is that it is: a. personal b. continuous c. selective d. functional 11. According to James, what keeps people working at boring jobs and also keeps the social strata from mixing? a. Free will b. Habit c. Pragmatism d. The stream of consciousness 12. For James, the spiritual self: a. is that part of you known only to God b. consists of everything a person owns c. cannot be known by the person except through God d. consists of the person’s states of consciousness 13. James acknowledged that which of his concepts was similar to the older concepts of “soul” or “spirit”? a. Self as knower b. Spiritual self c. Material self d. Social self 14. James defined self-esteem as: a. the number of good decisions a person makes b. how moral a person considers themselves to be c. our awareness of others’ perceptions of ourselves d. a ratio of things attempted to things achieved 15. According to James, a person could increase their self-esteem by: Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 11: American Psychology and Functionalism a. finding a spiritual advisor b. completing formal education c. seeking positive and affirming companions d. both succeeding more and attempting less 16. Regarding experiencing emotion, which sequence, according to James, is correct? a. We see a bear, become frightened, and run. b. We lose a fortune, feel sorry, and cry. c. We strike a person and then become angry. d. More than one of these choices 17. What was James’s advice with regard to emotional experience? a. Pursue minimum goals in order to avoid frustration. b. Act the way you want to feel. c. Use free will to inhibit such experience. d. Give emotional experience full and uninhibited expression.

18. Myron is struggling with anxiety that causes him to dread going to a class that emphasizes in-class participation and group work and, as a result, his grade in the class is quite low. What would James advise him to do? a. Accept that his grade is going to be poor b. Act confident and he will come to feel confident c. Just drop out of the class d. Express his anxiety until it is extinguished 19. For James, by controlling which of the following does one control one’s behavior? a. Thoughts b. Instincts c. Education d. Social circle 20. Pragmatism maintains that beliefs, thoughts, and behaviors must be judged according to their: a. logical consistency b. consequences c. moral implications d. compatibility with societal and cultural norms 21. For James, tender-minded individuals were: a. rationalistic b. empiricists c. pessimistic d. irreligious 22. Most people agree that Shreya is tough-minded. She focuses on what needs to be done and settles in to do the work of getting it done, no matter what. James would argue that Shreya is a(n): a. rationalist Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 11: American Psychology and Functionalism b. empiricist c. pessimist d. materialist 23. For James: a. ideas cause behavior, but for Münsterberg, behavior is innate b. ideas cause behavior, but for Münsterberg, behavior causes ideas c. behavior is innate, but for Münsterberg, ideas cause behavior d. ideas are innate, but for Münsterberg, behaviors are innate 24. In his study and treatment of people with mental illness, Münsterberg attempted to strengthen the thoughts opposite to those causing his clients to have difficulties. He referred to this technique as: a. behavior therapy b. systematic desensitization c. reciprocal antagonism d. conscious psychoanalysis 25. Alex is currently in therapy and reports all sorts of negative thoughts, including feeling stupid and worthless. Alex’s therapist suggests that every time Alex has those thoughts, they should counter the thoughts with opposite thoughts, like “I am smart,” “I am capable,” and “I matter.” This is most consistent with Münsterberg’s idea of: a. behavior therapy b. systematic desensitization c. reciprocal antagonism d. conscious psychoanalysis 26. Münsterberg’s efforts did much to create: a. parapsychology b. cross-cultural psychology c. applied psychology d. dynamic psychology 27. Due to Münsterberg’s interests and work, he is known as one of the first: a. social psychologists b. forensic psychologists c. statistical psychologists d. educational psychologists 28. Münsterberg’s wrote on topics like employee selection and work efficiency, making him one of the first: a. social psychologists b. forensic psychologists c. industrial psychologists d. educational psychologists 29. Münsterberg died in relative obscurity because: a. other researchers were unable to replicate the results of his research Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 11: American Psychology and Functionalism b. his attempt to import German psychology into the United States had failed c. he tried to improve German American relationships at a difficult time d. of his emphasis on pure instead of applied psychology 30. Which of the following was of particular interest to Calkins? a. Self-psychology b. Psychophysics c. Metaphysics d. Color vision 31. Which of the following is correctly associated with Calkins? a. She developed the paired-associate technique. b. She rejected the idea that women should place their careers before marriage and family. c. She received little recognition during her lifetime. d. She earned doctorate degrees from Harvard, Radcliffe, and Wellesley.

32. Hall believed that each individual in their lifetime reenacted all of the evolutionary stages of the human species. What is this idea called? a. Recapitulation theory b. Parapsychology c. Reciprocal antagonism d. Sociobiological determinism 33. Which of the following best describes Hall’s views on coeducation of the sexes? a. He believed that coeducation would increase the achievement of both females and males. b. He believed that coeducation was a sign of social progress. c. He believed that coeducation could interfere with later sexual functioning. d. He believed that females would benefit from it but males would not.

34. Hall believed that masturbation: a. causes immediate psychosis or even death b. is a harmless and normal behavior c. can harm the quality of eventual offspring d. is far more damaging to females than males 35. Who was the first African American in the United States to earn a PhD in psychology? a. Dewey b. Sumner c. Calkins d. Münsterberg 36. Which psychologist’s research was instrumental in the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision on school desegregation? a. G. Stanley Hall b. Francis Sumner Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 11: American Psychology and Functionalism c. John Dewey d. Kenneth Clark 37. Who is commonly credited with the founding of the school of functionalism? a. James b. Dewey c. Hall d. Münsterberg 38. Dewey argued that analyzing the elements of a reflex caused the investigator to miss its most important feature, its: a. purposiveness b. biochemical correlates c. relationship to the mind d. relationship to other reflexes 39. Dewey believed that the best way to learn is by: a. rote memorization b. engaging in the activities to be learned c. listening to knowledgeable lecturers d. observing a knowledgeable person who acts as a model 40. Myra is taking an anatomy course and is struggling with learning the material. Which of the following strategies would Dewey recommend? a. It is best to just brute memorize what she needs to know. b. Make sure to attend the labs and participate actively in exploring anatomy. c. Listen carefully to the lecturers, since they know best. d. Watch others in the class, as they will offer clues about what is important.

41. Dewey believed that the goal of education should be to facilitate creative intelligence and: a. prepare children to live effectively in a complex society b. transmit traditional knowledge c. obtain increasingly higher levels of education d. strengthen the reasoning faculty of the mind 42. Which of the following statements is most closely associated with Angell? a. Coeducation violates a custom so universal that it expresses a fundamental human instinct. b. Pragmatism is the belief that if an idea works, it is valid. c. If we wish to conquer undesirable emotional tendencies in ourselves, we must mercilessly go through the outward movements of the contrary dispositions that we prefer to cultivate. d. Mind and body cannot be separated; they act as a unit in an organism’s struggle for survival.

43. According to Carr, which of the following is a necessary part of an adaptive act? a. A motive or need b. A cognitive process c. An opposing force Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 11: American Psychology and Functionalism d. A link to reproduction 44. Above all, Cattell believed that psychology should: a. concentrate on pure research b. merge with biology c. furnish practical knowledge d. follow the model of structuralism 45. Woodworth was primarily interested in what he called dynamic psychology, or: a. the unconscious mind b. motivation c. learning how simple mental elements combined into complex thoughts d. reflexive behavior 46. According to Woodworth, an organism will act differently in the same physical environment depending on what: a. stimuli it attends to b. other organisms are present c. need or drive is present d. innate ideas are activated 47. Woodworth was primarily a functionalist, but he had also described himself as having a middle-of-the-road attitude.

What term best describes his approach? a. Behaviorist b. Psychoanalyst c. Structuralist d. Eclectic 48. A major problem with the animal research performed by which researcher was that it depended on anecdotal evidence and was characterized by anthropomorphizing? a. Calkins b. Woodworth c. Morgan d. Romanes 49. The primary purpose of Morgan’s canon was to guard against: a. animal research b. introspection c. anthropomorphizing d. anthropocentrism 50. Washburn systematically studied several categories of animal behavior in order to: a. explain behavior as opposed to consciousness b. understand animal consciousness c. confirm many of the observations made by Romanes d. demonstrate that nonhuman animals are as intelligent as humans Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 11: American Psychology and Functionalism 51. In her studies of animal behavior (consciousness), Washburn’s use of controlled behavior to index mental events was similar to the approach of: a. Thorndike b. the comparative psychologists Romanes and Morgan c. the Gestalt psychologists d. contemporary cognitive psychologists 52. Who performed the first systematic studies of animal behavior for its own sake, without attempting to infer the cognitive processes from the observed behavior? a. Thorndike b. Washburn c. Morgan d. Titchener 53. Which of Thorndike’s laws stated that the strength of an association is based on how often the association is practiced? a. Continuity b. Exercise c. Frequency d. Contiguity 54. Which of Thorndike’s laws stated that reinforcement strengthened behavior, whereas punishment weakened it? a. Original law of exercise b. Revised law of exercise c. Original law of effect d. Revised law of effect 55. Thorndike’s contention that learning occurred without ideation brought him very close to being a(n): a. behaviorist b. structuralist c. operationalist d. materialist 56. Thorndike’s identical elements theory of transfer states that: a. the extent to which information learned in one situation will transfer to another situation is determined by the similarity between the two situations b. for the transfer of training to occur, mental elements must first be discovered c. learning difficult topics in school will make it much easier for students to adjust to society when they leave school d. transfer from a learning situation to a new situation will only occur if the two situations are identical 57. Which of the following best describes the fate of functionalism? a. It faded away for essentially the same reasons as structuralism. b. It was absorbed into contemporary psychology and has, therefore, lost its identity.

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Chapter 11: American Psychology and Functionalism c. It surrendered its focus on the mind and became the school of behaviorism. d. It was promoted by a few forceful individuals (like James), and when they died, so did functionalism.

58. Which psychologist developed ideas about child cognitive development that set the stage for Piaget? a. Romanes b. Baldwin c. Washburn d. Carr

59. List and briefly describe the four stages of U.S. psychology noted in the text.

60. According to James, what was the role of free will in determining behavior? Discuss his ideo-motor theory of behavior in your response.

61. List three contributions of William James to psychology.

62. Why did Hall believe the study of adolescence was important?

63. Discuss the work of Calkins.

64. Discuss the work of Kenneth and Mamie Clark.

65. Describe three ways that Münsterberg contributed to what we now call applied psychology.

66. Describe the early versions of Thorndike’s two laws of learning, and discuss how and why he revised his theory later in his career.

67. What happened to functionalism?

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Chapter 11: American Psychology and Functionalism Answer Key 1. a 2. b 3. c 4. b 5. a 6. b 7. c 8. c 9. a 10. d 11. b 12. d 13. a 14. d 15. d 16. c 17. b 18. b 19. a 20. b 21. a 22. b 23. b 24. c 25. c Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 11: American Psychology and Functionalism 26. c 27. b 28. c 29. c 30. a 31. a 32. a 33. c 34. c 35. b 36. d 37. b 38. a 39. b 40. b 41. a 42. d 43. a 44. c 45. b 46. c 47. d 48. d 49. d 50. b 51. d Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 11: American Psychology and Functionalism 52. a 53. b 54. c 55. a 56. a 57. b 58. b 59. Stage One: Moral and mental philosophy—psychology was part of religious indoctrination and to learn psychology was to learn the accepted religious doctrine Stage Two: Intellectual philosophy—maintained that sensory information should be accepted at face value and that selfexamination yields useful information Stage Three: the U.S. Renaissance—emphasized individual differences, adaptation to the environment, and practicality Stage Four: U.S. functionalism—practicality, emphasis on the individual, and evolutionary theory combined to produce functionalism 60. According to James’s ideo-motor theory of behavior, an idea of a certain action causes that action to occur. From the ideas of various possible actions, one is selected for attention, and that is the one that causes behavior and continues to do so as long as the idea is attended to. The will functions, then, by selecting one from among many ideas of action we are interested in doing.

61. Incorporated evolutionary theory into psychology Expanded acceptable research techniques by accepting any method that yielded useful results Studied all aspects of human behavior, thereby expanding the subject matter of psychology Influenced behaviorism, cognitive science, and existential psychology Had many students who went on to be influential 62. Hall urged the study of adolescence because during this phase, youth had to rely on instincts. The habits of childhood had been abandoned and the habits of adulthood had not yet been learned. Thus, adolescence was a perfect time to study human instincts.

63. Calkins developed the paired-associates technique to study the effects of frequency, recency, and vividness on memory. She became interested in self-psychology, rejecting what she saw as the sterility of experimental psychology, and was a pioneer in personality psychology.

64. Kenneth and Mamie Clark famously studied which of two dolls, one white and one black, black child preferred. They found that black children judged the white doll to have the nice skin color and indicated that they would want the white doll as a playmate. This study was instrumental in the Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education, which found the segregation of public schools to be unconstitutional.

65. Münsterberg treated many mentally ill people for free (since he was seeing them for scientific reasons) and created a Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 11: American Psychology and Functionalism treatment strategy called reciprocal antagonism, which involved strengthening the thoughts opposite to the thoughts that were causing a patient problems. In addition, he was the first person to apply psychological principles to legal matters, thus creating forensic psychology. A third contribution was his work on personnel selection, increasing work efficiency, and marketing and advertising techniques, all of which are part of what we now call industrial psychology.

66. Thorndike created the law of exercise and the law of effect to explain learning. The law of exercise had two parts: the law of use and the law of disuse. According to the law of use, the more often an association (neural connection) is practiced, the stronger it becomes. According to the law of disuse, the longer an association remains unused, the weaker it becomes. According to the law of effect, reinforcement strengthens behavior whereas punishment weakens it. However, later in his career, Thorndike abandoned the law of exercise since practice alone did not strengthen an association and the passage of time alone did nothing to weaken it. In addition, he discarded half of the law of effect because he found that reinforcement is effective in modifying behavior but punishment is not.

67. Functionalism disappeared because it was so successful in generating new disciplines, including industrial psychology, forensic psychology, developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, and ultimately behaviorism.

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Chapter 12: Behaviorism

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. Sechenov insisted that which of the following causes all behavior? a. Thought b. External stimulation c. Emotion d. Spontaneity 2. Sechenov: a. denied consciousness existed b. supported the use of introspection, believing it was the only way to understand mental processes c. stated that only overt behavior was reflexive d. postulated that both overt and covert behavior result from physiological processes in the brain 3. According to the text, the most important concept that Sechenov introduced into psychology was: a. the conditioned reflex b. inhibition c. association d. unconscious inference 4. According Sechenov, psychology could be studied in terms of: a. cognition b. physiology c. association d. philosophy 5. Pavlov won the Nobel Prize in 1904 for his work: a. on conditioned reflexes b. in physiology c. on salivation d. on the improvement of surgical techniques 6. Pavlov resisted the systematic study of conditioned reflexes because: a. he did not see how they could apply to the study of humans b. he was opposed to using animals in research c. they appeared to be the same as natural reflexes and therefore did not need to be studied separately d. of their apparent subjective nature and because such study would cause him to enter the realm of psychology 7. Placing meat near a hungry dog will increase the dog’s saliva flow. This is an example of a(n): a. unconditioned stimulus b. unconditioned response c. conditioned stimulus d. conditioned response 8. A man is hiking in the woods and a branch passes so close to his face that it brushes his eyelashes. The man quickly Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 12: Behaviorism squeezes his eyes shut as soon as he senses the branch is touching his eye area. His reaction of squeezing his eyes shut is a(n): a. unconditioned stimulus (US) b. unconditioned response (UR) c. conditioned stimulus (CS) d. conditioned response (CR) 9. Pavlov’s dogs learned that the sound of a researcher’s footsteps meant that the dogs would soon be given meat powder.

What used to be a neutral stimulus (the sound of the researcher’s footsteps) then caused the dogs to salivate. Salivating at the sound of a person’s footsteps is an example of a(n): a. unconditioned stimulus (US) b. unconditioned response (UR) c. conditioned stimulus (CS) d. conditioned response (CR) 10. Pavlov believed that all central nervous activity could be described as either: a. spontaneous or involuntary b. voluntary or spontaneous c. excitatory or inhibitory d. freely chosen or determined 11. Pavlov described the pattern of excitation and inhibition that characterized the brain at any given moment with the term: a. spontaneous stimulation b. spontaneous response c. cortical mosaic d. antecedent stimulation 12. If, after conditioning has taken place, a series of trials is presented in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented but is not followed by the unconditioned stimulus (US), which of the following will occur? a. Spontaneous recovery b. Extinction c. Experimental neurosis d. Disinhibition 13. If a period of time is allowed to elapse after extinction and the conditioned stimulus is again presented, the stimulus will elicit a conditioned response. This reappearance of the conditioned response is called: a. experimental neurosis b. secondary extinction c. spontaneous recovery d. disinhibition 14. Pavlov found that if he brought excitatory and inhibitory tendencies into conflict, the research subject’s conditioned behavior would break down, resulting in what he referred to as: a. spontaneous recovery Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 12: Behaviorism b. disinhibition c. experimental neurosis d. methodological behaviorism 15. Pavlov speculated that much human abnormal behavior is caused by: a. confusion of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli b. first-signal system c. a breakdown of inhibitory processes in the brain d. experimental neurosis 16. Pavlov called the stimuli (CSs) that come to signal biologically significant events the: a. first-signal system b. second-signal system c. cortical mosaic d. mind 17. Pavlov called the words that come to symbolize reality “signals of signals” or the: a. first-signal system b. second-signal system c. cortical mosaic d. mind 18. Pavlov believed that his work on the conditioned reflex discovered the physiological mechanism for what for centuries had been called which of the following by philosophers and psychologists? a. Associationism b. Behaviorism c. Functionalism d. Structuralism 19. Bekhterev suggested that in studying humans, which methods should be employed? a. Introspection and self-analysis b. The natural sciences c. Mathematics and logic d. Scholasticism 20. Bekhterev studied what Pavlov called the conditioned reflex. Bekhterev called it the: a. unconditioned reflex b. association reflex c. conditioned reflex d. mental reflex 21. Whose concentration on the overt behavior of organisms was more relevant to U.S. behaviorism than was Pavlov’s research on secretion? a. Watson b. Sechenov Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 12: Behaviorism c. Bekhterev d. McDougall 22. Which individual is known for their theory of cortical functioning? a. Bekhterev b. Luria c. Vygotsky d. Pavlov 23. Which individual is known for their work on cognitive development? a. Bekhterev b. Luria c. Vygotsky d. Pavlov 24. Watson learned from Loeb that plants and simple animals, because of their biological makeup, respond automatically in characteristic ways to particular environmental stimuli. This automatic orienting response is called a(n): a. disinhibition b. sentiment c. tropism d. unconditioned response 25. What did Watson and Lashley study collaboratively? a. Migration of terns b. Conditioned fear c. Human intelligence d. Mental illness 26. Watson’s research indicated that rats use which sense in learning to traverse a maze accurately? a. Visual b. Auditory c. Kinesthetic d. Olfactory 27. Watson and Lashley cooperated in “sports” research on archers showing that: a. extrinsic rewards enhanced performance more than instinctive motivation b. distributed practice enhanced performance more than massed practice c. massed practice enhanced performance more than distributed practice d. instinctive motivation enhanced performance more than extrinsic rewards 28. When Watson finally outlined his behavioristic position, Titchener was not upset because he (Titchener) believed that: a. Watson had described a technology of behavior that did not conflict with psychology proper b. it was more or less the same thing that he (Titchener) had been saying for years c. other psychologists would find Watson’s position silly Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 12: Behaviorism d. psychology was ready to become behavioristic 29. Which of the following did Watson’s objective psychology have in common with Russian objective psychology? a. Rejection of introspection as a research tool b. Use of mentalism in an explanation of behavior c. An interest in brain physiology d. A focus on cognitive processes 30. For Watson, the goal of psychology was to: a. solve the mind-body problem b. predict and control behavior c. discover the elements of thought d. prove that human animals and nonhuman animals are essentially the same 31. Which of the following is one of the four types of behavior Watson described? a. Explicit learned behavior b. Moral behavior c. Social behavior d. Cognitive behavior 32. For Watson, thinking was: a. internal speech b. imageless c. implicit, unlearned behavior d. explicit, learned behavior 33. For Watson, speech: a. was uniquely human b. was a type of overt behavior c. reflected the contents of the mind d. was implicit, unlearned behavior 34. Watson’s final position on instincts was that: a. human behavior is largely instinctive b. humans have only a few powerful instincts c. humans are born with powerful instincts but they are soon displaced by learned behavior d. humans have no instincts 35. Watson allowed for some influence of genetics on personality by saying that which of the following interacts with experience to produce specific behavior patterns? a. Bodily structure b. Innate ideas c. Intelligence d. Instincts Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 12: Behaviorism 36. Watson believed that, along with structure and some basic reflexes, humans inherit three emotional responses. Which of the following is one of the three inherited emotions? a. Shame b. Love c. Joy d. Anxiety 37. In their research on Little Albert, Watson and Rayner found that in addition to becoming fearful of the rat, Albert also became fearful of: a. birds and fish b. toys of any kind c. other furry objects d. things with names that rhyme with rat 38. With their research on the infant named Albert, Watson and Rayner demonstrated that: a. emotions could be displaced to a stimuli other than those that had originally elicited the emotions b. bodily structure interacts with experience to produce personality c. there are important individual differences among people d. intelligence is only partially genetically determined 39. By systematically moving a feared rabbit closer and closer to Peter as he (Peter) ate lunch, Watson and Jones: a. made use of procedures which would later be known as shock therapy b. eliminated Peter’s fear of the rabbit but not his fear of related objects c. inspired the famous story of “Peter and the Rabbit” d. eliminated Peter’s fear of the rabbit and reduced his fear of related objects 40. Concerning the treatment of children, Watson and Watson’s advice was to: a. pamper them b. treat then as small adults c. reinforce desirable behavior and punish undesirable behavior d. have as much bodily contact with them as possible 41. Watson made which of the following the almost-exclusive subject matter of psychology? a. Mental processes b. Instinctive behavior c. Overt behavior d. Consciousness 42. In his explanation of learning, which of the following did Watson accept? a. Thorndike’s law of effect b. Pavlov’s concept of the cortical mosaic c. The associative principles of contiguity and frequency d. Thorndike’s concept of a “satisfying state of affairs” 43. What was Watson’s final position on the mind-body problem?

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Chapter 12: Behaviorism a. Interactionism b. Epiphenomenalism c. Psychophysical parallelism d. Physical monism 44. Watson found that blindfolded smokers could not distinguish among different brands of cigarettes, making him a pioneer in: a. motivational psychology b. practical psychometrics c. applied psychology d. marketing research 45. Watson made use of conditioning in his advertising career when he: a. studied the role of motivation in purchasing decisions b. used basic psychometrics to understand preferences c. studied the effects of image enhancement on marketing d. used product endorsements by celebrities 46. What is radical behaviorism? a. The belief that behavior is innate b. The belief that behavior should be controlled c. The belief that behavior must be studied empirically d. The belief that behavior cannot be explained in terms of internal events of any type 47. Which of the following allows reference to internal events in explanations of behavior provided that those events are indexed by overt behavior? a. Radical behaviorism b. Methodological behaviorism c. Physical monism d. Psychophysical parallelism 48. Which type of therapy did Watson and Jones create when they helped cure Peter of his fear of rabbits? a. Psychoanalysis b. Person-centered therapy c. Behavior therapy d. Narrative therapy 49. What did McDougall include in his definition of psychology that Watson did not? a. The study of human behavior b. The study of animal behavior c. The study of human consciousness d. The study of neurological systems 50. The type of behavior studied by McDougall differed from that studied by Pavlov and Watson in that it was: a. reflexive Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 12: Behaviorism b. implicit c. purposive d. overt 51. A belief in the importance of which of the following formed the core of McDougall’s theory? a. Innate ideas b. Instincts c. Perception d. Overt behavior 52. McDougall stated that all organisms are born with instincts that provide the motivation to act in certain ways. Instincts have three components. Which of the following is one of the three? a. Perception b. Cognition c. Motivation d. Reaction 53. According to McDougall, most human social behavior is governed by: a. a single instinct b. rational plans of action c. mental telepathy d. sentiments 54. One of McDougall’s major criticisms of Watson’s position is that it: a. was too subjective b. relied too heavily on the concept of instinct c. cannot account for the most satisfying human experiences d. viewed both human and nonhuman behavior as purposive 55. Which of the following did Zing Yang Kuo find? a. What might be thought to be an instinctive behavior, such as a cat killing a rat, is actually based on life experiences. b. The principles of behaviorism could not account for the majority of human behavior. c. Mental illness is, in most situations, a learned behavior that can be changed through strict behavior modification. d. The basic goals of behaviorism, to predict and control behavior, will inevitably lead to authoritarian governments.

56. Describe the contributions of Sechenov.

57. Describe the contributions of Luria and Vygotsky.

58. Explain the concepts of unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.

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Chapter 12: Behaviorism 59. Describe the Little Albert study and, based on Watson and Rayner’s findings, explain how fear is established in children.

60. Compare and contrast the two approaches to behaviorism advocated by Watson and McDougall.

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Chapter 12: Behaviorism Answer Key 1. b 2. d 3. b 4. b 5. b 6. d 7. a 8. b 9. d 10. c 11. c 12. b 13. c 14. c 15. c 16. a 17. b 18. a 19. b 20. b 21. c 22. b 23. c 24. c 25. a Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 12: Behaviorism 26. c 27. b 28. a 29. a 30. b 31. a 32. a 33. b 34. d 35. a 36. b 37. c 38. a 39. d 40. b 41. c 42. c 43. d 44. d 45. d 46. d 47. b 48. c 49. c 50. c 51. b Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 12: Behaviorism 52. a 53. d 54. c 55. a 56. Sechenov sought to explain all behavior on the basis of associationism and materialism, rejecting the idea that thoughts cause behavior. Instead, he insisted that all behavior has external causes. Sechenov did not deny the importance of unconscious processes, but insisted they could be explained in terms of brain physiology.

57. Luria was interested in clinical neuropsychology and studied the functioning of individuals with traumatic brain injuries. By doing so, he developed a theory of cortical functioning that accounted for the neurological processes from attention through action. He also developed a series of assessment instruments for use with people who had experienced brain injuries.

Vygotsky was interested in child development and educational psychology. He suggested that thought and language both evolve during development. He was a pioneer in cognitive development and a forerunner of the cognitive revolution.

58. An unconditioned stimulus is something that causes an instinctive response in an organism; for example, putting food in a hungry dog’s mouth will cause it to salivate. The salivation in the presence of food is called the unconditioned response. If a dog begins to associate food with some other stimulus, such as the sound of a bell that is rung right before the dog is fed, then the dog may begin to salivate when it hears a bell, even though a bell ringing is a biologically neutral stimulus for a dog. Through contiguity and frequency, the bell ringing has become the conditioned stimulus, and the subsequent salivation is the conditioned response.

59. Little Albert was an 11-month-old baby who was initially not afraid of white rats. Albert wanted to touch the rat, and when he reached for it, Watson made a loud noise behind the child that scared him so much that he fell forward. Each time the boy reached for the rat, Watson made the frightening noise. A week later, the child was not interested in reaching for the rat, but Watson made the loud noise every time they placed the rat near the child until the child became afraid of the rat and would begin to cry the instant he saw it. Five days later, Albert was still as afraid of the rat as he had been and had generalized the fear to other furry things, such as dogs, fur coats, and so on. These findings showed that experience had rearranged the stimuli that caused emotional responses.

60. Both Watson and McDougall believed that psychology should be the study of behavior. However, they were very different in several ways. Watson was a radical behaviorist, which means that he thought only directly observable events should be studied in psychology; in contrast, McDougall was a methodological behaviorist, which means that he believed that internal causes of behavior could be speculated. Watson concluded that instincts play no role in human behavior, whereas McDougall made instincts the cornerstone of his theory.

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Chapter 13: Neobehaviorism

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. Which of the following did Comte believe? a. Metaphysical speculation is essential to understanding humans. b. Internal sensations and perceptions are all of which we could be certain. c. Humans cannot be studied objectively because cognitions cannot be known. d. Scientific laws are statements that summarize experiences.

2. Mach believed that: a. humans could be investigated objectively only by studying their overt behavior b. introspection was worthless c. humans could be certain only of their own sensations d. all science depends on metaphysical speculation 3. Logical positivism divided science into the empirical and the theoretical by combining: a. radical environmentalism and materialism b. existentialism and rationalism c. physicalism and empiricism d. rationalism and empiricism 4. If you define a concept in terms of the procedures followed while measuring the concept, you are using a(n): a. reflexive definition b. operational definition c. scientific law d. observational term 5. Eventually, most psychologists agreed with the logical positivists that: a. unless a concept can be operationally defined, it is meaningless b. psychology should not contain any theories c. empiricism and rationalism must be wedded together d. rational analysis is more powerful than empirical analysis 6. Physicalism was the belief that: a. truth could be found only what could be directly experienced b. the mind and the body are separate but work together c. all sciences should be unified and use a common language d. the environment was completely responsible for an organism’s behavior 7. Neobehaviorism combined behaviorism and: a. rationalism b. logical positivism c. functional analysis d. radical environmentalism 8. Which of the following is consistent with neobehaviorism?

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Chapter 13: Neobehaviorism a. Research on nonhuman animals cannot provide useful information about humans. b. All theoretical terms must be operationally defined. c. The learning process is of little importance to understanding humans. d. Metaphysical speculation is central to psychology.

9. Which of the following refers to the observation that “what is being noticed becomes a signal for what is being done”? a. Law of contiguity b. Law of consolidation c. Law of contrasting effects d. Law of comparison 10. The cornerstone of Guthrie’s theory of learning was the law of: a. frequency b. similarity c. contiguity d. contrast 11. Because he believed learning occurs in one trial, who among the following rejected the law of frequency in his explanation of learning? a. Pavlov b. Hull c. Watson d. Guthrie 12. According to Guthrie, the association between stimuli and which of the following is formed in one trial? a. Act b. Movement c. Skill d. Habit 13. According to Guthrie, practice improves the performance of a skill because it: a. allows many specific S-R associations to be formed b. allows insight to be gained c. allows a cognitive map to be formed d. strengthens the responses that lead to drive reduction 14. Which of the following best describes Guthrie’s view of “reinforcement”? a. A mechanical arrangement that prevents unlearning b. Drive reduction c. A satisfying state of affairs d. The confirmation of an expectancy 15. What was Guthrie’s one rule for breaking undesirable habits? a. Punish the behavior.

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Chapter 13: Neobehaviorism b. Reinforce the opposite of that behavior. c. Ignore the behavior d. Observe the stimuli that elicit the behavior and perform another act in the presence of those stimuli.

16. According to Guthrie, the effectiveness of punishment is determined by: a. what it causes an organism to do in the presence of stimuli that elicit undesirable behavior b. the amount of pain it causes c. whether or not the organism understands the relationship between its behavior and the punishment d. the consistency with which the punishment is employed 17. How did Guthrie account for forgetting? a. He believed it occurred as the result of unreinforced practice. b. He believed it was the result of the decay of the neural trace. c. He believed it occurred when individuals failed to pay attention to the stimulus configuration. d. He believed that is resulted from the replacement of an old association with a new one.

18. Who created a hypothetico-deductive theory of learning? a. Guthrie b. Hull c. Skinner d. Tolman 19. Hull defined which of the following in terms of the number of reinforced pairings between a stimulus and a response? a. Reaction potential b. Habit strength c. Drive d. Operant level 20. According to Hull, the probability of a learned response was called: a. habit strength b. reaction potential c. operant level d. reaction threshold 21. According to Hull, which of the following was a function of both the amount of drive present and the number of times the response had been reinforced in the situation plus other intervening variables? a. Habit strength b. Reaction potential c. Operant level d. Reaction threshold 22. Hull’s theory can be seen as an elaboration of the “O” in the S-O-R conception of psychology put forth by: a. Watson b. Pavlov Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 13: Neobehaviorism c. James d. Woodworth 23. In his hypothetic-deductive theory, Hull conceived of a process in which a(n): a. set of postulates are created from which empirical relationships are predicted b. small segment of behavior such as a reflex or a habit is isolated for study c. pattern of stimuli is experienced along with a response such that the two become associated d. organism learns to make a response that is instrumental in producing reinforcement 24. For Skinner, “mental events” are: a. certain bodily processes to which we have assigned verbal labels b. important determinants of behavior c. nonphysical entities d. modified by reinforcement contingencies just like physical events were 25. Concerning the mind-body problem, Skinner was a(n): a. epiphenomenalist b. interactionist c. occasionalist d. physical monist 26. Whereas Watson modeled his psychology after: a. the Russian physiologists, Skinner modeled his after Thorndike b. Thorndike, Skinner modeled his after the Russian physiologists c. the Russian physiologists, Skinner modeled his after James d. James, Skinner modeled his after the Russian physiologists 27. For Skinner, behavior elicited by a known stimulus is called which type of behavior? a. Respondent b. Selected c. Operant d. Reflexive 28. For Skinner, behavior that was simply emitted by an organism is called which type of behavior? a. Operant b. Respondent c. Selected d. Reflexive 29. Skinner’s basic methodology was to allow an animal to respond freely in an experimental chamber and note the effect of: a. stimuli on behavior b. reinforcement on type of response chosen c. reinforcement on stimulus presentation Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 13: Neobehaviorism d. reinforcement on response rate 30. For Skinner, the environment is important because it: a. elicits behavior b. selects behavior through reinforcement contingencies c. provides the organism with the opportunity to test its expectancies d. allows the organism to develop a cognitive map 31. According to Skinner, a reinforcer is anything that: a. reduces a biological drive b. confirms an organism’s expectancies c. provides the organism with useful information d. changes the rate with which a response is made 32. According to Skinner, punishment is widely used in efforts to modify behavior because it: a. is the most effective method available b. is reinforcing to the punisher c. weakens undesirable behavior just as reinforcement strengthens desirable behavior d. has the advantage of increasing stress tolerance in those who are punished 33. According to Skinner, the best way to deal with and decrease undesirable behavior is to: a. ignore it and thus put the behavior on extinction b. punish it c. reinforce it d. explain to the perpetrator why their behavior is undesirable 34. Skinner was content to manipulate environmental events (such as reinforcement contingencies) and note the effects of these manipulations on behavior. What is this called? a. Functional behaviorism b. Radical behaviorism c. Descriptive behaviorism d. Logical behaviorism 35. In all of the applications of Skinnerian principles, which of the following general rules is always the same? a. Change subjective reality and you change behavior. b. Change expectancies and you change behavior. c. Change reinforcement contingencies and you change behavior. d. Change patterns of stimulation and you change behavior.

36. Skinnerian principles have been used to create which of the following in a number of institutions to help reinforce desirable behavior among patients? a. Token economies b. Cognitive maps c. Drive reductions d. Molecular behaviors Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 13: Neobehaviorism 37. The Skinnerian version of behavior therapy: a. has yet to be used effectively b. uses punishment extensively c. believes that behavior must be altered with pharmacological agents d. assumes that abnormal behavior is learned in the same way as any normal behavior 38. How did Tolman feel about Watson’s and Thorndike’s explanations of learning? a. He disagreed with both of them. b. He agreed with Watson and disagreed with Thorndike. c. He agreed with Thorndike and disagreed with Watson. d. He agreed with both of them.

39. For Tolman, which of the following was the same as purposive behavior? a. Learned behavior b. Molecular behavior c. Molar behavior d. Reinforced behavior 40. Which of the following exemplifies molecular behavior? a. Salivating when a bell is rung b. Shopping for food in a grocery store c. Hiding from a stranger as a child d. Looking up a word in a dictionary 41. Who introduced the use of intervening variables into psychology? a. Watson b. Comte c. Tolman d. Bridgman 42. For Tolman, independent variables are: a. environmental events b. theoretical concepts c. variables that are unrelated to any other variables d. behavioral events 43. For Tolman, which of the following give rise to internal, unobservable events that, in turn, cause behavior? a. Environmental events b. Theoretical concepts c. Independent constructs d. Behavioral events 44. Tolman insisted that all of his intervening variables be: Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 13: Neobehaviorism a. mentalistic b. symbolic constructs c. constructed independently of any event d. operationally defined and tied systematically to observable events 45. According to Tolman, the first thing an animal develops in a learning situation is to develop a mental representation of the environment. This mental representation is called a(n): a. belief b. expectancy c. hypothesis d. cognitive map 46. During the early stages of hypothesis formation, an organism may ponder alternatives at the choice point. This apparent pondering is called: a. expectancy b. vicarious trial and error c. belief formation d. cognitive map formation 47. Tolman believed that: a. learning occurs independently of reinforcement b. if no reinforcement occurs, no learning occurs c. reinforcement governs classical conditioning but not instrumental conditioning d. reinforcement governs instrumental conditioning but not classical conditioning 48. For Tolman, motivation influences: a. learning but not performance b. performance but not learning c. perception but not memory d. memory; but not perception 49. Tolman defined performance as: a. completing a task in front of an audience b. an organism’s best effort at a task c. the translation of learning into behavior d. the ability to complete a task well 50. Learning that has occurred but is not translated into behavior is called: a. neobehavior b. latent learning c. operant behavior d. reaction potential 51. The results of the experiment run by Tolman and Honzik in 1930 indicate that: a. sunflower seeds are more powerful reinforcers than bran mash Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 13: Neobehaviorism b. without reinforcement of some type, animals learn practically nothing c. animals learn constantly but only translate what has been learned into behavior when there is an incentive to do so d. different species of animals learn according to different learning principles 52. Tolman’s influence on contemporary psychology can be clearly seen in the work of the: a. Skinnerians b. radical behaviorists c. information-processing psychologists d. Gestaltists 53. Which of the following have contemporary psychologists found to be true? a. Genetic influences can typically be ignored in the analysis of behavior. b. All responses made by organisms are equally modifiable. c. Logical positivism provides an excellent guide for productive research. d. Overt behavior can be, and should be, used to index cognitive events.

54. According to Guthrie, how does a habit become strong, and how can a strong habit be broken? Using Guthrie’s theory, what advice would you give someone who wants to quit smoking?

55. Explain Hull’s formula SER = SHR x D and provide an example.

56. Compare and contrast the approaches of Watson and Skinner.

57. According to Tolman, how do rats learn to solve a maze? Describe how hypothesis formation, vicarious trial and error, expectancy, belief, and cognitive maps contribute to this process in your answer.

58. What has happened to behaviorism today?

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Chapter 13: Neobehaviorism Answer Key 1. d 2. c 3. d 4. b 5. a 6. c 7. b 8. b 9. a 10. c 11. d 12. b 13. a 14. a 15. d 16. a 17. d 18. b 19. b 20. b 21. b 22. d 23. a 24. a 25. d Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 13: Neobehaviorism 26. a 27. a 28. a 29. d 30. b 31. d 32. b 33. a 34. c 35. c 36. a 37. d 38. a 39. c 40. a 41. c 42. a 43. a 44. d 45. c 46. b 47. a 48. b 49. c 50. b 51. c Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 13: Neobehaviorism 52. c 53. d 54. For Guthrie, a habit is an act that has become associated with a large number of stimuli—the more stimuli that elicit the act, the stronger is the habit. According to Guthrie, there is one general rule for breaking undesirable habits: Observe the stimuli that elicit the undesirable act and perform another act in the presence of those stimuli. Then the new, desirable act will be elicited by those stimuli instead of the old, undesirable act. For someone who wants to quit smoking, they should determine which stimuli make them want to have a cigarette (and there may be many since smoking is a habit that is associated with many stimuli), and do something else instead of having a cigarette in response to those stimuli. For example, when Guthrie quit smoking, he would eat an apple in the presence of the stimuli that made him want to have a cigarette.

55. In the formula, SER is the reaction potential, or probability of a learned response; SHR is habit strength, which is a function of the number of reinforced pairings between a stimulus and a response; and D is the drive. Thus, if a rat is trained to press a level for food, the probability that it will press a lever is a function of the number of times it has been reinforced with food for pressing the lever and its drive (how hungry it is).

56. Watson was interested in reflexive behavior, while Skinner focused on operant behavior, which is the behavior that is controlled by its consequences rather than by a stimulus. However, both researchers were radical behaviorists because they believed that behavior could be completely explained in terms of external events.

57. If a rat is placed into a new maze, it will first sometimes turn left and sometimes turn right. If the experimenter has arranged the situation so that turning left is reinforced, the rat will eventually develop a hypothesis that turning left leads to food and turning right does not. In the early stages of hypothesis formation, the rat may stop to ponder whether to turn right or left at a decision point—this is vicarious trial and error because the rat is mentally testing out the possibilities. If the rat’s hypothesis about getting food when it turns left is confirmed, the animal will develop the expectancy to find food when it turns left. If the expectancy is consistently confirmed, the animal will develop the belief “Every time I turn left in this situation, I will find food.” Through this process, a cognitive map of this situation develops—an awareness of all possibilities in a situation—for example: If I leave the start box, I will find the choice point; if I turn left at the choice point, I will find food; if I turn right, I will not; and so on.

58. The work of behaviorists and neobehaviorists remains influential today. However, its influence has diminished. There is greater interest in cognitive processes and the influence of genetics. In addition, there is rejection of the idea that all terms must be operationally defined. There remains, however, the commitment that the subject matter of psychology should be overt behavior.

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Chapter 14: Gestalt Psychology

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. For the Gestaltists, the proper subject matter for psychology is: a. operant behavior b. S-R associations c. mental elements d. phenomenological experience 2. For the Gestaltists, mental experiences as they occur to the naïve observer are called: a. operant behavior b. S-R associations c. mental elements d. phenomenological experience 3. The Gestaltists were reacting against: a. elementalism b. rationalism c. materialism d. holism 4. The Gestaltists took which type of approach to studying consciousness? a. Behaviorist b. Molar c. Molecular d. Introspective 5. Gestalt psychology incorporates the ideas of which of the following? a. Brentano b. Pavlov c. Titchener d. Wundt 6. Mach demonstrated that: a. there is a one-to-one correspondence between an environmental stimulus and the mental event it creates b. some perceptions are independent of any particular cluster of sensory elements c. psychology can never be a true science d. only overt behavior can be studied objectively 7. Who is associated with the idea that perceptions contain form qualities (Gestaltqualitaten) that are not contained in isolated sensations? a. Stumpf b. Ehrenfels c. Kant d. Wundt Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 14: Gestalt Psychology 8. Who is associated with the idea that conscious experience is the result of the interaction between sensory stimulation and the action of the faculties of the mind? a. Mach b. Ehrenfels c. Kant d. Wundt 9. Who is associated with the idea that the experience of space and time are independent of the elements that compose them? a. Mach b. Ehrenfels c. Stumpf d. Wundt 10. Wertheimer discovered the phi phenomenon when investigating the idea that: a. perception can occur without sensation b. our perceptions are different from the sensations that comprise them c. human perception is a skill that can be improved with training d. sensation often occurs without perception 11. Gestalt psychology has much in common with: a. structuralism b. act psychology c. behaviorism d. evolutionary theory 12. Gestalt psychology can be seen as an effort to model psychology after: a. evolutionary theory instead of Newtonian physics b. Newtonian physics instead of; evolutionary theory c. Newtonian physics instead of field theory d. field theory instead of Newtonian physics 13. Which of the following observations by Wertheimer launched the school of Gestalt psychology? a. Our perceptions are more than, or different from, the sensations that make them up. b. Humans are only quantitatively different from other animals. c. Objective reality and subjective reality are really the same thing. d. Introspection can be used to study the contents of the human mind.

14. Wertheimer found that if the interval between light flashes is about 60 ms, it appears that: a. both lights are on simultaneously b. two lights are flashing on and off successively c. one light is moving from one position to the other d. neither light is flashing 15. The “phi phenomenon” investigated by Wertheimer was the observation of: Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 14: Gestalt Psychology a. simultaneous sounds as one b. different colors when observing a spinning series of lines c. apparent movement d. flashing lights as one light 16. As an example of how U.S. psychologists were making a mistake in their widespread acceptance of operationalism, Köhler pointed to the operational definition of: a. memory in terms of recall tests b. intelligence in terms of intelligence tests c. perception in terms of vision tests d. behavior in terms of maze completion 17. Wertheimer demonstrated that explanations of apparent movement based on learning were not plausible by showing that: a. very young children experience apparent movement b. the phi phenomenon occurs in two directions at the same time c. primitive humans who have never experienced real movement still experience apparent movement d. even nonhuman animals experience apparent movement 18. In their explanation of apparent movement, Wundt and Helmholtz emphasized: a. learning b. genetics c. innate ideas d. psychophysical isomorphism 19. In the case of cognitive experience, the important point for Gestaltists is that: a. it is individual sensations, not the electrochemical force fields in the brain as a whole, that help us give meaning to experience b. sensations from the eye muscles and ear drum fully explain our cognitive experiences c. fields of brain activity transform sensory data and give that data characteristics it otherwise would not possess d. learning from past experiences frames the experience of psychological phenomena 20. According to Köhler, patterns of brain activity and patterns of conscious experience are always structurally equivalent.

This described the Gestalt concept of: a. the law of Prägnanz b. the constancy principle c. unconscious inference d. psychophysical isomorphism 21. With their notion of psychophysical isomorphism, the Gestaltists opposed the: a. law of Prägnanz b. principle of inclusiveness c. constancy hypothesis d. principle of similarity Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 14: Gestalt Psychology 22. The Gestaltists viewed the brain as: a. a passive receiver of sensory information b. a storage center for memory c. a dynamic configuration of forces that transforms sensory information d. as processing information from the bottom up rather than top down 23. For the Gestaltists, analysis of experience: a. proceeds from the parts (bottom) to the whole (top) b. is purely a physiological field analysis c. must be broken down into its component parts d. proceeds from the whole (top) to the parts (bottom) 24. The German word Prägnanz has no exact English counterpart but an approximation is: a. essence b. best fit c. completion d. organized 25. The law of Prägnanz asserts that: a. perception is a matter of adding up all individual perceptions that are experienced in any given moment b. all cognitive experiences will tend to be as organized, symmetrical, simple, and regular as they can be, given the pattern of brain activity at any given moment c. brain activity is caused by the constant stream of perceptions that we experience at any given moment d. there is a one-to-one correspondence between environmental stimuli and sensation in any given moment 26. According to the Gestaltists, what governs brain activity is: a. innate b. learned c. the invariant dynamics that govern all physical systems d. very much like the animal spirits described by Descartes 27. If a shadow falls on a white piece of paper, we still perceive the paper as white and not gray. This scenario illustrates: a. unconscious inference b. the constancy hypothesis c. the law of Prägnanz d. perceptual constancy 28. Köhler said that the brightness constancy exists because: a. the ratio of the brightness of the figure to the brightness of the ground remains constant b. of the constancy hypothesis c. of learning d. of unconscious inference 29. When stimuli are close together, they tend to be grouped together as a perceptual unit. This exemplifies the Gestalt principle of: Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 14: Gestalt Psychology a. continuity b. proximity c. similarity d. closure 30. Camouflage utilizes the Gestalt principle of: a. continuity b. proximity c. closure d. inclusiveness 31. Because of the principle of closure: a. incomplete figures are seen as complete b. objects that are similar tend to form perceptual units c. objects that are close together tend to be grouped as a perceptual unit d. stimuli that have continuity with one another will be experienced as a perceptual unit 32. For Koffka, which environment constituted the physical environment? a. Geographical b. Behavioral c. Neurophysiological d. Cognitive 33. For Koffka, which environment constituted subjective reality? a. Behavioral b. Geographical c. Neurophysiological d. Cognitive 34. According to the Gestaltists, when an organism was confronted with a problem, which of the following was set up and continued until the problem was solved? a. Cognitive map b. Behavioral environment c. Mental set d. Cognitive disequilibrium 35. Insightful learning occurs: a. when the things necessary for a problem’s solution are present b. when incremental learning occurs c. when an organism weighs all the options for problem solving through experience d. after rote memorization has been successful 36. Which of the following is a characteristic of insightful learning? a. The transition from presolution to solution is sudden and complete.

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Chapter 14: Gestalt Psychology b. The performance based on a solution is usually riddled with errors. c. A solution gained by insight is rarely retained for long periods of time. d. A principle gained by insight is not readily applied to other problems.

37. According to the Gestaltists’ idea of transposition, if an animal is trained to approach a medium gray card and to avoid a black card, and then is presented with a medium gray card along with a white one, the animal will tend to: a. approach the white card b. avoid both cards c. approach the medium gray card d. approach both cards about 50% of the time 38. Gestalt psychology’s version of the transfer of training was called: a. the identical-elements theory of transfer b. the law of Prägnanz c. transposition d. the constancy hypothesis 39. The behavioristic explanation of transposition offered by Spence emphasized: a. the transferring of principles learned in one situation to other similar situations b. productive thinking c. the generalization of behavioral tendencies d. cognitive trial and error and insightful learning 40. In his book Productive Thinking, Wertheimer stated that the type of learning that occurs when mental associations, memorization, drill, and external reinforcement are employed is: a. as important as any other type of learning b. insightful c. longer lasting than other types of learning d. trivial 41. Koffka believed that each environmental event we experienced gave rise to specific activity in the brain that he called a: a. memory process b. memory trace c. memory engram d. memory component 42. Like everything else they studied, the Gestaltists believed that memory was governed by: a. the law of Prägnanz b. psychological parallelism c. the constancy hypothesis d. the Zeigarnik effect 43. Whose explanation of natural events emphasized inner essences and categories? a. Newton’s Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 14: Gestalt Psychology b. Einstein’s c. Aristotle’s d. Galileo’s 44. Whose explanation of natural events emphasized external causation and dynamics of forces? a. Einstein’s b. Newton’s c. Galileo’s d. Aristotle’s 45. According to Lewin, who believed that uniqueness (individual differences) was a distortion caused by external forces interfering with an organism’s natural growth tendencies? a. Galileo b. Aristotle c. Newton d. Einstein 46. According to Lewin, a psychological fact was: a. anything of which a person was aware at any given moment b. something that could be proven beyond any doubt c. nonexistent d. anything that existed in the geographical environment 47. According to Lewin, which of the following consisted of all of the influences acting upon a person at a given time? a. Apperceptive mass b. Essence c. Life space d. Hodological space 48. Lewin’s contention that only facts currently present on one’s life space can influence a person’s thinking and behavior is called: a. a psychological fact b. the principle of contemporaneity c. the principle of contiguity d. the Zeigarnik effect 49. Lewin believed that a person’s life space consisted of: a. facts drawn from others b. interpersonal facts c. sociobiological facts d. both objectively real facts and imagined facts 50. What term did Lewin use for intentions as wanting a car, wanting to go to college, or wanting to go to a party? a. Achievement needs b. Self-esteem needs Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 14: Gestalt Psychology c. Zeigarnik needs d. Both psychological needs and quasi needs 51. According to the Zeigarnik effect, when subjects are allowed to complete some tasks but not others: a. the completed tasks are remembered better than the uncompleted tasks b. the uncompleted tasks are remembered better than the completed tasks c. neither completed nor uncompleted tasks are remembered very well d. complete and uncompleted tasks are remembered equally well 52. When one has mixed feelings about one goal, what type of conflict is this? a. Approach-approach conflict b. Avoidance-avoidance conflict c. Double approach-avoidance conflict d. Approach-avoidance conflict 53. Which type of conflict is most difficult to resolve? a. Approach-approach b. Avoidance-avoidance c. Approach-avoidance d. Double approach-approach 54. In their research on group dynamics, Lewin, Lippitt, and White found which type of group to be highly aggressive? a. Democratic b. Authoritarian c. Laissez-faire d. Largest 55. In their research on group dynamics Lewin, Lippitt, and White found which type of group to be highly productive and friendly? a. Laissez-faire b. Authoritarian c. Democratic d. Smallest 56. Which of the following was considered a positive contribution of Gestalt psychology? a. It moved psychology closer to elementism. b. It demonstrated the organizational nature of perception. c. It demonstrated that introspection could not be used if psychology was to become an objective science. d. It demonstrated the importance of evolution to psychological development.

57. What did Wertheimer think about much of the strategies used for education in his time? What approach to education did he advocate?

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Chapter 14: Gestalt Psychology 58. Describe the four principles of perceptual organization.

59. What are the characteristics of Köhler’s insight learning?

60. What does the law of Prägnanz state?

61. Describe Lewin’s three types of conflict.

62. Discuss the contributions of Christian von Ehrenfels.

63. Discuss the contributions of Gestalt psychology in the United States.

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Chapter 14: Gestalt Psychology Answer Key 1. d 2. d 3. d 4. b 5. a 6. b 7. b 8. c 9. a 10. b 11. b 12. d 13. a 14. c 15. c 16. b 17. b 18. a 19. c 20. d 21. c 22. c 23. d 24. a 25. b Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 14: Gestalt Psychology 26. c 27. d 28. a 29. b 30. d 31. a 32. a 33. a 34. d 35. a 36. a 37. a 38. c 39. c 40. d 41. a 42. a 43. c 44. c 45. b 46. a 47. c 48. b 49. d 50. d 51. b Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 14: Gestalt Psychology 52. d 53. c 54. b 55. c 56. b 57. Wertheimer was critical of the rote memorization used in schools and thought that only trivial things could be learned through memorization. He also criticized teaching emphasizing logic because it assumes that there is one correct way to think, and everyone should think that way. Wertheimer believed that learning and problem solving are governed by internal reinforcement since they are personally satisfying, and he advocated for creative problem solving and an individualized approach that allows each student to cognitively arrange and rearrange the components of a problem until they reach an understanding.

58. The four principles are the principle of continuity, the principle of proximity, the principle of similarity, and the principle of closure. The principle of continuity is the tendency to experience stimuli that follow some predictable pattern as a perceptual unit. The principle of proximity is the tendency to perceptually group together stimuli that are physically close. The principle of similarity is the tendency to perceive as units stimuli that are physically similar to one another. The principle of closure is the tendency to perceive incomplete objects as complete.

59.59.

1.

2.

3.

4.

The transition from presolution to solution is sudden and complete.

Performance based on an insight is usually smooth and free from errors.

A solution gained by insight usually persists for a considerable length of time.

A principle gained by insight is easily applied to other problems.

60. Because of the tendencies of the force fields that occur in the brain, mental events will always tend to be organized, simple, and regular. According to the law of Prägnanz, cognitive experience will always reflect the essence of one’s experience instead of its disorganized, fragmented aspects.

61. Lewin investigated conflict experimentally and focused on approach-approach conflict, avoidance-avoidance conflict, and approach-avoidance conflict. Approach-approach conflict occurs when a person is attracted to two goals at the same time. An avoidance-avoidance conflict occurs when a person is repelled by two unattractive goals at the same time.

Finally, an approach-avoidance conflict occurs when a person is attracted to and repelled by the same goal at the same time.

62. Ehrenfels expanded on Mach’s ideas about the perception of time and space and argued that all perceptions— Gestaltqualitaten—form qualities that are not included in isolated sensations. For example, a melody cannot be perceived by the isolated playing of the notes. Only when the notes are perceived as a part of a whole is the melody perceived. For Ehrenfels, the perception emerges from the sensations.

63. Gestalt psychology influenced many academic psychologists, even with the dominance of behaviorism. It was particularly influential in social psychology and clinical psychology. With respect to the latter, the development of Gestalt therapy by Perls was significant, although it has been criticized as lacking in specificity.

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Chapter 15: Early Considerations of Mental Illness

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. In today’s terminology, perceptions that do not correspond to the perceptions of other members of the community are called: a. delusions b. hallucinations c. contagions d. trepanations 2. Through the centuries, mental illness has always been defined: a. relative to the experiences of an average person b. as a disease that should be treated by experts c. by trained professionals d. as criminal behavior 3. Which model of mental illness assumes that abnormal behavior is caused by such things as grief, conflict, and frustration? a. Psychological b. Supernatural c. Medical d. Environmental 4. Which model of mental illness assumes that all disease is the result of the malfunctioning of some aspect of the body, mainly the brain? a. Psychological b. Supernatural c. Medical d. Sympathetic 5. Which of the following has been a common element found in all forms of psychotherapy through the centuries? a. Psychopharmacological intervention b. Talk therapy c. Trepanation d. Some form of ritual 6. Natural law is the eighteenth-century belief that: a. mental illness was punishment for a sinful life b. people with mental illness were witches c. mental illness could be cured by spending time in nature d. people with mental illness should have full rights in society 7. Contagious magic was based on the principle of: a. effect b. similarity c. contiguity Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 15: Early Considerations of Mental Illness d. proximity 8. A person who makes a love potion using a lock of the desired person’s hair is using: a. white magic b. contagious magic c. homeopathic magic d. psychological magic 9. Homeopathic magic was based upon the principle of: a. effect b. similarity c. contiguity d. proximity 10. What is the procedure of chipping a hole in the skull to allow evil spirits to escape? a. Trepanation b. Incantation c. Spiritual ventilation d. Spirit letting 11. Which approach suggests the patient must change their ways in order to alleviate suffering, and it is the clinician’s job to help them do so? a. Historical b. Psychological c. Supernatural d. Biological 12. For the Hippocratics, physical health was determined by: a. the condition of the brain b. the condition of the four humors of the body c. homeopathic magic d. contagious magic 13. For the Hippocratics, mental health was determined by: a. the condition of the four humors of the body b. the condition of the brain c. contagious magic d. homeopathic magic 14. The Hippocratics believed that hysteria afflicted only: a. women b. men c. young people d. old people Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 15: Early Considerations of Mental Illness 15. Which of the following is true of the Hippocratics? a. They encouraged the naturalistic treatment of physical illness but not mental illness. b. They encouraged the naturalistic treatment of mental illness but not physical illness. c. They encouraged the naturalistic treatment of both physical and mental illness. d. They encouraged the naturalistic treatment of neither physical nor mental illness.

16. Hippocrates used which of the following treatments for what we would now call mental illness? a. Psychoanalysis b. Bloodletting c. Proper diet d. Trepanation 17. The naturalistic and humane treatment of patients that was inspired by Hippocrates and Galen lasted until the: a. Renaissance b. collapse of the Roman Empire c. Reformation d. present time 18. During the Renaissance, abnormal behavior was generally taken as a sign of: a. sinfulness and witchcraft b. poor hygiene and infectious disease c. the emergence of a prophet or oracle d. troubled upbringing and low intelligence 19. With the fall of the Roman Empire, how did the treatment of mental illness change? a. Conditions became more human for patients with mental illness. b. The psychological approach began to flourish. c. Treatments became more scientific. d. The supernatural approach returned.

20. Who noted the effectiveness of herbal remedies in treating mental and physical disorders and claimed that health resulted when people were in harmony with the “universal spirit”? a. Paracelsus b. Agrippa c. Weyer d. Plater 21. Who wrote a step-by-step rebuttal of the Malleus Maleficarum (The Witches’ Hammer) and referred to witch burning as “Godlessness”? a. Paracelsus b. Agrippa c. Weyer d. Plater 22. During the Renaissance, people with mental illness were generally thought to be: Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 15: Early Considerations of Mental Illness a. bewitched b. demons c. angels d. savants 23. Until the end of the eighteenth century, the most common way of treating mental and physical disorders was: a. burning at the stake b. bloodletting c. praying d. fresh air and a balanced diet 24. As a treatment for the mentally ill, Pinel approved of: a. bloodletting b. mild punishment c. whirling in a chair d. bathing and mild purgatives 25. As a treatment for the mentally ill, Pinel argued effectively against the use of: a. trepanation b. physical abuse c. whirling in a chair d. exorcism 26. The York Retreat was founded by: a. Dix b. Pinel c. Tuke d. Chiarugi 27. Which institution provided freedom, respect, and medical treatment for the mentally ill and became a model for mental health institutions throughout the world? a. Bethlehem Hospital b. Willowbrook Hospital c. The York Retreat d. Quaker Retreat 28. Ospedale di Bonifacio, which provided freedom, respect, and medical treatment for the mentally ill, was founded by: a. Dix b. Pinel c. Tuke d. Chiarugi 29. Who, even before Pinel, argued that the mentally ill should be spared physical restraint and harsh treatment? a. Chiarugi Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 15: Early Considerations of Mental Illness b. Tuke c. Dix d. Rush 30. Benjamin Rush argued that: a. prisoners were beyond reform b. unwed women were highly prone to hysteria c. people with mental illness should experience fresh air d. bloodletting was inhumane 31. In the United States, who visited mental institutions in eighteen states within a three-year period, bringing about institutional reforms in most of those states? a. Pinel b. Rush c. Tuke d. Dix 32. The work of several individuals contributed to the improvement of physical surroundings and maintenance of the mentally ill. However, treatment was still lacking. Alexander and Selesnick suggested reasons for this poor treatment, such as: a. the belief that mental illness is linked with amoral behavior b. fear of the mentally ill c. lack of public interest d. suspicion of the communicability of mental illness 33. Kraepelin’s catalog of mental illnesses: a. brought order to an otherwise chaotic mass of clinical observations b. encouraged the treating of labels rather than individual patients c. gave support to the psychological model of mental illness d. is the predecessor to The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 34. Kraepelin thought that most mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia: a. could be cured through bloodletting and trepanation b. were problematic only because of the social perception of abnormality c. were learned behaviors that could be unlearned through reinforcement d. were incurable because they were caused by constitutional factors 35. Who was one of the first to systematically study the effects of drugs on various cognitive and behavioral functions? a. Witmer b. Wundt c. Kraepelin d. Hippocrates 36. Witmer is credited with which of the following? a. Creating psychoanalysis Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 15: Early Considerations of Mental Illness b. Founding the profession of neurobiology c. Providing the first comprehensive catalog of mental illnesses d. Demonstrating how the principles from scientific psychology can help troubled individuals 37. The training that Witmer envisioned for clinical psychology was most compatible with the education leading to which of the following degrees? a. Doctor of Philosophy degree (PhD) b. Doctor of Psychology degree (PsyD) c. Master of Arts degree (MA) d. Master of Science degree (MS) 38. The widespread acceptance of the medical model of mental illness in modern times resulted in: a. accepting the enigmatic nature of mental illness b. discouraging a search for psychological causes of mental illness c. explaining mental illness in terms of a person’s conflicts, frustrations, and emotional disturbances d. analyzing how environmental factors impact psychological well-being 39. According to Szasz, the typical diagnosis of mental illness most often reflects a: a. social judgment b. medical judgment c. neurobiological issue d. physiological issue 40. According to Szasz, psychiatry can be a worthy profession if it: a. attempts to cure patients of mental illness b. accepts the medical model of mental illness c. helps clients better understand themselves, others, and life d. recognizes that mentally ill people must be segregated from other members of society 41. Which of the following is true of Franz Mesmer? a. He dispelled the belief in animal magnetism. b. He believed that redistributing a person’s magnetic force field could restore one’s health. c. He proclaimed the use of exorcism as the only way to restore normal behavior. d. He uncovered fraudulent “natural healers.”

42. The fact that many people who will not respond to suggestion when alone with a physician will do so in a group is called: a. the Zeigarnik effect b. mesmerism c. the contagion effect d. animal magnetism 43. What was the outcome of Mesmer’s proposal that ten of his patients be treated by him and ten be treated by members of the French Academy of Medicine, and then the results compared? a. Mesmer’s treatment was far more effective.

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Chapter 15: Early Considerations of Mental Illness b. The treatment of the French Academy members was much more effective. c. The treatments of Mesmer and of the medical doctors were equally effective. d. Mesmer’s proposal was rejected.

44. After Mesmer sank into obscurity as a result of a commission’s findings about his practices, which of the following men gave well-received lectures on animal magnetism in the United States? a. Poyen b. Gassner c. Hell d. Puységur 45. While studying artificial somnambulism, Puységur discovered the phenomenon later called: a. the contagion effect and animal magnetism b. posthypnotic suggestion and animal magnetism c. the contagion effect and posthypnotic amnesia d. posthypnotic suggestion and posthypnotic amnesia 46. The phenomenon in which an individual is told to perform some act while in a hypnotic trance and then actually performs the act after being roused from the trance is: a. posthypnotic suggestion b. artificial somnambulism c. the contagion effect d. posthypnotic amnesia 47. Who made the phenomenon of neuro-hypnology (later shortened to “hypnosis”) respectable within the medical community? a. Mesmer b. Esdaile c. Braid d. Elliotson 48. The founder of the Nancy school of hypnosis was: a. Bernheim b. Charcot c. Braid d. Liébeault 49. In Charcot’s time, most physicians dismissed hysteria as malingering because: a. only women became hysteric b. it could be cured by hypnosis c. no organic cause could be found for its symptoms d. it appeared to be caused by unconscious thought processes 50. Members of the Nancy school believed that hypnotizability was: a. a sign of mental pathology Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 15: Early Considerations of Mental Illness b. perfectly normal c. a sign of sexual conflict d. the result of prolonged concentration 51. Charcot believed that hypnotizability was: a. perfectly normal b. a sign of mental pathology c. the result of prolonged concentration d. a sign of sexual conflict 52. Which of the following was an accomplishment of Charcot? a. He described a disease of the motor neurons. b. He discovered the process of hypnosis, as it is known today. c. He discovered the genetic link to Huntington’s disease. d. He identified the symptoms of schizophrenia.

53. Which of the following best describes Charcot’s explanation of hysteria? a. All hysteric symptoms are caused by lesions in the brain. b. Hysteric symptoms occur only in patients who are hypnotized. c. Because there is no apparent biological basis for hysteria, it cannot be considered a real disease. d. Traumatic experience causes certain ideas to become dissociated from consciousness where they become strong enough to cause hysterical symptoms.

54. According to Charcot, the sequence of events from trauma to pathogenic ideas, to physical symptoms can only occur in individuals who are: a. hypnotized b. inherently predisposed to hysteria c. below average in intelligence d. willing to cooperate with their physicians 55. What important lesson did Freud learn from Charcot? a. Hypnotizability is a sign of mental pathology. b. Only something physical can influence something physical. c. Hysteria is best explained as malingering. d. Psychological disorders can cause physical problems.

56. What was the treatment of people with mental illnesses like before Pinel’s reforms? What changes did Pinel make, and what results did he see in his patients?

57. How does the debate over the explanation of alcoholism illustrate the rift between the psychological and medical models of mental illness?

58. Describe Szasz’s ideas about mental illness.

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Chapter 15: Early Considerations of Mental Illness 59. Identify at least one key contribution each of Pinel, Rush, and Dix. 60. Discuss Kraepelin’s contributions.

61. What did Bernheim, the major spokesperson of the Nancy school, argue about suggestibility?

62. Describe how Charcot influenced Freud.

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Chapter 15: Early Considerations of Mental Illness Answer Key 1. b 2. a 3. a 4. c 5. d 6. a 7. c 8. c 9. b 10. a 11. b 12. b 13. b 14. a 15. c 16. c 17. b 18. a 19. d 20. a 21. c 22. a 23. b 24. d 25. d Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 15: Early Considerations of Mental Illness 26. c 27. c 28. d 29. a 30. c 31. d 32. b 33. d 34. d 35. c 36. d 37. a 38. b 39. a 40. c 41. b 42. c 43. d 44. a 45. d 46. a 47. c 48. d 49. c 50. b 51. b Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 15: Early Considerations of Mental Illness 52. a 53. d 54. b 55. d 56. Before Pinel began reforming the treatment of people with mental illness, such patients were chained, beaten, fed only enough to remain alive, subjected to bloodletting, and put on public display for paying sightseers. Pinel began by unchaining a small number of patients, improved rations, stopped bloodletting, and forbade all harsh treatment such as whirling an inmate in a chair. In addition, Pinel was responsible for many innovations in the treatment of mental illness.

He segregated different types of patients, encouraged occupational therapy, favored bathing and mild purgatives as physical treatments, and argued effectively against the use of any form of punishment or exorcism. As a result of Pinel’s changes, the number of inmate deaths decreased dramatically, and the number of inmates cured and released increased greatly.

57. People who accept the medical model claim that alcoholism is a disease that either is inherited (perhaps only as a predisposition) or results from a biochemical imbalance, a metabolic abnormality, or some other biological condition. In contrast, people who accept the psychological model are more likely to emphasize the alcoholic’s life circumstances in their explanation—circumstances that cause the stress, frustration, conflict, or anxiety from which the alcoholic is presumably attempting to escape. This debate illustrates the rift between the two approaches: the medical model focuses on physiology and brain chemistry as the root of mental illness whereas the psychological model focuses on psychological causes of mental illness, such as conflict, frustration, emotional disturbance, or other cognitive factors.

58. Szasz argued that what was often diagnosed as a mental illness really reflected problems in living or nonconformity, but not a true illness. Thus, mental illness was not a medical problem but rather reflected a social, political, or moral judgment. Szasz argued that professionals should focus on helping people learn about themselves, others, and life. He also argued that more people were hurt by the idea of mental illness than were helped.

59. Pinel was among the first, in modern times, to view people with mental illness as sick people rather than criminals, beasts, or possessed individuals. In the asylums of which he was in charge, Pinel ordered that patients be unchained and treated with kindness in a peaceful atmosphere. Pinel was also responsible for many innovations in the treatment and understanding of mental illness.

Rush was often called the first U.S. psychiatrist. Rush advocated the humane treatment of people with mental illness but still clung to some earlier treatments, such as bloodletting and the use of rotating chairs.

Dix caused several states (and foreign countries) to reform their facilities for treating mental illness by making them more available to those needing them and more humane in their treatment.

60. Kraepelin published a list of categories of mental illness in 1883. Until recent times, many clinicians used this list to diagnose mental illness. He based his classifications on what he believed caused the diseases, how much they involved the brain and nervous system, their symptoms, and their treatment. Categories he included were dementia praecox, paranoia, manic depression, and neurosis. Kraepelin also systematically studied the effects of drugs on cognitive and behavioral functions and was thus among the first psychopharmacologists.

61. Bernheim argued that all humans are suggestible, but some are more suggestible than others, and highly suggestible people are the easiest to hypnotize. Furthermore, Bernheim found that whatever a highly suggestible patient believed would improve his or her symptoms usually did so.

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Chapter 15: Early Considerations of Mental Illness

62. Charcot was particularly interested in what was, in his time, called hysteria, in which no organic cause could be found for the patient’s physical symptoms. Charcot rejected the idea that the patients were malingering and started out with the medical model, assuming that the patients had some sort of hereditary, progressive, and irreversible neurological degeneration. Noting that many of his patients had experienced a trauma before the onset of symptoms, Charcot suggested that the trauma may have caused ideas that, in turn, caused the symptoms of hysteria. Charcot moved from his previous medicalistic positivism and suggested that hysteria had psychological causes. Freud was studying with Charcot at the time Charcot was developing these ideas, and Freud accepted them, believing that ideas could lodge in the unconscious mind and produce physical symptoms.

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Chapter 16: Psychoanalysis

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. Who suggested a threshold above which an idea is conscious and below which an idea is unconscious, and proposed a conflict model of the mind according to which ideas struggle for conscious expression? a. Leibniz b. Herbart c. Schopenhauer d. Brentano 2. Who described human existence as consisting of a constant struggle between conflicting emotions and tendencies? a. Leibniz b. Herbart c. Goethe d. Brentano 3. Who likened the mind to an iceberg with the conscious mind being only a tiny tip? a. Leibniz b. Herbart c. Goethe d. Fechner 4. Whose monadology proposed levels of awareness from clear to unaware? a. Leibniz b. Herbart c. Goethe d. Fechner 5. Who is credited as the first to discover the processes of sublimation, repression, and resistance? a. Herbart b. Leibniz c. Schopenhauer d. Freud 6. According to the text, Freud’s most original contribution to psychology was the: a. concept of infantile sexuality b. analysis of dreams c. concept of the unconscious mind d. crystalizing others’ ideas into a theory 7. During his early career, Freud first made a name for himself as a: a. pharmacist b. clinical psychologist c. physicist d. neuroanatomist Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 16: Psychoanalysis 8. Breuer observed that every time he traced a symptom to its origin, it was usually a traumatic experience that caused physical symptoms. These are known as: a. pathogenic ideas b. apperceptive ideas c. complex ideas d. cathartic ideas 9. Because Breuer found that Anna O.’s condition improved following the emotional release that came from expressing a pathogenic idea, his treatment is called: a. countertransference b. the cathartic method c. transference d. nondirective 10. If during psychoanalysis, the therapist develops strong emotional feelings toward the patient, what has occurred? a. Resistance b. Transference c. Countertransference d. Anticathexis 11. When a patient expresses emotions toward the therapist that once were expressed toward another person, this is called: a. resistance b. transference c. countertransference d. anticathexis 12. While in psychoanalysis, the patient stops short of realizing the crucial event. This is called: a. transference b. catharsis c. pseudomemory d. resistance 13. At one point, Freud believed that adult hysteria was the result of an actual sexual incident that occurred in the life of the patient. This was called the: a. seduction theory b. theory of catharsis c. theory of countertransference d. Oedipus complex 14. Freud believed that his major mistake was concluding that the childhood seductions reported to him by his patients: a. were literally true b. were imagined rather than real c. had no effect on adult personality d. affected the id only Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 16: Psychoanalysis 15. According to Freud, both hysterical symptoms and dreams could be: a. viewed as symbolic manifestations of repressed traumatic thoughts b. discarded during the therapeutic process c. taken at face value without needing to know what they symbolized d. analyzed quite simply even by individuals with minimal professional training 16. According to Freud, what a dream appears to be about is which type of content? a. Manifest b. Latent c. Primary d. Pleasurable 17. According to Freud, what a dream is really about is which type of content? a. Latent b. Manifest c. Secondary d. Reality 18. Freud concluded that every dream provides: a. transference b. cathexis c. wish fulfillment d. anticathexis 19. Which idea refers to a symbolic expression of a desire that someone could not express directly without experiencing anxiety? a. Transference b. Cathexis c. Wish fulfillment d. Anticathexis 20. In dream analysis, displacement occurs when: a. we dream of something symbolically similar to an anxiety-provoking event b. one element of a dream symbolizes several things in waking life c. we substitute our real desires for imagined ones d. we forget our dreams after we awaken 21. According to Freud, the Oedipus complex is the tendency for: a. young males to desire their mothers and be jealous of their fathers b. young males to repress their desires for the same or opposite sex c. young females to be envious of the fact that their fathers have a penis d. young females to repress their sexual desires for their fathers 22. In Psychopathology of Everyday Life, Freud refers to minor errors in everyday living such as slips of the tongue, forgetting things, and small accidents. These are called: Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 16: Psychoanalysis a. parapraxes b. overdeterminations c. wish fulfillments d. thanatos 23. In Freudian theory, what does it mean for a phenomenon to be overdetermined? a. It is biological rather than psychological. b. It has been revealed in dreams. c. It has two or more causes. d. It is common, but not important.

24. According to Freud, the which of the following contains all instincts and is the driving force of personality? a. Id b. Ego c. Superego d. Preconscious 25. The collective energy associated with the instincts in the id is called the: a. reflex action b. primary process c. libido d. eros 26. Which of the following accounts for most human behavior? a. Reflex action b. Primary process c. Libido d. Eros 27. What is the ego’s job? a. To gather energy toward fulfilling an instinctive need b. To match the wishes of the id with their counterparts in the physical environment c. To learn what society wants d. To internalize social norms and develop a conscience 28. The ego is governed by the: a. pleasure principle b. reality principle c. primary principle d. Oedipal principle 29. When does neurotic anxiety arise? a. When the id identifies too many instinctive needs at one time b. When the ego anticipates that it will be overwhelmed by the id Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 16: Psychoanalysis c. When the superego cannot regulate the person’s actions d. When the superego lacks a conscience 30. What is the fundamental ego defense mechanism because it is involved in all of the other defense mechanisms? a. Sublimation b. Projection c. Identification d. Repression 31. Freud considered such things as poetry, art, religion, and baseball to be examples of: a. rationalization b. projection c. sublimation d. reaction formation 32. Which ego defense mechanism involves seeing the causes of failure and undesirable urges as “out there” instead of in one’s self? a. Sublimation b. Projection c. Rationalization d. Identification 33. Raj feels insecure about his own masculinity but rather than dealing with those thoughts and feelings, he acts in an exaggeratedly masculine fashion and is quite aggressive and domineering. According to Freud, this exemplifies: a. projection b. displacement c. reaction formation d. rationalization 34. According to Freud’s theory, what is an anal-expulsive character like? a. Sarcastic, cynical, and aggressive b. Dependent and gullible c. Generous, messy, or wasteful d. Stingy, orderly, and perhaps perfectionistic 35. Which of the following best describes Elizabeth Loftus’s position concerning repressed memories? a. They exist more in the minds of psychotherapists than in the minds of patients. b. Males tend to repress memories of childhood sexual abuse more than females. c. Females tend to repress memories of childhood memories of sexual abuse more than males. d. Recovering repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse should be the single most important goal of psychotherapy.

36. Anna Freud not only perpetuated her father’s ideas, but she also extended them into new areas such as: a. child analysis b. marriage counseling Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 16: Psychoanalysis c. confidence building d. the treatment of depression 37. According to Melanie Klein, notions of good and bad, and right and wrong, come from: a. an infant’s interactions with his or her mother’s breast during the oral stage b. a child’s religious training c. the modeling experiences provided by a child’s parents d. the internalization of parental values during the phallic stage of development 38. Melanie Klein believed that children as young as two years of age could be psychoanalyzed by examining their: a. dreams b. free associations c. play activities d. parents 39. Anna Freud believed that the superego develops in the: a. oral stage, while Klein believed it develops in the phallic stage b. phallic stage, while Klein believed it develops in the oral stage c. oral stage, while Klein believed it develops in the anal stage d. phallic stage, while Klein believed it develops in the phallic stage 40. Sigmund Freud viewed the ego defenses as obstacles to the understanding of the unconscious; Anna Freud viewed them: a. as having independent importance b. in the same way c. as offering no help in understanding abnormal behavior d. as a window into the unconscious 41. According to Anna Freud, when a person adopts the values of a feared person, it is called: a. altruistic surrender b. synchronicity c. identification with the aggressor d. displacement of the ego 42. Jung saw the libidinal energy as: a. cathartic energy b. a creative life force c. sexual energy d. a growth force 43. According to Jung, the anima provided: a. the mature component of a child’s personality and a framework within which children could interact with adults b. the childlike component of the adult personality and a framework within which adults could interact with children Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 16: Psychoanalysis c. the masculine component of the female personality and a framework within which females can interact with males d. the feminine component of the male personality and a framework within which males can interact with females 44. According to Jung, the animus provided: a. the mature component of a child’s personality and a framework within which children could interact with adults b. the childlike component of the adult personality and a framework within which adults could interact with children c. the masculine component of the female personality and a framework within which females can interact with males d. the feminine component of the male personality and a framework within which males can interact with females 45. For Jung, self-actualization was: a. the harmonious blending of all aspects of the personality b. achieving a high sense of self-worth c. having a career one could be passionate about d. when an artist experiences creative flow 46. The two major orientations or attitudes described by Jung are: a. animus and anima b. persona and shadow c. inferiority and superiority d. introversion and extroversion 47. According to Jung’s theory, meaningful coincidence means approximately the same as which of the following? a. Individuation b. Teleology c. Synchronicity d. Self-actualization 48. For Jung, dream analysis: a. provides a window to the collective unconscious b. helps us understand the ego c. helps determine which aspects of the psyche were being adequately expressed and which were not d. provides a way to understand the interaction of the animus and the anima 49. According to Jung, which of the following is the process by which the various components of the personality are manifested within the context of a person’s life? a. Teleology b. Displacement c. Individuation d. Thanatos Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 16: Psychoanalysis 50. According to Adler, through which of the following can a person adjust to a weakness in one part of their body by developing strengths in other parts? a. Displacement b. Compensation c. Overcompensation d. Sublimation 51. For Adler, feelings of inferiority can act either as: a. a stimulus for positive growth or a stimulus for aggression b. a stimulus for positive growth or a disabling force c. a source of depression or a force for anger d. a source of disengagement or a source of humility 52. According to Adler, which of the following describes the conceptual development of a child? a. Lifestyle → guiding fictions → worldview b. Guiding fictions → worldview → lifestyle c. Lifestyle → worldview → guiding fictions d. Worldview → guiding fictions → lifestyle 53. Adler departed from Freudian theory with his concept of creative self, in which he claimed that: a. the ego, rather than the superego, forms a person’s conscience b. people needed to reach self-actualization in order to experience a normal life c. humans did not need to be victims of their past, their environment, or their biological inheritance d. each individual relied upon artistic expression of some form to express their repressed desires 54. Of all human relationships, Horney believed which relationship to be the most important? a. Brother and sister b. Husband and wife c. Friends d. Parent and child 55. The compliant type adjustment pattern involves using a. overcompensation b. moving toward people c. moving against people d. moving away from people 56. Horney believed that women often feel inferior to men because: a. women are physically inferior to men b. of penis envy c. women are culturally inferior to men d. anatomy is destiny

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Chapter 16: Psychoanalysis 57. List four theorists whose work inspired Freud’s and the contributions of each.

58. Briefly describe the role of the id, the ego, and the superego in Freudian theory.

59. Explain three of the common criticisms of Freud and his theory.

60. Describe Elizabeth Loftus’s position concerning repressed memories.

61. Describe Anna Freud’s ideas about defense mechanisms.

62. Describe Jung’s concepts of the personal unconscious and collective unconscious.

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Chapter 16: Psychoanalysis Answer Key 1. b 2. c 3. d 4. a 5. c 6. d 7. d 8. a 9. b 10. c 11. b 12. d 13. a 14. b 15. a 16. a 17. a 18. c 19. c 20. a 21. a 22. a 23. c 24. a 25. c Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 16: Psychoanalysis 26. c 27. b 28. b 29. b 30. d 31. c 32. b 33. c 34. c 35. a 36. a 37. a 38. c 39. b 40. a 41. c 42. b 43. b 44. c 45. a 46. d 47. c 48. c 49. c 50. b 51. b Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 16: Psychoanalysis 52. d 53. c 54. d 55. b 56. c 57. Leibniz’s monadology proposed levels of awareness from clear to unaware.

Goethe described human existence as consisting of a constant struggle between conflicting emotions and tendencies, which no doubt influenced Freud, as Goethe was one of Freud’s favorite authors.

Herbart suggested that there was a threshold above which an idea is conscious and below which an idea is unconscious.

Schopenhauer believed that humans were governed more by irrational desires than by reason and anticipated Freud’s concepts of repression and sublimation.

Nietzsche saw humans as engaged in a perpetual battle between the irrational and the rational.

Fechner used the idea of a threshold and likened the mind to an iceberg with the conscious mind being only a tiny tip.

Darwin argued that humans, like nonhuman animals, are motivated by instincts rather than reason.

Helmholtz’s materialism permeated much of medicine and influenced Freud, but Freud eventually abandoned it.

Hartman’s three types of unconsciousness: processes that govern all natural phenomena; the physiological unconscious that directs bodily processes; and the psychological unconscious, which is the source of all behavior.

58. The id is the generative force of the personality which contains all of a person’s instincts. When a need arises, the id wants immediate gratification of that need. The ego is aware of both the id and the physical world, and its job is to match the wishes of the id with their counterparts in the physical world. However, the ego is tempered by the superego, which is the moral arm of personality that is formed through socialization into a culture’s norms.

59. Answers will vary, but students should explain three of the following: method of data collection (no controlled experimentation and unrepresentative samples); dogmatism (no tolerance of ideas that conflicted with his own); overemphasis on sex; the length, cost, and limited effectiveness of psychoanalysis; lack of falsifiability (nothing a person could do would be contrary to the theory).

60. Loftus acknowledges the tragedy of child sexual abuse but questions whether such memories can be repressed and subsequently recovered. Based on her own research into false memories, she concluded that claiming such memories may satisfy a need in some people to provide a logical explanation for confusing or distressing feelings. She also notes that therapists may ask questions in such a way as to elicit behaviors and experiences that are thought to be characteristic of people who have been abused, thereby creating a social reality in which they have been abused.

61. While Sigmund Freud saw defense mechanisms as impediments to understanding, Anna Freud saw them as having independent importance as mediators of adjustment to social and biological needs. She also added two additional defense mechanisms:  

Altruistic surrender in which a person gives up their own ambitions and lives vicariously by identifying with another person’s satisfactions and frustrations Identification with the aggressor in which a person adopts the values and mannerisms of a feared person as their own

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Chapter 16: Psychoanalysis 62. Jung combined the Freudian notions of the preconscious and the unconscious into the personal unconscious, which consists of experiences that had either been repressed or simply forgotten—any material from a person’s lifetime that for one reason or another is not in consciousness. The collective unconscious, which Jung considered to be the deepest and most powerful component of the personality, contains the common experiences that humans have had through the eons.

Jung believed that these common experiences are recorded and inherited as predispositions to respond emotionally to certain categories of experience.

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Chapter 17: Humanistic Psychology

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. According to the humanistic psychologists, behaviorism neglected: a. rational thought b. moral consciousness c. the uniqueness of humans d. objective reality 2. According to the humanistic psychologists, psychoanalysis focused on: a. external forces b. the role of memory c. the abnormal d. subjective reality 3. Humanistic psychology contrasts with most other types of psychology because: a. it assumes determinism in explaining behavior b. it assumes people are not free to choose their own type of existence c. it proposes that the most important cause of behavior is subjective reality d. it proposes that the most important cause of behavior is objective reality 4. In order for psychology to qualify as humanistic, it must: a. study things of concern to humans b. seek to improve the human condition c. emphasize the uniqueness of humans d. accept the continuity between human and nonhuman animals 5. In general, phenomenology refers to any methodology that studies: a. how to reduce conscious experience to its component parts b. conscious experience as it occurs without attempting to reduce it to its component parts c. how the human experience is linked to nonhuman animals d. the inheritance of human traits involved in determining behavior 6. Brentano’s concept of intentionality is the contention that: a. we are born into circumstances which we cannot control b. mental acts always refer to objects or events outside of themselves c. some events happen to us and some events are the results of our choices d. we should live our lives according to our own personally chosen values 7. Of prime importance to Husserl was that phenomenology: a. not be used b. be equated with intentionality c. be free of any preconceptions d. be used to examine only the mind turned inward 8. Which of the following approaches studied the processes of the mind independent of the physical world to discover the Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 17: Humanistic Psychology essence of conscious experience, or of the person turned inward? a. Intentionality b. Pure phenomenology c. Ontology d. Dasein 9. The goal of Husserl’s pure phenomenology is to: a. study the mind turned outward b. catalog mental acts and processes of environmental interactions c. verify Brentano’s concept of intentionality d. explore the meaning of human existence 10. Husserl’s phenomenology soon expanded into: a. humanism b. cognitive socialism c. existentialism d. analytic ontology 11. What is ontology? a. The study of the brain b. The study of human societies c. The study of the nature of existence or being d. The study of how to live an authentic life 12. Traditionally, the beginning of existential psychology is marked with the writings of: a. May and Husserl b. May and Nietzsche c. Kierkegaard and Husserl d. Kierkegaard and Nietzsche 13. Which term did Heidegger use to indicate that a person and the world were inseparable? a. thrownness b. Eigenwelt c. Mitwelt d. Dasein 14. According to Heidegger, to live an authentic life, one must first: a. realize that one’s life is finite b. recognize the continuity between humans and nonhuman animals c. realize that although the body dies, the soul continues to live d. be willing to accept the mores of one’s society 15. According to Heidegger, an inauthentic life results whenever one: a. gives up their freedom and lives according to the dictates of others Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 17: Humanistic Psychology b. does not accept traditional values c. refuses to affiliate themselves with an organized religion d. lives in accordance with deception and despair 16. Heidegger believed that when individuals exercise their freedom to live an authentic life by acknowledging life’s finiteness, they experience: a. excitement b. guilt c. anxiety d. neurotic anxiety 17. Heidegger believed that when individuals do not exercise their freedom to live authentic lives, they experience: a. boredom b. anxiety c. guilt d. moral anxiety 18. According to Heidegger, what goes hand in hand with freedom? a. Guilt b. Responsibility c. Boredom d. Depression 19. Heidegger said we come into conditions of our lives over which we have no control, such as being rich or poor or what our nationality is. This he called: a. frustration b. thrownness c. Dasein d. inauthenticity 20. For Binswanger, the way an individual views and embraces the world and through which one lives one’s life is called: a. world-design b. ground of existence c. thrownness d. being-beyond-the-world 21. According to Binswanger, authentic individuals attempt to transform their circumstances by exercising their free will.

He referred to this transformational process as: a. ground of existence b. thrownness c. being-beyond-the-world d. guilt-provoking 22. Most existentialists accept Nietzsche’s proclamation: a. truth is subjectivity Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 17: Humanistic Psychology b. an unexamined life is not worth living c. to be is to be perceived d. what does not kill me, makes me stronger 23. May refers to the fact that humans are both the objects and subjects of experience as the: a. existential conflict b. human dilemma c. source of all human problems d. mind-body problem 24. May, like the other existentialists, believed that the most important fact about humans is that they are: a. in essence, animals b. plagued with guilt c. free d. moral 25. According to May, exercising one’s freedom means: a. building a foundation for success b. showing responsibility toward one’s community c. acting contrary to traditions, mores, or conventions d. experiencing guilt 26. According to May, the person experiencing neurotic anxiety: a. conforms to tradition, religious dogma, the expectation of others, or anything else that reduces their need to make personal choices b. has an abnormal level of fear or nervousness about unpleasant events that are extremely unlikely to actually occur c. has been born into a situation that they cannot control but within which they can make choices d. recognizes the world does not exist without humans and that humans do not exist without the world, and feels troubled by this 27. When a person accepts values dictated by society (not those personally attained) as their own, they are experiencing: a. the human dilemma b. a life of social meaning c. constructive alternativism d. self-alienation 28. According to May, which of the following examines the stories by which people live and understand their lives and the effectiveness of those stories? a. Role-play b. Narrative therapy c. Myths d. A construct system 29. According to May, which of the following is at the heart of many myths and of most great art and literature?

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Chapter 17: Humanistic Psychology a. The tension between free will and determinism b. The tension between individual and group needs c. The daimonic d. Religion 30. What did Kelly find to be effective in treating individuals with emotional problems? a. Free association b. Bringing previously repressed traumatic memories into consciousness c. Anything that caused the clients to view themselves or their problems differently d. Hypnosis 31. According to Kelly, people are similar when they: a. construe the world in similar ways b. have had common experiences c. are raised in the same family d. are from the same culture 32. Kelly believed that the major goal of scientists and nonscientists is the same, namely, to: a. be parsimonious b. reduce uncertainty c. define abstract concepts operationally d. follow the principle of falsifiability 33. According to Kelly, the goal of psychotherapy is to help the client: a. overcome inhibitions b. experience unconditional positive regard c. get in touch with themselves d. view things differently 34. Kelly called his approach to treatment: a. propositional therapy b. fixed-role therapy c. constructivistic therapy d. existential therapy 35. Jean-Paul Sartre was most interested in: a. client-centered therapy b. having psychologists follow the scientific method c. the power we let others have over ourselves d. proving the existence of God 36. Albert Camus is often associated with the existential idea of the absurd, which is that: a. to search for life’s pre-ordained purpose is futile b. for psychologists to follow the scientific method is futile Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 17: Humanistic Psychology c. letting others have power over ourselves is futile d. attempting to prove the existence of God is futile 37. For Binswanger, which of the following was a person’s private, inner, subjective experience? a. Umwelt b. Mitwelt c. Eigenwelt d. Weltanschauung 38. Who is usually recognized as the person most responsible for making humanistic psychology a formal branch of modern psychology? a. Adler b. Rogers c. Maslow d. Kelly 39. Which is a characteristic of a self-actualizing person? a. They do not let reality distort their perceptions. b. They have a high need for success. c. They have many friends and acquaintances. d. They are creative.

40. Which of the following statements describes a basic tenet of humanistic psychology? a. The study of nonhuman animals should be encouraged. b. Studying what groups of people have in common is most important. c. Objective reality determines human behavior. d. Research should seek to uncover information that will help people.

41. Toward the end of his life, Maslow began to develop a type of psychology that went beyond personal experience (mystical, ecstatic, spiritual aspects) and had much in common with non-Western psychologies, philosophies, and religions. This type of psychology was called: a. constructive b. transpersonal c. existential d. positive 42. According to Rogers, using which of the following as a guide for living one’s life causes a person to approach and maintain experiences that are in accordance with the actualizing tendency but to terminate or avoid those that are not? a. Need for positive regard b. Dictates of society c. Organismic valuing process d. Values of one’s parents 43. According to Rogers, what is said to exist when the relevant people in a child’s life give them love and acceptance under some circumstances but not under others (only if one acts or thinks in certain ways): Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 17: Humanistic Psychology a. conditions of worth b. the need for positive regard c. unconditional positive regard d. the organismic valuing process 44. When conditions of worth replace the organismic valuing process as a guide for living, the person becomes: a. incongruent b. true to their own feelings c. fully functioning d. free from guilt and anxiety 45. Rogers believed that any relationship conducive to personal growth must be characterized by which of the following? a. Autonomy b. Self-actualization c. Conditions of worth d. Empathic understanding 46. Which of the following statements is accepted by both existential and humanistic psychology? a. Humans are victims of circumstance and are not fully responsible for their actions. b. Elementism of any type gives a distorted view of humans. c. Studying nonhuman animals provides a glimpse into the primal self. d. Humans are basically good and live in peace and harmony unless forced to do otherwise.

47. Which of the following did Sartre mean by his statement “Existence precedes essence”? a. At the core, humans are like other animals. b. Humans are created in God’s image. c. Humans have no essence at birth and, therefore, they become what they choose to be. d. Humans exist eternally in a cycle of rewards and consequences.

48. According to Fromm, the first thing many individuals do when they discover their freedom is to: a. seek other free people b. attempt to free others c. escape from that freedom d. live authentic lives 49. According to humanistic psychology, we have to do which of the following to provide a frame of reference in order to realize our actualizing tendency? a. Understand where we came from b. Use our own valuing process c. Focus on our basic human drives d. Abandon our sense of mortality 50. Which statement accurately describes a tenet of both existential and humanistic psychology? a. Humans do not have free will.

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Chapter 17: Humanistic Psychology b. The most appropriate way to study humans is through the scientific method. c. Humans must be studied and understood as a whole person. d. The insights gleaned from studying one individual can be generalized to humankind in general.

51. Which of the following presents Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in the proper order? a. Safety → physiological → belonging and love → self-actualization → esteem b. Physiological → belonging and love → safety → esteem → self-actualization c. Safety → esteem → belonging and love → physiological → self-actualization d. Physiological → safety → belonging and love → esteem → self-actualization 52. Which of the following statements accurately describes a criticism of humanistic psychology? a. It is too cynical in its description of human nature. b. It is overly critical of behaviorism, psychoanalysis, and scientific psychology in general. c. It relies too heavily on traditional scientific methodology to explore the big questions. d. It puts too strong an emphasis on the findings of animal research.

53. Describe the contributions made by Husserl to the development of humanistic psychology.

54. What are the two ontological questions of interest to existentialists, and how do they study those questions?

55. What did Heidegger mean by an authentic life?

56. What is the major difference between existential psychology and humanistic psychology?

57. Contrast the ideas of normal and neurotic anxiety.

58. According to Rogers, how does parenting affect the personality development of a child?

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Chapter 17: Humanistic Psychology Answer Key 1. c 2. c 3. c 4. c 5. b 6. b 7. c 8. b 9. b 10. c 11. c 12. d 13. d 14. a 15. a 16. c 17. c 18. b 19. b 20. a 21. c 22. d 23. b 24. c 25. c Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 17: Humanistic Psychology 26. a 27. d 28. b 29. c 30. c 31. a 32. b 33. d 34. b 35. c 36. c 37. b 38. c 39. d 40. c 41. b 42. c 43. a 44. a 45. d 46. b 47. c 48. c 49. b 50. c 51. d Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 17: Humanistic Psychology 52. b 53. Husserl believed that phenomenology could create an objective bridge between the outer physical world and the inner, subjective world. He developed what he called pure phenomenology with the purpose of discovering the essence of conscious experience—the person inward.

54. What is the nature of human nature?

What does it mean to be a particular individual?

Existentialists use phenomenology to study the important experiences that humans have in common and those experiences that individuals have as they live their lives—experiences like fear, dread, freedom, love, hate, responsibility, guilt, wonder, hope, and despair.

55. With the realization that we must someday die, the person gets busy and exercises their freedom to create a meaningful existence, an existence that allows for almost constant personal growth, or becoming. This is an authentic life.

If we do not exercise our personal freedom, we experience guilt. Acceptance of the fact that at some time in the future we will be nothing causes anxiety; thus, such acceptance takes courage, as does living an authentic life.

56. The major difference between existential psychology and humanistic psychology is their assumption about human nature. Existential psychologists view human nature as essentially neutral—the only thing they believe we are born with is the freedom to choose the nature of our existence. In contrast, humanists assume that people are basically good, and therefore, if placed in a healthy environment, they will naturally live a life in harmony with others.

57. According to May, a healthy, authentic person exercises their freedom to ignore the expectations for their behavior imposed by others and thus often acts contrary to traditions or conventions. Going against tradition causes anxiety, but it is normal anxiety and conducive to personal growth. In contrast, neurotic anxiety occurs when a person lives their life by conforming to traditions or the expectations of others without choosing those lifestyles for themselves. This type of anxiety is not conducive to personal growth.

58. Rogers believed that most people do not live according to their innermost feelings, and that is due to our childhood need for positive regard (receiving love, warmth, sympathy, and acceptance from relevant people in a child’s life).

Oftentimes, parents give children positive regard only if they act or think in certain ways, which sets up conditions of worth, and those expectations from their parents gradually replace the organismic valuing process as a guide for living their lives. If children are loved and respected for who they truly are, and given unconditional positive regard, they can grow to become a fully functioning person.

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Chapter 18: Psychobiology

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. There was a resurgence of interest in internal causes for behavior, such as the psychobiological research done by Karl Lashley, as the influence of which of the following waned? a. Radical behaviorism b. Connectionism c. Cybernetics d. Information theory 2. Lashley did pioneering ethological research with: a. Watson b. Lorenz c. Sperry d. Yerkes 3. The professional relationship between Watson and Lashley was strained because: a. Watson was too obsessed with finding the neurophysiological correlates of learning b. Lashley’s research did not support Watson’s switchboard conception of the brain c. Watson was interested in the learning process and Lashley was not d. Lashley found Watson’s Gestalt orientation intolerable 4. Lashley: a. was an opponent of Gestalt psychology b. initially sought to support Watsonian behaviorism with neurophysiological evidence c. found the engram, the neurophysiological locus of memory and learning d. disproved the concept of mass action 5. Lashley’s work: a. gradually showed that brain activity was like a complex switchboard b. gradually showed that brain activity was similar to the description of the Gestaltists c. Finally led to the discovery of what he had been looking for—the engram d. was later supportive of Watsonian behaviorism 6. Lashley’s observation that any part of a functional area of the brain could perform the function associated with that area is called: a. mass action b. functionalism c. equipotentiality d. psychobiology 7. The idea that the amount of loss of ability is related to the amount of destruction in the cortex (more than the location of the destruction) is called: a. equipotentiality b. cell assembly c. the engram Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 18: Psychobiology d. mass action 8. The idea that the cortex works as a whole as the Gestaltists maintained is called: a. equipotentiality b. cell assembly c. the engram d. mass action 9. Lashley’s search for the engram: a. ended with the identification of the locus of memory and learning b. was unsuccessful c. led to the development of electrophysiology d. refuted the concept of equipotentiality 10. Lashley’s address to the International Congress of Psychology did much to further the acceptance of: a. Gestalt psychology b. Pavlov’s localization of motor centers in the brain c. Watson’s classical conditioning d. the search for the engram 11. According to Hebb, a system of interrelated neurons that reflects recurring environmental events is called a(n): a. engram b. phase sequence c. equipotentiality d. cell assembly 12. According to Hebb, when a cell assembly fires, we experience a(n): a. thought of an environmental object b. stream of thought c. emotion complex d. personal insight 13. According to Hebb, when a phase sequence fires, we experience a(n): a. random idea b. stream of thought c. general state of well-being d. mass action 14. A group of cell assemblies that becomes neurologically interrelated is a(n): a. phase sequence b. engram c. neural network d. equipotentiality

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Chapter 18: Psychobiology 15. Hebb proposed that childhood learning is best explained: a. as a slow buildup of cell assemblies and phase sequences b. by insight and creativity c. by Gestaltist principles d. as the rearrangement of already existing cell assemblies and phase sequences 16. Which of the following did Hebb accomplish? a. He characterized equipotentiality. b. He identified the existence of instinctual drift in many species. c. He linked the reticular activating system with cognitive and behavioral performance. d. He conducted research on hemispheric specialization with split-brain patients.

17. Hebb’s contention that neurons that are active together become associated was instrumental in the development of: a. connectionism b. behavioral genetics c. engram science d. sociobiology 18. Hebb’s work on the relationship between the reticular activating system and cognitive and behavioral performance led to the development of: a. arousal theory b. behavioral genetics c. cognitive neuroscience d. sociobiology 19. Roger Sperry and his colleagues discovered that information could be transferred from one cerebral hemisphere to the other via the: a. corpus callosum and optic chiasm b. corpus callosum and amygdala c. hippocampus and optic chiasm d. hippocampus and optic amygdala 20. A brain that is a split-brain preparation has had: a. its corpus callosum ablated b. its corpus callosum and optic chiasm ablated c. its frontal lobe separated from the rest of the brain d. its reticular formation removed 21. Using the split-brain preparation, Sperry and his colleagues speculated that: a. the functions performed by the two cerebral hemispheres were the same b. there was hemispheric specialization in nonhuman animals but not in humans c. the functions performed by the two cerebral hemispheres were slightly different d. the functions performed by the two cerebral hemispheres were dramatically different 22. According to Jerre Levy, which of the following is true?

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Chapter 18: Psychobiology a. Some people with normal brains are left-brain dominated and others right-brain dominated. b. Educational practices can be designed that enhance either right-brain of left-brain performance. c. In normal people under normal circumstances, the functions of the left and right hemispheres of the brain are inseparable. d. Although a radical approach, split-brain preparations may benefit those with severe mental illness.

23. Concerning the mind-body relationship, Sperry was a(n): a. interactionist b. epiphenomalist c. physical monist d. idealist 24. In humans, the split-brain procedure may be used to treat intractable: a. seizures b. depression c. dementia d. schizophrenia 25. What does ethology focus on? a. A specific category of an animal’s behavior in its natural habitat b. The ways animals behave when trained under certain circumstances in a lab c. How the human brain works differently out in nature than in society d. How evolutionary concepts can be applied to artificial selection in domesticated animals 26. Ethology was developed primarily by Von Frisch, Lorenz, and: a. Tinbergen b. Hebb c. Sperry d. Watson 27. The study of which of the following is especially important to ethologists? a. The learning process b. Species-specific behavior c. Language d. Cost-benefit analyses 28. The main influence of evolutionary theory upon psychology came through: a. radical behaviorism b. sociobiology c. cognitive science d. research on instinctual drift 29. Sociobiology attempts to explain complex social behavior in terms of: a. learning theory Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 18: Psychobiology b. psychoanalytical theory c. cognitive theory d. evolutionary theory 30. The founder of sociobiology was: a. Barash b. Wilson c. Lorenz d. Buss 31. According to David Barash, what is a biogrammar? a. An innate neurological structure that allows the brain to regenerate after an injury b. An inherited structure that predisposes organisms toward certain kinds of social activities c. A set of social rules for hot to behave and think that people consider natural rather than cultural d. A system of cell assemblies that makes human language and mathematical skills unique in the animal kingdom 32. According to the sociobiologists, the strategy typically used by males to project copies of their genes into the next generation is: a. promiscuity b. the careful selection of an adequate mate c. to seek females with good resources with whom to reproduce d. to seek females with prominent family backgrounds with whom to reproduce 33. According to the sociobiologists, the strategy typically used by females to project copies of their genes into the next generation is: a. the careful selection of an adequate mate b. promiscuity c. to seek males who are physically attractive d. to seek selfish males 34. According to the sociobiologists, the social behavior of any individual is determined by: a. inherited dispositions (biology) only b. culture only c. both inherited dispositions (biology) and culture d. neither inherited dispositions (biology) nor culture 35. In explanations of behavior, sociobiologists urge social scientists to avoid: a. biological distractors b. complex factors c. competing principles d. nothing-butism 36. The claim that behavior is caused only by biological factors or that it is caused only by environmental factors is known as: a. “the preparedness continuum” Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 18: Psychobiology b. “the leash principle” c. “nothing-butism” d. “instinctual drift” 37. According to Wilson’s leash principle: a. there is a close relationship between culture and the satisfaction of biological needs b. species-specific behaviors can only evolve so much over time c. it is culture, not biology, that has total control over human behavior d. our genetics completely determine our personality throughout our lives 38. Barash wrote the book The Whisperings Within. “Whisperings” refers to what? a. A hard-wired set of behaviors b. Environmentally controlled behaviors c. Predispositions to act in certain ways d. Complex human social behaviors 39. Buss disagrees with sociobiologists and argues that behaviors were selected in our evolutionary past because those behaviors: a. helped us pass on our genes b. were culturally valued c. were simple rather than complex d. solved problems 40. According to Buss, the sociobiological fallacy refers to: a. the contention that we merely live to pass copies of our genes into the next generation b. the idea that behaviors were selected in our evolutionary past because they solved problems c. the application of Darwinian principles to human social behavior d. a behavioral tendency now exists because it contributed to the survival of a species 41. What is one of the criticisms of adaptationism? a. Factors other than adaptation can cause evolutionary change. b. A trait must be adaptive in the present environment because it was adaptive in past environments. c. A trait that evolved for a specific purpose in the past typically retains its native function. d. Traits that are passed down from generation to generation do not always support survival of the species.

42. The co-option of an original adaptation for a useful but unrelated function is called: a. a spandrel b. an extirpation c. an exaptation d. pseudoevolution 43. The Brelands referred to the interference or displacement of learned behavior by instinctive behavior as: a. response generalization b. the habit family hierarchy Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 18: Psychobiology c. instinctual drift d. the leash principle 44. Which of the following statements is supported by the work of the Brelands? a. Animals bring no genetic predispositions with them to the learning experience. b. Genetic differences among various species of animals are unimportant. c. Any response that an animal is capable of making can be conditioned to any stimulus that the animal can detect. d. Animal behavior cannot be properly understood without a knowledge of the animal’s instinctual tendencies.

45. Seligman found that: a. for any given species of animal, some associations are easier to learn than others b. mass action accounts for learning c. an animal comes to the learning situation as a tabula rasa d. the heritability of the ability to learn is close to zero 46. According to Seligman, an association’s place on the preparedness continuum determines: a. how easily an animal will learn that association b. whether or not that association will be heritable c. the simplicity or complexity of the association d. the association’s location in the cortex 47. According to Bouchard, any similarities in intelligence or personality between twins separated at birth must be due to: a. culture and biological influences b. genetic influences c. learning d. nurture 48. Bouchard reasoned that if intelligence and personality are largely determined by experience (nurture), then: a. both fraternal and identical twins reared together would correlate highly on these traits b. both fraternal and identical twins reared apart would correlate highly on these traits c. fraternal twins, whether reared together or apart, should show modest correlations on these traits d. identical twins, whether reared together or apart, should show high correlations on these traits 49. What indicates how much of the variation among measures (e.g., test scores) is attributed to genetic influences? a. Nurture b. Heritability c. The preparedness continuum d. The correlation coefficient (r) 50. Bouchard estimated the heritability of intelligence to be about: a. 0.10 b. 0.50 c. 0.70 Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 18: Psychobiology d. 1.00 51. Bouchard reached which of the following conclusions? a. Nature and nurture interact to mold personality traits. b. People have similar personality traits to the extent that they are genetically related. c. People have similar personality traits to the extent that they have common experiences. d. The heritability of personality traits is close to zero.

52. Bouchard and his colleagues found that the most important determinant of a person’s religious interests, attitudes, and values is: a. degree of education b. socioeconomic status c. genetics d. early childhood experience 53. Bouchard and his colleagues found the heritability for personality traits to be about: a. 0.70 b. 0.10 c. 0.80 d. 0.50 54. Bouchard and his colleagues found the heritability for religious interest, attitudes, and values to be about: a. 0.10 b. 0.70 c. 0.20 d. 0.50 55. Because they believe that at least some thought processes or behavior patterns are strongly influenced by heredity, behavioral geneticists tend toward: a. empiricism b. nativism c. dualism d. sensationalism

56. What two discoveries did Lashley make that led him to reject the theory that the brain worked like a complex switchboard linking sensory impulses to motor reactions?

57. According to Hebb, how does childhood learning occur? How does childhood learning differ from adult learning?

58. Explain what is meant by the split-brain procedure and what has been concluded based on this procedure.

59. What is the ethological attitude?

60. Ethology had a considerable influence on sociobiology. What is a major difference between the two fields?

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Chapter 18: Psychobiology 61. Explain the leash principle.

62. Describe behavioral genetics and its methods.

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Chapter 18: Psychobiology Answer Key 1. a 2. a 3. b 4. b 5. b 6. c 7. d 8. d 9. b 10. a 11. d 12. a 13. b 14. a 15. a 16. c 17. a 18. a 19. a 20. b 21. d 22. c 23. a 24. a 25. a Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 18: Psychobiology 26. a 27. b 28. b 29. d 30. b 31. b 32. a 33. a 34. c 35. d 36. c 37. b 38. c 39. d 40. a 41. a 42. c 43. c 44. d 45. a 46. a 47. b 48. a 49. b 50. c 51. b Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 18: Psychobiology 52. c 53. d 54. d 55. b 56. Lashley made two major observations that led him to abandon the switchboard conception of the brain. The first was mass action, which is the finding that loss of ability following destruction of parts of the cortex is related more to the amount of destruction than the location of destruction. This indicates that the cortex works as a unified whole (as the Gestaltists had argued). His second observation was called equipotentiality, which was the finding that any part of a functional area in the brain can perform the function associated with that area, so to destroy a brain function, the entire brain area associated with that function would need to be destroyed. This also supports the idea that the brain operates as an integrated whole and not as a mechanistic switchboard.

57. Hebb argued that the neural interconnections in a newborn’s brain are random, and through experience with the world, the neurons become organized and provide a means of interacting with the environment. Thus, childhood learning involves the slow buildup of cell assemblies and phase sequences, and this kind of learning can be explained using associationistic principles. Adult learning, however, is characterized by insight and creativity and involves the rearrangement of already existing cell assemblies and phase sequences and is better explained in terms of Gestalt principles.

58. The split-brain procedure involves separating the two cerebral hemispheres by cutting the corpus callosum and optic chiasm. This prevents the two hemispheres from communicating. This procedure has enabled neuroscientists to understand more about the independence of the functions of the hemispheres and the localization of functions in a specific hemisphere.

59. Study meaningful behavior in the context of the animal’s natural environment.

Begin with descriptive studies.

Study a wide range of species.

Compare similar behavior in closely related species.

Avoid the exclusive use of domesticated or laboratory animals.

60. A major difference between ethology and sociobiology is that, unlike ethologists, sociobiologists tend to concentrate on the social behavior that results from the complex interactions between an organism’s biology and its environment.

Rather than studying stereotyped behavior, sociobiologists employ notions such as strategy and cost-benefit analysis.

Sociobiologists believe that an organism takes the course of action that will increase the probability that copies of its genes will be perpetuated into future generations.

61. According to Wilson, people have a biological (genetic) predisposition to create culture because doing so facilitates survival. There is therefore a close relationship between culture and the satisfaction of biological needs and biological needs can be said to hold culture on a leash. If culture strays too far from biological needs, the leash between the two becomes taut and pulls culture back.

62. Behavioral genetics focuses on the genetic influences on cognition and behavior. One of the favored methods involves studying siblings, including pairs of monozygotic twins who are genetically identical; dizygotic twins, who are no more genetically similar than any other pair of biological siblings; and non-twin siblings. Another method involves studying monozygotic twins who were reared apart and comparing them to monozygotic twins reared together. These methods allow researchers to tease apart the influences of genetics and the environment and to arrive at an estimate of the Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 18: Psychobiology heritability of specific traits like intelligence or personality traits.

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Chapter 19: Cognitive Psychology

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. Why is it inaccurate to say that psychology is becoming cognitively oriented? a. Radical behaviorism is as popular today as it has ever been. b. The most popular model of human behavior today is in fact the computer model. c. With only a few exceptions, psychology has always been cognitively oriented. d. The study of cognitive processes has in fact been steadily losing popularity.

2. The study of the structure and function of information-processing systems is: a. attribution b. cybernetics c. cognitive science d. theoretical linguistics 3. Who created the field of cybernetics? a. Norbert Wiener b. Claude Shannon c. George Miller d. Herbert Simon 4. Who developed a cognitive development theory and is considered an even more prolific writer than Wundt? a. Bartlett b. Ebbinghaus c. Piaget d. Wiener 5. Who asserted the idea that information is always encoded, stored, and recalled in terms of the individual’s own preconceptions and attitudes? a. Bartlett b. Ebbinghaus c. Piaget d. Wiener 6. Who created the field that came to be known as information theory? a. Norbert Wiener b. Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver c. Allen Newell and Herbert Simon d. Noam Chomsky 7. In his book Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology, Bartlett demonstrated that: a. memory is greatly influenced by personal, cognitive themes and schemas b. memories of details remain relatively unchanged throughout one’s lifetime c. information is stored in a serial fashion d. memory is greatly influenced by laws of association Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 19: Cognitive Psychology 8. Jean Piaget’s major contribution to the field of psychology was: a. creating the foundations for neural networks b. creating a cognitive revolution through psycholinguistics c. suggesting that computer programs can simulate but not duplicate human thought d. characterizing the evolution of schemata during maturation and through experience 9. In which of Piaget’s stages of development do infants develop associations between sensations and actions? a. The formal operations stage b. The preoperational stage c. The sensorimotor stage d. The concrete operations stage 10. What field is most interested in the transformation that information undergoes as it enters a communication system, as it operates within the system, and as it leaves the system? a. Cybernetics b. Artificial intelligence c. Information theory d. Theory of cognitive dissonance 11. According to Miller, the magical number for humans’ capacity to process information is: a. 5 +/- 2 b. 7 +/- 2 c. 9 +/- 2 d. 11 +/- 2 12. Chomsky radically changed the course of psychology by showing that: a. language acquisition cannot be explained using operant principles b. learned behavior is eventually displaced by instinctual behavior c. some associations are more easily learned than others d. language is explained in the same way as any other form of learned behavior 13. Chomsky’s explanation of language is basically: a. empiricistic b. nativistic c. associationistic d. mechanistic 14. When a person has incompatible ideas that motivate them to change their beliefs or behavior, which of the following exists? a. Cognitive dissonance b. Back-propagation c. A neural network d. Connectionism 15. Whose name is correctly associated with the theory of cognitive dissonance?

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Chapter 19: Cognitive Psychology a. Jerome Bruner b. George Miller c. Howard Kendler d. Leon Festinger 16. Which theory did Albert Bandura propose? a. Connectivist theory b. Back-propagation theory c. Neural network theory d. Social learning theory 17. Which theory combined a new type of behaviorism that was more compatible with cognitive psychology? a. Connectivist theory b. Back-propagation theory c. Neural network theory d. Social learning theory 18. Who is known for stressing the active use of cognitive strategies in associative learning? a. Jerome Bruner b. George Miller c. Howard Kendler d. Leon Festinger 19. Who introduced the ideas of Vygotsky into the United States? a. Jerome Bruner b. George Miller c. Howard Kendler d. Leon Festinger 20. Who founded the Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard in 1960? a. Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver b. George Miller and Jerome Bruner c. Allen Newell and Herbert Simon d. Tracy Kendler and Howard Kendler 21. In 1960, Donald Hebb referred to the American revolution in psychology. According to Hebb, only one phase of the American revolution in psychology had taken place at that time: a. the behavioristic movement b. the cognitive movement c. the psychobiological movement d. the psychoanalytical movement 22. According to Hebb, the second phase of the American revolution in psychology would consist of: a. exclusively studying overt behavior Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 19: Cognitive Psychology b. developing third-force or humanistic psychology c. using scientific rigor to study cognitive processes d. synthesizing behaviorism and psychoanalysis 23. Hebb’s preferred approach to studying cognitive processes was to speculate about: a. neural networks b. computer modeling c. their implications on behavior d. their biological foundations 24. The field of artificial intelligence (AI) investigates: a. the extent to which machines can replicate the mental powers of humans b. how humans can increase their mental capacities by learning from machines c. the usefulness of machines in molding the behavior of humans d. how we can understand human behavior via the machine model 25. According to the Turing test: a. when a human can solve a computational problem as well as a computer, the human can be considered intelligent b. if an observer cannot differentiate between the answers to questions given by a human and those given by a computer, the computer can be said to think c. a computer must score at least 100 on an IQ test in order to be considered intelligent d. it must be demonstrated that a computer understands what it is doing before it can be said to think 26. Searle concluded which of the following? a. Computers have semantics but not syntax. b. Computers display intentionality. c. Computers cannot simulate human cognitive abilities. d. A computer can pass the Turing test without being able to think.

27. Who would be most likely to view artificial intelligence (AI) as potentially useful in an effort to understand humans? a. Methodological behaviorists b. Humanistic psychologists c. Radical behaviorists d. Materialists 28. The founder of artificial intelligence was: a. Turing b. Hebb c. Searle d. Fetzer 29. Developments in cybernetics, information theory, and computer technology combined to form the field of: a. information processing psychology b. biocognitive science Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 19: Cognitive Psychology c. artificial intelligence (AI) d. analytical connectionism 30. Searle’s “Chinese Room” supports the position that: a. weak AI is false b. strong AI is false c. connectionism has no place in psychology d. back-propagation does not actually occur 31. According to Flanagan, when cognitive scientists are asked about their philosophical forebears, one hears whose name more than any other? a. Skinner b. Piaget c. James d. Kant 32. There is a kinship between information-processing psychology and which of the following? a. Sensationalism b. Radical behaviorism c. Dualism d. Gestalt psychology 33. The recent interest in cognitive psychology spurred a renewed interest in: a. operant conditioning and positivism b. operant conditioning and the mind-body problem c. faculty psychology and positivism d. faculty psychology and the mind-body problem 34. Largely because of its relationship with phrenology, which of the following came into disfavor among scientists and was essentially discarded? a. Cognitive theory b. Connectionism c. Faculty psychology d. Rationalistic philosophy 35. According to your text, the mind-body problem: a. can be solved by linking cognitive events with neurophysiological changes b. is a relatively small question for contemporary cognitive psychology c. remains one of psychology’s persistent problems d. is mainly considered problematic from the radical behaviorist perspective 36. The radical behaviorists addressed the mind-body problem by: a. denying the existence of a causal mind b. changing the issue to a mind-brain problem c. accepting epiphenomenalism Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 19: Cognitive Psychology d. accepting interactionism 37. In the 1970s, information-processing psychologists combined their efforts to understand cognition with other professionals such as philosophers, linguists, engineers, and computer scientists, thus creating the field of: a. artificial intelligence b. information theory c. cognitive science d. ecological psychology 38. It is generally agreed that an article by Allen Newell, J. Shaw, and Herbert Simon in 1958 marked the transition between artificial intelligence and information-processing psychology by claiming they had: a. found the area of the brain that acted as the mother board b. developed computer programs that solved problems the way humans do c. successfully implanted a computer chip into the brain of a mouse d. built a computer that had passed the Turing test 39. The information-processing psychologist uses which of the following as their model while studying humans? a. Nonhuman animals b. The computer c. Newtonian physics d. Evolutionary theory 40. For information-processing psychologists, which of the following replaces stimulus and response? a. Encoding and output b. Input and processing c. Storage and retrieval d. Input and output 41. According to proponents of which of the following, computer programs can only simulate human cognitive abilities? a. Weak artificial intelligence b. Strong artificial intelligence c. Good old-fashioned artificial intelligence d. Turing’s artificial intelligence 42. According to proponents of which of the following, computer programs can duplicate human cognitive abilities? a. Weak artificial intelligence b. Strong artificial intelligence c. Good old-fashioned artificial intelligence d. Turing’s artificial intelligence 43. Hebb’s speculations regarding how cell assemblies and phase sequences develop has led to a new research area called: a. cybernetics b. computer simulation c. information-processing models d. connectionism Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 19: Cognitive Psychology 44. Hebb’s rule is based on associative laws of: a. contiguity and cause and effect b. cause and effect and frequency c. frequency and contiguity d. cause and effect 45. Hebb’s rule states that: a. scientific explanations should always be as parsimonious as possible b. the knowledge sought by scientists should always have practical value c. if neurons are simultaneously active, the strength of their connections increases d. computers can only simulate human cognitive processes, but not duplicate them 46. A neural network that proposes that the strengths of the connections among units that are active together are increased by mathematically increasing their weights is referred to as: a. back-propagation b. Hebb’s rule c. drive reduction d. good old-fashioned artificial intelligence (GOFAI) 47. Within a neural network model, learning is explained in terms of changing patterns of: a. parallel distributed processing b. if-then statements c. excitation and inhibition d. mathematical weights 48. Connectionism takes as its model a complex system of artificial neurons called a: a. neural network b. phase sequence c. cell assembly d. corpus callosum 49. Which of the following is true of neural networks? a. They process information one sequence at a time. b. They store and retrieve symbolic representations. c. They process several sequences of information simultaneously. d. They are incapable of learning.

50. A major difference between connectionism (neural networks) and good old-fashioned AI (GOFAI) is that GOFAI systems: a. process information simultaneously, and neural networks process information one sequence at a time b. process patterns of excitation and inhibition, and neural networks process information according to rules c. reason about the information they contain, and neural networks change associations based on experience d. mimic human cognition more closely, and neural networks work within a limited domain Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 19: Cognitive Psychology 51. Neural network systems have been most successful at: a. recognizing patterns and objects b. explaining human behavior c. processing sequential information d. duplicating human consciousness 52. Neural networks based on Hebb’s rule: a. require extensive training b. require feedback c. process several sequences simultaneously d. are self-correcting 53. Back-propagation systems: a. exemplify one-trial learning b. are self-correcting c. process several sequences simultaneously d. require a “teacher” to provide feedback about performance 54. NETtalk exemplifies the type of neural network that utilizes: a. Hebb’s rule b. back-propagation c. good old-fashioned artificial intelligence (GOFAI) d. the sequential processing of information 55. Although connectionism in the neural network model has been well accepted, it does have its critics. Who, in spite of supporting the Computational Theory of Mind (CTM), has written about the limits in explaining human cognition through any computational model? a. James McClelland b. Donald Hebb c. Jerry Fodor d. David Rumelhart

56. Describe Piaget’s four stages of maturation.

57. What was Chomsky’s view on first language acquisition, and what impact did his theory have on psychology?

58. Define cybernetics and illustrate its impact on cognitive psychology.

59. Describe the return of faculty psychology.

60. Describe the field of cognitive science and contrast it with cognitive psychology.

61. What is the Turing test? If a computer were to pass the Turing test, how would proponents of strong artificial intelligence and weak artificial intelligence interpret the computer’s performance?

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Chapter 19: Cognitive Psychology Answer Key 1. c 2. b 3. a 4. c 5. a 6. b 7. a 8. d 9. c 10. c 11. b 12. a 13. b 14. a 15. d 16. d 17. d 18. a 19. a 20. b 21. a 22. c 23. d 24. a 25. b Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 19: Cognitive Psychology 26. d 27. a 28. a 29. c 30. b 31. d 32. d 33. d 34. c 35. c 36. a 37. c 38. b 39. b 40. d 41. a 42. b 43. d 44. c 45. c 46. b 47. c 48. a 49. c 50. c 51. a Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 19: Cognitive Psychology 52. d 53. d 54. b 55. c 56. Piaget demonstrated that a child’s interactions with the environment become more complex and adaptive as its cognitive structure becomes more articulated through maturation and experience. From birth to about age 2, the child is in the sensorimotor stage where the infant develops associations between sensations and actions. From about 2 to around 7, the child is in the preoperational stage. This stage is when the child begins to understand how the world works and is organized, as well as how to speak and act within such constraints. The child is in the concrete operations stage from around age 7 to 11–12. Problem-solving skills related to tangible objects further develops during this period, but problemsolving skills involving abstract ideas do not emerge until the final stage—the formal operations stage.

57. Chomsky argued that language is too complex to be explained by operant principles, maintaining that the human brain is genetically programmed to generate language, with each child being born with brain structures (a language acquisition device) that make it relatively easy for the child to learn the rules of language; the deep grammar and syntactical structures that are common to all languages. Chomsky argues that children cannot learn these rules if they have to rely solely on principles of association (such as frequency or contiguity) and on Skinnerian reinforcement. Chomsky’s argument helped weaken the influence of behaviorism in psychology, and many consider his review of Skinner’s 1957 book Verbal Behavior to be the first shot of the “cognitive revolution,” and his arguments had an even bigger effect since he was from linguistics rather than psychology.

58. Cybernetics is the study of the structure and functions of information processing systems. In 1943, McColloch and Pitts demonstrated that communication between neurons could be modeled using formal logic. This marked the start of the computer-based neural network. In 1949, Shannon and Weaver, who worked for Bell Telephone, were seeking ways to improve message fidelity, and developed what became known as information theory. Information theory, neural networks, and related concepts would influence the development of cognitive psychology.

59. Faculty psychology had fallen out of favor, largely because of its relationship with the discredited approach of phrenology. However, cognitive psychology emphasized a wide range of psychological mechanisms to make sense of mental life, including sensation and perception, volition and cognition, learning and memory, and language and thought.

These faculties became the domain of the returned faculty psychology.

60. Cognitive psychology focuses on all the processes by which sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used, including perception, concept formation, meaning, language, and thinking. Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary approach to studying the mind and mental processes that combines aspects of cognitive psychology, philosophy, artificial intelligence, neuroscience, linguistics, and computer science.

61. The Turing test is an “imitation game” in which an interrogator asks written questions to both a fellow human being and a computer. If the interrogator cannot tell which of their interlocutors is a computer, then the computer passes the Turing test and is said to think. If a computer passes the Turing test, proponents of strong artificial intelligence argue that an appropriately programmed computer is a mind capable of understanding and having mental states—in other words, computers can duplicate human cognitive processes, not just simulate them. For proponents of weak artificial intelligence, in contrast, even if a computer passes the Turing test, it is only simulating human mental attributes—for this camp, Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 19: Cognitive Psychology computers are a tool used to study the mind but cannot duplicate human cognitive processes.

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Chapter 20: Psychology Today

Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. Perhaps the closest psychology has ever came to being a single-paradigm discipline has been during: a. the Middle Ages b. the Enlightenment c. the period of early American psychology d. the early twentieth century 2. Which of the following is true? a. The APA currently has approximately 10,000 members. b. In 2005, 72% of new PhDs in psychology were obtained by women. c. In 2005, 72% of new PhDs in psychology were obtained by men. d. APA members can only belong to one division.

3. The divisions of psychology listed by the APA today give a clear indication of the: a. diversity of the field b. experimental focus of the field c. consensus in the field d. need to go back to the purely scientific nature of the field 4. Which students of Wundt were most interested in individual differences and applied psychology in the United States? a. Spearman, Witmer, and Stanley b. Cattell, Titchener, and Hall c. Cattell, Hall, and Witmer d. Titchener, Spearman, and Stanley 5. Within psychology in the United States, interests in individual differences and which of the following have always been closely related? a. Sensation and perception b. Evolutionary psychology c. Applied psychology d. Cognitive psychology 6. The tension between pure, scientific psychology and applied psychology: a. is a recent phenomenon b. has always been a minor issue c. was once intense but no longer exists d. characterized psychology from its very inception and continues to do so 7. The original members of the American Psychological Association (APA) believed that anything in psychology worth applying to practical matters came from: a. scientific psychology b. philosophical psychology c. common sense d. animal research Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 20: Psychology Today 8. In 1917, G. Stanley Hall founded which of the following, which was the first journal in the United States devoted to problems of business and the measurement of vocational aptitudes? a. American Psychologist b. Journal of Applied Psychology c. Journal of American Psychology d. Journal of Clinical Psychology 9. During Witmer’s time, what were the prevailing attitudes toward applied psychology? a. First came rigorous, scientific training; second came the attempt to apply scientific knowledge to practical problems. b. First came the attempt to apply scientific knowledge to practical problems; second came rigorous, scientific training. c. First came a deep philosophical inquiry into psychology; second came the attempt to apply scientific knowledge to practical problems. d. First came the attempt to apply scientific knowledge to practical problems; second came a deep philosophical inquiry into psychology.

10. What was one effect of World War I on the field of psychology? a. Many people became disheartened with the study of human behavior. b. An interest in the philosophical questions regarding human nature was renewed. c. Psychotherapy became widely available on the battlefield. d. Psychometric tests were used for the evaluation of soldiers.

11. Who was one of the founders of what would become known as industrial-organizational psychology? a. Witmer b. Titchener c. Hall d. Viteles 12. Who is known for creating the field of ergonomics? a. Witmer b. The Gilbreths c. Hall d. Hawthorne 13. Which of the following refers to the observation that, in the workplace, changes to lighting and similar factors matter less than do employee perceptions of the changes? a. The Hawthorne effect b. The Viteles principle c. The Gilbreth effect d. The Yerkes principle 14. Clinicians began to create their own professional organizations when they did not receive recognition and status within the APA. What was the first organization of this type?

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Chapter 20: Psychology Today a. American Psychological Society b. American Association of Clinical Psychologists c. American Association of Applied Psychology d. Psychonomic Society 15. In 1937, members of the clinical division of the APA paired with the ACP (Association of Consulting Psychologists) to create : a. American Psychological Society b. American Association of Clinical Psychologists c. American Association of Applied Psychology d. Psychonomic Society 16. In 1925, why did the APA create the category of associate member for psychologists who held a doctorate but had no scientific publications beyond their dissertation? a. The APA wanted to create a separate but equal category for applied psychologists. b. The APA had a strong interest in the scientific pursuit of psychological inquiry. c. The APA valued the degree of PsyD over PhD. d. The APA wanted to integrate the fields of applied and experimental psychology.

17. In 1946, the APA published a new journal as the voice of a new, unified psychology. What was this journal? a. American Psychologist b. Journal of Clinical Psychology c. Journal of Applied Psychology d. Journal of American Psychology 18. Psychoanalysis was the dominant form of therapy: a. just before World War I b. after World War II c. in the late 1960s d. in the early 1990s 19. When psychologists began performing psychotherapy following World War II, they came into competition with: a. psychiatrists b. religious leaders c. applied psychologists d. social workers 20. The first Doctor of Psychology degree (PsyD) was offered by the: a. California School of Professional Psychology (CSPP) b. University of Illinois c. American Psychological Association (APA) d. Vail Institute 21. The first school independent of any college or university to offer the Doctor of Psychology degree (PsyD) was the: a. Crane Institute Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 20: Psychology Today b. Vail Institute c. California School of Professional Psychology (CSPP) d. Boulder Psychological Institute 22. Those supporting the Doctor of Psychology degree (PsyD) argue in favor of: a. the scientist-practitioner tradition b. Witmer’s vision of clinical psychology c. a clinical degree modeled after the Doctor of Medicine degree (MD) d. the Boulder model of training clinical psychologists 23. The PsyD degree: a. provides professional training for clinical psychologists b. provides training in research and methodology c. is similar to a Master of Science degree d. equates more with the degree of PhD than MD 24. Estimates show that about 70% of the membership of the American Psychological Association (APA) identify themselves as: a. philosophers b. scientists c. experimental researchers d. health care providers 25. In 1988, a group of scientific psychologists protested the prevailing interests of the American Psychological Association (APA) by creating the: a. Psychonomic Society b. American Psychological Society (APS) c. California School of Professional Psychology (CSPP) d. Institute of Academic Psychologists 26. James believed that the single most informative thing you could know about a person was their: a. family resemblance b. Weltanschauung c. eclecticism d. cultural environment 27. The two cultures described by C. P. Snow consisted of: a. tender-minded and tough-minded philosophers b. literary intellectuals and scientists c. scientifically oriented and humanistically oriented psychologists d. medically minded and scientifically minded scholars 28. Kimble (1984) administered a scale that measures where psychologists fall on the: a. eclectic-focused continuum b. scientific-humanistic continuum Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 20: Psychology Today c. premodernism-postmodernism continuum d. empirical-rational continuum 29. Kimble’s data found that: a. undergraduate psychology students showed a slight inclination toward accepting humanistic values b. officers of the divisions of the American Psychological Association showed a strong inclination toward accepting scientific values c. humanistic psychologists showed a strong inclination toward accepting scientific values d. psychotherapists showed a strong inclination toward accepting scientific values 30. James argued that philosophers could be divided into two general groups: a. rationalists and pragmatists b. focused and eclectic c. humanists and behaviorists d. tender-minded and tough-minded 31. During the 1920s and 1930s when several schools of thought existed in psychology, there was: a. active cooperation among the schools b. a lack of research activity c. open hostility among members of the various schools d. an environment of tolerance but not cooperation 32. Who, of the following, most opposed applied psychology? a. Wundt and Witmer b. Cattell and Witmer c. Wundt and Titchener d. Cattell and Titchener 33. Many psychologists see psychology’s diversity as: a. necessary, given the complexity of humans b. a sign that psychology has fully employed the scientific method c. expected because the field is still in the paradigmatic stage d. a troubling sign of further tension amongst the divisions 34. Which psychologist would posit that psychology is a science with a core content and widely accepted processes and principles? a. James b. Koch c. Staats d. Matarazzo 35. According to Sternberg and Grigorenko, what creates unproductive diversity within psychology? a. The tension between those who hold PhDs and those who hold PsyDs b. The tendency of psychologists to identify with a specific perspective or methodology c. The tension between academic and clinical psychologists Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 20: Psychology Today d. The tension between the APA and the APS 36. Koch believes that it is more realistic to refer to the discipline of psychology as: a. the science of psychology rather than as psychological studies b. psychological studies rather than as the science of psychology c. empirical rather than as rational d. rational rather than empirical 37. Who believes that “truth” is always determined by cultural, group, or personal perspectives? a. Modernists b. Neo-behaviorists c. Postmodernists d. Rationalists 38. The modernist is most comfortable with: a. the scientific search for the laws governing all human behavior b. religious answers to humanity’s big questions c. introspection rather than experimentation d. the notion of family resemblance rather than eclecticism 39. Who developed the concept of “language games”? a. Kierkegaard b. Nietzsche c. Wittgenstein d. Hume 40. For Wittgenstein, language: a. reflects reality b. creates reality c. creates communities d. divides communities 41. According to Wittgenstein, disputes among philosophers and psychologists typically occur when: a. terms and concepts are not operationally defined b. there are debates over linguistic practices c. the tenets of science are violated d. the profit motive is involved 42. Wittgenstein replaced the traditional concept of essence or universal with that of: a. language games b. human categorization c. family resemblance d. scientific revolution

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Chapter 20: Psychology Today 43. The belief that all things, including human behavior, can be explained by employing religious dogma is called: a. radical modernism b. radical spiritualism c. premodernism d. skepticism 44. The Enlightenment gave birth to: a. sensationalism b. modernism c. postmodernism d. romanticism 45. The ideas of the Enlightenment: a. brought an emphasis on experience and reason in the quest for knowledge b. align with the ideas of premodernism c. were supported by romanticism and existentialism d. were supported by philosophers such as Hume and Kant 46. Which of the following is considered a reaction to the Enlightenment belief in abstract universal principles? a. Noam Chomsky’s cognitive revolution b. Hebb’s rule c. James’s radical empiricism and pragmaticism d. May’s human dilemma 47. Gilbert Ryle is famous for his distinction between which of the following as it applies to human reasoning? a. Empirical observations and rational thought b. Action and impulse c. Pondering the future and pondering the past d. Knowing how and knowing that 48. Which statement would Gilbert Ryle most likely agree with regarding the mind-body problem? a. The answer lies within the structure of the brain. b. You should not look at the brain to find the mind. c. Investigate the brain alongside human behavior to find the mind. d. Human action will guide you to the mind.

49. Postmodernism has been described as: a. radical environmentalism b. radical rationalism c. radical relativism d. radical materialism 50. According to Russell and Medawar, psychology’s persistent questions are most appropriately addressed: a. empirically rather than introspectively Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 20: Psychology Today b. scientifically rather than spiritually c. biologically rather than culturally d. philosophically rather than scientifically 51. According to the text, psychology’s persistent questions are persistent because: a. human behavior is complex b. they are formulated with the scientific method c. they are philosophical questions d. one’s thirst for knowledge can never be fulfilled 52. According to Popper, psychology’s persistent questions would be persistent even if they were scientific questions because: a. scientific questions are ultimately philosophical questions b. they would still violate the principle of falsifiability because of their subjective nature c. understanding the human mind has extraordinary methodological limitations d. scientific solutions can only attain the status of “not yet disconfirmed” 53. Who stated, “All past beliefs about nature have sooner or later turned out to be false. On the record, therefore, the probability that any currently proposed belief will fare better must be close to zero”? a. Thomas Kuhn b. Peter Medawar c. Karl Popper d. Roger Sperry

54. Describe the conflict between psychology as a basic or pure science and psychology as an applied science.

55. What is the Hawthorne effect?

56. Describe Witmer’s contributions to the development of clinical psychology.

57. What is meant by the idea that psychology has two cultures?

58. Is psychology a science? Discuss the different perspectives on this question.

59. Contrast modernism and postmodernism.

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Chapter 20: Psychology Today Answer Key 1. a 2. b 3. a 4. c 5. c 6. d 7. a 8. b 9. a 10. d 11. d 12. b 13. a 14. b 15. c 16. b 17. a 18. b 19. a 20. b 21. c 22. c 23. a 24. d 25. b Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 20: Psychology Today 26. b 27. b 28. b 29. a 30. d 31. c 32. c 33. a 34. d 35. b 36. b 37. c 38. a 39. c 40. b 41. b 42. c 43. c 44. b 45. a 46. c 47. d 48. b 49. c 50. d 51. c Powered by Cognero

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Chapter 20: Psychology Today 52. d 53. a 54. Dominant voices in early psychology such as Wundt wanted psychology to be a pure science, explaining the human mind in general, divorced from practical concerns. However, Wundt’s students, including Cattell, Hall, Witmer, and Scott, after completing their studies, returned home and pursued their own interests, including individual differences and applied differences. However, the APA remained decidedly in the “basic science” camp, and applied psychologists began creating their own organizations and publishing their own journals. In more recent years, the conflict was seen in the creation of the PsyD degree, a doctorate degree for clinical psychologists that places more emphasis on the practice of clinical psychology and less on research methodology.

55. The Hawthorne effect came from a study in which, in an attempt to improve productivity, various workplace conditions like the amount of lighting were manipulated. Researchers found that the employee perceptions of the changes mattered more than did the actual changes themselves. When employees knew that they were being observed and that workplace changes were being made to improve their productivity, productivity did improve, no matter what those changes were.

56. In 1896, Witmer, a student of Wundt, founded the first psychology clinic and coined the term clinical psychology.

Witmer worked with children with developmental disorders including speech, learning, and motor disorders and used whatever rudimentary tests and principles were available to diagnose and solve their problems. He typically created what would today be seen as “special education” interventions to address these problems and thus was a significant contributor to what would become school psychology. In Witmer’s tradition, there was a close link between research and application, exemplifying the scientist-practitioner model.

57. James argued that philosophers can be divided into two general groups according to their temperaments: the tenderminded and the tough-minded. James believed that tension between tender-minded and tough-minded philosophers has existed throughout history. Lashley reached much the same conclusion about psychologists that James had reached about philosophers, arguing that the reason some psychologists accept a mechanistic brand of psychology (such as Watson’s), and others accept a purposive brand (such as McDougall’s) is based on temperament. A 1984 study of psychologists and psychology students revealed that there was a split between those who embraced rigorous scientific values and those who embraced humanistic values.

58. It is true that some psychologists are scientists, but not all are. Most would agree that psychology is still a collection of different facts, theories, assumptions, methodologies, and goals. It is still not clear how much of psychology can be scientific, and even those who believe psychology is a science debate over what type of a science it should be. Regarding whether psychology as a discipline is a science, some see the diversity in psychology as a sign that psychology has failed to fully employ scientific methods. Still, others say that psychology is diverse because it is still in the preparadigmatic stage that characterizes the early development of a science.

59. Modernism is a stance that ties into Enlightenment principles which emphasize experience and reason as objective modes of scientific inquiry. Modernists also believe that human behavior can be explained in terms of abstract universal laws or principles and that reality is an immutable Truth waiting to be discovered through science. Postmodernists reject those Enlightenment ideals, arguing instead that “reality” and “truth” are always relative, created by individuals and groups within various personal, historical, or cultural contexts.

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