Adulthood & Aging Marion G Mason Test Bank & Instructor Manuals by Ace Test Banks

Adolescent, The Development, Relationships, and Culture, 13E

Kim Gale Dolgin

Email: richard@qwconsultancy.com

CHAPTER 1 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO AGING Discussion Questions 1. 2.

What changes in American society would help support a continued purposive and social life? There is a huge “anti-aging” industry as baby-boomers get older. How should older individuals accept their aging, with grace or with some fight? Defend your position clearly and explain with some detail. What are some of the problems with trying to look and act as if you are 20 years old when you are much older? What topics or areas of study can you think of that are unique to childhood or adolescence and irrelevant to adulthood?

3. 4.

Assignments 1.

Check out CNN’s remembrance of Dr. Butler, the Father of Geriatrics: http://pagingdrgupta.blogs.cnn.com/2010/07/07/remembering-the-father-ofgeriatrics/?iref=allsearch

Listen to Tom Ashbrook’s ON Point broadcast as he discussed “The Future of Aging”. http://www.onpointradio.org/2009/11/the-future-of-aging

Lecture Outline I.

Why Study Adult Development and Aging? A.

An Aging Population 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Historically speaking, it is a new and fairly recent situation to have such a large percentage of older adults in society. For Americans born in 1900, the life expectancy was 47.3 years. For those born in 1950, the life expectancy was 68.2 years. Those born in 2000 have a projected life expectancy of 76.9 years (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2007), a stunning 29.6 years longer than those born 100 years earlier. In the early 1900s, less than 5% of Americans lived to age 65 or older, whereas in 1995 the percentage had risen to 80% 1

(Langer & Moldoveanu, 2000).

The largest projected increases a. In the years 2020–2030=the number of Americans age 65 years and older jumps from 54.6 million to 71.5 million. b. In the years 2030–2040=the number of Americans 85 years old rises from 9.6 million to 15.4 million (Federal Interagency Forum, 2006). The “graying” of the world’s citizens a. The world population will rise in number from 6.1 billion in 2000 to 7.2 billion in 2015 (National Intelligence Council, 2000). b. In the United States, the population is projected to increase from just under 300 million (296,639,000) in 2005 to over 400 million (419,854,000) residents by 2050 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2006). c. In high-income, developed countries, the increased life expectancies and falling fertility rates will add momentum to the already apparent shift toward an older population. The shift toward an aging population has gained the attention of the American government with the three primary agencies involved a. The National Institute on Aging b. National Center for Health Statistics c. Census Bureau, along with other agencies d. Their pooled data (i.e., NIA, NCHS, and Census), once compiled and collated, reflects five key areas in the study of adulthood and aging (1) Population, including racial and ethnic composition and living arrangements (2) Economics, including income, poverty, and participation in the workforce (3) Health status, including cognitive function and disability (4) Health risks and behaviors, including physical activity, obesity, and smoking (5) Health care, including services, expenditures, and facilities

Challenging Issues 1.

Introduction a. The rapidly increasing number of adults in their 60s and beyond brings with it the demand for information from those trying to meet current needs and prepare for the future. b. In terms of the academic study of adult development and aging, there are theoretical issues that must be considered. The Challenges a. Accepting and utilizing the multidisciplinary nature of the study of adulthood. Balancing an emphasis on later years in adulthood with a need to understand all of adulthood c. Finding the balance between highlighting the things younger, middle-aged, and older adults have in common and bringing to light the diversity in adult populations d. Dealing with the limited resources available for research

II.

A Psychological Approach to Adult Development and Aging A.

Multidisciplinary and Multifaceted Endeavor 1. 2.

The Developmental Psychological Perspective 1.

III.

The study of adult development and aging is multidisciplinary and multifaceted. Reflecting similarities and differences across disciplines as well as among areas of emphasis within disciplines Developmental psychology can be defined as the scientific study of the ways mental and behavioral processes change within individuals over time.

Positive and Realistic Approach 2.

Much of the current emphasis in developmental psychology, as it is applied to adulthood and aging, is on aspects of adult development that are a. Stable b. Change with age c. Progress in positive and productive ways d. Decline with age

Multiple Dimensions of Age A.

Critical Differences 1. 2.

Childhood generally covers about 12 years while adulthood can cover 60 years or more Segmenting Adulthood a. Young adulthood—18-20 years old to 40-45 years old b. Middle adulthood—40-45 years old to 60-65 years old c. Late adulthood— 60-65 years old to end of life Diversity of Late Adulthood a. Young-Old—60-65 years old to 74 years old b. Old-Old—75 to 84 years old c. Oldest-Old—85 years old and over Age Divisions serve as efficient labels for loosely-grouped age-related a. Roles b. Stereotypes c. Expectations European Segmentation of Adulthood a. Second Age—adulthood up to preretirement as Second Age b. Third Age—people in their 50s, 60s, and 70s [the time of vitality between preretirement and the oldest-old] c. Fourth Age—80s to end of life

Normative age-graded influences 1.

Definition: Typical events or influences with a strong relationship to age a. Example: typical age to start elementary school b. Well-suited for early lifespan years 3

Functional Age 1. 2.

Useful concept for Adulthood: How an adult functions on various domains provides a practical profile DOMAINS of Functional Age a. Biological Age—comparison of an individual’s health, particularly vital organ systems, to others of similar chronological age (1) National Institute of Aging (NIA) prefers a biological age (over chronological age) comprised of many bodily functions (e.g., heart function and lung capacity; NIA refers to these particular functions as biomarkers). b. Psychological Age—comparing one’s ability to adjust and cope with changes in the environment to others of similar chronological age c. Social Age—comparing one’s social roles and expectations to chronological age and overall functioning

Age-Related Influences 1.

2. 3. 4.

IV.

Chronological age is more descriptive for children than adults a. Significant differences between a 3 month old and a 3 year old b. Differences between a 43-year-old and a 53-year old may not be as dramatic using only age as a predictor.

Normative history-graded influences: influences experienced by a culture or society at a particular point in history that may eventually define a generation (e.g., Great Depression, WWII) a. More influential in adolescence and adulthood Cohort: a group of people who have grown up together and have similar normative-history graded experiences Non-normative influences: chance occurrences (e.g., winning a large sum of money in a lottery) that may influence a life Research In-Depth: Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies a. Cross-Sectional Study: people in different ages are tested at the same point in time and compared b. Longitudinal Study: following the development of the same group of people over time

Metatheories as Philosophies of Development A.

Introduction: Developmental psychologists have found three metatheories useful in organizing knowledge and designing research (worldviews or metamodels).

Mechanistic Metatheory 1.

Metaphor: employs a machine metaphor a. Human beings are machine-like in that they are comprised of many interacting parts. b. Goal of research is to figure out what the parts are, how they work, and then how to manipulate them. 4

2. 3. 4. 5.

Organismic Metatheory 1. 2. 3. 3. 4. 5.

Emphasis is on the ways the environment acts on an individual and that individual’s behavioral response. Highlights environmental or external influences on thoughts and behaviors Research approach: continuous, quantitative approach Example: May use behavioral analysis methodology to design a conditioning program to enhance performance. By engaging in a practice program (training) and by competing for an incentive, such as desirable prizes for those who remember the most words accurately (reinforcement), it is likely that participants’ scores will improve. Critics: Mechanistic view lacking completeness because it is functioncentered and does not consider the whole person or the whole context Metaphor: employs a biology/organism metaphor Emphasizes individuals’ genetically predetermined patterns of development, which are revealed through maturation and influenced by stimulation from the environment Highlights internal, maturational influences Development is characterized by transitions or cycles of rapid spurts of growth or decline, and stages, periods of stability, or plateau Research approach: the discontinuous, qualitative change inherent in stage Critics: Early in developmental psychology’s history, when the field was primarily focused on child development, criteria were established for “true” stage theories that was too strict and rigid a model for adult development.

Contextual Metatheory 1. 2. 3. 4.

Dominant philosophy in developmental psychology Provides a middle ground in emphasizing the continual interaction of both internal and external influences Emphasizing the bidirectional interaction of both internal and external forces, creating both continuous and discontinuous development Baltes and his colleagues have led the way in documenting the evolution of lifespan psychology in general, and the study of adult development and aging in particular. a. Through their work, they have found seven core assumptions consistent with the contextual metatheoretical view that influences current lifespan developmental theory. (1) Development is viewed as a lifelong process. (2) Life involves simultaneous processes of gains and losses. (3) Current emphasis in lifespan development theory is on the mutlidirectionality of development. (4) Contextualism is evident through the influences of normative age-graded, normative history-graded and nonnormative influences for individuals. (5) The assumption of historical embeddedness (6) Developmental pathways possess the characteristic of plasticity [rather than rigid or set pathways]. 5

(7)

Lifespan developmental theory is part of a multidisciplinary study of development that includes not only other social sciences, such as sociology and political science, but also wider-ranging fields such as medical and biological sciences SUMMARY: Current lifespan development theory is consistent with a contextual metatheoretical view in emphasizing a lifelong process involving mutlidirectionality, contextualism, gains and losses, and plasticity.

Theoretical Approaches to Adult Development and Aging A.

Biological Theories 1.

The biological theories emphasize the ways our genetically initiated developmental processes are shaped by external influences. Biological theories of aging are generally grouped under two headings: programmed theories and error theories.

Programmed theories of biological aging a. b.

Propose that a biological timetable controls the aging process Programmed Theory Examples (1) The programmed longevity theory looks for mechanisms that switch certain genes on and off, resulting in deficits associated with aging. (2) The endocrine theory involves the search for hormonal actions that control the biological clock and speed of the aging process. (3) Immunological theory highlights increased vulnerability to infections and diseases through a programmed decline in immune system functions (NIA, 2007). Sometimes called the immune clock, our immune system reaches its strongest during adolescence and begins weakening after age 20. SUMMARY: Programmed theories, including the programmed longevity theory, the endocrine theory, and the immunological theory, operate with the basic assumption that a biological timetable controls the aging process.

Error theories of biological aging a.

b. c.

Examine these additional, accidental, or external influences on physiological aging May also be referred to as damage, random event, stochastic, or variable-rate theories Error Theory Examples (1) Wear and tear theory proposes that cells and tissues simply wear out over time. Often referred to as cell senescence, researchers have found that cells will, at some point, stop proliferating. (2) Rate of living theory highlights the simple, yet profound, notion that organisms have a finite set of resources and energy, and once those are used up the organism cannot continue to live.

(3) (4) (5)

Connectionist Approaches 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Crosslinking theory focuses on the tendency of glucose (blood sugar) molecules to attach themselves to proteins, causing many further changes and reactions. Free radical theory, first proposed in the mid-1950s, highlights the accumulated damage caused by oxygen radicals. Somatic DNA damage theory emphasizes cell deterioration and malfunction due to genetic mutations that accumulate with age. SUMMARY: Error theories, such as the wear and tear theory, rate of living theory, crosslinking theory, free radical theory, and the somatic DNA damage theory, focus on the ways environmental forces affect the maturation of genetically initiated processes over time.

Emphasize the role of cognitive psychology Propose that development involves making associations between basic items or pieces of information, referred to as units, in order to form a network of associations Process of connecting units is a gradual one requiring repetition, just as learning anything new often involves making many mistakes before good performances or desired outcomes become routine Emphasize the development of cognitive networks that form the foundation of all thought processes Researchers are able to imitate human cognitive processing, with softwarebased mathematical models, and then manipulate the models in ways that would be impossible or unethical with human participants.

Sociocultural Theories 1. 2.

Sociocultural theories focus more on the larger, external forces that shape behavior, such as societal and cultural expectations. Sociocultural Theory Example a. Bioecological theory (Bronfenbrenner) - interactions are represented in a hierarchical model with the inner layers exerting a more direct impact on the individual as compared to the outer layers. Bronfenbrenner’s notion of multiple-person systems and multiple levels of interactions distinguish it from other ecological models. b. Emphasizes the interaction among relationships and environmental factors, which are categorized into unique systems: (1) Microsystems- the interpersonal relationships and immediate settings common to the individual (2) Mesosystems - the interactions between personal relationships (3) Exosystems - Contains the people, institutions, or policies that have a powerful influence on an individual but generally are removed or distant

(4)

Selection, Optimization, and Compensation Theory (SOC) 1.

Provides a structure around which researchers can organize data about aging and make predictions about future courses of action Describes the ways individuals manage the gains and losses accompanying each phase of life by selecting the best option from realistic choices, optimizing strengths and resources, and compensating for losses by adjusting strategies or goals SOC model is perhaps the most encompassing of the theories – allows for many individual differences, personal circumstances, and larger environmental influences Consistent with the contextual Metatheory

3. 4.

VI.

Macrosystems - containing cultural and societal roles, norms, and expectations that influence development (5) Chronosystems - contain the dynamic interactions of the changes with time within the individual, the other systems, and the larger environment Sociocultural theories are consistent with the Contextual Metatheory in their emphasis on the individual and the environment

Scientific Study of Adult Development and Aging A.

Scientific Approach 1.

Psychology relies on scientifically informed methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation in order to provide objectivity in reporting research findings

Ethically Sound Research 1.

2. 3. 4.

Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval of a research study involves a. Taking the appropriate steps to ensure informed consent or proper procedures if deception is used b. Confidentiality c. Participant protections as needed Tuskegee Syphilis Study, one of the most frequently cited breaches of human trust and judgment in the United States (began in the early 1930s and continued into the 1970s) The Belmont Report, published in 1979 by the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and designed to provide researchers in biomedical and behavioral areas with ethical guidelines Among the important topics covered in the federal guidelines for research with human participants is the requirement of informed consent. a. Unless special permission is received, any individual who will have the opportunity to participate in a research study should be given enough information, prior to the study, to decide whether or not to participate.

Deciphering Psychological Research 1. 2.

The Research Appendix and the Research In-Depth sections of each chapter provide the reader with a basic understanding of the structure of an article, design, data collection, and statistical analysis. For members of the general public who wish to be as informed as possible, and wish to check popular media reports, the next step in understanding may be to read journal articles.

Video Suggestions 1.

Positive Images of Aging [56 minutes] From Terra Nova Films and the Association for

Maturing and Aging (30 minute) is the eighteenth program in the DISCOVERING

PSYCHOLOGY series. This program looks at the human life cycle in spans of 20-25 years, and what happens physically and mentally as we age. Popular misconceptions about the elderly are examined, often in contrast to the reality of growing old. Researchers, who are developing mental exercises to improve mental efficiency, explain senile dementia and other effects of aging. This program is part of the Annenberg Media project. http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/18/e18expand.html?pop=yes&pid=1515 3.

Growing Old in a New Age (30 minute/1993) Produced by The University of Hawaii

Center on Aging, is a video program that is part of the Annenberg Media project . Learn about the impact of aging on both society and individuals as 75 diverse elders relate their experiences. The four ways that age is measured — chronologically, biologically, psychologically, and socially — are the basis for discussing the quality of life in later years. The series examines common misconceptions about aging and provides a springboard for analyzing new roles for elders, intergenerational alliances, resource allocation, and artificial attempts to prolong life. These programs are particularly useful for students of psychology, gerontology, sociology, family studies, human development, and health sciences. 4-6.

PBS- LIFE (PART 2) is a smart, daring series on the subject of aging. It's a straight-talking show filled with honesty, integrity and humor. Each week, host Alan Rosenberg and a panel of regular contributors, guest experts and celebrities delve deeply into a range of topics. 9

Each episode features visits to people around the country; freewheeling, roundtable discussions; one-on-one interviews; and brief personal essays. 4. Episode 110: A Conversation with Bob Newhart DVD [30 minutes] 5. Episode 112: Pioneer In Aging: Dr. Robert Butler DVD [30 minutes] 6. Episode 113: The Best of Life (Part2) [30 minutes] 7.

Aging In America: The Years Ahead [56 minutes/2003] Produced by Talking Eyes

Surfing For Life [55 minutes] is a documentary about healthy aging and life-well-lived from

Media: This video is a journey across the topography of aging in search of what it means to have a 'good old age.' This film traverses the experience of our elders from the wellderly to the elderly, as told through a series of intimate vignettes of people who are living the new old age. This film is the result of seven years of fieldwork by the internationally-acclaimed team of writer Julie Winokur and photographer Ed Kashi. They traveled across the country, collecting scores of personal histories that when taken collectively challenge the culture of Aging in America. Winner of two Freddie International Health and Medical Media Awards: the Geriatrics Award and the coveted Robert E. Wise award for Outstanding Cinematography. Terra Nova Films, Inc., 9848 South Winchester Avenue, Chicago IL 60643. Toll Free: 800-779-8491 Fax: 773-881-3368 Phone: 773-881-8491 the unique perspective of 7 male and 3 female surfers who have been surfing since the 30's, 40's and 50's and now range in age from 60 to 93. Through interviews centered on key aspects of healthy aging, along with archival and present day footage of the film's subjects surfing and living their lives, an entertaining image of successful aging emerges. For surfers and non-surfers alike, this video celebrates life and encourages the viewer to pursue whatever hopes and dreams inspire passion. From a gerontological point of view, Surfing For Life is an intriguing exercise in applied gerontology and can serve as a springboard for discussion about holistic aspects of healthy and successful aging. The interviews touch on many of the hallmarks of successful aging such as exercise, diet, reminiscence, intergenerational involvement and mentoring, healthy acceptance and management of the physical changes that come with growing older, stress reduction, family relationships, longterm friendships, a sense of community, being of service to others, spirituality, an elemental connection with nature, and joyful peak experiences. The video leaves viewers with a renewed sense of the human potential of later life and provides a powerful alternative to the largely negative view of the capacities of older people held by many in our youth dominated society. Terra Nova Films, Inc., 9848 South Winchester Avenue, Chicago IL 60643. Toll Free: 800-779-8491 Fax: 773-881-3368 Phone: 773-881-8491

Essay Questions 1.

Many societies in high-income, developed countries are experiencing the “graying” of their populations. Given the pros and cons of an aging population, identify three areas of social concern in the United States in the year 2030. In answering this question, provide brief explanations of the major positive and negative aspects of each issue. Clearly state whether or not you think American society will be able to sustain its growing elderly population with dignity and adequate financial resources and explain the reasoning for your judgment.

Citing an example from your life, describe how functional age measures provide a better view of daily functioning.

Do you think it is more important to focus on late adulthood or to give equal focus to young, middle, and late adulthood? Give reasons to support your response.

Three popular metatheories have guided much of the research in developmental psychology. Using a chart/table as a guide, compare and contrast each theory by at least two factors. Remember: clearly provide a description that will accompany your chart/table.

Evaluate the impact of Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) on, for example, psychological or medical research in America based upon ethical guidelines and codes adopted over time.

Do you think research is important to understand the aging process? Defend your perspective and explain clearly the reasoning for your position.

Describe the history of the study of adult development.

Explain the concepts of normative age-graded, normative history-graded and non-normative influences, and give an example of each.

True/False Questions 1.

The largest projected increases come in the years 2020–2030, when the number of Americans age 65 years and older jumps from 54.6 million to 71.5 million. Answer: TRUE

In the years 2030–2040, the number of Americans 85 years old steadily falls from 9.6 million to 1.4 million Answer: FALSE

Challenging issues in the study of adult development and aging include working with disciplines other than one’s own, balancing the emphasis on young, middle, and late adulthood, highlighting both group trends based on age and individual differences, and dealing with the limited resources available for research. Answer: TRUE

Researchers may define developmental psychology as the scientific study of the ways mental and behavioral processes change within individuals over time. Answer: TRUE

Researchers often describe positive psychology as an attitude-based approach, emphasizing individual’s attitude and feelings that allow for a range of coping and personal growth strategies. Answer: FALSE

Within the positive psychology movement, researchers focus primarily on life satisfaction, contentment, and well-being. Answer: TRUE

A cohort is a group of people who have grown up together, but have non-normative historygraded experiences. Answer: FALSE

From a mechanistic perspective, human beings are machine-like in that they are comprised of many interacting parts. Answer: TRUE

An example of a non-normative influence that may influence or change your life would be all individuals born in 1995. Answer: FALSE

10.

Baltes and his colleagues have found seven core assumptions consistent with the contextual metatheoretical view that influences current lifespan developmental theory. Answer: TRUE

11.

One of the seven core assumptions consistent with the contextual metatheoretical view is that development is a lifelong process. Answer: TRUE

12.

One of the seven core assumptions consistent with the contextual metatheoretical view is that developmental pathways are set and rigid. Answer: FALSE

13.

Current lifespan development theory is consistent with a contextual metatheoretical view in emphasizing a lifelong process involving mutlidirectionality, contextualism, gains and losses, and plasticity. Answer: TRUE

14.

The biological theories emphasize the ways our genetically initiated developmental processes are shaped by external influences. Answer: TRUE

15.

The biological theories emphasize the ways our genetically initiated developmental processes are shaped by internal influences. Answer: FALSE

16.

The connectionist approaches to human development emphasize the development of cognitive networks that form the foundation of all thought processes. Answer: TRUE

17.

Programmed theories, including the programmed longevity theory, the endocrine theory, and the immunological theory, operate with the basic assumption that a biological timetable controls the aging process. Answer: TRUE

18.

Perhaps the most well known sociocultural theory, the bioecological theory developed by Bronfenbrenner, was originally applied to childhood and then later to the entire lifespan. Answer: TRUE

19.

The selection, optimization, and compensation theory of development (SOC) provides a structure around which researchers can organize data about aging and make predictions about future courses of action. Answer: TRUE

20.

Psychology relies on scientifically informed methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation in order to provide objectivity in reporting research findings. Answer: TRUE

Multiple-choice Questions 1.

The largest projected increases of Americans age 65 years and older that jumps from 54.6 million to 71.5 million, come in the years a) b) c) d)

2010-2020 2030-2040 2040-2050 2050-2060

Answer: b 2.

In the study of adult development and aging, there are theoretical issues that must be considered. One such challenge is _________. a) b) c) d)

accepting and utilizing the multidisciplinary nature of the study of adulthood developing a viable leisure and recreational strategy coming up with a solution for adequate healthcare creating a communication theory that will recognize the needs of adulthood and aging

Answer: a 3.

Challenging issues in the study of adult development and aging include __________________________. a) b) c) d)

working with disciplines other than one’s own balancing the emphasis on young, middle and late adulthood highlighting both group trends based on age and individual differences All of the above

Answer: d 4.

Researchers often describe positive psychology as a strengths-based approach, emphasizing an individual’s _______. a) b) c) d)

attitude and feelings for coping and growth strategies reasoning that allows for rational coping and growth strategies strengths and resilient qualities that allow for productive coping and personal growth orientation to problem solving that allows for productive coping and personal growth

Answer: c

Barbara and her friend, Donna, 72 and 61 years old respectively, are still driving. Barb demonstrates strong cognitive skills related to driving, few sensory limitations, adequate mobility, and a strong support system. On the other hand, Donna, who is a loner, appears more forgetful and may need a hearing aid soon. Which of the following measurements would be a better predictor of Barb and Donna’s driving eligibility? a) b) c) d)

Chronological age Social age Psychological age Functional age

Answer: d 6.

Of the following examples, which best demonstrates a normative history-graded influence that combines to influence functional age? a) b) c) d)

Individuals who have a succession of positive life events Individuals who had an active professional career Individuals who lived through the Great Depression Individuals who party together

Answer: c 7.

Mason defined a cohort as ___________________________________. a) b) c) d)

a group of people who has grown up together and have dissimilar normative history-graded experiences a group of people who has grown up together and have similar normative historygraded experiences a younger individual who joins an older generational group that will share normative psychology-graded experience None of the above

Answer: b 8.

Which of the following terms best describes a group of people born in the same time in history, and that travel through time together as part of the same age group. a) b) c) d)

Cohort Clique Optimal age group Connectionist cluster

Answer: a

The Grant Study is a 68-year longitudinal study of two socially different groups of people: 237 physically and mentally healthy Harvard college sophomores from the classes of 19391944, and a second group of 332 disadvantaged, non-delinquent, inner-city youths who grew up in Boston neighborhoods between 1940 and 1945. Which term below best describes these two groups of individuals? a) b) c) d)

Cliques Cohorts Optimal age groups Connectionist clusters

Answer: b 10.

Zucker, Ostrove, and Stewart (2002) surveyed a group of young adult women with an average age of 26, a different group of middle-aged women who had an average age of 46, and a third group of older women who had an average age of 66years old. After comparing the data from the three groups, the researchers found that feelings of generativity were stronger in midlife than in young adulthood, and that those feelings tended to plateau in late adulthood. This research design is known as _______________. a) b) c) d)

longitudinal design 2x2 design cross-sectional design experimental design

Answer: c 11.

An example of a non-normative influence that may influence or change your life might be _____. a) b) c) d)

being born in the year 1995 being alive as the first African-American becomes the President of the United States being aware of where you were when on 9/11/2001 terrorists flew into the Twin Towers winning the Pennsylvania Lottery’s Cash 5 game for $ 1.2 million

Answer: d 12.

Which of the three metatheories describes human beings as machine-like in that they are comprised of many interacting parts? a) b) c) d)

Mechanistic Metatheory Organismic Metatheory Contextual Metatheory None of the above 16

Answer: a 13.

Which of the three metatheories emphasize individual’s genetically predetermined patterns of development, which are revealed through maturation and influenced by stimulation from the environment? a) b) c) d)

Mechanistic Metatheory Organismic Metatheory Contextual Metatheory None of the above

Answer: b 14.

Which of the three metatheories emphasize the bidirectional interaction of both internal and external forces, creating both continuous and discontinuous development? a) b) c) d)

Mechanistic Metatheory Organismic Metatheory Contextual Metatheory None of the above

Answer: c 15.

Researchers may use behavioral analysis methodology to design a conditioning program to enhance performance. By engaging in a practice program (training) and by competing for an incentive, such as desirable prizes for those who accurately remember the most words (reinforcement), it is likely that participants’ scores will improve. Which of the metatheories’ view is consistent with the latter methodology? a) b) c) d)

Mechanistic Metatheory Organismic Metatheory Contextual Metatheory None of the above

Answer: a 16.

Baltes and his colleagues have led the way in documenting the evolution of lifespan psychology in general, and the study of adult development and aging in particular. Through their work they have found seven core assumptions consistent with the ____________ view that influences current lifespan developmental theory. a) b) c) d)

Mechanistic Metatheory Organismic Metatheory Contextual Metatheory None of the above

Answer: c 17

17.

Current lifespan development theory is consistent with a contextual metatheoretical view in emphasizing________________. a) b) c) d)

a lifelong process involving mutlidirectionality, contextualism, gains and losses, and plasticity a lifelong process involving mutlidirectionality, contextualism, gains and losses, and rigidity a lifelong process involving contextualism, predetermined development, and periods of stability a lifelong process involving an environment full of change, recognized by quantifiable growth, plateau, or decline

Answer: a 18.

Error theories, such as the wear and tear theory, rate of living theory, crosslinking theory, free radical theory, and the somatic DNA damage theory, focus on ______________. a) b) c) d)

the biological timetable that controls the aging process the ways environmental forces affect the maturation of genetically initiated processes over time the external forces that shape one’s life the cognitive networks that individuals establish

Answer: b 19.

The main premise of the ___________ is/are that developmental outcomes are the result of multiple interactions between genetically based initial developmental processes and environmental experiences (Bronfenbrenner & Ceci, 1994). a) b) c) d)

connectionist theory error theories programmable theory bioecological theory

Answer: d 20.

Which of the following elements would be included in Bronfenbrenner’s description of microsystems? a) b) c) d)

Your relationships with your friends Your relationships with your spouse/partner, roommate, or parents Your relationships with your neighbors, instructors, or boss All of the above

Answer: ?

21.

Bronfenbrenner’s notion of multiple-person systems and multiple levels of interactions distinguish it from other ecological models (Sontag, 1996). This bioecological theory falls under the broader theoretical framework known as ___________. a) b) c) d)

social psychological theories sociocultural theories organizational theories error free theories

Answer: b 22.

Which of the following theories describes the ways individuals manage the gains and losses, accompanying each phase of life, by selecting the best option from realistic choices, optimizing strengths and resources, and compensating for losses by adjusting strategies or goals. a) b) c) d)

Social psychological theories Selection, optimization, and compensation theory Organizational theories Error Free Theories

Answer: b 23.

The Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval of a research study involves taking the appropriate steps to ensure informed consent or proper procedures if deception is used, ____________, and participant protections as needed. a) b) c) d)

orderliness institutional/researcher insurance monetary compensation confidentiality

Answer: d

CHAPTER 2 INDIVIDUAL AND MULTICULTURAL DIFFERENCES Discussion Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Explain some of the problems with dividing thoughts, behaviors, or people themselves into two groups: normal and abnormal. Have you personally experienced or witnessed an act of ageism? What do you think causes or underlies an act of ageism? What is multiculturalism? And will it destroy a national identity? Does multiculturalism have an impact on the older population? How do the media shape our sense of masculine and feminine characteristics? Is it possible to be religious and spiritual? If tested weekly, do you think your performance on a memory test would be stable or fluctuate?

Assignments 1.

Explore Harvard’s Pluralism Project site. Check out your state resources and the selected links. From the site, select three resources that you would recommend to a friend. http://pluralism.org/

“Internal diversity also marks other religious movements too often seen, by outsiders, as homogeneous. One example is evangelicalism, America’s “folk religion.” Randall Blumer’s, Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory: A Journey into the Evangelical Subculture in America, seeks to portray American evangelicalism as anything but monolithic, with its rich diversity of fundamentalism, pentecostalism, the holiness and charismatic movements, the sanctified tradition, and many others. For background information, review the websites, Religious Diversity in America-National Humanities Center, http://www.nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/twenty/tkeyinfo/reldiv.htm and the Institute for the Study of American Evangelicals, http://isae.wheaton.edu/definingevangelicalism/ . Provide an argument for evangelicalism as America’s “folk religion?”

Lecture Outline I.

Individual and Multicultural Differences A.

Psychological Study of Human Differences 1.

2. 3.

Early Work- emphasized individual traits, such as intelligence, memory, and various personality traits, with much of this early work done in educational, employment, and counseling or therapeutic settings (Dawis, 1992) a. Developed precise testing instruments and corresponding theoretical and mathematical formulae used to quantify various traits b. Measuring individual differences has expanded to form another area of study, psychometrics During the first 80 years of the discipline’s existence, psychologists were not active in cross-cultural or multicultural research. Development of cross-cultural Research and Professional Organizations a. 1960s - journals publishing specifically cross-cultural, psychological research began to appear b. 1968 - Association of Black Psychologists organized, with one of its goals to bring more awareness of diversity to the American Psychological Association c. 1972 - the Asian American Psychological Association organized d. 1975 - Society of Indian Psychologists organized e. 1979 - National Hispanic Psychological Association organized f. 1972 - International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology formed, and by 1973 its membership = 1,000 Psychologists may have been slow to expand their focus to include sociocultural influences, but once the expansion occurred in the 1960s and 1970s the field has moved rapidly to recognize cultural and individual differences. a. American Psychological Association – in the 1960s-70s divisions formed recognizing diverse populations (1) 1970s - the Society for the Psychology of Women (division 35) and the Psychology of Religion (division 36) were established (2) 1980s - the Society of the Psychological Study of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Issues (division 44) and the Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic Minority Issues (division 45) were approved (3) 1990s - the Society for the Psychological Study of Men and Masculinity (division 51) and International Psychology (division 52) Summary: The study of individual differences began in psychology with the aim of applying research in the areas of education, industry, and therapy. During the 1970s and 1980s psychologists became quickly and intensely interested in cross-cultural and multicultural research. 21

Assumptions Regarding Average and Normal 1. 2.

Introduction a. We use the terms average and normal frequently and without much thought given to precision definitions or implications. AVERAGE a. The statistical concept of average provides a general summary of a set of numbers. b. The statistical average , by itself, does not provide any indication of the variety within a group. c. Whenever you are presented with averages, be mindful that (1) It is important to know what was used in the calculation. (2) Without information on the variety within the group, the statistical average gives only a bit of information. (3) When using the term in a casual way, such as the “average American,” we are similarly missing or ignoring important differences. NORMAL a. The term normal is less precise in that it does not have a statistical definition. b. We frame normal in personal terms, based on our life experiences (1) As children normal is often characterized by familiar, familial, and local customs. (2) As we get older and our experiences broaden, we learn to appreciate a wide range of accepted thoughts and behaviors as normal within our society. (3) We also realize with age that what is normal is changing. e.g., American male with an earring. ABNORMAL a. In addition to developing a sense of normal, we may also develop a sense of abnormal. (1) It is easy to begin to dichotomize these terms such that thoughts or behaviors are either normal or abnormal: e.g., stranger approaches; that person is either normal (and I’m comfortable) or abnormal (and I’m on guard and suspicious). (2) Such a dichotomy dictates that any thoughts or behaviors that are not normal are “sick,” “not right,” and possibly immoral. (3) This perspective doesn’t allow for thoughts or behaviors to simply be different. b. It is easy to start to view normal as synonymous with conformity to norms and any nonconformity becomes, by default, abnormal Summary a. The past norms - Just as there is some truth in the humorous statement that psychology is the “science of white rats and college freshmen,” there is also some truth in the accusation that American psychology has been the science of the white, heterosexual, middle-class, Christian lifestyle. 22

Closer Analysis of the Aging Population 1. 2.

II.

When considering the need to make both broad generalizations of large groups of people and more precise descriptions of individuals and subgroups, it is important to be reminded to WATCH OUR ASSUMPTIONS. Individuals who are not normal or average as compared to the people we interact with daily are not necessarily abnormal, deviant, and in need of change or therapy.

It is also important to analyze data beyond the summary statements of the large group in order to find trends and differences among individuals and subgroups. Consider the finding by the U.S. Census Bureau (2008) that of the 35 million Americans 65 years or older in 2005, 56.6% were married. a. A closer look at the data reveals important yet hidden information in these figures. b. Of the 15 million males 73.3% were married and only 13.1% were widowed. Of the 20 million females 43.8% were married and 42.5% were widowed. c. By exploring the data with gender as the focus it becomes clear that the population 65 years and older in 2006 was predominantly female with many of those women living alone. d. Recent U.S. Census data reveals more women are receiving higher education, living longer, and living alone in old age than men.

Areas of Difference A.

Western and Eastern Cultures 1. 2.

3. 4.

Western cultures, of which most Americans and Europeans are a part, tend to think of themselves as independent, self-contained individuals. Eastern cultures are likely to elevate relationships and interconnectedness more than an individual sense of self (Cohen & Gunz, 2002). This Eastern mindset, often associated with Asian countries, is called collectivism. Consider self-esteem, for example: a. Those with a Western mindset are more likely to feel good when they can take care of themselves without the help of others. Westerners take pride in their personal strengths. b. Those in an Eastern culture are more likely to feel good when they think of all the relationships they participate in, gaining satisfaction from their sense of interdependence and mutuality (Kitayama, Markus, Matsumoto, & Norasakkunkit, 1997). Consider the value on Youth: a. Western cultures value the fact that an individual’s most independent and self-sufficient years are the youthful ones.

b. 6.

7. 8.

An emphasis on interconnectedness would more likely lead to greater attachment to one’s intergenerational family, and more positive feelings toward caring for and valuing older adults (Liu et al., 2003). Warning: generalizations are filled with oversimplifications and are guilty of ignoring any number of exceptions. a. Just as it is grossly simplistic to say “all older adults are this way” or “all males are this way,” it is equally as simplistic to say that all members of Western culture are one way and all members of Eastern culture are the opposite. b. Collectivism, for example, is expressed somewhat differently in Chinese cultures than in Japanese cultures (Koltko-Rivera, 2004). c. Such simplistic thinking can also lead to evaluations, such that one culture is judged to be good or correct, and the other, being the opposite, is bad or wrong. Individual and multicultural differences are multifaceted, and often interacting with many other areas of life, adding to the complexity of any research effort attempting to be sensitive and inclusive of differences. A global perspective on cultural and individual differences often includes the basic distinction between Western, individualistic cultures (the primary focus of this text) and Eastern, collectivist cultures.

Age and Ageism 1.

2. 3.

While chronological age is the easiest to measure and to communicate to others, it is not as useful as functional age and its components when describing adults. People will respond to us not only based on our chronological age but also their assessment of our biological, psychological, and social age. Most of the age-based stereotypes Americans hold of older adults are negative (Foos, Clark, & Terrell, 2006; Hess, 2006). a. Includes the notion that all older adults are alone, lonely, sick, dependent, depressed, rigid, and unable to cope (Hinrichsen, 2006). Stereotypes are beliefs or assumptions that a group of people share a set of characteristics, which are often exaggerated and often oversimplified traits. a. Those holding stereotypes often assume that the target group is uniform, with practically all members holding such traits without exception (Liu et al., 2003; Sinnott & Shifren, 2001). Ageism is demonstrated by prejudicial, discriminatory behaviors stemming from negative stereotyping based on a person’s age, whether young or old. a. E.g., for an employer to deny a young adult a promotion solely based on the assumption that someone so young would be too immature for the position, just as it would be to deny an older employee a promotion solely based on the assumption that someone so old would not have the energy or mental flexibility to manage the position. Elderspeak, people often talk to older adults in the same way they would talk to infants or pets.

Elderspeak speech patterns are often slower, more exaggerated, and involve simple grammar and vocabulary. b. The use of elderspeak reminds older adults of how they are being perceived (their social age). c. As older adults are spoken to like children, over and over again, it lowers their self-esteem, motivation, and self-efficacy (Hess, 2006). Although most of the stereotypes Americans hold of older adults are negative, as demonstrated by the frequent use of elderspeak, there are some positive characterizations of late adulthood. a. In a survey of 240 participants ranging in age from 18 to 85 years old, Hummert, Garstak, Shaner, & Strahm (1994) found a variety of positive and negative stereotypes. b. Older adults were viewed as either: (1) Golden Agers (2) John Wayne Conservatives (3) Perfect Grandparents (4) Shrews/Curmudgeons (5) Recluses (6) Despondent (7) Severely Impaired c. As the stereotypes of aging reveal, most people are noticing the losses more than the gains. (1) Losses-psychologists have generally focused on changes in: (a) Physical health (b) Cognitive functioning (c) Issues related to changing social and work situations (2) Gains are the ways older individuals: (a) Learn to regulate their emotions (Consedine, Magal, & Conway, 2004) (b) Learn to maintain composure (c) begin to experience increases in wisdom, maturity (Wentrua & Brandtstadter, 2003), problem-solving ability (Baltes et al., 1999), and life satisfaction (d) Begin to experience higher levels of life satisfaction than young and middle-aged adults d. The American Psychological Association’s Guidelines for Psychological Practice with Older Adults details 20 guidelines that fall into six basic categories. (1) Awareness of one’s personal attitudes toward aging (2) General knowledge of diversity and environmental issues, such as circumstances related to gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (3) Specific knowledge regarding aging-related clinical issues (4) awareness of the best ways to test and assess the functioning of older adults (5) Awareness of the best types of interventions and therapies; and to engage in continuing education in these areas (APA, 2004) 25

Gender 1.

2. 3. 4.

6. 7. D.

The area of gender differences is highly controversial and complex, including the comparisons of masculine and feminine gender identities, gender roles, and gender role stereotypes as they relate to aging, social and political roles, and performance in numerous areas of life. Sex refers to biological characteristics and processes. Gender refers to one’s personal identity and its social reflection in attitudes and behaviors (Sinnott & Shifren, 2001). One of the standard findings in gender studies is that while data analysis shows differences between females and males, analysis also shows a great deal of overlap between the groups and much more variation within each gender group (Sinnott & Shifren, 2001). Some argue that there is more overlap between genders than differences, and continuing to focus on the differences gives the public and the media a false impression. a. Men can vary dramatically when compared to other men, as do women when compared to other women. b. Some believe that the best course of action to equalize opportunities for the genders is to stop comparing by gender and focus on human variation and individual differences (Baumeister, 1988). c. People grow more distinct rather than similar with age (Consedine et al., 2004). d. The area of gender differences is highly controversial and complex, including the comparisons of masculine and feminine gender identities, gender roles, and gender role stereotypes as they relate to aging, social and political roles, and performance in numerous areas of life. Sensitivity to gender as a source of individual differences requires careful attention to how gender is being measured and categorized. There are many variations of feminism, such as radical feminists, who seek to expose large-scale oppression based on gender.

Culture, Ethnicity, and Race in America 1.

When adopting a multicultural approach it is important to remember that individuals within minority categories, such as Hispanic Americans or Asian Americans, may trace their ethnic heritage to different parts of the world with unique customs, lifestyles, religions, and histories. Based on population estimates, the primary ethnic groups in the United States are: a. Hispanic Americans b. African Americans c. Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders, and d. American Indians and Alaska Natives (Bernal et al., 2003) While it is easy to slip into the assumption that the members of each cultural group are similar (Fischer & McWhirter, 2001), it is good to be reminded of the diversity within each group. 26

5. 6. 7. E.

Hispanic or Latin Americans, one of the fastest growing ethnic minority groups in the United States, may trace their heritage to: a. Mexico b. Cuba c. Puerto Rico d. Countries in South and Central America e. Spain (Bernal et al., 2003) It is estimated that by the middle of the current century approximately half of all Americans will have a cultural heritage that is not European. Most of the research on cultural heritage is focused on Hispanic Americans and African Americans, with less research targeting Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders or Native Americans and Alaska Natives. Multiculturalism is a perspective or ideology that recognizes distinct cultures and strives to treat them with equal respect and status.

Religious Cultures and Practices 1.

Religious diversity can be found both across religions and within religions, particularly when considering ideological, ritualistic, intellectual, experiential, and consequential aspects. Most American adults claim some religious affiliation. According to recent polls approximately a. 3 % claim to be atheist or agnostic b. 10% claim to have no religious preference c. 80% of Americans claim some form of Christianity as their religious preference, with most of those in Catholic or Baptist denominations (Adherents.com, 2005) a. Estimated 6.5 million people represent minority religions (e.g., Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism) b. Religiosity (or religion) refers to involvement in religious traditions such as Buddhism or Christianity or institutions, such as the Roman Catholic Church or the Southern Baptist Convention. (1) Religiosity refers to the behaviors encouraged or expected by one’s religious affiliation. (2) This definition makes religiosity somewhat easier to measure in that a researcher can find out what is expected by a religious community and gauge a participant’s involvement based on that standard. c. In contrast to religiosity, which is often external and observable, spirituality refers to an internal state involving one’s faith, personal beliefs, and sense of inner harmony. (1) Spirituality can be viewed as one’s personal beliefs and feeling of connection to the sacred. (2) With such a broad definition, spirituality can include many practices, such as prayer, meditation, fasting, and contemplation. It can also include many personal situations including the individual fully devoted to a traditional, spiritual and religious tradition and the person who has no 27

2. 3.

4. 5.

Intraindividual Variation 1.

organizational affiliation but projects the wise, caring, and thoughtful manner associated with a spiritual nature (Spilka et al., 2003; Wink & Dillon, 2002, 2003; Wulff, 1997). From a research point of view the confusion over the use of the terms religiosity and spirituality can create large amounts of error. Glock (1962) detailed five dimensions of religiosity that have served as the basic dimensions on which one’s religiosity can be assessed. a. In Glock’s scheme religiosity can be separated into the following independent aspects: (1) Ideological aspect (what you believe) (2) Ritualistic aspect (how you worship or show devotion publicly and privately) (3) Intellectual aspect (your theological, philosophical, and historical knowledge) (4) Experiential aspect (your emotions and feelings) (5) Consequential aspect (the effects of your religion in the other areas of your life) For some individuals, their sense of culture is highly influenced by their religiosity and personal spirituality. That steady progression of cultural and religious change, along with the mix of gains and losses experienced by individuals with age, creates an area of individual and multicultural differences that is difficult to assess with accuracy. Intraindividual variation, or the fluctuations in performance demonstrated by a person when tested repeatedly, promises to bring new insights to the understanding of gains and losses with age. a. For example, when testing older adults on cognitive tasks twice a week for 7 weeks, Shu-Chen and colleagues (2001) found that fluctuations in performance were “substantial.” b. There is some evidence suggesting that this inconsistency or intraindividual variation in cognitive performance can be a sign of cognitive aging, with greater fluctuation indicating neurological disorders (MacDonald, Hultsch, & Dixon, 2003). Researchers are exploring within-person variation or intraindividual variation as a way to further understand the aging process and individual gains and losses. It may be useful, for example, rather than considering adult development in terms of an organism seeking equilibrium or balance (the traditional view from early developmental perspectives), to conceptualize development as a more dynamic process oriented toward change (Nesselroade, 2004).

Acknowledging Diversity 1.

Many in the social sciences, including the American Psychological Association, have called on researchers and therapists to deliberately raise their personal awareness of individual and multicultural differences as well as incorporate more culturally-sensitive practices in their work. 28

Video Suggestions 1.

The Aging Game [5-part series, 9-16 minutes each] While technology and economic factors have a great impact, social customs and values can be equally as important in caring for the elderly. This five-part series begins with an assessment of global demographics, focusing on the incredible rise of elderly populations worldwide, and then looks at the welfare of senior citizens in Tunisia, Japan, Nigeria, and India. A United Nations Production. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)671-1000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)671-0266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, URL: http://www.films.com

Horizons and Homelands: Integrating Cultural Roots [24 minutes] This program

chronicles the lives of two families—a Native American family, which has recently moved from a reservation to the city; and a family from Laos, who recently immigrated to the same city. For a family coming from a Native American reservation, or for a family emigrating from another country, integrating one’s culture, or even just retaining it, can be a trying and difficult process. Through their honesty and candor, the families explain not only what is distinctive about their own cultures, but how they are working to integrate these differences with their new lives in an urban environment far removed from their homelands. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)671-1000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)671-0266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, URL: http://www.films.com 3.

They Call Me Muslim : A Documentary. [27 min] Women Make Movies, 2006

SUMMARY: Two contrasting profiles of Muslim women who have made opposite decisions about wearing the traditional Muslim headgear, the Hijab. One in France has chosen to wear the Hijab in defiance of French Law. The other skirts the law in Iran, by wearing it as little as possible. Orders Department Women Make Movies, 462 Broadway, Suite 500WS , New York, NY 10013, Fax orders to (212) 925-2052 ,Email orders to orders@wmm.com 4.

Silences (22 min.). New Day Films, 2006 SUMMARY: "Set in Maumee, Ohio, an idyllic

Reading between the lines: understanding culture in qualitative results [50 min]

Midwestern suburb with manicured lawns and historic homes, 'Silences' follows the filmmaker's journey to understand his mother, Harriet Warnock, and her refusal to discuss the circumstances of his birth. What happens when an interracial person's identity is completely ignored by his white family and friends? The camera captures one family's inner demons -- one mention of Graham's half-black parentage nearly gives his white grandmother a heart attack. Graham's family embodied the denial found in multicultural families across the country, and reminds us that the ideal of racial purity persists in America." New Day Films, 190 Route 17M, P.O. Box 1084, Harriman, NY 10926, Tel: 888-367-9154 or 845-7747051, Fax: 845- 774-2945, http://www.newday.com/ Summary: Qualitative research provides us with a means to gain a deep description of the lives we study. But entering in a community can be difficult. We have to suspend our own cultural lens while examining the experiences of others. Dr. Suzuki describes the importance 29

of cultures being understood among a context of political, economic, historical, and social venues. Students will be moved by her personal experiences and the use of symbols that she uses to illustrate her own story and culture/ Lisa Suzuki. Hanover, MA : Distributed by Microtraining Associates, c2009. 141 Walnut Street, Hanover, MA 02339, Telephone/Fax: 888-505-5576, http://www.emicrotraining.com/ 6.

Growing Old in a New Age: Part One-Myths and Realities of Aging. [60 min]

American Pluralism: Nurturing Interfaith Dialogue [30 min] Surveying the increasing

Examines ageism and debunks common myths of aging (i.e. most people are ill; there is no sex after 60; the right product can halt the aging process; aging brings memory loss; older family members are ignored). The Annenberg Corporation for Public Broadcasting Collection, Attn.: Diane Driver, Center on Aging University of California, 535 University Hall #7360, Berkeley, CA 94720-7360, (510) 643-6427, http://www.learner.org/ pluralism of the U.S. spiritual landscape, this DVD examines the Pluralism Project at Harvard University, the Interfaith Center at the Presidio, Inter-Faith Ministries in Wichita, and the United Religions Initiative in San Francisco. Insight Media, Inc. 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 10024-0621, 1- 800-233-9910, http://www.insightmedia.com/

The Blending of Culture: Latino Influence on America [40 min] This program considers

Pluralism in America [58 min] Explaining that the U.S. is the most religiously diverse

10.

Boys Will Be Men [57 min] This documentary about growing up male in the U.S.

how Cuban, Puerto Rican, and Mexican-American cultures influence such sectors of U.S. society as entertainment, politics, and economics. It covers key issues, including the history of Latinos in the U.S. and U.S. immigration laws. The DVD features interviews with Latino university presidents, professors, artists, doctors, CEOs, bishops, and ministers. Insight Media, Inc. 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 10024-0621, 1- 800-233-9910, http://www.insight-media.com/

nation in the world, this DVD examines the complex challenges that such diversity presents. It profiles the Pluralism Project at Harvard University, which documents the demographics of Muslim, Buddhist, Hindu, Sikh, Jain, and Zoroastrian communities in the U.S. Insight Media, Inc. 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 10024-0621, 1- 800-233-9910, http://www.insight-media.com/ considers how boys become men. It covers such topics as courage, morals, love, and violence. 2001. Insight Media, Inc. 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 10024-0621, 1- 800233-9910, http://www.insight-media.com/

11.

Divide of the Sexes: Gender Roles in Childhood [60 min] This program considers the

influence of celebrity culture, consumerism, and media treatment of sexuality on gender roles and the expectations of children. It explores such cases as a boy who grew up without gender stereotypes, a girl whose mother is the breadwinner in the family, and a young boy Divide of the Sex

displaying male aggression. 2008. Insight Media, Inc. 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 10024-0621, 1- 800-233-9910, http://www.insight-media.com/

12.

Old Like Me [28 min] To find out how society treats older people, a young reporter, Pat

13.

Middle sexes redefining he and she [75 min] Summary: Sensitively explores the controversial subject of the blurring of gender as well as the serious social and family problems - even dangers - often faced by those whose gender may fall somewhere in between male and female. Home Box Office, 2006. http://www.hbo.com/documentaries/index.html

Moore, disguised herself as a helpless 85-year-old woman. She experienced the terror that society can inflict on the young and old. Here is a provocative film to help people understand the feelings and problems of being old. Filmmakers Library, Inc., 124 East 40th Street, Suits 901, New York, NY 10016, (212) 808-4980, http://www.filmakers.com/

Essay Questions 1.

Compare an instance where a behavior may be accepted as normal, while in a different time period, or in a different setting, the same behavior may be considered abnormal.

Do “average” calculations of behaviors or physical measurements generally fall within a “normal” acceptance? Support your argument.

When Westerners are presented with apparent contradictions they assume they need to determine which position is correct. When Easterners are presented with contradictions they assume they need to find a compromise, synthesis, or “middle way” (Nisbett & Norenzayan, 2002). How might this world perspective manifest in business or political negotiations?

Therapeutic communication is a critical tool for nurses and allied health personnel who provide health care to the growing population of older adults. The Director of a local nursing home has asked you to provide a training program for its nursing assistants entitled “Overcoming Elderspeak.” Describe some of the assumptions about older people that the younger caregivers may use to promote aging stereotypes, and rationalize their elderspeak.

Gender has an impact on health in a variety of ways. How so?

How might variation within certain groups, for example, Asian-Americans, provide a challenge to a researcher trying to collect data? Provide two examples with an explanation. Do you find the distinction between religiosity and spirituality helpful?

7. 8.

Significant attention to intraindividual variation seems focused on medical or physiological measurements. How might your intraindividual variation help you understand your regularly scheduled medical checkup?

Analyze how mass media has shaped your gender role, from your earliest memories. 31

True/False Questions 1.

Psychologists have considered individual characteristics and differences for much longer than sociocultural, multicultural, and cross-cultural differences. Answer: TRUE

Interest in cross-cultural and multicultural research within the United States rapidly gained notice and momentum, among psychologists and other researchers from the early 1800s. Answer: FALSE

The study of individual differences began in psychology with the aim of applying research in the areas of education, industry, and therapy. Answer: TRUE

Individuals who are not normal or average as compared to the people we interact with daily are generally abnormal, deviant, and in need of change or therapy. Answer: FALSE

The “Golden Agers” stereotype describes those older adults who are adventurous, energetic, healthy, and well traveled. Answer: TRUE

In Glock’s scheme religiosity, the Ideological aspect is “what you believe.” Answer: TRUE

The study of attitudes and stereotypes of age reveals that when only chronological age is known, younger adults are judged more favorably than older adults. Answer: TRUE

Most of the stereotypes of older adults are positive. Answer: FALSE

Sensitivity to gender, as a source of individual differences, requires careful attention to how gender is being measured and categorized. Answer: TRUE

10.

For far too long, feminism has been one-dimensional when it comes to oppression based on gender. Answer: FALSE

11.

When adopting a multicultural approach it is important to remember that individuals within minority categories, such as Hispanic Americans or Asian Americans, share very similar customs, lifestyles, religions, and histories. Answer: FALSE

12.

Researchers are exploring within-person variation or intraindividual variation as a way to understand the aging process and individual gains and losses. Answer: TRUE

13.

Generalizations often hide important information. Answer: TRUE

14.

Guard against the automatic assumption that what is not “normal” is wrong, sick, or evil and in need of treatment or correction. Answer: TRUE

15.

All stereotypical thinking is ill intentioned or malicious. Answer: FALSE

16.

Casual use of the terms average and normal can lead to misunderstanding and misinterpretation of research findings and theories. Answer: TRUE

Multiple-choice Questions 1.

Recent U.S. Census data reveals more women are receiving _______________in old age than men are. a) b) c) d)

higher education, living longer, and living alone social security disability, dying earlier, and living alone annuities, living longer, and are married higher education and are married

Answer: a 2.

Global perspective on cultural and individual differences often includes the basic distinction between Western and Eastern cultures. The Western culture is known as a __________ culture. a) b) c) d)

collectivist communal individualistic tribal

Answer: a 3.

It is estimated that by the middle of the current century approximately _______ Americans will have a cultural heritage that is not European. a) b) c) d)

10% 20% 50% 85%

Answer: c 4.

Most of the research on cultural heritage is focused on ___________________________. a) b) c) d)

Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders Arab Americans and Jewish-Americans Hispanic Americans and African Americans Native Americans and Alaska Natives

Answer: c

____________ is a perspective or ideology that recognizes distinct cultures and strives to treat them with equal respect and status. a) b) c) d)

Acculturation Diffusion Transculturalism Multiculturalism

Answer: d 6.

____________, or the fluctuations in performance demonstrated by a person, when tested repeatedly, promises to bring new insights to the understanding of gains and losses with age. a) b) c) d)

Intraindividual variation Gender-graded influences Life cycles Religious manifestations

Answer: a 7.

From an Eastern world perspective, an emphasis on interconnectedness would more likely lead to greater attachment to one’s intergenerational family, and ____________________. a) b) c) d)

a more spiritual peacefulness toward the family more positive feelings toward caring for and valuing older adults stronger commitment to work hard for family goals more cross-cultural understanding

Answer: b 8.

____________ is/are demonstrated by prejudicial, discriminatory behaviors stemming from negative stereotyping based on a person’s age, whether young or old. a) b) c) d)

Stereotypes Racism Sexism Ageism

Answer: d

Which of the following is an example of elderspeak that might be heard from a young caregiver to an older resident? a) b) c) d)

“Hi there Rhonda, how is my sweetie doing today?” “Honey, are you ready for your medicine?” “Good evening, young lady. Are you ready for bed?” All of the above

Answer? 10.

__________ role assumes that the evidence shows that male-female differences are nurtured. a) b) c) d)

Sex Gender Androgynous Expressive

Answer: b 11.

Typical of research on gender-graded influences, Moen and Spencer (2001) found that men are more likely to be in paid work positions throughout adulthood whereas women moved between paid and unpaid work, with the unpaid times usually associated with caregiving for children, grandchildren, and older family members. Identify a potential consequence to this trend. a) b) c) d)

With a continuous history of work, men may be hired ahead of women who have “gaps” in their work history. Women may feel as though they are not as valuable, or their skills are not as valuable, because their caregiving is unpaid work. Also, with more years of employment men are likely to have better retirement incomes. All of the Above

Answer: d

CHAPTER 3 Healthy Lifestyles and Successful Aging Discussion Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What businesses and industries are likely to benefit from the dramatic increase in the number of Americans over 65 years old? What aspects of men’s or women’s gender roles might lead them to make choices that result in a longer lifespan? Why might men be more hesitant to see a doctor when something is wrong? What are your primary challenges or obstacles to maintaining a routine exercise program? What factors might motivate men to exercise more? What obstacles might decrease the opportunities for exercise for women?

Assignments 1.

Check out the Center for Disease Control’s (CDC) Healthy Aging site with its reports and select your state in the CDC interactive data tool to see where your state compares with selected preventative indicators: http://www.cdc.gov/aging/index.htm

Investigate the Federal Drug Administration’s website that provides consumer information by audience, in this case, for seniors. FDA's information for older people covers a wide range of health issues, including arthritis, cancer, health fraud, and nutrition. Is there a pattern to the type of information posted on the site?http://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ByAudience/ucm062130.htm

The USA.gov website lists official information and resources for senior citizens from the U.S. government. Identify three links that you found most useful, and explain. http://www.usa.gov/Topics/Seniors.shtml

Everyone is family with the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s food pyramid [MyPyramid.gov], and everyone. especially seniors, can use its interactive features to help guide and track healthy living. Give it a try! http://www.mypyramid.gov/index.html. FYI, Tufts University researchers have updated their Food Guide Pyramid for Older Adults to correspond with the new USDA food pyramid, now known as My Pyramid. The Tufts version is specifically designed for older adults and has changed in appearance and content. Check out the news release at: http://nutrition.tufts.edu/1197972031385/Nutrition-Pagenl2w_1198058402614.html . While you are at Tuft’s website, you may want to review the Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging at Tufts University (HNRCA). The HNRCA explores the relationship between nutrition, aging and health by determining the nutrient requirements that are necessary to promote health and well-being for older adults and examining the degenerative conditions associated with aging. http://www.hnrc.tufts.edu/ 37

Lecture Outline I.

Longer Lifespans A.

Longevity and Life Expectancy 1. Population trends indicate that, more than ever before in our history, adults are living longer and healthier lives. 2. Life expectancy, the prediction of how long an individual will live, has increased dramatically over the last several hundred years, particularly for women. 3. In all cultures and ethnicities, women live longer than men do. 4. Women generally take better care of their health and manage their stress better. 5. Rice and Fineman (2004) have found several factors that may be responsible for the increasingly good health of older Americans: a. Better medical care and technology b. Less exposure to disease c. Better behaviors (particularly reduced smoking and better diets) d. Better financial situations e. Willingness to use health aids (such as hearing aids) f. Willingness to engage social support networks

Centenarians 1. Healthy Life Studies of those who have the greatest longevity, the centenarians and supercentenarians, have found that rather than experiencing a typical aging process and simply living longer, these individuals age at a slower pace throughout adulthood. 2. Centenarians generally have controlled their weight, avoided smoking, and handled stress well. 3. There seems to be a genetic component to longevity, demonstrated by the findings that long life generally runs in families.

II.

Healthy Lifestyles A.

Physical Fitness 1.

Most Adults Are Not Fit

1. Among the most important components to a healthy lifestyle are a vigorous exercise routine, nutritious diet with appropriate caloric intake, and 7–8 hours of restful sleep. 2. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2009b) report that only 32.5% of American adults engage in regular leisure-time physical activity. 3. One clear trend is that physical activity decreases with age. 4. Another clear trend is that adult men exercise more than women do. 5. Differences in exercise levels are also found when considering ethnicity and income. 38

a. African American and Hispanic adults are less active than White adults are, and those with less income and education are less active than those with higher incomes or more education (CDC, 2010a; President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports [PCPFS], 2010b). 2.

Achieving Physical Fitness

1. Adults who can complete a minimum of 20 minutes of vigorous and intense activity or a minimum of 30 minutes of moderately intense activity on at least 3 days of the week will find they have enhanced their physiological and psychological functioning as well as reduced the risk of many illnesses. 2. The physical exercise component of overall fitness should include activities aimed to improve five primary areas of functioning: cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, body composition (muscle tone compared to fat), and flexibility (National Center on Physical Activity and Disability, 2009). 3.

Benefits of Fitness

1. The benefits of maintaining a healthy lifestyle are both immediate and long lasting. 2. Among the many physiological benefits of exercise are: a. Iimproved sleep b. Flexibility c. Muscle strength d. Better balance and coordination e. A stronger immune system (Aldwin et al., 2006; Chodzko- Zajko, 2000) 3. By maintaining a regular fitness program and a desirable weight, individuals may reduce their risk for a. Coronary heart disease b. Higher blood pressure c. Osteoporosis d. Diabetes e. Arthritis f. Some types of cancer (CDC, 2010c; PCPFS, 2010b) 4. Physical fitness can also improve our quality of life in other areas as well, including cognitive functioning throughout the aging process (Chodzko-Zajko, 2000; Rabbitt, 2002). 5. In a study of adults aged 65 and older, Lees, Clark, Nigg, and Newman (2005) found that the most common barriers to exercise were a. Fear of falling or sustaining an injury b. Lack of interest c. Procrastination

Nutrition

Sleep

1. Regarding nutrition, most guidelines recommend a diet high in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and fat-free or low-fat dairy products and low in saturated fats, trans fats, cholesterol, salt, and added sugars. 2. Most adults need to alter their diet to include more calcium, potassium, fiber, magnesium, and vitamins A, D, and E.

1. Lack of quality sleep causes psychological and physiological problems that can

dramatically affect daily functioning. 2. Poor sleep can result in sluggishness and lack of activity, which can reduce quality of life by causing further problems (Reynolds et al., 2001). 3. In the short term, poor sleep or lack of sleep can cause a. Attention and memory problems b. Depression c. A greater risk of falling (AARP & [ILC-USA], 2003; [ILC-USA], 2003) 4. Poor sleep patterns over long periods have been associated with: a. Social withdrawal and disengagement with activities (Reynolds et al., 2001) b. Shorter life spans c. Overuse of over-the-counter and herbal remedies (Kryger, Monjan, Bliwise, & Ancoli-Israel, 2004) d. Vulnerability to disease and illness (International Longevity Center– USA, 2003)

III.

Common Challenges to Healthy Lifestyles A.

Smoking

Obesity

1. Among the worst factors for successful aging, in addition to lack of physical activity and poor nutrition, are smoking, obesity, substance abuse, and overwhelming stress. 2. Smoking is often targeted as the worst health-related behavior as it is linked to many illnesses and reduced life expectancy. 3. Nicotine is responsible for 80–85% of all lung cancer and obstructive pulmonary disease deaths. 4. The CDC (2009c) reports that more deaths are caused by tobacco use than the combined deaths from human immunodeficiency virus, illegal drug use, alcohol use, motor vehicle injuries, suicides, and murders. 5. Smoking is related to a significant percentage of premature deaths as it reduces life expectancy by approximately 14 years (CDC, 2005a). 6. For those who stop before they develop a smoking-related disease, they can return to the level of health of nonsmokers within 5–15 years. 1. Another area of concern is the strikingly high numbers of adults who are obese, a condition that can increase the risk for many illnesses. 40

2. Obesity has been called an epidemic and one of America’s “most challenging public health problems” (Kaplan, 2007). 3. The percentage of obese Americans has more than doubled since 1980 (Tomiyama, Westling, Lew, Samuels, & Chatman, 2007), with more dramatic increases found among men (CDC, 2007). 4. Researchers have found that the best weight-loss programs include dietary modifications, ample exercise, and behavior-modification counseling. 5. Another signal of the national concern over obesity came in 2004 when Medicare changed its policy to allow for payment for obesity treatment (Tomiyama et al., 2007). 6. Data collected in 2005–2006 indicated that 34.3% of American adults were obese, a rate similar to that found in 2003–2004 (CDC, 2007). 7. To determine whether individuals are obese, overweight, or within their ideal weight range, with precision, would require a great deal of information, such as age, percentage of fat and lean muscle mass, and gender. Because most people do not have access to a professional to gather the needed information and make a personal assessment, many experts recommend the use of body mass index (BMI) scores. a. BMI scores of less than 18.5 are considered underweight, b. 18.5–24.9 are normal, 25–29.9 are considered overweight, and c. scores of 30 or more are considered obese. 8. Another way to determine obesity is to consider waist measurement. a. A general rule is that women with a waist measurement greater than 35 inches and men with a waist measurement greater than 40 inches are obese and at risk for numerous health problems (CDC, 2010b; Harvard School of Public Health, 2010a). 9. On a societal level, the obesity epidemic is likely to have numerous causes and influences, many of which stem from a. Poor food choices b. Inadequate physical activity c. Overconsumption of processed foods d. Fast foods, larger portions e. Increased sugar intake (Kaplan, 2007) 10. On a personal level, obesity is likely to be the result of a. Poor lifestyle choices, although it can be a symptom of other health concerns 11. Considering only studies that observed participants for at least 2 years following their weight-loss program, they found that the best results came when dietary changes (with or without drug treatment) were combined with an exercise program and behavior modification counseling. 12. Across the studies analyzed, approximately 20–40% of the participants were able to keep the weight off (Powell & Calvin, 2007).

Alcohol Abuse

1. Alcohol abuse usually peaks in young adulthood, although the rate of alcoholism among older adults is rising.

2. The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA; 2007) reports that one in every 12 adults, approximately 17.6 million Americans, either abuses alcohol or could be diagnosed with alcoholism. 3. Data indicate that over half of all Americans report drinking some alcohol, with those over 75 years old reporting the lowest rates. 4. Caucasian Americans and multiethnic Americans report the heaviest drinking, followed by a. Native Americans b. African Americans c. Hispanics, and Asians (Aldwin et al., 2006) 5. A study found that those who had or were currently dealing with alcoholism were more likely to be less educated, never married or divorced, and living on a lower income. 6. The number of men who had experienced alcoholism was nearly four times higher than of women, consistent with previous research (Bucholz, 1992). 7. Heavy drinking is defined as more than two drinks per day on average for men, one drink per day on average for women. 8. One drink is any one of the following: a. 12-ounce bottle or can of beer or wine cooler b. 5-ounce glass of wine c. 1.5 ounces of 80-proof distilled spirits 9. Two-thirds of the older adults with alcohol-related disorders are earlier-onset problem drinkers, meaning they developed an alcohol problem prior to age 60. These adults are more likely to develop additional alcohol-related problems, such as cirrhosis of the liver or mood and thought disorders. Later-onset problem drinkers, those who develop an alcohol problem as an older adult, are often using a dysfunctional coping method (drinking) to deal with issues surrounding retirement, social isolation, physical and cognitive changes, or the death of a spouse (Hanson & Gutheil, 2004). 10. Older adults are also more likely to take medications or over-the-counter drugs, risking dangerous side effects due to mixing medications and alcohol. a. Heavy alcohol use can cause more problems for those with high blood pressure and other physical illnesses (NIAAA, 2007).

Stress

1. Individuals who are overwhelmed with stresses and engaging in inadequate coping mechanisms are vulnerable to numerous psychological concerns such as anxiety, depression, and even suicide attempts. 2. High stress is also associated with a weakened immune system, leading to increased vulnerability to many problems and illnesses. 3. Stress is usually defined as a negative emotional experience resulting from either the need to change or adapt, or the worry that one will need to change or adapt in the future (Bekker, Nijssen, & Hens, 2001). 4. Stressors can be categorized in terms of a. macrostressors, major life events, or b. microstressors, daily hassles or minor events such as misplacing something you need right away (Felsten, 2002). 42

5. Stressful experiences are highly personal and subjective, varying greatly among individuals. People who have high stress reactivity, meaning they have more intense, emotional reactions to stressful events, tend to view their world as more threatening and feel their coping resources are less effective (Bood, Archer, & Norlander, 2004; Felsten, 2002). 6. Younger adults perceive greater amounts of stress than is reported by middleaged or older adults (Hamarat et al., 2001). 7. The experience of high levels of stress over time can result in physiological, cognitive, and behavioral changes (Bekker et al., 2001) that many people typically call burnout. a. While burnout is similar to the clinical terms anxiety and depression, the term burnout in academic and professional usage is generally associated with highly detrimental work-related stress (McManus, Winder, & Gordon, 2002). 8. A primary aspect of successful aging is the ability to engage in healthy coping mechanisms when dealing with stressors, thus avoiding the destructive outcomes caused by high stress and burnout as much as possible. a. Healthy coping mechanisms generally fall into two categories i. One aimed at problem solving ii. The other at managing our emotions (Heiman, 2004) b. Problem-focused strategies i. May include talking with peers or mentors about the stressor ii. Changing environments iii. Working on changing personal behaviors and habits (Tully, 2004) c. Emotion-focused strategies may include i. Exercising (Hannigan et al., 2004) ii. Spending time enjoying relaxing activities iii. Building social support networks (Klitzing, 2004)

IV.

Aging Well A.

Successful Aging

Definitions of Successful Aging

1. Generally speaking, the criteria for successful aging include high-quality physiological functioning, psychological coping, social interaction, and life satisfaction. 2. Achieving successful aging includes using the lifespan developmental principle of plasticity to focus not only on ways to minimize decline and deficit, but also on improvement, adjustment, and coping (Aldwin et al., 2006). 3. Individuals who engage in physically, cognitively, and socially active, healthy lifestyles, and who find meaning and purpose in life, are most likely to achieve the goal of aging successfully. 4. Most scholars conceptualized successful aging as containing a social functioning component, reflecting social engagement in life and emotional well-being, usually including a life satisfaction component, reflecting happiness and meeting personal goals. 43

5. Most definitions of successful aging emphasize a) Good health b) Absence or minimization of disease and disability c) Independent physical functioning 6. In her critique of the findings, Bowling (2007) suggested that successful aging be viewed as a continuum that allows for individual differences and variations in environmental opportunities, such as access to health care and safe exercise areas, and cultural values. 7. In their meta-analysis Phelan and Larson (2002) found predictors of successful aging to be a) social support b) physical activity c) high self-efficacy d) high educational achievement 8. Reeker (2001) found that in addition to social resources, those who were aging successfully also had a sense of purpose in their lives.

Chapter Summary A.

Longer Lifespans

Healthy Lifestyles

1. Terms such as “aging well,” “successful aging,” and “healthy aging” do not imply the need to remain youthful, but rather the goals of good physical and mental health and high life satisfaction. 2. As a whole, older Americans are healthier and more physically active than ever. 3. The trend that women outlive men is found in cultures around the world. 4. Individuals in the New England Centenarian and Supercentenarian Studies tend to age at a slower pace than average and most were of normal weight, avoided smoking, and coped well with stressors. 1. Levels of physical activity tend to decline across adulthood, indicating that most adults do not get enough exercise. 2. Adults should strive to complete a minimum of 20 minutes of vigorously intense activity on at least 3 days of the week, or a minimum of 30 minutes of moderately intense activities at least 5 days of the week. 3. There are numerous and significant health-related, psychological, and social benefits associated with continued physical fitness, which include successful aging. 4. Experts encourage adults to find exercises they enjoy that fit in their time schedule and are convenient and affordable. 5. While there is debate over the USDA’s MyPyramid, there is general agreement that most adults would benefit from eating more whole grains, vegetables and fruits, less sugars and processed foods, and monitoring the calories in their diets. 6. Obesity and under-nutrition are problems among older adults. 7. To get a better night’s sleep, individuals should maintain a sleep routine, avoid alcohol, nicotine, overeating, and large liquid intake in the evenings, and sleep in a cool, quiet, dark location on a supportive mattress.

Challenges to Lifestyle 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Smoking is among the greatest obstacles to a healthy lifestyle, causing numerous health problems and reducing life expectancy. Approximately 30% of all adults are obese. Treatment programs for obesity work best when dietary changes and exercise programs are combined with behavioral-modification counseling. Alcoholism, cigarette smoking, and use of illicit drugs usually peak in young adulthood. Older adults with alcoholism are at greater risk for numerous illnesses, falling, automobile accidents, and harmful side effects from interactions with medications. Stress is highly subjective and individual, depending on many factors, including the individual’s personality, social support, and coping skills. Healthy strategies for coping with stress are generally problem-focused and emotion focused.

Aging Well

1. Successful aging involves high-quality social involvement, psychological coping, life satisfaction, and physiological functioning.

Video Suggestions 1.

Late Adulthood: Physical, Cognitive, Social, and Personality. Pearson Education’s Observations Videos in Developmental Psychology. This compilation DVD enables instructors to have instant access to nine chapters (e.g., beginnings to death and dying) of developmental psychology. In integrated segments, adults over the age of sixty discuss both the positive and negative experiences associated with ageing. In late adulthood, most individuals experience loss of hearing, vision, mobility, taste, and smell. These declines are typically gradual and become more pronounced in late old age (70+). The social world of older adults is varied. They strive to be independent and enjoy life with members of their cohort. Some older adults have trouble adjusting to retirement, but many welcome the time to take on new interests and activities. Many participants noted health related issues such as: a decline in energy, flexibility, memory loss, heart disease, and illness. Loss of loved ones is also a recurring theme for this age group. Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. http://www.pearsonhighered.com/

Positive Images of Aging [56 minutes] From Terra Nova Films and the Association for

South Winchester Avenue, Chicago IL 60643. Toll Free: 800-779-8491 Fax: 773-881-3368 Phone: 773-881-8491 3.

Healthy Aging: The Perricone Prescription [72 minutes] From the author of the New York Times #1 runaway bestseller 'The Wrinkle Cure' comes a groundbreaking, scientifically based, easy-to-follow, total body anti-aging program. The Perricone Prescription is a revolutionary plan of action that empowers viewers to firm their face, tone their figure, and improve overall health and appearance. Healthy Aging: The Perricone Prescription helps viewers understand the connection between diet and inflammation, which causes aging. As a researcher who holds dozens of U.S. and international patents for his discoveries and treatments, Dr. Perricone offers his simple, effective and successful treatment in this onehour special. The full, uninterrupted program seen on public television with Nicholas Perricone, M.D. includes: 8 super nutrients to reduce body fat; A way to naturally build up facial and neck muscles to stop sagging and smooth out wrinkles; Slow down the production of death hormones while increasing the production of youth hormones; The future of aging research, the role of genetics in how you look and feel; The three-day Nutritional Facelift; and a prescription for looking your best and living a healthy and independent life. (2002) Santa Fe Ventures, Inc. http://www.santafeproductions.com/archives.html

Dr. Andrew Weil's Healthy Aging [85 minutes] What would it be like to grow old in a culture that values aging? What is an anti-inflammatory diet and why is it beneficial? What part of us never ages? What is our most important legacy? In a new public television special, integrative medicine expert and bestselling author Dr. Andrew Weil takes on the subject of aging with unflinching honesty and offers uplifting advice based on his scientific studies and personal observations. With the authoritative but warm style that has made him America’s best-known doctor, he urges us to reject the prevailing notion that aging is an evil to be fought off with magic elixirs and invasive procedures. Rather, Dr. Weil emphasizes the rewards of growing older and offers practical steps for remaining healthy in mind and spirit so we can enjoy it. He explains the science behind the best approach to diet and exercise as well as how to get the most beneficial sleep, maintain emotional well-being, keep your memory sharp, and think about the emotional legacy you want to leave behind. (2006)

Stronger Seniors® Chair Exercise Program - Developed by Anne Burnell, Continuing Education Provider for Older Adult Populations for the American Council on Exercise (ACE) and Faculty for The National Council on Aging. [95 minutes]. The Stronger Seniors Workout Program is designed by Certified Fitness Instructor Anne Pringle Burnell to help seniors develop strength and to enhance the ability to function in daily life. These two fitness DVDs work together to improve your ability to be stable and balanced, to stay mobile, to go up and down stairs, to squat and pick something up, and to play with your grandchildren! Spectrum Music & Video. http://www.acefitness.org/continuingeducation/continuingeducationcourses.aspx?searchSu bject=2

Essay Questions 1. 2.

What might community senior centers do to encourage appropriate exercise and nutrition? What aspects of American society have changed since 1980 to contribute to a doubling of the percentage of obese individuals? 46

3. 4. 5.

Do you think it is appropriate to give older adults alcohol as birthday or holiday gifts? Why, why not, or under what circumstances? What do you think drives some people to take great risks with their health or appearance in order to look younger? What adaptations to current technologies would help older adults remain socially engaged with friends and family?

True/False Questions 1.

In all cultures around the world, women tend to outlive men. Answer: TRUE

While there are far fewer male centenarians than female, the men who do reach this milestone tend to be stronger physically and cognitively than the women. Answer: TRUE

Trends in health care indicate that the prevalence of disability among older adults is rising. Answer: FALSE

Genetics determines a person’s life expectancy. Answer: FALSE

Most studies find that adult women exercise more than men do. Answer: FALSE

Getting regular exercise will improve sleep quality. Answer: TRUE

Lack of sleep has been associated with memory and attention problems. Answer: TRUE

Smoking can reduce one’s life expectancy by about 14 years. Answer: TRUE

Body mass index (BMI) is a method of determining how much fiber is in certain foods. Answer: FALSE

10.

Alcohol abuse is a greater problem among younger adults than among older adults. Answer: TRUE

11.

Experts view the use of humor as very poor method of coping with stressors. Answer: FALSE

12.

As a whole, older Americans are a very unhealthy population, demonstrating harmful behaviors such as being predominately physically inactive. Answer: FALSE

13.

Levels of physical activity tend to decline across adulthood, indicating that most adults do not get enough exercise. Answer: TRUE

14.

There is agreement that most adults would benefit from eating more grains, vegetables and fruits, less sugars and processed foods, and monitoring the calories in their diets. Answer: TRUE

15.

Obesity and under-nutrition are not problems among older adults. Answer: FALSE

16.

To get a better night’s sleep, individuals should maintain a sleep routine; avoid alcohol, nicotine, overeating, and large liquid intake in the evenings, and sleep in a cool, quiet, dark location on a supportive mattress. Answer: TRUE

17.

Approximately 5% of all adults are obese. Answer: FALSE

18.

Older adults with alcoholism are at greater risk for numerous illnesses, falling, automobile accidents, and harmful side effects from interactions with medications. Answer: TRUE

19.

Healthy strategies for coping with stress are problem-focused and emotion-focused. Answer: TRUE

20.

Successful aging involves high-quality social involvement, psychological coping, life satisfaction, and physiological functioning. Answer: TRUE

21.

Women tend to carry weight around their waist whereas men tend to carry weight on their hips and thighs. Answer: FALSE

22.

Abdominal obesity, seen more often in men, is associated with higher risk of diabetes, hypertension, heart attack, and stroke. Answer: TRUE

Multiple-choice Questions 1.

Which factor(s) did Rice and Fineman (2004) find that may be responsible for the increasing good health of older Americans? a) Less exposure to disease b) Better medical care and technology, behaviors (particularly reduced smoking and diets)and financial situations c) Willingness to use health aids (such as hearing aids) and to engage social support networks d) All of the above Answer: d

What percentage of Americans are projected to be 65 years or older in 2030 (Rice & Fineman, 2004)? a) 50 b) 20 c) 70 d) 65 Answer: b

______________ is the prediction of how long an individual will live based on personal behaviors and environmental and hereditary factors. a) Longevity b) Quality of Life forecast c) Life expectancy d) U.S. Government Behavioral Index Answer: c

______________ refers to the number of years a person actually lives. a) Longevity b) Quality of Life forecast c) Life expectancy d) U.S. Government Behavioral Index Answer: a

Life expectancies have___________ in the United States and many industrialized countries over the last 50 years. a) b) c) d)

remained about the same risen decreased moderately decreased significantly

Answer: b 6.

For Americans born in 2003, which of the following groups is projected to have the HIGHEST rate of life expectancy? a) African American and Caucasian American males b) African American and Caucasian American women c) Hispanic American women d) Hispanic American men Answer: c

To qualify as a supercentenarian, an individual must be a) 100 years old b) 105 years old c) 107 years old d) 110 years old or older 50

Answer: d 8.

According to research (CDC, 2010a; President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports [PCPFS], 2010b), differences in exercise levels are found when considering ethnicity and income. Which of the following race and ethnic groups are the most physically active? a) African American adults b) Asian American adults c) Hispanic adults d) White adults Answer: d

Under-nutrition is a problem found in older adults, particularly those who _________________. a) b) c) d)

live at home live in institutions depend on food delivery programs both b and c

Answer: d 10.

One of the best things individuals of any age can do to help their sleep is to _________. a) get regular exercise b) eat three times a day c) take a warm bath d) drink a glass of milk Answer: a

11.

Smoking is related to a significant percentage of premature deaths as it reduces life expectancy by approximately ____ years (CDC, 2005a). a) 5 b) 9 c) 14 d) 25 Answer: c

12.

Focusing on later adulthood, the Cardiovascular Health Study, involving 6,000 participants ages 65 years and older, found that the factor most associated with fewer healthy years was ______________ (Burke et al., 2001). a) home accidents b) current smoking c) genetic diseases d) lack of social support Answer: b

13.

Which of the following medical issues has been called an epidemic and one of America’s “most challenging public health problems” (Kaplan, 2007); whereby the percentage of Americans manifesting this issue has more than doubled since 1980 (Tomiyama, Westling, Lew, Samuels, & Chatman, 2007), with more dramatic increases found among men (CDC, 2007)? a) Obesity b) Smoking c) Cancer d) Alcoholism Answer: a

14.

Losing your best friend of 40 years would be categorized as a ___________. a) macrostressor b) microstressor c) elderstressor d) None of the above Answer: a

15.

__________________________ have/has also been associated with difficulties in cognitive functioning. a) High levels of stress and burnout b) Hearing loss c) Potassium deficiency d) Regular exercise Answer: a

16.

The most aggressive approach toward anti-aging, in its most complete sense, is that of arrested aging. This approach seeks _________________. a) to reduce (compressing) the time, at the end of life (morbidity), one spends with physical disabilities b) to reverse aging and restore the function and appearance of a younger chronological age c) to slow the aging process and extend the years lived d) to reduce the aches and pains of aging Answer: b

CHAPTER 4 Identity Development and Personality Discussion Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

If you were an employer considering hiring someone, would you rather know about stage of development, individual differences, or traits? Give reasons for your choice. Is it unethical to conform to norms or values at work that you don’t believe in, thus your words and behaviors may not match your thoughts? Give reasons to support your response. Do you think most adolescents or young adults could accurately say which identity status they are currently in? Why, why not, or under what circumstances? In what ways do you think a mentor is helpful? Are there any drawbacks to having a mentor? If you were asked to create a picture or a video clip of someone in midlife crisis, what hypothetical scenario would you create? How might you measure emotional sensitivity, in young adult and middle-aged men, to see if it changes over time? What behaviors might you track? Do you view the integrated identity status as the only “good” one and all the others as dysfunctional? Give reasons to justify your response. Have you experienced, analyzed, explored, and/or questioned who you are?

Assignments 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Go to youtube.com and check out student-generated videos [a class project] on Erik Erikson’s psycho-social development, for example, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dGFKAfixHJs Ask five friends if they have gone through an identity crisis, and to give a brief explanation. How might their responses fit into Marcia’s distinctions? Using Erik Erikson’s typology as a fame for observation, provide a concrete example for the Middle Adulthood Generativity vs. Stagnation stage of development using your family and relatives as the participants. According to Erikson’s Late Adulthood Integrity vs. Despair stage, individuals 65 years and older reflect on life. Conduct a short interview with an elderly relative or neighbor exploring the satisfaction or sense of failure experienced in his/her life. Review PBS’ “Off and Running” website. How might you analyze this narrative’s sense of loss using Erik Erikson’s stages of development and its respective healthy and unhealthy behaviors? http://www.pbs.org/pov/film-files/dg_-_off_and_running_action_discussion_file_0.pdf

Lecture Outline I.

Models of Personality A.

Models 1. 2.

3. 4.

II.

There are four primary models of personality which have roots in the metatheories. Stage models - Among the most well-known models of personality, such as those developed by Freud and Erikson; are focused on broad, age-related changes. a) Also called normative-crisis models, these models are useful when considering the normal and expected challenges met by most adults during young, middle, and late adulthood. b) Stage models provide a useful foundation but certainly do not include all that should be considered in personality development. Timing-of-events models emphasize not only age, but also life circumstances, social and cultural expectations, and historical context. Trait models were developed by those searching for evidence of stable characteristics that are consistent across time, stages, and varying situations. a) Trait theorists generally focus on basic elements of personality, such as agreeableness or adventurousness. b) Whereas stage models often arise from theoretical foundations, trait models are more often developed through research findings. Cognitive-self models - a highly influential facet of personality is captured in emphasizing personal thoughts and assumptions.

Erikson’s Developmental Stage Theory In 1950, Erikson first proposed his view of human development as a series of eight crises or struggles to be resolved and then continued to develop his stage theory throughout his long and productive career. Each developmental stage is conceptualized as the struggle between a healthy and less-healthy personality characteristic, thus the word versus is used. Each struggle or crisis is resolved when one of the two sides becomes a primary part of an individual’s personality

Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood 1.

Erikson: Identity Cohesion versus Role Confusion

b) c)

The search for identity, involving an identity crisis, is primary in Erikson’s understanding of adolescent development. Questions such as “What kind of person do I want to be?” and “How do I want others to perceive me?” highlight the struggles typically faced in this stage. Erikson observed that adolescents are primarily concerned with the degree of discrepancy between how they feel on the inside and how they are seen by others, particularly their peers. 55

d) e)

Marcia: Exploration and Commitment

Individuals in identity crisis are engaged in self-exploration, trying to learn more about their true self, while at the same time realizing they have some choices to make. With each of his stages Erikson described an “adaptive strength” or quality that emerges. The qualitative change experienced through identity cohesion is fidelity or loyalty to the ideals and lifestyle associated with the new identity formed through the struggle or crisis (Erikson, Erikson, & Kivnick, 1986). Erikson’s work has sparked numerous theories and “probably thousands” of studies (Sorrell & Montgomery, 2001), including the work of James Marcia who began exploring identity crisis with his doctoral dissertation in the 1960s. Marcia developed a series of interview questions to assess an adolescent’s current state or status in terms of identity development, which is why his findings are called identity statuses.

Young Adulthood 1.

Erikson: Intimacy versus Isolation

a) b) c) 2.

Through a productive resolution to the intimacy versus isolation stage, we learn a new facet of commitment, the mutual give-and-take that sustains long-term love relationships. Individuals must have addressed their identity before they are ready to move into intimate, mature love relationships. The adaptive strength gained in this stage is mature love (Erikson et al., 1986).

Marcia: Depth and Commitment

Whereas the key elements in adolescence were exploration and commitment, in young adulthood the two key elements are depth in relationships and the ability to make lasting personal commitments (Marcia, 2002b; Orlofsky, 1993). Marcia has designed the following parallel identity statuses: (1) Identity Achievement–Intimate (a) Individuals in the intimate status value depth in personal relationships. (b) They trust themselves and others, are comfortable establishing intimacy, and now have the ability to establish long-term commitments. (c) As with identity achievement, the intimate status is ultimately the healthiest of the four. (2) Moratorium–Preintimate (a) The preintimate individuals are not yet able to make long-term commitments. (b) Their own issues still need to be worked through. 56

(4)

Possibly, their partner or lover is not ready to make a commitment. Foreclosure–Pseudointimate (a) There is no reason to strive for depth in relationships because they have already made long-term commitments. (b) Although these individuals may claim to have established intimacy, their commitments are empty facades without the element of depth. Identity Diffusion–Stereotyped or Isolated (a) The stereotyped individual keeps all relationships at a superficial level by responding in the expected ways rather than with genuine emotion and authenticity. (b) The isolated person may avoid close relationships whenever possible. Either way, these individuals are emotionally isolated (Marcia, 2002b; Orlofsky, 1993).

Levinson: Early Adulthood Stage

b) c)

The participants in Levinson’s original study were 40 men, recruited when they were between 35 and 45 years old. The men were equally distributed among four occupations: bluecollar workers, business executives, biologists, and novelists. Based on his research, Levinson divided the Early Adulthood stage into the two phases: (1) Novice Phase - four important tasks or issues that determined satisfaction in the Novice Phase and later provided the most productive entrance into middle adulthood (a) Forming a dream - a vision or abstract sense of the kind of life an individual hoped to have in the future (b) Forming a mentor relationship - mentors provided support, advice, and inspiration that moved the individual closer to realizing the dream of the future. Levinson described the mentor as a transitional figure who mixes parental and peer roles. (c) Forming an occupation -trying various types of jobs before settling into careers (d) Forming a marriage and family - focused on forming intimate friendships and love relationships (2) Settling Down Period - occurring in one’s mid-30s to around age 40, was a time when the men in Levinson’s study started to “get serious” about their commitments and responsibilities. Levinson found two tasks that need to be completed during the Settling Down Period (a) To establish one’s place in society (b) To work towards advancement (Levinson, 1978)

Middle Adulthood 1.

Erikson: Generativity versus Stagnation

Marcia: Inclusivity and Involvement

Middle-aged individuals who are developing generativity are concerned about the next generation and anxious to find creative ways to share their own resources. Stagnation is, in Erikson’s model, the opposite of generativity, leading to a concern for oneself. Individuals functioning in stagnation may feel that they have nothing special to offer the next generation, or that just taking care of themselves is all they can manage. (Erikson et al., 1986). The four midlife identity statuses parallel the adolescent statuses as follows: (1) Identity achievement–Generative (a) The healthiest way to move to Erikson’s generativity is to be fully inclusive and actively involved with others. (b) Individuals who achieve generativity are balanced, tolerant, growth-focused, and concerned with a wide range of projects, topics, and people. (2) Moratorium–Pseudogenerative (Agentic and Communal) (a) Who appear to be generous and inclusive but are actually quite restrictive in their involvement with others. (b) There are two types of pseudogenerative individuals i. Agentic-pseudogenerative individuals are generally self-absorbed but will engage in caring for those who offer such care in return. ii. Communal-pseudogenerative individuals are less self-absorbed and more community focused, however, their tendency is to care about those who show appropriate gratitude in return. (3) Foreclosure–Conventional (a) Adults functioning in this status feel no need to be inclusive outside of the boundaries they have already established. (4) Identity diffusion–Stagnant (a) Adults feel no desire for inclusivity or involvement with other projects or persons. (b) This group also reports little life satisfaction (Bradley & Marcia, 1998; Marcia, 2002b).

Levinson: Middle Adulthood Stage

Individuals must reassess the past, make appropriate changes in mindset and lifestyle, and work through the “four polarities” of individuation. 58

Gender Identity Development

a) b)

Levinson described the conflicting polarities that dominate midlife as: (1) Young/Old (2) Destruction/Creation (3) Masculine/Feminine (4) Attachment/Separateness Levinson’s research indicated that balancing masculine and feminine qualities is part of the midlife identity transition. Two well-known longitudinal studies support a move toward androgyny. Both studies followed college students through young adulthood and into midlife (1) The Mills Longitudinal Study of women (a) Increasing in femininity during their 20s, and then decreasing in femininity during their 30s and 40s (b) The women felt they spent their 20s learning to fulfill their roles as women, and then in their 40s experienced the freedom to expand their gender role. (2) Grant Study of Harvard University men (a) Establishing their occupations and lifestyles during their 20s, and continuing to consolidate their positions during their 30s (b) Eventually led to peacefulness and satisfaction in their (c) 50s - more nurturing and expressive, indicating that they, too, were able to challenge gender roles and develop more androgynous personalities (Vaillant, 1977).

Late Adulthood 1.

Erikson: Integrity versus Despair

(a) (b)

One of life review and the challenge of integrating all of life’s experiences into a cohesive identity For Erikson, the key in developing integrity is to acknowledge the regrets, the reasons for pessimism, and the things that cause pain, but to keep those negative aspects in balance by also remembering the many good things enjoyed and reasons for optimism. The adaptive strength that comes from working through this stage is wisdom.

Marcia: Wisdom and Continuity

Marcia and his colleagues observed the following parallels: (1) Identity achievement–Integrated (a) Individuals who have a strong sense of historical, as well as current, connection to others, thus having continuity in their life cycle (2) Moratorium–Nonexploratory

(a) (3)

(4) 3.

Gerotranscendence

a) b) 4.

a shift in perspectives from a physical, rational, and practical approach to one that is more spiritual, universal, and transcendent in nature Shifts take place in terms of our sense of self, our relationships, and our sense of place in historical time and in the universe.

Criticisms of Erikson’s Stage Theory

a) b) c)

III.

Individuals who display little interest in wisdom, beliefs, or values, focusing on the routine and mundane aspects of life Foreclosure–Pseudointegrated (a) Using slogans, clichés, and superficial sayings as a substitute for wisdom, and because of that they feel no need to develop wisdom Identity diffusion–Despairing (a) Lacking in wisdom and continuity

Being too broad and general to be useful Emphasis on our sense of self Tempting to treat them as facts and give the theory a higher priority than any research data

Five-Factor Model of Personality Traits A.

The Factors 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Extraversion - Warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement seeking, positive emotions Agreeableness - Trust, straightforwardness, altruism, compliance, modesty, tender-mindedness Conscientiousness - Competence, order, dutifulness, achievement striving, self-discipline, deliberation Neuroticism -Anxiety, hostility, depression, self-consciousness, impulsiveness, vulnerability Openness to Experience - Fantasy, aesthetics, feelings, actions, ideas, values The five-factor model, containing Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience, has been dominant in personality research since the 1980s. Among the five factors, Neuroticism is the least controversial while Openness to Experience is the most controversial among scholars. The most common criticisms of stage theories are that as generalizations they ignore too many individual differences, are too broad to be useful, lead to a self-centered view, and that they dominate data interpretation in research. Research with the five-factor model indicates that personality traits can continue to develop, both increasing and decreasing throughout adulthood. 60

10.

Current Research: Gender, Age, and Culture 1. 2.

IV.

Research with the five-factor model indicates some gender differences across the lifespan, but very similar patterns in cross-cultural studies. McCrae and his colleagues have demonstrated that some facets of personality remain fairly stable and consistent over time. There is evidence to suggest that the five factors are common across cultures while demonstrating some gender differences.

Chapter Summary A.

Identity Development and Formation 1.

2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7.

8. 9. 10. 11.

The four primary models of personality are a) Stage models b) Timing-of-events models c) Trait models, and d) Cognitive-self models Erikson’s view of development involves a series of eight normative psychosocial crises or stages. The stage of identity cohesion versus role confusion is focused on choosing what type of person an adolescent wants to be, and being true to that identity. Marcia found four identity statuses—identity achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, and identity diffusion—based on adolescents’ sense of exploration and commitment in the areas of beliefs and attitudes in the areas of politics, religion, and career choices. Marcia has found that a productive pathway to developing an identity is through the foreclosure–moratorium–identity achievement sequence. Erikson’s young adult stage of intimacy versus isolation is the quest to trust and truly love another person. Marcia’s model applied to Erikson’s young adulthood stage centered on depth in relationships and long-term commitment, and produced four identity statuses: intimate, preintimate, pseudointimate, and stereotyped or isolated. Levinson found that in the Novice Phase young adults need to form a dream, form a mentor relationship, form an occupation, and form a loving relationship. Erikson’s middle-age stage of generativity versus stagnation reflects the struggle between giving wisdom and resources to others and turning inward to self-preservation. Marcia’s version of Erikson’s middle adulthood stage centered on inclusivity and involvement, and has four statuses: generative, pseudogenerative (which can be agentic or communal), conventional, and stagnant. Levinson found that the Mid-Life Transition is the search for balance between the identity concepts of young/old, destruction/creation, masculine/feminine, and attachment/separateness. 61

12.

13.

14. 15. 16.

Although the Mills Longitudinal Study and the Grant Study found that men and women experience identity development somewhat differently, both found that individuals challenge gender roles in midlife and both experience more freedom and enjoyment in their 50s. Late adulthood is now viewed as containing several phases, often with a focus on the a) Newly retired, the “young-old” who are active and growth-focused, and b) The “old-old” who are less active and focused on a very simple lifestyle Erikson’s final stage, integrity versus despair, involves the challenge of integrating life experiences to produce either meaningfulness and contentment, or regrets and pessimism. Marcia’s identity statuses for Erikson’s last stage, centered on wisdom development and continuity, are integrated, nonexploratory, pseudointegrated, and despairing. Gerotranscendence, which may reflect the final stage in Erikson’s developmental theory, involves a view of life that is more cosmic in orientation.

Video Suggestions 1. Everybody Rides the Carousel [VHS] [72 min] This animation looks at character and personality development, based on the writings of psychiatrist Erik Erikson, was produced by animators John and Faith Hubley. As you hop aboard a carousel that carries people through the eight stages of life, you'll learn about the joys, conflicts and emotions we all face along the way 1998 From Pyramid Home Video 2. In Their Own Words: Widowhood & Integrity vs. Despair. [29 mins] Widows and widowers discuss the traumatic experience of losing a spouse. They describe their feelings, reactions, and how they adjusted. In a very moving way, the seniors explore the life-altering experience and the effect it had on them. The function of one’s social network of friends and family is also revealed. “Integrity vs. Despair” is Erik Erikson’s last of eight stages of man, the stage of late adulthood. In this portion of the video, seniors reveal their integrity and despair, both in glaring fashion. Performing a life review and pondering how they might be remembered are two processes by which people try to achieve integrity. From SR Publications. http://www.srpublications.com/childdevelopment/MG/In_Their_Own_Words_Widowhood_&_Integrity_vs_Despair.html 3. Pearson Education’s Observations Videos in Developmental Psychology. This compilation DVD enables instructors to have instant access to nine chapters (e.g., beginnings to death and dying) of developmental psychology. Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. http://www.pearsonhighered.com/ 4. Positive Images of Aging [56 minutes] From Terra Nova Films and the Association for Gerontology in Higher Education -This compilation DVD enables instructors and discussion leaders to utilize 14 different video segments, three to five minutes in length, each of which reflects on a positive aspect of aging. The chaptered DVD structure offers instant 62

access to any of the segments, which can be shown individually or together as needed, and can easily be incorporated into a classroom lecture or PowerPoint presentation. The video clips included are: Changing Perceptions of Aging; Positive Adjustment as We Age; Intimacy in the Elder Years; Family Ties, Grandparenting, and Mentoring; Foster Grandparents; Wisdom and Courage in Elderhood; Creative Aging; Beauty in Aging; Spirited Senior Softball plus five bonus Features on Longevity, Genetics versus Lifestyle, Diet and Exercise, Calorie Restriction; Aging Statistics; A Visit with Centenarians. Terra Nova Films, Inc., 9848 South Winchester Avenue, Chicago IL 60643. Toll Free: 800-779-8491 Fax: 773-8813368 Phone: 773-881-8491

Essay Questions 1. 2. 3. 4.

Discuss Erik Erikson’s stages of development. Give several examples of criticisms of Levinson’s research on midlife transition. Explain what Marcia believes to be the optimal progression through the identity statuses. What events happen to most adults in their 20s that may shape or influence their personality development? 5. How might a career counselor benefit from knowing which personality traits are likely to be permanent? 6. In the following excerpt from Ray B. William’s blog entitled, “Our male identity crisis: What will happen to men?” [Published on July 19, 2010], explain the crisis. We are experiencing a male identity crisis in Western Society, brought into sharp focus by the global economic downturn. First, we are seeing a significant shift in the nature of education and employment trends which will have a huge impact on male identities. Boys are seriously under-achieving in public schools in the U.S., Canada, the U.K. and Australia, according to several recent research studies. Men now comprise barely 40% of enrolled University and College students and graduates. In fact, a gender education gap, in which women are far outpacing men in terms of educational achievement, has been quietly growing in America over the past few decades. In 2009, for instance, women will earn more degrees in higher education than men in every possible category, from bachelor's level to Ph.D.s, according to the U.S. Department of Education. When it comes to masters-level education, for instance, U.S. women earn 159 degrees for every 100 awarded to men. For the first time, less than 50% of law school graduates are men in North America.

True/False Questions 1.

The standard marker for entry into young adulthood is turning 20 years old. Answer: FALSE

Identity crisis is primarily about choosing a personal value system. Answer: FALSE

Many individuals will move through several of Marcia’s identity statuses before reaching identity achievement in adolescence. Answer: TRUE

Identity development is usually worked out in adolescence and then set for the rest of adulthood. Answer: FALSE

Researchers have found that women have a harder time forming a dream of the person they would like to become than men. Answer: TRUE

Researchers have found that identity statuses in young adulthood influence individuals’ abilities to form intimate relationships. Answer: TRUE

Most men in their early 40s go through a midlife crisis. Answer: FALSE

Mid-life crisis is well accepted among psychologists as a part of middle age. Answer: FALSE

Identity development in middle adulthood involves reassessing and challenging gender roles and expectations. Answer: TRUE

10.

Researchers have found that adolescents and those in late adulthood have very few developmental issues in common. Answer: ?

11.

Many researchers view late adulthood as consisting of the younger-old and the very-old. Answer: TRUE

12.

One of the greatest concerns regarding the five factor model is its success. Answer: TRUE

13.

Marcia further explored the ways older adults manage their newly established “wise one” status, including those who are coping by presenting an imitation of true wisdom. Answer: ?

14.

The developers of the five-factor model believe that personality characteristics reach full development in adolescence. Answer: FALSE

15.

The developers of the five-factor model believe that the five traits are genetic in origin and are universal across all cultures. Answer: TRUE

16.

Critics are wise to point out the likelihood of cultural and generational bias in Erikson’s work. Answer: TRUE

Multiple-choice Questions 1.

Which one of the four primary models of personality is among the most well-known (such as those developed by Freud and Erikson), and is focused on broad, age-related changes. a) b) c) d)

Stage Trait Timing of events Cognitive-self

Answer: a 65

In 1950 Erikson first proposed his view of human development as a series of ___________________. a) b) c) d)

four major development themes five factors of child development eight crises or struggles to be resolved fifteen identities for which an individual progresses

Answer: c 3.

Individuals in identity crisis are engaged in __________________________. a) b) c) d)

self-exploration, while at the same time realizing they have some choices to make learning a new facet of commitment; the mutual give-and-take that sustains longterm love relationships caring about the next generation and anxious to find creative ways to share their own resources acknowledging the regrets

Answer: a 4.

Marcia found four identity statuses based on adolescents’ sense of exploration and commitment in the areas of beliefs and attitudes in the areas of politics, religion, and career choices. Of the following, select Marcia’s statuses. a) b) c) d)

Id, superid, ego, and superego Recognition, imitation, play, and game Identity achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, and identity diffusion I, thou, me, and you

Answer: c 5.

Marcia has found that a productive pathway to developing an identity is through the _________________ sequence. a) b) c) d)

foreclosure–moratorium–identity diffusion foreclosure–moratorium–identity achievement moratorium–identity achievement–identity diffusion None of the Above

Answer: c

Erikson’s young adult stage of intimacy versus isolation is the quest to _______________. a) b) c) d)

communicate and articulate personal needs explore self and others challenge the boundaries of social interactions trust and truly love another person

Answer: d 7.

Individuals in intimacy versus isolation are engaged in _____________________________. a) b) c) d)

self-exploration, while at the same time realizing they have some choices to make learning a new facet of commitment, the mutual give-and-take that sustains longterm love relationships caring about the next generation and anxious to find creative ways to share their own resources acknowledging the regrets

Answer: b 8.

Individuals in generativity versus stagnation are engaged in ________________________. a) b) c) d)

Answer: c 9.

Individuals in integrity versus despair are engaged in ____________________________________. a) b) c) d)

Answer: d 67

10.

In Levinson’s Novice Phase, young adults form ______________________. a) b) c) d)

a dream, a mentor relationship, an occupation, and a loving relationship a dream, a plan, a mentor relationship, and a relationship a plan, a mentor relationship, an occupation, and a loving relationship a plan, a deep friendship, a stable outlook, and a relationship

Answer: a 11.

Marcia’s version of Erikson’s middle adulthood stage centered on ____________, and has four statuses: generative, pseudogenerative (which can be agentic or communal), conventional, and stagnant. a) b) c) d)

communication and integrity trust and involvement inclusivity and wisdom inclusivity and involvement

Answer: d 12.

Gerotranscendence is ________________________. a) b) c) d)

a shift in perspectives from a physical, rational, and practical approach to one that is more spiritual, universal, and transcendent in nature a shift that takes place in terms of our sense of self, our relationships, and our sense of place in historical time and in the universe a shift in life standing due to retirement and family changes that creates anxiety with the realization that end of life is near Both a) and b)

Answer: d 13.

Which of the following is/are criticism(s) of Erikson’s Stage Theory? a) b) c) d)

Being too broad and general to be useful Emphasis on our sense of self Tempting to treat them as facts and give the theory a higher priority than any research data All of the above

Answer: d

14.

The __________ model, containing Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience, has been dominant in personality research since the 1980s. a) b) c) d)

five-factor Maslow Minnesota Multiphasic Kohlberg

Answer: a 15.

Research with the five-factor model indicates some gender differences across the lifespan, but ___________ in cross-cultural studies. a) b) c) d)

very dissimilar patterns very similar patterns balanced patterns None of the above

Answer: b 16.

There is evidence to suggest that the five factors are ____________ while demonstrating some gender differences. a) b) c) d)

found in a majority of cultures found in eastern cultures more than western common across cultures erratic across cultures

Answer: c

CHAPTER 5 Friendships and Love Relationships Discussion Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

In what ways might personality development, particularly regarding identity, influence the roles friends play in our lives? What characteristics do you look for when choosing friends? In what ways might male/male and female/female friendships differ? How might the reasons for choosing to be without a romantic partner change with age? How might the reasons for cohabiting differ when considering young, middle-aged, and older cohabiting adults? What is the law in your state regarding the granting or recognition of gay marriages or civil unions? Is loyalty as important in cohabiting as it is in marriage? Why, why not, or under what circumstances? What factors might lead someone to marry a person he or she did not trust or like? Do most people treat the breakup of a cohabiting couple with the same level of sympathy as a divorce? Should they? Why, why not, or under what circumstances?

Assignments 1.

September 30, 2010 marks the 50th anniversary of the animated cartoon series, The Flintstones, which showed, for the first time, married couples sleeping in the same bed. Compare what factors made Fred’s and Barney’s marriage happy and difficult. How are those factors similar or dissimilar to today’s issues? http://www.museum.tv/eotvsection.php?entrycode=flintstones

If you haven’t visited National Center for Family & Marriage Research site http://ncfmr.bgsu.edu/), take this opportunity to review a working paper: WP-10-10 Warner, T. D., Manning, W. D., Giordano, P. C., & Longmore, M. A. (2010, August). Relationship Formation and Stability in Emerging Adulthood: Do Sex Ratios Matter? http://ncfmr.bgsu.edu/pdf/working_papers/file84435.pdf

Explore, as a supplement to your text, the philosophy of love on the International Encyclopedia of Philosophy website. http://www.iep.utm.edu/love/

Read as the following sociological perspective explores companionate theory of marriage and marital quality, compare with the text’s coverage of the topic Wilcox,W.B. & Nock, S. L. (2006). What’s love got to do with it? equality, equity, commitment and women’s marital quality Social Forces. 84,3 70

http://www.virginia.edu/sociology/peopleofsociology/wilcoxpapers/Wilcox%20Nock%20 marriage.pdf

Lecture Outline I.

Friendships A.

Developing Friendships 1. 2. 3.

Americans often use the term friend to refer to many relationships from the most casual acquaintance to the most dear or closest friend. A close relationship, or what one might call a true friendship, can provide many benefits and offer opportunities for reciprocity. Mendelson and Aboud (1999) identified six primary functions of these close relationships. a) Stimulating companionship- refers to the ways friends enhance experiences and activities. b) Provide help when needed c) Intimacy refers to the role that friends play in listening to personal concerns or problems and in giving honest feedback. d) The making of a reliable alliance e) Self-validation is focused on the role friends play in promoting a healthy self-image. f) Emotional security-Friends provide the secure base needed to try something new or to face something that is anxiety-provoking. These six functions can be combined to create a definition of friendship as intimate, stimulating companionship that is a source of help, reliable alliance, self-validation, and emotional security.

Convoy Model of Friendship 1. The convoy model of friendship and social support, developed by

Antonucci in the 1980s, continues to be one of the primary theories pertaining to friendships across adulthood. a) Three protective layers or concentric circles around an individual b) Innermost circle contains those people, whether friends or family, who are the closest and provide the most support c) Middle circle contains people who are important but not as close or as supportive as those in the inner circle d) Outer circle contains those individuals who are supportive or close primarily because of the role they play, such as a coworker or a neighbor (Antonucci, 2001; Levitt, Weber, & Guacci, 1993; Seibert, Mutran, & Reitzes, 1999) Convoys are not fixed, but rather, they evolve with age and life experiences.

3. 4. 5.

Section Summary 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

II.

Convoys have also been found to differ by gender, indicating that women and men often build their social support structure differently. Some scholars believe that men simply do not develop closeness to the degree that women do, while others argue that men create intimate social relationships through shared activities other than conversations (Fehr, 2004). Women also tend to a) Have more extensive support networks b) Have more intense relationships c) Provide and receive more support from their social networks (Antonucci, 2001; Antonucci et al., 2001)

As adults we can choose our friends, and if we choose wisely we can build for ourselves a strong network of support individuals. Most adults choose friends who are similar in age, income, and parental status, with closest friends sharing similar neighborhood characteristics and educational accomplishments. True friendships can be characterized as intimate, stimulating companionship that is a source of help, reliable alliance, self-validation, and emotional security. Gender and age differences in friendships have been found using the convoy model of friendship, which conceptualizes three levels of closeness. Women tend to create larger convoys and are more involved in them than men are in their convoys.

Lifestyles A.

Single Lifestyles 1. 2. 3. 4.

Research on never-married individuals indicates that this is not a homogeneous group, with some enjoying their lifestyle and others finding it dissatisfying. In a study of 51,000 people in Norway, Mastekaasa (1995) found that single, never-married individuals had a poorer sense of well-being and a higher suicide rate than those who were cohabiting or married. Robinson-Rowe (2002) found a group of never-married women who were quite happy with their lifestyle choice. Regardless of whether individuals feel their single status is due to choice or circumstances, single adults often deal with stereotyping and stigma. a) General expectation was that everyone of a certain age ought to be in a relationship. b) They also felt pressure from their families and friends to “find someone”. c) Some people seemed to imply “there must be something wrong with you.” d) Other individuals with partners or spouses gave the impression that they were afraid the single adult would “steal” their partner. 72

III.

Building Love Relationships A.

Lee’s Love Typology 1. One theory of love styles, developed by Lee in the early 1970s (as cited in Montgomery & Sorell, 1997), focused on several types of love reflecting intentions or motivation: a) Eros—an intense emotional and physical attraction b) Ludus—a game, just playing around c) Storge—a deeply committed friendship d) Pragma—a practical choice e) Mania—possessiveness f) Agape—selflessness, putting the other first

Triangular Theory of Love 1. Sternberg’s (1997) triangular theory of love emphasizes intimacy, passion,

2. 3.

and decision/commitment as the primary forces in a love relationship. a) Intimacy is the emotional part of love that involves feelings of warmth, comfort, closeness, and understanding toward the other person. b) Passion is the motivating or driving part of love that is both the longing for and involvement in sexual activity. c) The third component, decision/commitment, reflects the cognitive aspects of love. An important feature of the triangular theory of love is that it provides a way to describe love relationships as they evolve over time. The participants in Falconi and Mullet’s (2003) study reported that of the three parts of love, decision/commitment was the least important. This is consistent with an earlier study by Aron and Westbay (1996) who found that college students also viewed decision/commitment as the least important element.

Attachment Styles 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

The study of attachment styles adds the dimension of personal history to the study of love relationships. Study of attachment styles considers the effects of our earliest love-based relationships, that of infant and primary caregiver, on our current love relationships. The research on infant–caregiver attachment styles was promoted in the late 1960s by Bowlby, and was extended to adult love relationships in the 1970s (Kenny & Barton, 2003). Adults with a secure attachment style are the most stable in terms of maintaining relationships. Adults with an anxious-ambivalent attachment style, sometimes labeled preoccupied attachment style, find themselves experiencing competing feelings. The avoidant attachment style, can take two forms. a) Adults with an avoidant-dismissing attachment style also find themselves with competing feelings. They believe they are desirable 73

7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

IV.

romantic partners worthy of respect, but are suspicious of lovers, characterizing them as unreliable and uncaring. b) Adults with an avoidant-fearful attachment style take the dismissing approach even farther. They have so much anxiety and suspicion that they avoid any type of intimate relationship. Rather than thinking of love as a unified state one has either fallen in or fallen out of, it is more productive to think of love as multifaceted, varying in patterns and types, and changing or evolving over time. Sternberg’s triangular theory describes love as varying in terms of intimacy, passion, and commitment. The proportions of intimacy, passion, and commitment are dynamic, changing in response to environmental and personal circumstances. Attachment styles bring individuals’ past histories into an understanding of love relationships. While there are a small percentage of adults with ambivalent or avoidant attachment styles, most couples have at least one securely attached partner.

Cohabitation A.

Heterosexual Cohabiting Couples 1. For many years cohabitation, or living together as a romantic couple outside

2. 3. 4.

of marriage, has been gaining popularity in Western countries, including the United States where estimates are more than half of all couples cohabit before getting married (Dempsey & deVaus, 2004; Kline et al., 2004). According to U.S. Census Bureau estimates, the number of couples cohabiting increased from about one-half million in 1970 to over 5 million in 2001 (Brown & Snyder, 2006, jumping to 51 million in 2007. In 2005, the U.S. Census Bureau reported that the majority of the households had shifted from married to unmarried households (Alternatives to Marriage Project, 2009). In an international survey involving over 22 countries, the percentages of those cohabiting varied widely, with 3.3% in Japan, 5.2% in Italy, 23.6% in the United States, 26.3% in Canada, 32.1% in the Czech Republic, and 32.4% in Sweden (Batalova & Cohen, 2002). Numerous research studies have found the cohabitation effect, that cohabiting prior to marriage is associated with reports of less satisfying marital relationships and higher rates of divorce (Dush, Cohan, & Amato, 2003; Kline, et al., 2004). There are several competing theories as to why the cohabitation effect occurs. a) The causal theory suggests that cohabitation changes individuals’ attitudes about marriage and relationships. While this is one possible explanation, it is important to remember that correlation or association does not prove or establish causation. b) It may be that cohabiting causes divorce, but it may also be the case something else causes both cohabiting and divorce, which is the basic premise of the selection theory.

The third theory attempting to explain the cohabitation effect is the measurement theory. This perspective suggests that when studying the duration of a relationship researchers should consider the cohabiting years along with the marriage years (deVaus et al., 2003). The causal, selection, and measurement theories are possible explanations of the cohabitation effect, the findings that those who cohabit are more likely to divorce if they choose to marry.

Gay Cohabiting Couples 1. 2. 3.

5. 6. 7.

Much of the research on gay and lesbian cohabiting has been on intimate cohabiting relationships as a substitute for marriage. When comparing gay, lesbian, and heterosexual married couples, numerous studies have found many more similarities than differences in terms of relationship quality, satisfaction, and duration. Kurdek found that married, gay, and lesbian couples experience conflict over many of the same things, primarily sharing power, dealing with personal flaws, issues related to intimacy and sexuality, and personal distance, such as spending too much time with other commitments (Kurdek, 1994). Although the similarities are more numerous than the differences, there are some important differences between heterosexual and gay couples, as well as between gay and lesbian couples. a) In his longitudinal study Kurdek (1998) found that lesbian partners reported the highest levels of intimacy and the most equality as compared to gay or straight couples. b) Other differences were noted by Solomon, Rothblum, and Balsam (2004), who compared the quality of relationships among gay and lesbian couples who had engaged in a civil union, gay couples without a civil union, and heterosexual married couples. The primary differences between the three groups involved (1) Child care and housework (2) Levels of family support (3) Relationship satisfaction (4) Stress levels In 2004 the American Psychological Association (APA), the primary professional organization for psychologists, adopted an official policy supporting same-sex civil marriages. In addition to giving support to the notion that gay male and lesbian couples are “remarkably similar to heterosexual couples,” the APA statement expressed concerns over the continued negative impact of discrimination. Researchers have been able to link higher levels of depression with gay lifestyle–related stressors, such as societal stigma, homophobia, destructive stereotypes, and numerous types of discrimination (Lewis, Derlega, Griffin, & Krowinski, 2003). The APA was also concerned that gay and lesbian couples cannot take advantage of the more than 1,000 federal statutory provisions that guarantee married individuals particular rights, benefits, and privileges (APA, 2004). 75

9. 10. 11.

In contrast to heterosexual cohabitation, the focus on gay and lesbian couple households has been to compare their relationships to those of heterosexual married couples. While there are differences, most of the research indicates that gay and lesbian couples deal with many of the same stressors and issues as married couples. The political climate is changing as more nations give legal recognition to same-sex couples and as powerful organizations like the American Psychological Association offer support to the call for marital status for gay couples.

Marriage A.

Marital Expectations 1. 2.

An older developmental model of marital relationships, developed by Tamashiro (1978), may offer some insight into such expectations for both married and committed-cohabiting couples. The four developmental stages for marital relationships are the: a) Magical Stage b) Idealized Conventional Stage c) Individualistic Stage d) Affirmational Stage As Tamashiro pointed out, some couples may expect to stay in the magical stage of marital development, while others may never reach the lofty stage of personal support described in the highest stages of marital development.

Happy and Healthy Marriages 1. 2.

3. 4.

5. 6.

Happy and healthy marriages have been associated with many benefits beyond the higher quality of life and general contentment a good relationship brings. Those who are married are also more likely to have higher job satisfaction, higher incomes, better physical health (Rogers & May, 2003; Stack & Eshleman, 1998), and better mental health (Horwitz, White, & HowellWhite, 1996). Researchers have even linked long-term marriage to an intelligent spouse as one of the factors in preserving adequate cognitive functioning into old age (Rabbitt, 2002). The Healthy Marriage Initiative (HMI; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2004) defines a healthy marriage as one that is mutually enriching, respectful, and satisfying, and one in which the spouses are committed to growth, effective communication, and successful conflict management. Research shows that marital satisfaction declines rapidly during the first years of marriage, then stabilizing in a slight decline, with another drop at the end of the marriage (due to death or divorce). Happy and healthy marriages are based on the communication and demonstration of love, loyalty, and shared values, along with respect, 76

VI.

forgiveness, romance, sensitivity, support, and a strong commitment to conflict resolution and mutually enhancing growth. It is clear that not only do both spouses need to give effort and attention to the establishment of a healthy marriage, but also to continue those efforts across time to maintain a satisfying relationship.

Endings and New Beginnings A.

Characteristics of Couples Who Divorce 1. 2. 3.

Adjusting to Divorce 1. 2.

The ending of what was intended to be a long-term love relationship can be a life-changing event, bringing with it psychological and physical distress. Currently it is predicted that nearly half of all first-time marriages will end in divorce. Researchers have found that couples who have high levels of conflict, poor communication, emotional invalidation, or a general lack of trust or love during their premarital interactions or early married life are more likely to divorce. The most common reason cited for divorce is adultery, which is often viewed by those involved as a side effect rather than the main cause of the marital breakup. Generally, better adjustments are made by those who divorce at a younger age, have steady employment, and a good income.

Remarriages 1. 2.

As disruptive and painful as divorce can be, research indicates that most people will remarry. The most stable remarriages tend to occur when the spouses are middle-aged or older.

VII. Chapter Summary A.

Friendships/Relationships Summary 1. 2. 3.

The six functions of friendships in adulthood are stimulating companionship, help, intimacy, a reliable alliance, self-validation, and emotional security. The convoy model of friendships describes three concentric circles or layers of closeness and support through which friends move in and out during our lifetime. A popular view of gender differences in relationships is that women grow close by talking and self-disclosure while men grow close through sharing activities.

Lifestyles and Love Summary 1.

Despite the negative stigma faced by never-married adults, many enjoy their freedom and independence.

2. 3.

Cohabitation Summary 1. 2. 3. 4.

Sternberg’s triangular theory of love involves three primary components— intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment—which can combine in various ways to create patterns of love. The four types of attachment styles (secure, anxious-ambivalent, avoidantdismissing, and avoidant-fearful) reflect individuals’ attitudes regarding their own worthiness of love and the abilities of their lover to return love. Heterosexual cohabiting couples express many reasons for their lifestyle, ranging from casual to intimate and committed. Three theories offered to explain the cohabitation effect are the causal theory, selection theory, and measurement theory. Researchers have found that cohabiting gay couples are quite similar to cohabiting and married heterosexual couples in terms of satisfaction and stability. The American Psychological Association supports the movement to provide legal same-sex unions for gay couples.

Endings and Beginnings 1. 2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Tamashiro’s stages of marital development move from the magical stage to the idealized conventional stage, the individualistic stage, and finally to the affirmational stage. Whereas cross-sectional data indicates marital satisfaction starts high, dips in midlife, and then rises again, longitudinal data indicates marital satisfaction starts high, declines to a sustainable level, and then declines at the end of the marriage. Some of the primary factors involved in marital satisfaction are love, loyalty, and shared values. In longitudinal studies, researchers have found that couples who divorce often show more negativity and conflict earlier in their marriage or even in their premarital interactions. The most common reason cited for divorce is adultery. Researchers have found that better adjustment to divorce is related to steady employment, a satisfactory income, higher levels of education, and building a new romantic relationship. Remarriages are more successful when the individuals are older.

Video Suggestions 1.

The Familiar Face of Love [47 min.] Family and sex researcher John Money hosts this

program, examining how people fall in love. Money uses the term "love map" in referring to people's mental blueprint of their perceptions of an ideal partner. Insight Media, Inc. 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 10024-0621, 1- 800-233-9910, http://www.insightmedia.com/

Learning to Love (Portrait of a Family series) [30 min] This presentation makes clear that

Bonds of Love [27 min.] This presentation addresses the age-old question: "What is meant

Mother Love [26 min] This is a classic documentary dealing with Harry and Margaret

love is essential to people's mental and physical well being, examining the perceived meanings of love and the needs it fulfills. From RMI Media Productions

by the word love?" The video involves a psychological and social psychological approach to the examination of love, highlighting behaviors from different levels in the animal kingdom, including human beings. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)671-1000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)6710266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, URL: http://www.films.com Harlow's original experiments with newborn rhesus monkeys concerning "mother substitutes." Insight Media, Inc. 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 10024-0621, 1- 800-2339910, http://www.insight-media.com/

About (Romantic) Love [60] In this program, Robert Solomon, Verna Gehring, and John Loughney participate in a rigorous and wide-ranging discussion about romantic love and its role in defining the human experience. 2002 Insight Media, Inc. 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 10024-0621, 1- 800-233-9910, http://www.insight-media.com/

Cohabitation: The Plain Facts [57 min] Examining research findings, this program exposes myths associated with cohabitation, identifies the benefits and drawbacks of nonmarital cohabitation, and considers the danger of settling into this form of commitment rather than making a firmer decision. It discusses the statistical realities of cohabitation; highlights the conflicting expectations of men and women, and the correlations among cohabitation, divorce, and general relationship dissatisfaction. 2006 Insight Media, Inc. 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 10024-0621, 1- 800-233-9910, http://www.insightmedia.com/

Early Adulthood: Love, Marriage, and Divorce [29 min] This program confronts the complex issues that surround mate selection and the commitment of marriage. It discusses theories about love and marriage, examines relationship styles, and considers the prevalence of divorce. 1999 Insight Media, Inc. 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 10024-0621, 1- 800233-9910, http://www.insight-media.com/

Essay Questions 1. 2. 3. 4.

How would you predict the balance between the three parts of love would change with age? Give reasons to support your response. Which combinations of attachment styles do you predict would be the most stable? The most dysfunctional? How many different types of relationships would be represented in your convoy? Familial, intimate, social, work-based, school-based, others? What might be some of the obstacles keeping adults from maintaining consummate love?

5. 6.

How might the factors contributing to a happy marriage be different for younger, middleaged, and older adults? What factors in American society and culture might lead newlyweds to expect more than what is reasonable from their spouse?

True/False Questions 1.

Physical appearance is an important characteristic in choosing friends for both young and middle-aged adults. Answer: FALSE

The cohabitation effect is the common research finding that couples who cohabit prior to marriage are more likely to divorce. Answer: TRUE

Currently there are no countries in the world that legally recognize same-sex relationships. Answer: FALSE

One of the functions of friendship is to develop intimacy. Answer: TRUE

Men and women tend to have circles of friends that are similar in size and closeness. Answer: FALSE

Never-married adults often cite their freedom as one of the greatest advantages of their lifestyle. Answer: TRUE

A popular theory of love relationships states that the type of attachment infants develop with their caregivers will be the type of attachment those infants, when they are adults, will develop with their lovers. Answer: TRUE

Less than half of all divorced individuals will remarry. Answer: FALSE

Researchers have found that people in intimate relationships report that a sense of commitment is one of the most important aspects of a love relationship. Answer: FALSE

10.

Researchers have found that heterosexual and gay couples are more alike in terms of satisfaction and stability than different. Answer: TRUE

11.

Love, loyalty, and shared values are key factors in a healthy marriage. Answer: TRUE

12.

Approximately half of all marriages end in divorce. Answer: TRUE

13.

Adultery is the most common reason given for divorce. Answer: TRUE

14.

Most heterosexual couples who live together view it as a trial period prior to marriage. Answer: FALSE

15.

Marital satisfaction increases throughout adulthood for most couples. Answer: FALSE

Multiple-choice Questions 1.

Which of the following functions are included in the six functions of friendships in adulthood? a) b) c) d) e)

Stimulating companionship and help Intimacy and a reliable alliance Self-validation and emotional security All of the above Both B and C

Answer: d

The convoy model of friendships describes _______________ of closeness and support through which friends move in and out during our lifetime. a) b) c) d)

three concentric circles or layers eight concentric circles or layers a seven-layer pyramid a Venn diagram of three circles

Answer: a 3.

A popular view of gender differences in relationships is that women grow close by ____________. a) b) c) d)

talking and self-disclosure sharing activities segregated activities non-verbal communication

Answer: a 4.

A popular view of gender differences in relationships is that men grow close by _____________. a) b) c) d)

talking and self-disclosure sharing activities segregated activities non-verbal communication

Answer: b 5.

Which theory involves three primary components—intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment—which can combine in various ways to create patterns of love? a) b) c) d)

Maslow’s Theory of Self Actualization Lee’s Typology of Love Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love Dr. Phil’s “Get Real” Theory on Love

Answer: c

Three theories offered to explain the cohabitation effect are the _____________. a) b) c) d)

causal theory, selection theory, and attachment theory causal theory, selection theory, and measurement theory companion theory, selection theory, and attachment theory companion theory, selection theory, and Steinberg’s theory

Answer: b 7.

Carlos and Juany, a cohabiting gay couple, have lived next to Will and Maria, a married heterosexual couple, in Miami for five years. Research suggests that cohabitating gay couples are __________ to/from cohabiting and married heterosexual couples in terms of satisfaction and stability. a) b) c) d)

not different at all quite similar somewhat similar extremely different

Answer: b 8.

What is the American Psychological Association position on the movement to provide legal same-sex unions for gay couples? a) b) c) d)

Does not support movement Supports the movement Has not come out publicly with a statement one way or another Supports the movement, but with serious reservations

Answer: b 9.

Researchers have found which of the following couples are more likely to divorce. a) b) c) d)

Suzy and Amos, who have high levels of conflict Kaloni and Rich, who have poor communication Justin and Amanda, who demonstrated a general lack of trust or love during their early married life All of the Above

Answer: d

10.

Which of the following is the most common reason cited for divorce? a) b) c) d)

Lying Adultery Fiscal irresponsibility Boredom

Answer: b 11.

Generally, those who divorce at a younger age make better adjustments, and they have _______________ and ________________. a) b) c) d)

steady employment – are college-educated a network of friends- faith steady employment - a good income children – steady employment

Answer: c 12.

The convoy model of friendship and social support, developed by Antonucci in the 1980s, continues to be one of the primary theories pertaining to friendships across adulthood. In what circle would Antonucci place your neighbor or coworker? a) b) c) d)

Inner circle Middle circle Outer circle Both a) and c) depending at what age you are referencing

Answer: c 13.

Based upon research, which of the following groups tend to create larger convoys and are more involved in them? a) b) c) d)

Men Women Male Blue-collar workers Both Men and women

Answer: b

14.

According to Steinberg’s Theory of Love, which is the ultimate combination of all three elements for the most satisfying love relationship? a) b) c) d)

Romantic Love Fatuous Love Companionate Love Consummate Love

Answer: d 15.

According to Steinberg’s Theory of Love, which of the following factors are the primary forces in a love relationship? a) b) c) d)

Intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment Liking, intimacy, and passion Intimacy, decision, and integrity Trust, intimacy, and passion

Answer ? 16.

In his longitudinal study Kurdek (1998) found which of the following groups (as compared to each other) reported the highest levels of intimacy and the most equality. a) b) c) d)

Gay partners Lesbian partners Hetereosexual partners Both A and B

Answer? 17.

In his four developmental stages for marital relationships, Tamashiro (1978) suggested some insights into expectations for both married and committed-cohabiting couples. Where does the excitement and enchantment of Tamashiro’s magical stage come from? a) b) c) d)

Finding one another, the perfect match Experiencing love and commitment Merging their lives together All of the above

Answer?

CHAPTER 6 Families, Generations, and Communities

Discussion Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

How might you design a study to test the accuracy of college students’ knowledge in prenatal care? What factors in American gender and cultural roles and expectations may be affecting the findings regarding mothers’ and fathers’ role conflict? Considering that people may lie on a questionnaire, how might you design a study to gauge whether gay parents might be accepted in a particular neighborhood? What similarities and differences would you predict when considering men’s and women’s reasons for choosing not to have children? What might grandchildren say are the rewards of having grandparents? What factors might contribute to the reluctance of grandparents to say they are doing too much babysitting? How might new technologies increase the support adult children are able to offer their parents from a distance? What factors might contribute to the findings that sister/sister relationships are stronger than brother/brother relationships? How might expectations for the community be different for someone in a rural area as compared to someone in an urban area?

Assignments 1.

Identify three common elements after exploring the culture of adoption as expressed on the following websites: a) U.S. Government site on adoption - http://www.adoption.state.gov/ b) Adoptive Families magazine - http://www.adoptivefamilies.com/ c) National Council for Adoption - https://www.adoptioncouncil.org/ d) LGBT Independent Adoption Center http://gaylesbianadoption.org/gay_lesbian_adoption/?gclid=CKapgvmFsKQCFUp m7AodUX5L0w

Use a search engine to locate the key phrase “grandparent’s rights” and also the key phrase “the Parenting Time Guidelines” [for parents who live apart] of your state. Documents for the concepts are often in a PDF format. Compare and contrast the documents. Identify three factors for group discussion.

Explore the latest original reports summarizing the latest statistics on U.S. families. These profiles examine topics related to National Center for Family & Marriage Research (NCFMR)'s 86

core research themes. Data are presented at both the national and state levels using new data resources http://ncfmr.bgsu.edu/page78050.html. 4.

Evaluate the Partners in Parenting manual from the Institute of Behavioral Research, Texas Christian University that focuses on the identified concerns of recovering parents and encourages learning and skill-building in key areas such as parent-child communication, developmental expectancies, guidance and discipline, problem solving, and self-care. The manual contains materials for an 8-session structured workshop that allows participants to practice parenting strategies and discuss their experiences with others. The comprehensive outlines for each session provide lecture notes, discussion questions, exercises and activities, and handouts. The appendix section contains useful reprints of parenting articles and child development information, plus a list of Web sites likely to be of interest to parents and counselors. http://www.ibr.tcu.edu/pubs/trtmanual/parenting.html#downloads

Imagine that you were a few years away from retirement. Would you move to a specific location for retirement? If so, where? Use a search engine and key-in the phrase “top retirement communities in the US.” [Be mindful of who is sponsoring the site, as you review the “picks.”] Did you change your mind?

Lecture Outline I.

Parenting A.

Pathways to Parenting 1. 2. 3.

Although the small percentage of adults choosing not to be parents is growing, most of us will become parents. For any woman choosing a biological pregnancy, prenatal care is critical to a baby’s healthy development. Infertility is a medical disease affecting approximately 6.1 million individuals, about 10% of those in the reproductive age population (American Society of Reproductive Medicine [ASRM], 2004). The cause of infertility is found approximately a) One third of the time to be a female problem b) One third of the time attributed to a male problem c) With the remaining cases attributed to either both partners or simply an “unexplained” cause (ASRM, 2004; National Infertility Association, 2001) Another pathway to parenting is through adoption a) Adoption process can vary dramatically depending on the practices of particular agencies and the various legal concerns, both in terms of national laws as well as state and local laws b) Private-public c) Healthy – special needs d) Open – closed adoptions For gay and lesbian couples who choose to have a family, the choices are even more complex.

a) b)

Parental Satisfaction 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8.

A lesbian woman may choose artificial insemination or a gay male may choose artificial insemination with a surrogate mother. In terms of adoption, most states are “largely silent on the issue of adoption by gay and lesbian persons,” with some banning gay adoption, some allowing gay couples to adopt, and others allowing one partner to adopt, with the other adopting the child at a later date. (Craft, 2004; NAIC, 2004).

Waldron-Hennessey and Sabatelli (1997), in a survey of 439 parents, found the most important benefits experienced in their parenting role are: a) Happiness b) Love c) Affection d) Sense of meaning e) Purpose f) Fulfillment g) Achievement Parental identity has also been found to be more important than career or professional roles (Rogers & White, 1998). Marital happiness and parental satisfaction are not only related, but they influence each other (Rogers & White, 1998). Stepparents routinely report lower levels of parental satisfaction (IshiiKuntz & Ihinger-Tallman, 1991; Rogers & White, 1998). The second factor closely associated with higher parental satisfaction is reduced levels of role conflict (Rogers & Matthews, 2004). a) Role conflict theory states that role strain occurs when the demands and expectations of important roles are in conflict (Twenge, Campbell, & Foster, 2003). Among the majority of adults who do choose to become parents, some will need medical assistance to treat infertility while others may choose to adopt. For most adults, their role as a parent will become central in their sense of identity, thus parental satisfaction becomes critical to personal happiness. The primary factors contributing to parental satisfaction are a) Marital quality and b) Level of role conflict

Choosing Not to Parent 1. 2. 3.

While most American adults will be a parent at some point, it is important to recognize that there is a minority of adults who choose a childfree lifestyle and find it satisfying. These adults often choose a lifestyle without children because they are engaged in fulfilling and demanding careers or they simply do not enjoy children. Critics argue that the term childfree sounds too much like carefree, and thus implies a lack of responsibility or maturity, which supports many of the associated negative stereotypes. 88

a) b) c) d)

II.

Often, childfree individuals are judged to be selfish and deviant (Letherby, 2002). Childfree individuals are thought to show less warmth, caring, and kindness than individuals with children (LeMastro, 2001). Childfree women are thought to be “unfeminine” (Letherby, 2002). Childfree men are thought to be less powerful or capable (LeMastro, 2001).

Grandparenting A.

Grandparenting Styles and Roles 1. 2.

Rewards of Grandparenting 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

With the increase in longevity and the numbers of multigenerational families, it is more likely than ever that older adults are grandparents and perhaps even great-grandparents. Five styles or types of grandparents emerged (Neugarten & Weinstein, 1964): a) Formal: proper, not interfering with parenting, and setting clear boundaries b) Fun Seeker: informal, playful, and keen on mutual satisfaction c) Surrogate Parent: taking on most or nearly all parents’ responsibilities d) Reservoir of Family Wisdom: authoritarian, dispenser of skills and resources e) Distant Figure: distant and remote, generally appearing on holidays Mueller, Wilhelm, and Elder (2002) also found five categories of grandparents: a) Influential: highly involved and often physically present b) Supportive: somewhat less involved and takes a less parental stance than the influential c) Passive: Moderately involved, engage in few activities with grandchildren d) Authority-Oriented: Moderately involved and sees primary role as an authority figure e) Detached: Least involved Grandparents can have fun with their grandchildren without many of the responsibilities of parenting (Glass & Huneycutt, 2002). Opportunities to share in activities and watch their grandchildren develop sense of meaning and purpose found in the role of wise elder Give advice to younger family members, and share resources (Strom, Carter, & Schmidt, 2004) Greatest sense of meaning and purpose in their role also displayed the highest levels of grandparenting satisfaction, personal well-being, and physical health (Hayslip, Henderson, & Shore, 2003).

Difficult Issues in Grandparenting 1.

In some cases grandparenting situations are not ideal, causing grandparents to feel imposed upon and overwhelmed by too much childcare. 89

III.

Much of the recent research, legal, and political activity involving grandparents has focused on two areas of difficulty, both of which involve grandparents’ legal rights. a) Grandparents who are taking on the parental role of raising their grandchildren b) Some grandparents become surrogate parents without the legal rights and options of legal parents. c) the role of grandparents following a divorce d) Parents, particularly custodial parents, are often the ones who decide whether grandparents may remain active in their grandchildren’s lives following a divorce.

Family Role Transitions A.

Transition Models 1. 2. 3. 4.

Similar to the selection–optimization–compensation (SOC) model, the compensation model focuses on the ways we try to compensate for the losses as our families change with age. The life-course model emphasizes the decisions one makes across the lifespan, the timing of those decisions, and how those decisions are influenced by history, society, and culture. The cumulative disadvantage model focuses on the ways early life circumstances influence later life role transitions. Older adults may begin to see the consequences of their previous life circumstances (cumulative disadvantage model) and choices (life-course model), and begin to make deliberate choices in order to compensate for losses (compensation model).

Shifting Status in the Family 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Since the late 20th century, there has been a dramatic increase in the number of adult children returning to live with their parents for an extended amount of time after being away from home (Goldscheider, Goldscheider, St. Clair, & Hodges, 1999; Lippert, 1997). This trend further extends the length of time of parental authority. Personal authority in the family system - Middle-aged adult children have usually established their own independent lifestyle and are more likely to see themselves as peers with their parents. Relationships also seem to be less positive when adult stepchildren are involved (Ward, Spitze, & Deane, 2009). Adult children overestimate the support they offer because finding additional time and energy is difficult in the midst of busy lifestyles. At some point after the authority status has shifted, these middle-aged adults will slowly transition to the role of caregiver for their parents. According to the care giving trajectory theory developed by Cicirelli (2000), there are three major stages leading to active care giving. a) Concern stage – observe some decline

b) c)

Supportive Family Members a)

IV.

Urging Stage - symptoms and signals of problems are frequently appearing Action Stage - to take action to provide their aging parents with the assistance they need Spouses, siblings, close friends, and members of their religious communities are often part of an older adult’s social support network. (Krause, 2001). Older adults will look not only to their children for support, but also to their siblings, friends, and community.

Living Arrangements Across Adulthood A.

Creating a Home Atmosphere 1. 2.

Typical Housing Arrangements 1. 2.

The American Housing Survey of 2005 finds that most Americans live in single-family structures they own in the metropolitan suburbs. It is important to remember that generalizations about housing, as with any topic, hide many individual differences, and may create a false sense that such information is static.

Neighborhoods and Communities 1. 2.

One of the primary indicators that a physical living space has acquired our abstract label of home is that it has become a part of our identity (Dobbs, 2004; Doyle, 1992; Groger, 1995). The characteristics that contribute to the sense of being “at home” are likely to change as we transition through young, middle, and late adulthood. a) Young Adults - home is the place they learn some of these new roles: workers, lovers, parents, etc b) Middle-aged adults - likely to be household managers, loved ones to gather, serving as the center of family life c) Older adults – home is a safe place physically, financially, and psychologically

Residents of rural areas often report higher community satisfaction, though their criteria for evaluation is different from that of urban residents. Residents of larger cities tend to evaluate community satisfaction on the quality of resources, and not personal life satisfaction or relationships with neighbors.

Housing Options for Older Adults 1.

Post-Retirement Migration Models

It is common for adults to migrate after retirement to a more desirable location, usually a scenic place with mild climates and a better economy, though some return to a place they left behind.

Aging in Place

a) b) 3.

Housing with Assistance and Services

Eventually many older adults will need some type of assistance or services to remain functional, which is likely to prompt the move to another location and perhaps a residence with assisted-care services. Many adults would like to age in place, which is to choose where they want to live and have any needed assistance in that place. For those seeking or needing housing with assistance, they may choose (1) Adult day care (2) Adult foster care (3) Residential homes (4) Nursing homes (5) Continuing care retirement communities Efforts are being made to view assisted living less like a nursing home and more like a traditional residence that feels like home.

Chapter Summary A.

Families, Generations, and Communities Summary 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Pathways to parenting a) Biological pregnancy b) Step-parenting c) Adoption Rewards of Parenting: happiness, love, and sense of purpose Cost of Parenting: the loss of freedom Parental satisfaction is greatly influenced by marital quality, particularly in families with stepparents. Parental dissatisfaction is associated with increased role conflict Childless individuals are those who want to have their own biological children but cannot, whereas childfree individuals are those who are voluntarily choosing not to have children. There seems to be little difference among childfree and parenting adults in terms of life satisfaction. Grandparents may take on many different roles, including those labeled as: a) Formal b) Fun seeker c) Surrogate parent d) Reservoir of family wisdom e) Distant figure f) Influencial g) Supportive h) Passive i) Authority-oriented j) Detached

9. 10. 11.

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Grandparenting Rewards: the joys of sharing activities and watching grandchildren grow up while having the freedom to be involved only when desired. Grandparenting difficulties: the stresses of acting as surrogate parents and strained relationships with grandchildren following a divorce. Three models can be applied to the study of family role transitions: a) Compensation model b) Life-course model c) Cumulative disadvantage model As adult children move into personal authority in the family system, they move through the caregiving trajectory of concern, urging, and action when providing support for aging parents. Siblings are often a source of advice and emotional support for older adults. The American Housing Survey of 2005 finds that most Americans live in and own single-family structures in the metropolitan suburbs. The abstract experience of home is related to the personalization and experiences we have in a physical structure that shapes our sense of identity. Rural residents generally report higher community satisfaction than urban residents. Rural residents tend to have place-centric attitudes and value the close geographic proximity of family and community activities. Urban residents tend to have experience-centric attitudes and tend to think of communities as coalescing around experiences or special interests rather than one geographic location. It is common for older adults to move following retirement, often to a more desirable climate or a place that feels more like home. Many adults want to age in place, meaning they want to choose where they live and have any needed assistance brought to that place. Assisted-living services range from basic activities of daily living, such as help dressing, to assistance with instrumental activities of daily living, such as grocery shopping. Residential living centers range from adult day care services to continuing care retirement communities.

Video Suggestions 1.

Positive Images of Aging [56 minutes] From Terra Nova Films and the Association for

Calorie Restriction; Aging Statistics; A Visit with Centenarians. Terra Nova Films, Inc., 9848 South Winchester Avenue, Chicago IL 60643. Toll Free: 800-779-8491 Fax: 773-8813368 Phone: 773-881-8491 2.

Rocking the Cradle: Gay Parenting [38 minutes] Prior to the 1960s, the idea of same-sex

Adoption: It’s an Option [22 minutes] This program explores the option of adoption in a

parenting had yet to reach the consciousness of most Americans. The majority of gays and lesbians did not even consider parenting, fearing the stigma their children might face. By 2000, however, the U.S. Census Bureau indicates that a full one-third of lesbian couples and roughly a quarter of gay male couples had opted to become parents. This program captures six gay/lesbian families in their day-to-day lives. Two of these families are families by adoption, two are co-parenting families, and two are lesbian families by insemination. Manon-the-street interviews as well as emotional testimonials from the 15 adults and 11 children featured in this film provide a range of perspectives on gay parenting. A viewable/printable instructor’s guide is available online. (2007) From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)671-1000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)671-0266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, URL: http://www.films.com factual manner. It includes interviews with birthmothers who have made adoption plans for their babies, as well as interviews with adoptees. A straightforward presentation, this program does not advocate adoption over any other solution to an unplanned pregnancy. A Meridian Production. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)671-1000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)6710266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, URL: http://www.films.com

Grandparents [22 minutes] In many families, grandparents have become a valuable resource in childcare—but their importance is more than economic. This video discusses the role of extended family in child development, and gives advice on helping a child cope with a grandparent’s death. (2000) From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)671-1000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)6710266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, URL: http://www.films.com

Growing Old [74 minutes] Most people are unwilling to confront aging—even many

The Changing American Family: Decline or Transition? [30 minutes] This program

seniors live in denial of it. Some fear losing their independence and autonomy, while others simply can’t accept the graying of their hair. This program explores the varied landscape of aging in America, presenting the realities—physical, medical, emotional, and economic—of growing old in a youth-obsessed society. Whether they are well off in retirement, financially marginalized, in good health, or terminally ill, the film’s participants provide moving and provocative commentary and raise several challenging questions. What exactly is the healthy way to grow old? Is age a disease to be battled or a beautiful stage of life to be embraced and celebrated? Perhaps most importantly, how can we reverse our society’s neglect of the elderly? (2006) From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)671-1000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)671-0266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, URL: http://www.films.com shows how cultural views on childlessness, unwed parenthood, divorce, and working 94

mothers affect families (1997) From ." Insight Media, Inc. 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 10024-0621, 1- 800-233-9910, http://www.insight-media.com/ 7.

Accepting Life’s Transitions [ 29 minutes] Aging is a series of transitions, some gradual

and some abrupt. How do people come to terms with these changes? This program examines the aging process from beginning to end, defining age from the viewpoints of biology, psychology, society, functionality, and the law. The impact of current behaviors and attitudes on one’s future self is also discussed, as well as dying—itself a part of life—and the stages of grieving. In addition, the program addresses the health challenges faced by older Americans and indicates why some seniors cope better than others.(1997). From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)6711000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)671-0266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, URL: http://www.films.com 8.

Pearson Education’s Observations Videos in Developmental Psychology. This compilation DVD enables instructors to have instant access to nine chapters (e.g., beginnings to death and dying) of developmental psychology. Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. http://www.pearsonhighered.com/

Essay Questions 1. 2. 3. 4.

How might homeless parents or those who are transient and move frequently approximate a sense of home for their children? What might make an urban setting attractive to an adult over 50 years old? What might be concerns or disadvantages? Do you think it is wise for those newly retired to move to a new location far from the friendships and social support they have developed? Why or why not? How might bringing generations of different ages together increase the ability of older adults to age in place?

True/False Questions 1.

Infertility problems are found more often in women than in men. Answer: FALSE

In vitro fertilization is the most common treatment for infertility. Answer: FALSE

None of the states in the United States will allow an openly gay couple to adopt a child. Answer: FALSE

Most parents cite the love and affection children bring as the greatest rewards of parenting. Answer: TRUE

Most parents cite the financial burden children bring as the greatest cost of parenting. Answer: FALSE

One of the most influential factors in predicting parental satisfaction is the age of the parents. Answer: FALSE

The number of American adults choosing not to be parents is rising. Answer: TRUE

Research shows that there are no differences in quality of life between adults with children and adults who are choosing not to have children. Answer: TRUE

In divorce situations it is more common for the maternal grandparents to get more involved with their children. Answer: TRUE

10.

Within a family system an individual is generally at retirement age before being seen as an authority in the family. Answer: FALSE

11.

Among adult siblings, brothers tend to have the closest relationships. Answer: FALSE

12.

Residents who move from a suburban area to an urban area often do so for the racial diversity. Answer: TRUE

13.

In the United States, more adults rent their homes rather than own them. Answer: FALSE

14.

Most Americans live in metropolitan suburbs. Answer: TRUE

15.

Nearly one-quarter of American households include an elderly individual. Answer: TRUE

16.

Urban residents are more likely to view communities as geographic locations than rural residents. Answer: FALSE

17.

New Jersey is one of the top six states in terms of destinations for adults over age 60 who are moving for their post-retirement years. Answer: TRUE

18.

More than one-third of adults over age 85 live in nursing homes. Answer: FALSE

Multiple-choice Questions 1.

Biological pregnancy, step-parenting, and adoption are pathways to ____________. a) b) c) d)

grandparenting parenting marriage None of the above

Answer: b 2.

Which of the following factors are considered a reward(s) of parenting. a) b) c) d)

Happiness Love Sense of purpose All of the above

Answer: d

What does the research in your text suggest is the cost of parenting? a) b) c) d)

About $400,00 The loss of privacy The loss of freedom The loss of personal satisfaction from working

Answer: c 4.

Parental satisfaction is greatly influenced by _______________, particularly in families with stepparents. a) b) c) d)

economic conditions school involvement marital quality community acceptance

Answer: c 5.

Parental dissatisfaction is associated with _______________ . a) b) c) d)

physical disabilities increased role conflict Mounting financial or medical woes None of the above

Answer: b 6.

Maria and Jacob want to have their own biological children but cannot. They are _______________ individuals. a) b) c) d)

childfree childless productive childwant

Answer: b 7.

Jeremy and Linda are voluntarily choosing not to have children. They are _______________ individuals. a) b) c) d)

childfree childless productive childwant 98

Answer: a 8.

How would you describe childfree and parenting adults in terms of life satisfaction? a) b) c) d)

Extremely different Moderately different A little different No difference at all

Answer: c 9.

Grandparents may take on many different roles. Which of the following terms might be included among the many labels? a) b) c) d)

Fun seeker Surrogate parent Reservoir of family wisdom All of the above

Answer: d 10.

Which of the following reasons would be high as a Grandparenting reward? a) b) c) d)

The joys of sharing activities and watching grandchildren grow up while having the freedom to be involved only when desired The opportunity to be a surrogate parent Individuals who will finally listen to you All of the above

Answer: a 11.

Which of the following is mentioned in the text as a Grandparenting difficulty? a) b) c) d)

The stresses of acting as surrogate parents The financial strains of living on a fixed income Strained relationships with grandchildren following a divorce Both a) and c)

Answer: d 12.

Which model(s) can be applied to the study of family role transitions: a) b) c) d)

Compensation model Life-course model Cumulative disadvantage model All of the above

Answer: d 99

13.

As adult children move into personal authority in the family system, they move through the caregiving trajectory of _______________when providing support for aging parents. a) b) c) d)

alert, aware, and action alert, research, and action concern, urging, and action concern, research, and action

Answer: c 14.

_____________ is/are often a source of advice and emotional support for older adults. a) b) c) d)

Friends Neighbors Siblings The church

Answer: c 15.

The American Housing Survey of 2005 finds that most Americans live in _____________they own in the _______________. a) b) c) d)

single-family structures - metropolitan suburbs single-family structures - rural single-family structures - urban multi-family structures - metropolitan suburbs

Answer: a 16.

The abstract experience of home is related to the personalization and experiences we have in a physical structure that shapes ________________________. a) b) c) d)

our family history our sense of identity our social connections our love interests

Answer: b 17.

Which of the following groups generally report higher community satisfaction? a) b) c) d)

Urban residents Rural residents Suburban residents Condominium residents

Answer: b 100

18.

It is common for older adults to move following retirement. Which of the following reasons mentioned in your text may predicate such a move? a) b) c) d)

A more desirable climate Move away from relatives Better golf courses Closer to a university

Answer: a 19.

What is the term that means adults want to choose where they live and have any needed assistance brought to that place? a) b) c) d)

Day Care Age in place Assisted Living Residential living

Answer: b

101

CHAPTER 7 Education, Careers and Retirement

Discussion Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Do you think in-person courses are generally better, worse, or just different from mediabased courses? Give reasons to support your response. What might be some of the most frequent reasons why students never complete their college education? Can you think of anything negative or troublesome regarding this move toward life-wide education? When you consider the changes needed to compete in the 21s’ century global economy, what strikes you as positive and healthy? What might be negative and unsettling? While it is ideal to match personality and career characteristics, what might be the detrimental effects of a great mismatch between personality and career characteristics? Is the changing nature of work likely to increase or decrease gender-related wage discrimination? Give reasons to support your response. Can you think of examples of language, music, objects, or gestures that older adults might find offensive but younger adults would not? Considering the benefits and potential problems, do you think it is generally a good idea for older adults to volunteer? Why, why not, or under what circumstances? Do you think the term “retired” will transition to be a generalized term referring to a period in life like adolescence? Why or why not? Do you support the option of personal control in investing versus requiring citizens to save in a government program? Why, why not, or under what circumstances? How much money is a family saving by taking 24/7 care of elderly parents?

Assignments 1.

Explore the website and check out at least one research article at The National Resource Center for the Osher Lifelong Learning Institutes plays a lead role in disseminating information on effective educational programming for older learners. In addition to providing information and connections via a web site, the Resource Center publishes a national research journal, plans an annual national conference, and provides a number of other ways for OLLIs to connect with one another. URL: http://usm.maine.edu/olli/national/

Explore the website and see if you qualify for college credit-\ with the National Guide of college credit for workforce training. From its first programs for returning World War II veterans, American Council of Education's (ACE) Center for Lifelong Learning (CLLL) has led the national movement to recognize and promote adult learner programs in higher education. A national leader in shaping policies, practices, and perceptions about 102

continuous learning, the Center's commitment to adult learners includes programs, services, tools, and research to help bridge the gaps in serving diverse learners, alleviating workforce shortages, and meeting professional education demands in order to support access to and success in postsecondary education. http://www.acenet.edu/Content/NavigationMenu/ProgramsServices/CLLL/index.htm 3.

Find out what’s going on with lifelong and life wide learning at hospitals, organizations, and educational institutions in your region. How would you rate your area and why?

Lecture Outline I.

Education Across Adulthood A.

Traditional College Students 1.

Traditional college students are those who have a a) High school diploma b) Began full-time college directly after high school c) Depend on parents, grants, and loans for financial support d) Who are employed only part time or only in the summer (The National Center for Education Statistics , 2002) The three most common areas of stress for these students are a) Social b) Financial c) Academic (Skowron, Wester, & Azen, 2004) Numerous factors have been found to influence academic success a) Supportive parental relationships (Holahan, Valentiner, & Moos, 1994; Strage & Brandt, 1999) b) Successful social adjustment to college life (Paul & Brier, 2001; Woosley, 2003) c) rapport with instructors and peers (Strage, 2000)

Adult Students 1.

Over the years many labels have been used to distinguish these non-typical students from traditional college students. a) Nontraditional students by those who see them as operating outside the norm for college students b) Mature students in many European settings (Murphy & Roopchand, 2003) c) Adult learners by the National Academic Advising Association (Skorupa, 2002) Problems can be found with all of the previously mentioned terms a) Mature students may imply that the others are immature. b) Adult learners may imply that others are not adults, or that they are adults who are not learning. As many as two-thirds of all college students are nontraditional (NCES, 2002). 103

4. 5.

6. 7.

The number of adult students has been increasing over the last 30 years. Several trends a) More students are enrolling on a part-time basis. b) More students are entering 2-year colleges. c) More women are enrolling than men. d) The number of older college students has risen from 28% of the college population in 1970 to 39% in 2002. Adult students often perform better overall than traditional college students. Obvious and tremendous difference between traditional and adult students is found in their lifestyles.

Lifelong and Life-Wide Learning 1. 2. 3. 4.

II.

Lifelong learning is focused on work-related topics. Life-wide learning encompasses non-employment-related topics. The demands of global, information-based economies have prompted governments, educational institutions, and industries to join the lifelong learning movement in order to maintain a competitive edge. Lifelong and life-wide learning, often occurring outside of a traditional college lecture hall, cover a vast array of situations and topics, including professionals who want to remain up-to-date in their field, community members seeking help with family or parenting issues, and adults seeking help learning English as a second language.

Jobs and Careers A.

Income, Socioeconomic Status, and Successful Aging 1. 2.

Changing Nature of Work 1. 2.

There are many reasons for Developmental Psychologists to study the changing nature of work. Not only do most adults spend a large percentage of their waking hours focused on work, researchers have found that income and the related variables of education and occupational status are associated with well-being, self-esteem, and overall physical health. Today most Americans change jobs often, cycling through the processes of personal career development and career adaptability. Career development used to depend on loyalty to an organization, as Super described in his four stages of exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement.

Person/Employment Fit 1.

It is useful to consider the person/employment fit, particularly in terms of available positions, growth industries, general skills, personality traits, and job satisfaction.

104

Work-Related Stresses 1. 2.

III.

Work environments often bring stress, and in some cases the stressors are serious and powerful, such as wage discrimination and sexual harassment. Work-related stresses may also come from individuals’ difficulties in blending work and family life.

Older Workers 1.

Older workers, despite all the research to the contrary, still face the perception that they are unable and unwilling to learn new skills and contribute fully in an employment setting.

Volunteer Work and Community Involvement Retirement A.

Volunteer Work 1. 2.

3. 4.

Difficulties in Characterizing Retirees 1. 2. 3.

Volunteering can provide meaningful work, social engagement, and influence, functioning in terms of better physical and mental health for older adults. Social cohesion, the belief that neighbors are friendly, can be trusted, and will help each other, can be fostered through social and supportive interactions, such as engaging in neighboring activities and shared participation in community programs. Volunteering as a means of community involvement can include almost any form of informal help as well as formal opportunities through local, national, or even international agencies. Young adults may be encouraged to volunteer through their high school or college, whereas middle-aged adults are more likely to feel encouragement from their employers, their children’s school, and various community organizations. Although clear terms have not emerged to distinguish periods of retirement, social scientists have suggested that the years just after retirement represent a distinct and unique time in life. Retirees vary in numerous ways, including age, personality, marital status, health status, cognitive abilities, financial status, and living arrangements. Without established parameters or a specific focus, it is difficult to make generalizations or characterize “most retirees.”

Retirement as a Process 1. 2.

Rather than conceptualizing retirement as a one-time life-changing event, it may be more useful to view retirement as a process or series of adjustments for retirees and their families (Rosenkoetter & Garris, 2001). A common image of newly retired adults can be found in the characterizations of the “young-old” in late adulthood. They are old enough to have left primary employment but young enough to have an active lifestyle. 105

IV.

full-time work to permanent withdrawal from the workforce, has been linked to retirement satisfaction and psychological well-being (Kim & Feldman, 2000).

Economic Issues and Aging A.

The Evolution of Retirement Programs 1. 2. 3.

Bridge employment, the term for work that serves as the transition from

It is clear that the number of older adults is increasing, and as they age they will need costly health care and housing. Whereas older adults were once viewed as the “deserving poor,” the focus has shifted from a humanitarian perspective to an economic one. Over the years there have been changes in Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, and employer-based pension plans as these entities have adjusted to increasing demands and shrinking resources.

The Reality of Financing Retirement

Managing Health Care Costs

Older Adults as a Political Force

While nearly 42% of Americans have an IRA and 45% have some type of employer pension plan, a significant number of Americans have saved little or nothing to fund their retirement and increased health care needs. Even with additional coverage beyond Medicare and Medicaid, the out-ofpocket expenses for health assistance in a private home or a residential facility can be significant. While it would seem that these worries and concerns would motivate older adults to vote as a block to change their situations, voting patterns indicate the older adults are widely diverse in their political opinions.

Chapter Summary 1.

Traditional college students are those who a) Enter full-time college directly from high school b) Live in campus housing c) Finish their degree in 4–5 years Academic success for traditional college students has been linked to a) High parental and social support b) A high sense of academic control c) A healthy preoccupation with failure Adult students often differ from traditional college students in terms of a) Campus social involvement b) Personal lifestyles, motivation, and goals c) Performance (they often outperform traditional students academically)

106

4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

10. 11. 12.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Lifelong and life-wide learning can include life skills courses, such as parenting and fitness classes, as well as GED classes and tutoring in English as a second language. The focus on literacy includes reading, comprehension, and using information to function productively in general society as well as in specialized areas such as health literacy. Income and SES can influence well-being, self-esteem, cognitive functioning, overall health, and management of health problems, all of which play a role in successful aging. Super’s theory of career development, involving the four stages: a) Exploration b) Establishment c) Maintenance d) Disengagement -------------- is being replaced with a focus on -------------a) Career recycling b) Renewal c) Career adaptability General abilities and overall cognitive skills are highly related to earning potential and occupational success. Holland’s theory of job–personality fit highlights six personality types a) Realistic b) Conventional c) Social d) Artistic e) Investigative f) Enterprising Affective work commitment involves identity, pride, and involvement in one’s job, whereas continuance work commitment is based on feeling there are no reasonable options but to stay in an unsatisfying job. While within-job wage discrimination is much less common, women still earn less money than men do. Sexual harassment incidents include any situation in which unwanted sexual behaviors occur in the workplace, particularly when such behavior is connected to employment status (quid pro quo) or creates an offensive work environment (hostile environment). The SOC strategy—selection, optimization, and compensation—has been found to reduce both work-interfering-with-family and family-interfering-with-work stresses. Despite the research to the contrary, older workers face age discrimination based on stereotypes that they are less able to learn new skills and will cost more than younger employees will. Some volunteer opportunities are informal, such as when neighbors help one another, while others are formal arrangements, involving organizations, position descriptions, and supervision similar to a work situation. Young adult volunteers are more likely to be well educated, have a good income, and have a history of volunteer service. The peak of volunteer service generally occurs in middle adulthood. 107

18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.

Older adults benefit the most from volunteering, through social involvement, participation in meaningful work, and indirectly better mental and physical health. It is difficult to characterize retirees because of the numerous individual differences and situations presented in late adulthood. Adjustment to retirement is best viewed as a process of cycling through various phases of work and no work. Satisfaction in post-retirement, similar to satisfaction in late adulthood, is linked to good health, enjoyable activities, and good relationships. Retirement programs, such as Social Security and employer pension programs, were seen as ways to reward adults for a lifetime of hard work and to help them when they became part of the “deserving poor.” Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, and employer pension plans have adapted over the decades to increasing demands and shrinking resources. Many employer-based pension plans have shifted from defined benefits programs to defined contribution programs. While just over 40% of American employees have an employer-based retirement plan or an IRA, many Americans have saved little or nothing for retirement. Medicare was originally intended to cover acute health costs, whereas most of it is now spent on outpatient care, office visits, skilled nursing facilities, and home health services. Data from 2008, regarding payment for residential facilities, shows that after contributions from Medicare, Medicaid, and other resources, on average 18% of the costs are paid out-of-pocket. Older adults show tremendous individual differences and seldom vote in a unified fashion.

Video Suggestions 1.

Maintaining Mental Health [57 minutes] Aging well might be an ambiguous phrase but it

does have meaning, especially for people over 60. This program tells the stories of five vibrantly alive seniors who have successfully navigated through momentous life changes. Their examples highlight important precepts for staying mentally healthy, showing how mental health is a key to successful aging. In interviews and in footage of these men and women engaged in various activities, the program provides useful tips and firsthand advice on planning for retirement, staying active, coping with grief, and making the senior years an age of new discoveries. (2002) From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)671-1000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)6710266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, http://www.films.com 2.

Accepting Life’s Transitions [ 29 minutes] Aging is a series of transitions, some gradual

the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)6711000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)671-0266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, http://www.films.com 3.

Positive Images of Aging [56 minutes] From Terra Nova Films and the Association for

Growing Old [74 minutes] Most people are unwilling to confront aging—even many

Life Long Learning [28 minutes] This video offers a range of educational options for

Educational Planning for your Career [22 minutes] Demonstrates the importance of the

reaching career goals, including vocational training, community college, and undergraduate and graduate degrees. The benefits of experiential education, such as internships, are also presented. (2004) From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)671-1000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)671-0266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, URL: http://www.films.com educational planning process by exploring concepts such as lifelong learning, credentials, and competencies and how education is related to work, leisure, and to life roles such as family and citizenship. (22 min.) A Meridian Production. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)671-1000, Toll-free: 800109

257-5126, Fax: (609)671-0266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, URL: http://www.films.com

Essay Questions 1. 2. 3. 4.

In what ways might major industries change as the population of older adults grow? How might the job market shift for those employed? What historical events or national trends have likely contributed to the increase in older students attending or returning to college? What factors might cause the association between socioeconomic status and self-esteem to weaken after retirement? What factors have likely contributed to false stereotyped assumptions about older workers?

True/False Questions

Multiple-choice Questions 1.

Traditional college students are those who ________________. a) b) c) d)

enter full-time college directly from high school live in campus housing finish their degree in 4–5 years All of the above

Answer: d 2.

Of the following factors, which is linked to academic success for traditional college students? a) b) c) d)

Parental socio-economic status High parental and social support Number of AP courses Access to technology

Answer: b

110

Life skills courses, such as parenting and fitness classes, as well as GED classes and tutoring in English as a second language, are commonly associated with __________________________. a) b) c) d)

lifelong and life-wide learning inner city schools K-12 curriculum mostly community college courses

Answer: a 4.

Super’s theory of career development, involving the four stages: exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement, is being replaced with a focus on __________________________. a) b) c) d)

career recycling, renewal, and adaptability career recycling, maintenance, and disengagement career identification, research, and action career identification, maintenance, and action

Answer: a 5.

_____________________ highlights six personality types: Realistic, Conventional, Social, Artistic, Investigative, and Enterprising. a) b) c) d)

Super’s theory of career development Kuder Theory of Preference Holland’s theory of job–personality fit Career Assessment Inventory

Answer: c 6.

_______________incidents include any situation in which unwanted sexual behaviors occur in the workplace, particularly when such behavior is connected to employment status (quid pro quo) or creates an offensive work environment (hostile environment). a) b) c) d)

Stalking Sexual harassment Annoying Risk Management

Answer: b

111

Despite the research to the contrary, older workers face age discrimination based on stereotypes that they ___________________________. a) are less able to learn new skills b) will cost more than younger employees will c) have multiple health problems d) both a and b Answer: d

When does the peak of volunteer service generally occur? a) b) c) d)

Young adulthood Middle adulthood Late adulthood None of the above

Answer: b 9.

Medicare was originally intended to cover _____________________. a) b) c) d)

acute health costs outpatient care office visits skilled nursing facilities and home health services

Answer: a 10.

Data from 2008, regarding payment for residential facilities, shows that after contributions from Medicare, Medicaid, and other resources, on average ________ of the costs are paid out-of-pocket. a) b) c) d)

18% 36% 54% 72%

Answer: a

112

CHAPTER 8 Memory and Basic Cognition

Discussion Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Considering procedural, episodic, and semantic memories, which would take the least amount of effort to retain? The most effort? What makes the difference? How might the PDP model explain the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon? How might counselors and therapists benefit from an understanding of brain anatomy? How might inexpensive and accessible technologies be adapted to be more user-friendly and cognitively stimulating for older adults? When you are trying to read, what is the hardest background noise to block out? What is it about those noises that commands your attention? How many years do think it will be until most people in their 70s are comfortable with computer technology? Thinking in evolutionary terms, what might be the advantages of having a less-than-accurate memory? What individual characteristics might contribute to a person’s preference for verbal or pictorial mnemonics?

Assignments 1. 2. 3. 4.

6. 7.

Try Metro Match and other Brain Games at the AARP’s game website http://games.aarp.org/games/metro-match.aspx Take Dr. Oz’s Memory Quiz. http://www.doctoroz.com/quiz/memory-quiz or try the University of Edinburgh’s memory test on the BBC website: http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/surveys/memory/ Go to University of California, San Francisco’s Memory and Aging Center for additional discussions and research. http://memory.ucsf.edu/Education/Topics/memory.html Read University of Southern California Monika Guttman’s story, The Aging Brain about how scientists are amassing a greater understanding of the long-term risk factors that adversely affect the brain in order to halt cognitive deterioration. http://www.usc.edu/hsc/info/pr/hmm/01spring/brain.html Select one of the two following abstracts to review The Duke Twins Study of Memory in Aging or The Aging, Demographics, and Memory Study (ADAMS) From the Program in Epidemiology of Dementia at Duke University Medical Center and sponsored by the National Institute on Aging (NIA), a federal program dedicated to improving the health of older Americans to become familiar. http://aging-memory.duhs.duke.edu/ Visit Duke University’s Center for the Study of Aging and Human Development website http://www.geri.duke.edu/ of interest. Is the Cognitive Psychology Laboratory Normal or Abnormal? Read the short fact sheet entitled Memory and Aging. This fact sheet was developed by the American Psychological Association’s Office on Aging and 113

Committee on Aging, in cooperation with Elizabeth Vierck, health writer. http://www.apa.org/pi/aging/memory-and-aging.pdf

Lecture Outline

Memory Models A.

Information Processing 1. 2. 3. 4.

Parallel Distributed Processing 1. 2.

II.

The study of memory is among the oldest fields in psychology. The information processing model offers a framework for following information as it moves from the environment to our permanent storage, to be retrieved when needed. In the information processing model, the working memory serves as the central location for all cognitive processing. Information processing theory states that information from the environment enters our awareness through our sensory registers, is held in short-term memory for processing in the working memory, and continues to long-term memory where it is stored and retrieved by the working memory when needed. The parallel distributed processing (PDP) model, part of the connectionist approach, provides a way to envision the simultaneous processing needed to fully comprehend a situation and respond to it. The PDP model proposes a structure in which energy travels along many pathways of connected units of information at once, allowing for the retrieval and manipulation of procedural, semantic, and episodic memories simultaneously. The parallel distributed processing theory states that memory is organized as a large, intricate network of units connected by associations or bonds, and that retrieval of information involves sending energy down numerous pathways at once.

Memory and the Aging Brain A.

Brain Imaging 1.

Researchers have found, using numerous imaging techniques, that healthy brains do change with age, particularly in the frontal areas and in the hippocampus, and that these neurological changes are associated with changes in cognitive processing. Structural scan technology, such as CT and MRI, distinguish between types of tissue, fluid, and bone. 114

3. 4. 5. 6.

Individual Differences in Brain Activity 1. 2. 3.

III.

Brain imaging produced by structural scans, such as CT and MRI scans, have demonstrated brain atrophy, beginning for most people after age 60. Structural scans assist researchers in charting the shrinking or reduction in size, of various parts of the brain, that occur with age. PET and fMRI technologies reveal more about the functioning of parts of the brain by charting activity. Measures of brain functioning, such as PET scans and fMRIs, have indicated that older adults may engage different brain structures when involved in cognitive processing, particularly in the frontal lobes, than they did when they were younger. Functional scanning techniques have highlighted the changes in the hippocampal areas and the frontal and temporal lobes, which correspond to changes in cognitive processing and memory skills. Although some attention processes decline in speed and accuracy with age, most older adults perform better when they are familiar with the task, have time to practice, and can simplify their responses. Although the data collected from brain images are remarkable, and have contributed greatly to our understanding of brain functioning and aging, it is important to note that high occurrence of individual and intraindividual differences are often hidden when general summary statements are made.

Memory Performance Across Adulthood A.

Attention 1. 2. 3.

Working Memory and Processing Speed 1. 2.

It is somewhat misleading to make the broad assertion that memory worsens with age. Research shows that some memory skills and performance actually improve with age, others remain stable, and some do decline in accuracy and efficiency (Craik, 2003). Older adults have reduced attentional energy and are less accurate with some attention related tasks. Among the more robust findings in memory research are the decreases in processing speed and executive control functions in working memory. Whereas the short-term or primary memory does not show decline with age, processing speed and the efficiency of the executive control functions in working memory do show deterioration with age.

Episodic Memory 1. 2.

Episodic memories, those for personal experiences, are much more vulnerable to deterioration and loss than procedural or semantic memories. The autobiographical memory bump refers to the consistent finding that older adults recall more important events from their adolescent and young adulthood years than any other time in life.

115

Nonepisodic Memory 1. 2.

IV.

Among the interesting age-related patterns noted in research on episodic memories are inability to recall the source of information, the tendency to recall memories from adolescence and young adulthood (autobiographical memory bump), and the ability to form flashbulb memories for personally shocking events. Procedural and semantic memories tend to remain strong throughout adulthood, with many areas remaining strong for individuals into their 90s. Flashbulb memories, containing both semantic and episodic information, occur when shocking, unexpected events occur.

Memory Errors, Improvement Strategies, and Training A.

Common Memory Errors 1. 2. 3.

Individual Memory Improvement Strategies 1. 2. 3. 4.

Adults of all ages complain of memory errors and failures. Memories are delicate and sometimes inaccurate, so much so that false memories can be easily induced in a laboratory setting. Memories can be delicate and distorted, sometimes displaying errors prompted by absentmindedness, bias, or the introduction of false information. One way to improve memory skills is to learn internal strategies, such as using mnemonics to create meaning among items to be remembered. External strategies, such as writing notes and keeping items in only one location, can also improve the likelihood of memory retrieval. Researchers have found almost all mnemonics and memory improvement strategies work as long as the individual invests time, energy, and commitment into the process. Memory performance benefits from appropriate physical fitness and a healthy diet.

Memory Training 1. 2.

Numerous studies have shown that memory skills improve with training, even among older adults. It appears that almost any mnemonic or improvement strategy will improve memory as long as it is taken seriously, given attention and effort, and practiced.

Video Suggestions 1.

Understanding the Mysteries of Memory [53 minutes] This compelling program explores

the extraordinary nature of memory through the stories of people who yearn to remember or long to forget. Case studies and interviews with experts, supported by computer graphics, throw light on the mechanics of implicit and explicit memory, savant syndrome, traumatic memory, flashbacks, "flashbulb memories" such as the space shuttle Challenger explosion, 116

mistaken identification, and memories twisted or even totally invented through suggestion. The effects of short-term memory damage, trauma-induced amnesia, and Alzheimer’s disease are investigated as well. A Discovery Channel Production. (1998) From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)6711000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)671-0266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, http://www.films.com 2.

Mind/Brain/Machine: Connections Between Disciplines [57 minutes] Although the

human brain remains a mystery, it is gradually yielding to scientific inquiry—either as the main focus of study or in comparison with other forms of intelligence. This program features doctors and scientists who work with human, animal, or artificial brains in order to understand emotion, anatomical movement, and decision making. Experiments and case studies include the treatment of a young man born without a corpus callosum; fruit fly research at Caltech that may provide insight into the human brain and nervous system; fMRI tests that measure the brain’s involvement in moral and ethical choices; and NASA’s development of the tool-wielding A.T.H.L.E.T.E. robot. (2007) From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)671-1000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)671-0266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, http://www.films.com 3.

Positive Images of Aging [56 minutes] From Terra Nova Films and the Association for

Memory: The Fabric of Mind [28 minutes] This program looks at the various areas that

Gerontology in Higher Education -This compilation DVD enables instructors and discussion leaders to utilize 14 different video segments, three to five minutes in length, each of which reflects on a positive aspect of aging. The chaptered DVD structure offers instant access to any of the segments, which can be shown individually or together as needed, and can easily be incorporated into a classroom lecture or PowerPoint presentation. The video clips included are: Changing Perceptions of Aging; Positive Adjustment as We Age; Intimacy in the Elder Years; Family Ties, Grandparenting, and Mentoring; Foster Grandparents; Wisdom and Courage in Elderhood; Creative Aging; Beauty in Aging; Spirited Senior Softball plus five bonus Features on Longevity, Genetics versus Lifestyle, Diet and Exercise, Calorie Restriction; Aging Statistics; A Visit with Centenarians. Terra Nova Films, Inc., 9848 South Winchester Avenue, Chicago IL 60643. Toll Free: 800-779-8491 Fax: 773-8813368 Phone: 773-881-8491 brain researchers are now exploring: What kind of brain chemistry can explain memory? If long-term memory is a kind of permanent pattern on the fabric of the mind, what structural changes occur in the brain? Are different types of memory located in different areas of the brain? Are specific memories stored in separate places? What is the process of forgetting? Is it possible to improve memory? The program seeks answers to these and other fascinating questions about the brain and memory at several internationally renowned memory research labs. Gary Lynch’s team believes it has found the basic mechanism of memory formation; James McGaugh’s that emotional states affect the ability to store and recall information; Richard Thompson has located and experimentally proved the specific location of a procedural memory; John Hopfield is developing a computer to simulate brain activity. The program also demonstrates prodigious feats of memory and the advice of a memory teacher. (1998) From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543117

2053, Phone: (609)671-1000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)671-0266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, http://www.films.com 5.

The Study of Memory [74 minutes] This program introduces the basic terms used in the

study of memory such as encoding and storage and retrieval, and looks briefly at the historical ideas about memory. Modern theories are explained using diagrams and real-life examples, and the program then goes on to discuss current research in the area of everyday memory. The reasons for forgetting are explored and the biological basis of memory outlined. In addition, the program examines ways of improving memory. The program emphasizes the radical shift from laboratory-based research to the study of memory in everyday life. The program also includes eight exercises for viewers to take part in, including memory tests and a video clip of a robbery to test recall for eyewitness testimony. (1996) From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)671-1000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)671-0266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, http://www.films.com 6.

Does You Memory Work? [50 minutes]We often think of memory as a record of facts, but

The Aging Files [30 minutes] Emma is 17; her grandmother Pam is 70. In this program,

it is also a web of sensations and emotions—and a vehicle for traveling, so to speak, through time. This program explores the mechanisms of human recollection, presenting new case studies and medical findings that reveal the complexity of the brain’s memory center. Harvard psychiatrist Dr. Randy Buckner explains his research into memory functions and Alzheimer’s disease. Dr. Faraneh Vargha-Khadem of University College London discusses her work with a 30-year-old man who, due to hippocampal damage, has almost no memory capacity. And Dr. Alain Brunet of McGill University explains recent trials of propanolol as a treatment for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. A BBC Production. (2008) From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)6711000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)671-0266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, http://www.films.com researchers from the Universities of Oxford and Manchester and other educational institutions analyze quantifiable differences between the two women from five different perspectives: genetic, cellular, molecular, motor, and psychological. In the process, they discuss glycation as it relates to cataracts, longevity as it relates to the nematode genome, food metabolism as it relates to the DAF2 gene, and programmed death of skin cells, as well as Pam’s and Emma’s muscular strength, short-term memory, mobility, and driving skills. Some of the major hurdles facing researchers of aging are also discussed. Produced by the Open University. (2002) From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)671-1000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)6710266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, http://www.films.com

Growing Old in a New Age: Part One-Myths and Realities of Aging. [60 min]

Essay Questions 1. 2. 3.

How would you set up a study to learn about generational differences in the use of common technologies as external reminders? If you were given grant money and staff to study one of the autobiographical memory bump hypotheses, which would you choose. Why? Do you think 9/11, Hurricane Katrina, or the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in April 2010 will create the most flashbulb memories? Please explain.

True/False Questions 1.

Under normal circumstances, our brains lose 2–3 grams of weight per year after age 60. Answer: TRUE

In some cases, younger and older adults use different parts of their brains to process the same information. Answer: TRUE

Researchers have found that the neurological organization of male and female brains is somewhat different. Answer: TRUE

Particular aspects of working memory decline with age, beginning in young adulthood. Answer: TRUE

Memories for life events and experiences tend to deteriorate with age. Answer: TRUE

It is relatively easy to convince individuals that they remember something that, in reality, did not happen. Answer: TRUE

Even though the amount of improvement declines with age, older adults can improve their memories with training and practice. Answer: TRUE

119

Myth: According to information processing theory, information can stay in short-term memory for several hours. Answer: FALSE

Short-term and working memories are the same thing. Answer: FALSE

10.

Selective attention involves focusing on two things at one time. Answer: FALSE

11.

Older people are more likely to remember who told them something interesting but forget what the interesting information was. Answer: FALSE

12.

Memories for procedures, such as playing an instrument or typing, tend to deteriorate with age. Answer: FALSE

13.

Memories for facts, knowledge, and concepts tend to decline with age. Answer: FALSE

14.

Younger adults report having more trouble remembering names than middle-aged adults do. Answer: FALSE

Multiple-choice Questions 1.

The _________________offers a framework for following information as it moves from the environment to our permanent storage, to be retrieved when needed. a) information processing model b) parallel distributed processing model c) non-episodic memory d) episodic memory Answer: a

120

______________________states that information from the environment enters our awareness through our sensory registers, is held in short-term memory for processing in the working memory, and continues to long-term memory where it is stored and retrieved by the working memory when needed. a) b) c) d)

Parallel distributed processing theory Information processing theory Von Restorff effect Primacy effect theory

Answer: b 3.

The ____________ proposes a structure in which energy travels along many pathways of connected units of information at once, allowing for the retrieval and manipulation of procedural, semantic, and episodic memories simultaneously. a) b) c) d)

Information processing model Murdock’s model Atkinson-Shiffrin model PDP model

Answer: d 4.

Brain imaging produced by structural scans, such as CT and MRI scans, have demonstrated brain atrophy, beginning for most people after age ________. a) b) c) d)

20 40 60 80

Answer: c 5.

Which technology(ies) reveal more about the functioning of parts of the brain by charting activity? a) b) c) d)

PET and fMRI CT and MRI PET and CT PET and PDP

Answer: a

121

Older adults perform better when they__________. a) b) c) d)

are familiar with the task have time to practice can simplify their responses All of the Above

Answer: d 7.

Older adults have reduced attentional energy and therefore are ___________. a) b) c) d)

more accurate with some attention related tasks less accurate with some attention related tasks more accurate with some searching strategies accurate for at least 20 minutes, then attention degrades

Answer: b 8.

Which of the following is more apt to show deterioration with age? a) b) c) d)

Short-term memory Processing speed Efficiency of the executive control functions in working memory Both b and c

Answer: d 9.

Which type of memory demonstrates a great amount of loss and deterioration with age? a) b) c) d)

Episodic memory Non-episodic memory Procedural memory Flashbulb memories

Answer: a 10.

Events of September 1, particularly the World Trade Center attacks, may be a sound example for what type of memory. a) b) c) d)

Episodic memory Non-episodic memory Procedural memory Flashbulb memories

Answer: d 122

11.

Which of the following statements would be associated as a common memory error? a) b) c) d)

Perceiving oneself responsible for desirable outcomes but not responsible for undesirable ones The tendency to rate past events more positively than they had actually rated them when the event occurred Confusion of imagination with memory, or the confusion of true memories with false memories All of the above

Answer: d 12.

What memory device allows many a student to remember the colors of a prism/rainbow by using the acronym, Roy G. Biv? a) b) c) d)

Chunking Mnemonics Positive imagery Tactile loci

Answer: b 13.

There are internal and external strategies that can also improve the likelihood of memory retrieval. An example of an external strategy is: a) b) c) d)

Keeping items in only one location Imagine placing a penny (Lincoln) on the desk. Walk into the room and see a shirt over the vacuum cleaner while your smiling significant other is reclining on the sofa. [take someone’s shirt to Lincoln dry cleaners.] Create a story with keywords Create an invented sentence where the first letter of each word is a cue to an idea you need to remember

Answer: b

123

CHAPTER 9 Complex Cognition

Discussion Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Considering the cognitive skills usually measured in a standard IQ test, what would contribute to the findings that IQ peaks in young adulthood? Does common sense fit in your understanding of intelligence? Why or why not? Do you think of creativity as a subset of intelligence? Do you see it as unique but with common characteristics? Totally unique? Would everyday problem solving be a good measure of a person’s wisdom? Why, why not, or under what circumstances? What areas or categories of problem solving would you expect middle-aged adults to excel in? How might you design a workshop on moral sensitivity training for employees of a local hospital? Which college major(s) might stimulate the most growth in moral reasoning? Give reasons to support your response.

Assignments 1.

4. 5.

Women's Intellectual Contributions to the Study of Mind and Society: Students, as part of an advanced seminar, examined and wrote about the lives of these women, their intellectual contributions, and the unique impact and special problems that being female had on their careers. This website focuses on Carol Gilligan http://www.webster.edu/~woolflm/gilligan.html A structured class discussion to help students get the most out of reading excerpts from "In a Different Voice" by Carol Gilligan. You may request a single copy of the 7-page PDF file of excerpts by sending a short note to teach@devpsy.org; then you can make two copies available for your students on reserve. http://www.devpsy.org/teaching/moral/different_voice.html Resolving Everyday Personal Moral Problems. Take a look and read Everyday Ethics Morality Requires Regular Reflection on the Day-to-Day Decisions That Confront Us. By Thomas Shanks, S.J. The Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, Santa Clara University http://www.scu.edu/ethics/publications/iie/v8n1/everydayethics.html Explore Harvard University Professor Howard Gardner’s page @ http://www.howardgardner.com/ Howard Gardner, Multiple Intelligences and Education. Howard Gardner's work around multiple intelligences has had a profound impact on thinking and practice in education - especially in the United States. Here we explore the theory of multiple intelligences; why it has found a ready audience amongst educationalists; and some of the

124

issues around its conceptualization and realization. http://www.infed.org/thinkers/gardner.htm Monitor intelligence with Science Daily website: http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/mind_brain/intelligence/

Lecture Outline I.

Intelligence A.

Assessment of Intelligence 1. 2.

4. 5.

7. 8.

Four primary approaches to cognition are the psychometric, cognitive, neoPiagetian, and contextual perspectives. Although intelligence tests are generally used for diagnostic purposes in clinical situations and less so with the general public, many people have some idea of what IQ represents even if they are not familiar with actual IQ tests or the field of psychometrics. The term intelligence quotient (IQ) refers to the comparison of an individual’s mental age or level of cognitive abilities as compared to his or her chronological age. While chronological age can be easily determined with accurate birth records, determining mental age is much more difficult. To date the best way of assessing age-appropriate cognitive skills is through the use of IQ tests. One popular measure of mental age for adults, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), assesses cognitive abilities with tasks that address four key areas a) Verbal comprehension b) Perceptual reasoning c) Working memory d) Processing speed (Bowden, Weiss, Holdnack, & Lloyd, 2006) IQ tests, representative of the psychometric approach, are designed to measure mental and cognitive abilities through tasks focusing on verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. Using IQ scores across adulthood, cross-sectional studies find that intelligence begins to decline in young adulthood. Longitudinal studies find that IQ peaks in young adulthood, stabilizes in middle adulthood, and declines in late adulthood.

Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence 1. Crystallized intelligence consists of the knowledge gained through 2. 3.

educational and cultural systems, such as common vocabulary and mathematical skills (Berg, 2000). These semantic memories are analogous to Baltes’ work in cognitive pragmatics, referring to the cultural and social nature of thinking. Baltimore Longitudinal Study - Participants demonstrated increases in crystallized intelligence until middle age, followed by a plateau until very late 125

4. 5. 6. 7.

Alternative Theories of Intelligence 1. 2. 3.

II.

Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence emphasizes the interaction of analytic, creative, and practical intelligences. The triarchic theory of intelligence has been applied to types of giftedness, with the most gifted being the individual who excels in all three intelligences. Gardner’s eight multiple intelligences, stemming from a strict set of criteria, are logical, mathematical, linguistic, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic.

Creativity A.

The Process 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

III.

adulthood. Most did experience a slow decline in crystallized intelligence in old-old age (Giambra et al., 1995). Seattle Longitudinal Study – participants also displayed stable levels of crystallized intelligence until their late 70s (Schaie, 1993). The concepts of fluid and crystallized intelligence have been helpful to psychologists in understanding patterns of cognitive change with age. The concepts of fluid and crystallized intelligence have been helpful to psychologists in understanding patterns of cognitive change with age. Fluid intelligence, which involves processing information, tends to decline with age, while crystallized intelligence, which is the information gained from education and enculturation, tends to increase through most of adulthood.

The study of creativity has moved in many directions, including its relationship with intelligence, personality traits, thinking patterns, and characteristics of creative products. Reed (2005) found that creative individuals progress through a series of stages consisting of the selection, optimization, compensation, integration, and motivation stages. Although creativity productivity slows in middle and late adulthood, creative skills, cognitive complexity, and personal motivation may continue to grow. Creativity has been studied using many, many different techniques, with some aimed at creative products, creative personalities, and creative processes. Studies of creativity indicate that, much like expertise and everyday problemsolving skills, the quality and complexity of creative processes and products generally grow with age.

Everyday Problem Solving A.

Factors in Problem-Solving Performance 1.

The contextual approach to intelligence emphasizes the application of cognitive skills to the kinds of real-world problems adults confront in their daily environments.

126

2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

Selection, Optimization, and Compensation Strategy 1. 2.

IV.

The type of problem, age of the individual, topic or domain, and level of social support are among the most influential factors on everyday problemsolving skills. Studies have shown that middle-aged adults are among the best in finding high-quality solutions to practical problems. Although intelligence in the sense of traditional IQ testing decreases with age, it appears that age brings a shift in focus from academic or school-type intelligence to that of everyday problem-solving and experience-based expertise. A better predictor of older adults’ competence in daily living is their everyday problem solving skills, rather than their scores on tests of fluid intelligence or general IQ. The type of problem, topic area, age of the individual, and level of social support are among the most influential factors in resolving everyday problems. One example of a problem-solving strategy, the SOC model, involves identifying priorities and goals, and then using available resources to overcome deficits and achieve those goals. Use of the SOC model may increase the likelihood of successful problem solving in everyday situations and contribute to overall successful aging.

Moral Reasoning A.

Resolving Everyday Personal Moral Problems 1. 2. 3.

Moral Cognition Across Adulthood 1. 2. 3.

As a type of complex cognition, resolving personal moral dilemmas brings together several types of intelligence and everyday problem-solving skills. Moral behaviors, reflecting the resolution of a problem, are dependent upon moral sensitivity, reasoning, motivation, and character. Narvaez and Rest have developed a four-component model leading to moral behavior, which consists of moral sensitivity, moral reasoning, moral motivation, and moral character. Moral cognition can be described using Kohlberg’s three levels and six stages of moral reasoning. Across adulthood most individuals will move through a series of stages that increase in levels of cognitive complexity, engaging self-centered, othercentered, and value centered perspectives. Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning, involving six stages, describes the movement from the motivation to avoid punishment, through exchanges, valuing others’ opinions.

Advancing in Moral Cognition 1.

Research suggests that stimulation, prompting advancement through stages of moral reasoning, comes primarily from cognitive development and roletaking opportunities. 127

Gender Differences in Moral Cognition 1.

Researchers find that moral reasoning is facilitated by cognitive development, role-taking opportunities, and intellectually or ethically stimulating situations, as can occur in formal education or profound life experiences. The criticism of gender bias in Kohlberg’s assessment of moral reasoning, specifically favoring a male-oriented justice system over a female-oriented value system based on care, remains controversial in that it has gained much support while the research evidence generally does not support it. Gilligan and others have challenged the gender-neutrality of Kohlberg’s stages by asserting that it favors a justice and fairness orientation (masculine values) over an emphasis on caring and responsibility (feminine values).

Values Systems and Moral Cognition 1. 2.

Regarding values as a general topic of study, some view value systems as stable, general frameworks whereas others view them as changing with the context and varying based on source. There are various perspectives on the makeup and influence of values systems in moral cognition, such as the stable general framework approach, and the perspectives that emphasize the context of the moral conflict, such as the contextual and source approaches.

Video Suggestions 1.

Multiple Intelligences: Other Styles of Learning [30 minutes] Historically, student

Right and Wrong: Moral Development in Children [60 minutes] Do most people get

progress has been gauged by success in subjects that tap the verbal/linguistic and logical/mathematical talents of students, inevitably leading to the disenfranchisement of learners weak in these areas. In this program, David Lazear, author of Seven Ways of Knowing and Seven Ways of Teaching and founder of New Dimensions of Learning, contends that educators must ensure the success of all students by teaching for the five nontraditional intelligences as well: visual/spatial, musical/rhythmic, body/kinesthetic, intrapersonal, and interpersonal. (1993) From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)671-1000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)6710266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, URL: http://www.films.com their values from their parents or from society at large? At what age, and with what tools, do children begin to work out what is right and wrong? Can young children distinguish between actions that are morally deviant and those that simply violate a social convention? This program explores those questions by observing a group of 25 six-year-olds and the varying levels of honesty and compassion they display. Confronted with simple yet specific tests— gauging their willingness to lie, cheat, and even destroy a photograph they are told is sentimentally valuable—each child exhibits a unique sense of what is good and correct. Equally revealing are the program’s comparisons between childhood and adult idealism. A BBC/Open University Co-production. Original broadcast title: Right and Wrong. Part of the series Child of Our Time (2006) ) From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box

128

2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)671-1000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)671-0266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, URL: http://www.films.com 3. Tomboys! Feisty Girls and Spirited Women [28 minutes] Are tomboys tamed once they grow up? This lively and inspiring documentary explodes that archaic myth with the stories of proud tomboys of all ages: African-American teenager Jay Gillespie; Massachusetts firefighter Tracy Driscoll, lesbian artist Nancy Brooks Brody and the inimitable political activist Doris Haddock, aka “Granny D”, whose walk across America in support of campaign finance reform has gained global attention. Interviews with these feisty women are intercut with personal photographs and archival footage to celebrate tomboys of all ages. Exploring the myriad ways gender identity is constructed from a very young age, TOMBOYS makes the connections between rebel girl and spirited women gloriously clear. With additional commentary by girls’ studies pioneer Carol Gilligan, these tales of energy and enterprise are a revelation to us all. A film by Julie Akeret and Christian McEwen 2004, Orders Department Women Make Movies, 462 Broadway, Suite 500WS , New York, NY 10013, Fax orders to (212) 925-2052, Email orders to orders@wmm.com 4.

Positive Images of Aging [56 minutes] From Terra Nova Films and the Association for

129

Essay Questions 1. 2. 3.

After college graduation, what intellectually stimulating activities are available to most adults? If you wanted to compare people high in moral character to those who are not, how would you go about finding participants? How might the SOC model apply to the tension between college demands and other areas of your life?

True/False Questions 1.

IQ tests are generally used for diagnostic purposes in clinical settings. Answer: TRUE

In areas of expertise adults will show little if any cognitive decline while at the same time they will show cognitive decline in other areas. Answer: TRUE

There is an accepted academic theory of intelligence that promotes common sense as a key facet of general intelligence. Answer: TRUE

There is an accepted academic theory of intelligence that recognizes athletic ability as intelligent. Answer: TRUE

Older adults with higher educational achievement tend to be better at everyday problem solving than those with less education. Answer: TRUE

Motivation is one of the major elements in moving from moral thoughts to moral behaviors. Answer: TRUE

Research shows that the moral development of most journalists is higher than the average adult. Answer: TRUE

130

Intelligence and memory are affected differently by aging. Answer: FALSE

Studies show that IQ peaks in middle adulthood and remains stable through late adulthood. Answer: FALSE

10.

People who are gifted are good at everything. Answer: FALSE

11.

Most researchers define creativity in terms of whether the final product, such as a song or a piece of pottery, has been judged to be creative. Answer: FALSE

12.

Older adults would rather collaborate with their siblings in problem solving than with their own adult children. Answer: FALSE

13.

When faced with a moral dilemma, using the question “How will I benefit from this?” is a mature approach. Answer: FALSE

14.

Myth: Researchers find that men and women consistently emphasize different values in moral reasoning. Answer: FALSE

15.

A person’s values tend to be stable throughout life. Answer: FALSE

16.

People are generally consistent in applying their values no matter what area of life a moral conflict occurs in. Answer: FALSE

131

Multiple-choice Questions 1.

Four primary approaches to cognition are the _______________________. a) b) c) d)

psychometric, information processing, Piagetian, and contextual perspectives psychometric, cognitive, neo-Piagetian, and perceptual perspectives intentionality, cognitive, neo-Piagetian, and contextual perspectives perception, cognitive, Piagetian, and sensory perspectives

Answer: b 2.

The _________________________, one of the most popular IQ tests used, includes tasks of verbal comprehension, working memory, perceptual organization, and processing speed. a) b) c) d)

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Stanford-Binet IQ Test Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Five Factor Model

Answer: a 3.

______________ intelligence consists of the knowledge gained through educational and cultural systems, such as common vocabulary and mathematical skills. a) b) c) d)

Emotional Crystallized Multiple All of the above

Answer: b 4.

Which alternative theory of intelligence emphasizes the interaction of analytic, creative, and practical intelligences? a) b) c) d)

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Of Intelligence Gilligan’s Moral Intelligence Reed’s Emotional Intelligence

Answer: b

132

It is likely that creativity productivity slows in _________________, while creative skills, cognitive complexity, and personal motivation may continue to grow. a) b) c) d)

young adulthood middle adulthood late adulthood Both b and c

Answer: d 6.

Which of the following factors is a better predictor of older adults’ competence in daily living? a) b) c) d)

Their everyday problem solving skills Their scores on tests of fluid intelligence General IQ test Their ability to complete a New York Times puzzle

Answer: a 7.

What may increase the likelihood of successful problem solving in everyday situations and contribute to overall successful aging? a) b) c) d)

Eat a cup of blueberries a day Use of the SOC model Use of mnemonic devices None of the above

Answer: b 8.

The way a person reasons and justifies moral actions changes with growth in cognitive sophistication and complexity, which generally corresponds to _______________. a) b) c) d)

age emotional maturity one’s level of education sensitivity

Answer: c

133

_________________ relies on ego strength and conviction to do the right thing, particularly when the consequences are predicted to be uncomfortable (Narvaez & Rest, 1995; Rest & Narvaez, 1991). a) b) c) d)

Emotional intelligence Moral character Multiple intelligences Problem solving

Answer: b 10.

Kohlberg’s second of the three levels, conventional moral reasoning, demonstrates an advance in maturity in that we have internalized social rules and dominant values, thus we will now look beyond egocentric needs to the needs of others. Who generally functions at this level? a) b) c) d)

Most children Most adolescents Most adults Both b and c

Answer: d 11.

Which of the following stages is the ultimate stage in Kohlberg’s theory that reflects the culmination of all the previous stages? a) b) c) d)

Universal ethical principles Utility and individual rights Social systems and conscience Instrumental purpose and exchange

Answer: a

134

CHAPTER 10 Typical Physical Aging

Discussion Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Considering sensory and major body systems, in what ways has your body changed over the last 10 years? What jobs or occupations would likely accelerate secondary aging? Why isn’t hair color for men as popular as it is for women? Why isn’t hair replacement for women as popular as it is for men? How might common changes in sensory systems affect driving ability? What might a social worker do to better distinguish between a cognitive and a sensory deficit when working with clients over age 60? Do you think personal music devices should have a built-in limit so the music in the ear buds cannot be loud enough to cause hearing loss over time? How might pregnancy or dramatic weight gain or loss affect balance? What practical things can friends and family do if they think an older adult is risking malnutrition? How has the media reinforced the association between older people and bladder control problems? What, if any, generational differences would you expect to find across adulthood regarding willingness to be honest and respond fully to research questions regarding sexuality?

Assignments 1.

Students can bring in greeting cards that reflect our society's attitudes about aging. What are the assumption(s) about aging that the card projects. How might the implicit or explicit messages link to the changes the human body undergoes as it ages?

Group project: It's a good idea to begin this project early to give your student groups time to read and put together their presentations, which can be scheduled when you begin this chapter. Break your class into groups. Assign each group a type of physical change: changes in sensory systems, in appearance, body systems, male sexuality, and female sexuality. They should read the chapter on their topic and any outside information they can compile. Schedule their presentations around mini-lectures.

Writing Exercise: Think of your current lifestyle. What health habits do you follow that will enhance the quality of your life and your longevity? What health habits do you need to acquire to live longer and healthier? Why do you and other adults find it so difficult to follow good health habits? What can you do to help yourself change these poor habits? Do you have any family history of disease or early death that would encourage you to do so? 135

Using Pamela Redmond Satran’s AARP article, 5 Things You Oughta Know About Sex by Now: Surprising insights about passion, http://www.aarp.org/relationships/love-sex/info-072010/5-things-you-oughta-know-about-sex-by-now.html Resources: Pamela Redmond Satran’s book, How Not To Grow Old

Read the Objectives and Findings section of the report entitled AARP’s Modern Maturity Sexuality Survey (1999), be prepared to talk about how it describes adult sexuality, and possible weaknesses of the research. [Students could be assigned different sections of the study to report] http://assets.aarp.org/rgcenter/health/mmsexsurvey.pdf

Lecture Outline I.

Physical Aging Across Adulthood 1. 2.

II.

Whether it is body shape, skin, or hair issues, the psychological adjustment, both within the individual and in the ways others choose to respond to those signals of aging, can be dramatic. The term “aging” can be divided into distinguishing between external or environmentally a) Primary aging - normal or expected aging b) Secondary aging – caused aging c) Tertiary aging - decline seen just prior to death

Changes in Appearance A.

Changes in Body Shapes 1. 2.

Starting in young adulthood, though generally not noticeable until middle age, our bodies start to change their shape, particularly due to changes in height, lean muscle mass, and distribution of body fat. Everyone loses some height as they age a) On the average 4 cm (1.57 inches) between young adulthood and the young-old age of around 70 years old b) With another 3.5 cm (1.38 inches) between young-old and old-old age of mid-90s (Sagiv, Vogelaere, Soudry, & Ehrsam, 2000). The expected decrease in muscle mass a) Approximately 20% from age 30 to age 70, will bring changes in our body shape (NIA, 2007) b) Primarily due to metabolism decreases, body fat tends to increase during middle age (Mayo Clinic, 2008a). Body Image: Men tend to evaluate their bodies in terms of how they function while women tend to focus more on appearance.

Changes in Skin 1.

Like many other areas of primary aging, skin changes that become noticeable in midlife actually began in our mid-20s. 136

2. 3. 4. 5.

Changes in Hair 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

III.

By middle age individuals start to notice more wrinkles, age spots, and general skin dryness. Avoiding sun exposure, artificial tanning, and smoking are the best ways to reduce the amount and speed of skin aging. The speed and extent of skin aging, particularly dryness, wrinkles, and age spots, can be accelerated by smoking, sun exposure, and exposure to artificial tanning. Photoaging - the dermatological term for aging caused by sun exposure (AAD, 2008a) Most telling signs of aging is the appearance of gray and/or thinning hair The transition to gray or white hair is the result of genetically programmed changes in special root cells that produce hair color pigment. The medical term for baldness, or hair loss from the scalp, is alopecia. Generally associated with older men, it can occur in men and women of all ages. About 95% of the cases of baldness are androgenetic alopecia, or male pattern baldness, which is genetic in origin Graying and thinning hair are primarily genetically determined, benign processes that show wide variation in terms of age.

Changes in Sensory Systems A.

Changes in Vision 1.

The three most common eye pathologies (Mayo Clinic, 2008a; Schieber, 2006) a) Cataracts (1) Clouded eye lens that is similar to trying to look through a fogged-up window (2) Cataract surgery is relatively safe and effective b) Glaucoma (1) Affecting approximately 3 million Americans (2) A group of diseases that cause unusually high pressure inside the eyeball and related damage to the optic nerve c) Age-related maculopathy or Macular Degeneration (1) Occur when the part of the retina responsible for central vision deteriorates (2) Causing blurred vision or a blind spot in the center of the visual field (3) A leading cause of severe vision loss in older adults, affecting more than 1.6 million Americans (4) Unfortunately, this disease is progressive (Schieber, 2006). (5) Difficult to treat (Mayo Clinic, 2008b) Starting at age 40, visual acuity - the ability to discern fine spatial detail in both close and distant objects - begins to decline. a) The eye's lenses change shape and elasticity.

137

b) The lenses become less transparent, which reduces the amount of light entering. c) A nearly universal change in eyesight during middle adulthood is the loss of near vision, called PRESBYOPIA. 3.

4. 5.

Changes in Hearing 1.

With age our eyes change in ways that contribute to many common complaints such as a) Blurriness b) Presbyopia c) Difficulty with changing light conditions d) Adjusting to glare e) Seeing in low light conditions While glasses, large print, extra lighting, and other adjustments may help, older adults with impaired vision may feel frustrated, isolated, and even depressed over their physical and social situation. Coping - Many adults cope with mild visual impairment by using glasses, good lighting, magnifying aids, audio books, large fonts on computer screens, and by going to familiar stores, banks, etc., where they know people who can help them. PRESBYCUSIS. a) The primary sort of loss is for sounds of high frequency. b) About 12 % of people between 45 and 65 suffer from presbycusis. c) Men are more prone to hearing loss than women. d) Because the two ears are not always equally affected by hearing loss, sound localization, the ability to detect the origin of a sound, is diminished. d) Some hearing loss results from environmental factors, such as loud noises. e) The rest are caused by aging, which brings a loss of hair cells in the inner ear. f) The eardrum becomes less elastic with age. Most common complaints regarding hearing loss a) Difficulty concentrating on specific sounds when there is background noise b) Difficulty hearing high frequency sounds c) Tinnitus (ringing) While hearing aids can help in many situations, they are often rejected by older adults because of expense, maintenance, difficulty of use, and the sense that they signal frailty.

Changes in Balance and Movement 1.

Many of the sources of sensory input required for balance and movement decline with age, including a) Postural control b) Proprioception 138

2. 3.

Other Sensory Changes 1.

IV.

c) Muscle strength d) Reaction time To reduce the risk of falling due to loss of balance, experts recommend maintaining a routine exercise program. Consistent exercise can help older adults maintain a better sense of balance, proprioception, muscle flexibility, and reaction time, all of which can reduce the risk of serious injury due to falling. Taste and Smell a) A reduced sense of taste and smell can cause older adults to • Eat less • Run the risk of malnutrition • Eat food that has spoiled b) Reductions in the ability to taste and smell increase the risk that older adults will eat less and suffer from malnutrition. Touch a) A reduced sense of touch can include • A lack of sensitivity to pressure, pain, cold, or heat, any of which may allow a small problem, such as dressing for outdoor temperatures or caring for a small cut, to turn into a major problem. b) Diminishing ability to sense hot and cold temperatures puts older adults at risk of frostbite, hypothermia, and burns.

Changes in Body Systems • •

While there are changes expected in major body systems due to age, many are relatively easy to adjust to. Although generalizations can be made regarding changes in body systems due to normal aging processes, it is sometimes impossible to separate primary and secondary aging, it is easy to make false assumptions that ▪ Common pathologies are inevitable ▪ Individuals age at differing rates ▪ Within individuals different systems age at different rates

Aging Cardiovascular System 1. 2.

Although our hearts are less efficient and do show signs of age, the normal, expected cardiovascular changes do not have major effects on the lifestyle of older adults. With age our hearts become enlarged, slow in beating rate, and lessen in muscle flexibility, resulting in increased blood pressure.

139

Aging Digestive System 1.

The many expected changes to our digestive systems, due to normal aging, are small and generally go unnoticed.

Aging Bones

Our bones will start losing density in young adulthood, and if unchecked, could lead to serious consequences in late adulthood.

Changes in Sexuality A.

Issues in Sexuality Research ▪

The groundbreaking work of Alfred C. Kinsey, who published Sexual Behavior in the Human Male in 1948, and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female in 1953, as well as William Masters and Virginia Johnson, who published Human Sexual Response in 1966, opened the door for the scientific and public discussion of health heterosexuality.

Risk of Heterosexism in Sexuality Research

3. 2.

Risk of False Data in Sexuality Research

1. 2.

That early work, along with the predominant societal and religious premise that monogamous heterosexual behavior was the norm, made it easy to assume that non-heterosexual feelings, thoughts, and behaviors were deviant. Rather than seeking to understand different sexual orientations and preferences, much of the interest in these groups revolved around questions of just how deviant they were and to what extent they tried to mimic “normal” relationships. Heterosexism- reflected in the attitude that healthiest or most appropriate sexual practices are those of heterosexuals, was revealed in some cases Trustworthy data is difficult to collect when researchers rely on selfreported information on questionnaires or in interviews. When questions are asked about private sexual thoughts or behaviors for which honest responses could be embarrassing, stigmatizing, or even illegal, participants may withhold the truth and give what they believe to be socially appropriate responses.

Risk of Misunderstanding Research Findings

It is wise to view data on sexuality with some caution, allowing for the likelihood that some groups of individuals will be absent, choosing not to participate in research, while others may provide false or misrepresentative data.

Sexuality in Young Adulthood 1. 2.

Most young adults are heterosexual, engage frequently in vaginal and oral sex, and less frequently in masturbation or anal sex. Based on testing conditions that are anonymous, confidential, likely to be exposed, and subject to the bogus pipeline, researchers have found that 140

Sexuality in Middle Adulthood 1. 2. 3.

participants sometimes give misinformation in studies of sexual thoughts and behaviors. Researchers find that most sexually active adults engage in a wide variety of sexual thoughts and behaviors, practice serial monogamy, and frequently engage in sexual fantasies (extradyadic fantasies ) involving someone other than their partner. Although most middle-aged adults have less sex than young adults, most maintain an active sex life. Most adults fantasize about sexual activity with someone who has never been their partner. Researchers find that middle-aged adults are sexually active, though somewhat less active than their younger counterparts.

Changes in Female Sexual Health 1.

Managing Menopause

a) b) c)

d) 2.

processes leading to menopause have begun, and it ends one year after her last period, when she has reached menopause. It is common for the perimenopausal process to last anywhere from 2 to 8 years. The most common signs and symptoms are ▪ Menstrual irregularities ▪ Hot flashes (lasting between 30 seconds and 10 minutes) ▪ Sleeping problems ▪ Mood changes ▪ Vaginal and bladder problems ▪ Decreased fertility ▪ Some body and skin changes ▪ Loss of bone Recent research has made physicians cautious in prescribing hormone replacement therapy for women’s perimenopausal symptoms, and many now recommend lifestyle changes.

Women, Sexuality, and Aging

Perimenopause begins when a woman’s body first signals that the

Recent studies have indicated that hormone replacement therapy for women can be harmful and should be used only in special cases. Some women in middle age may find the menopausal process, highlighted by hot flashes and vaginal dryness, to be ultimately liberating and requiring minor adjustment, whereas others may have such difficulty with the process that they eventually develop female sexual dysfunction disorder.

Changes in Male Sexual Health 1.

Most middle-aged men will experience andropause and the related symptoms including problems with sleeping, memory, and concentration, as well as depression, anxiety, irritability, loss of energy, and bone and hair loss. 141

2. 3. 4.

Men experience a reduction in hormone production and related symptoms. Men may also experience some discomfort due to enlarged prostate glands, a common condition called benign prostatic hyperplasia (National Kidney and Urological Diseases Information Clearing House, 2006). For most men their prostate will begin to enlarge in early adulthood, though it is usually after age 50 before the symptoms are bothersome.

Sexuality in Late Adulthood 1. 2. 3. 4.

Levels of sexual activity usually continue to decline in late adulthood but may not stop completely. There is evidence that sexual activity continues on some level for many people into their 70s and 80s (Mayo Clinic, 2009e). For those who are relatively healthy and creative, elderly individuals can maintain a satisfying sex life. In addition to the development of new medications to increase sexual function, therapists and physicians are now educating and encouraging older couples to move beyond their conventional idea of what a sexual encounter should include to explore the involvement of oral sex, manual stimulation, sexual aids, massage, or erotic media (Kingsberg, 2000). Some Factors for decline in sexuality a) Erectile dysfunction in men b) Lack of interest in women (Mazur, Mueller, Krause, & Booth, 2002) c) Some illnesses can decrease sexual function and desire, such as arthritis and other types of chronic pain, diabetes, heart disease, and stroke d) Some medications, such as those taken for high blood pressure, depression, weight control, diabetes, and ulcers, can also decrease sexual function and desire (Mayo Clinic, 2009e; NIA, 2010b).

Video Suggestions 1.

The Aging Process [19 minutes] Part of the aging process is inevitable—but only part. This

Cataract Surgery [10 minutes] Animation is used to demonstrate cataract removal through

program explains the effects of aging on the human mind and body, explores the "damage" and "cell clock" theories about why cells wear out, and examines the lifestyle habits that affect both longevity and the quality of life; these include exercise, regular checkups for cancer, proper diet, moderate drinking, and no smoking. The program points out that it is never too late to mend one’s ways.(1992) extracapsular cataract extraction (ECCE). Reviews the indications for cataract removal and provides patients with an awareness of what to expect throughout surgery and recovery. Covers possible complications and details the typical course of recovery. From MilnerFenwick, Inc., 119 Lakefront Drive Hunt Valley, MD 21030-2216, 800)432-8433, (410)252-6316 FAX, URL: https://www.milner-fenwick.com/contact/index.asp

142

3. Cataract Surgery [57 minutes] Produced by WHYY, was taped as a live broadcast from Wills Eye Hospital in Philadelphia. This hour program features through-the-microscope views of the patient's eye as the lens is removed and a plastic replacement lens is implanted. Ophthalmic surgeon Raymond E. Adams, M.D., describes the procedure as he works. Three-dimensional computer animation enhances the explanation of the anatomy of the eye and how humans see. URL: http://www.shoppbs.org/family/index.jsp?categoryId=2585892 4.

Menopause [17 minutes] Covers what menopause is, what causes the symptoms of

Osteoporosis [18 minutes] Produced in cooperation with the National Osteoporosis

menopause, and treatments for common menopause symptoms. It features interviews with real women who share their menopause experiences. The video also covers long-term health risks after menopause, including increased risks of heart disease and osteoporosis as well as what can be done to prevent them. Hormone Replacement Therapy is mentioned as one treatment option, but the video does not go into any detail. (2003) From Milner-Fenwick, Inc., 119 Lakefront Drive Hunt Valley, MD 21030-2216, 800)432-8433, (410)252-6316 FAX, URL: https://www.milner-fenwick.com/contact/index.asp Foundation, this video focuses on how to prevent osteoporosis. It describes how osteoporosis develops, along with the risk factors. The video presents essential elements for maintaining healthy bone: calcium, vitamin D, exercise, avoiding harmful substances, and medications to prevent and treat osteoporosis including the newest medications, Risedronate (Actonel®) and parathyroid hormone, (Forteo®). It also addresses bone density and steps to prevent falls in those already diagnosed with osteoporosis. From Milner-Fenwick, Inc., 119 Lakefront Drive Hunt Valley, MD 21030-2216, 800)432-8433, (410)252-6316 FAX, URL: https://www.milner-fenwick.com/contact/index.asp

Sensorineural Hearing Loss in Adults [17 minutes] This video has been updated to

include programmable and digital hearing aids. It explains the causes and symptoms, and reviews the evaluations performed by the physician and audiologist to assess the scope of hearing loss. Offers guidelines to protect remaining hearing. From Milner-Fenwick, Inc., 119 Lakefront Drive Hunt Valley, MD 21030-2216, 800)432-8433, (410)252-6316 FAX, URL: https://www.milner-fenwick.com/contact/index.asp 7.

The Beauty and Burden of Hormones [26 minutes] Are exercise and smart eating the best

The Girlfriend’s Guide to Breast Cancer: One Year Later [38 minutes] After being

tools for staying youthful and attractive? Or is there a third ingredient in the fountain of youth—namely, clinical adjustments to the body’s chemistry, perhaps with drugs derived from other creatures’ hormones? This program examines the subject of hormone therapy and its link to longevity studies. Outlining the role hormones play in sexual attraction, the program describes the biological aspects of menopause; explains the use of Single Nucleotide Polymorphism, or SNP, in treating testosterone decline; and shows how the use of horse estrogen has been discredited as a weapon against female aging. Research into soya and phytoestrogens is also featured. Not available in French-speaking Canada. (2005)

diagnosed with breast cancer, six women from ABC News sat down and talked about taking on their formidable enemy. This program features all six women one year later, discussing what transpired over the past twelve months and how they feel about the future. While most 143

are in remission, two patients are still grappling with disease on a daily basis, and both take this communal opportunity to reveal the concerns, frustrations, and hopes at the core of their experiences. Among all six, a wide range of topics are explored: hair loss, premature menopause, the seemingly endless parade of medical appointments, and the life-affirming arrival of grandchildren. (2008) 9. The Alzheimer's Project [4-part series, 31-120 minutes each] Alzheimer’s disease may be affecting as many as five million Americans—and as the Baby Boomer generation moves through retirement, that number could more than double. While there is not yet a cure for this disease—more feared than any other except cancer—this four-part series shows there is now genuine reason to be optimistic about controlling and, eventually, eliminating it. The series also takes a humane but honest look at the devastating effects of Alzheimer’s on patients and those who love them. Viewable/printable discussion guides are available online. An HBO Production. (2009) 10.

Positive Images of Aging [56 minutes] From Terra Nova Films and the Association for

Essay Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

What personal and social factors may be contributing to the findings that the reports of bisexual experiences increase with age? What are the advantages of a longitudinal rather than cross-sectional study of sexual activity? Give an example of a gender difference found when comparing men’s and women’s attitudes toward aging. Explain how physiological changes contribute to poorer vision and hearing with age? Create a marketing campaign for a hearing aid company that addresses some of the reasons given by individuals with hearing impairments for not wearing hearing aids? What changes in body systems can increase the risk of falling? What is proprioception, and how might it influence anticipatory and compensatory balance responses?

144

True/False Questions 1.

Most people are taller in the morning than they are in the evening. Answer: TRUE

Smoking can cause skin to wrinkle more than is normally expected with aging. Answer: TRUE

It is normal for middle-aged and older adults without corrected vision to need to hold print items farther away to read them. Answer: TRUE

Control of our posture starts to decrease in our 30s. Answer: TRUE

Women start to lose their taste buds at an earlier age than men. Answer: TRUE

It is normal to perspire less with age. Answer: TRUE

It is normal for our hearts to beat at a slower pace with age. Answer: TRUE

Researchers have found that men are more likely to exaggerate their levels of sexual activity, and women are more likely to underreport their sexual activity, when participants believe that others will know about their responses. Answer: TRUE

Researchers find that 25% of married men have engaged in extramarital affairs. Answer: TRUE

10.

Researchers have found over one-third of men and women in their 70s still masturbate. Answer: TRUE

145

11.

It is normal for individuals to lose 4–5 inches in height as a result of normal aging. Answer: FALSE

12.

Women tend to view their bodies as whole entities when evaluating their body image whereas men tend to evaluate particular parts or areas of their bodies. Answer: FALSE

13.

Hair turns gray when hair cells stop producing pigment. Answer: FALSE

14.

Men can accelerate the process of going bald by frequently wearing a hat or cap. Answer: FALSE

15.

It is normal for older adults to develop glaucoma. Answer: FALSE

16.

The proportion of people with hearing loss who use hearing aids is similar to the proportion of those with vision loss who wear glasses. Answer: FALSE

17.

Nearly all individuals over age 65 experience a loss in bladder control. Answer: FALSE

18.

Once bone density starts to shrink in young adulthood there is nothing adults can do to slow the process. Answer: FALSE

19.

Researchers find that most adults fantasize about sexual activity with partners they had prior to their current partner. Answer: FALSE

20.

Most physicians agree that hormone replacement therapy is the best way to respond to women’s perimenopausal symptoms. Answer: FALSE

146

21.

Impotence or erectile dysfunction is a normal part of aging for men. Answer: FALSE

Multiple-choice Questions 1.

The term “aging” can be divided into distinguishing between external or environmentally. What is the term that refers to normal or expected aging? a) b) c) d)

Primary aging Secondary aging Tertiary aging Quaternary aging

Answer: a 2.

The term “aging” can be divided into distinguishing between external or environmentally. What is the term that refers to caused aging? a) b) c) d)

Primary aging Secondary aging Tertiary aging Quaternary aging

Answer: b 3.

The term “aging” can be divided into distinguishing between external or environmentally. What is the term that refers to decline seen just prior to death? a) b) c) d)

Primary aging Secondary aging Tertiary aging Quaternary aging

Answer: c 4.

As our bodies age, men tend to evaluate their bodies in terms of how they __________ while women tend to focus more on __________. a) b) c) d)

appear-usefulness were-how they are function-appearance appear-function

147

Answer: c 5.

Everyone loses some height as he/she ages. About how many inches will the average adult lose in height between young adulthood and the young-old age of around 70 years old? a) b) c) d)

.57 inches 1.57 inches 2.57 inches 3.57 inches

Answer: b 6.

Like many other areas of primary aging, skin changes that become noticeable in midlife actually began in our _________. a) b) c) d)

early teenage years mid-20s mid-30s mid-40s

Answer: b 7.

What is the dermatological term for aging caused by sun exposure? a) b) c) d)

Wrinkling Dermagerontological Photoaging Malasolarderm

Answer: c 8.

Graying and thinning hair are ____________. a) b) c) d)

primarily genetically determined benign processes show wide variation in terms of age All of the above

Answer: d 9.

Which of the following common eye pathologies is known by its clouded eye lens that is similar to trying to look through a fogged-up window? a) b) c) d)

Macular Degeneration Glaucoma Presbyopia Cataracts 148

Answer: d 10.

While hearing aids can help in many situations, they are often rejected by older adults because of _____________________. a) b) c) d)

expense maintenance sense that they signal frailty All of the above

Answer: d 11.

Of the following factors, what changes in the body may increase the risk that older adults will eat less and suffer from malnutrition? a) b) c) d)

Memory confusion Reductions in the ability to taste and smell Vision loss Hearing loss

Answer: b 12.

With age, our hearts become enlarged, slow in beating rate, and lessen in muscle flexibility. This generally results in _______________________. a) b) c) d)

increased blood pressure arrhythmia diabetes congenital heart disease

Answer: a 13.

What term describes the attitude that healthiest or most appropriate sexual practices are those of heterosexuals, so evident in early sexuality research? a) b) c) d)

Ethnocentric Sexual relativism Homosexism Heterosexism

Answer: c

149

14.

In sexuality research, participants may withhold the truth and give what they believe to be socially appropriate responses because honest responses could be ____________________. a) b) c) d)

embarrassing stigmatizing illegal All of the above

Answer: d 15.

Generally speaking, most young adults are heterosexual, engage frequently in ___________________. a) b) c) d)

vaginal sex oral sex anal sex Both a and b

Answer: d 16.

Some women in middle age may find the menopausal process, highlighted by hot flashes and vaginal dryness, to be ultimately liberating and requiring minor adjustment, whereas others may have such difficulty with the process that they eventually develop ___________________. a) b) c) d)

uterine cancer female sexual dysfunction disorder bladder control problems yeast infections

Answer: d 17.

Most middle-aged men will experience ______________ and the related symptoms including problems with sleeping, memory, and concentration, as well as depression, anxiety, irritability, loss of energy, and bone and hair loss. a) b) c) d)

andropause androgenetic alopecia androgeny androgel

Answer: a

150

18.

There is evidence that sexual activity continues on some level for many people into their ________________________. a) b) c) d)

50s and 60s 70s and 80s 90s and 100s Well past 100

Answer: b 19.

Beginning in young adulthood, researchers found that 98% of the men and 80% of the women reported extradyadic fantasies, which is_______________________, during the previous 2 months. a) b) c) d)

fantasizing about their partner fantasizing about someone other than their current partner fantasizing about having sex with more than your partner fantasizing about not having sex

Answer: b

151

CHAPTER 11 Disease, Illness, and Disorders

Discussion Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8

What personality factors might contribute to an individual’s motivation to seek medical attention? Would you support an insurance company who required therapy for clients with anger issues to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease? Why, why not, or under what circumstances? What jobs or situations might put employees at a greater risk of developing cancer? Do you think most people would respond to these symptoms of “brain attack” as rapidly as they would the symptoms of a heart attack? Why, why not, or under what circumstances? Would it be unethical for a health insurance company to penalize a client who has risk factors for Type 2 diabetes and continues an unhealthy lifestyle? Why or why not? If you were hiring health care professionals to work with Alzheimer’s disease clients, what personality characteristics would you look for? What are the advantages and disadvantages of allowing DSM-IV information to be readily available on the Internet and in bookstores? What factors might contribute to the view that depression is not a disability but rather something we should snap out of?

Lecture Outline

Distinctions and Wholeness A.

Determining Health and Illness 1. 2.

Realizing that very few of us are completely healthy for long periods of time, it is useful to consider the concepts of health and illness as related and overlapping. The Health and Retirement Study sponsored by the National Institute on Aging (2007) found that a) About half (50%)of their participants ages 55–64 said they had very good or excellent health. b) Only one-quarter (25%) of those 65 years and older rated their own health as very good or excellent. Older adults may ignore mild symptoms, considering them a sign of old age rather than a sign of illness. 152

4. 5.

Definitions and Categories

Individual Differences and Diversity

II.

Some older adults may fear that seeing a medical professional may lead to the discovery of some currently undetected problem (George, 2001). Regardless of scientific distinctions between health and illness, individuals use various criteria for determining whether they are ill enough to seek medical attention, including perceived severity of the symptoms and the costs and benefits of health care. In a strict medical context a) Disease refers to the symptoms involved in making a diagnosis. b) Illness refers to the side effects and related problems.

Another point that often gets neglected in the analyses of health and disease are the many individual differences, particularly in terms of gender and ethnic diversity, that are associated with quality of health and disease management. a) Women in late adulthood are more likely to try self-care to reduce symptoms of poor health, through the use of over-the-counter and alternative methods, whereas men are more likely to simply endure the symptoms (George, 2001). b) Whites were twice as likely as blacks or Hispanics to rate their health very good or excellent, with much of the difference also related to socioeconomic status. For the sake of brevity and summarization it is necessary to make general statements; however, it is critical to remember that the actual experience of these diseases and disorders varies greatly.

Physical Illnesses A.

Cardiovascular Disease 1. 2.

3. 4.

Cardiovascular disease, the leading cause of death among women and men, includes diseases and conditions that affect the functioning of the heart, including high blood pressure, coronary artery disease, and heart attack. Coronary artery disease, also called coronary heart disease, is the most common type of cardiovascular disease, occurring when the arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle become hardened and narrow due to plaque buildup. Atherosclerosis is the term for that condition. A good diet and a healthy weight, adequate exercise, yearly checkups, and monitoring of cholesterol and blood pressure are some of the best means of prevention of cardiovascular disease (and many other concerns too!). The major symptoms of an attack for men and women are a) Discomfort in your chest and other areas of your upper body including your arms, neck, and jaw b) Shortness of breath c) Cold sweat d) Nausea e) Lightheadedness (CDC, 2010c) 153

Cancer 1. 2.

3. 4.

Cancer includes conditions that begin with abnormal cell growth that destroys healthy tissue and may metastasize throughout the body. The precursors for cancer may be inherited or triggered by certain lifestyle and environmental factors. a) For example, certain diets, use of tobacco, and exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun increase the risk of developing cancer. b) Carcinogens (cancer-causing substances) in the workplace, such as asbestos, asphalt fumes, diesel exhaust, secondhand tobacco smoke, and many other chemicals also increase cancer risk (NCI2005; CDC, 2009). A nagging cough, hoarseness, difficulty swallowing, or persistent indigestion should be taken seriously as potential early warning signs (NCI, 2005). The National Cancer Institute estimates that approximately 64% of the people diagnosed with cancer will be alive 5 years later (NCI, 2005).

Cerebrovascular Disease 1. 2.

Along with those signs women often report a) Heartburn b) Loss of appetite c) Fatigue and weakness d) Coughing e) Heart flutters (National Women’s Health Information Center, 2009) Cardiovascular disease has also been related to personality characteristics that lead to greater hostility, anxiety, and depression.

Cerebrovascular disease includes conditions that interrupt blood flow to the brain, destroying brain tissue, which then causes many types of lifelong disabilities. There are three steps in the treatment and management of strokes. a) The first is to recognize the risk factors and work to prevent the actual occurrence of a stroke. • Prevention involves living a healthy lifestyle and managing or avoiding the primary risk factors of heart disease, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, smoking, a family history of strokes, and a history of experiencing mini-strokes. • Age is also a factor in that well over half of all strokes occur to adults over age 65 (NINDS, 2003, 2010a). b) The second step in stroke management is coping with the emergency and the immediate recovery. c) The third step in managing a stroke is to work to prevent another occurrence while also engaging in long-term rehabilitation.

Diabetes 1.

Diabetes, occurring when the body doesn’t have or use insulin to transform glucose into fuel, is unique in that it can be prevented in some cases through diet and exercise.

154

2. 3. 4. 5.

Alzheimer’s Disease 1. 2. 3.

III.

There are three main types of diabetes: Type 1, Type 2, and gestational diabetes. Type 1 diabetes occurs when, for some unknown reason, the body’s immune system that fights infection destroys the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. Type 2 diabetes is more common, sometimes milder than Type 1, and slower to develop. With Type 2, the pancreas is producing insulin but the body has insulin resistance and doesn’t use it well. Dementia is the name for a group of symptoms, including the deterioration of memory processing, reasoning ability, decision making, judgment, language processing, and communication skills. Alzheimer’s disease, one of the leading causes of dementia, is a brain disease that progresses through four stages of cognitive and physical deterioration. Although the length of life once Alzheimer’s disease begins can range from 5 to 20 years (NINDS, 2010b), the progression of Alzheimer’s disease is predictable, following a trajectory through four stages. a) The first stage, preclinical Alzheimer’s disease, actually starts 10–20 years before diagnosis as parts of the brain begin to atrophy (shrink). b) The second step in the process is called mild Alzheimer’s disease. The symptoms include memory loss, confusion over familiar things and places, difficulty with routine tasks, poor judgment, loss of spontaneity, loss of initiative, increased anxiety, and mood and personality changes (NIA, 2003). c) In the third stage, moderate Alzheimer’s disease, the brain damage has spread to areas that control sensory processing and conscious thought. d) In the fourth and final stage, severe Alzheimer’s disease, all the symptoms reach their peak. Many patients have little if any awareness of themselves, their loved ones, or their surroundings.

Psychological Disorders A.

Classifications and Individual Differences 1. 2.

The National Institute of Mental Health estimates that nearly 25% of American adults age 18 and older suffer from a diagnosable mental disorder at some point during a calendar year. The standard for making these diagnoses is the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.

Anxiety Disorders 1. 2.

Anxiety disorders are the most common psychological disorders in the United States, affecting approximately 40 million Americans per year. The category of anxiety disorders, which includes panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and obsessive–compulsive disorder, are highly treatable once diagnosed. 155

Mood Disorders 1. 2.

The classification of mood disorders includes major depressive disorder, dysthymic disorder, and bipolar disorder. Depressive disorders in older adults may be neglected because the condition is assumed to be a part of old age and/or a side effect of a disease or medication.

Video Suggestions Unless otherwise noted all films may be obtained from Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)671-1000, Toll-free: 800-257-5126, Fax: (609)671-0266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, http://www.films.com 1.

Late Adulthood: Physical, Cognitive, Social, and Personality. Pearson Education’s

Observations Videos in Developmental Psychology. This compilation DVD enables instructors to have instant access to nine chapters (e.g., beginnings to Death and Dying) of developmental psychology. In integrated segments, adults over the age of sixty discuss both the positive and negative experiences associated with ageing. In late adulthood, most individuals experience loss of hearing, vision, mobility, taste, and smell. These declines are typically gradual and become more pronounced in late old age (70+). The social world of older adults is varied. They strive to be independent and enjoy life with members of their cohort. Some older adults have trouble adjusting to retirement, but many welcome the time to take on new interests and activities. Many participants noted health related issues such as: a decline in energy, flexibility, memory loss, heart disease, and illness. Loss of loved ones is also a recurring theme for this age group. Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. http://www.pearsonhighered.com/ 2.

I Can’t Believe I’m Telling You This: Prostate Cancer in the Age of the Internet [59

minutes] Although many men have prostate cancer—a disease that occurs in two thirds of all men by the age of 80—there is a culture of silence among patients that stifles conversation about it. The complexities of the illness, the disease’s location, and potential post-treatment side effects such as incontinence and erectile dysfunction have left them at a loss for words. But the Internet is changing that. In this program, three prostate cancer patients explain how they have used the Web to increase their understanding of the disease while pooling their knowledge and sharing their fears with fellow patients. If the barriers to beating prostate cancer are societal as well as scientific, then I Can’t Believe I’m Telling You This offers a powerful injection of hope. (2009) 3. Late-Life Depression [28 minutes] As many as one in five older Americans have late-life depression, which can lead to suicide. In this program from The Doctor Is In, three senior citizens describe how they have coped with this life-threatening illness. Medical commentary is provided by Charles Reynolds III, director of the Late-Life Depression Evaluation and Treatment Center at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine; psychiatrist Thomas Oxman, of the Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center; and Lucille Karatzas, director of Elder Services at Seacoast Mental Health Center. The central message? Late-life depression

156

is a treatable disease, not an inevitable part of aging. A Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center Production. (2003) 4.

Clinical Impressions: Identifying Mental Illness [51 minutes] How long can mental illness stay hidden, especially from the eyes of trained experts? This program rejoins a group of ten adults—five of them healthy and five of them with histories of mental illness—as psychiatric specialists try to spot and correctly diagnose the latter. Administering a series of collaborative and one-on-one tests, including assessments of personality type, physical selfimage, and rational thinking, the panel gradually makes decisions about who suffers from depression, bipolar disorder, bulimia, and social anxiety. At the conclusion of the program, the professionals confess to a wariness of their own diagnosis methods, and labels of “sick” and “normal” are seen in a new light. A BBC/Science Channel Co-production. Part 2 of the series How Mad Are You? A Search for Insanity. (2008)

Worried Sick Stress is the curse of modern living—but is it actually so new? [60 minutes]

Hidden in Plain Sight: Looking for Mental Illness [50 minutes] With their mental health

Mental Disorder What is abnormality? [30 minutes] Using the case studies of two young

Whether it’s the panic that sets in before public speaking or the butterflies brought on by sitting down in a dentist’s chair, everyone has experienced the age-old fight-or-flight response that once helped humankind evade predators. In this classic program from the Scientific American Frontiers series, host Alan Alda meets researchers who are exploring the long-term ill effects of stress on health and healing and how relaxation can help lessen the damage. Distributed by PBS Distribution. (2003)

histories kept secret, ten adults enter a period of psychiatric observation in an isolated group setting. It is up to a panel of experts to determine who is healthy and who isn’t. This program documents the first three days of the session, which features several tests designed to bring out evidence of mental disorders. Simulated urban warfare evokes reckless behavior; stand-up comedy stints highlight social anxiety; a barn-cleaning task points to aspects of OCD; and the Wisconsin Card Sort Test brings flexibility, or a lack thereof, into focus. By the end of the program, the assembled mental health professionals are only beginning to distinguish between illness and eccentricity. A BBC/Science Channel Co-production. Part 1 of the series How Mad Are You? A Search for Insanity. (2008) women—one who has depression, one who has an anxiety disorder—as a springboard, this program presents three psychological perspectives on mental disorder. Section one considers it as a bodily disease, identifying underlying assumptions of the biomedical model and illustrating the treatments it offers. Section two looks at it as a disease of the mind, developing the view that the origins of some mental disorders may lie in people’s experiences. And section three outlines the basis of the constructionist perspective and the idea that mental disorder is socially defined. The increasing medicalization of behavior is also addressed. A part of the series Understanding Psychology. (2003)

Bipolar Disorder: Shifting Mood Swings [24 minutes] Different from the routine ups

and downs of life, the symptoms of bipolar disorder are severe—even to the point of being life-threatening. In this insightful program, patients speak from their own experience about the complexities of diagnosis and the very real danger of suicide, while family members and close friends address the strain of the condition’s cyclic behavior. In addition, Robert 157

Hirschfeld, of The University of Texas Medical Branch; Karen Wagner, director of UTMB’s Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry; and Joseph Calabrese, director of the Mood Disorders Research Program at University Hospitals of Cleveland, present treatment options and medications for controlling bipolar disorder. (2002) 9.

Anna's Story: Fading Memories. [23 minutes] Tells the story of Anna Nelson's continuing battle with Alzheimer's disease. It follows her daughter, Jamie, as she seeks help for her mother, attends an Alzheimer's support group, tours residential care facilities, and finally discusses with her mother the possibility of assisted-living options for her in the near future. (2001) A Discovery Channel Production.

10.

The Alzheimer's Project [4-part series, 31-120 minutes each] Alzheimer’s disease may be

affecting as many as five million Americans—and as the Baby Boomer generation moves through retirement, that number could more than double. While there is not yet a cure for this disease—more feared than any other except cancer—this four-part series shows there is now genuine reason to be optimistic about controlling and, eventually, eliminating it. The series also takes a humane but honest look at the devastating effects of Alzheimer’s on patients and those who love them. Viewable/printable discussion guides are available online. An HBO Production. (2009) 11.

Substance Abuse In The Elderly [30 minutes] Faced with complex regimens of

12.

Caring for the Frail and Immobile [29 minutes]Although the elderly, infirm, and

13.

Chronic Anxiety in the Elderly [27 minutes] This program addresses the problem of

medication and diminished tolerances for alcohol, many elderly Americans run the risk of falling into the trap of substance abuse. In this program from The Doctor Is In, senior citizens discuss how they deal with these challenges, while Dr. James Campbell, director of the geriatric center at MetroHealth Medical Center, and Carol Colleran Egan, director of older adult services for Hanley-Hazelden Center, present some innovative programs created especially for elderly people. A Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center Production. (2000) bedridden may have the potential to improve their health and physical performance, they often display less progress than other patients. For this reason, inexperienced caregivers can become discouraged. This program serves as a source of inspiration for those who are working to help frail and immobilized patients. Viewers are reminded that everyone ages in a unique way; that even the most basic daily activities can have tremendous benefits, both mental and physical; and that—in addition to dementia, Alzheimer’s, and Parkinson’s— depression is a major factor to consider. The importance of social interaction is also a significant topic. (2009) anxiety in the elderly and the diseases associated with the problem. Interviews with sufferers of GAD, Geriatric Anxiety Disorder, provide insights into the agony of the condition. General anxiety disorders, their symptoms, and physiological manifestations are examined, including chemical imbalance, psychosocial implications, and the emotional impact on the aged brought on by radical societal changes. Caffeine, cigarettes, and alcohol are also discussed as possible instigators. (1997)

158

Essay Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

What are the differences between the terms disease, illness, and disorder? Explain what happens when cancer has metastasized. What are the two strategies for reducing the risk of developing cancer? Name and describe the four stages of Alzheimer’s disease. Describe the five axes of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. How are anxiety disorders different from the typical nervousness everyone has from time to time? Explain the debate over whether anxiety decreases with age. Describe the many similarities between anxiety disorders and major depressive disorder.

True/False Questions 1.

Hispanic Americans report less illness than African Americans. Answer: TRUE

Among the top 10 causes of death for Americans, more people die of cardiovascular disease and cancer than the other eight causes combined. Answer: TRUE

Cold sweat, nausea, and light-headedness are some of the symptoms of a heart attack. Answer: TRUE

Early symptoms of cancer generally don’t cause pain. Answer: TRUE

Some strokes are so mild that the symptoms are undetected or ignored. Answer: TRUE

Adults who are recovering from a stroke often have trouble speaking, reading, and writing. Answer: TRUE

American Indians have one of the highest rates of diabetes in the world. Answer: TRUE

Diabetes can cause blindness. Answer: TRUE 159

Women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression than men. Answer: TRUE

10.

The American Psychiatric Association prefers the term mental or psychiatric illness. Answer: FALSE

11.

Women are more likely to survive a heart attack than men. Answer: FALSE

12.

More women develop and die from breast cancer than men who develop and die from prostate cancer. Answer: FALSE

13.

Alzheimer’s disease and dementia are two names for the same condition. Answer: FALSE

14.

Well over half of all those age 80 and older have Alzheimer’s disease. Answer: FALSE

15.

The most reliable means of determining if an older adult has Alzheimer’s disease is through a blood test. Answer: FALSE

16.

Depression is the most common psychological disorder. Answer: FALSE

17.

Electroconvulsive therapy, also called shock therapy, is no longer used as a treatment for depression. Answer: FALSE

160

Multiple-choice Questions 1.

___________ refers to the symptoms involved in making a diagnosis. a) b) c) d)

Disease Illness Prognosis Evaluation

Answer: a 2.

____________ refers to the side effects and related problems. a) b) c) d)

Disease Illness Prognosis Evaluation

Answer: b 3.

Which of the following groups were twice as likely to rate their health very good or excellent, with much of the difference also related to socioeconomic status. a) b) c) d)

Asians Blacks Whites Hispanics

Answer: c 4.

Martha is a woman in late adulthood. Research seems to suggest that, to reduce symptoms of poor health, Martha is more likely to _______________________________. a) b) c) d)

make an appointment with her physician try self-care through the use of over-the-counter and alternative methods check with friends and ask for their suggestions ignore or endure the symptoms

Answer: b

161

An Jung Parker is a man in late adulthood. Research seems to suggest that to reduce symptoms of poor health An Jung is more likely to _________________________. a) b) c) d)

make an appointment with her physician try self-care through the use of over-the-counter and alternative methods check with friends and ask for their suggestions ignore or endure the symptoms

Answer: b 6.

What is the leading cause of death among women and men in the U.S.? a) b) c) d)

Cancer Cardiovascular Disease Strokes Diabetes

Answer: b 7.

Which of the following is NOT a major symptom of a heart attack for men and women? a) b) c) d) e)

Discomfort in your chest and other areas of your upper body including your arms, neck, and jaw Fever Shortness of breath Cold sweats Nausea

Answer: b 8.

Along with the typical heart attack signs, women often report all of the symptoms below EXCEPT: a) b) c) d)

Heartburn Loss of appetite Heart flutters Cold sores

Answer: d

162

____________ is also a factor in that well over half of all strokes occur to adults over age 65. a) b) c) d)

Age Anxiety Weight Visual acuity

Answer: a 10.

Which Type of diabetes is more common, sometimes milder and slower to develop? a) b) c) d)

Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Gestational

Answer: b 11.

Of those students who are still alive, what percentage of the 1945 graduating class, of any given college or university might have Alzheimer’s disease today? a) b) c) d)

Only about 1% About 5% About 15% Nearly 40%

Answer: d 12.

What is the most significant risk factor for Alzheimer’s? a) b) c) d)

Age Gender Race/ethnicity Socioeconomic status

Answer: a 13.

Women are more likely to be diagnosed with what types of anxiety disorders? a) b) c) d)

Generalized anxiety disorder Panic disorder Posttraumatic stress disorder All of the above

Answer: d 163

14.

Using the DSM-IV categories, which are the most common psychological disorders in the United States? a) b) c) d)

Anxiety disorders Mood disorders Personality disorders Developmental disorders

Answer: a 15.

Aging is not, by itself, a cause of major depressive disorder (NIMH, 2009). Rather than simply focusing on advancing age, it may be that some of the psychosocial changes that accompany aging (Yang, 2007) prompt depressive episodes. Which of the following best illustrates this concept? a) b) c) d)

Loss of a good friend Circumstance of giving up driving Victim of a natural disaster All of the above

Answer: d

164

CHAPTER 12 Coping and Support in Late Adulthood

Discussion Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Do you think the ratio of problem-focused to emotion-focused coping changes across adulthood? Why or why not? What parallels do you find between primary and secondary control and problem-focused and emotion-focused coping? What differences? How might identifying goals in the SOC model differ from creating a to-do list? How might the process or outcome differ from New Year’s resolutions? What parallels do you see between the SOC model and problem-focused and emotionfocused coping? What differences? What environmental changes are needed to make your local neighborhood or university campus more welcoming and comfortable for older adults? Should more money be spent on increasing public transportation or improving personal vehicles for elderly drivers? Give reasons to support your opinion. What might be the first steps in introducing older adults to computer use, both in terms of skills and in terms of reducing anxiety? What generational or societal factors might contribute to the reluctance some Americans feel to accepting help from other people? What subtle behaviors from a caregiver might make an individual feel like a burden or source of stress? What practical things can family and friends do to ease the stress and depression experienced by the primary caregiver? How might the religious needs of a young adult differ from those of an older adult? Is it immoral for an older adult to get involved in a local religious community for the social support network rather than the belief system? What might be happening in middle adulthood that would encourage adults to become interested in spiritual development?

Assignments 1.

Your textbook cites the following websites as suggested online resources for you to investigate. Locate at least one additional online resource to share with the class. Remember to provide its title, a short description of the website and any related services, and its URL. a. Caregivers’ Resources - A great place to start for those caring for loved ones who need assistance is Medline Plus, sponsored by the U.S. National Library of Medicine at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/caregivers.html. 165

b. c.

Falls and Older Adults - From the National Institutes of Senior Health. Published in 2006, available at http://nihseniorhealth.gov/falls/toc.html. National Center for Assisted Living - Part of the American Health Care Association, this website provides resources for those searching to understand the system and find an assisted-living center. Available at http://www.ncal.org/resource/index.cfm.

Lecture Outline I.

Coping Strategies and Aging A.

Nondevelopmental Models of Coping 1. 2. 3.

Late adulthood presents new challenges as adults enter their elderly years One popular and long-standing way of describing cognitive coping strategies is through the use of coping mechanisms. These mechanisms can range from the a) More deliberately used and adaptive, such as humor, to b) The more involuntary, immature, and maladaptive, such as extreme denial of a source of stress (Vaillant, 2000). Another way is to divide strategies by focus- Popular non-developmental models of coping a) Problem-focused category (1) Aimed at searching for workable solutions or resolutions to the issues creating the stress. (2) Problem-focused methods involve efforts to alter or eliminate the problem by confronting the problem, engaging in problem solving, and seeking social support. (3) If you lost your job, some potential problem-focused solutions might be to • Take action to find more income • reduce expenses • Talk with the companies to whom you owe money • Make a plan of how to deal with the economic reality b) Emotion-focused category (1) Generally used when the target or source of the stress cannot be changed or eliminated (2) If you lost your job, some emotion-focused solutions would be • Processing and talking about how we feel about job loss • Trying to put the unemployment problem in perspective • Limiting negative thinking

166

Developmental Regulation 1.

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory 1. 2. 3. 4.

Developmental regulation a) Highlights differences between primary control, which peaks in middle adulthood, and secondary control, which increases in strength and effectiveness throughout adulthood b) Offers a strategy for maintaining a sense of personal control over our situation, which is likely to contribute to successful aging c) PRIMARY CONTROL generally involves outward or external actions, (1) Example|Primary control: An older adult who rearranges items in her kitchen so that she doesn’t have to bend her knees or get on the floor to get frequently used items is exerting primary control. d) SECONDARY CONTROL involves deliberately adjusting our internal sense of self, identity, and motivation to cope with external changes (Heckhausen, 1997). (1) Example|Secondary control: An older adult who realizes that his physical abilities are changing such that he has trouble maintaining his home may start imagining himself as a resident in an assisted living center. He may use secondary control to shift his identity by thinking of himself as among the youngest and most vibrant of those in the center, thus having some advantages the other residents do not have. Most people maintain the size of their social support network until very late in life. Finding and maintaining productive, helpful social connections may prove to be a challenge with age, as generally those in their 80s and older will experience the shrinking of their social convoys. The socioemotional selectivity theory (SST) encourages older adults to cope by regulating their emotional responses, primarily by limiting their social interactions to those that are positive and supportive. The SST emphasizes the role of emotional regulation in coping by encouraging older adults to surround themselves with only the closest, most positive and supportive relationships.

Selection, Optimization, and Compensation 1.

The Selection, Optimization, and Compensation SOC model encourages older adults to a) Survey their resources and select reasonable goals and priorities b) Optimize their resources with a focus on achieving those goals c) Use their resources to compensate for losses. While considered a meta-theory and applied to many areas of life, the SOC model is well suited as a coping strategy for older adults who are adjusting to limited resources and abilities.

167

II.

Coping and Adaptive Technology A.

Environmental Gerontology 1.

Adaptive Technology and Older Adults 1. 2.

2. 3. 4.

It is important that older adults choose comfortable technologies that will actually be used. The issue of driving a car is critical for many older adults who want to remain as independent as possible and retain a great deal of choice over how to spend their time. Generally older adults voluntarily make adaptations in their driving styles in order to maintain their driving privileges, and consequently a primary part of their personal independence and freedom. Studies show that in spite of the many accommodations older adults make to preserve their driving privileges, they have many accidents and often drive well beyond the point at which they are safe.

Computer Literacy and Older Adults 1.

III.

The use of various types of adaptive technologies as coping tools in order to remain as independent and functional as possible is of great interest to researchers in environmental gerontology. Adaptive or assistive technologies a) Can be applied to basic or complex tasks b) May be simple, like using a cane c) Complex, as can be found in sophisticated motorized, computercontrolled wheelchairs.

Technology and Older Drivers 1.

Environmental gerontology is the study of the development and interactions of older individuals and their environments over time.

Among older adults who are willing and able to use the Internet, the most popular uses are a) To interact with family and friends b) To seek information on health, community, and political concerns

Coping by Accepting Social Support A.

Social Relationships and Support 1. 2. 3.

A helpful way to cope with the challenges of aging is to turn to trustworthy family members, friends, and neighbors. Social networks generally get smaller with age, but they will increase as an older adult experiences more disability and when a crisis occurs. Older adults who have a highly supportive social network are likely to demonstrate better overall functioning, more proactive coping, and less depression.

168

4. 5.

A Closer Look at Caregivers 1. 2.

IV.

Social support networks may provide instrumental or physical help, needed information, or emotional support to an older adult, increasing that adult’s sense of well-being and overall functioning. Social support networks often consist of a spouse or partner, siblings, adult children, close family members and friends, and may include neighbors and community members. On average, those providing the most care are female, in their 60s, and either the spouse or the adult child of the care recipient. Caregivers often provide over 40 hours of care per week for years, resulting for them in a restricted lifestyle with increased depression and stress.

Religiosity, Coping, and Aging A.

Religious Views of Aging 1. 2. 3.

There is a growing interest among researchers to understand the interactions between religiosity, health, coping, and aging. There is very little in Judaism, Christianity, or Islam that addresses aging, whereas Hinduism and Confucianism have doctrines that draw attention to adult age-related differences and aging. Hindu literature describes a set of four distinct periods of life that involve stages of study a) Study (puberty) b) Marriage/Family (have family/invest in work) c) Retirement (birth of grandchildren) d) Renunciation (prepare for death) Confucianism emphasizes five relationships, three of which directly involve age differences: a) Parent–child a) Older sibling–younger sibling b) Older friend–younger friend c) Husband–wife d) Ruler–subject Eastern religions are more likely to directly address and incorporate aging in their doctrine, while very few religions celebrate any rites of passage that occur in midlife or late adulthood.

Adult Religious Development 1. 2. 3.

Most religious rites of passage are focused on childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood. Fowler’s theory of faith development is one of the few models of religiosity across the lifespan, offering insight into adult religious development. Fowler’s stages of faith a) Incorporating cognitive and moral development b) Describe a series of six stages moving from a very concrete view of God to an abstract, symbolic perspective stage 169

c) d) 4.

Embracing paradox and diversity in religion Have served as the primary psychological model of adult faith development Slee (2000) found Fowler’s theory helpful but not adequate to describe the faith journey of women she interviewed. Slee felt she needed more than Fowler’s theory to describe the process women went through. She proposed the addition of six strategies her participants used to work through their stages of faith, specifically: a) Conversational faith: Discussions that clarify thoughts and feelings b) Metaphoric faith: Using analogies that offer new insights c) Narrative faith: Making sense of their spiritual journey by telling their story d) Personalized faith: Gaining insights by engaging with role models e) Conceptual faith: Studying psychological and theological works f) Apophatic faith: Gaining insights by determining what faith is not

Coping and Religiosity 1.

Higher levels of religiosity and greater religious involvement have been found to be correlated with better physical and mental health, although the research conclusions have been mixed and are difficult to interpret. Many studies are correlational, thus one cannot tell what aspects or facets of religion actually contribute to better health.

Late Adulthood: Physical, Cognitive, Social, and Personality. Pearson Education’s Observations Videos in Developmental Psychology. This compilation DVD enables instructors to have instant access to nine chapters (e.g., beginnings to Death and Dying) of developmental psychology. In integrated segments, adults over the age of sixty discuss both the positive and negative experiences associated with ageing. In late adulthood, most individuals experience loss of hearing, vision, mobility, taste, and smell. These declines are typically gradual and become more pronounced in late old age (70+). The social world of older adults is varied. They strive to be independent and enjoy life with members of their cohort. Some older adults have trouble adjusting to retirement, but many welcome the time to take on new interests and activities. Many participants noted health related issues such as: a decline in energy, flexibility, memory loss, heart disease, and illness. Loss of loved ones is

170

also a recurring theme for this age group. Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. http://www.pearsonhighered.com/ 2.

Growing Old [74 minutes] Most people are unwilling to confront aging—even many

Don't Grow Old: Holding Back the Years [49 minutes] What makes our bodies age has

long been a scientific mystery. This program looks at discoveries suggesting that the aging process can be manipulated, if not completely switched off. Examining the role of diet, the film profiles a married couple who have maintained a low-calorie regimen for 16 years—with results that are open to interpretation—as well as two scientists who have largely debunked the myth of oxidative stress. Other researchers include Dr. David Sinclair of Harvard Medical School, discoverer of the molecule resveratrol, which has been found to have lifeprolonging effects in mice. Progeria, or rapid-aging disease, and age as a “state of mind” are also investigated. A BBC Production. 4.

Caring for the Frail and Immobile [29 minutes] Although the elderly, infirm, and

bedridden may have the potential to improve their health and physical performance, they often display less progress than other patients. For this reason, inexperienced caregivers can become discouraged. This program serves as a source of inspiration for those who are working to help frail and immobilized patients. Viewers are reminded that everyone ages in a unique way; that even the most basic daily activities can have tremendous benefits, both mental and physical; and that—in addition to dementia, Alzheimer’s, and Parkinson’s— depression is a major factor to consider. The importance of social interaction is also a significant topic. 5.

Caregivers [49 minutes] Approximately 70 percent of people with Alzheimer’s disease live

at home and are cared for by family and friends—and the physical and emotional tolls on those caregivers can be extreme. Through five intimate portraits, this program illustrates the stages of Alzheimer’s while documenting the sacrifices and successes, frustrations and triumphs, of caregivers experiencing a loved one’s gradual descent into dementia. Issues such as denial and guilt are addressed, as are care-related changes in communication and intimacy. Caregiving tips, coping skills, and insights into the hidden rewards of Alzheimer’s care are interwoven throughout. A viewable/printable discussion guide is available online. An HBO Production. A part of the series The Alzheimer’s Project. 6.

Living Old: The Modern Realities of Aging in America [60 minutes] Medical advances

have enabled an unprecedented number of Americans to live longer lives, but some consequences of widespread longevity aren’t altogether welcome. This episode of Frontline shows how, for millions of Americans, staving off mortality means facing chronic illness and 171

a prolonged physical decline. Moreover, as the need for geriatric care is rising, the number of available caregivers is actually dwindling. Underscoring major challenges to America’s overburdened health care system, the film addresses the fear of many experts—that we are on the threshold of a major crisis for our nation’s senior citizens. Distributed by PBS Distribution. 7.

Positive Images of Aging [56 minutes] From Terra Nova Films and the Association for Gerontology in Higher Education -This compilation DVD enables instructors and discussion leaders to utilize 14 different video segments, three to five minutes in length, each of which reflects on a positive aspect of aging. The chaptered DVD structure offers instant access to any of the segments, which can be shown individually or together as needed, and can easily be incorporated into a classroom lecture or PowerPoint presentation. The video clips included are: Changing Perceptions of Aging; Positive Adjustment as We Age; Intimacy in the Elder Years; Family Ties, Grandparenting, and Mentoring; Foster Grandparents; Wisdom and Courage in Elderhood; Creative Aging; Beauty in Aging; Spirited Senior Softball plus five bonus Features on Longevity, Genetics versus Lifestyle, Diet and Exercise, Calorie Restriction; Aging Statistics; A Visit with Centenarians. Terra Nova Films, Inc., 9848 South Winchester Avenue, Chicago IL 60643. Toll Free: 800-779-8491 Fax: 773-881-3368 Phone: 773-881-8491

Essay Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

What are the three categories of coping mechanisms? What is the primary difference in the target or source of stress when comparing problemfocused and emotion-focused coping strategies? What is the focus of environmental gerontology? What are some of the obstacles, challenges, or concerns for older adults on the Internet? What kinds of interactions would be considered negative social influences? How are ethnic minority caregivers likely to differ from white caregivers? What are the four distinct periods in Hindu religion? How does Confucianism address age differences?

True/False Questions 1.

Developmental psychologists believe that each phase of life has both gains and losses, including late adulthood. Answer: TRUE

Levels of emotional intensity are the same for young and older adults. Answer: TRUE

172

The ability to control one’s emotional responses, moving them toward a positive outlook, increases with age into late adulthood. Answer: TRUE

There is a great difference in the number of computer users when comparing those between the ages of 50 and 64 and those ages 65 and older. Answer: TRUE

High amounts of unsolicited support for an older adult are associated with negative wellbeing. Answer: TRUE

The average informal caregiver provides over 40 hours of care per week for over 4 years. Answer: TRUE

Higher levels of religiosity are associated with better physical and mental health among older adults. Answer: TRUE

Church attendance tends to decrease with age. Answer: TRUE

Older drivers cause the greatest number of accidents when the weather is bad. Answer: FALSE

10.

On average, a care recipient receiving informal care from a spouse or adult child is in his or her mid-60s. Answer: FALSE

11.

Almost all religions have rites of passage and celebrations that mark middle age and late adulthood. Answer: FALSE

173

Multiple-choice Questions 1.

The Hershey Company is cutting more jobs in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Sara Stoltzfus held one of 80 positions Hershey eliminated at the local Y and S Candies plant. The plant, which has 520 workers, manufactures Twizzlers licorice. Sara, a single mother of two, decided to create a “game-plan” during the time she collects unemployment that includes reducing her expenses while looking for work. Sara’s coping strategy is best described as using: a) b) c) d)

Problem-focused Emotion –focused Denial of Stress Humor

Answer: a 2.

It has been 6 months since police found Jayahn Pritchard, a three-year-old boy, drowned in a stream behind his home. His grandmother, Lucretia Thomas, was grief-stricken, but has since taken to a speaker’s circuit advising parents and grandparents on child safety issues. Ms. Thomas stated that her new passion puts Jayahn’s death into perspective, and helps heal the pain by talking about the incident so others may live. Lucretia’s coping strategy is best described as using: a) b) c) d)

Problem-focused Emotion –focused Denial of Stress Humor

Answer: b 3.

Developmental regulation offers a strategy for maintaining a sense of personal control over our situation, which is likely to contribute to successful aging. What type of control is illustrated in the following scenario: An older adult who rearranges items in her kitchen so that she does not have to bend her knees or get on the floor to get frequently used items is exerting ________________. a) b) c) d)

primary control secondary control tertiary control quaternary control

Answer: a

174

Developmental regulation offers a strategy for maintaining a sense of personal control over our situation, which is likely to contribute to successful aging. What type of control is illustrated in the following scenario: An older adult who realizes that his physical abilities are changing such that he has trouble maintaining his home may start imagining himself as a resident in an assisted living center. He may shift his identity by thinking of himself as among the youngest and most vibrant of those in the center, thus having some advantages the other residents do not have. a) b) c) d)

Primary control Secondary control Tertiary control Quaternary control

Answer: b 5.

According to the _____________________ older adults are encouraged to cope by regulating their emotional responses, primarily by limiting their social interactions to those that are positive and supportive. a) b) c) d)

Socio-emotional selectivity theory (SST) Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (SOC) model Emotion-focused strategy Problem-focused strategy

Answer: a 6.

The _____________ is well suited as a coping strategy for older adults who are adjusting to limited resources and abilities. a) b) c) d)

Socio-emotional selectivity theory (SST) Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (SOC) model Emotion-focused strategy Problem-focused strategy

Answer: b

175

Maude, a 79-year-old widow, met Harold, a much younger divorcee, at her town’s Heritage Days’ social. At first, Maude thought that Harold would be a great date to enjoy a dinner and a movie with, but soon after their first “date,” Harold began critiquing Maude’s cooking and cleaning efforts, and was forever looking at the world [almost any subject] with “halfempty” glasses. In less than a month, Maude decided that she did not want to be around such negative energy, so she dumped Harold. Maude’s encounter may be best described to fit under the umbrella of which theory or model? a) b) c) d)

Emotion-focused strategy Problem-focused strategy Socio-emotional selectivity theory (SST) Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (SOC) model

Answer: c 8.

Once E.J. received a diagnosis of esophageal cancer, he mobilized. First, he decided to reprioritize his life and become a cancer survivor. Second, he spent some time and energy to see what was his options and alternatives. Luckily, he found a local support group and an online community that helped identify and share resources. Lastly, he knew that he would need to swallow his pride and ask others for help. E.J. decided on the radiation seed treatment and as such he would lose some of his independent ways, at least temporarily. So he asked his neighbor to take him in for doctor’s visits and treatments. E.J.’s situation may be best described to fit under the umbrella of which theory or model? a) b) c) d)

Emotion-focused strategy Problem-focused strategy Socio-emotional selectivity theory (SST) Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (SOC) model

Answer: d 9.

Environmental gerontology is the study of ______________________________. a) b) c) d)

landscaping and gardening using Master gardeners potential construction sites for nursing homes and other assisted living ventures by which one assesses environmental and older adults’ safety issues the ways adults and their environments function and interact as both are changing with age All of the above

Answer: c

176

10.

Of the following factors, select the one that motivates older adults to use technology, especially the Internet. a) b) c) d)

Checking the Lottery numbers Perusing the online obituaries Visiting the AARP website Finding health-related information

Answer: d 11.

Of the following profiles and according to your text, who is more likely to be a caregiver to an older adult? a) b) c) d)

John, the 35-year-old eldest child Petra, 26 years old and the youngest of 3 children Barb, who is married and 60 years old Jason, who is divorced and 50 years old

Answer: c 12.

A significant aspect of Fowler’s theory of faith development is that it is one of the few models of ___________________________________. a) b) c) d)

faith-based psychology over the lifespan religiosity across the lifespan, offering insight into adult religious development into teenage religious development endorsed by the Council of Churches and AARP

Answer: b

177

CHAPTER 13 Dying, Death, and Bereavement

Discussion Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

What factors might contribute to the reduction in death anxiety starting in middle adulthood. Should anyone be allowed to serve as a health care proxy? Should there be some qualifications or requirements if the person is not a family member or intimate partner? What might be the advantages of allowing a loved one to die at home? What might be some of the challenges or difficulties? How would you design a study to learn more about why African Americans have been less likely to use hospice care? Would you vote in favor of allowing physician-assisted suicide in your state? Why, why not, or with what conditions? Considering how sensitive these issues are, would you ever approve of end-of-life research? Why, why not, or under what circumstances? What factors in American history and culture contribute to the general discomfort we often feel being around someone who is dying? What might be strong influences on our personal choice for burial or cremation? How would you design a study to earn more about those factors? In what ways might the bereavement process be different if the one who died was an infant? An adolescent? A soldier? An older adult? Would you be able to work in a hospital or nursing home in units where patients frequently died? Will you visit friends or loved ones who are near death? Do you attend funerals or memorial services for those who have died? Would you touch a body that has been embalmed?

Assignments 1. 2. 3.

Compile a list of the famous funerals throughout history and their associated assumptions of life and death. Have modern conceptions of death changed, preserved, or lost major human assumptions of life. Explain. Put together your online obituary, what three things would you most like to have said about you and your life? Class should organize into small groups or teams; they will research, write, edit, and produce a fact sheet/brochure dedicated to one of the following themes: End-of-Life Decisions, Close to Death, or Transitions-Marking the End of Life. Each group will make a short presentation to the class, who will decide which was the most effective piece, explaining the factors influencing their decision.

178

4. 5.

List three common reasons why a patient or family would be resistant to enrolling in home hospice care. Create a “death anxiety” questionnaire/survey. What questions would you include and why?

Lecture Outline I.

Death Anxiety 1. 2.

II.

Death anxiety is common in the general public, usually higher in women, and peaks in intensity in young adulthood and declining afterward. The research is mixed regarding the role religiosity plays in decreasing or increasing death anxiety.

End-of-Life Decisions A.

Advance Directives 1. Advance directives refers to various types of legal documents detailing

2. 3.

wishes of individuals regarding end-of-life concerns. a) Prepared in advance of a crisis b) Are consulted when we are incapacitated or for any reason unable to speak for ourselves Advance directives, such as living wills and durable power of attorney for health care, are designed to make the wishes of an individual known when that individual is incapacitated or cannot communicate. It is important for all adults, and especially those who are diagnosed with a serious illness, to gather as much information as possible and put advance directives in place where desired. a) Need to be written appropriately b) Distributed to all who need to be informed c) Revised as needed

Palliative Care and Hospice Programs 1. 2.

Palliative care is focused on treating symptoms and keeping an individual comfortable (American Cancer Society, 2008; NCI, 2000). Palliative care a) Can begin at any point after diagnosis (Stevens, 2006) b) May involve antibiotics, nutrition, pain medication, and other interventions (NCI, 2000) Hospice care a) A type of palliative care b) An approach encompassing the physical, psychological, and spiritual needs of individuals in the last few months of life c) Helping terminally ill patients remain alert and symptom-free as much as possible 179

Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Death 1.

2. 3. 4.

III.

When the end of life is near, another key decision is if and/or when to start palliative care.

Passive euthanasia a) b)

Allows “nature to take its course” Allows someone to succumb to the disease process or a related lifeending complication c) Involves ceasing or not initiating life-sustaining measures and letting the disease process progress as it will Although many people feel that stopping a treatment once started is more severe than never starting the treatment, legally there is no difference (American Geriatric Society [AGS], 2005)

Active euthanasia

a) Involves taking direct action to shorten a patient’s life b) Is illegal Physician-assisted suicide a) Could be simply responding to a patient’s questions and explaining the dosage requirements or combinations of drugs that would cause death b) Could involve the physician actually writing the prescription for such drugs (AGS, 2005) c) Although active euthanasia is illegal, physician-assisted suicide is legal in Oregon and in some parts of the world

Close to Death A.

End-of-Life Research Issues 1.

Psychological Changes 1.

End-of-life research projects face numerous challenges a) Including convincing an IRB that the study is worth the potential Discomfort b) Locating qualified and willing participants Kubler-Ross’ five stages of dying (denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance) was the standard portrayal of the dying experience, but it has fallen out of favor with those in the social and health sciences.

Interacting with Those Who are Dying 1. 2.

When interacting with someone who is dying it is important to allow honest conversation about important matters, even if it is very emotional or in some other way uncomfortable. Rather than looking for an individual to follow a stage pattern, loved ones and health care professionals are encouraged to be present, listen, and be willing to engage in the difficult and emotional conversations. 180

Physiological Changes 1.

IV.

As an individual approaches death, there are expected physiological signs, such as less social interaction, decrease in appetite and bladder and bowel control, cool limbs, noisy breathing, muscle contractions, and an irregular heartbeat.

Transitions A.

Marking the End of Life 1. 2. 3.

Bereavement 1. 2. 3.

Following death, decisions need to be made regarding burial or cremation and, if desired, the type of funeral, memorial service, or public recognition of the deceased. One of the first public signs of mourning following a death is often a funeral or memorial service. There are many decisions to be made whether the wishes of the deceased were to be buried or cremated, particularly if the family desires a traditional funeral. During the bereavement process individuals must learn to cope with the gap in their lives left by the deceased. For most people, the symptoms of bereavement start to ease and significant healing takes place in the first 6 months. Generally, individuals in bereavement pass through phases of shock, avoiding separation, disorganization and despair, and reorganization and recovery, although there many individual differences and circumstances that may influence one’s thoughts, behaviors, and coping skills.

Complicated Grief 1. 2. 3.

Some individuals experience depression, anxiety, and prolonged and intense grieving called complicated grief. Complicated grief occurs when an individual experiences intense grief for months or years that seems to block healing and interferes with their routine functioning. Complicated grief can present symptoms similar to depression and posttraumatic stress disorder.

Video Suggestions Unless otherwise noted all of the following films may be obtained from Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053, Phone: (609)671-1000, Toll-free: 800-2575126, Fax: (609)671-0266, Email: custserv@filmsmediagroup.com, http://www.films.com

181

Death and Dying [Part 9] Observations Videos in Developmental Psychology [ISBN-13:

Facing Death: Elisabeth Kübler-Ross [98 minutes] Elisabeth Kübler-Ross devoted her

Death: The Trip of a Lifetime [ 240m] This four-part series is a poignant and often

978-0-13-601658-8] From Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. http://www.pearsonhighered.com/

life to death and dying and achieved world fame in the process. She de-stigmatized dying and drew attention to the treatment of the terminally ill. This remarkably intimate film was made when Kübler-Ross lived secluded in the desert, awaiting her own death - on the verge of the transition she researched so passionately. Conversations with Elisabeth Kübler-Ross in Arizona form the core of the film. She looks back on her life, describes her childhood and her work, and explains how she herself faces aging and impending death. Interviews with her sisters, friends and colleagues, as well as extensive archival material provide a comprehensive look into the life and work of this extraordinary woman. (2003) From First Run Features, The Film Center Building | 630 Ninth Avenue, Suite 1213 | New York, NY 10036 Phone: (212) 243-0600 | Fax: (212) 989-7649 http://www.firstrunfeatures.com/facingdeathdvd.html strange journey spanning more than 12 countries to discover how people's beliefs, customs, and rituals about death affect the way they live their lives 1993 ; Ambrose Video Publishing [may be discontinued-look at secondary markets]

On Our Own Terms: Moyers on Dying [352 minutes] Program 1. Living with Dying :

Living Fully Until Death [29 minutes] Most people today die as a result of a chronic

Describes the search for new ways of thinking and talking about dying. Forgoing the usual reluctance that most Americans show toward speaking about death, patients and medical professionals alike come forward to examine the end of life with honesty, courage, and even humor, demonstrating that dying can be an incredibly rich experience for both the terminally ill and their loved ones. -- Program 2. A Different Kind of Care: Presents important strides being made in the area of palliative care at pioneering institutions such as New York's Mt. Sinai Hospital and Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center. These advances are bringing peace to those who fear that they will be a burden to loved ones, will suffer needlessly, or will be abandoned in their hour of greatest need. -- Program 3. A Death of One's Own : Unravels the complexities underlying the many choices at the end of life, including the bitter debate over physician-assisted suicide. Three patients, their families, and their doctors discuss some of the hardest decisions, including how to pay for care, what constitutes humane treatment, and how to balance dying and dignity. -- Program 4. A Time to Change : Presents crusading medical professionals including staff members of the Balm of Gilead Project in Birmingham, Alabama, who have dedicated themselves to improving end-of-life care by changing America's overburdened health system. (2000) disease. Many will know the cause of their death for some time prior to dying, causing a great deal of stress and turmoil for both themselves and their families. This program from The Doctor Is In offers the inspirational tales of three people who find new meaning in life and the courage to deal with the challenge of living fully after learning they have a terminal illness. Featured in the program are the late Morrie Schwartz, a Brandeis University professor profiled in the best-seller Tuesdays with Morrie, who was diagnosed with Lou Gehrig’s disease (ALS); Shirley Waring, a mother of four adult children, who has leukemia; 182

and William Meyer, who has lung cancer. Each has struggled in his or her own unique way to try to find personal control, to plan for the unknown, and to find a place for spirituality. As Morrie Schwartz notes, "Learning to die is also learning how to live." A Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center production. 6.

Teens Dealing with Death [29 minutes] Maybe it’s hearing about friends, driving home

from a dance, who get into a car wreck that no one survives. Or a fellow student—the one who wears a bandanna to hide what chemotherapy has done to her hair—one day fails to show up for homeroom. Or an announcement over the school’s PA system: “There will be a memorial service this afternoon…” For many young people, this will be their first exposure to death. How can teachers and school administrators help guide them through the experience? This program features Camp Comfort Zone, in Virginia, where viewers meet teens who have come to spend a weekend of talking, enjoying the outdoors, and sharing their grief over someone they’ve lost. The stories range from suicide, to sudden death, to terminal illness, and as the camp weekend progresses, viewers see how veteran campers help first-timers release their feelings. As healing and personal growth continue, an amazingly positive spirit, in most cases, actually overshadows the sadness. Teens Dealing with Death includes expert advice from Dr. Elena Lister, clinical assistant professor of psychiatry at Cornell University Medical College, New York City, and the collaborating psychoanalyst at the Columbia Psychoanalytic Center as well as the co-author of I Will Remember You: A Guidebook Through Grief For Teens. Dr. Lister shares her own personal experience of losing her daughter and offers suggestions on where teens can go for support and help in their communities. A viewable/printable instructor’s guide is available online. Correlates to the National Health Education Standards. A Cambridge Educational Production. 7.

Beyond Life and Death What happens after bodily death? [26 minutes] This program,

hosted by NewsHour’s Ray Suarez, explores how beliefs about an afterlife affect the way people live their lives and approach death. In a lively, insightful dialogue, Tibetan Buddhist scholar Robert Thurman and teacher/author Rabbi David Wolpe discuss the concepts of heaven and reincarnation while presenting their different views of what they believe may lie beyond the mortal veil. (26 minutes) 8.

Heaven: Where Is It? How Do We Get There? [82 minutes] Barbara Walters hosts this

With and Without You: A Father’s Suicide, a Family’s Journey [93 minutes] In 2003,

ABC News program about the afterlife, collecting an array of opinions, hopes, and scenarios concerning what, if anything, happens following death. Walters interviews religious leaders from various cultures and faiths, including Cardinal Theodore McCarrick, archbishop of Washington, D.C.; Pastor Ted Haggard, president of the National Association of Evangelicals; Rabbi Neil Gillman of New York's Jewish Theological Seminary; Imam Feisal Abdul Rauf, founder of the American Society for Muslim Advancement; and His Holiness, the Dalai Lama. A prominent atheist, a renowned neuroscientist, and an electrocution victim also discuss near-death experiences. the Beaudry family left their comfortable middle-class home to backpack across the world. A year after their adventure, Samuel Beaudry took another journey—one that left his wife, Maryse Chartrand, with shocking questions. How could a life-loving person take his own life? When mourning exhausts itself, what comes next? Can a family survive suicide? This documentary, originally planned as a record of the global trek, is Maryse’s quest to 183

understand her husband’s decision and grow past it. Exploring issues of masculinity, male depression, and family dynamics, the film depicts the tragically belated discovery of one man’s hidden anguish—and one woman’s hard-won emotional healing.

Essay Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

How does death anxiety differ with age and gender? What is the relationship between death anxiety and religiosity? Describe three criticisms or problems with advance directives as they are currently developed and used. What is the difference between passive euthanasia, active euthanasia, and physician-assisted suicide? Why is the Federal Trade Commission concerned about the purchase of funeral-related services and merchandise? What is the difference between the terms bereavement, grief, and mourning?

True/False Questions 1.

Women report higher levels of death anxiety than men. Answer: TRUE

It is not uncommon for families to refuse to allow a deceased loved one’s organs to be donated even when that person had indicated “organ donor” on his or her driver’s license. Answer: TRUE

In order to be accepted for hospice care a patient’s physician must believe that the individual has 6 months or less to live. Answer: TRUE

It is common for a physical body to continue to move even after the individual has died. Answer: TRUE

The average funeral cost was over $10,000. Answer: TRUE

Death anxiety rises with age across adulthood. Answer: FALSE

184

A living will designates what should be done with an individual’s finances and property should that person be unconscious. Answer: FALSE

A greater percentage of African American than white Americans take advantage of hospice services. Answer: FALSE

Physician-assisted suicide is illegal in the United States. Answer: FALSE

10.

It is important for loved ones to move away and stay away from a body once a person has died. Answer: FALSE

Multiple-choice Questions 1.

______________ is considered a multidimensional construct involving fears of many death related factors, including the dying process, moment of death, situation of our body and our spirit after death, and simply the unknown beyond this life, both for ourselves and for others. a) b) c) d)

Death anxiety Hospice Palliative care Seven stages of dying

Answer: a 2.

In a survey of over 400 adults between 18 and 87 years old Russac et al. (2007) found, as expected, that death anxiety reached its highest levels in _________________________________. a) b) c) d)

middle adulthood and was stronger in men young adulthood and was stronger in women older adulthood and was stronger in men older adulthood and was stronger in women

Answer: b

185

One factor that is often speculated to make a difference in death anxiety is religiosity and spirituality. What are the research findings concerning these factors? a) b) c) d)

increased religiosity is associated with increased anxiety certain theological beliefs were associated with reduced death anxiety and fear one’s inner faith and strength were associated with reduced death anxiety and fear All of the above

Answer: d 4.

Of the following, select the one(s) that is/are advance directive(s). a) b) c) d)

Living will Psychiatric advance directives Health care proxy All of the above

Answer: d 5.

Bullock (2006) found which race and ethnic groups had fewer advance directives, results consistent with previous research. a) b) c) d)

Whites and Hispanics Asian and American Indian Blacks and Hispanics Asian and Hispanics

Answer: c 6.

Most hospice care takes place in _____________________. a) b) c) d)

hospitals patients’ homes nursing homes private hospice facilities

Answer: b

186

The decision to begin hospice care is a difficult one. One of the first requirements is a medical professional’s prognosis that a patient has 6 months or less to live (Merck, 2007). Hospice care may be postponed for which of the following reasons? a) b) c) d)

Hesitancy of medical professionals who are not comfortable predicting the amount of time a patient has to live May feel to the physician as if he or she has failed May feel to the family like they are giving up All of the above

Answer: d 8.

Which of the following concepts allows a “nature to take its course” approach, allowing someone to succumb to the disease process or a related life-ending complication? a) b) c) d)

Active euthanasia Passive euthanasia Physician-assisted suicide Patient generated suicide

Answer: b 9.

In an Oregon hospital, Daniel pleaded with Jose, his partner of 35 years, to get him some pills, so he could put an end to his pain and misery as AIDs slowly and agonizingly progressed through his body. Frustrated, Jose asks the doctor to do something about Daniel’s request to end his pain and suffering, and hasten death. Hesitatingly, the doctor prescribes a significantly higher dosage of morphine. Which of the following concepts best describes this behavior? a) b) c) d)

Active euthanasia Passive euthanasia Physician-assisted suicide Patient generated suicide

Answer: c

187

10.

Jamal, a patient with ALS (Lou Gehrig's Disease), was frightened that the advancing disease would cause him to die a horrible death in the near future; he wanted a quick, painless exit from life. So his attending physician obliged his request, injecting controlled substances into the patient, thus causing his death. Which of the following concepts best describes this behavior? a) b) c) d)

Active euthanasia Passive euthanasia Physician-assisted suicide Patient generated suicide

Answer: c 11.

One month after her thigh muscle surgery, the doctor gave Rita, a 72-year-old woman, diagnosed with a muscle sarcoma on her thigh, 6 months to a year to live after he found that her cancer had metastasized to her lungs. Rita had never stopped praying for a miracle, but after 5 months of chemo treatment, she requested a stop to all treatments, except for pain management. Feeling the effects of her disease and the tumors’ growth, Rita asked her visiting nurse about hospice, and requested to live, as comfortably as possible, her remaining days in her home without any extraordinary measures. Rita wanted to be surrounded by friends, family, and all things familiar. Which of the following concepts best describes this behavior? a) b) c) d)

Active euthanasia Passive euthanasia Physician-assisted suicide Patient generated suicide

Answer: b 12.

Friends and loved ones who do spend a significant amount of time with someone who is dying will notice changes as death approaches. Often persons who are dying will display which of the following behaviors. a) b) c) d)

Less interest in food and water, reducing their intake A loss of bladder and bowel control A person’s limbs and skin may become cool to the touch; individual may start to breath noisily, making gurgling sounds as throat muscles relax All of the above

Answer: d

188

13.

For most Americans, immediately after losing someone close to us, what might bring about or facilitate closure on the past and mark the beginning of a new chapter in life? a) b) c) d)

Getting back to work Taking a vacation A funeral or memorial service None of the above

Answer: c

189

CHAPTER 14 Life Satisfaction

Discussion Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

How would you describe or explain self-concept without using the words self or concept? Would you support an employer who determined whether to hire applicants partly on their self-esteem? Why, why not, or under what circumstances? Would you support a health insurance company that required clients with low self-esteem to seek therapy before anxiety or depression had developed? Why or why not? What personality characteristics might lead someone to inactivity in key situations? Would you support a school district that eliminated some of their current curriculum to make room for classes in wisdom? Why or why not? Overall, what things brought you the most happiness? What things do you regret?”

Assignments 1.

3. 4.

Administer/take the Quality of Life Inventory from Pearson Assessments. Brief yet comprehensive, the QOLI assessment yields an overall score and a profile of problems and strengths in 16 areas of life such as love, work and play. The QOLI test is a measure of positive psychology and mental health. For example, in positive psychology, personal growth counseling, and employee assistance programs, the assessment measures assets and strengths as well as problems in a non-pathological way. In gerontology settings, the QOLI assessment can be used to help measure "successful aging" as defined by leaders in the field. In career counseling, the test can help predict future job satisfaction and productivity. http://psychcorp.pearsonassessments.com/HAIWEB/Cultures/enus/Productdetail.htm?Pid=PAg511 Research article: Are you a gardener, or do you know someone who is? Do they (gardeners) posses or perceive more life satisfaction than non-gardeners? How so? See what one study uncovered. The influence of gardening activities on consumer’s perceptions of life satisfaction. http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/syllabi/435/articles/waliczek.pdf Research article: Change in Life Satisfaction During Adulthood: Findings From the Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study. How do the findings of this study stack up against those you reviewed in the text/course? Does life satisfaction improve with age? Direct students to handouts, PDFs or websites describing Maslow Hierarchy such as http://www.ast.org/publications/Journal%20Archive/2009/8_August_2009/CE.pdf or Citation: Huitt, W. (2007). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [date] from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/regsys/maslow.html List the 10 ten factors for my life satisfaction. Discuss what students wrote.

190

Brainstorm as a class a list of wisdom definitions [or alternatively, regrets] and write the responses on the board or overhead.

Lecture Outline I.

Self: The Core of Development A.

Self-Schemas and Identity Process Theory 1. 2.

The study of self, as it evolves with age and experience, is usually divided into various facets or components, such as self-concept, self-schemas, and selfesteem. Identity process theory proposes a) Individuals continually evaluate environmental information using assimilation and accommodation to maintain or modify their selfschemas. b) Research in identity process theory, building self-schemas through identity assimilation and identity accommodation, indicates that a balance between the two creates the greatest life satisfaction. The recent trend in self-concept research has been to move away from the idea that self is a unified or global construct toward a view of self as a collection of many different features (Labouvie-Vief, Chiodo, Goguen, Diehl, & Orwoll, 1995). a) The study of self-concept is to consider particular areas of self, such as academic self-concept and social self-concept. b) as well as to consider different facets contributing to an overall selfconcept, such as self-schemas and self-esteem.

Self-Esteem

Self-Efficacy

1. 2. 3.

The evaluation of whether one is satisfied with his or her sense of self, one’s self-esteem, is often shaped by a) A sense of power b) Significance c) Competence d) Virtue (Coopersmith) Self-concept, self-schemas, and self-esteem focus on current perspectives. Self-efficacy extends that to predicting future success in particular areas. Self-efficacy, one’s personal belief about how successful or effective one can be in a particular area of life, often influences achievement motivation and life satisfaction.

191

Possible Selves 1. 2.

Self-Actualization 1.

II.

Possible selves include the best we can dream of realistically becoming (ideal self) and the worst we can imagine of ourselves (feared self). Young adults often display the grandest, most unrealistic ideal selves (hopedfor possible self), while older adults often focus both their ideal and feared selves (worst possible self) on physical characteristics. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs provides a pathway that a) Leads from deficiencies (physiological, security, affiliation, and esteem needs) b) To self-growth and self-actualization

Wisdom: Meaningful Development A.

Wisdom as Advanced Cognition 1. 2.

The psychological study of wisdom is a new area full of basic challenges, such as how to define and measure the rare construct. Wisdom as Theories of postformal operations, such as postformal levels, postformal orders of hierarchical complexity, and postformal complex thought, present wisdom as advanced cognition that can manage conflicting systems, paradoxes, and uncertainties. The postformal levels theory developed by a) Labouvie-Vief and Commons and Richards’s theory (1) Postformal orders of hierarchical complexity - emphasize the ability to understand several systems of thought as well as merge those systems to create new understandings b) Sinnots’s model (1) Postformal complex thought - highlight ways of dealing with uncertainties and unknowns (2)

Balancing Cognition and Action

1. 2.

Sternberg described tacit knowledge as the action-oriented knowledge we gain informally in life that guides us toward our personally valued goals. Sternberg’s tacit knowledge has three main features. (a) Comprised of procedures (b) Relevant to personally valued goals (c) Usually acquired informally, with very little help from others Combining wise thoughts with behaviors, Sternberg’s balance theory of wisdom uses tacit knowledge to find a balance between internal, interpersonal, cultural, and societal needs when trying to solve a messy problem with many unknown pieces. Sternberg calls his theory the balance theory because he believes that wisdom involves balancing three sets of interests, specifically: a) Intrapersonal (self interests) b) Interpersonal (the interests of others) 192

Wisdom as Expertise in Life 1.

2. 3.

Baltes’ model of wisdom a) The expertise in resolving major life dilemmas b) Has been captured in an interview technique using insight, factual and strategic knowledge, and sensitivity to context, relativism and personal values, and uncertainties As expertise in life Wisdom is not age related among adults

Wisdom as the Ultimate Stage of Development 1. 2.

III.

Extrapersonal (the larger context)

Wisdom can be viewed as the ultimate stage in human development synthesizing the most mature level of development in the areas of • Identity • Self • Moral reasoning • Faith • Postformal operations • tacit knowledge • life expertise

Subjective Well-Being A.

Life Satisfaction 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

Subjective well-being a) A psychological term for happiness, pleasant feelings, and generally living well b) Usually measured in terms of life satisfaction (cognitive component) (1) Related to the quality of various domains, such as marital and health status (2) Related to personality traits, such as higher extraversion and lower neuroticism c) Positive and negative affect (emotional component) Generally subjective well-being is high for most adults. Life satisfaction usually increases with age and is strongly associated with higher levels of extraversion and lower levels of neuroticism. Positive and negative affect, the emotional components of subjective wellbeing, reflect many of the same patterns as life satisfaction regarding age and personality. Both positive mood and long-term happiness have been related to many positive outcomes, such as sociability, likeability and cooperation, physical well-being and coping, problem solving, creativity, and general overall success.

193

IV.

Regrets 1.

2. 3.

Regrets • Lingering, negative emotions including self-blame and disappointment over thoughts, actions, or inaction, in a situation that, later in hindsight, we wish we had handled differently Regrets that cannot be readdressed in some way are often more difficult emotionally. In a meta-analysis of studies asking participants to list regrets and rank them in importance, Roese and Summerville (2005) found that the regrets that bother people the most are in areas that participants felt they had the best chances for growth and change. The five most frequently cited areas of regret were, in order: a) education b) career c) romance d) parenting/family e) self-improvement Regrets of inaction tend to persist longer than those involving a wrong choice.

Reflections A.

Personal Lessons Learned 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

You’re Exceptional (Individual and Intraindividual Differences) Take Care of your Health Use it or Lose it Value Other People Find Meaningful Work or Activities Practice Good Coping Skills Aging Happens, Ready or Not

Future Directions 1.

One shift that will continue to have beneficial outcomes for the field is the move away from categorizing adults by age-related, linear stage progressions, and moving toward a better understanding of individual and intraindividual differences and the dynamic nature of modern adulthood. The National Institute on Aging (2007) reflects this direction in their strategic directions for future research: • Improve understanding of healthy aging, disease, and disability • Improve understanding and interventions to prevent and treat dementias • Improve understanding of aging society • Work on policy decisions, reduce health disparities, and eliminate health inequities

194

•

Develop and disseminate information a great deal of effort in the field of adult development will continue to be placed on finding ways to safely and economically care for older adults.

Everyday Self-Esteem [30 minutes] This program thoroughly describes the concept of

self-esteem: what it is, where it comes from, and how to build it, maintain it, and protect it. The power of positive thinking, the importance of a supportive home environment, and the harmful effects of advertising are considered, along with the negative impact of a poor attitude, destructive comments, and unrealistic thoughts of one’s own worth. A Cambridge Educational Production. 2.

Self-Esteem and Identity in the Digital Age [27 minutes] The development of authentic

Mental Health: The Individual and Society [28 minutes] For those who have never

self-esteem and a healthy sense of self has always been a vitally important part of growing up. But this process is a challenge that has gotten even trickier to negotiate due to the widespread integration of digital technology into everyday living. Drawing on the insights of a clinical psychologist/family therapist, an adolescent psychologist, and a number of students, this program introduces the dynamics of child/adolescent psychology with a special emphasis on technology-related pitfalls associated with growing up in the Digital Age—particularly body image issues aggravated by the media and antisocial behaviors resulting from too much time spent online. Viewable/printable educational resources are available online.

faced deep-rooted emotional or psychological problems, it can be difficult to see why maintaining mental health requires more than the capabilities of any one individual. While personal accountability remains an important step toward wellness, the complex demands of society do contribute to mental illness and create obstacles to healing. This program examines mental health at the personal level and in a social context. It discusses key processes for recovering and maintaining mental well-being; helpful information concerning depression and drug and alcohol abuse; and the importance of diet, exercise, meditation, social interaction, and community resources and structures. Viewable/printable educational resources are available online. 4.

Growing Up Online [60 minutes] To study the impact of the Internet on adolescence, it

helps to examine the subject through the eyes of teens and their parents. This episode of Frontline enters the private worlds that young people, for better or worse, are creating online. In doing so, it brings viewers face-to-face with issues that kids confront every day—bullying, harassment, alienation, sexuality, and even bizarre forms of celebrity. Viewers are enabled to explore the complicated and often nebulous lines being drawn between the real and virtual

195

worlds and how these new paradigms are affecting today’s impressionable minds. Distributed by PBS Distribution. 5.

Teen Romance: What’s Risky, What’s Not? [32 minutes] It’s safe to say that dating, sex, and socializing preoccupy most teenagers—but how often do young people really benefit from and participate in their relationships? This video enables students to see teen romance in a clear light—exploring love, sex, friendship, and how easily all three can get mixed up. With candid discussions about jealousy, trust, peer pressure, and effective communication, the program focuses on the mental and emotional aspects of teenage sex and romance, as well as the best ways to cope with rejection and break-ups. Viewers also delve into “cyber relationships,” both friendly and romantic—examining what is gained and lost when technology mediates human connections. Viewable/printable discussion questions are available online. A Cambridge Educational Production.

Cult Witness: A Study of the Cultic Experience [70 minutes] An intelligent exploration of how cults attract and manipulate their followers, this documentary shares the disturbing firsthand experiences of Cult Witness director Samuel Stefan and six others who have freed themselves from cults: Jill Mytton (The Exclusive Brethren), Jim Bergin and Judy Garvey (The Gentle Wind Project), Lea Saskia Laasner (The Janus Project), and Celeste Jones and Amoreena Winkler (The Children of God). Analytical insights into the cultic experience are provided by leadership expert Betty Sue Flowers; Benjamin Zablocki, chair of the Department of Sociology at Rutgers University; UCLA Professor Emeritus Bertram Raven, an expert on interpersonal influence and social power relationships; psychotherapist Miguel Perlado, who specializes in cult-related problems; and Urs Eschmann, a specialist in legal issues involving cults. (Portions in German and French with English subtitles,)

Positive Images of Aging [56 minutes] From Terra Nova Films and the Association for

Essay Questions 1.

What examples can you think of in which a well-known religious teaching is generally contradictory to societal expectations?

196

2. 3. 4. 5.

Do you agree that people are responsible for what they become? Why, why not, or under what circumstances? Explain the three primary elements involved in tacit knowledge. Explain Sternberg’s balance theory of wisdom, particularly in terms of what elements are being balanced. What are the primary areas in which Americans have regrets?

True/False Questions 1.

People with low self-esteem tend to create negative meaning from neutral events. Answer: TRUE

Researchers find that by watching others we develop a sense of our own chances of succeeding at a particular task. Answer: TRUE

Researchers find that individuals’ image of their ideal selves change throughout adulthood. Answer: TRUE

Life satisfaction is strongly associated with personality characteristics. Answer: TRUE

Life satisfaction is higher among people who are married. Answer: TRUE

People have more regrets related to their education than they do regarding their career or romantic life Answer: TRUE

Most researchers see “self ” as a unified concept and approach it that way. Answer: FALSE

Researchers find that people that are continually reinventing and adjusting their identity and sense of self have the highest life satisfaction. Answer: FALSE

197

Morals or values tend to be separate from self-esteem. Answer: FALSE

10.

Researchers have found that having strong belief that one can succeed in an area is not related to one’s performance in that area. Answer: FALSE

11.

The goal of wisdom is to develop a sophisticated way of thinking such that there are no contradictions, paradoxes, or gaps in understanding. Answer: FALSE

12.

Differences in subjective (personally determined) well-being are large when comparing various racial/ethnic groups. Answer: FALSE

13.

People have more intense regret over actions taken that turned out to be poor choices than they do over opportunities they didn’t take. Answer: FALSE

Multiple-choice Questions 1.

The recent trend in self-concept research has been _____________________________________________. a) b) c) d)

to construct the totality of a complex, organized, and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person holds to be true about his or her personal existence to move away from the idea that self is a unified or global construct toward a view of self as a collection of many different features to provide the boundaries and circumstances within which one develops a vision about ego possibilities to oversimplify the importance of the construct

Answer: b

198

Assimilation involves _________________________. a) b) c) d)

interpreting new information based on current schemas creating new schemas and refining established ones positioning new schemas for balance overlaying new schemas for a unified and integrated approach

Answer: a 3.

Accommodation involves _________________________________. a) b) c) d)

Answer: b 4.

When a young boy in preschool received a puppy for his birthday, his teacher asked him if the puppy was a boy or a girl; he looked at me in a confused way and said, “Dogs are boys and cats are girls.” He was in the process of building his schemas of boy-things and girlthings. This is illustrative of which of the following concepts. a) b) c) d)

Assimilation Accommodation Wisdom Self-determinism

Answer: a 5.

When a young boy in preschool he received a puppy for his birthday, his teacher asked him if the puppy was a boy or a girl he looked at me in a confused way and said, “Dogs are boys and cats are girls.” He was in the process of building his schemas of boy-things and girlthings. At some point after his teacher’s conversation, he realized that dogs can be girls too, thus changing his schema accordingly. This is illustrative of which of the following concept. a) b) c) d)

Assimilation Accommodation Wisdom Self-determinism

Answer: b

199

_____________ refer/refers to the structure or framework people use to cluster or network together complex information about themselves (Markus, 1977). a) b) c) d)

Assimilation Accommodation Self-efficacy Self-schemas

Answer: d 7.

Consider a middle-aged man who has been a well-respected high school teacher for over 20 years. His self-schema includes the characteristics of “outstanding” and “experienced” teacher. When a student gets upset at this man after receiving a bad grade, telling the teacher “You’re the worst teacher in the school,” this man can easily dismisses the comment. He knows better, and this assertion does not fit his self-schema. This is illustrative of which of the following concept. a) b) c) d)

Identity regulation Identity restraint Identity assimilation Identity accommodation Answer: c

Suppose our experienced male teacher is also a faithful husband who finds out that his wife is having an affair, and after confronting her with the information, she states that she wants a divorce. Consider how his self-schema may change in the midst of this traumatic experience. He is forced by the situation to eliminate those characteristics that do not fit anymore, such as “happily married” and perhaps even “trusting.” He must begin to incorporate some new characteristics into his self-schema, such as “divorced” and, at least for a while, “suspicious of others.” This is illustrative of which of the following concept. a) b) c) d)

Identity regulation Identity restraint Identity assimilation Identity accommodation

Answer: d

200

After many years of research, Coopersmith (1967) concluded that most people determine their self-esteem based on four areas of life: a) b) c) d)

Power, significance, competence, and virtue Power, significance, trust, and faith Personal, career, competence, and financial Personal, career, honor, and virtue

Answer: a 10.

Robins, Trzesniewski, Tracy, Gosling, and Potter (2002) found in a sample of over 300,000 participants ranging in age from 9 to 90 years old that as a whole group, most of the participants displayed high self-esteem. When comparing by age groups, who displayed the lowest levels of esteem? a) b) c) d)

Children Adolescents and participants over 80 years old Young adults Middle-aged adults

Answer: b 11.

_______________, introduced by well-known psychologist Albert Bandura, refers to our beliefs about our abilities, and thus our expectations regarding success at a task or effectiveness in an area of life. a) b) c) d)

Self-concept Self-determination Self-efficacy Self-appraisal

Answer: c 12.

According to Bandura (1989, 1993), there are four primary influences on _____________; level of success in past experiences, observing others’ experiences, advice from others, and emotions related to the behaviors. a) b) c) d)

self-concept self-determination self-efficacy self-appraisal

Answer: c

201

13.

Whereas self-efficacy is focused on one’s prediction of success or failure in particular areas of life, possible selves reflect a general image of what we believe ________________. a) b) c) d)

we have attained we know to be true we could potentially become in the future others see in us

Answer: c 14.

Abraham Maslow, a well-known humanistic psychologist, promoted the concept of _____________ as a key motivator in human nature. a) b) c) d)

self-determination self-actualization self-efficacy self-appraisal

Answer: b 15.

When the field of lifespan developmental psychology began to thrive, and with it the study of young, middle, and late adulthood, the area of _________________was developed. Rather than creating a new stage of more complex logical reasoning, ________________are generally described as a series of stages that emphasize the integration of emotions, social context, paradoxes, intuition, and subjectivity with logical and abstract processing, as well as highlighting the many uncertainties and unknowns that are often a part of major life situations. a) b) c) d)

postformal operations self-appraisals cognitive stages identity formations

Answer: a

202

16.

“Claims processors in an insurance company shows that effective practice—at both the individual and group level—is bound up in the acquisition and exercise of patterns that recur in the endless flow of claim forms (e.g., which claims look problematic and so should be put aside for later in the workday). They learn shortcuts and “work arounds” that allow them to meet their production quotas without substantively compromising quality. Moreover, they participate in a “community of practice” distributing across individuals such that no single individual needs to know everything (adapted from Joseph A. Horvath).” The aforementioned process is an example of __________________________________. a) b) c) d)

logico-mathematical knowledge social knowledge professional knowledge tacit knowledge

Answer: d 17.

Sternberg calls his theory the balance theory because he believes that wisdom involves balancing sets of interests, specifically, balancing Intrapersonal (self interests) with ____________________________. a) b) c) d) e)

interpersonal (the interests of others) extrapersonal (the larger context) generalizedpersonal (the other’s interest) Both a and b All of the above

Answer: d 18.

Baltes and his colleagues believe that wisdom includes several key elements, specifically good insights into the issue or dilemma requiring a wise response, factual and procedural knowledge, and knowledge of the context, values, and uncertainties of life. The theory is known as: a) b) c) d)

Theory Of Tacit Knowledge Knowledge Of Context Theory Expertise In Life Theory Of Wisdom General Wisdom Theory

Answer: c

203

19.

Which of the following statements demonstrate one or more of the top five listed and ranked regrets uncovered in research meta-analysis? a) b) c) d)

I wish I had stayed in college. I wish I had bought that ’65 red convertible Mustang. I wish I had taken that job opportunity with Apple computers when it was offered to me. Both a and c

Answer: d

204