Ancient Lives An Introduction to Archaeology and Prehistory, 5E Brian M Fagan Test Bank & Instructor

INSTRUCTOR'S RESOURCE MANUAL WITH TESTS James G. Duvall III, Emeritus Contra Costa College

ANCIENT LIVES Fifth Edition

Brian M. Fagan, Emeritus University of California, Santa Barbara

©2012 by PRENTICE-HALL, INC. A Division of Pearson Education Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved 10987654321 Printed in the United States of America

Contents

Preface Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17

iv Introducing Archaeology and Prehistory The Record of the Past Acquiring the Record How Did People Live?

Individuals and Interactions Studying the Intangible Explaining the Past Human Origins African Exodus The Great Diaspora The Earliest Farmers The First Civilizations Early Asian Civilizations Maize, Pueblos, and Mound Builders Mesoamerican Civilizations Andean Civilizations So You Want to Become an Archaeologist

Answer Key

1 9 17 25 33 41 49 57 65 73 81 89 97 104 112 120 128 135

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Chapter 1: Introducing Archaeology and Prehistory

Chapter Outline I.

How Archaeology Began A. The Discovery of Early Civilizations Box 1.1: Discovery: Austen Henry Layard at Nineveh B. The Antiquity of Humankind C. The Origins of Scientific Archaeology

II. Archaeology and Prehistory Box 1.2: Doing Archaeology: A Short Guide to Archaeological Diversity III. Prehistory and World Prehistory IV. Major Developments in Human Prehistory V. Why are Archaeology and Prehistory Important?

A. Mysteries of the Past Box 1.3: Doing Archaeology: Pseudoarchaeology, or You Too, Can Be an Armchair Indiana Jones!

B. The Powerful Lure of the Past C. Archaeology and Human Diversity D. Archaeology as a Political Tool E. Archaeology and Economic Development F. Garbagology VI. Who Needs the Past?

Box 1.4: Site: Inyan Ceyaka Atonwan, Minnesota

Overview Archaeology began over 150 years ago as a search for lost civilizations and artifacts. Since then, it has developed into a sophisticated, multidisciplinary way of studying human behavior in the past, using the material remains of the past.

Archaeology is a unique way of studying culture changes over long periods of time. It has an important role to play in the modern world, for it teaches important lessons about human diversity and is a form of serious entertainment that gives us an appreciation of the common cultural heritage of humankind.

Prehistoric archaeology is the study of prehistory, the period of the human past before the advent of written records.

The study of world prehistory, which developed in the 1950s, is the study of human prehistory from a global perspective using archaeological data and other sources.

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All human societies are interested in the past, but they think of it in different terms and use it for different purposes. Archaeologists, westerners generally, conceive of time in a linear way, while many non-western groups measure time by the cycles of the seasons and the movements of heavenly bodies. They use linear time only when it is of use to them.

Archaeology is not the only way of approaching history, for many societies have oral histories, alternative perspectives on the past that are of vital importance in preserving traditional culture and values.

Topics for Classroom Discussion 1. Discuss with your students the development of On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin. Transport them back in time to when naval voyages took years and a few people spent their lives exploring the world, while most worked in mundane jobs.

Show how Gregor Mendel studied inheritance and when he published he was dismissed by his peers because of their ignorance. Finally, show how Mendel’s findings were rediscovered in 1900 and instantly understood to be the mechanism that Darwin had been looking for.

2. Use the concept of pseudoarchaeology to teach the scientific method. Go through the stages of observation, hypothesis formation, testing or experimentation, theory, and law. Take some of the more interesting and well-known pseudoarchaeological topics such as Atlantis, Lemuria, the El Dorado of the Southwestern United States, etc., and literally run them through the scientific method in order to show your students the value of skepticism. Finally show them why the skeptical approach is much more open-minded than believing everything one hears.

Web Destinations 1. See how Cultural Resource Management is viewed by the Bureau of Reclamation at: http://www.usbr.gov/cultural/index.html.

2. Discover the mystery behind Easter Island (Rapa Nui). See why many people have been confused by this ancient culture http://www.netaxs.com/~trance/rapanui.html.

3. Read how Thor Heyerdahl came to believe in his ideas. Was he an archaeologist or a pseudoarchaeologist? http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl

Multiple Choice Questions 1. Archaeologists are not a. romantic adventurers. b. scientists. c. anthropologists. d. critical thinkers.

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2. British archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley reconstructed a. an Ur funeral. b. Noah’s ark. c. a Mayan calendar. d. the Silk Road.

3. The first archaeologists were a. historians. b. mathematicians. c. adventurers. d. physicists.

4. Before he was a treasure hunter, Giovanni Battista Belzoni was a/n a. army general. b. historian. c. circus strongman. d. archaeologist.

5. The library of Assyrian King Ashurbanipal contained an account of a. a flood similar to the Genesis flood. b. an attack of locusts similar to one found in the Bible. c. the building of the Tower of Babel. d. all of the above 6. Archbishop James Ussher of Ireland calculated the date of Creation at a. 7004 B.C. b. 6004 B.C. c. 5004 B.C. d. 4004 B.C. 7. On the Origin of Species was written by a. Archbishop James Ussher. b. Charles Darwin. c. Jacques Boucher de Perthes. d. Giovanni Battista Belzoni.

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8. He excavated the ancient city mounds of Nineveh and Nimrud. a. Archbishop James Ussher b. Charles Darwin c. Austen Henry Layard d. Giovanni Battista Belzoni 9. He was a businessman-turned-archaeologist who found the city of Troy. a. Archbishop James Ussher b. Charles Darwin c. Austen Henry Layard d. Heinrich Schliemann 10. Excavations of Crete’s Minoan civilization were performed by a. Sir Leonard Woolley. b. Charles Darwin. c. Austen Henry Layard. d. Heinrich Schliemann.

11. What branch of science or social science is the scientific study of ancient human behavior based on the surviving material remains of the past? a. history b. archaeometry c. archaeology d. anthropology 12. What type of archaeology is the dominant activity in North America? a. historical archaeology b. applied archaeology c. paleoarchaeology d. cultural resource management 13. Which subdiscipline of archaeology studies the earliest human beings before written history? a. prehistoric archaeology b. paleoanthropology c. classical archaeology d. Egyptology

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14. Which subdiscipline of archaeology studies the culture and artifacts of the earliest humans, including stone technology and art? a. prehistoric archaeology b. paleoanthropology c. classical archaeology d. Egyptology 15. Which subdiscipline of archaeology studies the remains of the great civilizations of ancient Greece and Rome? a. prehistoric archaeology b. paleoanthropology c. classical archaeology d. Egyptology 16. Which subdiscipline of archaeology would require knowledge of hieroglyphics? a. prehistoric archaeology b. paleoanthropology c. classical archaeology d. Egyptology 17. Of all the types of archaeologists, which works on archaeological sites and problems from periods in which written records exist? a. historical archaeologists b. paleoanthropologists c. classical archaeologists d. Egyptologists 18. Of all the types of archaeologists, which uses technical scuba gear to complete field work? a. commercial archaeologists b. diving archaeologists c. pressurized chamber archaeologists d. underwater archaeologists 19. Many archaeologists study historical buildings, but which type would study Victorian-period factories? a. historical archaeologists b. religious archaeologists c. industrial archaeologists d. zooarchaeologists

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20. The Grotte de Chauvet is one of the earliest a. historical sites on earth. b. French sinkholes on record. c. Neanderthal sites in northern Europe. d. painted caves in the world.

21. The popular belief in places like Atlantis, Mu, Tiwanaku, or the continuous search for Noah’s Ark, are all in the realm of a. pseudoarchaeology. b. religious archaeology. c. industrial archaeology. d. zooarchaeology.

22. Archaeological theory aims to explain the past as well as to a. change it. b. change our understanding of it. c. describe it. d. alter it.

23. What do archaeologists and anthropologists find hard to use because of the difficulty in verifying their antiquity? a. oral traditions b. amateur discoveries c. artifacts d. ceramic pottery 24. Copán, Palenque, and Uxmal are all cities of which civilization revealed by Stephens and Catherwood? a. Ur b. Nineveh c. Aztec d. Maya 25. Who wrote On the Origin of Species and caused a complete rethinking of human origins? a. Alfred Wallace b. Charles Darwin c. Bishop Ussher d. Gregor Mendel

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26. Which early archaeologist used very precise excavation and recording techniques later copied by more modern archaeologists? a. Heinrich Schliemann b. General Augustus Lane Fox Pitt-Rivers c. Jacques Boucher de Perthes d. John Evans 27. Which two archaeologists discovered the tomb of Tutankhamun? a. Heinrich Schliemann and Alexander Conze b. Alexander Conze and Flinders Petrie c. Leonard Woolley and Arthur Evans d. Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon 28. What process, invented in the 1940s, allowed for fairly accurate dating of organic materials? a. dendrochronology b. radiocarbon dating c. nuclear fission dating d. uranium-thorium dating 29. British journalist Graham Hancock has claimed that a great civilization flourished a. beneath the Pacific Ocean 3,000 years ago. b. in the treetops of the Amazon forest 15,000 years ago. c. under the Sahara Desert 20,000 years ago. d. under Antarctic ice 12,000 years ago.

30. Both Charles Darwin and biologist Stephen Jay Gould hypothesized that a. apes migrated out of Africa and became human. b. Homo sapiens sapiens migrated out of Africa. c. individual differences are not so great among humans. d. humans are no more intelligent than apes.

Essay Questions 31. What is the overall value of studying archaeology? Should it be a required course for graduation? Why or why not?

32. Describe two or three 19th century excavations. What makes them different from modern archaeological excavations?

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33. What is pseudoarchaeology? How does the study and practice of archaeology differ from this near-belief system?

34. What is cultural resource management? How does this field relate to academic archaeology? Which field is growing the fastest? Why? 35. Why is archaeology important? What is it that we need to know?

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Chapter 2: The Record of the Past Chapter Outline I. The Goals of Archaeology A. Constructing Culture History Box 2.1: Discovery: The Folsom Bison Kill Site, New Mexico B. Reconstructing Ancient Lifeways Box 2.2: Site: Sounds of the Past C. Explaining Cultural Change II. The Process of Archaeological Research Box 2.3: Doing Archaeology: An Archaeologist’s Ethical Responsibilities A. Research Design B. Data Acquisition C. Analysis D. Interpretation E. Publication and Curation III. What is Culture?

IV. The Archives of the Past: The Archaeological Record V. Preservation Conditions A. A Waterlogged Site: Ozette, Washington B. A Dry Site: Puruchucho-Huaquaerones, Peru C. Cold Conditions: Nevado Ampato, Peru D. Volcanic Ash: Cerén, El Salvador Box 2.4: Discovery: Tragedy at Cerén, El Salvador VI. Context A. Time and Space B. The Law of Association C. The Law of Superposition

Overview This chapter focused on the fundamental principles of archaeology.

Archaeologists have a primary responsibility to conserve the past for future generations. Archaeology’s other goals are to construct cultural history, reconstruct ancient lifeways, and study processes of cultural change.

The process of archaeological research begins with a research design, and then proceeds to data collection, analysis, interpretation, and publication of the results.

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Archaeologists study ancient cultures, with culture being, in part, the shared ideas that human societies hold. Culture is also our primary way of adapting to our environment.

Many archaeologists think of human cultures as cultural systems made up of many interacting subsystems, these cultures being part of much larger ecosystems.

The study of cultural processes involves interpreting the ways in which cultures change over long periods of time.

The archaeological record consists of the material remains of human behavior, a finite archive of the past, which has a context in time and space.

The chapter defined some of the components of the archaeological record and the widely differing preservation conditions that can affect our knowledge of the past.

All archaeological finds have a context in time and space, defined by the laws of association and superposition.

Topics for Classroom Discussion 1. Discuss with your students the concept of cultural ecology. Have students determine some cultural-ecological relationships. Perhaps you could divide your class into different teams, which would be assigned different environments and different levels of technology from which to work. Have each group propose where exactly they would live (e.g. near a river, lake, in the foothills, etc.) and why. Furthermore, have them explore the carrying capacity of the land for their level of technology. Have them propose just how many people could live in a family, village, or other group depending once again on technology. Finally have each team critique the other team’s presentations.

2. Review the scientific method with your students. Have them pick some problem in archaeology or anthropology. Assign your students a project and have them prepare a research design for the problem they chose. Go as far as having them cost out their project, including all costs for labor and food.

Web Destinations 1. View a photo of the Tollund Man to explore the fascinating preservation possible in the peat bog environment: http://www.tollundman.dk/ 2. Review the modern research design by Clemens Reichel, Ph.D. and note its features: https://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/DEPT/RA/DISPROP/Reichel_diss.html.

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Look at “Archaeology Explorer” for an excellent review of this discipline. What elements of this website relate to this specific chapter? How? http://www.webref.org/archaeology/archaeology.htm

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Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which best defines the concept of culture history? a. Cultural anthropologists have built up a picture of the past through time. b. The record of the human past described and classified in a context of time and space. c. This process is the secondary stage to any archaeological investigation. d. Culture history represents a stratigraphic survey.

2. Tollund Man was a human sacrifice of the early a. Protestant era. b. Christian era. c. Minoan era. d. Jewish era.

3. What definitive proof did Jesse Figgins have for the habitation of North America as early as 10,000 years ago? a. pottery b. a projectile point c. baskets d. written records 4. Method(s) people use to make their living or to acquire their food is a. an economic system. b. subsistence. c. hunting and gathering. d. a cultural ecological model.

5. Chavín is a maze of subterranean passages and water channels, a shrine where rituals of transformation turned ___________ into animals such as the jaguar, transformations depicted on the temple walls. a. humans b. cat c. dog d. bird

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6. Which city in the Valley of Mexico was a trading center for the Mesoamerican world? a. Lima b. Cuzco c. Teotihuacán d. Tuzigoot 7. The correct order for the process of archaeological research: a. discovery, research design, analysis, data collection, publication, interpretation b. discovery, research design, data collection, publication, analysis, interpretation c. research design, discovery, analysis, data collection, publication, interpretation d. discovery, research design, data collection, analysis, interpretation, publication 8. What process requires knowledge of culture history, environment, and lifeway data? a. culture process b. data acquisition c. analysis d. interpretation 9. What is the most important part of any archaeological project, large or small? a. data acquisition b. analysis c. research design d. interpretation 10. Surveying a tool-scatter on a parcel of land or excavating a large-scale archaeological site are both forms of a. data acquisition. b. analysis. c. research design. d. interpretation.

11. What step of the archaeological process pulls together all the data, tests the propositions in the research design, and represents the conclusion? a. data acquisition b. analysis c. research design d. interpretation

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12. All members of the family Hominidae are a. Homo sapiens. b. Hominins. c. Australopithecus. d. Neanderthals.

13. The primary means by which we adapt to our natural environment is a. society. b. government. c. culture. d. biology.

14. What are ancient writings featuring pictures or ideographic symbols? a. pictographs b. petroglyphs c. brushscript d. hieroglyphs 15. The system of behavior in which every individual participates is the a. cultural environment. b. cultural process. c. cultural condition. d. cultural system.

16. The remains of an archaeological site and the activities that unfolded there from the surviving material a. tell us a nearly complete story of the past. b. are what we call the archaeological record. c. continue to unfold as the materials are always incomplete. d. challenge us all to think of our own cultures.

17. Humanly and naturally caused changes in an archaeological site are known as a. cultural processes. b. natural processes. c. transformation processes. d. artifactual temporal shifts.

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18. The objects manufactured or modified by humans a. are artifacts. b. represent the material culture of all humanity. c. pertain to our creative ability. d. do not in and of themselves prove our humanity.

19. What term relates to food remains, such as animal bones, seeds, and other finds, which throw light on human activities? a. artifacts b. ecofacts c. middens d. tailings 20. Context is a. the two-dimensional measurement of an artifact. b. the three-dimensional location of an artifact. c. the exact position of a find in time and space. d. the cultural model necessary for understanding the usefulness of an artifact.

21. What type of technology did archaeologist Payson Sheets use to locate houses buried underneath the ash at Cerén in El Salvador? a. subsurface radar b. dendrochronology c. excavation d. mortar and pestle 22. Provenance or provenience of an artifact is determined by a. analyzing the artifact in the laboratory. b. creating a random sampling technique designed to possibly find other similar artifacts. c. measuring the exact position of every find and feature three-dimensionally. d. determining the former cultural function of the artifact.

23. What type of context occurs when a group allows the dead to remain unburied until the corpse has decomposed, then buries the bones in a bundle in a communal burial chamber? a. primary context b. secondary context c. tertiary context d. quaternary context 14 ..

24. The law of association allows that objects in direct contact a. must be related to each other in time and space. b. may or may not be related to each other in time or space. c. must be related to each other only in the time axis. d. requires an instant analysis to determine spatial-temporal association.

25. The law of superposition comes from what subdiscipline? a. anthropology b. geography c. stratigraphic zoology d. stratigraphic geology 26. The well-preserved body of the Tollund Man was laid to rest a. in a Danish peat bog. b. on the floor of the Amazon Forest. c. in a Bolivian tin mine. d. below many feet of frozen ground in the Italian Alps.

27. What type of preservation condition can preserve everything except flesh, feathers, and skins? a. dry b. waterlogged c. cold d. volcanic ash 28. The thousands of mummies buried in the Puruchucho-Huaquerones cemetery are decomposing because they are located beneath a. a flooding riverbed. b. a melting glacier. c. a shantytown. d. volcanic ash.

29. What type of preservation condition can preserve nearly every element of an archaeological site? a. dry b. waterlogged c. cold d. volcanic ash

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30. Herculaneum and Pompeii were both destroyed in A.D. 79. What type of preservation did they undergo? a. dry b. waterlogged c. cold d. volcanic ash

Essay Questions 31. What is culture history? How is it important to our understanding of the past? What were its failings? What do we do now to improve on that process?

32. What is subsistence? What types of subsistence activities might be discovered by archaeologists in dry conditions? What can subsistence activities tell us about the society?

33. Give an example of archaeologists trying to explain cultural change. How can they complete this process?

34. List and explain the steps of the process of archaeological research.

35. What are archaeologists’ ultimate goals? Why are these responsibilities ultimately important to humanity?

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Chapter 3: Acquiring the Record Chapter Outline Box 3.1: Discovery: Recording the Behistun Inscription, Iran I. How Do You Find Archaeological Sites?

A. Accidental Discoveries B. Remote Sensing: Google Earth and other Delights from Above C. Back to (Real) Earth: Ground Survey D. Settlement Patterns and Settlement Archaeology Box 3.2: Site: Teotihuacàn, Mexico II. How Do You Dig Up the Past?

A. The Ethical Responsibilities of the Excavator B. Research Design and Problem-Oriented Excavation C. Koster, Illinois D. Shiloh Mound A, southwestern Tennessee E. Dust Cave, Alabama D. Types of Excavation E. Excavation as Recording Box 3.3: Doing Archaeology: Archaeological Sites III. How Old Is It? A. Relative Chronology B. Chronometric Dating Box 3.4: Doing Archaeology: Dating the Past

Overview This chapter describes how archaeologists find, excavate, and date sites.

Archaeological survey allows not only the discovery of sites but also the study of human settlement in a region.

Archaeological sites manifest themselves in many ways, such as in the form of mounds, middens, caves, and rock shelters. Many more are much less conspicuous and are located only by chance or by soil discolorations or surface finds.

Ground survey ranges from general surveys leading to the location of only the largest sites down to precise foot surveys aimed at covering an entire area in detail.

In most cases, total survey is impractical, and so archaeologists rely on sampling methods to obtain unbiased samples of the research area.

A battery of new survey techniques involves aerial photography and remote sensing, including side-scan aerial radar and scanner imagery.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology offers great potential as a way of mapping archaeological data and analyzing it in a wider environmental context.

Excavation is a primary way in which archaeologists acquire subsurface data about the past. Modern archaeologists tend to do as little excavation as possible, however, because digging archaeological sites destroys the archaeological record.

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Sites can be excavated totally or, as is more common, selectively. Vertical excavation is used to test stratigraphy and to make deep probes of archaeological deposits. Test pits, often combined with various sampling methods, are dug to give an overall impression of an unexcavated site before major digging begins.

Vertical excavation investigates stratigraphic sequences, earthworks, and other features without opening large areas. Horizontal or area excavation is used to uncover far wider areas and especially to excavate site layouts and buildings.

Careful stratigraphic observation in three dimensions is the basis of all good excavation and is used to demonstrate relationships among layers and between layers and artifacts.

Excavation is followed by analysis, interpretation, and finally, publication of the finds to provide a permanent record of the work carried out.

The chapter also discussed the dating of the past. A distinction was made between cyclical and linear time, as well as between absolute and relative chronology.

Relative chronology is based on the law of superposition and provides a relative framework for the past. Such chronologies come from the observation of stratified layers in archaeological sites or from artifact ordering.

Chronometric dating methods assign specific or ranges of dates to sites and artifacts. Archaeologists use four major chronological methods to date the past in calendar years. Objects of known age come from historic times, which include the past 5,000 years in some parts of the world. Prehistory is dated with tree-ring chronologies and by radiocarbon and potassium-argon dating methods. Other absolute dating methods are still under development.

Topics for Classroom Discussion 1. Present to your class a hypothetical or real archaeological site from the past and discuss with them the types of materials that may be used for radiocarbon dating.

Teach the chemistry of carbon-14 and how the half-life only allows for a fairly small period of time to be dated. Finally, walk your class through how to collect samples and prepare them for the laboratory.

2. Tree-ring dating (dendrochronology) is often intriguing to most students. Go out and find a fallen tree limb and, using a power saw, section it several times so that you can distribute these sections through the classroom. Review the structure of trees (e.g. bark, cambium layer, heartwood, etc.) and explain how a tree adds a new cambium layer each year. Lecture on the development of dendrochronology and how it can even be used to determine drought versus pluvial periods. You may even want to have the students count the rings on the section to see how old the limb was when it fell.

Web Destinations 1. Read the article “Dendrochronology” by Peter Ian Kuniholm at the website: http://www.arts.cornell.edu/dendro/ajatext.html. What areas of the world now have the capability to be dated by tree-ring dating? How far back can dates be determined within each region? What must the site material (such as charcoal) be like to be able 18 ..

to successfully use it? You may even want to share with your students the types of companies that process these finds (easily found on the Internet) and how much it costs to do this type of chronometric dating.

2. “Microbes Threaten Radiocarbon Dating” is a website article discussing a new problem that surrounds radiocarbon dating. If this problem is valid, how may it affect our temporal chronologies around the world? http://www.knowledge.co.uk/frontiers/sf100/sf100a01.htm.

3. Visit this site on thermoluminescence http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoluminescence_dating. How is thermoluminescence of a potsherd accomplished? Of what use is this absolute dating technique since it is so inaccurate?

Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following is NOT one of the languages found on the Behistun inscription? a. Old Persian b. Elamite c. Babylonian cuneiform d. Syrian cuneiform 2. Many projects are carried out under fast-moving a. academic projects. b. CRM projects. c. government projects. d. private projects.

3. Most archaeological sites are a. conspicuous. b. inconspicuous. c. well-preserved. d. protected by the locals from looting.

4. Finding archaeological sites depends on locating telltale signs of a. animal activity. b. quarrying. c. migration. d. human settlement.

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5. Which of the following was an accidental discovery? a. Tenochtitlán b. Templo Mayor c. Lascaux Cave d. all of the above 6. Sometimes referred to as “landscapes of memory.” a. industrial landscapes b. cultural landscapes c. memorial landscapes d. landscape signatures 7. This type of archaeology allows investigators to examine ways in which people exploited their environment. a. physical b. settlement c. excavation d. chronometric 8. In Mayan cities, a doorway to the other world. a. mountains b. trees c. temples d. pyramids 9. Aerial photography, satellite imaging, and ground-penetrating radar are examples of a. publication. b. excavation. c. seriation. d. remote sensing.

10. Identified by the space shuttle Columbia under the Sahara Desert. a. ancient river courses b. Atlantis c. ancient trade routes d. an ancient city

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11. Computer-aided systems for the collection, storage, retrieval, analysis, and presentation of spatial data of all kinds. a. remote-sensing b. LANDSAT c. CRM d. GIS 12. Archaeological sites discovered in the course of a construction project are an example of discovery by a. surface surveying. b. accident. c. landscape signatures. d. intensive surveying.

13. Non-intrusive archaeology refers to archaeology without a. excavation. b. an archaeological record. c. tells. d. landscape signatures.

14. It is NOT a vital ethical responsibility of an archaeologist a. to make a complete record of the excavation. b. to excavate only within the context of a specific research design. c. to respect the feelings of the local people. d. to pursue and punish any unethical behavior.

15. A type of field survey that is systematic, detailed, and covers an entire area is a a. surface survey. b. deliberate survey. c. intensive survey. d. limited-area survey.

16. One of the largest and most complex digs ever undertaken in North America. a. Avebury b. Koster c. Lascaux d. Ur

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17. Site destruction is always the end result of this part of the research design. a. water flotation b. CRM c. lithic analysis d. excavation 18. The most important archaeological sites are a. kill sites. b. living sites. c. ceremonial sites. d. burial sites.

19. The Olsen-Chubbuck site is an example of this kind of site. a. kill site b. living site c. ceremonial site d. burial site 20. A Mesopotamian ziggurat would be found at this kind of site. a. kill site b. living site c. ceremonial site d. burial site 21. Perhaps the most famous type of this kind of site is in Giza, Egypt. a. kill site b. living site c. ceremonial site d. burial site 22. Most examples of this type of excavation are probes of deep archaeological deposits. a. random excavation b. horizontal excavation c. vertical excavation d. soil marks

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23. As close to total excavation as archaeology can get. a. random excavation b. horizontal excavation c. vertical excavation d. soil marks 24. The type of chronology which refers to dates in years. a. relative chronology b. chronometric dating c. relative dating d. actual chronology 25. Establishes chronological relationships between sites and cultures. a. relative chronology b. chronometric dating c. relative dating d. actual chronology 26. The dating technique used on bone, wood, and other organic materials up to 40,000 years old. a. accelerator mass spectrometry b. radiocarbon dating c. potassium-argon dating d. half-life 27. The only means of chronometrically dating the earliest archaeological sites. a. accelerator mass spectrometry b. dendrochronology c. potassium-argon dating d. thermoluminescence dating 28. This chronological method can reach back to 3,000 B.C. a. dendrochronology b. obsidian hydration c. cross-dating d. historical records

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29. The Ice Age ended this many years ago. a. 100,000 b. 15,000 c. 200,000 d. 250,000 30. Tree-ring dating is also known as a. dendrochronology b. obsidian hydration c. cross-dating d. uranium series dating

Essay Questions

31. What is GIS? How can it be applied to the field of archaeology?

32. List at least two forms of remote sensing technology. How are they used in the field of archaeology?

33. What are the 3 probability sampling schemes? How and why are they applied?

34. How is surface surveying done?

35. What is an offsite area? Why are these important to archaeology?

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Chapter 4: How Did People Live?

Chapter Outline I. Technologies of the Ancients Box 4.1: Doing Archaeology: Classifying Artifact Types A. Stone Box 4.2: Doing Archaeology: Lithic Analysis B. Bone, Antler, and Ivory C. Clay (Ceramics) Box 4.3: Doing Archaeology: Ceramic Analysis D. Metals and Metallurgy Box 4.4: Site: Ancient Wine at Abydos, Egypt II. Subsistence: Making a Living Box 4.5: Doing Archaeology: Studying Ancient Subsistence A. Animal Bones B. Plant Remains Box 4.6: Doing Archaeology: Flotation Methods C. Fishing and Fowling D. Reconstructing Ancient Diet

Overview This chapter described the principal technologies used by ancient human societies and the ways archaeologists study ancient subsistence.

One of the main inorganic materials used by prehistoric people was stone, especially hard, homogeneous rock, which fractures according to the conchoidal principle. We described the basic techniques for manufacturing stone tools.

Lithic experimentation and ethnoarchaeology have leading roles in the study of stone technologies; edge-wear and sourcing studies throw light on the trade in raw materials and the uses to which tools were put.

Ceramics (clay objects) are a major preoccupation of archaeologists, and such artifacts date to the last 10,000 years. This chapter describes the process of pottery manufacture, the various methods used, and the surface finishes employed. Ceramic analysis proceeds by typology, analogy, and experiment.

Archaeologists rely on many sources to reconstruct prehistoric subsistence.

These include environmental data, animal bones, vegetal remains, human feces, artifacts, and prehistoric art.

Metallurgy began with copper artifacts, then alloys involving copper, lead, or tin to make bronze. Gold was made into ornaments at least 6,000 years ago. Iron technology developed in the second millennium B.C. Zooarchaeology involves the study of animal bones. Bone identification is carried out by direct comparison between modern and ancient bones. Game animal remains can give insights into prehistoric hunting practices. The proportions of animals present can be affected by cultural taboos, the relative meat yields of different species, 25 ..

and hunting preferences. Early domesticated animals are very difficult to distinguish from their wild ancestors. Domestication alters both the characteristics of an animal and its bone structure. Slaughtering and butchery practices can be derived from the frequency and distribution of animal bones in the ground. Hunting and slaughter patterns are subject to all manner of subtle variables, including convenience and season of the year.

Carbonized and unburned vegetable remains are recovered from hearths and pits, often using a flotation method to separate seeds from the matrix around them. Bird bones provide valuable information on seasonal occupation; fish remains reflect specialized coastal adaptations that became common in later prehistoric times.

Freshwater and saltwater mollusks were both consumed as food and traded over enormous distances as prestigious luxuries or ornaments.

Prehistoric diet and nutrition must be studied together, for they are distinct from subsistence, which is the actual process of obtaining food. Human skeletal remains, stomach contents, and feces are the few direct sources available to us for information on prehistoric diet. Carbon isotope analysis offers promise as a way of studying dietary changes through time and among social classes.

Topics for Classroom Discussion 1. Look over the wahkpa chu’gn archaeological site at http://www.buffalojump.org/index2.htm for a discussion of kill-sites and their uses by ancient hunter-gatherers. This website has fantastic photos and can easily be shared with students by printing the photos or having an Internet hookup in the classroom.

This may be a good time to discuss cultural ecology in the context of why this same site was used in Northern Montana for approximately 1,400 years.

2. Many resources exist for studying shell mound construction and usage in the Southern United States and the Bay Area of California. Many resources can be found on the Internet just by entering “shell mounds” as a search term. Discuss with your students the value of frequency counts of shell species, seasonal variation of shell food usage demonstrated by layering of shells, and even why, in many cultures burials were interred into shell mounds. Once again you may make this into a cultural ecological discussion or even a postprocessual discussion (e.g. the daily life of a village inhabitant).

Web Destinations 1. Go to the website on Ohlone Indians at: http://www.santacruzpl.org/history/articles/253/ . Read about the Ohlone diet and lifeways. How much did diet seem to steer the culture of the Ohlone?

2. Visit the site on flotation at: http://www.uwlax.edu/mvac/processarch/processarch/lab_flotation.html Are you surprised to learn that this can be such a simple procedure? Describe the process used in bucket flotation. What is this method’s main usefulness?

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3. Go to: http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/varga/images/phytolith.html to see wonderful electron microscope images of various grass phytoliths. One picture is worth a thousand words and you will see that phytoliths are quite distinct.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. In a real sense, technology defines a. history. b. prehistory. c. modernity. d. invention.

2. The lump of stone made from the raw materials used by the stoneworker in producing blades. a. flake b. core c. block d. rock 3. Removed in a series, then trimmed and shaped further. a. flake b. core c. block d. rock 4. NOT one of the three artifact types. a. descriptive b. ecclesiastical c. chronological d. functional 5. The type defined by the form of the artifact, also used as time markers. a. attribute b. descriptive c. functional d. chronological

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6. The manufacture of stone tools is this type of technology. a. reductive b. physical c. additive d. environmental 7. These types of artifacts are defined by decoration or form, but are time markers. a. functional b. artistic c. chronological d. decorative 8. These types of artifacts are based on cultural use. a. functional b. artistic c. chronological d. decorative 9. The type of fracture that forms when a blow is struck on homogeneous types of rock. a. conchoidal b. compound c. internal d. spiral 10. Reconstructing the “reduction sequence” is involved in the analysis of this. a. dust b. debitage c. core d. blank 11. Reconstruction of ancient stone tool manufacture by refitting flakes to the core. a. debitage b. refitting c. retooling d. reverse engineering

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12. Homo sapiens sapiens used this type of substance to make many specialized tools. a. stone b. wood c. clay d. antler 13. The first vessels of this type were probably used for domestic purposes. a. spears b. bark trays c. pottery d. skin bags 14. This study of rocks has been used to great success in discovering where stone tools are made. a. debitage analysis b. retrofitting c. experimentation d. petrological analysis 15. Clay vessels that are built up with long wedges of clay and joined together with a mixture of clay and water. a. clay b. ceramics c. coil d. temper 16. Clay vessels that are built up with a lump of clay placed over the top of a convex shape. a. clay b. mold c. coil d. temper

17. The shape of a bowl directly reflects its a. properties. b. form. c. function. d. typology.

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18. The earliest pottery was fired over these, covered with fast burning wood ash. a. closed hearth b. open hearth c. air-tight ovens d. sunlight 19. This specialized expertise requires a background in paleontology or zoology. a. zooarchaeology b. paleoarchaeology c. paleobotany d. paleopathology 20. This background data about animal distributions and ancient and modern flora is essential for studying subsistence. a. environmental data b. biological data c. faunal analysis d. coprolite analysis 21. Archaeologists reconstruct ancient lifeways from a. human bones. b. artifacts. c. environmental data. d. several sources.

22. These animals destroy the backbones and hip bones of an animal they are eating. a. lions b. humans c. hyenas d. chimpanzees 23. Faunal analysis uses direct comparisons with known species for a fairly simple identification of a. bones. b. plants. c. hair. d. tools.

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24. The indigenous fauna in tropical Africa has such small variations in skeletal anatomy that these are used for identification. a. DNA b. horn cores or teeth c. connective tissues d. foot/claw impressions 25. Compared to the later Nelson’s Bay hunters, the flake tools and spears of Klasies River hunters were a. b. c. d.

larger. smaller. decorative. aerodynamic.

26. The ends of limb bones, commonly used to determine the age of an animal at death. a. marrow b. epiphyses c. cartilage d. shaft 27. Scavenging or simple spear hunting is believed to result in this age profile. a. catastrophic b. attritional c. actual d. representational 28. A technique incorporating water or chemicals to free seeds from the earth or the occupation residue that masks them. a. flotation b. extraction c. levitation d. centrifuge 29. Carbon isotope analysis uses the ratio between carbon-12 and carbon-13 in hair to determine the amounts of this type of food eaten. a. fowl b. salt c. protein d. plant

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30. Investigators found no traces of this kind of food in Tollund Man’s stomach. a. barley b. insect c. meat d. grasses

Essay Questions 31. What is reductive or subtractive technology? How do the terms conchoidal fracture, core, and flake relate to each other?

32. Distinguish between chronological types and functional types.

33. What is debitage analysis? How does refitting, or retrofitting, fit into this?

34. What are the 3 major methods of pot making? What are the various finishing techniques for pottery?

35. Describe the types of materials that can be studied to understand subsistence. How are these materials used in these studies?

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Chapter 5: Individuals and Interactions Chapter Outline I. An Individual: Ötzi the Ice Man II. Social Ranking Box 5.1: Doing Archaeology: The Law Code of Hammurabi of Babylon, 1760 B.C. Box 5.2: Site: the Sepulcher of the Maya Lord Pacal, Palenque, Mexico III. Gender: Men and Women A. Grinding Grain at Abu Hureyra, Syria B. The Engendered Past IV. Ethnicity and Inequality A. Ideologies of Domination B. Artifacts, Social Inequality, and Resistance Box 5.3: Discovery: War Casualties at Thebes, Egypt V. Trade and Exchange A. Types of Exchange and Trade B. Sourcing Box 5.4: Doing Archaeology: Obsidian Sourcing C. A Unique Portrait of Ancient Trade: The Uluburun Ship

Overview A new generation of archaeological research is turning away from impersonal cultural processes and toward the study of people and small groups. Such research marries modern archaeological data recovery methods with new interpretative approaches that consider the archaeologist as an “active mediator” of the archaeological record of the past.

Discoveries of actual individuals from the past, like the Ice Man discovery in the European Alps, allow us to make detailed studies of the health, diet, and activities of individual people.

Social ranking is difficult to study from archaeological evidence. It can be studied in the archaeological record by using burials and associated grave furniture, as at Ur in Mesopotamia, and by using structures or artifact patterns.

The archaeology of gender is assuming increasing importance as a means of identifying changing male/female roles in the past and of studying individuals in prehistory. This research involves detailed studies of grave furniture, studies of female pathology (which reflect such activities as constant grain grinding), and extrapolations of material data into hypothetical scenarios of changing gender relations.

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Archaeologists working with African-American and other sites in North America have studied ethnicity and social inequality. Such research involves identifying distinctive artifacts that reflect African religious beliefs and material signs of silent resistance to the dominant culture.

Trade and exchange were important means of human interaction from the earliest times. Much early trade probably took the form of gift exchanges and the bartering of food and other commodities between neighboring settlements.

Trade is normally recognized in the archaeological record by the discovery of exotic objects far from their places of origin. Prehistoric trade networks are studied by examining the distributions of such objects and the sources of raw materials used to make artifacts. One example is the Uluburun shipwreck off southern Turkey, which revealed the complexity of eastern Mediterranean trading in the fourteenth century B.C.

Topics for Classroom Discussion 1. A discussion of the Ice Man may lead to a further discussion on preservation conditions. This might be a good time to reiterate the value of good preservation in archaeological finds, in that it is much easier to determine material culture from direct evidence than from theoretical approaches such as cultural ecology. Review the many things we have learned about life in Europe in ca. 3250 B.C. It might even be fun to compare health and public health between that period and our own.

2. If you have the biological background, this might be a good time to discuss the uses of DNA [specifically Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLPs) and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)] in understanding our past. A discussion of Neanderthal DNA findings along with Homo sapiens sapiens ancestry would be interesting. It might also be of interest to get students thinking as to where these procedures could be used in archaeology (such as checking the relationship between Pharaoh and his wife in Ancient Egypt).

Web Destinations 1. Go to the website titled “Greetings From the Ice Man! Matt Nelson.” It is at http://globalclassroom.org/iceman.html. Even though this is not the ice man presented in this chapter, what adaptations must Mr. Nelson make to survive in such a harsh environment? Could Ötzi the Ice Man have survived with his adaptations? Why or why not?

2. Go to the website titled “Oetzi iceman's tattoos came from fireplace: Finding supports theory that the tattoos were associated with acupuncture.” It is at: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/31965532 . What process was used to tattoo Ötzi the Ice Man? What might have been the purpose of the tattoos?

3. Visit the website titled “Ball Courts and Political Centralization in the Casas Grandes Region” at: http://www.nps.gov/cagr/historyculture/the-ancient-sonoran-desert-

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people.htm. Who were the Hohokam? What was the function of the ball court? How was the practice of this sport related to Mexico?

Multiple Choice Questions 1. The bodies of individuals from the past yield information about their a. genealogy. b. climate. c. lives. d. date of death.

2. The information yielded from Ötzi the Ice Man includes his a. personal habits. b. origins. c. mode of nutrition. d. medical condition.

3. How did Ötzi the Ice Man die? a. froze to death b. crushed by boulders c. starved d. attacked by another human 4. The social distinctions between individuals, communities, and other units of society are a. social stratification. b. social ranking. c. social inequality. d. social pattern.

5. Social inequality has been a feature of human life since the appearance of a. farming. b. civilization. c. cities. d. hunting.

6. Social distinctions are discerned from the study of

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a. settlement patterns. b. agriculture. c. ornaments. d. civilization.

7. The social organization of state-organized societies is what archaeologists refer to as a. social stratification. b. social ranking. c. social inequality. d. social pattern.

8. Societies where groups or classes have unequal access to the means of production are referred to as a. social stratification. b. social ranking. c. social inequality. d. social pattern.

9. The Babylonian King Hammurabi is best known for developing the first written a. alphabet. b. law code. c. topographical map. d. sheet music.

10. Highly centralized societies control every aspect of life, with all wealth and religious power a. concentrated within a small part of the population. b. spread throughout the population. c. concentrated within a few hands. d. spread throughout by social ranking.

11. When the Mayan ruler Pacal died, he was buried beneath a a. mountain. b. pyramid. c. palace. d. river.

12. In affluent societies, the differences between rulers and merchants may be revealed by a. paintings.

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b. sculptured reliefs. c. public inscriptions. d. grave furniture.

13. In more egalitarian societies, differences in rank and status may be revealed by a. pottery. b. sculptured reliefs. c. position of the grave. d. grave furniture.

14. Cemetery researchers are more concerned with general patterns of a. social organization. b. personal interactions. c. interactions between groups struggling for power. d. interactions between religious groups.

15. Which of the following is a vital part of human social relations and a central issue in the study of ancient human societies? a. sex b. gender c. households d. culture 16. The research by biological anthropologist Theya Molleson of the specific deformities on skeletal remains found at Abu Hureyra, Syria lead to evidence of a. how gender works. b. social relationships. c. division of labor between men and women. d. laborious tasks undertaken by women.

17. Gender research in archaeology is concerned with people as individuals and their contributions to a. interpersonal relationships. b. social activities. c. society. d. state formation.

18. In Aztec civilization, women produced cloth, which served as a primary way of organizing the ebb and flow of goods and services, revealing its importance

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a. to social status. b. to Aztec economy. c. as currency. d. as an everyday activity.

19. The form of archaeology that relates how people have exercised control over one another is a. archaeology of ideology. b. engendered archaeology. c. social archaeology. d. archaeology of inequality.

20. Almost no one has studied the archaeology of a. social stratification. b. age-sets. c. ethnic minorities. d. gender pattern.

21. A powerful tactic used by elites in order to exercise power over others is a. material objects. b. ideologies of domination. c. economic force. d. public ceremonies.

22. Artifacts offer a unique way of examining the history of many communities that kept no written records, but expressed their diverse feelings and cultures through a. material objects. b. ideology. c. their economy. d. belief systems.

23. Artifacts tell powerful stories about a. well-known rulers. b. climate. c. the lowly and anonymous. d. environment.

24. When people need to acquire goods and services that are not available to them within their own territories, they set up a. political systems.

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b. exchange systems. c. gift exchange. d. trade routes.

25. A common medium of trade in societies that is relatively self-supporting and designed to reinforce a social relationship is a. markets. b. exchange systems. c. gift exchange. d. internal exchange.

26. The mutual exchange of goods between two individuals or groups is a. a trade route. b. redistribution. c. gift exchange. d. reciprocity.

27. The distribution of goods or commodities received by an individual through a community or group is a. a trade route. b. redistribution. c. a market. d. reciprocity.

28. Identifying the characteristic properties of the distinctive raw materials used to fashion an artifact refers to a. sourcing. b. character studies. c. petrology. d. isotropic composition.

29. Potentially valuable sources of information on the exchange of exotic materials. a. quarries b. caves c. burials d. hearths 30. Research has revealed that the Aegean Sea obsidian trade in the Mediterranean was a. commercial. b. competitive.

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c. unprofitable. d. none of the above

Essay Questions 31. What picture of the 14th Century B.C. Eastern Mediterranean emerges from the wreckage recovered by Bass and Pulak’s excavation of the Uluburun ship?

32. What is gender? How does it compare to sex? What is gender archaeology? What are its aims?

33. What do we know about early Europe due to the find of Ötzi in the Italian Alps?

34. What are ideologies of domination? Give examples from our own society. What is their source?

35. What is obsidian sourcing? How is it used, in general? How was it used specifically in California?

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Chapter 6: Studying the Intangible Chapter Outline

I. A Framework of Common Belief Box 6.1: Discovery: Shang Oracle Bones, China II. Ethnographic Analogy and Rock Art Box 6.2: Doing Archaeology: Copying South African Rock Paintings III. The Archaeology of Death IV. Artifacts: The Importance of Context Box 6.3: Site: The Shrine at Phylakopi, Greece V. Artifacts and Art Styles Box 6.4: Doing Archaeology: The Ancient World through Glyphs VI. Sacred Places VII. Astroarchaeology and Stonehenge VIII. Southwestern Astronomy and Chaco Canyon

Overview Archaeologists study the religious beliefs of ancient societies by using material remains and information from a variety of sources. Many ancient religions shared common features: a multilayered cosmos, a cyclical existence, important locations that were axes of the world, and a concern with ancestors and shamanism.

Ethnographic analogy plays an important role in studying ancient rock art, thanks to anthropological research among the San of Southern Africa a century ago.

Richly adorned burials can provide information on religious beliefs as well as social ranking, but the major source of such information comes from art and artifacts. The context of artifacts in time and space is of vital importance, as context can often reveal more information than the objects themselves.

Rigorous studies of art styles, such as those of the Moche of Peru or the Maya, can yield valuable information on ancient ideologies, especially if combined with ethnographic or written records.

Sacred places such as Cahokia, Illinois, medieval cathedrals, or Maya cities were vital catalysts for religious beliefs, for they were the settings for rituals of validation and other ceremonies.

Settlement archaeology plays an important role in studying such locations in the context of their wider landscape. So does astroarchaeology, the study of ancient astronomy, 41 ..

notably successful in the American Southwest, at Stonehenge, England, and with the Maya civilization.

Topics for Classroom Discussion 1. Discuss the production of a simple horizon calendar with your students. Discuss the importance with them of being able to accurately predict migration patterns of animals, important fish runs (such as salmon runs), and the 4 seasons for agricultural purposes. Compare this to what Gerald Hawkins discovered about Stonehenge and what Brian Fagan says about Gerald Hawkins’ discoveries.

2. Describe to your students what it meant to the ancient Pueblo people of Arizona and New Mexico to have the sun “fall off into the underworld.” Discuss the importance of astronomical observation to these people. It might be of interest to discuss how the Sun Priest of a Pueblo could gain power and prestige by accurately making predictions of solstices.

Web Destinations 1. Go to the website “Megalithia” at http://www.megalithia.com/. What is Stonehenge?

How was it built? How did it function? Why is it still fascinating to us?

2. View the site on Stonehenge at: http://www.megalithia.com/stonehenge/index.html.

What is the point of view of this site? Is it rational or just another unsubstantiated theory? Why?

3. Review the website featuring the megalith site of Carnac: http://www.megalithia.com/brittany/carnac/index.html. What unusual features do you see? How does it differ from Stonehenge? Why do you think there were so many ancient stone features in Europe?

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Homo sapiens are capable of passing on knowledge and ideas through a. ritual. b. language.

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c. artifacts. d. beliefs.

2. Mitochondrial DNA research traces the roots of modern humans back to tropical Africa about a. 100,000 to 200,000 years ago. b. 90,000 years ago. c. 300,000 years ago. d. 35,000 years ago.

3. Archaeology shows that Homo sapiens sapiens settled in western Asia over a. 100,000 to 200,000 years ago. b. 50,000 years ago. c. 300,000 years ago. d. 35,000 years ago.

4. Archaeology further shows us that Homo sapiens sapiens settled in western Europe about a. 100,000 to 200,000 years ago. b. 90,000 years ago. c. 300,000 years ago. d. 48,000 years ago.

5. Which shows that humans melded the living and spiritual worlds at least 30,000 years ago? a. Maya pottery b. Inca stonework c. Maya pyramids d. Ice Age cave art 6. Ancient religions share a common symbolism for the living and spiritual worlds being joined a. by primordial waters. b. at an axis mundi. c. at their boundaries. d. by common ancestors.

7. Sacred places are often symbolized in many different forms to resemble a. the sea.

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b. a cave or mountain. c. dunes. d. trees.

8. The continuum formed between the material and spiritual worlds is represented by a. the “landscape of memory.” b. ancestors. c. shamans. d. mountains.

9. The ability to pass effortlessly between the material and spiritual worlds is accomplished by a. the “landscape of the mind.” b. ancestors. c. shamans. d. ritual.

10. Which functions as an intermediary to the ancestors and the spiritual world? a. the “landscape of the mind” b. sacred places c. shamans d. mountains 11. Ancient religions share the common belief that human life is governed by a. “landscape of memory.” b. ancestors. c. spirit beings. d. cycles of the seasons.

12. An important part of defining a world governed in the above manner is a. the role of ancestors. b. myth and ritual. c. spirit beings. d. agriculture.

13. Most European rock paintings and engravings depict a. animals and human hands. b. elaborate ceremonies. c. scenes of the hunt. d. scenes of fishing.

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14. The rock painting of the Southern African artists depict a. human hands. b. elaborate ceremonies. c. spirit beings. d. scenes of fishing.

15. The visions of the unconscious are transferred to the world of the conscious through a. shamans. b. ritual. c. paintings. d. hallucinogens.

16. All research into the meaning of rock art starts with a. the original. b. paperwork. c. photographs. d. accurate copies.

17. Calcite and living organisms on cave walls will fluoresce when exposed to a. ultraviolet light. b. black and white photography. c. rice paper. d. infrared light.

18. Many cave paintings are vanishing because of a. natural causes. b. excess tourism. c. vandalism. d. all of the above 19. The Anglo-Saxon ruler Raedwald was buried in Sutton Hoo in a a. pyramid. b. castle. c. ship. d. tree.

20. Egyptian pharaohs were considered to be the living embodiment of the god a. Ra. 45 ..

b. Osiris. c. Khufu. d. Menes.

21. Information on religious beliefs as well as social ranking can be provided by a. paintings. b. artifacts. c. burials. d. all of the above 22. Often more important than an artifact itself is its a. location at the site. b. surroundings. c. intended symbolism. d. context within the site.

23. In many farming societies, the earth is symbolically considered a. the sacred place. b. female. c. the provider. d. a spirit being.

24. In highly centralized societies, the propagation of religious beliefs and ideologies is mostly through a. ritual. b. art and architecture. c. word of mouth. d. chants.

25. The people of any Maya community could identify and verify their a. cosmos. b. neighborhood. c. leaders. d. ancestors.

26. As societies become more complex, religious authority can become a. mythical. b. standardized. c. sanctified. d. predictable.

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27. Maya glyphs tell how axis points could be materialized through a. powerful ritual. b. the sacred place. c. pyramids. d. natural landscapes only.

28. The study of ancient astronomical observances is called a. astrology. b. ritual astroarchaeology. c. astroarchaeology. d. pyramidiots.

29. The towers at Hovenweep, Colorado served as a. observatories. b. ritual sacrifice centers. c. ritual meeting places. d. grist mills for maize.

30. Stonehenge reflects the distinctive idea of a. cyclical seasons. b. the movement of the sun and moon. c. time. d. the cosmos.

Essay Questions

31. What is epigraphy? How was this science applied to Maya glyphs? What were the results of this work?

32. What evidence exists for an Earth Mother? Do you believe it or not? Why or why not?

33. What is archaeoastronomy? How has Stonehenge, England become part of this? Do you think we need to know even more about Stonehenge to make a decision as to its importance as an astronomical computer, or do you think that Gerald Hawkins got it right? Defend your answer.

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34. How is it that South African rock paintings have been at least partially interpreted?

35. Where is Chaco Canyon? Who lived there as pueblo people? significance of places like Pueblo Bonito?

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What was the

Chapter 7: Explaining the Past Chapter Outline I. Culture History II. Constructing Culture History A. Synthesis B. A Hierarchy of Archaeological Units Box 7.1: Doing Archaeology: a Hierarchy of Archaeological Entities C. Descriptive Models of Cultural Change D. Inevitable Variation E. Cultural Selection F. Invention G. Diffusion H. Migration III. Analogy Box 7.2: Discovery: A Tale of Two Maya Women: Waka, Guatemala IV. Archaeology by Observation and Experiment A. Ethnoarchaeology B. Experimental Archaeology V. Explaining Cultural Change A. Cultural Systems and Cultural Processes Box 7.3: Doing Archaeology: Deductive and Inductive Reasoning B. Processual Archaeology Box 7.4: Site: Guila Naquitz Cave, Mexico VI. People, Not Systems A. Cognitive-Processual Archaeology B. The Issue of Complexity VII. Change and No Change Overview This chapter examined the ways in which archaeologists describe and explain the past.

Culture history describes ancient human cultures in a context of time and space and is based on the normative view of culture and descriptive research methods.

As part of this descriptive process, archaeologists use a hierarchy of arbitrary archaeological units, which proceed from artifacts and assemblages to components, phases, regions, and cultural areas.

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Syntheses of culture history rely on descriptive models of cultural change: inevitable variation, cultural selection, invention, diffusion, and migration.

Culture-historical interpretation relies on analogy from historical and ethnographic sources, tested against archaeological data, with the aid of ethnoarchaeological and experimental research.

Explaining cultural change involves both processual and postprocessual approaches.

Archaeology is a combination of systems, approaches, cultural ecology, and multilinear evolution. Such approaches have been criticized for being too impersonal.

Postprocessual approaches have focused on the study of people and intangibles such as religious beliefs using cognitive approaches that combine ethnographic and historical records with scientifically acquired archaeological data.

Much research surrounding explanation is concerned with two basic issues of prehistory—the reasons why human societies became more complex, or why they remained in a state of stasis for centuries, often thousands of years.

Topics for Classroom Discussion 1. A discussion of experimental archaeology might be even more interesting if you were to bring in bones (or have students bring in a bone each) and then have the students use stone tools to scrape the surfaces as if they were scraping off meat and cut into the bones with the same stone tools as if they were slicing the meat. An inspection of the surface of the bones with a microscope before and after these procedures will certainly be valuable in that your students will discover how experimental archaeology can often discover how prehistoric humans accomplished various tasks.

2. Teach your students a detailed scientific method (e.g. observation, hypothesis, testing and control, theory, and scientific law). Ask them to develop a hypothesis about something that has intrigued them (or something they don’t understand). Furthermore have your students develop a testing regimen for their hypothesis and also the control factor. Finally, have them share their results.

Web Destinations 1. Look at the website titled “The Shapes and Uses of California Indian Basketry” at http://www.mip.berkeley.edu/cilc/basket.html. How can this site be of use to an archaeologist trying to understand the uses of baskets in the past? What do you think of this site? Are the graphics good enough for use in archaeology?

2. Review the website titled “Archaeological Classification and Analysis” at http://www.indiana.edu/~arch/saa/matrix/ia/ia03_mod_07.html.

What typologies are discussed here? How are they discerned? What is the major distinction between artifact and ecofact?

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3. Review the Archaeological Evidence of Teosinte Domestication from Guilá Naquitz, Oaxaca by Bruce F. Benz at http://www.pnas.org/content/98/4/2104.full. What is the evidence for teosinte domestication? Does this seem like a good use of cultural ecological theory? Why or why not?

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The assumption that there is considerable uniformity within a culture at any time. a. normative view of culture b. inductive reasoning c. general systems theory d. multilinear cultural evolution 2. The development of generalizations about a research problem based on numerous specific observations. a. normative view of culture b. inductive reasoning c. descriptive d. scientific 3. Culture history relies on a. oral traditions. b. accidental discoveries. c. cave paintings and pictographs. d. observations in time and space.

4. Of the following, which is NOT a step in building a culture history? a. identification of a research area b. identification of religious practices c. excavation d. artifact analysis 5. The database from the archaeological record includes all but a. religious beliefs. b. artifacts. c. structures. d. food remains.

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6. The objects of primary interest to a culture historian. a. oral traditions b. myths c. artifacts and structures d. written histories 7. The physically bounded portions of a site that contain a distinct assemblage, which serve to distinguish the culture of the inhabitants of a particular land. a. horizons b. traditions c. phases d. components 8. The accumulation over a long period of time of minor differences in learned behavior. a. cultural selection b. normative view of culture c. inevitable variation d. phase 9. Cultural units represented by separate levels of the same site, always within a welldefined chronological span. a. horizons b. traditions c. phases d. components 10. These are normally defined by natural geographic boundaries and display some cultural homogeneity. a. horizons b. traditions c. regions d. components 11. The North American Southwest is a classic example of a a. horizon. b. region. c. phase. d. culture area.

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12. Somewhat akin to the well-known process of natural selection in biological evolution. a. cultural selection b. invention c. diffusion d. social selection 13. An example of this would be an all-embracing religious cult transcending cultural boundaries and spreading over an enormous area. a. horizons b. traditions c. phases d. culture areas 14. Defines artifacts, assemblages, economic practices, or art styles that last longer than the duration of a horizon. a. span b. tradition c. phase d. cultural component 15. Implies either the modification of an old idea or series of ideas. a. cultural selection b. invention c. diffusion d. ideology 16. Many inventions are not the work of a. solitary geniuses. b. climactic change. c. rising population densities. d. fundamental social change.

17. The process by which new ideas or cultural traits spread from person to person, group to group, or over long distances. a. cultural selection b. invention c. diffusion d. social selection

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18. The process of deliberate settlement, when entire populations, large or small, decide to move to a new area. a. cultural selection b. migration c. diffusion d. social selection 19. Plays a vital role in archaeology by inferring that a relationship exists between the similar types of human activities of the past to those of today. a. analogy b. inductive reasoning c. diffusion d. functionalism 20. An important school of thought in archaeology that argues that cultures are not made up of random selections of cultural traits. a. analogy b. inductive reasoning c. diffusion d. functionalism 21. An anthropologist living in an Australian Aboriginal camp and observing the activities of its occupants would be practicing a. experimental archaeology. b. a descriptive method. c. ethnoarchaeology. d. processual archaeology.

22. Most of this is confined to replicating ancient technologies. a. experimental archaeology b. descriptive method c. ethnoarchaeology d. processual archaeology 23. This method proposes the most adequate explanations for the moment. a. scientific method b. inductive method c. deductive reasoning d. experimental archaeology 54 ..

24. The study of the processes by which human societies changed in the past. a. general systems theory b. cultural ecology c. postprocessual archaeology d. processual archaeology 25. Interpretation based on developing specific hypotheses using induction and then testing the hypotheses against data. a. scientific method b. inductive reasoning c. deductive reasoning d. experimental archaeology 26. Discovered in the 1950s, it is a body of theoretical constructs that provide a way to look for “general relationships.” a. general systems theory b. cultural ecology c. postprocessual archaeology d. processual archaeology 27. The view developed by Julian Steward that states that similar human adaptations may be found in widely separated cultures in similar environments. a. general systems theory b. cultural ecology c. postprocessual archaeology d. processual archaeology 28. Archaeologists of this general persuasion argue that we can no longer interpret the past purely in terms of ecological, technological, or other material considerations. a. general systems theory b. cognitive-processual archaeology c. postprocessual archaeology d. processual archaeology 29. The best way to think about this is as a bush with many branches and clusters of twigs expanding from a single trunk. a. multilinear cultural evolution b. cultural ecology c. postprocessual archaeology 55 ..

d. processual archaeology 30. “Archaeology of mind.” a. cognitive archaeology b. cultural ecology c. postprocessual archaeology d. processual archaeology Essay Questions 31. Brian Fagan tells a story of an excavation in a 1,000 year-old Central African village.

He notes a couple of fairly dramatic cultural changes. Try to explain these cultural changes.

32. Describe the 4 broad steps for constructing culture history and provide a synthesis of a segment of the past in time and space.

33. Define the following terms: component, phase, region, culture area, horizon, and tradition. How are they related?

34. Compare and contrast the concepts of invention and diffusion. How does Elliot Grafton Smith’s portrayal of Egypt fit into this discussion?

35. What is inductive reasoning? What is deductive reasoning? Which do scientists use?

Why?

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Chapter 8: Human Origins Chapter Overview I.

The Great Ice Age (c. 2.5 Million to 15,000 Years Ago)

II. Early Primate Evolution and Adaptation A. The Primate Order B. “Coming Down from the Trees” III. The Fossil Evidence for Human Evolution (7 Million to 1.5 Million Years Ago) A. The Earliest Know Hominin: Toumai, Sahelanthropus tchadensis B. What is Australopithecus?

C. Ardipithecus ramidus D. Australopithecus anamensis and Australopithecus afarensis Box 8.1: Doing Archaeology: Potassium-Argon Dating IV. All Kinds of Australopithecines (3 Million to 2.5 Million Years Ago) A. Gracile Australopithecines: Australopithecus Africanus B. Robust Australopithecines: A. aethiopicus, A. boisei, and A. robustus C. Australopithecus garhi V. Early Homo: Homo habilis (2.5 Million to 2 Million Years Ago) A. A Burst of Rapid Change?

VI. Who Was the First Human?

VII. The Earliest Human Technology Box 8.2: Site: Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania VIII. Hunters or Scavengers?

IX.

Plant Foraging and Grandmothering

X.

The Earliest Human Mind

XI. The Development of Language XII. The Earliest Social Organization

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Overview The story of human evolution begins with the separation of chimpanzee and human lines from a common, and as yet unknown, ancestor about 5 million to 6 million years ago.

The first hominins were tree-living, with long arms and legs and broad chests, who eventually became bipedal, walking on two limbs. They adapted to more open country in Africa, which resulted from global cooling over 4 million years ago, by broadening their diet to include more meat and by achieving great mobility and behavioral flexibility.

A small bipedal hominin named Ardipithecus ramidus is the earliest known form and flourished 4.5 million years ago in Ethiopia.

A later hominin, Australopithecus afarensis, was ancestral to later hominins and flourished about 3.8 million years ago.

By 3 million years ago, the hominin line had radiated into many forms, among them the robust and more gracile Australopithecines and the larger-brained Homo habilis, a forager who also scavenged game meat and perhaps hunted. These hominins used a simple stone technology, had some ability to communicate, and had a very rudimentary social organization.

Recent definitions of the genus Homo make a major distinction between the more apelike hominins described in this chapter, which flourished before 2 million years ago, and the true humans, beginning with Homo erectus, which evolved after 1.9 million years B.P. Topics for Classroom Discussion 1. Give a lecture about the Pleistocene and its numerous glaciations. Link your discussion to several subjects, such as current global warming in the context of warming periods between earlier glacial periods, the evolution of the Homo line during the Pleistocene, global sea level changes and possible migratory routes not available today due to high sea levels, etc. Have students research ice age adaptations made by peoples of the past and compare those adaptations to those of the Inuit and other Arctic dwellers.

2. Define the morphological distinctions that separate Ardipithecus, Australopithecus, and Homo. Review the newest discoveries in the field of human paleontology. This may be a great place to review just how many new discoveries have been made in the last 30 years or so. Use this as a model of scientific inquiry and theory building based on the scientific method.

Web Destinations 1. What are the major features presented in this USGS pamphlet on the ice age? Define the terms drumlin, loess, and moraine. See the following: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/ice_age/ice_age.pdf.

2. What problems exist with the concept of the molecular clock? See the following for a good discussion of this topic: http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/99/990224.mammals.shtml. How can this problem be resolved?

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2. Review the following sites on the Oldowan industry. What features, ideas, and concepts do they share? http://lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-pages/oldowanstonetools.htm http://www.handprint.com/LS/ANC/stones.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldowan

Multiple Choice Questions 1. The story of humanity begins deep in geological time, during the later part of the Cenozoic era—the age of a. humanity. b. the dinosaurs. c. enlightenment. d. mammals.

2. The Pleistocene epoch a. was a period of extremely hot temperatures. b. from beginning to end, was essentially an ice age. c. was characterized by a very steady climate with practically no temperature variations. d. is sometimes called the Age of Humanity.

3. The Leakeys named the skull they found in 1959 in Olduvai Gorge a. Homo sapiens. b. Homo erectus. c. Zinjanthropus boisei. d. Australopithecus.

4. The first signs of global cooling appeared with the formation of a belt of pack ice around Antarctica some 35 mya during the a. Miocene. b. Oligocene. c. Pleistocene. d. Holocene.

5. During the initial stage of their evolution, apes were apparently restricted to a. North America. b. Europe. c. Asia.

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d. Africa.

6. Which of the following is true of human bipedalism? a. The center of gravity is behind the knee joint. b. Bipedalism is configured for endurance rather than power or speed. c. The knee is not extended when standing. d. Walking is less efficient in human bipedalism.

7. There have been at least 9 glacial periods for northern Europe and North America, with the last one retreating a. 5,000 years ago. b. 10,000 years ago. c. 15,000 years ago. d. 20,000 years ago.

8. Bipedalism is a way of moving best suited for a. power. b. speed. c. endurance. d. none of the above 9. We are members of this order with most other tree-loving placental mammals. a. anthropoids b. primates c. prosimians d. pongids 10. Of the two suborders of primates, apes, humans, and monkeys are a. anthropoids b. primates c. prosimians d. pongids 11. The suborder of primates which includes lemurs and tarsiers. a. anthropoids b. primates c. prosimians d. pongids 12. Although we don’t know when humankind separated from the nonhuman primates, 60 ..

we do know humans and apes diverged from monkeys in a. Asia. b. Australia. c. Europe. d. Africa.

13. This type of locomotion provides an excellent power thrust for jumping into a tree. a. bipedalism b. quadrupedalism c. knuckle walking d. slithering 14. Which of the following is true of the fossil record between 7 and 1 million years ago? a. It is extremely thin. b. Most fossil evidence is in the form of foot and hand bones. c. Most fossils are found in East African caves. d. Not many hominin forms existed during this time.

15. Which of the following is a characteristic of the fossil named Sahelanthropus tchadensis? a. From the back, it looks like a hominin from about 1.75 mya. b. From the front, it appears to be a chimpanzee. c. It has dated to between 8 and 9 million years old. d. The base of the skull suggests it walked upright.

16. Latin for “southern ape.” a. Zinjanthropus b. Homo c. Australopithecus d. Ardipithecus

17. A squat, massively built primate with a crested skull. a. Ardipithecus ramidus b. Sahelanthropus tchadensis c. Australopithecus africanus d. Australopithecus robustus 18. The earliest known hominin, found in Chad, Central Africa, has been named 61 ..

a. Ardipithecus ramidus. b. Sahelanthropus tchadensis. c. Australopithecus africanus. d. Australopithecus robustus.

19. The Awash region of Ethiopia is home to the earliest known east African hominin, a 4.5 million year old Australopithecine named a. Ardipithecus ramidus. b. Sahelanthropus tchadensis. c. Australopithecus africanus. d. Australopithecus robustus.

20. The famous Australopithecine Lucy belongs to the species a. Australopithecus anamensis. b. Sahelanthropus tchadensis. c. Australopithecus afarensis. d. Australopithecus robustus.

21. Dramatic confirmation of hominin bipedalism by 3.6 million years ago comes from Laetoli in Tanzania. At Laetoli, Mary Leakey discovered a. evidence of elephant hunting by early hominins. b. a complete Australopithecus skeleton. c. two almost intact Australopithecus feet. d. footprints of two hominins.

22. This Australopithecine may have been among the first of a doomed line of robust hominins. a. Australopithecus boisei b. Australopithecus aethiopicus c. Australopithecus robustus d. Australopithecus africanus

23. Of the following, which is NOT one of the three robust Australopithecines that lived from 3 million to 1 million years ago? a. Australopithecus boisei b. Australopithecus aethiopicus c. Australopithecus robustus d. Australopithecus africanus 24. The name of this Australopithecine means surprise.

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a. Australopithecus garhi b. Australopithecus boisei c. Australopithecus robustus d. Australopithecus africanus 25. Louis and Mary Leakey named this hominin “handy person.” a. Homo sapien b. Homo habilis c. Homo rudolfensis d. Homo erectus 26. Three major anatomical changes took place during the 2.5 million years between Australopithecus afarensis and the emergence of Homo erectus some 1.6 million years ago. Which of the following changes is NOT one of the three changes mentioned in the text? a. Brain size increased from about 450 cc in Australopithecus afarensis to 1000 cc in Homo erectus. b. There was an increase in sexual dimorphism. c. There were modifications of the hips for bipedal locomotion. d. There were modifications of the limbs for bipedal locomotion.

27. Hominin evolution can be thought of as a series of radiations that unfolded over at least a. 1.5 million years. b. 2.25 million years. c. 3.75 million years. d. 5 million years.

28. Bed I from Olduvai lies on a volcanic bedrock known as a. tuff. b. silica. c. granite. d. obsidian.

29. Which of the following is NOT one of the three possible uses for Oldowan stone tools? a. butchering and meat cutting b. sawing and scraping wood c. cutting soft plant matter d. digging and manipulating soil 63 ..

30. By 2 million years ago, there were probably several species of early Homo. For convenience, they can all be grouped under a single species, a. Homo sapiens. b. Homo australopithecus. c. Homo habilis. d. Homo erectus.

Essay Questions 31. Describe the Pleistocene environment and its environmental changes.

32. What is the importance of bipedalism? When did it develop in our early human ancestors?

33. What is Australopithecus? How does this genus compare to Ardipithecus?

34. How is potassium-argon dating applied to paleoanthropology?

35. What are the four criteria for assigning a fossil to the genus Homo? Which do you think is the most important? Explain.

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Chapter 9: African Exodus Chapter Overview I. Ice Age Background II. Homo ergaster in Africa III. Homo erectus (c. 1.9 Million to c. 200,000 Years Ago) A. Radiating out of Africa B. Homo erectus in Asia IV. The Lifeway of Homo erectus A. Hand Axes and Choppers B. Language V. Archaic Homo sapiens (c. 400,000 to 130,000 Years Ago) A. Archaic Homo sapiens: Homo heidelbergensis Box 9.1: Site: A 400,000-Year-Old Hunt at Schöningen, Germany VI. The Neanderthals (c. 200,000 to 30,000 Years Ago) VII. The Origin of Modern Humans (c. 180,000 to 150,000 Years Ago) A. Continuity or Replacement?

B. Molecular Biology and Homo sapiens Box 9.2: Doing Archaeology: DNA and Prehistory C. Ecology and Homo sapiens VIII. Out of Tropical Africa Overview The climatic events of the Great Ice Age (the Pleistocene) between about 1.8 million and 15,000 years ago saw complex fluctuations between glacial maxima and much shorter interglacial periods that were the backdrop to the evolution not only of H. erectus but also of modern humans—H. sapiens.

Homo erectus had evolved from earlier Homo in tropical Africa by 1.9 million years ago, at about the same time that fire was tamed; it then radiated into Europe and Asia as part of a general migration of mammalian species soon afterward.

The new humans used a simple technology based on hand axes and basic flake technology in the west, relying heavily on bamboo and other forest products in Southeast Asia. There was a gradual increase in brain size, perhaps beginning as early as about 400,000 years ago, as archaic forms of H. sapiens with enlarged brain capacities evolved in various parts of the Old World.

The best known of these archaic forms of H. sapiens are the Neanderthals of Europe and Eurasia, who developed more sophisticated toolmaking technology than that 65 ..

of H. erectus, were more adept hunters and foragers, and were the first humans to bury some of their dead.

Two competing theories account for the appearance of anatomically modern humans. The multiregional hypothesis has it that modern humans developed independently in Africa, Europe, and Asia and that the biological diversity of contemporary humankind has very deep roots in prehistory. With the appearance of modern humans, the long prehistory of the archaic world ends.

The out-of-Africa hypothesis argues that modern humans evolved in tropical Africa before 100,000 years ago and then spread into other parts of the world from southwestern Asia around 45,000 years ago.

Topics for Classroom Discussion 1. Have your students explore the world of Homo erectus by recreating the environments in which this early human species lived. Have them describe living sites, material culture, including tool technology and hunting techniques. Further have your students review the physical morphology of Homo erectus. Ask students to answer the following question: All in all, is Homo erectus that much different than us?

2. You may want to demonstrate how different types of tools were created in the past. If you are a flint-knapper, then this is the chapter for your demonstration. If not, there are quite a few people out there that do this as a hobby, and are very good at it. You may want to invite someone in to your classroom to show how this is done. The amazing thing that students discover is that the process is quick and efficient.

Web Destinations 1. How does Homo antecessor fit into the pattern of ancient humans described in this chapter? Review the following website for an interesting discussion: https://www.msu.edu/~heslipst/contents/ANP440/antecessor.htm.

2. Review the following article on early Homo erectus tools in China: http://www.archaeology.org/0001/newsbriefs/china.html. Just how early are they?

How does this fit into the chronology of the chapter?

3. The following are websites relating to the out-of-Africa theory. Summarize the main points for it and against it. http://www.ramsdale.org/adam.htm http://www.le.ac.uk/archaeology/sas11/AR104/frame2.html

Multiple Choice Questions 66 ..

1. The name of Eugene Dubois’ find, which means “ape-human which stood upright.” a. Homo sapiens b. Homo habilis c. Pithecanthropus erectus d. Australopithecus africanus 2. Records of changing sea temperatures after the Matuyama-Brunhes boundary come from a. tree-ring analysis. b. deep-sea cores. c. sensitive geological instrumentation. d. written records.

3. During glacial maxima, ice sheets covered at least this much of earth’s surface. a. 1/3 b. 1/4 c. 1/6 d. 1/8 4. It is thought that the southern fringes of Africa’s Sahara Desert expanded dramatically during periods of a. cold. b. warmth. c. flood. d. drought.

5. The last geological epoch, also known as the Ice Age. a. Miocene b. Pleistocene c. Oligocene d. Pliocene 6. All paleoanthropologists agree that Homo erectus evolved in tropical a. Africa. b. Asia. c. Europe. d. Egypt.

7. The earliest African form of Homo erectus is sometimes called 67 ..

a. Homo sapiens. b. Homo neandertalensis. c. Homo ergaster. d. Homo habilis.

8. The first human to use fire, fashion more elaborate tools, and leave Africa. a. Homo neandertalensis b. Homo sapiens c. Australopithecus afarensis d. Homo erectus 9. The earliest humans to be unearthed in Eurasia are from Dmansi, Georgia, and date to about a. b. c. d.

4.7 million years ago.

3.7 million years ago.

2.7 million years ago.

1.7 million years ago.

10. Which of the following is characteristic of Homo erectus? a. far more human than Homo habilis b. habitual bipedalist c. probably lost the thick hair covering that is characteristic of nonhuman primates d. all of the above 11. The earliest known wood artifacts dated to 400,000 years ago and were discovered in a coal mine in a. b. c. d.

Africa.

Germany.

Iraq.

Asia.

12. The maker of the Acheulian hand ax had to envision its a. purpose. b. value. c. strength. d. shape.

13. Evidence for Homo erectus butchery and perhaps big-game hunting comes from

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a. Torralba and Ambrona. b. Swartkrans. c. Olduvai Gorge. d. Terra Amata.

14. Acheulian sites at Ambrona and Torralba in central Spain revealed remains of dismembered a. b. c. d.

elephants. bears. whales. deer.

15. Bamboo is an ideal material for people subsisting on a. elephant. b. hippopotamus. c. small animals. d. large animals.

16. Although they lacked the cognitive flexibility of modern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens ultimately evolved from a. b. c. d.

Australopithecus afarensis.

Homo erectus.

Homo neanderthlensis.

Australopithecus garhi.

17. Much of what we know about early Homo sapiens comes from the long term inhabitants of Europe and Eurasia, a. b. c. d.

Homo erectus.

Homo neanderthalensis.

Homo habilis.

Homo sapiens sapiens.

18. From Neanderthal bone, scientists were able to extract a. RNA. b. DNA. c. mitochondrial DNA. d. chromosomes.

19. DNA comparisons between modern humans and Neanderthal sequences differ by a. 55 base pairs.

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b. 27 or 28 base pairs. c. 8 base pairs. d. 1 base pair.

20. Humans and chimpanzees diverged about a. 4 million to 5 million years ago. b. 550,000 and 690,000 years ago. c. 40,000 years ago. d. 5,000 years ago.

21. Neanderthals had to attack game a. at night. b. during the winter. c. from above. d. at close quarters.

22. A spear made from a point, shaft, and binding is an example of a. b. c. d.

a composite tool. an accidental discovery. a trade link. evolution.

23. Means “wise person.” a. Homo erectus b. Homo neandertalensis c. Homo sapiens d. Homo sapiens sapiens 24. We see the first signs of religious ideology with a. Neanderthals. b. Australopithecines. c. primates. d. hominids.

25. Archaic humans lacked one vital component of the human mind: a. emotion. b. intelligence. c. a conscience. d. cognitive flexibility.

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26. Fluent speech, the full flowering of human creativity expressed in art, religion, and expert tool making are some of the hallmarks of a. b. c. d.

Homo neandertalensis.

Homo ergaster.

Homo sapiens sapiens.

Homo erectus.

27. The Noah’s Ark model, which states Homo sapiens evolved in one place, then spread to other parts of the Old World. a. b. c. d.

multiregional model continuity model out of Africa model single source model

28. The candelabra model that states Homo erectus populations evolved independently throughout the world. a. b. c. d.

multiregional model continuity model out of Africa model single source model

29. mtDNA is inherited only through the a. b. c. d.

paternal line. maternal line. fraternal line. sororal line.

30. Homo habilis could create about three inches of cutting edge from how many pounds of flint? a. 1/2 b. 1 c. 2 d. 5

Essay Questions 31. How do the Matuyama-Brunhes boundary and deep-sea cores correlate?

32. How do we define Homo erectus? Where are fossils of Homo erectus found? What does this mean?

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33. What does the Boxgrove, England archaeological site tell us about Homo erectus?

34. What does the archaeological site of Torralba, Spain tell us?

35. What does mitochondrial DNA tell us about the relationship between Neanderthal and ourselves?

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Chapter 10: The Great Diaspora Chapter Overview I. The Late Ice Age World (50,000 to 15,000 Years Ago) Box 10.1: Doing Archaeology: Radiocarbon Dating II. The Peopling of Southeast Asia and Australia (c. 50,000 to 15,000 Years Ago) III. Late Ice Age Europe: The Cro-Magnons (45,000 to 15,000 Years Ago) A. Subsistence B. Cro-Magnon Technology C. Cro-Magnon Art Box 10.2: Discovery Grotte de Chauvet, France IV. Hunter-Gatherers in Eurasia (35,000 to 15,000 Years Ago) V. East Asia (35,000 to 15,000 Years Ago) A. Sinodonty and Sundadonty VI. Early Human Settlement of Siberia (Before 20,000 to 15,000 Years Ago) VII. The First Americans (Before 15,000 Years Ago to 11,000 B.C.) A. Settlement Before 30,000 Years Ago? Box 10.3 Site: Monte Verde, Chile B. Settlement After 15,000 Years Ago? VIII. The Clovis People (c. 11,200 to 10,900 B.C.) Overview This chapter documented the spread of Homo sapiens into Europe, Eurasia, and Southeast Asia after 45,000 years ago, during the late Ice Age. By this time, there was increasing specialization and flexibility in human hunting and foraging as anatomically modern humans replaced pre-modern groups in many environments.

Modern humans had inhabited New Guinea by at least 40,000 years ago, and soon afterward lived on adjacent offshore islands. Australia was settled by about 45,000 years ago.

Modern humans replaced the Neanderthals of Europe after 44,000 years ago, a process that ended by 30,000 years before present.

The sheer diversity of the late Ice Age environment gave the Cro-Magnon people of western Europe great flexibility. They developed more complex societies and elaborate bone and antler technology, as well as an intricate symbolic life, reflected in their artistic traditions.

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These cultures reached their apogee in the Magdalenian culture, which flourished after 16,000 B.C. and for about 5,000 years.

Late Ice Age hunter-gatherers also spread slowly onto the Russian plains, relying heavily on game of all kinds. Far to the northeast, western Siberia was settled at least as early as 28,000 years ago, but the extreme northeast was devoid of human settlement until the very late Ice Age, perhaps as late as 18,000 years ago.

The first humans to settle the Americas crossed from northeastern Asia, probably across or along the coasts of the Bering land bridge (Beringia), but the date of their arrival is highly controversial. Some scientists claim that archaeological evidence from South America proves that Native Americans were flourishing as early as 40,000 years ago.

Most experts believe that first settlement occurred much later, perhaps at the very end of the Ice Age, no more than 15,000 years ago. There is evidence for human occupation in Chile by 11,800 B.C., and the Clovis people of North America flourished between 11,200 and 10,900 B.C. Topics for Classroom Discussion 1. Review the Calico Site (California) (SBCM 1500A) with your class. Lecture about the evidence for and against paleoindians being in the Americas that early. Ask students to search the literature for articles pro and con on this controversial archaeological site. You may want to explain your own position on it to your students.

2. Review the four interrelated foundations of Cro-Magnon technology with your class.

Describe the impact these technological innovations had on the future course of human prehistory. Show how these technologies aided Cro-Magnon’s adaptation to the cold climates of Eurasia and Siberia.

Web Destinations 1. Review the following website: http://witcombe.sbc.edu/ARTHprehistoric.html#general . Look over the paintings of Lascaux, Chauvet, Altamira, and Cosquer. How do they compare? What might be the message here?

2. Look at the following websites. What special tools does each culture have in its inventory? http://www.handprint.com/LS/ANC/stones.html http://www.ecotao.com/holism/hu_habilis.htm http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo_3.htm

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3. Monte Verde, Chile lies in a small river valley in southeastern Chile. This site has been thoroughly excavated and has been radiocarbon dated to between 11,800 years and 12,000 years old. For even more information see the following websites: http://www.cabrillo.edu/~crsmith/mverde.html.

Multiple Choice Questions 1. During the late Ice Age, the Sahara was a. a vast grassland. b. wetter than present conditions. c. dry, if not drier than modern times. d. 75% covered with glaciers.

2. The large landmass made up of the present day islands of Sulawesi and Timor was known as a. Sunda. b. Sahul. c. Wallacea. d. Pangea.

3. An Ice Age landmass made up of New Guinea, Australia, and the now flooded shelf between them. a. Sunda b. Sahul c. Wallacea d. Pangea 4. Homo sapiens had appeared in Southeast Asia by at least a. b. c. d.

20,000 years ago.

25,000 years ago.

50,000 years ago.

55,000 years ago.

5. Forty-thousand year-old ground stone axes have been discovered on the Huon Peninsula of a. Africa. b. Australia. c. New Zealand. d. New Guinea.

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6. During the height of the last Ice Age glaciation, sea levels were a. b. c. d.

300 ft. lower than today.

300 ft. higher than today.

900 ft. lower than today.

900 ft. higher than today.

7. The primary method used to date the archaeological record from between about 40,000 years ago and the past 2,000 years. a. dendrochronology b. potassium-argon dating c. radiocarbon dating d. historical documentation 8. Human occupation in what is now Australia is well documented by 35,000 years ago, but may extend a. b. c. d.

15,000 years earlier.

25,000 years earlier.

35,000 years earlier.

45,000 years earlier.

9. The Willandra lakes region contains the earliest human remains found in a. Borneo. b. Java. c. Australia. d. New Guinea.

10. The most southerly region of the Earth settled by Ice Age people. a. Antarctica b. Australia c. Tasmania d. The Palau Islands 11. The first fully modern Europeans are known to physical anthropologists as a. b. c. d.

Homo ergaster.

Homo neandertalensis.

Cro-Magnons.

Homo sapiens.

12. Which is true of Cro-Magnons?

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a. strongly built b. large-headed c. appearance contrasts dramatically with Neanderthals d. all of the above 13. The Neanderthals vanished by a. 30,000 years ago. b. 20,000 years ago. c. 10,000 years ago. d. 5,000 years ago.

14. After 30,000 years ago, Homo sapiens finally mastered a. fire. b. winter. c. art. d. language.

15. For most of the year, Cro-Magnons lived a. individually. b. in cities. c. in small groups. d. in large, articulate communities.

16. After about 16,000 years ago, Cro-Magnons began hunting a. b. c. d.

doves, finches, and robins. buffalo and wild cattle. whales and narwhales. salmon, trout, perch, and eels.

17. NOT a fine-grained rock used for blade cores by Cro-Magnon people. a. chert b. granite c. flint d. obsidian 18. The Cro-Magnons’ primary stone tool-making objective was to produce a. fire. b. blades. c. axes.

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d. clothing.

19. A delicate chisel for carving fine lines. a. burin b. foreshaft c. spear thrower d. blade 20. What did the Cro-Magnon artists use for their canvas? a. b. c. d.

ivory tusks wood plates animal skins cave walls

21. NOT a major Cro-Magnon art site. a. Lascaux b. Altamira c. Les Trois Freres d. Monte Verde 22. The Grotte de Chauvet a. contains pictures of animals never before seen in painted caves. b. shows that the artists who painted the images had not yet mastered perspective. c. has been dated to about 80,000 years ago. d. all of the above 23. At Mezhirich on the Dnieper River, dome-shaped houses were made of a. ice blocks. b. mammoth bones. c. large pine timbers. d. frozen ground.

24. Much of the trade around the Mezhirich area may have been a. ceremonial. b. political. c. designed to amass wealth. d. non-luxurious goods.

25. Many biological anthropologists assume that Homo erectus settled in the warmer, southern parts of this area first, then radiated north.

78 ..

a. China b. Siberia c. Mongolia d. Siam 26. Means “small stone.” a. b. c. d.

megalith microlith artifact ecofact

27. A sinodont hallmark would NOT include a. b. c. d.

incisor shoveling. double-shoveling. triple-shoveling. molar shoveling.

28. Most authorities agree that the first Americans were a. b. c. d.

Homo ergaster.

Cro-Magnon.

Homo neandertalensis. anatomically modern humans.

29. Before 15,000 years ago, access to the mid-continent was blocked by a. b. c. d.

glaciers. ice sheets. volcanoes. icebergs.

30. Clovis people are best known for a. b. c. d.

occasional mammoth and bison hunts on the North American plains. bird trapping in the South American jungles. river damming along the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers. complicated, geometric artistic styles.

Essay Questions 31. When does it appear that Homo sapiens appeared in Southeast Asia? Why is this significant?

79 ..

32. How is radiocarbon dating accomplished? What is it specifically useful for in the discipline of archaeology?

33. What were the 4 interrelated foundations of Cro-Magnon technology?

34. How was Cro-Magnon art displayed? What might it have meant to the artists? How do Venus figurines come into this discussion?

35. What is Christy Turner’s theory of human origin in the Americas? How does dentition enter into this discussion?

80 ..

Chapter 11: The Earliest Farmers Chapter Overview I. After the Ice Age II. Changes in Hunter-Gatherer Societies A. Social Complexity among Hunter-Gatherers Box 11.1: Discovery: Hunter-Gatherers at Modoc Rockshelter, Illinois III. Origins of Food Production Box 11.2: Doing Archaeology: Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) Radiocarbon Dating IV. Consequences of Food Production V. The First Farmers in Southwestern Asia Box 11.3: Doing Archaeology: Domesticating Wheat and Barley A. Egypt and the Nile Valley B. Early Agriculture in Anatolia Box 11.4: Site: Ritual Buildings in Southeastern Turkey C. European Farmers Box 11.5: Site: Easton Down and the Avebury Sacred Landscape, England VI. Early Agriculture in South and East Asia A. The Indus Valley B. Rice Cultivation in Southern China C. The First Farmers in Northern China VII. Navigators and Chiefs in the Pacific (2000 B.C. to Modern Times) Overview Many late Ice Age and early Holocene hunter-gatherer societies were preadapted to food production, as they were already exploiting some food resources intensively and living more sedentary lifeways.

Most of these societies were in regions where food resources were diverse and seasonally predictable.

In contrast to early theories that food production was a revolutionary development, modern hypotheses invoke social relations, population growth, and ecological factors as multiple causes of food production.

Food production resulted in more sedentary human settlement, more substantial housing, elaborate storage technologies, and special implements for agricultural tasks.

All these technological developments led to greater interdependence and to more long-distance exchange of raw materials, as well as increasing human social complexity.

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Southwestern Asia was cool and dry immediately after the Ice Age, with dry steppe over much of the interior. Farming began at Abu Hureyra on the Euphrates River in about 10,000 B.C. Sheep and goats replaced gazelle hunting abruptly at the same site and other settlements after 9000 B.C. Farmers flourished in Egypt by at least 6000 B.C. Farming communities linked by long-distance exchange routes inhabited Turkey by at least 8500 B.C. Agriculture and animal husbandry developed in southeastern Europe because of a local shift to the more intensive exploitation of cereals and wild sheep and also because of a “drift” of domestic animals and cereals across from southwestern Asia. During the sixth millennium B.C., food production spread widely throughout Europe.

Agriculture spread from the west into Pakistan’s Indus valley by at least 6000 B.C. In southern China, rice was apparently cultivated as early as 9500 B.C. and well established by 6500 B.C. The staple in the Huang Ho valley of northern China was millet, cultivated at least as early as 6500 B.C. and perhaps much earlier.

The development of agriculture on the Asian mainland, combined with the invention of the double-hulled canoe, enabled the settlement of the offshore Pacific islands after 2000 B.C. Topics for Classroom Discussion 1. Discuss the environmental changes that led to the Holocene. Relate this to the Neolithic. Further discuss the consequences of these environmental and cultural changes. Ask your students to discuss the following question: Could you all become hunter-gatherers, if necessary, today? Why or why not?

2. Have your students research several early Neolithic sites in Europe. What was the climate like at these sites? What was farmed? Did the people live in a village settlement or some other type of settlement? What were the building styles?

What types of animals were domesticated? How do these animals relate to modern farm animals? Why did farming become the economic lifestyle for the entire world (nearly)?

Web Destinations 1. Review the following sites on the origins of food production and summarize the ideas on early food production in Southwest Asia.

Origins of Food Production http://www.indiana.edu/~arch/saa/matrix/ia/ia03_mod_12.html Searching for Evidence of the Origins of Food Production http://www.indiana.edu/~origins/teach/P380/P380Puzzles1.html The Transition From Foraging to Food Production: Examples From the Near East http://www.indiana.edu/~origins/teach/P380/P380Agric.html 82 Copyright © 2012Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Later Stone Age and Origins of Food http://history-world.org/stone_age.htm Global Agriculture, Environment, and Hunger: http://www.ciesin.columbia.edu/docs/004-147/004-147.html 2. Read the article titled “Thermodynamics and the Sustainability of Food Production” at: http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/hpg/envis/foodoc1124.html. What is the connection proposed between thermodynamics, oil production, and food production? How does this compare to the beginnings of agriculture throughout the world?

3. The following websites describe modern consequences of agriculture. What are they and did ancient farmers face these same problems?

Origins and Consequences of Food Production: http://archserve.id.ucsb.edu/courses/anth/fagan/anth3/StudyGuide/Assign6.pdf Water as a Resource for Food Production: http://www.fao.org/docrep/meeting/x4440e.htm.

Multiple Choice Questions 1. Food production is a phenomenon of a. b. c. d.

the last 100,000 years. the last 12,000 years.

99 percent of our existence. the last millennia.

2. Some 15,000 years ago, when the great ice sheets began to retreat. a. b. c. d.

Holocene late-Pleistocene Miocene Oligocene

3. Forests covered much of Europe only this many years after the retreat of the Scandinavian ice sheet. a. 1,000 b. 3,000 c. 5,000 d. 7,000 4. The big game that formed a staple part of the American diet was extinct by 83 Copyright © 2012Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

a. b. c. d.

5,000 B.C. 7,000 B.C. 11,000 B.C. 15,000 B.C.

5. NOT one of the general conditions necessary to develop a complex forager society. a. population movements must be limited b. resources have to be abundant and predictable c. reduction of local animal species due to natural climatic changes d. population growth resulting in an imbalance between people and the food supply 6. Some scholars see the ocean as a/n a. Garden of Eden. b. wall between cultures. c. highway system between cultures. d. unforgiving, barren wasteland.

7. Social complexity was most common where this food source was most abundant. a. b. c. d.

big game freshwater or marine animals nuts and berries yams

8. Some 27 ft (8.2 m) of midden accumulation spans human occupations dating from between about 8000 and __________ B.C. at the Koster site. a. 1000 b. 2000 c. 3000 d. 4000 9. According to the text, who invented agriculture? a. b. c. d.

sub-Saharans Europeans Americans no one

10. The catalyst for all the elaborate cultural developments of later millennia. a. agriculture b. the transition from hunting and gathering to cultivation c. maize 84 Copyright © 2012Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

d. fishing 11. Chinese villagers harvested rice by a. b. c. d.

2000 B.C. 4000 B.C. 6000 B.C. 8000 B.C.

12. Cereal agriculture came to Africa within the last a. 20,000 years. b. 10,000 years. c. 8,000 years. d. 3,000 years.

13. Permits the dating of individual seeds, root fragments, or maize cobs. a. b. c. d.

dendrochronology potassium-argon dating flotation accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon dating

14. This consequence of food production prevented people from reverting back to hunting and gathering. a. environmental degradation b. animal species extinction c. specialization d. population growth 15. Agriculture is a/n a. b. c. d.

seasonal activity. year-round activity. easy activity. natural activity.

16. Enabled people to turn over the soil to a much greater depth than ever before. a. Clovis point b. wattle and daub technology c. hoe d. plow 17. Perhaps the most famous ax quarries are located here.

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a. western Siberia b. western Europe c. southern China d. northern Siberia 18. A valuable toolmaking material for knives and sickles in southwestern Asia and Mexico. a. flint b. quartz c. obsidian d. iron 19. A particular factor that helped limit population growth. a. disease b. famine c. water supplies d. available food 20. The spread of food production throughout the world took only about a. b. c. d.

14,000 years.

12,000 years.

10,000 years.

8,000 years.

21. According to one authority, what percent of African soil is moderately fertile enough to support gardens? a. 5% b. 10% c. 40% d. 90% 22. Everyone agrees that the earliest farmers in the world flourished in a. b. c. d.

southeastern Asia. the Americas. southwestern Asia.

Europe.

23. How do we know that forest cover expanded rapidly at the end of the Ice Age in southwestern Asia?

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a. pollen samples taken from freshwater lakes b. oral traditions c. written records d. excavations of buried forests 24. The definition of rachis. a. the brittle joint attaching wild grain to the stem b. the method of gathering wild grains by ancient southwestern Asians c. the earliest cultivated form of barley d. the trade route across southwestern Asia used for transporting barley 25. Gordon Hillman’s work on plant remains shows that these people exploited nut harvests in nearby pistachio and oak forests. a. b. c. d.

Jarmo Jericho Netiv Hagdud Abu Hureyra

26. A small camp flourished at this bubbling spring by 10,500 B.C., and its walls were collapsed by the blast of trumpets. a. b. c. d.

Jarmo Jericho Netiv Hagdud Abu Hureyra

27. Egypt first became a unified state about 3000 B.C., around the same time as the appearance of a. b. c. d.

horticulture. animal domestication. slash and burn technology. irrigation works.

28. Domesticated animals and grains were probably introduced into southeastern Europe from a. b. c. d.

Asia.

Egypt. northwestern Europe.

Africa.

29. One of the earliest plants to be domesticated in the northern parts of Southeast Asia and southern China was 87 Copyright © 2012Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

a. b. c. d.

wheat. rice. corn. barley.

30. The largest and the most remote of all Pacific islands. a. Polynesia b. Micronesia c. Tahiti d. New Zealand

Essay Questions 31. Describe the major consequences of food production.

32. What are the important differences between domestic wheat and barley and their wild cousins? Why are these differences important?

33. Describe the beginnings of rice cultivation in Asia. From where did the original plants come? What farming techniques were necessary to grow this original rice?

34. What is the Holocene? What environmental changes occur with it?

35. How was agriculture “invented”? Was this a major insight or just the application of knowledge long known? Explain.

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Chapter 12: The First Civilizations Chapter Overview I. What is a State-Organized Society?

A. Cities II. Theories of the Origins of States III. The Collapse of Civilizations IV. Early Civilization in Mesopotamia (5500 to 3100 B.C.) Box 12.1: Discovery: The Temple at Eridu, Iraq A. The First Cities: Uruk V. The Sumerians (c. 3100 to 2334 B.C.) Box 12.2: Doing Archaeology: The Sumerians VI. Ancient Egyptian Civilization (c. 3100 B.C. to 30 B.C.) A. Predynastic Egypt: Ancient Monopoly? (5000 to 3100 B.C.) B. Dynastic Egyptian Civilization (3100 B.C. to 30 B.C.) Box 12.3: Site: The Step Pyramid at Saqqara Box 12.4: Doing Archaeology: Ahmose, Son of Ebana

Overview The world's first civilizations arose in Egypt and Mesopotamia. Civilizations are characterized by the state and the city. Vere Gordon Childe's "urban revolution" theory centered on the development of the city.

Modern theorizing revolves around systems—evolutionary hypotheses and explanations involving environmental change.

A new generation of social approaches, on the other hand, argues that the social structure of a society ultimately determined its transformation.

Today, research on the development of civilization focuses on ecological variables and the opportunities they present to individuals pursuing political goals in different societies— individual agents of change.

The Mesopotamian lowlands may have supported farmers before 6500 B.C., but the first traces of them appear in the 'Ubaid culture of the sixth millennium. A rapid evolution to urban life ensued—marked by fast population growth, the congregation of people in small cities, and the development of long-distance trade.

By 2900 B.C., Sumerian civilization was in full swing and was part of a growing economic system that linked kingdoms as far afield as the Iranian Plateau and the Indus in the east and the Mediterranean and the Nile Valley in the west.

Sumerian civilization flourished until about 2000 B.C., when it was eclipsed by Akkadian and then Babylonian power.

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Ancient Egyptian civilization resulted from the unification of the Nile Valley in 3100 B.C. Egyptologists conventionally subdivide ancient Egyptian civilization into four main periods: the Archaic and Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, New Kingdom, and the Late period, the first three of which were separated by brief intermediate periods of political chaos.

The Old Kingdom was notable for its despotic pharaohs and its frenzy of pyramid construction, an activity that may be connected with pragmatic notions of fostering national unity.

The Middle Kingdom saw a shift of political and religious power to Thebes and Upper Egypt. New Kingdom pharaohs made Egypt an imperial power.

Ancient Egyptian civilization declined after 1000 B.C., and Egypt fell under Roman rule in 30 B.C. Topics for Classroom Discussion 1. A lecture on the cultural elements of a state-level society would be very appropriate here.

Following this would be a discussion of the powers of the state. This is always an interesting discussion when put into the context of the various types of government that exist today.

2. Have your students research five or six different states of the past (Ancient Egypt, Angkor Wat, Sumeria, Mayans, Shang Dynasty, Harappans, etc.). Ask them to focus on why each of these societies failed. A discussion of the archaeological theory of cultural ecology would fit well here.

Web Destinations 1. What is Vere Gordon Childe’s idea of revolution? How has Childe broken away from the particularistic approach that cultural anthropology had been following and the technological/materialistic approach archaeology had been following? Read the paper discussing this, by Michael Smith at the following website for details: http://asu.academia.edu/MichaelSmith/attachment/262527/full/V--Gordon-Childeand-the-Urban-Revolution--An-Historical-Perspective-on-a-Revolution-in-UrbanStudies.

2. Read the article “Hamoukar - Early City in Northeastern Syria,” at the following website: http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/PROJ/HAM/NN_Sum00/NN_Sum00.html.

What are the important issues involved with the excavation of this city? How did this city meet its basic needs such as water and food?

3. Look over the following entry on civilization and describe the major ideas leading to the rise of complex societies: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilization. .

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Multiple Choice Questions 1. How many state-organized societies do archaeologists believe need to be unearthed? a. none b. 1 c. 2 d. unknown 2. When states form, what happens to kin groups? a. they disappear b. they grow strong c. they become nobility d. their power is reduced 3. The Victorians believed that civilization had originated a. along the Nile. b. in East Africa. c. in Europe. d. in Asia.

4. Coined the phrase “agricultural revolution” and “urban revolution.” a. Mary Leakey b. Vere Gordon Childe c. Edward Tylor d. Brian Fagan 5. Social power means a. wealth. b. immortality. c. egalitarianism. d. ideological power.

6. The text lists a number of features, which are characteristic of pre-industrial civilizations. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic mentioned in the text? a. societies with small, very simple social organizations b. economies based on the centralized accumulation of capital and social status c. advances toward formal record keeping, science, and mathematics d. some form of all-embracing state religion 7. According to the text, a city can be defined by its population. A generally used rule91 Copyright © 2012Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

of-thumb is a lower limit of ________ people for a city. a. 100,000 b. 50,000 c. 10,000 d. 5,000 8. Which of the following distinguishes a city from other settlement types? a. A city is a large and relatively dense settlement. b. There are centralized institutions in a city. c. A city provides services for the villages of the surrounding area. d. all of the above 9. Most scholars now agree that three elements of Vere Gordon Childe's "Urban Revolution" were of great importance in the development of all of the world's early civilizations. Which of the following is NOT one of the three elements? a. large food surpluses b. diversified farming communities c. monotheistic religion d. irrigation agriculture 10. Archaeologists use this shorthand term for urbanized, state-level societies. a. b. c. d.

city civilization centralized institution ruling elite

11. Archaeologists like Kent Flannery see the state as a very complicated a. b. c. d.

“working” system. “living” system. city. economic system.

12. In a state, who provides security for the estate’s dependents? a. the dependents themselves b. the police force c. the landowning class and the estate d. the natural environment 13. Mayan religious ceremonies justified

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a. social inequality. b. human sacrifice. c. conquest of enemies. d. building of megaliths.

14. From where did Egypt acquire its gold and ivory? a. Anatolia b. Nubia c. Iran d. China 15. Along with factionalism, a powerful catalyst of the emergence of many early states. a. bartering b. emerging competition c. redistribution d. myths 16. Complete collapse of a civilization can occur only under circumstances in which there is a a. natural disaster. b. need to do so. c. power vacuum. d. coup.

17. What depends on the ability to organize more specialized production and the tasks of food storage and distribution? a. b. c. d.

social power economic power political power leadership

18. Most archaeologists agree that urban life and pre-industrial civilization came into existence a. gradually. b. during a period of social and economic stability. c. as a direct result of the introduction of irrigation technology. d. as a consequence of all of the above factors.

19. The early Mesopotamian city of Uruk included satellite villages with their own a. political system.

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b. trade routes. c. irrigation. d. religion.

20. Who did NOT form the bulk of Uruk’s population? a. farmers b. sailors c. slaves d. metalworkers 21. The origins of writing in Mesopotamia dates to a time soon after the adoption of a. religion. b. economics. c. food production. d. social stratification.

22. As early as 8000 B.C., Mesopotamian villagers were carrying tokens made of a. clay. b. bronze. c. gold. d. wood.

23. The earliest literature in the world comes from a. Egypt. b. China. c. Africa. d. Sumeria.

24. A new era in human experience begins with the emergence of the Sumerian civilization about a. 6500 B.C. b. 3100 B.C. c. 2500 B.C. d. 2000 B.C. 25. Sumerian civilizations came into being as a result of a combination of social and a. religious factors. b. economic factors. c. environmental factors.

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d. warfare factors.

26. The longest living and one of the earliest pre-industrial civilizations. a. Sumeria b. ancient Egypt c. ancient Mexico d. Mayan 27. After 3000 B.C., every city-state came to depend on a “world economic system.”

Why? a. political stability b. social control c. the invention of banking d. survival 28. After 2334 B.C., Sumerian civilizations became part of a larger kingdom based on a. astrology. b. Mesopotamia. c. Cairo. d. Babylon.

29. Which is NOT one of the 3 predynastic kingdoms that dominated the Nile? a. Naqada b. Ur c. Nekhen d. This 30. The death of Rameses III marks the beginning of this period. a. Middle Kingdom b. New Kingdom c. Late period d. Archaic period

Essay Questions 31. Define the elements of a state-organized society.

32. Of the many theories of state origin, which is your favorite? Explain why.

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33. What was Ancient Egypt like in 5000 B.C.? How is the development of the Egyptian civilization like the game of Monopoly?

34. Why do civilizations collapse? Can we avoid these problems? Are we?

35. What is the symbolic importance of the Sphinx at Giza?

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Chapter 13: Early Asian Civilizations Chapter Overview I. South Asia: The Harappan Civilization (c. 2700 to 1700 B.C.) A. Mature Harappan Civilization II. South Asia after the Harappans (1700 to 180 B.C.) III. The Origins of Chinese Civilization (2600 to 1100 B.C.) A. Royal Capitals B. Royal Burials C. Bronze Working D. Shang Warriors IV. The War Lords (1100 to 221 B.C.) Box 13.1: Discovery: The Burial Mound of Emperor Shihuangdi V. Southeast Asian Civilization (A.D. 1 to 1500) A. The Angkor State (A.D. 802 to 1430) Box 13.2: Site: Angkor Wat, Cambodia

Overview State-organized societies on the Indian subcontinent developed from indigenous roots before 2700 B.C. The Harappan civilization of the lowland Indus Valley developed as the result of a major shift in Sumerian long-distance trade patterns and long-term interactions between the Harappan culture of the lowlands and the people of the Baluchistan highlands.

Harappan civilization flourished along the Indus for about 1000 years. It was an urban society with many smaller satellite settlements, carefully planned and ruled by priest-kings who controlled both religious and economic life.

After 1700 B.C., the major cities went into decline, but Harappan society flourished in rural settings for a considerable time. The center of economic and political gravity moved eastward to the Ganges River valley, culminating in the Mauryan empire of the first millennium B.C. Early Chinese civilization emerged independently of state-organized societies in the West. The Shang civilization of the Huang Ho valley is the best-known early Chinese state, flourishing from 1766 to 1122 B.C. It was probably the dominant state among several throughout Northern China.

Shang society was organized along class lines, with the rulers and nobles living in segregated precincts, whereas the mass of the people were scattered in townships and villages in the surrounding countryside.

The Shang dynasty was overthrown by Zhou rulers, who reigned over a wide area of Northern China from 1122 to 221 B.C. China was unified under the emperor Zheng (Shihuangdi) in that year.

97 ..

The process of forming Southeast Asian states began around the same time, but the first historical records of complex states date to the third century A.D. Many such states developed in and around the central Mekong Valley and later the central Cambodian basin. There, after A.D. 802, flourished the flamboyant Khmer civilization, a society based on divine kingship and strong notions of conformity.

After six centuries of spectacular development, the Khmer civilization came in contact with expanding Islamic trade networks and new religious doctrines, which caused its partial demise.

Topics for Classroom Discussion 1. Discuss the ideas Gregory Possehl has about Harappan civilization. How did this civilization get its start? What finished it? What happens to the people of a society that collapses? How does Possehl analogize between mature Harappan society and Ancient Egyptian civilization? All of these would be good discussion following the theme of this chapter on early civilization.

2. What was the one ambition shared by the overlords of Tonle Sap? This would make a great discussion if you compared the answer to this question to modern day totalitarian states and even to Mesopotamia under King Sargon. After all, why not just live in villages?

Web Destinations 1. Summarize the history of Chinese boat-building by reviewing the following website: http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200211/21/eng20021121_107216.shtml.

2. Trace the phases of Harappan civilization using the following websites: http://www.culturalindia.net/indian-history/ancient-india/indus-valley.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization 3. Describe the Angkor state, its geographical range, agricultural products, religious beliefs, and political system. http://www.cambodia-travel.com/khmer/ http://archaeology.about.com/od/angkorwatcambodia/qt/angkor.htm

Multiple Choice Questions 1. The largest of the Harappan cities, built on artificial mounds. a. b. c. d.

Harappa Mohenjodaro Kilibangan Dhoraji

2. NOT one of the three foreign states Mesopotamia obtained goods from.

98 ..

a. Mohenjodaro b. Dilmun c. Magan d. Meluhha 3. Which is NOT a characteristic of the environment of early Harappan civilization? a. low-lying b. hot c. sterile soils d. no metals in the soil 4. The rulers of Harappa and Mohenjodaro lived in this part of the city. a. center b. citadel c. tenements d. presidio 5. The poorest residents of Harappa and Mohenjodaro lived in this part of the city. a. center b. citadel c. tenements d. presidio 6. Many of the Harappan seals depict cattle, which may be a symbol of a. b. c. d.

Shiva.

Indra.

Soma.

Devi.

7. What may have been the fundamental cause of population movement from the cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro into other areas? a. b. c. d.

flooding shifts in trade changes in subsistence farming major geological disturbances near the Saraswati River

8. Rice cultivation on the Ganges Plain was accelerated by a. the use of fertilizer. b. slash and burn agriculture. c. global cooling.

99 ..

d. iron tools.

9. This was the dominant religion in the Ganges during the first millennium. a. Buddhism b. Hinduism c. Brahmanism d. Islam 10. He invaded the northwest in 516 B.C. a. Alexander the Great b. Chandragupta Maurya c. King Darius d. Asoka 11. He ventured to the Indus River and brought Greek culture to the area. a. Alexander the Great b. Chandragupta Maurya c. King Darius d. Asoka 12. His grandfather carved out the Mauryan empire from Nepal into the Deccan. a. Alexander the Great b. Chandragupta c. King Darius d. Asoka 13. Shiva was both a tamer or destroyer of wild beasts, and a god of a. fertility. b. fire. c. death. d. water.

14. The text lists a few factors for the decline of the Harappans. Which of the following is NOT listed? a. flooding of the Indus River b. shifts in patterns of Mesopotamian trade c. widespread soil saltation d. geological disturbance 15. NOT one of the three legendary dynasties of Chinese rulers.

100 ..

a. Huang b. Xia c. Shang d. Zhou 16. Of these Chinese dynasties, which civilization continued more or less untouched? a. Huang b. Xia c. Shang d. Zhou 17. Rulers of this Chinese dynasty lived in at least seven capitals. a. Huang b. Xia c. Zhou d. Shang 18. The best known early Chinese state is the a. Huang. b. Xia. c. Zhou. d. Shang.

19. The most prestigious metal to the Shang. a. gold b. silver c. bronze d. platinum 20. Most Shang metal works are a. vessels for food and drink. b. weapons. c. musical instruments. d. chariot fittings.

21. Shang a. society was organized along what might be called military lines. b. kings were mostly pacifists. c. kings were opposed to human sacrifices.

101 ..

d. none of the above 22. The Shang fell at the hands of the neighboring a. Huang. b. Xia. c. Zhou. d. Han. 23. China was unified in 221 B.C. by the emperor a. Zhang. b. Shihuangdi. c. Jayavarman. d. Shiva.

24. This emperor’s burial chamber is said to contain rivers of mercury that flow to the ocean, paintings of the constellations on the ceiling, and scale models of palaces and pavilions. a. Zhang b. Shihuangdi c. Jayavarman d. Shiva 25. King Zheng, “the Tiger of Qin,” a. was the first sovereign emperor of China. b. considered himself unique, so his tomb was to be the largest ever built. c. became ruler of Qin at the age of thirteen. d. all of the above 26. The Chinese called the lower Mekong region Funan, which meant “the port of a thousand a. ships.” b. lakes.” c. rivers.” d. people.”

27. The homeland of Khmer-speaking people. a. lower Mekong b. Funan c. India d. Tonle Sap 102 ..

28. The Khmer monarch Jayavarman merged the cult of the ancestors with that of a. b. c. d.

Shiva.

Indra.

Soma.

Devi.

29. Angkor Wat a. is the largest religious building in the world. b. is located in Pakistan. c. served as the palace for the king and his family. d. took 100 years to build and was finally destroyed by foreign invaders.

30. Angkor Thom was built by the ruler a. Jayavarman II. b. Shiva. c. Suryavarman II. d. Jayavarman VII. Essay Questions 31. Describe the geographic location of the Harappan civilization. What about this location allowed for the development of civilization?

32. What factors may have led to the collapse of the Harappan civilization?

33. Who was Jayavarman II? What did he do? How did he do it? What lessons can we learn from his behavior?

34. What was the great conclusion from the work conducted by Sir Mortimer Wheeler?

35. Where was the Angkor State? When did it exist? What is its significance?

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Chapter 14: Maize, Pueblos, and Mound Builders Chapter Outline I. North America after First Settlement Box 14.1: Site: The Olsen-Chubbock Bison Kill, Colorado II. The Story of Maize A. Mesoamerica: Guilá Naquitz and Early Cultivation B. The Earliest Maize C. Andean Farmers III. The North American Southwest (300 B.C. to Modern Times) Box 14.2: Doing Archaeology: Dendrochronology (Tree-Ring Dating) A. Hohokam, Mogollon, and Ancestral Pueblo IV. Mound Builders in Eastern North America (2000 B.C. to A.D. 1650) A. Adena and Hopewell B. The Mississippian Tradition Box 14.3: Site: Moundville, Alabama Overview The hunter-gather societies that flourished in North America after the first settlement exhibited great diversity and reflected many local environments. A long-term trend toward greater complexity and more sedentary settlement developed in areas of the most plentiful and varied food supplies.

By 2000 B.C., some groups in Eastern North America were experimenting with the cultivation of native plants.

Maize was the most important cereal in the Americas, domesticated from a Central American native grass known as teosinte as early as 5000 B.C. Maize agriculture spread from Southern Mexico and Guatemala thousands of miles to the north and south. There were farmers in the highland Andes and in coastal Peru by 3000 B.C., but maize and cotton did not become vital cultivated staples until about 1000 years later.

More complex societies also developed in the North American Southwest and Eastern Woodlands. Maize agriculture reached the Southwest by about 1500 to 2000 B.C. By 300 B.C., sedentary villages, and a much greater dependence on farming, were characteristics of the Southwest, leading to the emergence of the Hohokam, Mogollon, and Ancestral Pueblo cultural traditions, from which the ultimate ancestry of modern pueblo peoples emerged.

After 1000 B.C., a series of powerful chiefdoms arose in the Southeast and the Midwest. Peoples among whom elaborate burial customs and the building of burial mounds and earthworks, were commonplace.

The Adena tradition appeared in about 700 B.C. and was overlapped by the Hopewell in approximately A.D. 100. Maize and bean agriculture arrived in the Southeastern United States during the first millennium A.D. 104 ..

About A.D. 800, the focus of economic, religious, and political power shifted to the Mississippi Valley and the Southeast with the rise of the Mississippian tradition. This tradition, with its powerful religious and secular leaders, survived in a modified form until European contact in the sixteenth century A.D.

Topics for Classroom Discussion 1. A discussion of hybridization, both ancient and modern, may be appropriate here.

Corn is a wonderful discussion item, in that it is so different than its predecessor, teosinte. Lecture on how corn was domesticated and the timeline for its domestication. You may want to even delve into the nutritional characteristics of that all-American combination of corn, beans, and squash. Have your students trace the domestication of other crops and animals.

2. Chaco Canyon and its many sites still tend to have a mysterious aura surrounding them. A lecture on the Chaco Canyon as an Ancestral Pueblo spiritual center, and the Bajada Butte and archaeoastronomy would lead to several interesting discussions.

Maybe you could finish with “What was Pueblo Bonito: apartment complex or shrine?”

Web Destinations 1. Refer to the following on the domestication of maize (corn). How was it done according to these descriptions? http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/qt/maize.htm http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/06/080627163156.htm

2. By referring to the following websites, how did the people of Cahokia live their daily lives? How did Cahokia develop? What type of population growth did it have? Why is this remarkable for this period of time? http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=682&ResourceType=Site http://members.tripod.com/IS335/monks.html 3. How did people in the Mississippian culture live? What were the social differences between groups of people? Why were there differences? What type of monumental architecture was produced and for what purpose? See the following for answers to these and many more questions. http://www.mesacc.edu/dept/d10/asb/lifeways/hg_ag/agdownside.html http://www.mesacc.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/glues/chiefdoms.html http://www.mesacc.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/legacy/cahokia/riverlif.htm

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Multiple Choice Questions 1. For reasons that are not understood, the great megafauna that inhabited the Americas during the Ice Age were extinct by a. 8000 B.C. b. 9000 B.C. c. 10,000 B.C. d. 11,000 B.C. 2. The last area that supported big game hunting in North America was a. the Great Plains. b. the Pacific northwest. c. Mexico. d. the California coast.

3. All projectile points in North America are ultimately derived from the ancient a. Donner point. b. Clovis point. c. Aleutian point. d. Siberian point.

4. NOT one of the vital staple foods of Paleo-Indians, stored for use in the winter. a. walnuts b. hickories c. pecans d. acorns 5. The densest hunter-gatherer populations congregated in river valleys and a. coastlines. b. lakeshores. c. mixed-conifer forests. d. alpine forests.

6. How many bison were unearthed at the Olsen-Chubbuck kill site? a. 90 b. 600 c. 10 d. 190 7. Of the animals killed at the Olsen-Chubbuck site, it is estimated that what percentage 106 ..

were actually butchered? a. 25% b. 50% c. 75% d. 100% 8. As local populations rose at the Koster site, so food supplies became scarcer. The next logical step was a. fishing and collecting marine animals along the coast. b. developing smaller arrow points to hunt large game. c. the deliberate cultivation of native grasses. d. gustatory cannibalism.

9. Found in Utah, it was a favored location for more than 9000 years. a. Olsen-Chubbuck b. Koster c. Hogup cave d. Mesa Verde 10. Which of the following did NOT give rise to more complex hunter-gatherer societies along the Pacific coast? a. abundant and predictable food sources b. increasingly efficient technology c. sedentary settlements d. slash and burn agriculture 11. The most important food crop in the Americas today. a. tomato b. maize c. peanut d. wheat 12. Which of the following animals was tamed by ancient Americans? a. dog b. guinea pig c. turkey d. all of the above 13. Which is NOT one of the three major centers of native plant domestication in the Americas?

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a. highland and lowland Central America b. the highlands of the Central Andes c. the Southeastern United States d. the Midwestern United States 14. The best archaeological evidence for early maize cultivation comes from a. the Tehuacán Valley in Southern Mexico. b. Machu Picchu in Peru. c. Mesa Verde in Colorado. d. the Ohio Valley.

15. Maize was domesticated in Mesoamerica a. by transforming earlier teosinte into maize. b. at about the time the pyramids of Giza were built in Egypt. c. as the game population declined. d. all of the above 16. By at least 4500 B.C., about how much of the Tehuacáno diet consisted of tropical grasses and other plants? a. 10% b. 40% c. 75% d. 90% 17. Maize was domesticated in Mesoamerica about the same time as a. the Pyramids of Giza were built. b. the birth of Jesus of Nazareth. c. early Homo was migrating out of Africa. d. the Spanish destroyed Tenochtitlán.

18. An important food for highland Andean foragers from the time of the earliest settlements. a. potato b. corn c. wheat d. lentils 19. Early Southwesterners gathered many plants including all but which of the following? a. yucca seeds 108 ..

b. cacti c. potatoes d. sunflower seeds 20. The one that is NOT a great Southwestern ancestral cultural tradition. a. Hohokam b. Mogollan c. Mississippian d. Ancestral Pueblo 21. Each tree ring represents a. one month of growth. b. six months of growth. c. one decade of growth. d. one year of growth.

22. At first, they lived in small pit-house villages; later they congregated in above-ground settlements of adjoining rooms. a. Hohokam b. Mogollan c. Mississippian d. Ancestral Pueblo 23. Subterranean ceremonial room found in the middle of Ancestral Pueblo settlements. a. pit-house b. kiva c. tepee d. log-house

24. Chaco Canyon, used for over two centuries, was the center of a remarkable flowering of which culture? a. Hohokam b. Mogollan c. Mississippian d. Ancestral Pueblo 25. The largest Mesa Verde settlement. a. Cliff Palace b. Chaco Canyon 109 ..

c. Montezuma Castle d. Tuzigoot 26. The entire San Juan drainage was abandoned by Pueblo peoples by about a. A.D. 1000. b. A.D. 1100. c. A.D. 1200. d. A.D. 1300.

27. Perhaps the best way to describe much Southwestern organization is as a a. theocracy. b. democracy. c. kingdom. d. tribe.

28. They flourished in the Ohio Valley and were among the first to build extensive earthworks. a. Adena culture b. Hohokam c. Mississippian d. Mogollan 29. They added maize as a new and valuable supplement to their diet of game, fish, nuts, and plants. a. Hohokam b. Mogollan c. Mississippian d. Ancestral Pueblo 30. Of the following, which is NOT one of the cultural consequences of food production in North America? a. a long-term trend toward greater political elaboration b. a degree of social ranking c. an elaboration of writing and record keeping d. greater interdependency in a wide range of village farming societies

Essay Questions 31. List and describe at least three methods for reconstructing ancient diets.

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32. What is dendrochronology? How is it used? How has it been used in the Southwestern United States?

33. What was the work of Richard MacNeish in Mexico’s Tehuacán Valley? How did he accomplish it?

34. All parts of the Americas were settled by 11,000 B.C. Using a Western Hemisphere map, calculate just how long it would have taken to walk from Alaska to the southern tip of South America. Assume that people can walk, on average, 12 miles per day and take every third day off. You may even want to research ancient sea levels. It could be that some of the migration routes are under water. Are you surprised with your answer?

35. What is the ancestor of maize? How did the domestication of this grass start? What is the evidence for early maize cultivation? Why do humans alter their environment like this? Why not just leave it as it is and use it the way we find it?

36. What replaced the Hopewell tradition after it declined? What staple agricultural product fueled the new culture that replaced Hopewell? What advantage did the growing of beans bring forth to this new culture? Where did Cahokia flourish? What was special about this environment?

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Chapter 15: Mesoamerican Civilizations Chapter Overview I. The Olmec (1500 to 500 B.C.) II. Ancient Maya Civilization (Before 1000 B.C. to A.D. 1519) A. Beginnings (Before 1000 to 300 B.C.) B. Kingship III. Classic Maya Civilization (A.D. 300 to 900) Box 15.1: Doing Archaeology: The Hieroglyphic Stairway at Copán A. The Classic Maya Collapse Box 15.2: Studying the Maya Collapse at Copán IV. The Rise of Highland Civilization (1500 to 200 B.C.) V. Teotihuacán (200 B.C. to A.D. 750) Box 15.3: Doing Archaeology: Life in Teotihuacán’s Barrios VI. The Toltecs (650 to 1200) VII. Aztec Civilization (1200 to 1521) A. Tenochtitlán Box 15.4: Site: The Great Temple at Tenochtitlán B. The World of the Fifth Sun C. The Aztec State D. The Spanish Conquest

Overview Mesoamerican civilization extends back at least 4,000 years. The Preclassic period of Mesoamerican prehistory lasted from approximately 2000 B.C. to A.D. 300, a period of major cultural change in both lowlands and highlands. Sedentary villages traded with each other in raw materials and exotic objects. Increasing social complexity went hand in hand with the appearance of the first public buildings and the evidence of socialstratification.

These developments are well chronicled in the Olmec culture of the lowlands, which flourished from approximately 1500 to 500 B.C. Olmec art styles and religious beliefs were among those that spread widely over lowlands and highlands during the late Preclassic period.

Religious ideologies, ritual organization, and extensive trading networks were key factors in the development of Maya society in the lowlands after 1000 B.C. Classic Maya civilization flourished from A.D. 300 to 900 and consisted of an ever-changing patch-work of competing states. Until about A.D. 600, the largest states were in Northeast Peten, with a multicenter polity headed by the rulers of Tikal. Maya 112 ..

civilization reached its height in the southern lowlands after the seventh century, collapsing suddenly in the Yucatán after A.D. 900.

After the collapse, the focus of Maya civilization moved into the Northern Yucatán, where Maya civilization flourished at Chichén Itzá and other centers right up to the Spanish conquest of the sixteenth century. Many Maya communities still flourish in the lowlands today.

Highland Mesoamerican civilization stemmed from both indigenous and lowland roots. Olmec influence was strong, but small kingdoms developed in the Valley of Oaxaca by at least 1000 B.C. These coalesced into the Monte Alban state, which reached its heyday during the first millennium A.D. and coexisted with Teotihuacán on the edge of the Basin of Mexico.

Teotihuacán was the dominant political and economic force on the highlands and in the Basin of Mexico for the first seven centuries of the first millennium A.D. The Toltec civilization, also based in the Valley of Mexico, filled the political vacuum left by the collapse of Teotihuacán, but fell apart itself in A.D. 1200.

By the fourteenth century, the Aztecs, who originated in the northwest of the basin, were becoming the dominant force in the highlands. Over the next two centuries, their rulers created a vast tribute-paying empire that extended into the lowlands and as far south as Guatemala. The empire was already showing signs of strain when Hernan Cortés and 600 conquistadors entered the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, in 1519.

Topics for Classroom Discussion 1. There is now evidence that the Ancestral People (Anasazi) practiced cannibalism.

There is much more evidence (at least historical reports) that the Aztecs practiced cannibalism. This is probably the time and place to discuss cannibalism in its various forms (ritual, gustatory, and survival). What set of environmental circumstances may have driven the Aztec (or even the Anasazi) to this practice? What does Michael Harner add to this discussion? What are the counter arguments to Harner’s ideas?

2. A wonderful discussion of cultural ecology is possible here with the lecture on the collapse of the Mayan civilization. What was the pattern of growth of the lowland Maya? When did their civilization collapse? What factors led to it? Are there any lessons here for us (the world’s greatest agricultural civilization)?

Web Destinations 1. Why is it that the Hieroglypic Staircase was constructed? What does this say about the rulers of Copán in general? http://www.gorp.com/gorp/location/latamer/arc_camr.htm 2. Visit the following website and trace the various links to information on the site of Teotihuacán: http://archaeology.la.asu.edu/teo/. What special architectural features are obvious from the photos? What is significant about the layout of the city? Who built it and why?

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3. Explain how the Toltecs filled a power vacuum when the Maya civilization collapsed and how they accomplished their takeover. See the following website for more information. http://www.mexconnect.com/mex_/hpostclassic1.html.

Multiple Choice Questions 1. The roots of which civilization went back at least 1,500 years before Spanish conquest? a. Maya b. Aztec c. Yanomamo d. Inca 2. The inland basin of this area was the center of political and economic life in highland Mesoamerica. a. b. c. d.

the Yucatán Veracruz Valley of Oaxaca Valley of Mexico

3. The Maya lowlands are located at a. b. c. d.

the Yucatán.

Veracruz. the Valley of Oaxaca. the Valley of Mexico.

4. Sedentary villages throughout Mesoamerica were common by a. 5000 B.C. b. 3000 B.C. c. 2000 B.C. d. 1000 B.C. 5. The first signs of political and social complexity occur in many parts of highland and lowland Mesoamerica during the Formative, or a. b. c. d.

Preclassic era.

Classic era.

Postclassic era.

Ancient era.

6. They lived along the Mexican South Gulf Coast from about 1500 to 500 B.C. 114 ..

a. b. c. d.

Tolmec Aztec Olmec Maya

7. Some of the earliest Olmec settlement comes from a platform at a. b. c. d.

Chichén Itzá.

Tula.

San Lorenzo.

Copan.

8. One of the most spectacular Olmec sites, built on an island in the middle of a swamp, featuring long, low mounds surrounding a rectangular plaza; destroyed around 400 B.C. a. Chichén Itzá b. Tula c. La Venta d. Copán 9. Nakbe’s temple facades reflect the emerging notion of ch’ul ahau, or a. ritual cannibalism. b. immortality. c. divine kingship. d. human sacrifice.

10. Nakbe slid into complete political and economic obscurity as this neighbor rose to prominence. a. Copán b. Palenque c. Tula d. El Mirador 11. The central institution of lowland Maya civilization. a. b. c. d.

shamans gods kingship demons

12. The earliest recorded Mayan monarch.

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a. Great Jaguar Paw b. Yax-Ch’aktel-Xok c. Yax-Moch-Xoc d. Chan-Bahlum 13. A Mayan city-state in the southern lowlands, its ceremonial precinct covered about 2 square kilometers; its residential area covered 20 square kilometers. a. Calakmul b. Palenque c. Tikal d. Copán 14. The “Hieroglyphic Staircase” is situated in a. Palenque. b. Copán. c. Chichén Itzá. d. Tikal.

15. The Mayan ruler who built the Temple of Inscriptions. a. b. c. d.

Pacal the Great Great Jaguar Paw Lord Water Jaguar-Quetzal

16. Known to archaeologists as the Acropolis. a. b. c. d.

Monte Alban Copán Nakbe Cerros

17. What factors lay at the center of the Mayan collapse? a. b. c. d.

economic political religious ecological

18. The urban core of Copán boasted a population density of a. 500 per sq. km. b. 750 per sq. km. c. 2000 per sq. km.

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d. 8000 per sq. km.

19. Oaxacan leaders controlled monopolies over a. copper. b. quetzals. c. jade. d. obsidian.

20. Much Olmec pottery contains images of this important motif. a. human-quetzal b. human-butterfly c. human-snake d. human-jaguar 21. This city straddled 3 hills, had at least 15 residential subdivisions, and its population rose to a peak of about 30,000 between 200 and 350 B.C. a. Teotihuacán b. Cuicuilco c. Monte Alban d. Oaxaca 22. This city was competing with Cuicuilco for leadership over the Valley of Mexico until Cuicuilco was completely destroyed by an erupting volcano. a. Teotihuacán b. Copan c. Monte Alban d. Oaxaca 23. Archaeologist Linda Manzanilla located areas of high phosphate readings among Teotihuacán’s barrios, where a. garbage had rotted. b. tortillas were prepared. c. stucco was made. d. jewelry was crafted.

24. Teotihuacán was a unique city, covering at least 21 square kilometers, and a major place of a. trade. b. warfare. c. food production.

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d. pilgrimage.

25. The Toltec ruler Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl moved the capital to Tollan, or “The Place of a. b. c. d.

Fire.”

Gold.”

Gods.”

Reeds.”

26. According to legend, Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl rose to heaven and turned into a. the sun. b. the moon. c. the Morning Star. d. a comet.

27. This civilization filled the vacuum left by the collapse of the Toltecs. a. Aztec b. Olmec c. Maya d. Inca 28. The greatest leader of the Aztecs; the sixth tlatoani, or “speaker.” a. b. c. d.

Ahuitzotl Itzcoatl Tlacaelel Tezozomoc

29. The Aztec capitol was a. Teotihuacán. b. Tenochtitlán. c. Tehuacán. d. Tula.

30. Hernan Cortés landed in Vera Cruz in 1519, or the Aztec year a. 3 reed. b. 2 reed. c. 1 reed. d. 0 reed.

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Essay Questions 31. Describe the environment and society that we call the Olmec. What is it that makes it special in the eyes of archaeologists?

32. What are the factors that led to the collapse of Classic Maya civilization? Explain these as best as you can.

33. Relate the rise of the Aztec Empire. Is this much different than the rise of the Roman Empire?

34. Describe the factors that seem to have led to the downfall of Teotihuacán.

35. What environmental conditions existed at Tenochtitlán, Mexico when the Aztecs began to build their new capital? What changes occurred to the surrounding area as building and population grew?

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Chapter 16: Andean Civilizations Chapter Overview I.

The Maritime Foundations of Andean Civilization

II. Coastal Foundations (2500 to 900 B.C.) A. Caral B. El Paraíso and Huaca Florida III. The Early Horizon and Chavín de Huántar (900 to 200 B.C.) IV. The Initial Period A. Irrigation Agriculture Inland (After 1800 B.C.) B. Lake Titicaca Basin: Chiripa and Pukara (1000 B.C. to A.D. 100) V. The Moche State (200 B.C. to A.D. 700) Box 16.1: Discovery: The Lords of Sipán, Peru VI. The Middle Horizon: Tiwanaku and Wari (600 to 1000) A. Tiwanaku B. Wari VII. The Late Intermediate Period: Sicán and Chimu (700 to 1460) VIII. The Late Horizon: The Inka State (1476 to 1534) Box 16.2: Site: Cuzco, the Imperial Inka Capital IX. The Spanish Conquest (1532 to 1534)

Overview The earliest complex societies of coastal Peru may have developed as a result of the intensive exploitation of maritime resources, especially small fish easily netted from canoes.

In time, abundant food surpluses, growing population densities, and larger settlements may have preadapted coastal people to intensive irrigation agriculture. These societies were organized in increasingly complex ways.

During the Initial Period, large monumental structures appeared, many of them Ushaped, just before and during the transition toward greater dependence on maize agriculture.

This was also a period of continuous interaction and extensive trade between the coast and the highlands.

The culmination of this trend is seen in various local traditions, among them the famous Chavín style. Chavín de Huantar, once thought to have been the source of Peruvian civilization, is now known to be a late manifestation of cultural trends that began as early as 2000 B.C., the so-called Early Horizon of Andean prehistory.

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After the Early Horizon ended, about 200 B.C., a series of coastal kingdoms developed between 200 B.C. and A.D. 700, the political and economic influence of which spread beyond their immediate valley homelands.

These states included Moche, remarkable for its fine pottery styles and expert alloy and gold metallurgy, which flourished between 200 B.C. and A.D. 700.

About A.D. 1375, Chimu, with its great capital at Chan Chan on the northern coast, dominated a wide area of the lowlands. Its compounds reflect a stratified state with many expert craftspeople and a complex material culture.

During the Late Horizon of Peruvian prehistory (A.D. 1400 to 1534), there was a unification of the highlands and the lowlands under the Inka Empire, which may have emerged as early as 1200 and lasted until the Spanish conquest in 1532-1534.

The Inka rulers were masters of bureaucracy and military organization and governed a highly structured state—one, however, that was so weakened by civil war and disease that it fell easily to the conquistador Francisco Pizarro and his small army of adventurers.

Topics for Classroom Discussion 1. Contrast the wonderful fishery of the coastal region of Peru to that of the harsh drought conditions of the same region. A discussion of how these two factors worked together to produce some of the greatest known early civilizations will demonstrate how powerful environment is to the advent of civilization.

2. Discuss the fall of the Inka Empire. How was Francisco Pizarro so able to take down this once mighty empire? What were the various factors that led to his easy victory? What other stories out of history are there like this? Have your students research this point.

Web Destinations 1. After reviewing the following websites, summarize the destruction of Moche society. http://chrestomathy.cofc.edu/documents/vol1/proffitt.pdf http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/horizon/peru_prog_summary.shtml http://www.readersread.com/excerpts/elnino.htm

2. Who were the Chimu? What type of artistry did they produce? What happened to them? http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Chan_Chan.aspx http://www.tiwanakuarcheo.net/1_main/hydrauliccomm.html 3. How did the Inka get to be the greatest civilization of Andean South America? See the following websites for information on this society. http://www.42explore2.com/inca.htm http://www.camelotintl.com/world/01Inkas.html

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Multiple Choice Questions 1. Tawantinsuyu, "The Land of the Four Quarters," is a name used for a. the tropical rain forest of Upper Amazonia. b. the desert area where Chinese civilization developed. c. Southern Peru. d. the Inka empire.

2. Over many centuries, two “poles” of Andean civilization developed, the one along the northern coast of what is now , the other in the south-central Andes. a. Chile b. Colombia c. Argentina d. Peru 3. Which is the oldest of the U-shaped ceremonial complexes? a. b. c. d.

Chavín de Huántar El Paraíso Huaca Florida Sechin Alto

4. As Chavín de Huántar rose to prominence in the northern highlands, a separate Early Horizon tradition of complex society, Chiripa, developed a. on the southern shore of Lake Titicaca. b. in the Cuzco Valley. c. in the desert of Northern Peru. d. on the Nazca Plains.

5. What is the "mother culture" for all later Andean civilizations? a. b. c. d.

the U-shaped ceremonial complexes the Chavín art style the Chavín de Huántar ceremonial center the Early Horizon

6. The earliest appearance of a stone-carving tradition at Lake Titicaca is located at a. Chiripa. b. Lima. c. Pisco.

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d. Sipan.

7. Pukara a. was a major center northwest of Lake Titicaca. b. was confined to the Northern Titicaca Basin. c. had widespread trade connections with other communities. d. all of the above 8. The Moche lived at the mercy of droughts and a. the Inka emperor. b. the people of Pampa Grande. c. the Tiwanaku and Wari. d. El Niño.

9. The Lord of Sipan belonged to which great Andean civilization? a. b. c. d.

Inka Wari Moche Chimu

10. What is the main source of our knowledge about the Moche state? a. b. c. d.

Moche paintings irrigation systems monuments undisturbed burials

11. What distinguished Andean state-organized societies from states elsewhere in the prehistoric world? a. b. c. d.

art religious beliefs organization cosmology

12. Moche civilization collapsed within a half century of a a. b. c. d.

great earthquake. huge fire. persistent drought. failed coup.

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13. This city includes the great enclosure of Kalasasaya, and an anthropomorphic god called Viracocha. a. b. c. d.

Moche Tiwanaku Wari Chavín

14. This culture's art shows some Pukara influence, including motifs that feature anthropomorphic feline, eagle, and serpent beings. a. b. c. d.

15.

Moche Tiwanaku Wari Chavín Chan Chan

a. is a Peruvian folk dance. b. is the name of the desert north of the Nazca Plain. c. was a Chimu center. d. is a deadly poison used by Amazon Indians.

16. Which of the following is true of Sican culture? a. b. c. d.

It filled the vacuum left by the decline of the Moche in the Montaro Basin.

It was remarkable for its magnificent gold work.

It reached its peak between 1100 and 1450. all of the above

17. The lost city of the Inkas. a. b. c. d.

Sipan Machu Picchu Cerro Baul Lima

18. Split inheritance a. b. c. d.

was practiced by Chimu rulers. played a major role in Inka civilization. stated that each ruler inherited no material possessions to finance his reign. all of the above

19. Who conquered the Chimu in the 1460s?

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a. the Inka b. the Moche c. Pukara d. the Spanish 20. The Late Horizon of Peruvian archaeology a. dates from A.D. 1476 to 1534. b. is the period of the Inka Empire. c. is the shortest horizon of Peruvian archaeology. d. all of the above 21.

The Inka a. were organized into kin groups called ayllu. b. originally settled in the Upper Moche Valley, from where they spread to the highlands. c. made Machu Picchu their capital. d. all of the above

22. The earliest Inka rulers were probably sinchi, or a. foreigners. b. powerful elders. c. young males, related by marriage. d. petty war leaders.

23. The powerful leader Virarocha Inka during the fifteenth century became a. the living god. b. a slave. c. a sacrifice. d. a quetzal.

24. The only wealth in the highland kingdom. a. gold b. taxable labor c. trade d. looting 25. At the time of the Spanish conquest, the Inka controlled the lives of as many as a. 60 million. b. 6 million. c. 600,000.

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d. 60,000.

26. The capital city of the Inka was a. Cuzco. b. Machu Picchu. c. Curaca. d. Quechua.

27. In what year did Pizarro land in Peru? a. b. c. d.

1435 1525 1532 1560

28. The Inka society was divided into how many age divisions for the purpose of census and tax assessment? a. b. c. d.

4 8 12 24

29. The name of the Inka empire. a. Tawantinsuyu b. Tenochtitlán c. Peru d. Chinchorro 30. The earliest complex societies of coastal Peru may have developed as a result of the intensive exploitation of a. precious metals. b. conquered states. c. maritime resources. d. the lima bean.

Essay Questions 31. Why was the Inka Empire known as “Tawantinsuyu”?

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32. What is so special about the fishery that exists off of the coast of Peru? How did these resources lead to civilization, according to Michael Moseley?

33. Who were the Chimu? What is split inheritance? Why was this of importance to the Chimu and Inka?

34. What led to the destruction of the Moche state? Is this a natural or artificial cause?

Explain.

35. Julio Tello identified a distinctive art style in stone, ceramics, and precious metals over a wide area of highland Peru. What did he name this style? What was the significance of this style?

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Chapter 17: So You Want to Become an Archaeologist Chapter Outline

I. Archaeology as a Profession A. Deciding to Become an Archaeologist B. Gaining Fieldwork Experience C. Career Opportunities II. Academic Qualifications and Graduate School III. Thoughts on Not Becoming a Professional Archaeologist IV. Our Responsibilities to the Past V. A Simple Code of Archaeological Ethics for All

Overview This chapter summarized the essential qualities of someone seeking to become an archaeologist and lay out some of the career opportunities.

Career opportunities for professional archaeologists can be found in universities, colleges, museums, government service, and private businesses, both in the United States and abroad.

Most archaeological jobs require at least an M.A. degree and very often a Ph.D. Do not consider becoming a professional archaeologist unless you have an above-average academic record, some field experience, strong support from your professors, and a moral commitment not to collect artifacts for profit.

Even people who have no intention of becoming professional archaeologists can gain digging experience by attending a field school or by going on a dig abroad.

Archaeology can give you insight into the past and the potential for involvement as an informed layperson. It will also enable you to enjoy the major archaeological sites of the world in a unique way and to aid in archaeologists' attempts to preserve the past.

All of us have ethical responsibilities to the past: not to collect artifacts; to report new finds; and to obey federal, state, and tribal laws that protect archaeological sites. Unless we all take our responsibility to the past seriously, the past has no future.

Topics for Classroom Discussion 1. One of the fun things I do during the very first class of the semester is ask students to write down their impressions of what they think archaeologists are like and then show 128 ..

the first 20 minutes of Raiders of the Lost Ark. We then discuss their impressions, the opening scene of the movie (which is great entertainment) and what anthropological archaeology is. Obviously these 3 points of view are quite different. I do not want to kill the fun of archaeology. What I do instead is try to make the connection for students that archaeologists are scientists researching questions. This is fun! It is challenging. In fact, it is much like being a detective. This may be the students’ first exposure to a scientist and seeing what they do through their own eyes; however this might be the best introduction to this subject of them all.

2. Somewhere in this course (while teaching this chapter, perhaps) it would be wise to go over the qualifications to get into graduate school in general, and archaeology, specifically. Just as the author does, perhaps you should discuss the personal attributes that make a good archaeologist: academically inclined, at home in the field (camping), good writing skills, and good managerial skills, etc. And one more thing for sure, a nearly burning desire to know why people do what they do! At some point in this discussion, you may want to discuss the lifestyle of the CRM archaeologist and the lifestyle of the university or college archaeologist. Even the joys of publishing, as well as the agonies of rejection! Anyway, have fun. You get to showcase your own profession. Someone may be listening.

Web Destinations 1. Go to the website titled “Frequently Asked Questions About a Career in Archaeology in the U.S.” at http://www.museum.state.il.us/ismdepts/anthro/dlcfaq.html. What types of positions are there? What are the requirements for these?

2. “Field Schools and Fieldwork Opportunities” exist at these websites: http://www.archaeological.org/webinfo.php?page=10016 or http://www.aaanet.org/profdev/fieldschools/index.cfm. They should give you ideas as to what to expect.

3. Please go to the American Anthropological Society website to view even more field opportunities: http://www.aaanet.org/ar/fs/fschool.htm On this page you will find many places at which people may pay to have the epitome of the archaeological experience. Note the prices. These prices do not include airfare to your location!

Multiple Choice Questions 1. Modern day archaeology is often fascinating and sometimes conducted in remote lands. The discipline is also

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a. highly technical. b. somewhat technical. c. analytical. d. monotonous.

2. The spectacular discoveries made by archaeologists are a. common occurrences. b. few and far between. c. a unique reward. d. a group effort.

3. NOT one of the personal qualities of archaeologists. a. adaptability b. wealth c. enthusiasm d. a sense of humor 4. Archaeological research today is a. somewhat specialized. b. broad-based. c. highly specialized. d. individualized.

5. An education in archaeology should begin as being a. somewhat specialized. b. broadly-based. c. highly specialized. d. individualized.

6. An education in archaeology should include a thorough and broad education in a. ecological studies. b. biological and cultural anthropology. c. environmental studies. d. physical sciences.

7. In order to develop a multidisciplinary perspective, an education in archaeology should include as many courses as possible in a. unrelated disciplines. b. archaeology. c. advanced method and theory.

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d. related disciplines.

8. While an undergraduate, it is important to gain experience in a. advanced methods and theories. b. the field and laboratory. c. related disciplines. d. archaeology.

9. As an undergraduate, the opportunities to go in the field are a. better than ever before. b. good if you know where to look. c. better after you graduate. d. good only if you use personal contacts.

10. Because jobs are rare and the competition intense, it is not a great time to become a. an archaeologist. b. an academic archaeologist. c. employed by the private sector. d. employed by the government.

11. Most archaeology in North America is administered or carried out by a. academic archaeologists. b. self-employed archaeologists. c. government and private sectors. d. teams of academic archaeologists.

12. In the past, almost all archaeologists worked in museums or research facilities as a. academic archaeologists. b. self-employed archaeologists. c. government and private sector employees. d. teams of academic archaeologists.

13. Undergraduate and graduate training is dominated by a. academic archaeology. b. government and private sectors. c. research archaeology. d. field archaeology.

14. Most academic archaeology in American universities is NOT carried out in

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a. Europe. b. Mesoamerica. c. the Andes. d. North America.

15. If you want to become an academic archaeologist, beware of becoming a. highly technical. b. over-specialized. c. over-educated. d. broadly-educated.

16. A career in managing and saving the archaeological record is in a. academic archaeology. b. public archaeology. c. museum jobs. d. conservation jobs.

17. All archaeologists are concerned with careful stewardship of the a. conservation of artifacts. b. archaeological sites. c. human past. d. pre-historical past.

18. Entry level archaeologists will find the best opportunities and career potential in a. academic archaeology. b. the private sector. c. larger companies. d. government.

19. Most public archaeology activity operates through a. academic archaeology. b. private sectors. c. larger companies. d. government.

20. An undergraduate degree in archaeology qualifies you to work a. as a faculty member at a research university. b. in private and government sectors. c. at most larger companies. d. as a gofer at excavations and digs.

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21. A Master of Arts degree qualifies you to work a. as a faculty member at a research university. b. in private and government sectors. c. in research only. d. as a gofer at excavations and digs.

22. The Ph.D. is a specialized degree that will qualify you to work a. as a faculty member at a research university. b. in private and government sectors. c. in research only. d. as a gopher at excavations and digs.

23. The destruction of archaeological sites continues through the a. inaction by disinterested citizens. b. demand for antiquities. c. profession of archaeology. d. tourist industry.

24. Modest antiquities fetch high prices in international markets because a. archaeologists seldom sell what they have found. b. supply far exceeds demand. c. demand far exceeds supply. d. artifacts are worth their weight in gold.

25. Part of our ethical responsibilities to the past does NOT include a. reporting new finds. b. recording the location of any collected artifacts. c. respecting the sanctity of all burial sites. d. obeying tribal laws.

26. One of the tasks of a beginning teacher of archaeology is to a. recruit people to the field. b. create an “in-group” who knows about radiocarbon testing. c. create what the National Science Foundation calls “an informed citizenry.” d. teach all you know about American archaeology.

27. Archaeology depends on informed amateur archaeologists who a. volunteer on excavations.

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b. volunteer in museums. c. volunteer in laboratories. d. all of the above 28. There is a strong tradition of amateur scholarship in archaeology, especially in a. Europe. b. the U.S. c. Africa. d. Mexico.

29. Archaeology could not function without a. money. b. the government. c. investors. d. volunteers.

30. The quiet philanthropy of volunteers has a. endowed professorships. b. paid for excavations. c. supported students. d. all of the above

Essay Questions 31. What are the future opportunities in academic archaeology? What are the future opportunities in Cultural Resource Management? Why the discrepancy?

32. How might a serious student of archaeology receive field experience or training in archaeology?

33. What are the requirements to enter graduate school in archaeology? What type of study does one do in graduate school?

34. What is the value of taking an introductory course in archaeology, assuming that you are not going to be a professional?

35. What are the basic ethics of archaeology?

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Answer Key Chapter 1

Multiple Choice 1.a,6 2.a,6 3.c,6 4.c,6 5.a,8 6.d,9 7.b,9 8.c,8 9.d,9 10.a,10 11.c,11 12.d,12 13.a,14 14.b,14 15.c,14 16.d,14 17.a,14 18.d,14 19.c,14 20.d,19 21.a,20 22.c,23 23.a,26 24.d,29 25.b,8 26.b,10 27.d,10 28.b,10 29.d,20 30.b,22 Chapter 2

Multiple Choice 1.b,31 2.b,45 3.b,32 4.b,33 5.a,34 6.c,33 7.d,37-40 8.a,36 9.c,37 10.a,39 11.d,40 12.b,41 13.c,42 14.d,42 15.d,42 16.b,43 17.c,43 18.a,44 19.b,45 20.c,45 21.a,50 22.c,51 23.b,51 24.a,52 25.d,54 26.a,45 27.b,46 28.c,46 29.c,48 30.d,49 Chapter 3

Multiple Choice 1.d,60 2.b,61 3.b,59 4.d,61 5.d,61 6.b,65 7.b,65 8.c,66 9.d,63 10.a,64 11.d,66 12.b,61 13.a,70 14.d,70 15.b,63 16.b,71 17.d,71 18.b,78 19.a,78 20.c,78 21.d,79 22.c,80 23.b,80 24.b,83 25.a,81 26.b,86 27.c,86 28.d,86 29.b,85 30.a,86 Chapter 4

Multiple Choice 1.b,90 2.b,90 3.a,90 4.b,92 5.d,92 6.a,90 7.c,92 8.a,92 9.a,94 10.b,95 11.b,95 12.d,91 13.b,97 14.d,97 15.c,98 16.b,98 17.c,101 18.b,99 19.a,108 20.a,108 21.d,108 22.c,109 23.a,111 24.b,111 25.a,113 26.b,114 27.b,115 28.a,117 29.d,122 30.c,122 Chapter 5

Multiple Choice 1.c,129 2.d,130 3.a,130 4.b,130 5.a,130 6.a,130 7.a,131 8.a,131 9.b,131 10.c,131 11.b,132 12.d,133 13.c,134 14.a,134 15.b,135 16.c,135 17.c,135 18.b,136 19.d,137 20.c,137 21.b,137 22.a,137 23.c,139 24.b,140 25.c,141 26.d,141 27.b,141 28.a,142 29.a,143 30.d,143 Chapter 6

Multiple Choice 1.b,150 2.a,150 3.b,150 4.d,150 5.d,150 6.b,150 7.b,150 8.a,151 9.c,151 10.c,151 11.d,151 12.b,151 13.a,154 14.b,155 15.c,156 16.d,155 17.a,155 18.d,155 19.c,157 20.a,158 21.d,175 22.d,159 23.b,159 24.b,162 25.a,163 26.c,165 27.a,164 28.c,169 29.a,172 30.c,169

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Chapter 7

Multiple Choice 1.a,179 2.c,178 3.d,179 4.b,179 5.a,192 6.c,179 7.d,182 8.c,181 9.c,182 10.c,182 11.d,182 12.a,184 13.a,182 14.b,182 15.b,182 16.a,183 17.c,183 18.b,183 19.a,185 20.d,187 21.c,189 22.a,190 23.a,192 24.d,192 25.c,192 26.a,193 27.b,194 28.c,196 29.a,195 30.a,198 Chapter 8

Multiple Choice 1.d,208 2.d,208 3.c,226 4.b,208 5.d,233 6.b,211 7.c,209 8.c,211 9.b,209 10.a,210 11.c,210 12.d,210 13.c,211 14.a,213 15.d,213 16.c,214 17.d,214 18.b,213 19.a,214 20.c,216 21.d,217 22.d,217 23.d,217 24.a,219 25.b,220 26.b,221 27.d,223 28.a,226 29.d,228 30.c,220 Chapter 9

Multiple Choice 1.c,238 2.b,238 3.a,238 4.a,238 5.b,239 6.a,240 7.c,239 8.d,241 9.d,242 10.d,243 11.b,250 12.d,245 13.a,249 14.a,249 15.c,247 16.b,256 17.b,249 18.c,251 19.b,251 20.a,251 21.d,253 22.a,253 23.d,254 24.a,253 25.d,256 26.c,256 27.c,256 28.a,256 29.b,257 30.b,261 Chapter 10

Multiple Choice 1.c,271 2.c,271 3.b,271 4.c,273 5.d,274 6.a,271 7.c,273 8.a,274 9.c,274 10.b,274 11.c,275 12.d,275 13.a,292 14.b,271 15.c,276 16.d,275 17.b,277 18.b,277 19.a,277 20.d,278 21.d,280 22.a,282 23.b,281 24.a,283 25.a,284 26.b,284 27.d,285 28.d,287 29.b,287 30.a,291 Chapter 11

Multiple Choice 1.b,300 2.b,300 3.d,300 4.c,301 5.c,301 6.a,304 7.b,304 8.b,303 9.d,304 10.b,305 11.c,320 12.d,305 13.d,307 14.d,306 15.a,308 16.d,308 17.b,309 18.c,309 19.b,310 20.d,324 21.c,310 22.c,311 23.a,311 24.a,312 25.d,311 26.b,313 27.d,314 28.a,316 29.b,317 30.d,324 Chapter 12

Multiple Choice 1.a,330 2.d,331 3.a,332 4.b,333 5.d,334 6.a,331 7.d,338 8.d,339 9.c,333 10.b,331 11.b,333 12.c,334 13.a,336 14.b,352 15.b,336 16.c,337 17.b,334 18.a,333 19.c,339 20.d,339 21.c,339 22.a,339 23.d,343 24.b,339 25.c,341 26.b,345 27.d,342 28.d,344 29.b,344 30.c,354

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Chapter 13

Multiple Choice 1.b,357 2.a,357 3.c,358 4.b,359 5.c,360 6.a,361 7.d,361 8.d,368 9.c,362 10.c,362 11.a,362 12.d,362 13.a,361 14.c,361 15.a,362 16.c,363 17.d,364 18.d,363 19.c,365 20.a,365 21.a,365 22.c,366 23.b,366 24.b,367 25.d,367 26.c,368 27.d,369 28.a,369 29.a,370 30.d,371 Chapter 14

Multiple Choice 1.d,379 2.a,379 3.b,379 4.a,380 5.b,379 6.d,381 7.c,381 8.c,382 9.c,382 10.d,382 11.b,383 12.d,383 13.d,383-387 14.a,385 15.d,385 16.d,385 17.a,385 18.a,386 19.c,387 20.c,395 21.d,388 22.d,391 23.b,391 24.d,391 25.a,392 26.d,393 27.a,393 28.a,394 29.c,396 30.c,401 Chapter 15

Multiple Choice 1.b,404 2.d,404 3.a,404 4.c,405 5.a,405 6.c,405 7.c,405 8.c,405 9.c,407 10.d,408 11.c,409 12.b,411 13.a,411 14.b,411 15.a,411 16.b,412 17.d,413 18.d,415 19.d,414 20.d,416 21.c,417 22.a,417 23.a,420 24.d,419 25.d,421 26.c,421 27.a,422 28.a,423 29.b,423 30.c,427 Chapter 16

Multiple Choice 1.d,430 2.d,431 3.b,434 4.a,439 5.b,437 6.a,438 7.d,438 8.d,439 9.c,439 10.d,440 11.d,438 12.a,440 13.b,442 14.c,443 15.c,445 16.b,444 17.b,430 18.d,445 19.a,446 20.d,446 21.a,448 22.d,446 23.a,446 24.b,447 25.b,449 26.a,448 27.c,449 28.c,448 29.a,448 30.c,432 Chapter 17

Multiple Choice 1.a,455 2.b,455 3.b,456 4.c,459 5.b,457 6.b,457 7.d,457 8.b,457 9.a,457 10.b,457 11.c,458 12.a,457 13.a,457 14.d,458 15.b,458 16.b,458 17.c,458 18.c,458 19.d,458 20.d,459 21.b,459 22.a,459 23.b,460 24.c,461 25.b,462 26.c,460 27.d,460 28.a,460 29.d,460 30.d,460

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