The Art and Science of Leadership 8th Edition
Instructor’s Manual Afsaneh Nahavandi Knauss School of Business University of San Diego
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SECTION ONE: INTRODUCTION
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Since the first edition of The Art and Science of Leadership was published, the call for effective leadership has been growing. Leading people effectively is a tremendous challenge, a great opportunity, and a serious responsibility. Recent events all over the world have demonstrated the critical role and importance of leaders. Our organizations and institutions, more than ever, need effective leaders who understand the complexities of our dynamic global environment, who have the intelligence, knowledge, and skills to deal with complex problems, and who have the sensitivity and ability to empathize with their followers to motivate them to strive for excellence. While some consider leadership to be a magical process, and certain leaders may indeed be endowed with innate gifts, there is no question that leaders are not just “born”— they are both “born and made.” We can all learn to lead better through self-awareness of our strengths and weakness and potential contributions, by building our knowledge and skills base, practicing our craft, and focusing on the journey to grow and improve. Helping current and future leaders is the goal of this book. Our educational landscape and our organizations are experiencing fundamental changes that must be addressed and managed: •
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The present generation of students, particularly at the undergraduate level, is increasingly impatient with lengthy reading material. They respond well to short readings and videos and engage well when working in teams. They expect the same work-life (school-life) balance, personal relevance and applicability, and feedback in the classroom that they famously demand when they join the workforce. Our current students have a lively interest in social, cultural, and environmental issues. They have grown-up in more culturally-diverse environments than their parents have where cultural issues, and social and environmental justice are often key drivers. The focus on Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) and environmental issues is further echoed by the many younger faculty who are part of the Millennial and GenZ generations. Accrediting agencies are mirroring the need to address DEI, social and environmental justice, globalization, the changing needs of organizations, and a new diverse workforce. The social, economic, and organizational crises brought on by the COVID global pandemic, and political and social events in recent years, have further precipitated the need to prepare future leaders for a turbulent future. Technology allows us to have more dynamic and interactive content, and easily connect students in and out of the classroom with engaging material beyond the textbook and the classroom.
I have been teaching leadership at undergraduate, master’s, and PhD levels since 1983. I wrote the first edition of The Art and Science of Leadership (1997) because I could not find a text that was thorough, integrative, and readable, and that provided a balance of theory and practice. Since then, every subsequent edition has been guided by my own education and research, and by extensive interactions with and feedback from students, adopters, and reviewers. Based on that information, what makes this textbook unique and successful is: .
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Readability and accessibility for various academic levels ranging from freshmen to master’s and PhD levels Balance of theory and practice with numerous real-life examples from different industries and sectors that illustrate application of theories Attention to culture, whether at the group and diversity levels, or at the national level, as a key contextual factor in leadership Many end-of-chapter exercises, assessments, and pedagogical features to reinforce application of concepts An “agnostic,” integrative, critical, and practical approach to leadership with equal coverage of various concepts and theories
NEW TO THIS EDITION This new edition keeps the key features of the book and addresses the many current challenges that we face. In addition to updates to integrate the most current leadership research and examples, the 8th edition includes the following changes: 1. An integrated and expanded coverage of culture is provided at the national and group levels (e.g., race, ethnicity, and gender) to address cross-cultural leadership situations and the challenges and opportunities that DEI presents. It is essential that students develop a Cultural Mindset that makes them aware of the role and the impact of culture on them and those they work with, and that prepares them to fully consider culture when interacting with others. 2. Special attention is given to the challenges and opportunities that constant change and crises present. Future leaders must understand the nature and impact of change on organizations and be prepared to navigate unknown and unpredictable situations. 3. I am introducing the THINK-KNOW-DO (TKD) roadmap to culture and leadership that I have used in my teaching for the past 10 years, and integrating it throughout the book. The roadmap emphasizes self-awareness of culture, strengths, and weaknesses, as well as cognition and biases (THINK); development of specific knowledge of concepts and context (KNOW); and application to practice (DO). 4. Dated references have been eliminated, while essential critical concepts have been retained, and current examples and research have been added.
SOLVING TEACHING AND LEARNING CHALLENGES This text includes numerous opportunities to put the concepts discussed in the text into practice, including the THINK-KNOW-DO (TKD) roadmap that is used as an overall framework to help students build their leadership toolbox and become more effective leaders by: 1.
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Becoming more aware of their perspectives, strengths, and areas of potential growth (THINK) v
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Acquiring knowledge about leadership theory and practice (KNOW) Applying what they learn about themselves and leadership concepts to assess and solve challenges and problems they may face (DO)
Every chapter further includes several applied learning opportunities: • • • • • • • •
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A “Leadership Question” that focuses attention on the practical applications of the material covered in the chapter A “Stepping into Leadership” feature that specifically addresses how new leaders can use and apply the material they are reading to develop their leadership toolbox “The Leadership Challenge” scenario that encourages readers to apply specific leadership concepts to address a challenge that leaders may face A “What Do You Do” dilemma that presents an opportunity to solve a leadership problem An “Applying What You Learn” list that provides specific guidelines on how to apply various chapter concepts End-of-Chapter self-assessments that encourage students to explore their leadership strengths and opportunities for growth End-of-Chapter exercises that integrate chapter material and require students to work either individually or in groups to apply concepts to solve problems An End-of-Chapter case written specifically to illustrate the chapter concepts in a real-life leadership situation that entails assessing a problem and recommending alternative solutions An End-of-Chapter summary based on the TKD roadmap that highlights what students have learned
TABLE OF CONTENTS OVERVIEW All chapters have been extensively revised and updated to include new research, new examples, and figures. In addition, specific changes to the chapters include: • Chapter 1 introduces the THINK-KNOW-DO (TKD) roadmap as the framework for the book, and its integration in each chapter to provide students with a roadmap to becoming more effective leaders. • A new Chapter 2 presents the contributions of foundational theories of leadership (Chapter 3 in 7th ed) while highlighting the shortcomings of a single perspective (mostly Western) •
approach. New Chapters 3 and 4 offer an expanded and integrated coverage of culture and DEI (combined in Chapter 2 in 7th edition) to help students develop a cultural mindset through: • •
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DEI and gender, covered in detail in Chapter 3 National culture, including Hofstede and Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE), presented in Chapter 4
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A new Chapter 5 focuses on self-awareness and individual differences (covered in Chapter 4 in the 7th edition), and presents the latest material on the importance and role of perceptual processes in leadership, including a discussion of cognitive biases and their impact. Chapter 6 updates the coverage of power (covered in Chapter 5 in the 7 th edition) and provides new material on ethical leadership. Chapter 7 presents the latest research on current models of leadership, including charismatic, transformational, authentic, and positive (covered in Chapter 6 in the 7th edition); and includes new material on followership. Chapter 8 covers leading teams and integrates material about upper echelon teams, covered separately in Chapter 7 in the 7th edition. It further presents new material on the role of leaders in creating psychological safety in teams. Chapter 9 updates topics related to leading change, including new coverage of Kotter’s model and discussions of leading in times of crisis. Chapter 10 is extensively revised and updated with a focus on leader development using the THINK-KNOW-DO (TKD) roadmap introduced in Chapter 1 and highlighted in all other chapters. It further discusses achieving work-life balance, resilience, and happiness, and flourishing as critical elements of effective leadership.
New pedagogical features in all chapters include: • • • • • • • • • • • • •
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“Leading across cultures” in every chapter that emphasizes cultural differences in leadership A focus on first-time leaders/managers with examples of young leaders, and a new pedagogical feature, “Stepping into leadership,” in every chapter Discussion of the challenges of change and turbulence through examples of on-going changes to organizations, with a new pedagogical feature, “Leading in changing times,” in every chapter “Critical Thinking” questions in every chapter to encourage students to reflect on their experiences and to plan future action New cases at the end of all 10 chapters to help students to apply what they have learned Summary of learning at the end of every chapter, based on the Think-Know-Do (TKD) roadmap introduced in Chapter 1 as the framework for the book New and revised figures in every chapter that present the material visually to enhance learning and retention, and to support different modes of learning Attention to inclusive language and examples in the text, in self-assessments, and exercises An integrative approach that covers all leadership theories and concepts with the goal of helping students develop a broad and rich leadership toolbox An emphasis on past and current leadership research and theories and their applicability to becoming a more effective leader A focus on culture at the group (diversity) and global (national culture) levels A presentation of extensive current real-life examples throughout the chapters A focus on application through numerous end-of-chapter self-assessments and exercises vii
ACTIVITES AND PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES SUMMARY The table below presents a summary of all activities and pedagogical features in the chapters as well as end-of-chapter materials. The table indicates 1) whether the activities require individual or group work – in some cases both, 2) the approximate time needed to complete the activity, 3) the complexity level, and 4) whether the feature/activity can be used as a course assignment. Individual or group The rating of individual (I) or group (G) indicates whether students must work on this activity by themselves or in groups. In many cases both individual and group work can be included, as students can complete an individual section before moving to group activities. Some activities require no prior individual work or are too complex for individual students to complete alone. Others, such as the self-assessments, require mostly only individual work, although students can engage in group discussions regarding their assessments. Time needed The time estimates provided are an approximate minimum time required to complete an activity. Ten minutes is used as the base minimum, although many of the self-assessments are likely to take the students less than 10 minutes to complete. The majority of exercises requires around 30 minutes. The time needed will further vary depending on class size. Complexity level A rating of 1, 2, and 3 is used to evaluate the complexity level of each activity. • 1 = Low complexity This rating indicates simple exercises that do not require a high level of skill or major time commitment. For example, the first two activities (Exercises 1.1 and 1.2) are both rated as a “1.” They are both appropriate for getting the faculty and the student used to experiential exercises. Most of the self-assessments, which the students will be doing on their own, are also rated as low complexity. • 2 = Moderate complexity This rating indicates that the activity requires some skills and generally a time commitment of 30 minutes or longer. For example, Exercise 3.2 “Leadership and Gender,” and Exercise 6.2 “Who holds power in your organization?” are rated as a “2” because they require students to integrate information from the chapters in order to complete the exercise. • 3 = High complexity A rating of 3 indicates that the activity is complex and time consuming. Activities rated as a “3” either require complex role plays (e.g., Exercise 4.5 “Narian Bridges”), or complex integration and application of course concepts (e.g., Exercise 2.2, “Using the Normative decision model,” and Exercise 7.2 “Charismatic speech”).
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Course assignment This symbol in the table indicates that the activity is well suited for use as a course assignment - graded or otherwise.
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Individual (I) Time needed - Complexity Appropriate or Group (G) minutes level for course assignment Chapter 1 – LEADING IN A TURBULENT WORLD: DEFINITIONS AND ROADMAP What do you do? I and G 10 minutes 1 Leadership challenge: Moving to leadership I and G 15 minutes 1 Exercise 1.1: More than meets the eye – I or G 20 minutes 1 Characteristics of leaders Exercise 1.2: What is leadership I and G 25 minutes 1 Exercise 1.3: Images of leadership G 25 minutes 1 Exercise 1.4: Understanding the VUCA I and G 25 minutes 3 leadership context Leadership in action case: Should I make I or G 30 minutes 3 everyone come back just because a couple of people are not working well? Chapter 2 – THE FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN LEADERSHIP What do you do? I and G Exercise 2.1: The toy factory G Exercise 2.2: Using the Normative Decision I and G Model Self-assessment 2.1: Determining your LPC I Self-assessment 2.2: Assessing a leadership I situation Self-assessment 2.3: Identifying your in-group I and out-group Leadership in action case: Headaches of new I or G hires
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10 minutes 20 minutes
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Chapter 3 – LEADING WITH A CULTURAL MINDSET: CULTURAL DIVERSITY What do you do? I and G 10 minutes Leadership challenge: Invisible? I and G 15 minutes Exercise 3.1: Equality and equity I and G 15 minutes Exercise 3.2: Leadership and gender I and G Exercise 3.3: DEI statements I and G 45 minutes Self-assessment 3.1: Cultural identity I 15 minutes
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10 minutes 75 minutes 45 minutes
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Self-assessment 3.2: The implicit bias test Self-assessment 3.3: The stereotypes I hold Self-assessment 3.4: Exploring gender roles Leadership in action case: The inappropriate productive team member
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Depends on number completed 20 minutes 20 minutes 30 minutes
Chapter 4 – LEADING WITH A CULTURAL MINDSET: A GLOBAL WORLD What do you do? The bickering team I or G 10 minutes members Leadership challenge: Juggling cultures I or G 10 minutes Exercise 4.1: The washing machine ad I 10 minutes Exercise 4.2: World map I and G 10 minutes Exercise 4.3: Proverbs as a window to I and G 20 minutes leadership Exercise 4.4: How would you handle the I and G 10 minutes situation? Exercise 4.5: Narian Bridges G 60 minutes Self-assessment 4.1: What is your I 20 minutes cultural background? Self-assessment 4.2: Tight and loose I 10 minutes Self-assessment 4.3: Horizontal and vertical I 10 minutes Self-assessment 4.4: The Individual Cultural I 15 minutes Mindset Inventory – ICMI Leadership in action case: Grace in I or G 30 minutes Sidney
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Chapter 5 – SELF-AWARENESS AND PERCEPTION AS CORNERSTONES OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP What do you do? Assessing the new team I and G 10 minutes 1 member What do you do? The selfish contributor I and G 10 minutes 1 Leadership challenge: Using personality I and G 10 minutes 1 assessments Exercise 5.1: The mysterious case of the I and G 20 minutes 1 college exam Self-assessment 5.1: Value systems I 10 minutes 1 Self-assessment 5.2: Emotional I 10 minutes 1 intelligence Self-assessment 5.3: Creativity I 10 minutes 1 Self-assessment 5.4: Big Five Dimensions I 10 minutes 1 Self-assessment 5.5: Proactivity I 10 minutes 1 Self-assessment 5.6: Type A personality I 10 minutes 1 .
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Self-assessment 5.7: Narcissism I Leadership in action case: Uma’s I or G dilemma Chapter 6 – POWER AND ETHICAL LEADERSHIP What do you do? Handling freeloaders I and G Leadership challenge: The chain of I and G command Exercise 6.1: Words of Wisdom I and G Exercise 6.2: Who holds power in your I team/organization? Self-assessment 6.1: Understanding I your sources of power and influence Self-assessment 6.2: Views of power I Self-assessment 6.3: Recognizing blocks to I empowerment Leadership in action case: Nick’s financial I or G crisis Chapter 7 – CURRENT LEADERSHIP THEORIES What do you do? New boss I and G Leadership challenge: Standing up to a I and G charismatic but unethical leader Exercise 7.1: Do you know a charismatic I or G leader? Exercise 7.2: Charismatic speech G Self-assessment 7.1: Authentic I leadership Self-assessment 7.2: Positive leadership I Self-assessment 7.3: What type of I follower are you? Leadership in action case: Spence’s plan I or G
10 minutes 30 minutes
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10 minutes 10 minutes
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20 minutes 15 minutes
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10 minutes
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10 minutes 10 minutes
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25 minutes
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10 minutes 10 minutes
1 1
10 minutes
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60 minutes 10 minutes
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10 minutes 10 minutes
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30 minutes
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Chapter 8: PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP AND LEADING TEAMS What do you do? The dream team I and G 10 minutes Leadership challenge: Who gets the I and G 10 minutes project? Exercise 8.1: To delegate or not I and G 45 minutes delegate? Exercise 8.2: Your organization I and G 45 minutes Self-assessment 8.1: Delegation scale I 5 minutes Self-assessment 8.2: Are you a team I 5 minutes leader?
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Self-assessment 8.3: What is your strategic leadership type? Self-assessment 8.4: Psychological safety in your team Leadership in action case: The secretive design team Chapter 9: LEADING CHANGE What do you do? Implementing change Leadership challenge: Implementing unpopular change Exercise 9.1: Analyzing and planning for change Exercise 9.2: Creativity and parallel thinking—The six hats method Self-assessment 9.1: Building credibility Self-assessment 9.2: Openness to change Leadership in action case: Business as usual
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I and G I and G
10 minutes 10 minutes
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45 to 60 minutes
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10 minutes 10 minutes
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Chapter 10 – DEVELOPING AND FLOURISING AS A LEADER: IMPLEMENTING THE TKD ROADMAP What do you do? Picking the right I and G 10 minutes 1 program Leadership challenge: Finding the I and G 10 minutes 1 right fit Exercise 10.1: Identifying your I 15 minutes 2 mentoring needs and potential mentors Self-assessment 10.1: Plan for I 15 minutes 2 Flourishing – PERMA Self-assessment 10.2: My personal I 30-45 minutes 3 mission statement Leadership in action case: Tara’s I and G 45 minutes 3 training challenge
RECOMMENDED USE FOR PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES AND END-OF-CHAPTER MATERIAL The THINK-KNOW-DO roadmap is used as a framework for the text to help students map out their development and identify areas of strengths and weakness. Elements of the roadmap that are covered by each chapter are presented at the end of the chapter.
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Leadership Question at the beginning of each chapter provides an opportunity to focus students’ attention on the key topics and issues presented in the chapter. It can be used to start the class. (AACSB – Analytical thinking) Stepping into Leadership focuses on the challenges of new leaders/managers. It provides material that is particularly useful for undergraduate students with limited work experience and MBA students who are leading teams or departments for the first time. (AACSB – Application of knowledge) The Leadership Challenge scenario is designed to be used after students have read the material and have discussed it in class. It provides an opportunity to apply some of the concepts that are discussed to solve a specific challenge. (AACSB – Application of knowledge) What Do You Do dilemma further presents an opportunity to solve a leadership problem. It can be used as an opening to a discussion of the topics and then again as a review at the end to evaluate how knowledge gained from the chapter and class discussion can inform students’ recommendations. (AACSB – Application of knowledge) Leading across cultures presents leadership perspectives that are different from the typically UScentric leadership research. It provides opportunities for discussion of the role and importance of culture in leadership. (AACSB – Diverse and multicultural work environments) Leading in changing times presents examples of creative and innovative leaders, mostly entrepreneurs from diverse backgrounds, who address VUCA environments in unique ways. It provides an opportunity to discuss how leadership may be changing and the many diverse ways to handle challenges. (AACSB – Integration of real-world business experiences) Critical Thinking questions are designed to encourage students to reflect on their experiences and to plan future action, helping them develop the ability to think critically about their own actions. The questions can be used at any time during class, first as an individual activity, but also as a group discussion. They can further be used as brief assignments or integration as part of an end-of-thesemester reflection. (AACSB – Reflective thinking) Applying What You Learn list provides specific guidelines on how to apply various chapter concepts. It can be used as a wrap up for discussions. (AACSB – Application of knowledge) End-of-Chapter self-assessments are designed to increase students’ self-awareness, a critical part of any leader’s journey. It addresses the T–THINK in the TKD roadmap. After completing the selfassessments, students can be grouped to discuss their takeaways. They can also be integrated into an end-of-semester leadership reflection or leadership development assignment. (AACSB – Reflective thinking)
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End-of-Chapter exercises are designed to be used in class, many with both an individual component which can be assigned ahead of class, and with an opportunity for group work and discussion and debate. (AACSB – Interpersonal relations and teamwork and Application of knowledge) Leadership in Action Case present real-life examples of the specific concepts presented in each chapter. They provide an opportunity to apply the information from the chapter and can be used either at the beginning or the wrap up for discussions. (AACSB – Application of knowledge)
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SECTION TWO: CHAPTER MATERIALS
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Chapter 1 LEADING IN A TURBULENT WORLD: DEFINITIONS AND ROADMAP Chapter Overview This chapter introduces students to the concept of leadership and leadership effectiveness by providing working definitions and limitations of the concepts. The applicability and limitations of existing models and theories are discussed. Obstacles to effectiveness and the differences between leadership and management are presented. Roles and functions of leaders are outlined followed by a discussion of the fast changing and turbulent environment that leaders and organizations face. The chapter ends with a presentation of the THINK-KNOW-DO (TKD) roadmap that is used as framework for the book and for leaders to learn and grow.
Chapter Outline Leadership Question: Focusing on the task or on people? I. Definitions (LO1 – AACSB Analytical thinking) A. Who is a Leader? A leader is any person who influences individuals and groups within an organization, helps them establish goals, and guides them toward achievement of those goals, thereby allowing them to be effective. Figure 1.1: Four Critical elements of leadership Group and social phenomenon Interpersonal influence Goal directed Hierarchy B. When is a Leader Effective? 1. An integrative definition Leaders are effective when their followers achieve their goals, can function well together, and can adapt to changing demands from external forces. Goal achievement Smooth internal processes External adaptability C. Leaders and Managers (LO2 – AACSB Analytical thinking) "Manager" is a formal title created during the industrial revolution to designate those in charge of organizing the work of others. .
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Managerial functions include planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. Managers are defined by these functions; leadership is more about people. Table 1.1: Managers and leaders THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION – REVISITED Focusing both on the task and on people, as well as keeping an eye on the big picture, are part of what leaders must do to be effective. What works depends on the leader, the followers, and the situation. Leadership is complex and requires a complex approach. Critical Thinking: Managers and leaders II. Roles and Function of Leaders (LO3 – AACSB Analytical thinking) A. Why do we Need Leaders? Bring people together Make sense of the world Be a romantic ideal LEADING ACROSS CULTURES: UBUNTU (AACSB Diverse and multicultural work environments) Ubuntu has been described as a pan-African leadership approach that spans the very diverse countries and cultures of the African continent. Ubuntu’s key principle is: “I am here because you are.” It provides and interdependent view of society. The group and collective take priority over the individual. Key elements include: – Mutual dependence and unity – Compassion – Conformity to the group – Generosity The focus of the leader is to contribute to the well-being of the collective. B. What do Leaders do? Leadership roles include providing a vision and a mission and setting the course and strategy for achieving the goals of their organization. Figure 1.2: Leadership roles STEPPING INTO LEADERSHIP: HOW NOT TO FEEL OVERWHELMED (AACSB Application of knowledge) Stepping into a leadership role for the first time can be a challenging. While continuing to focus on performing well, new leaders can address some of the challenges by: 1. Delegating and engaging their team members 2. Connecting with peers and mentors 3. Seeking help and advice from multiple sources, including their supervisor 4. Prioritizing tasks rather than trying to do too much 5. Taking a step back to reflect and maintain perspective III. A Turbulent Context (LO4 – AACSB Analytical thinking) .
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VUCA is an acronym for Volatility, Uncertainty, Complexity, and Ambiguity. It is used to describe the environment that organizations face. LEADING IN CHANGING TIMES: FEYZI FATEHI WANTS TO DISRUPT THE WORLD FOR THE BETTER (AACSB Integrating real-world business experiences) A. Factors fueling turbulence and change Figure 1.3: Factors fueling change 1. Environmental, political, and technological factors 2. Demographic factors and social movements Critical thinking: Facing VUCA 3. Impact of VUCA on organizations Both leaders and organization must look for creative and innovative ways to be effective. IV. Learning to Lead: The THINK-KNOW-DO Roadmap (LO5 – AACSB Analytical thinking) A. Obstacles to Leading Effectively Focusing on immediate or short-term results Punishing experimentation and failure Falling back on old ideas Divide between research and practice B. New Approaches to Leading The current leadership context is more focused on results than control. There is a need to remain flexible and use all resources to address constant change and the VUCA environment. Figure 1.4: Control v. Results-oriented leadership C. The Think-Know-Do Roadmap The Think-Know-Do (TKD) roadmap suggests that to develop and learn to lead, leaders must have self-awareness of their own thinking, culture, biases, abilities, weaknesses, and strengths. They must be able to THINK systematically and critically about the situations they face. They must acquire KNOWledge and information from a broad variety of sources regarding leadership and the world around them, and practice and implement what they have learned, to be able to DO the complex tasks required of leaders. Figure 1.5: A roadmap to effective leadership: THINK-KNOW-DO Applying What You Learn: Leadership Basics Leadership is a long-term journey rather than a destination, and emphasizes learning. Basic leadership factors include: finding your passion, learning about yourself, experimenting with
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new situations, getting comfortable with failure, paying attention to the environment, and keeping a sense of humor. V. Summary VI. Key Concepts End of chapter wrap up – The TKD roadmap to more effective leadership: What did you learn?
THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION – Some leaders are focused on getting things done while End-Of-Chapter Activities and Materials All the end of the chapter activities and materials address AACSB Application of knowledge. What Do You Do? The short scenario illustrates the ongoing challenges organizations and leaders face in adapting to new leadership models that recommend participation, openness, and flexibility. While many organizations state such approaches as their practice or their goal, many continue to implement more traditional models that may not fit well with some employees and managers. As a practical matter, one leader, especially one who is not at the highest levels of an organization, cannot push for rapid change. The most reasonable approach is to “nudge” for small changes, demonstrate their success and build on such success. In some cases, though, organizations and their leaders do not welcome change. If there is no room for change, employees need to reevaluate the fit between them and the organization. In summary: • • • • • •
Focus on performance and doing your job the best you can Give yourself time to establish your credibility and develop your network Approach your boss/supervisor with ideas that provide solutions to problems Focus on ”nudging” for small changes and demonstrate their success If all attempts fail, reevaluate fit and consider looking for other positions Maintain professionalism and contact – do not “burn your bridges”
Leadership Challenge: Moving to Leadership The leadership challenge for this chapter focuses on the challenges people face when they move to a leadership role. The dilemma is how to maintain existing relationships with those who used to be your equals while establishing authority and fulfilling leadership roles. This is a common challenge that many students face as they are promoted to supervisory positions, often over their friends or individuals who are much older than they are. 1.1
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What are the challenges you are likely to face as the new leader? • Learning new skills 4
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• Establishing expertise • Establishing authority and new relationships • Balancing work and personal life • Managing new boss and impression management What are some actions you should take to help smooth the transition? • Establishing your credibility through expertise, authority, and hierarchy is necessary, but it is often overdone and exaggerated by inexperienced leaders. While followers must understand that the newly promoted person has different roles and responsibilities, there is no need to completely separate from the group and become overly autocratic, a mistake that many new supervisors make. • Get advice and help. It is essential that the new leader seeks advice from those with more experience and training whenever available. Rely on old mentors, or find new ones. • Seek training. The training can be technical to help learn the task better so that he/she can help the team, or understand the legal and operational aspects of the job or the interpersonal roles to learn to manage the team better, provide feedback, delegate, etc. • Practice your story. There may be some challenges about why you got the job over other people. Prepare a clear explanation that outlines your strengths without putting down others (e.g., “I have been going to school for the past 2 years while working with you and have attended all the available training so that I could be ready to move up. It is important to keep up with our education and skills. I would be happy to help you figure out what you need to do to get there.”) • Network. Establish new contacts with other supervisors and leaders at the same level. • Maintain friendly relationships with those who were your equals. The boundaries are sharper, but there is no need to cut off previous friendships. • Continue seeking help and advice from followers. While the new leader has some new roles, the previous relationships are still needed to get the job done. • Clearly explain your new role to those who either do not understand (use the “story” you have developed), it or prefer to ignore it. What are some actions you should avoid? • While maintaining good relationships is essential, trying to continue being “one of the guys” is difficult. Some boundaries must be established. • Overplaying the leader role. Becoming autocratic and heavy handed is not the solution and will likely destroy productive relationships. • Don’t pretend to know all the answers. Particularly in Western cultures, admitting to not knowing something is fully acceptable for a leader. Rely on your team.
Exercise 1.1: More than Meets the Eye – Characteristics of Leaders This simple exercise is designed to demonstrate to students how complex leadership and its definitions can be. Students often develop a long list of characteristics, traits, and behaviors, but cannot agree on which ones are essential and necessary for effective leadership. Additionally, they
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quickly realize that they do not have most of those characteristics and neither do many effective leaders they may know. Total time: Minimum 25-30 minutes. Materials needed: Paper and pencil for students; use of board; flip chart. 1. Characteristics essential to leadership (5 minutes) Ask students individually to write down as many traits, behaviors, and characteristics that they think good leaders must have. Tell them to complete the phrase: “Good leaders must/should, do, be….” 2. Essentials (7 minutes) Assign students to groups, or let them pick their own, and ask them to pair-down the list to 7-10 characteristics. What do they consider essential? Which one make or break a leader? This is a pretty lively stage since chances are that they will not easily agree on what is essential, a fact that is partly the point of this exercise 3. How do you match up? (7 minutes) Instruct the students to discuss the following • How many of the characteristics do you personally have? • Can you ever match up to the list you just developed? • If you do not, how does that affect your ability to lead? • Do you know any effective leader who lacks one or more of the characteristics? • Do you think the characteristics are essential to that person’s effectiveness? 4. Complexity of leadership (5-10 minutes) • There are many traits/behaviors associated with leadership • Not everyone agrees on what is essential • One person almost never has all the traits • Having all the traits is not necessary for good leadership • Traits alone do not make a leader – the situation is important • Each person must consider their own strengths and capabilities and the situation when addressing important traits and behaviors Option: This exercise works very well as an in-class introductory activity, instead of students working individually and in groups. The activity takes between 15 to 20 minutes. Step 1: Solicit characteristics from students and record them on the board, developing a long list. Encourage them to suggest behaviors and traits.
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Step 2: Review each item on the list and ask students whether they consider it essential or optional and delete those the class generally agrees are optional. You are likely to get much disagreement. You should keep any that the students think are essential or feel strongly about. This should result in a long list, which is the goal. Step 3: Lead a discussion starting with asking students: How many of you have all these traits? How many of you do all these things well? Does that mean you cannot lead? The prompts in Step 4 above (Complexity) can be used to lead the discussion.
Exercise 1.2: What is Leadership? This exercise is designed to help students develop a personal definition of leadership and understand how their personal view of ideal leadership affects their assumptions and future behaviors as leaders. This exercise can be used in a variety of ways, from a cooperative learning exercise as presented in the text, to an individual assignment focusing on only the first step. Total time: Minimum 25 minutes; Maximum time depends on number of students and groups. Materials needed: Paper and pencil; use of board; flip chart can be useful for development of group definitions and presentations. Part 1: Describe Ideal Leader (Individual work; 5-10 minutes) Either as a homework assignment or as an in-class exercise, ask students to list the desirable and undesirable characteristics of their ideal leader. The desirable characteristics are sometimes easier than the undesirable ones. You can help students with the second category by asking them to consider characteristics and behaviors that their ideal leader would not have. For example, “my ideal leader would not make arbitrary decisions, or would not be indecisive.” Although some overlap is to be expected, students should be encouraged to avoid simply listing opposite characteristics in the two lists. Examples of typical items listed by students Desirable Integrity Good interpersonal skills Enthusiasm Decisiveness Competence Charisma Good communication skills Openness to others’ ideas Participative decision making .
Undesirable Autocratic leadership No concern for others Dishonesty Manipulativeness Arbitrariness Self-centeredness Unresponsiveness Closed-mindedness Unwillingness to accept feedback 7
Vision Option: The personal list developed by each student can be used as a basis for evaluating what students have learned in class and how their thinking has evolved; whether their assumptions have been changed or been reaffirmed. The lists can be collected by the instructor and handed back the last week of class. Part 2: Develop Group Definition (Group work; 10-20 minutes) As with all group exercises in the book, the instructor has the option of either assigning groups or allowing students to select their own groups. Groups of larger than six tend to be inefficient and often have trouble reaching a group decision in the limited time allocated in class. Ideal size is four to five members. Ask students to keep their own list intact and write the group list on a separate piece of paper. This part of the exercise often generates considerable in-group discussion as students compare their lists. Although some common items are listed by different students, there are also many that show up only on one or two students’ lists. Through the discussion, students realize the highly personal nature of definitions of leadership. If the groups are culturally diverse, cultural differences in leadership may also surface. Similarly, there often is a gender difference in images of ideal leadership. For example, decisiveness and “in charge” characteristics are more often part of male students’ definitions, than part of female students’. Option: Groups can be assigned based on gender or other cultural characteristics to accentuate cultural differences and focus discussion on the cultural elements of ideal leadership. Part 3: Present and Defend (7 minutes per group) Each group is asked to make a 3- to 5-minute presentation listing their ideal leader’s desirable and undesirable characteristics and briefly explaining the reason for their choices. Option: Group presentations can be replaced by the instructor asking each group for their first, second, third, etc... characteristic in a round-robin fashion until all items are recorded on the board. Part 4: Common Themes (Class discussion; 10-15 minutes) Part 4 focuses on in-class discussion of images of ideal leadership. The lists generated by the groups are used as the basis for this discussion. The focus should be on the complexity and diversity of leadership images and the implications for understanding the process of leadership. With the recent push towards empowerment and participative decision making, common themes among students’ list often include issues of participation, autonomy, and having a vision as essential to ideal leadership. Undesirable characteristics often focus on lack of integrity, too much control, and inability to motivate followers.
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The discussion can include cross-cultural differences in leadership. The instructor or the students can bring in material about how culture impacts our images of ideal leadership. Hosftede’s cultural dimensions also provide a good basis for discussion. For example, in high power distance and uncertainty avoidance cultures, ideal leaders are likely to be expected to provide answers to all follower questions. Additionally, expectations of employee participation and empowerment are likely to be low. In masculine cultures, the element of taking care of followers is likely to be less pronounced than in feminine cultures. Concern for individuals and individual attention to followers is likely to be lower in collectivist than in individualist cultures. Overall: This is a very simple exercise for both students and faculty. It can serve as a nice ice-breaker the first week of class and help point out the richness of concept and process of leadership and prepare students for the broad diversity of topics and issues that will be discussed throughout the semester.
Exercise 1.3: Images of Leadership As with Exercise 1.1, this exercise is designed to help students clarify their personal assumptions about leadership. It can be used alone or in conjunction with Exercise 1.1. Using images to clarify ideal leadership is generally appealing to students. Although the exercise has a group-discussion component, the exercise is not designed as a cooperative learning exercise. Group discussions help students fine-tune and clarify their personal definitions. Total time: Minimum 25 minutes. Materials needed: Paper and pencil; use of board by instructor. Part 1: Select your image (Individual work; 5-7 minutes) Similar to the popular organizational metaphor exercise, students are encouraged to develop their personal image or metaphor of leaders. Commonly used metaphors include a leader as: Sport coach Orchestra conductor Head of family Team facilitator Jungle/safari guide Therapist Train engineer Ringmaster Obstacle remover Ask students to pick an image/metaphor and list the implications of that metaphor for the role and behavioral expectations of leaders. For example, an orchestra conductor is the undeniable leader of the orchestra; nothing happens without his/her direction. He/she is in full control and often dictates the actions of others. The organization, on the other hand, is fully synchronized and acts in total coordination and unison. The head of the family is similarly in full control, although the sense of total cooperation and focused action is lacking. The head of a family has responsibility for the emotional and psychological well-being of members, a factor that is lacking from an orchestra. The issue of conflict is also part of a family much more so than an orchestra. Students are often very creative with their images. The instructor’s goal should be to guide them in the understanding of the implications of the image they select. .
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Part 2: Share and Clarify (Small group discussion; 10-15 minutes) Small groups can be used as a sounding board for students to help them clarify the implications of the image that appeals to them. Option: This step can be skipped to move directly to class-discussion, especially in small classes (under 25 students) where whole-class discussions are possible. Having small group discussions allows students to fine-tune their images and think about the consequences. Part 3: Class Discussion (10-15 minutes) The discussion questions allow for exploration of various images and their implications for organizations. Some images are becoming obsolete while others are gaining ground. For example, team facilitator is a very popular metaphor although students are often not fully aware of the implication of such an image for the structure of an organization or its potential short-comings. Namely, team facilitators do not make decisions for their teams; their role is to support, guide, and encourage. The implications of such a style in times of crisis when quick decision making is essential needs to be explored. Option: As with Exercise 1.1, discussion of cross-cultural differences in images of leadership is very appropriate. Particularly, the diversity of images that are used in the U.S. can be pointed out as resulting from the cultural diversity within the population. Overall: As with Exercise 1.1, Exercise 1.2 is very simple and easy to execute. The development of images triggers lively and interesting discussion among the students and makes this an ideal icebreaker for the first week of class.
Exercise 1.4: Understanding the VUCA Leadership Context This exercise is designed to highlight the importance and role of the context in the leadership process and help you identify VUCA elements in that context. It helps students understand the various contextual factors that have the potential to affect leadership. It presents a fairly complex concept and may be difficult for younger and less experienced students to grasp. However, more experienced students with some work experience, should not have any difficulty picking a leader that they know or have known and to identify the various contextual factors that affect the person’s leadership concept. This exercise can be used both individually and for a group activity. The group discussions often allow students to grasp the concept of context. It also can be assigned as part of a graded class assignment. Total time: Minimum 25 minutes. Materials needed: Paper and pencil; use of board by instructor. 1. Individual/Group work (15 minutes)
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Students should select either a leader they know and have worked with or a business or political leader with whom they are familiar. This can be done individually or as a group. Once the leader is selected, the students must consider the context in which the leader operates. Not all these factors may be relevant; however, students should be encouraged to explore the context that may be relevant and may influence how the leader makes decisions and acts. 2. Discussion • How does VUCA affect each of these elements? • How much control does the leader have over these elements? • How do all these factors affect the leader? Do they hinder or help the leader achieve his/her goals? • What can be done to manage any of these elements? Factors students can explore: Long-term historical, political, and economic forces include such factors as: • The history of the organization, if it has been around for a while • The national history, if relevant (for example, the organization may have a long-standing positive or negative reputation) • Political factors (for example, the organization may be tied to a particular political party or system) • Long-term economic factors (for example, the steel industry has long-term economic factors to consider Current contemporary forces include such factors as: • Cultural diversity (changes in the demographic and cultural makeup of the organization’s customers and other stakeholders) • Social values that may affect the organization, its products and services (for example, fast food companies are affected by the increase in obesity in the U.S.) • Technology (for example, many organizations are seeing competitors who operate online services similar to theirs; or organizations are expected to provide online services for their customers) • The economy • Social changes (for example, a more conservative political and social climate may affect the products and services an organization offers or how it advertises them) The immediate context includes such factors as: • The organizational culture and climate • The structure of the organization • The organization’s performance • The products and services delivered • The various suppliers • The followers (their abilities, strengths, and weaknesses) .
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Option: For students who have no or limited work experience, the instructor can assign a wellknown leader using articles from current headlines. Discussion and presentation (10 minutes) Each group is asked to present their leader and outline the contextual factors that impact the leader’s decisions and actions. Similarities and differences between the leaders’ different context can also be discussed. The instructor can highlight how some of the contextual factors strongly influence and limit a leader’s ability to make decisions or take certain course of action. For example, with President Bush as the example, the first Gulf war, the 9/11 attacks, and the conservative agenda all provided a very strong context that determined many of his actions. Overall: The Leadership Context exercise is a powerful way to focus students’ attention on the importance of the leadership context instead of looking only at the leader’s characteristics.
LEADERSHIP IN ACTION CASE: Should I Make Everyone Come Back Just Because a Couple of People Are Not Working Well? Case summary The case involves Chioma Abiola, a director of Academic Computing in a university and her team who face considerable turbulence caused by the COVID pandemic and the various actions they take to address the changes to continue to be effective. The team had to quickly implement plans to put all courses online and to train faculty and students to manage the online and Work-from-Home (WFH) environment. They managed those challenges well by constant communication and flexible work. Two of the team members who are working remotely are less responsive than others. Chioma addresses this concern, but there is little improvement. The issue becomes even more critical when Chioma must decide whether to bring the team back to the office or respect their desire to continue working remotely. As with any case, the goal is to encourage students to analyze issues from different perspectives, understand the context fully, and evaluate their alternatives. There are no correct answers; just some better and some worse ones. This case allows them to apply the VUCA concept and consider different approaches to leading a team. 1. Which VUCA factors does the ACID team face? • Volatility: Going remote comes fast and the changes are unpredictable – the team has 10 days to accomplish a massive task of putting all courses online and training faculty and staff. They do so while facing their own personal challenges. • Uncertainty: They have never faced such a situation before; there are no well-established guidelines; and they have no information regarding the future, how long it will last, and what else might happen.
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Complexity: In addition to technological challenges, they are dealing with physical challenges, people issues, team cohesion, as well as all the social and personal challenges that were associated with the COVID pandemic. Ambiguity: They have prepared for the technology side, but there is no information or roadmap regarding how to handle the situation.
2. Which managerial and leadership roles does Chioma play? Chioma is performing all the typical managerial functions: • Planning: she has prepared her team to help with training and had planned remote teaching • Organizing: she is keeping her team on track through scheduling, training, etc. • Leading: she is performing leadership roles both in terms of the task and taking care of team members, while also leading by example • Controlling: she is keeping track of her team’s performance and morale and addressing issues Leadership roles: • She provides direction for her team • She maintains contact with each member and works to keep their cohesion and morale up – the culture of the team • She provides strategic directions and structures their activities • She connects with various stakeholders – faculty and staff, as well as her own boss • She sets the tone and is a role model for her team, both in terms of performance and general motivation 3. What is your assessment of the make-up of the ACID team? Refer to Table 1.2 in the case to evaluate the team. The members are well trained, have the right skills and experience and, at least on paper, should be up to the task at hand. 4. What are the factors she should consider in making her decision? Chioma should consider the goals of her team – to keep the university IT functions working effectively, while also keeping them happy and motivated; and keeping them ready for the next potential crisis or change. She is facing the challenge that many managers have faced when trying to decide whether and to what extent to require coming back to the office. 5. What options does Chioma have? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each option? • Bring everyone back as her boss is pushing her to do. Advantages: Please her boss Treat everyone the same Closer supervision for William and Marcus Team can interact more easily In-office activities are easier .
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Disadvantages: Morale of her team who has worked so hard to overcome challenges Loss of work-life balance Being in the office does not guarantee that people will work harder Let everyone work remotely, at least part of the time. Advantages: Boost morale Reward her team for their hard work Maintain flexibility and still have personal contact Disadvantages: William and Marcus will continue to be a problem Her boss may resent her not listening to advice She may lose credibility if she cannot handle William and Marcus Fire William and Marcus. Advantages: Immediate problem is solved She establishes her power as a manager Her boss may see her as a decisive leader Some of the team members may appreciate her decision Disadvantages: Any firing can lower morale of other employees Replacing William and Marcus will be hard and impacts everyone’s workload The team will lose the expertise of two experienced members The firing is not fully justified as they perform well May cause complaints and lawsuits
6. If you were Chioma, what would you decide? Encourage students to justify their decision and explore the benefits and disadvantages of their choices. 7. What are the consequences of your decision? The goal is to have students realize that no matter their decision, there is likely to be some positive and negative consequences. They must be aware of both and consider how to deal with them.
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Chapter 2 THE FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN LEADERSHIP Chapter Overview This chapter traces the origins and underlying assumptions of modern leadership theory and research, and presents the early theories that are the foundation of current models. It further explores the assumptions of the field of leadership and considers its mostly Western and leadercentric approaches. We then review the three eras of leadership—trait, behavior, and contingency—and detail their contributions to our current views. The chapter then focuses on four key contingency theories—Fiedler’s Contingency Model, the Normative Decision Model, Path-Goal Theory and the Substitute for Leadership Theory—and presents their elements and predictions. We end the chapter with a review of Leader-Member Exchange theory as a bridge to current leadership models we present in Chapter 7. Having basic knowledge of leadership theories builds the students’ leadership toolbox and addresses the K in the TKD roadmap. Learning to apply the theories develops leadership skills which addresses the D in the roadmap.
Chapter Outline LEADERSHIP QUESTION: Key characteristics of “born” leaders I. History of Modern Leadership (LO1 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Figure 2.1: Three eras of leadership A. The Trait Era Based on the belief that leaders are born, research focused on identifying the personality characteristics that distinguish leaders. After more than 40 years of study, researchers found that no single characteristic or collection of, could reliably predict who will lead or be effective. B. The Behavior Era The behavior approach emphasizes what leaders do instead of who they are. The behaviors of task (structuring) and relationship (consideration) are identified as the two primary behaviors of effective leaders. The approach has the benefits of providing reliable measures of behaviors that can be taught to leaders. However, it did not find which behavior is more effective. CRITICAL THINKING: Key Attributes of Leaders (AACSB – Reflective thinking) C. The Contingency Era
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There is no one best way to lead; what works depends on both the leader and the situation. Strong research and overall support for the approach. II. Context, Assumptions and Limitations (LO2 – AACSB Analytical thinking and Diverse and multicultural work environments) As a social phenomenon, leadership is impacted by the context in which it takes place; that includes national and other levels of culture. A. National Culture The large majority of leadership theories have been developed and tested in WEIRD context: Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic. These provide a narrow base and may make current models not applicable to other cultures. B. Diversity Most current leadership theories further do not consider the impact of diversity factors such as ethnicity or gender and research about under-represented groups is still lagging. CRITICAL THINKING: The Leader or the Situation? (AACSB – Reflective thinking) LEADING ACROSS CULTURES: Indo-European Leadership - IEL (AACSB Diverse and Diverse and multicultural work environments) Ancient Indo-European cultures of India and Iran provide a view of leadership based on integrity, action, moderation, accountability, kindness, and humility which is used successfully in several large global Indian corporations. III. Contingency Theories (LO3 – AACSB analytical thinking) A. Fiedler’s Contingency Model (CM) One of the most highly researched contingency models that proposes that leadership effectiveness is a function of the match between the leader’s style and the leadership context. Leaders will be effective when their style matches the situation. They should focus on changing the situation rather than their leadership style. 1. Leader style Measured by the Least Preferred Coworker scale, the leader’s style is assumed to be trait-like and not easily changeable. Leaders are classified as task-oriented (low-LPC; or task-motivated) and relationship-oriented (high-LPC or relationship-motivated) 2. Situational control The situation is measured by, in order of importance, Leader-Member Relations (LMR), Task Structure (TS), and Position Power (PP) which are combined to indicated how much Situational Control (SitCon) the leader has. 3. Prediction of the Contingency Model Figure 2.2: Fiedler’s Contingency Model Low-LPC task-oriented leaders will be effective in high and low situational control. High-LPC relationship-oriented leaders will be effective in moderate situational control. .
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Both are equally effective, depending on the situation. 4. Evaluation and application Well supported and highly critiqued (particularly the LPC scale). Model suggests that leaders should understand and change their situation, rather than their style in order to be effective. Their primary focus should be on LMR and TS. APPLYING WHAT YOU LEARN: Putting the Contingency Model to Work (AACSB – Application of knowledge) Focus on learning and challenging yourself. Regardless of style, leaders can always learn new behaviors and practice evaluating situations. B. The Normative Decision Model (NDM) (LO3 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Contingency model focused narrowly on how leaders should make decisions. It recommends that leaders change the way they make decisions based on the degree to which the quality of the decision is important and the likelihood that employees will accept the decision. 1. Leader’s decision methods Autocratic – leader makes decision alone Consultation – leader consults the group and either decides alone or with the group Group – leader allows the group to make the decision Delegation – leader assigns decision to one other person Table 2.1: Decision Styles in the NDM 2. Situational Factors Table 2.2: Situational Contingency Factors in the NDM 3. NDM Recommendations Different styles should be used in different situations by evaluating the situational factors. Autocratic style should be used when leader has information, quality is not essential, or group members may be in conflict and are likely to go along with the leader. Consultation should be used when leader does not have information, employees demand participation, and their commitment is critical. Group should be used when quality is important, leader does not have information, and employee commitment is critical. Figure 2.3: Normative Decision Model Decision Tree 4. Evaluation and Application NDM is based on extensive research about group decision making and when to use participation. It has some research support, but it is highly complicated and hard to implement. NDM recommends that leaders understand their leadership situation, consider employee engagement, and change their style to match the situation. STEPPING INTO LEADERSHIP: Practicing Decision Styles (AACSB – Application of knowledge) Since groups are inefficient, carefully evaluate the situation to make sure that the time and resources to use the group to make decisions is sufficient. Involving team members helps with commitment. Leaders should also carefully consider how much information and knowledge they have and practice different styles. .
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C. Path-Goal Theory (PGT) PGT proposes that the leader’s role is to clear the paths that subordinates use to accomplish goals and allow followers to fulfill their needs. 1. PGT Model Elements and Predictions Structuring behaviors should be used when the task is unclear. Consideration should be used when the task is boring and routine. 2. Evaluation and Application Based on strong research about motivation, but few studies have tested the model. PGT adds to our knowledge by including the importance of followers’ perception of the task and the critical role of the leader in removing obstacles. LEADING IN CHANGING TIMES: Whitney Wolfe Herd – On Bumble, Women Always Go first (AACSB Integrating real-world business experiences) D. Substitutes for Leadership Theory (SLT) The SLT proposes that various situational factors, such as the organizational or task characteristics, or team members' expertise and experience, can reduce the need for, or even neutralize the impact of, either task or consideration behaviors from the leader. Table 2.3: Leadership Substitutes and Neutralizers Substitutes are factors that replace specific leadership behaviors; neutralizers make leadership behavior unnecessary or irrelevant. 1. Evaluation and Application Not extensively researched, but intuitively appealing and may have applications to today’s remote work environments. IV. Bridge to Current Leadership Models: The Leader-Member Exchange Model (LMX) (LO4 – AACSB Analytical thinking) LMX focused on the connection between leaders and followers which is a central theme of current theories. It suggests that leaders form two types of relationship, one with those in the in-group and one with those in the out-group. The quality of the relationship is substantially different for people in those two groups. A. The Framework Followers in the in-group have a close and highly positive exchange and relationship with the leader. Those in the out-group have a formal and distant relationship. Figure 2.4: Leader–Member Exchange in-and out-group B. Evaluation and Application Heavily researched with some critiques regarding clarity of the constructs and methodology used in various studies. Highly appealing and descriptive of a common experience in the workplace. Recommendations include: picking in-group members based on competence; avoiding highly differentiated groups; keeping membership fluid; having multiple groups for different tasks; and considering culture. .
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V. Comparison of Contingency Models (LO5 – AACSB analytical thinking) Table 2.4: Comparison of the Early Contingency Models of Leadership THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION – REVISITED Leadership is more than a set of traits. Some people may have traits that make leadership easier, but the leaders are not born and the situation is critical to leadership effectiveness. V. Summary VI. Key Concepts End of chapter wrap up – The TKD roadmap to more effective leadership: What did you learn?
THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION – Some leaders are focused getting things done while End-Of-Chapter Activities andon Materials All the end of the chapter activities and materials address AACSB Application of knowledge; some have additional features that are further indicated. What Do You Do? Going Back to the Office (AACSB Application of knowledge) The short scenario illustrates how the remote work environment can challenge leaders. You can apply the NDM and SLT concepts to this case. While the company has mandated that everyone should be back to the office, the team is working very well remotely. Forcing them back can impact their motivation negatively, but there are also many benefits to being in the office. Factors to consider: • • • •
The team’s cohesion, experience, and expertise are acting as substitutes and neutralizers to leadership; they clearly can function well without close supervision Encouraging independence is great and frees up the manager for other activities Remote work can be productive, but it often comes at the cost of group and team activities and cohesion which are also essential to productivity The group’s buy-in is important, so they should be consulted and engaged as much as possible
Some possible actions: •
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Explore with your supervisor to see if there is any flexibility on the return to office policy
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Use performance data to show that your team is working well and show how you have more time for other activities Set up an in-person team meeting to explain the limitations of their and your power and discuss options and consequences If there is no wiggle room, it is up to you to implement the company’s decision since the team does not agree with the company policy
Leadership Challenge: The In-group Applicant (AACSB Diverse and multicultural work environments and Application of knowledge) This challenge is related to the role of culture in determining in-group membership. 1. How do you interpret and explain your office manager’s actions? India is a collectivist culture where people are close to their family and clan members and trust them implicitly while also distrusting outsiders. Objective performance measures are less important than the ability to trust family members. There are also no formal laws against nepotism. In such circumstances, the office manager is behaving in good faith and trying to help his boss. While it is possible that he is just trying to find a job for an incompetent relative, it is more likely that he would like to look good in front of the new boss, find a good assistant, and also help a relative. He has a lot to lose from recommending someone who is not competent and the relative has a lot to lose if he does not perform well. 2. Will you hire the “cousin”? The most prudent course of action is not to reject the “cousin” outright. Give him careful consideration, interview him, test him out. You also should show appreciation to the office manager for his initiative. If the cousin is a good fit, it’s an easy hire. If he is not a good fit, it is fine to seek out other candidates without accusing the office manager of anything negative. 3. What factors do you need to consider before making such a decision? In a country where community is important and people tend to be polite and less direct especially in the work place, it is important to tread lightly and make sure everyone saves face while also assuring that you hire someone who can do the job.
Exercise 2.1: The Toy Factory (AACSB Application of knowledge) This exercise uses the making of origami toy wolves as a setting to demonstrate the effect of the three major leadership behaviors of autocratic, democratic, and laissez faire. Groups of students are assigned a leader who has instructions to act in one of the three ways. The groups then compete for the production of toys. The exercise is lengthy, but well worth the time. Issues of productivity, quality, and satisfaction of leader and followers under different leadership behaviors can be discussed.
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The different options in assignment of students (described below) can lead to a very effective demonstration for both leaders and followers. Total time: Minimum 75 minutes. Materials needed: Paper, ruler, pencil/pen, and scissors. Part 1: Preparation and leader training (10-15 minutes) Instructor preparation: • The instructor needs to become familiar with the steps in making the origami wolves (see instruction sheet) before class. He/she also needs to either ask students to bring their own paper or provide 20-30 sheets for each group. • Group students in 6 teams of 4-6 (larger teams can be used in larger classes), and select team leaders. Making the assignments before class allows the instructor to select certain individuals with particular styles and tendencies. For example, a student who has shown strong controlling and domineering tendencies can be selected to act as an authoritarian leader or as a democratic leader. Assigning him/her to either a comfortable or an opposite style yields different results and different experiences for both the team leader and the followers. • If the class is small, laissez-faire style can be skipped using only democratic and autocratic leaders. • One or two students can be selected to assist the instructor in training the leaders, in quality control, and as observers. Leader training: • The exercise starts with the instructor training the selected team leaders either before class or at the beginning of class. The leaders have to be trained in wolf-making without their group being present. Leaders can be trained by demonstrating wolf-making, sharing written instructions with team leaders, and allowing them to make a practice toy with the instructor. • Provide each team leader with their Leader Style instruction sheet. • Remind them that the Leader Style instructions are confidential and that they should not share them with their team or with other team leaders. • Remind leaders that they should not provide their team members with the written instructions for toy making, but rather, that they should train them on how to make the toys. This step forces the leader to interact with followers rather than simply handing out the written instructions. Part 2: Toy production (25-30 minutes) The instructor needs to explain the purpose of the exercise as follows: The goal of this exercise is to make as many high-quality toy wolves as you can in a 15 minute period. Your team leader has been trained in the skill of origami wolf-making and will provide you with instructions. You have 5 minutes to set up your teams and 15 minutes to produce the wolves.
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The production run ends after 15 minutes. Instructor and assistant(s) check quality and count production of each group. Part 3: Debriefing and discussion (25-30 minutes) Instruct team members to complete the Toy Factory worksheet on p. 51. Start the discussion by asking each team, in a round-robin fashion to 1) describe their leader’s behavior and style, 2) express their level of satisfaction, and 3) suggest improvements. Ask each team leader to describe their style and express their views. Focus class discussion around issues of differences among the leader behaviors and styles, and their effect on subordinates’ satisfaction, productivity, and quality. In most cases, the exercise demonstrates, as research findings suggest, that: • • •
Followers of democratic leaders are more satisfied Teams led by autocratic leaders produce more Teams led by laissez-faire leaders are frustrated and are neither productive nor satisfied
If team leaders were assigned to styles that were “incongruent” with their personal style, they often express frustration and difficulty in implementing the required styles. In that case, discussion of the possibility of changing one’s leadership style can be undertaken. Concepts of contingency leadership can also be introduced or discussed by analyzing the leadership situation (short-term outcome, time pressure, no worry about follower satisfaction) and analyzing why one style may work better than others. Overall: The exercise provides a vivid demonstration of the different leader behaviors and potentially of the difficulty and challenge leaders face when they attempt to change their behaviors.
Exercise 2.2: Using the Normative Decision Model (AACSB Application of knowledge) The scenarios in this exercise are designed to demonstrate the various situations described in the normative decision model. The questions following each scenario walk students through the problem identification questions prescribed by Vroom and Yetton (see Table 2.3). The exercise works equally well as an individual assignment after students have read Chapter 2 or as a group exercise to demonstrate how to use the model. Scenario Solutions Case 1: Centralizing Purchasing 1. What type of problem is it, group or individual? Group problem; decision will affect all purchasing managers 2. Problem identification questions (situational contingency factors):
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Is there a quality requirement? Yes; some decisions regarding both process and outcome are clearly better than others. Does the leader have enough information to make a high-quality decision? Maybe, although individual managers may have other information that, at this point, is not available to the manager. Is the problem clear and structured? Yes; cost reduction and economies of scales are needed. Is employee acceptance of the decision needed for its implementation? Yes; acceptance and buy in of all individual managers are absolutely key. Would subordinates accept the decision if the leader decides alone? No; managers are used to independence and autonomy; they can drag their feet forever and sabotage any decision they don’t agree with. Do subordinates share the organization’s goals for the problem? Probably yes; the organization’s overall efficiency is at stake. Is there conflict among subordinates (are they cohesive) regarding the problem? Probably yes; the larger facilities would like more autonomy than others.
3. Further factors to consider • The leader does not have all the information (AI is eliminated) • Subordinates have enough information and expertise and quality is important (CII and GII are acceptable) • Quality is important, leader lacks information, problem is somewhat unstructured, and interaction among subordinates is important (AI, AII, and CI are eliminated). • Subordinate buy-in is essential (AI, AII, and CI are eliminated). • Buy-in is important and subordinates are likely to disagree over solution; interaction among them is encouraged (AI, AII, and CI are eliminated). • Quality and buy-in are both important. • Acceptance is important but not guaranteed and subordinates share the goal of the organization (AI, AII, CI, and CII are eliminated) 4. What are acceptable decision styles? GII, which applies to group decision and requires involvement of the group in decision making, is the acceptable decision style. With some management of process and egos, CII may also be an option, especially if managers cannot agree on a solution after extensive discussions. Why? The subordinates (managers in this case) have power and information and share in the organization’s goals. Their expertise and buy-in are key to a successful decision. 5. What are unacceptable decision styles? AI, AII, CI which apply to group decision, but involve the leader making the decision alone, are not acceptable. Why? The managers can easily sabotage the outcome through various direct and indirect means. The potential change in the purchasing process affects their autonomy and constitutes a major change for them. Such a change cannot succeed without their buy in. .
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Case 2: Selecting the Interns 1. What type of problem is it, group or individual? Individual decision 2. Problem identification questions (situational contingency factors): • Is there a quality requirement? Yes; it is important to have good interns. • Does the leader have enough information to make a high-quality decision? Yes; the leader and the assistant know the job requirements and the candidates. • Is the problem clear and structured? Yes; the job is simple. • Is employee acceptance of the decision needed for its implementation? Not really; acceptance is likely to happen anyway. • Will subordinates accept the decision if the leader decides alone? Yes; previous interns have been good and the position is temporary. • Do subordinates share the organization’s goals for the problem? Yes. • Is there conflict among subordinates (are they cohesive) regarding the problem? No. 3. Further factors to consider • The leader and assistant have all the information. • Subordinate, in this case the assistant, has all the necessary information and expertise. • Subordinate has the same goal as the leader and the organization. • Subordinate buy-in is likely regardless of decision. • There is no conflict among the subordinates; only one person is really involved. • Quality is important and buy-in guaranteed. • Acceptance is important and very likely. 4. What are the acceptable decision styles? All styles are acceptable in this case. AI and AII are more efficient ways of making the decision. DI is probably the best style. Why? The assistant has all the information and the expertise. Delegation of the decision would free up the leader’s time and provide a growth opportunity for the assistant while guaranteeing a quality decision. 5. What are unacceptable decision styles? Why? There really are no unacceptable styles, although group decision in this case would be unnecessary and inefficient. Case 3: Moving to a New Location 1. What type of problem is it, group or individual? Group problem; decision will affect all employees.
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2. Problem identification questions (situational contingency factors): • Is there a quality requirement? No; both locations are equally acceptable. • Does the leader have enough information to make a high-quality decision? Yes; there are reports available. • Is the problem clear and structured? Yes; the two possible decisions are equally attractive. • Is employee acceptance of the decision needed for its implementation? Not really; the leader has the power to make the decision. • Will subordinates accept the decision if the leader decides alone? Yes, although there may be some initial unhappiness. • Do subordinates share the organization’s goals for the problem? Probably yes; the overcrowding problem is recognized and a solution is desired. • Is there conflict among subordinates (are they cohesive) regarding the problem? Yes; there is no agreement as to who should stay and who should move; there are also individual differences within departments. 3. Further factors to consider • The leader has all the information and the expertise. • The subordinates are not likely to have all the information from all the departments. • Although there is agreement on the overall goal, there are differences on who should move. • Quality is not a central issue and the leader has information. • Subordinate buy-in is not required. • There is disagreement over the solution. • Quality is not a central factor and buy-in will follow. • Acceptance is desired and likely to happen given eventual outcome. 4. What are the acceptable decision styles? AI, AII, CI are likely to be the best styles in this case. The leader needs to make a final decision. Why? The leader has all the necessary information and expertise; there is a genuine time pressure, subordinates are not likely to agree on one solution while they will accept the leader’s decision. CI may not be viable given the time pressure. 5. What are unacceptable decision styles? CII and GII are not desirable. Why? Group decision making is inappropriate given the subordinates’ conflict on the desired outcome and given the time pressure to make a quick decision.
Self-Assessment 2.1: Determining Your LPC (AACSB Application of knowledge and Reflective thinking) This self-assessment is the LPC scale that students can use to determine their task or relationshipmotivation within the contingency model. It is beneficial for students to have completed the scale
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prior to the lecture on the contingency model. However, they need precise instructions on how to fill out the scale, including: •
Select your LPC carefully; if you have several people in mind, select the one with whom you had the most difficulty working • Select an LPC who is a real person; don’t make up an imaginary one • Your LPC has to be someone with whom you have worked on a task; it could be a work or social situation • You may or may not like your LPC as well as not being able to work with them • Rank your selected person based on your own perception; do not to worry about how he/she may appear to others These instructions are important to assure that students complete the scale properly. The score is interpreted as follows: • • •
If your score is 73 or above, you are a relationship-motivated (high-LPC) person If your score is 64 or below, you are a task-motivated (low-LPC) person If you score is between 65 and 72, you are most likely a socio-independent (middle-LPC) person; you can also review the information about the two styles and determine for yourself if one or the other fits you better
The students sometimes have trouble making the jump from describing another person to describing their own style. It helps to point out to them that their perception and description of their LPC is a reflection of their own motivational preferences.
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Self-Assessment 2.2: Assessing a Leadership Situation (AACSB Application of knowledge and Reflective thinking) The three scales in this self-assessment measure leader member relations, task structure, and position power. The students can use them to determine the level of situational control they face as a leader. The scale can be used either before or after the lecture on the contingency model. Students who have no or limited work experience should be encouraged to use a school work group, sports team, community or church group where they have been the leader as the basis for their self-assessment. This self-assessment works well as a simple individual task to help students understand their leadership style and the importance of situational contingencies in leadership effectiveness. • It is important to remind students that the leader’s perception is important • Check on student’s rating for the task structure scale to assure that they complete Part II correctly Option: The self-assessment can be used as the basis for a group exercise. Students’ selfassessment can be used as the basis of class discussion about the various aspects of the contingency model. Total time: Minimum 35 minutes in class (15 minutes for completing self-assessment), 20 minutes for group discussion); depends on the number of teams (5 minutes per team) Materials needed: Paper and pencil; board or flip chart can be useful. Step 1: Individual Description (Individual work; 10 minutes) Assign the self-assessment to students preferably before class as a homework assignment or during class. As noted above, it is most effective prior to the discussion about the contingency model. Step 2: Group Discussion (Group work; 20 minutes) The group portion of this exercise should be done after the discussion of the contingency model. Students should have a good understanding of the model’s assumptions and predictions in order to analyze each member’s leadership style, situational control, and the issue of fit. The goal of this portion is to allow students a critical look at the contingency model. In some cases, and for some students, the model predicts leadership effectiveness well. In other cases, the model does not fit well. The focus of the discussion should not be to either propose the contingency model as the “cure-all,” or to discard it if it does not fit. Instead, the instructor should encourage students to use the model as a tool to understand their leadership situation and their style. Particularly, students can discuss: • What important components of each member’s leadership situation were (i.e., was having good relations with subordinates more important than the leader’s power? What caused the most stress? etc.) • The factors that made the effective situations effective and what made the ineffective ones difficult. .
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•
Could each leader have behaved differently? Why or why not?
Step 3: Group Presentations (5 minutes per team) Ask each group to prepare a brief 5-minute presentation that outlines: 1. What they have learned. 2. What they find most useful about the contingency approach. 3. What other information is lacking from the model that might have helped them. Overall: This exercise, used as an individual assessment or as a group exercise can provide a hands-on conclusion to the presentation of the contingency model. Given the complexities of the model, such applied focus is very helpful to most students. In some cases, the situations described by the students do not support the predictions of the model. I have used those situations as a springboard to presenting other leadership theories such as the normative decision model, the LMX, or transformational leadership, pointing out that no one theory or model will fit all situations. Course Assignment This self-assessment can be used as an assignment for the course. Students would complete the self-assessment and provide an analysis of their own style and the situations in which they were effective and ineffective.
Self-Assessment 2.3: Identifying your In-group and Out-group (AACSB Application of knowledge and Reflective thinking) This exercise looks at LMX and the impact of in-groups and out-groups from the leader’s point of view. This self-assessment tends to be more appropriate and effective for students who have managed subordinates. For those students, this self-assessment can be a helpful developmental tool to use to understand the extent to which they use in-groups and out-groups and their potential impact on their followers and coworkers. This assessment should be completed after students have a good understanding of the LMX concept. Overall: Students tend to find this assessment to be very informative. Although most have ingroups and out-groups, few are aware of their impact or even think much about how membership is determined. Course Assignment This exercise can be used as an assignment for the course. The students would be asked to record their in-group and out-group as described by the exercise and provide a written analysis of the benefits and disadvantages along with a plan for future action.
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Leadership in Action Case: Headaches of New Hires Case summary Grady is a successful mid-level manager at Tech-for-You, a midsize company that designs tech solutions for various clients. He feels comfortable and competent in his job and in his leadership role with his team. The job was challenging enough and his team was cohesive and supportive. Business was booming during COVID and the company had trouble retaining and hiring new people afterwards. Four out of six of Grady’s team left and the new hires have less experience and do not fit in well. The department is now much less cohesive and the new hires need a lot of training and hand-holding. Grady also has to be much more involved with his group and is spending a lot of time resolving conflicts, something he does not enjoy. Grady’s boss recommends that Grady himself get some training in conflict management; however, Grady is frustrated and not sure why he needs training since he has been doing well for many years. The case represents how a change in the situation and context can make an effective leadership style ineffective, providing an example of a contingency approach to leadership – what works in one setting does not always work in another. 1. What is your assessment of Grady’s leadership style? What are his strengths and his weaknesses? Grady appears to be a task-oriented leader who is good at managing routine situations and has built a successful and cohesive team. His strengths appear to be daily management, but he is having trouble adjusting to change. While he is effective at reaching his goals and was effective at building a cohesive team, he is not skilled at handling change or conflict. 2. What is his leadership context and situation? Before COVID, Grady’s leadership situation offered him considerable control. He knew his job, had a good and supportive team, and was able to support them in doing their job. He had a cohesive team that supported one another and supported him, while also being good at their job. After COVID, Grady’s leadership situation feels very different to him. His comfortable routine is challenged. The new hires require him to be involved and the conflict they have brought demand his attention. He continues to have a tight relationship with the old team members, but has trouble managing the new hires. 3. Apply each of the models from the chapter (CM, NDM, PGT, SLM, and LMX) to analyzing the case. What do they each tell you about Grady’s situation? Which model fits best? The models that fit best are Fiedler’s CM and LMX. Fiedler’s CM: Grady is a task-oriented Low-LPC leader in high-control situation. He is inmatch, is comfortable with the situation, and as predicted by the model, his team is performing well. His LMR is high; TS is high; and PP is high putting him in high SitCon.
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When the group membership changes with 4 new members who are less experienced, the major change is in the LMR and his team members’ perception of TS. Because they are new and because they do not fit in well, the LMR shifts to moderate to low causing Grady to be out of match in moderate control situations. He does not feel comfortable, is frustrated and irritated, and does not engage in a way that would resolve the conflict and build back the cohesion. Instead, e complains and withdraws. LMX: Grady has clearly two groups; the in-group he likes and trusts and the out-group of new hires. The two more senior members and Grady himself have developed a close-knit relationship, which can be considered the in-group. They socialize after work and have a good level of trust and mutual respect. The new hires form the out-group, as they have less experience, struggle to connect with each other and the in-group, and are perceived as difficult and needy. Grady likely provides more support, trust, and access to information to the two more senior members compared to the newer team members. This differential treatment can lead to feelings of favoritism and exclusion among the out-group, contributing to conflicts and dissatisfaction. The quality of the leader-member exchange relationships can significantly impact individual and team performance. Grady's closer relationship with the in-group might result in better communication, more effective problem-solving, and higher job satisfaction among the senior members. However, the out-group's lack of support and attention could be part of the reason they are not fitting in well and not performing well. 4. Based on your analysis, what should Grady do? Each of the models present a different tool to help Grady solve the situation. Based on Fiedler’s CM, Grady needs to change his leadership situation and focus on improving his LMR so that he can again be in-match. Although taking care of this is not what he is most comfortable with, it needs to be addressed with a focus on changing the situation. He can do this by:
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Listening to his boss and learning conflict management behaviors. This would focus on learning new techniques to be applied to this situation, not changing his leadership style.
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Delegating the job of conflict management and team building to one of his more senior members who may be better at it than Grady.
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Encouraging the old team members to mentor the new ones, thereby developing a more cohesive team and changing the LMR back to high.
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Bringing in an outside facilitator who can help the team address conflicts.
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Changing the team members either by transferring them to another team or by firing them – this may be hard to do given the problems with finding new hires.
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Based on LMX, Grady needs to soften the line between the two groups. His clear preference for the in-group may not be the cause of the problem, but it certainly is contributing to it by keeping the new hires away and not providing them with the same attention. Grady should: -
Rethink his in- and out-group and stop treating them as separate groups.
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Focus on providing the same level of attention and support to all his team members.
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Pair the old group members with a couple of the new members each and ask them to provide mentoring and training. This would soften the lines between the in- and outgroup.
Regardless of the model that is applied, the actions are similar. The point is to build up the cohesion of the group and provide appropriate training and support to all the members. According to Fiedler’s CM, that would put Grady back in-match and lead to high performance. According to LMX, the less distinct in- and out-groups would provide fairer treatment that would support the team and performance. While it is easy to simply suggest that Grady change his approach, it is not always easy to do so. Grady first needs to become aware of the role he may be playing in the situation and either learn new behaviors and change his patterns, or get someone else to help him resolve the issue.
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Leader Style Instructions for TOY FACTORY Democratic and participative As the team leader, you are required to be open and participative. Consult with your team members, ask for their input, treat them as equals, and encourage them to participate and provide suggestions. Remember not to share these instructions or the written wolf-making instructions with your team members.
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Leader Style Instructions for TOY FACTORY Autocratic and decisive As team leader, you are the expert on this task. Provide the team members with directions and tell them what you expect of them. There is not much time for participation and suggestions. Focus on the task and get going. Remember not to share these instructions or the written wolf-making instructions with your team members.
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Leader Style Instructions for TOY FACTORY Laissez-faire As the team leader, simply provide instructions on how to make the toys and then leave your team alone to produce the items. Try to limit your contact with them and do not provide them with too many instructions. Let them do their job. Remember not to share these instructions or the written wolf-making instructions with your team members.
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Wolf-Making Instructions
1. Fold up one corner of rectangular paper to make a square
4. Fold one flap up
7. Rotate 45 degrees
10. Fold center point down
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2. Cut off top and discard
3. Fold to the left
5. Turn over
6. Fold other flap up
8. Fold ends to center
11. Draw in eyes
9. Separate flaps
12. Fold tail up and ears forward
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Chapter 3 LEADING WITH A CULTURAL MINDSET: CULTURAL DIVERSITY Chapter Overview
Chapter 3 explores the critical role of culture in leadership by focusing on cultural diversity, including gender. With increasing diverse organizations, leaders must learn to work well across cultures. Understanding culture’s impact is essential to understanding leadership and being an effective leader because cultural diversity is an undeniable fact of organizational life, it affects how people behave, what they value, how leaders act, and what followers expect of their leaders. This chapter focuses on building the student’s knowledge regarding topics that fall under diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI). Awareness of cultural differences addresses the first T in the TKD roadmap. Knowledge of cultural values addresses the K; and applying that knowledge and learning to work across cultures involves the D in the roadmap.
Chapter Outline All materials in this chapter address the AACSB category of Diverse and multicultural work environments. LEADERSHIP QUESTION: Role of Leaders in advancing cultural diversity? I. Culture: Definitions, Levels, and Characteristics (LO1 – AACSB Analytical thinking) A. Definition and Characteristics A system of assumptions, beliefs, values, and behaviors that are both dynamic and stable, are shared by members of a group, are transmitted from one person to another, and provide them with the tools to make sense of their environment and guide their behavior. Table 3.1: Characteristics of Culture 1. Culture, Race, and Ethnicity Race includes geographic, genetic, and biological groupings within a species. It is a socially constructed concept that is developed and used to describe people’s superficial and physical differences and has no genetic or biological meaning. Ethnicity is the culture of a group within a particular geographic region. 2. Impact of Culture-as-Meta-Context (CMC) Culture-as-Meta-Context (CMC) is an ever-present background, setting, and situation in which events happen, helps to explain and interpret them, and acts as a guide to behavior. 3. Culture-Just-Is (CJI) .
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Cultures simply exist, and one culture is not objectively better than another since they all serve the same purpose: they help make sense of the world, and they serve as meta-context and a guide to behavior. CRITICAL THINKING: When did culture impact you? (AACSB Reflective thinking) B. The Cultural Iceberg The cultural iceberg is an analogy of culture as an iceberg where what is visible does not fully represent its depth, and many values and assumptions are hidden from view. Figure 3.1: The Cultural Iceberg C. Levels of Culture Figure 3.2: Levels of culture The three levels of culture are: national, regional, and group Diversity refers to the group level of culture and represents the variety of human structures, belief systems, and strategies for adapting to situations that exist within different groups. Cultural diversity is the presence of people with distinctly different group affiliations and who hold distinctly different cultural values and identities. Primary dimensions are those that are relatively unchanging and closer to an individual’s identity; secondary dimensions are more changeable and less central to one’s identity. Figure 3.3: Dimensions of diversity STEPPING INTO LEADERSHIP: Learning to Address Cultural Diversity (AACSB Application of knowledge) Those who are new to leadership are likely to have to learn to address cultural diversity in their teams and organizations in an effective and productive manner. Focusing on selfawareness, the organizational mission and policies, learning and growing are essential. D. Challenges and Shortcomings with the Concept of Culture Although essential to working across cultures, our approach to culture has some shortcomings including the potential for essentialism, overgeneralization, and equating country and culture. Use of sophisticated stereotypes that are based on research rather than personal experience is helpful. Cultural prototypes that are also research-based description of typical qualities of groups of people can help. II.
The Diversity Landscape (LO2 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Diversity is relatively objective, observable, and measurable, and focuses on differences. Equity is treating everyone based on what they need to succeed. Inclusion is more subjective as an attitude or feeling of being welcome and much harder to quantify.
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LEADING IN CHANGING TIMES: Deloitte’s DEI Commitment (AACSB Integration of real-world business experiences) A. US Census Data Regarding Diversity The workforce approximates the country’s demographic makeup. All groups contribute approximately to the same extent. The US population continues to be increasingly diverse. Figure 3.4: Ethnic Diversity in the US Population Table 3.2: Key demographic trends B. The Leadership Gap The workforce mirrors demographic trends, but the leadership of organizations does not. It still remains primarily male and white. That is called the leadership gap. Table 3.3: The Diversity Leadership Gap C. Making the Case for Diversity Major arguments: Fairness, social responsibility, good for business, legal requirements, talent is culture-neutral, diversity helps performance Table 3.4: Why Should Leaders Address Diversity? CRITICAL THINKING: What did you learn? (AACSB Reflective thinking) III. Gender and Leadership: The Gender Gap (LO3 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Although equally represented in the workforce and in middle management since the 1960s, women are underrepresented in the leadership of all organizations, in all sectors, and in all countries. A. The Data Table 3.5: Women in management and leadership positions in the US The pay gap which is the differential between the pay of men and women in similar jobs is 82% in the US. Table 3.6: US Pay Gap for Women 1. Causes of the Gender Gap Women and men have different experiences and opportunities in organizations • Persistent Myths regarding cause of the gender gap o Biological and genetic gender differences that impact leadership style o Lack of education and experience o Lack of motivation to pursue leadership • The evidence regarding causes of the gender gap: Table 3.7: Causes of lack of gender parity Figure 3.5: Gender stereotypes and leadership: Think-Leader-Think-Male Figure 3.6: The gender/diversity double-bind Glass is the invisible barrier that holds women back where they cannot go any higher. Glass Cliff is when women are picked for leadership roles that have a high risk of failure.
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THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION – REVISITED Setting a clear focus for DEI is a critical role for leaders. They should also focus on “walking the talk” as people are more likely to draw from their actions than from their words, and even subtle cues can take on special meaning especially on value-laden and important issues such as cultural diversity. LEADING ACROSS CULTURES: Scandinavian Egalitarianism Ideals of leadership represented in the Scandinavian Law of Jante (Janteloven) include: everyone is equal, no one is more special than anyone else, people should strive for sameness. The implications for leaders are: gender equality, expectations of openness and participation from followers and ideals of democratic and relational leaders. IV. Supporting Diversity and Inclusion (LO4 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Actions are necessary at the social, organizational, and personal levels. Figure 3.7: Addressing the diversity gap A. Organizational Practices Figure 3.8: Organizational factors in DEI Leader commitment, involvement at all level, support, training, education, and accountability are critical factors. B. Developing a Cultural Mindset (CM) to Lead Effectively Across Cultures Leaders must commit to taking culture into consideration. A Cultural Mindset (CM) is a way of thinking and a frame of mind or reference that considers culture as a factor when assessing yourself and other people and situations and when making decisions and acting on them. Having a CM means that you are aware of your own cultural backgrounds and the fact that culture-just-is and that it provides a metacontext. APPLYING WHAT YOU LEARN: HOW TO BE AN ALLY (AACSB Application of knowledge) Being an ally means that you are willing to support and promote DEI in your team and organization, beyond formal assignments. It takes awareness of culture, openness to learning, walking the talk, connecting with and reliance on others, and humility. V.
Summary
VI.
Key Concepts
End of chapter wrap up – The TKD roadmap to more effective leadership: What did you learn?
THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION – Some leaders are focused on getting things done while End-Of-Chapter Activities and Materials
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All the end of the chapter activities and materials address AACSB Application of knowledge, and also support Diverse and multicultural work environments. What Do You Do? How to Hire Quickly Members of a multinational team are not getting along and blame personality differences. You think cultural differences are at play. Here are some things you can do: • Collect data through observation so you can provide examples of the conflict • Get the team formal cross-cultural training if available • If training is not available, assign articles and other readings and discuss them during a meeting or retreat • First focus on each person developing awareness of their CMC; what they consider “normal” • Discuss cross-cultural differences in values, communication style, approaches, etc. so that each member develops knowledge of other cultures on the team • Monitor situation to see if conflict subsides; address any personality conflicts through other means Leadership Challenge: Invisible? Imani has joined the leadership team of her company. She is the only woman of color and she feels that she is being ignored and others are taking credit for her ideas. 1. What is your assessment of the situation? Imani’s case reflects what many women and members of other under-represented groups experience. Even when they achieve leadership positions, they often are not treated the same as members of the dominant group. Issues of “mansplaining,” being patronized, ignored, micro-aggressions, and other similar challenges are common. Many are not illintended but their consequences are nevertheless serious. These actions impose a heavy burden on their targets to expend emotional labor and manage the situation and rob organizations of potential talent and productivity. Whether right or wrong, Imani’s perceptions of the situation will affect how she acts and how she does her job. She is likely to experience the gender-double bind. If she says nothing, she will be liked, but ineffective; if she speaks up, she may make her point, but may not be liked as she is stepping outside her gender role. 2. What should Imani do? Consider the consequences and implications of her actions. - Ignore the situation and suffer in silence - Talk to her manager with specific examples - Call out the “culprit” directly next time - Address the situation outside the meeting with those who talked over her or took credit for her ideas
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Ignoring the situation is probably the least desirable option; it solves nothing and Imani will continue to feel bad. A combination of all the other responses is the most likely to lead to change. Unfortunately, Imani has to spend a bit of energy to manage the situation, remain calm and professional, and rely on specific data to make her case.
Exercise 3.1: Equality and Equity This exercise based on two simple images, variations of which are found on the web, can be the basis of a rich exchange related to how to address diversity and its many consequences. The image on the left represents equality; the one on the right depicts equity. The key issue is whether treating everyone the same – the equality principle, will achieve the goal of diversity; or whether leading diversity efforts involves treating different people differently – the equity principle, to allow them to succeed. Time needed: 30 minutes Assign the questions to small groups of students and ask them to prepare for a debate or discussion related to addressing diversity through equality vs. equity. 1. What is your reaction to the two images? Does one “look” or “feel” more correct than the other? Your first reaction most likely reflects your basic view of how to manage diversity. Should everyone be treated the same, or should we use different tools and approaches for different people. Reflect on why you prefer one over the other and what the sources of your preference may be. 2. What approach does each image represent? What is the key message? The first panel represents the principle of equality that involves treating everyone the same regardless of who they are, their needs and abilities. By applying equality, some may not be able to succeed, but everyone will be treated the same. The second panel represents the principle of equity that involves providing whatever opportunity people need to succeed. By applying equity, people will be treated differently which may be perceived as unfair, but everyone gets a better chance to succeed. 3. What are some examples of each approach in organizations? Everyone is likely to agree with the principle of equality. “Everyone should be treated the same.” That is a principle that is often found in legal systems and in organizational policies.
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Equity is behind the Affirmative Action principles and legislation that state that, because not everyone starts in the same place, not everyone can succeed by simply treating people the same. The historical and social roots of racism, their continued impact, post-colonialism, and the presence of institutional racism all suggest that simple equality will not address the challenges that members of under-represented groups have faced. Therefore, in order to provide everyone with a fair chance at success, some will need additional support and resources. For example, in organizations, parents can be provided with specific family leave to support the birth or adoption of children. This specific benefit is not available to those who are not parents, leading to unequal treatment. However, by not providing this benefit, the organization and society are likely to suffer, as parents will be prevented from contributing. The example of how France vs the US address diversity (presented in the chapter) demonstrates how the principles of equality and equity are represented as social ideals. France claims that all are treated equally; the US claims that it seeks equity. 4. How would the behavior of leaders change if they use one approach over the other? Applying equality is, in principle, relatively simple in that it would involve developing one set of policies and processes that apply equally to everyone, regardless of their needs. These practices were typical when organizations included homogeneous groups of people, most specifically white males. What that group needed to succeed became the norm by which equality was established. Applying equity is considerably more complex and requires organizations to identify the needs of diverse employees and providing different policies and processes that allow each group to achieve its potential. 5. What are some of the consequences and implications of using one approach over the other? Answers to which approach is more desirable are not simple. Equality is a laudable ideal when everyone is the same and starts at the same place and when there are no differences at the starting point. Additionally, it requires setting some standards for what is considered appropriate for everyone, something that means establishing what is the norm or an appropriate baseline. That norm or baseline has been White males in the US and other countries, or organizations. This white male norm extends to other areas such as medicine and education. Although in principle, equality appears fair, the fact that the standard on which it is established, is by definition based on one group and not others, makes its fairness less clear. Providing every person with whatever they may need to succeed is the ideal of equity. Different employees have different needs, cultural factors are simply part of those different needs. In order for an organization or society to help everyone succeed, they therefore need .
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to provide individualized resources and support, even if that creates unequal treatment where one person gets more of something than somebody else. This approach is obviously more complex, and can be more costly.
Exercise 3.2: Leadership and Gender (AACSB Application of knowledge) In the US, as in many other cultures, the images of leadership are closely tied to typical male roles and behaviors. For example, leaders and males are supposed to be aggressive, dominant, and competitive. Females on the other hand are typically expected to be submissive, quiet, and cooperative (see Figure 3.5). The female gender roles are generally inconsistent with the traditional views of leadership, whereas the male gender roles mirror cultural expectations of leaders more closely. Although some students are aware of the link between gender and leadership, many assume that such links no longer exist, or exist only in other, gendered and traditional cultures. This exercise is designed to explore the relationship between gender roles and leadership and make students aware of some stereotypes and expectations regarding gender and leadership that they may also hold. Total time: Minimum 30 minutes. Materials needed: Paper, pencil; use of board or flip chart. Part 1: Assign groups and develop list (Group work; 10-15 minutes) • Divide class into three groups; the composition can be random or based on existing groups •
Assign each group to develop a list of up to ten characteristics using work sheet on p. 89 of the text based on one of the three instructions provided at the end of chapter
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Allow each group 10-15 minutes to prepare their list
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Instruct them to be ready to make a brief 2-4 minute presentation to the class
Part 2: Presentation and discussion (In-class discussion; 10-15 minutes) After the three groups have made their presentations, discussion should focus around: •
The relationship between leadership and the male and female gender roles
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Current changes in the definition of leadership and how they relate to gender roles
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Potential cross-cultural differences regarding views of both leadership and gender roles
In most cases, the majority of the traits and behaviors used to describe the male gender role are similar to those used to describe leaders. Traditional female gender roles are typically not associated with leadership. An interesting point of discussion is the similarity between many of the new leadership roles of facilitator, motivator, and coach and the female gender role.
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Overall: This relatively simple exercise can be a powerful demonstration of the strength of gender stereotypes. Focus on the future and changes in our views of leadership allow for the role of culture.
Exercise 3.3: DEI Statement (AACSB Integration of real-world business experiences) The exercise allows students to explore how organizations integrate DEI in their mission statement. It is relatively simple for students to find examples of diversity for most companies. The goal of this exercise is to: • • • • •
Demonstrate to students how organizations define DEI Demonstrate the emphasis organizations place on DEI Observe and analyze the differences in how organizations address DEI Draw conclusions regarding key shared elements Consider specific differences in how organizations address DEI
Time needed: 30 minutes 1. Assigning students to find DEI statements prior to class allows for better use of class time 2. The groups can then compare the various companies and select the statement they would like to present to the class
Self-Assessment 3.1: Cultural Identity (AACSB Application of knowledge and Reflective thinking) This self-assessment encourages students to identify the cultures to which they belong. There is a tendency for some students to think of culture as something about under-represented groups, rather than something that everyone has. By using the diversity wheel in Figure 3.3, they can become aware of the group cultures to which they belong. They also start to understand the complexity of culture, their own and that of others. There are no right and wrong answers and while some students may include only one or two cultures in their identity, others may have highly complex and multicultural ones. Working in small groups is recommended so students can both explore their own cultural identity and become aware of that identity of others. In addition to discussing the questions in the assessment, other topics to explore in class are: .
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Differences between what may be central to a person v. what is visible: For example, while gender and ethnicity (often based on skin color) is the most visible aspect of group culture, they may not be the most central part of a person’s cultural identity. Potential conflict between cultural values: For example, sexual or gender identities may conflict with religious values.
Overall, understanding and awareness of one’s cultures and their potential impact is a critical part of leading in a multicultural and global world. Focusing on self-awareness encourages students to reflect on their own perspectives and their impact in addition to considering the impact of culture on others.
Self-Assessment 3.2: The Implicit Bias Test (AACSB Application of knowledge and Reflective thinking) This self-assessment relies on the Harvard University implicit bias project. Students can be encouraged to take a variety of the self-assessments to help them develop their self-awareness. While the test has some shortcomings and students are likely to improve their score with multiple attempts to some extent, the choice of assessments they take and the results provide considerable information for self-reflection and development. The information from this self-assessment can be used as the basis for Self-assessment 3.3.
Self-Assessment 3.3: The Stereotypes I hold (AACSB Application of knowledge and Reflective thinking) This self-assessment is intended to encourage students to reflect on how their cultures at the national, regional, or group levels provide them with a meta-context and influence how they perceive others. Becoming aware of the stereotypes they hold leads to knowing when and how they may operate is the most critical step in addressing them and preventing their potential negative impact. There are no right or wrong answers; students should be encouraged to complete this exercise as honestly as they can and use the results for their own growth and development. They should also be made aware that, given the power of perceptual biases (discussed in Chapter 5), finding disconfirming evidence can be very challenging. Course Assignment The sensitive nature of the content of this assignment does not make it appropriate for a graded assignment. However, the information that students glean from it can be used as part of a leadership development plan assignment.
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Self-Assessment 3.4: Exploring Gender Roles (AACSB Application of knowledge and Reflective thinking) The goal of this self-assessment is to further develop the student’s self-awareness regarding their views of gender. This self-awareness is the first step in addressing potential biases. If assigned, the students’ list can be used as a basis for Exercise 3.2. LEADERSHIP IN ACTION CASE: The Inappropriate Productive Team Member (AACSB Application of knowledge) Case summary The case involves a highly productive, kindhearted, and supportive team member, Amy, who often makes off-color and inappropriate comments that may be offensive to others. The team leader, Alex, is aware of Amy’s inappropriate comments while also relying on her experience, productivity, and contributions to the team. Amy has been made aware of the potential problem, does not seem to have any bad or negative intentions, but is having trouble adjusting her behavior. Alex needs to figure out how to handle Amy’s behavior. Key issues and learning goals The case provides an example of the challenges of addressing diversity in a diverse team. Amy’s comments are not ill-intentioned and reflect her CMC (particularly her generation), but are nonetheless inappropriate. The goal is for students to explore the complexities of addressing DEI in the workplace. 1. What is your assessment of the situation? • Amy is highly productive and supportive of her team and organization. She offers valuable contributions • Amy’s comments are inappropriate and must be addressed • Amy is from a different generation and generally does not appear to intend to offend • She has been made aware of the problem and has not made substantial changes 2. What are the cultural factors at play for each of the people in the case? • In addition to cultural issues of sexual orientation, gender identity, ethnicity, and national culture, there are also generational cultures as Amy is older and approaching retirement • There is “diversity” in diversity. While the tendency is to focus on a few factors, all dimensions of diversity are important 3. What are Alex’s options? • Do nothing – Continue dealing with Amy on a case-by-case basis. While Amy’s comments are not appropriate, there has not been a problem; no one has complained.
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•
•
•
• •
•
Amy’s behavior is verbal and does not seem to translate into discrimination against any team member. - Easiest path - Avoids conflict - Keep monitoring and reminding Amy and hope for the best Fire Amy – Her comments are offensive, and whether people are complaining or not, should not be tolerated. Her action reflects her privilege and are not acceptable in today’s environment. - Most drastic action - Can cause problems since Amy’s actions have not led to any harm and there have not been complaints - Amy can also claim discrimination based on her age - Loss of productivity and experience Put Amy on a progressive discipline plan to correct her behavior - Document all her actions - Put her on notice and provide consequences if she does not improve - Eventual firing if not improved - Shows seriousness of the issue and is legally defensible Formally evaluate reaction of team members and others through a survey or interviews - Provide specific information about the impact of Amy’s comments - Can be used to formally or informally encourage her to change - Can be used in a team meeting as part of overall discussion of diversity Require Amy to take a diversity training program - May help Amy with more sustained training to make her aware of the problem - Demonstrate seriousness of the issue Discuss DEI in a team meeting; focus on general principles - Highlight the importance of DEI without targeting a specific person - Highlight importance of the issue without making it personal - Provide opportunity for airing concerns and developing awareness Address concerns in a team meeting or retreat where different team members express their concerns – more personal and targeted approach - May be difficult for some members - Likely need help from facilitator - Make Amy more aware of the impact of words and actions
4. If you were Alex, how would you approach the situation and what would you do? Alex must balance productivity, fairness, and DEI issues for her whole team. Using a combination of the options above, with the exception of doing noting and firing, are likely to be most productive. Amy needs to learn and stop her comments; simply saying that she is from a different generation and apologizing every time is not enough. Alex needs to also be careful about how she addresses the issue, remain professional, and kind. This is an issue she cannot ignore, but she also can continue to care for her whole team. “Hard on the issue-Soft on people.”
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Instructions for LEADERSHIP AND GENDER Male gender roles Your team’s task is to list the typical personality traits and behaviors associated with the male gender roles in the US Be prepared to present your list to the class. You have 15 minutes.
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Instructions for LEADERSHIP AND GENDER Female gender roles Your team’s task is to list the typical personality traits and behaviors associated with the female gender roles in the US Be prepared to present your list to the class. You have 15 minutes.
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Instructions for LEADERSHIP AND GENDER Characteristics of leaders Your team’s task is to list the typical personality traits and behaviors associated with traditional leaders in the US. Be prepared to present your list to the class. You have 15 minutes.
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Chapter 4 LEADING WITH A CULTURAL MINDSET: A GLOBAL WORLD Chapter Overview
This chapter continues our discussion of culture by focusing on national culture. It presents the extensive research related to cross-cultural differences in management and leadership to demonstrate the concept of the small world paradox – what works in one culture does not work in another. We detail what leaders need to consider and know when working with and managing people across cultural boundaries by exploring several models and frameworks that allow us to understand, describe, and predict key cultural differences. We further discuss how to apply them to be more effective when leading people across cultures. Awareness of cultural differences address the T in the TKD roadmap. Knowledge of cultural values addresses the K; and applying that knowledge and learning to work across cultures involves the D in the roadmap.
Chapter Outline All materials in this chapter address the AACSB category of Diverse and multicultural work environments. LEADERSHIP QUESTION: Whose values should leaders use in a cross-cultural situation? I. The Small World Paradox and Frameworks for Understanding Culture (LO1 – AACSB Analytical thinking) A. Small World Paradox 10,000 cultures in the world each have their own perspective and rules. The rule of one “small” world/culture does not work or apply to another. CRITICAL THINKING: What’s your small world? (AACSB Reflective thinking) B. Cultural Prototypes and Frameworks Issues of essentialism, over-generalizing, stereotyping, and equating country and culture (discussed in Chapter 3) are relevant in considering national culture. The focus is on using the information about culture to have prototypes. Figure 4.1: The prototypical individual The frameworks about national culture provide prototypes based on research that can be used to describe, understand, and predict differences.
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II. The Communication Context: Hall’s Framework and Cross-Cultural Communication Differences (LO2 – AACSB Analytical thinking) A. Hall’s Communication Context Framework High-context cultures rely heavily on the context, including non-verbal cues such as tone of voice and body posture, and contextual factors such as title and status, to communicate with others and understand the world. Low-context cultures focus on explicit, specific verbal and written messages to understand people and situations, and communicate with others. Table 4.1: High and Low Context Cultures The majority of countries in the world are classified as high-context Figure 4.2: Country rouping on the context continuum B. Cross-Cultural Communication Differences Table 4.2: Cross-Cultural Communication Style Differences 1. Directness and saving face Saving face refers to a desire and a strategy to avoid embarrassment and humiliation, and maintain one’s own and others’ dignity and reputation 2. Linear v. circular 3. Abstraction, task-orientation, and intellectual styles CRITICAL THINKING: How direct are you? (AACSB Reflective thinking) III. Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions (LO3 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Five cultural dimensions used to differentiate among cultures: - Individualism-collectivism (Ind-Col) - Power distance (PD) - Uncertainty avoidance (UA) - Masculinity-femininity (MF) - Time orientation (TO) Table 4.3: Hofstede’s Five Cultural Dimensions A. Tight and Loose Cultures The concept refines Hofstede’s Ind-Col and UA dimensions. Tight cultures (TL): Cultures where there are many rules and norms that are observed and enforced, and where violating rules is frowned upon and punished Loose cultures (LC): Cultures where there are few rules and norms, and where violating them is tolerated or ignored Figure 4.3: Countries with tight and loose cultures B. Vertical and Horizontal Cultures The concept refines the Ind-Col dimension Vertical cultures (VC): Individuals are seen as unique and superior Horizontal cultures (HC): Equality with little hierarchy or power differentials Figure 4.4: Vertical and horizontal IND-COL
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LEADING IN CHANGING TIMES: Masai Ujiri: Basketball as a Vehicle for Change (AACSB Integration of real-life experiences) IV. Trompenaars’ Dimensions of Culture (LO4 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Model focused on understanding the impact of culture on organizational culture. Classify cultures on two dimensions: egalitarian-hierarchical and person or task-orientation to yield 4 types Figure 4.5: Trompenaars’ crtoss-cultural organizational cultures V. Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) Research (LO5 – AACSB Analytical hinking) Based on Hofstede and other models, GLOBE is the most researched and reliable model developed and tested in 62 countries. A. Nine Dimensions GLOBE’s nine dimensions build on Hofstede’s. They include: Power distance, uncertainty avoidance, humane orientation, collectivism I-Institutional, collectivism II-In-group, assertiveness, gender-egalitarianism, future orientation, and performance orientation B. GLOBE’s Country Clusters Countries grouped into clusters based on where they fall on these dimensions . Figure 4.6: Globe country clusters and associated cultural values LEADING ACROSS CULTURES: Confucianism Ideals in China (AACSB Diverse and multicultural work environments) Confucianism, developed in 500 BCE, strongly influences the Chinese culture with an emphasis on social order, collectivism, mutual respect, and kindness. There are also three bonds between parent and children, lord and subject, and husband and wife which apply to leadership contexts. Furthermore, human behavior is to be guided by five virtues of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness. The Confucian principles are collective-centric with the role of the leader as a benevolent caretaker who is expected to sacrifice self-interest to support mutual benefit and social order. C. Culturally Endorsed Leadership Theories (CLTs) GLOBE’s findings suggest six CLTs that represent a culture’s expectations regarding ideal leadership that impact, but do not predict who will lead. To be considered effective leaders must match these expectations. Table 4.4: Country Clusters and Ideals of Leadership D. Desirable and Undesirable Leadership Behaviors GLOBE research has identified universally desirable and undesirable leadership behaviors as well as some that are culturally-contingent. Table 4.5: Cultural Attributes of Leadership
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STEPPING INTO LEADERSHIP: Building Credibility Through Integrity (AACSB Application of knowledge) Integrity is a universally desirable leadership characteristic. To establish credibility, leaders must make a personal commitment to being trustworthy, clarify their values and live by them, be transparent whenever possible, give credit to others, and accept ownership of mistakes. Integrity is a behavioral choice rather than a personality trait. VI. The Cultural Mindset (CM) and the Small World Paradox To be effective across cultures, leaders can build their Cultural Mindset (defined in Chapter 3) so that they are aware of the small world paradox and take culture into consideration. The ten factors that make up CM are presented in Figure 4.7. Figure 4.7: Ten Cultural Mindset (CM) factors APPLYING WHAT YOU LEARN: Using Culture to Lead Effectively (AACSB Application of knowledge) Leaders can manage culture by making a conscious effort to learn about themselves and others. THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION–REVISITED The question of whose culture should dominate in cross-cultural interactions is not an easy one. Some suggestions: - No culture should dominate - CJI - Be aware of your own culture and values - Learn about others and their countries - Address culture and develop team/organizational norms and culture together VII.
Summary
VIII.
Key Concepts
End of chapter wrap up – The TKD roadmap to more effective leadership: What did you learn?
THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION – Some leaders are focused onMaterials getting things done while End-Of-Chapter Activities and All the end of the chapter activities and materials address AACSB Application of knowledge, and also support Diverse and multicultural work environments. What Do You Do? The Bickering Team Members Members of a multi-national team are not getting along and blame personality differences. You think cultural differences are at play. Here are some things you can do: .
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• • • • • •
Collect data through observation so you can provide examples of the conflict Get the team formal cross-cultural training if available If training is not available, assign articles and other readings and discuss them during a meeting or retreat First focus on each person developing awareness of their CMC; what they consider “normal” Discuss cross-cultural differences in values, communication style, approaches, etc. so that each member develops knowledge of other cultures on the team Monitor situation to see if conflict subsides; address any personality conflicts through other means
Leadership Challenge: Speaking Up You have been assigned to lead a multi-cultural team with members from several different countries, including Northern Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. All the team members are well qualified and bring in unique and much needed experience. It very quickly becomes evident that some of the team members are much more outspoken, while others are quiet and do not contribute to team discussions. Your team faces a complex and critical decision that requires everyone’s input and expertise. 1. What are some potential cultural factors you should consider? The most evident cultural factors to consider are related to communication style including how direct and assertive people tend to be. Other factors may be related to power distance. Typically, Asian and Middle-Eastern cultures are less direct and less assertive in formal settings where there may be power differences and when they are not familiar with the group. The presence of the team leader may make it more difficult for team members to speak up with fears of disagreeing with the leader, being wrong, losing face, and embarrassing themselves and team members. 2. What are some options you have to get everyone to contribute? The options you have should focus on allowing team members to contribute in a way that makes them the most comfortable. Simply urging everyone to jump in does not work in every culture and setting. Instead: • Taking time to socialize is a good strategy in any setting, but particularly important in a cross-cultural environment where some people may require longer to get to know their team members before they are comfortable working together. • Discuss cultural differences to make sure everyone is aware of different approaches. Those who are more direct and assertive and those who are less so can benefit from becoming aware of their own CMC and how it impacts them, as well as how others may prefer to interact. This knowledge may prevent or moderate some frustration due to style differences. .
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• Encourage the group to break up into smaller subgroups where the team leader is not present and where they can discuss ideas and bring their suggestions to the whole team. This allows everyone to be less bound by power distance issues, develop a closer relationship, and be more comfortable to contribute. • Subgroups can be more culturally similar or mixed; you can let the team members pick or assign them based on their expertise. • Ask for written reports from everyone; bring those to the group for discussion. • Be patient; pushing to get things done quickly will not yield results. Leadership Challenge: Juggling Cultures The dilemma in this scenario is for the leader to balance culture, organizational needs, fairness, and legal standards. Some of the issues that students must consider before making their decision are: • Saudi Arabia is a Muslim country where because of religious traditions and requirements, women have a highly limited role in public life and business transactions. Women are not only covered from head to toe when out in public, they are also often segregated from men. Although these standards are not as strictly enforced on non-Muslim and Western women, they still find their freedom highly restricted when traveling or living in Saudi Arabia. In addition to the limited role of women, the Saudi culture is generally high-context, collectivistic, power and status-oriented, ascriptive in that who you are is more important than your performance, and with a long-term orientation. Students should be directed to do some research regarding the culture. Web sites such as www.executiveplanet.com can provide a quick overview. •
Depending on the country, there may be clear anti-discrimination laws protecting women and minorities. For example, anti-discrimination and equal opportunity apply to all US companies, regardless of where they operate. Other Western countries do not have as specific legal requirements regarding discrimination. The argument that Saudi culture does not welcome women may therefore, in and of itself, not be legally defensible. Managers are required, at the very minimum to uphold the laws of the country in which they operate.
•
It is in the company’s best interest to have its best and most experienced negotiator represent it. Sending an inexperienced person may be highly detrimental.
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Regardless of legal requirements, standards of fairness and equity should prevent discriminating against a person based on sex. Not sending the female executive to Saudi Arabia simply because she is female and may encounter problems, is not fair or equitable and may set a bad precedence, as well as open up the company to legal action.
Given the complexity of these issues, a simple solution is not likely to work. Sending the female executive to Saudi Arabia may not be feasible, although many foreign women function well in those environments. They are often treated as a “third gender,” neither male, nor quite female.
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Whether this would work in this case depends on the existing relationship with the Saudi clients. Some possible solutions may be: •
Hold negotiations in another country, such as the United Arab Emirates that are close to Saudi Arabia, but not as restrictive concerning the role of women. This may provide a comfortable compromise.
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Send the female executive’s manager, if it is a male, along as the front person. She could then provide “support” to her boss.
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Hire a local or third-party negotiator that would report to and work with the female executive.
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Send your best and let the host country work it out. Prepare her for cross-cultural negotiations, if she needs extra help.
Exercise 4.1: The Washing Machine Ad This is a very simple and highly impactful demonstration of the role of culture in determining perception and interpretation of events. The goal is to show students that how they see and interpret the world is shaped by their language and culture. I like to show the image during class to tell me why the ad may be not effective. Time needed: 10 minutes The reason for the failure of the ad is the simple fact that Arabic is written and read from right to left, so that a consumer from that region will logically follow their language and look at the images from right to left and see clean clothes getting dirtied and jumbled up after going through the machine. English speaking students are likely to follow their language and culture and describe the process from left to right, as it was intended by the company. They often discuss many details of the images and look for complicated answers related to why the ad would not work in other cultures. There is occasionally a student who quickly mentions the language, but it is not common.
Exercise 4.2: World Map I have used this exercise along with the “washing machine ad” prior to discussing the chapter material to demonstrate the power and importance of culture. The goal is to point out how we see our “world” as the starting point and/or center:
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• • •
Where they start the map (often with their own continent) or where they place their own continent How large their continent is (often larger than scale) How little they know about world geography
Time needed: 15 minutes 1. Ask student to draw a simple map of world by using simple geometric figures to represent the continents. They have the options to be more precise if they want. 2. Review the questions with them 3. Show them a world map (from the web) 4. Show them a world map from the Australian point of view (e.g., https://www.reddit.com/r/MapPorn/comments/94993a/do_you_know_how_the_worl d_map_looks_in_australia/) or other perspectives (e.g., https://theconversation.com/five-maps-that-will-change-how-you-see-the-world74967) 5. Discuss how one’s world view is determined by culture through education and media representations. Group Activity Option: You can pair up students to compare their world map. This exercise is particularly engaging if there are students from different countries in the class who are likely to have drawn the world from different perspectives. Exercise 4.3: Proverbs as a Window to Leadership This is a simple and engaging exercise that relies on proverbs to demonstrate cultural differences and their implications for leadership. Students can be assigned to complete the exercise either in class or outside of class and discuss their views in class. You can also ask students to propose their own proverbs; this is particularly interesting if you have a culturally diverse group. A central theme of this exercise is the concept of CJI. Students should explore the proverbs and the cultural differences they represent without considering what is right or wrong. They should also be encouraged to rely on the cultural awareness they have developed and discuss how their own CMC impacts their interpretation of the proverbs and their assumptions and expectations regarding leadership. Time needed: 30 minutes (10 minutes to complete exercise individually; 10-20 minutes discussion to review implications for leadership)
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Instructor “Cheat” Sheet Proverbs
Implications for Leadership
Actions speak louder than words. Low-context, action-oriented culture. Leaders are (US) expected to clearly role-model expected behaviors. Strike while the iron is hot. (US)
Short-term orientation. Expectation of quick decisions and actions.
Time is money. (US)
Short-term and achievement orientation.
God helps those themselves. (US)
who
help Masculine and individualistic culture based on self-reliance. Leaders and followers are expected to take action.
Rain can soak a leopard’s skin, but it does not wash away its spots. (Africa)
Fatalistic approach and views that human nature does not change.
One does not make the wind, but Clear indication of “being” culture with focus on is blown by it. (Asian cultures) fatalism. Leader will not be expected to be strongly action-oriented; expectations of harmony with the environment. Confucianism. Flies don’t enter in closed mouths. The value of silence and privacy may indicate a (Mexico) negative view of human beings. Importance of self-protection. Order is half of life. (Germany)
Importance of structure. Leader expected to focus on clarifying task. Low context.
When spider webs unite, they can Collectivistic culture where group effort is tie up a lion. (Ethiopia) valued. Leader is expected to lead teams not focus on individuals. Ubuntu. Whatever you do, think about it seven times. (Philippines)
Careful planning may indicate uncertainty avoidance and low tolerance for ambiguity.
Don’t be the first bird that comes out of the forest. (China)
Risk avoidance may indicate avoidance. Confucianism.
uncertainty
Sometimes you ride the horse; Fatalistic culture. Events happen and life is sometimes you carry the saddle. cyclical. Leader must accept such an approach (Iran) and go with the flow. IE
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We will be known forever by the Importance of harmony and long-term thinking. tracks we leave .(Native American Leader must guard reputation, consider long– Lakota) term impact of actions. Tree that grows bent will never get straight again. (Mexico)
Fixed view of human nature and fatalistic approach.
A young tree is easy to straighten, but when it's big it is difficult. (Philippines)
Fatalistic culture; negative view of human nature.
One finger cannot lift a pebble. Collectivist culture where group actions are (Native American - Hopi) valued over individual achievement. Leader must work with group to perform. Force, no matter how concealed, Cooperative culture based on consensus. Leader begets resistance. (Native must not be autocratic and must build group American - Lakota) consensus. Too many opinions sink the boat. (Greece)
Dislike for consultation and collective leadership. Importance of hierarchy.
Die rather than disgrace yourself. (Japan)
Importance of reputation; value of past and longterm orientation. Confucianism.
Extend your feet only as far as your blanket. (Chaldean-Iraqi)
Low risk-taking; avoidance of uncertainty; ascription rather than performance.
When the winds of change blow, some build walls, while others build windmills. (China)
Entrepreneurial approach.
Exercise 4.4: How Would You Handle the Situations? This exercise is partially based on the work of Trompenaars. It demonstrates how different cultural values impact decision making and provides a good example of the power of Culture-asMeta-Context (CMC) to impact thinking and guide behavior. Time needed: 30 minutes (10 minutes to complete exercise individually; 10-20 minutes for discussion) I use this exercise during class and ask for a show of hands for each question and an explanation of their choices. I have also paired up students for a few minutes to let them discuss their choice.
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The goal is to reinforce the concept of CJI and the small world paradox. What works and is expected in one culture, does not always apply in another culture. Scenario 1: You are in a car driven by one of your friends when s/he hits a pedestrian. Your friend was driving approximately 10 miles over the speed limit. You are the only witness to the accident. As the police are arriving at the scene, your friend asks you to confirm that s/he was driving at the speed limit. Would you lie for your friend? Why or why not? What factors would impact your decision? Cultural values at play here are collectivism which we discussed in the chapter and the concept of Universalism-Particularism which refers to rules applying to everyone equally or being different for different groups. In particular cultures, such as Russia or Venezuela, and cultures that are in-group collectivistic (most of the Middle-East and Africa), rules for family and friends differ than those for strangers. Cultures that are universal and individualistic (for example the US or Switzerland) apply the same rules to everyone. People from the particular and collective cultures are more likely to lie for their friend. Scenario 2: Because of one person’s error in your team, the paper that you handed in for your class project includes a section that is plagiarized. Your instructor has called the team to her/his office to discuss the situation. Would you identify and blame the person who made the error or face the situation as a team? What factors would impact your decision? The key cultural values at play are again collectivism and universalism as well as tight-loose dimensions. In more collective cultures, the group/collective has more value than the individual. In tight cultures, rules are rules and apply to everyone. Scenario 3: Your boss has a teenager in high school who just tried out for the basketball team but did not make it. S/he finds out that one of your parents is the coach of the basketball team in that high school. Your boss asks you for a favor and ask your parent to give the kid a second chance. Does your boss have the right to ask this of you? Would you agree to doing the favor? What factors would impact your decision? Cultural values at play here are power distance (discussed in the chapter) and the cultural value of diffuse-specific. In higher power distance cultures (for example Mexico), what the boss asks will be done even outside of work. In diffuse cultures (for example Germany or Japan), people’s roles in one setting, in this case being the boss, carry over to other settings. So, the boss has the right to ask subordinates for favors outside of work.
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In more egalitarian and specific cultures (for example the Netherlands), the boss’ authority does not go beyond work and such a request would be inappropriate.
Exercise 4.5: Narian Bridges Narian Bridges is an engaging cross-cultural role play designed to allow students to experience the challenges of interacting with different cultures. Although no out-of-class preparation is needed for the students, the instructor needs to decide on team assignments prior to class. You can expect considerable frustration on the part of US teams and lively discussion about how to deal with cross-cultural differences and conflicting goals. Total time: Minimum 60 minutes. Materials needed: Access to 2 separate rooms (quiet hallway or sitting area) to allow for separate planning for each cultural group. Part 1: Background (Individual reading; 10 minutes) Ask all students to read “Background” information on pp. 120-121. Instructor’s Preparation: The instructor needs to decide on team assignments prior to class. The only restriction is that Mr. Dafti has to be male; all other roles can be assigned to either male or female students. Selection of students to play Narian or US roles can be made randomly or based on each student’s personal characteristics. For example, students who show “typical” American characteristics, such as assertiveness and directness, can be assigned to the US team to emphasize those roles, or they can be put in Narian teams to allow them to experience a different culture. Both the Narian and US team can function with just two members. Depending on class size, some teams may have three members while others only two. Keeping the Narian and US teams at no more than three allows for all members to participate. Students assigned to teams larger than three are unlikely to have the opportunity to role play. For each role-play group, assign: Narian Team
US Team
Mr. Dafti (male student)
US team leader
Naran
Team member 1
Touran (optional)
Team member 2 (optional)
Call students’ names and pair them up with their Narian and US role-play groups before you provide further instructions. There is no restriction on the overall number of role-play groups. .
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Provide students with role-play instruction sheets appropriate for their role (see end of this chapter). Part 2: Role Play (Preparation: 15 minutes; Role play: 15-20 minutes) Preparation: Separate the Narian and US teams by sending the US team to another room. Review instructions on the role-play sheets with the Narian and US teams separately, reminding each group about basic role play rules: •
Stay in the general guidelines provided by your role
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Improvise as needed while keeping goal in mind
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Practice role for a few minutes alone or with your team
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Provide rich role play so that others can respond to you
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Be as creative as you feel comfortable; some of the students will play roles more intensely than others; differences are normal
In helping each group of students prepare for their roles while answering their questions, the instructor can provide them with the following information. Narian teams: The description of Narian culture matches that of a high power distance, feminine, vertical collectivist culture with moderate uncertainty avoidance. The culture has many elements of middle-eastern cultures. Students find the highly differentiated but equal gender roles both surprising and comfortable. Issues that need to be emphasized in preparing students to role play Narians are: •
Maintain good interpersonal relations in all situations
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Avoid open conflict and disagreement among yourselves and with the US teams
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Be very respectful and polite with one another and with the US team
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Appear confident, stick to your ground without being rude and confrontational
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Remember that you know the US culture and language well
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Keep the social goal of the meeting in mind at all times; this is not a negotiation session
US teams: Initially, the US team members have an easier task since they are role playing a culture with which they are familiar. The US culture is moderate-to-low power distance, masculine, individualistic, and tolerant of uncertainty. Issues that need to be emphasized in preparing students to role play US team members are: •
Remember that your goal is changing the contract and that your success depends on getting Dafti to agree with the changes
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Appear confident and knowledgeable
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Rely on your relationship with the two Narian associates, Naran and Touran, and on your information about Narian culture
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Remember that the Narians speak English well and are familiar with US culture
Once both groups are prepared (approximately 15 minutes), invite the US team back and inform them that they have a maximum of 20 minutes for the role play. Each group of US and Narian teams can sit in clusters to start their interaction. Part 3: Debriefing (Class discussion; 20-30 minutes) The role play is likely to cause much frustration for US team members who will in most cases not achieve their goals. The Narian members are likely to observe the pushiness of US teams. Class debriefing can start with allowing each role-play group to describe the interaction and the outcome while students share their role-play instructions with their counterparts. Discussion should include issues of goal differences, rudeness of one culture vs. the other’s unwillingness to talk business, and potential solutions. Other discussion themes can include: •
Leadership differences: The Narians consider their leader to be the infallible head of their family. There is strong loyalty and sense of respect. As a result, they will not disagree with their leader and will not be co-opted by the US team members even when their leader is “wrong.” Such views sharply differ with those of the US teams who have the “correct” solution and put the objective truth ahead of respect for the leader. •
How to handle goal differences: All role-play groups are likely to have been frustrated because of their divergent goals. Discussion of and solutions for how to handle such differences are often lively. Many US teams find a partial solution that satisfies the Narians by focusing on long-term accomplishments. Overall: The Narian Bridges is a powerful role play that works even with students and instructors who have limited experience at role play or cross-cultural situations. The issues at play tie in directly with the cultural dimensions presented in the chapter.
Self-Assessment 4.1: What is your Cultural Background? (AACSB Reflective thinking) This self-assessment builds on Self-assessment 3.1 in Chapter 3 and further unpacks that information by asking students to identify specific cultures that may be part of their identity and exploring the values and practices of those cultures. The process of identifying and understanding one’s own cultural values and CMC is critical to developing a cultural mindset. By understanding their own culture and lens, students are able to work better across cultures.
Self-Assessment 4.2: Tight and Loose (AACSB Reflective thinking) This assessment is based on the work of Triandis and Gelfand regarding the Tight-Lose dimension. There are no right or wrong answers.
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Self-Assessment 4.3: Horizontal and Vertical (AACSB Reflective thinking) This assessment is based on the work of Triandis regarding the horizontal-vertical dimensions that further clarify the individualism-collectivism dimension. The goal is to provide students with deeper knowledge regarding your cultural values. There are no right or wrong answers.
Self-Assessment 4.4: The Individual Cultural Mindset Inventory – ICMI (AACSB Reflective thinking) The provided weblink allows students to complete the ICMI – Individual Cultural Mindset Inventory and record their score for each of the factors. They will be referring to these scores throughout the semester as each factor is discussed to build the student’s CM. Direct students to record their scores since they cannot be accessed again (they are anonymous). Students can, however, retake the ICMI as often as needed.
Leadership in Action Case: Grace in Sidney (AACSB Application of knowledge) Case summary Grace Mejia is a successful and high-potential US manager on assignment in Australia. She has the right education, the right contacts, and the right level of experience and expertise for the job and is looking at success in this assignment as a step to the next successful career move. She is rooted in her own culture Catholic Chicana (from Mexico) female executive and has found a successful professional style that has worked for her. She leads a multi-cultural team made up of Australian and Asian members. The team is working on building its cohesion through social activities that Grace encourages but does not join. Meanwhile some tension is present partly due to different cultural values related to gender roles, hierarchy, and communication styles which team members informally communicate to Grace. In her six-month review, Grace receives high marks for her performance and recommendations regarding addressing some concerns which she does not fully understand. 1. How would you describe Grace’s leadership style? Grace is task-focused and getting the job done is her primary focus. She would most likely be classified as a low-LPC (see Chapter 2). She tends to use a consultative style of decision making (NDM, Chapter 2). She is relatively distant and formal, but engages with her team. Based on Fiedler’s CM (Chapter 2), Grace would be effective in high control situations where her team is cohesive and the task is clear. That is the situation she is currently facing, but internal conflicts may move the situation to moderate control which would not work as well for her. .
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Grace has the right experience and expertise and the right network for the job. In spite of international experience, she does not appear to have a CM including the self-awareness of her own CMC and the role her cultural values play in how she may perceive the situation and in her actions. She further does not appear to have awareness of or knowledge concerning cultural differences since she is simply implementing what worked in one world to another that may have some different rules. There is little question that she has the right managerial skills, but she is lacking a CM that is essential for success in a global organization. 2. Based on the concepts from this chapter and research regarding cultural groups you can do on your own, what are the different key cultural values of the team members? Grace’s Chicana background likely makes her value some degree of formality and hierarchy; her directness and assertiveness are more likely tied to her US culture and her education. She expects others to simply do the same; speak their minds and do their job. She sees her role as the manager as needing to be involved, but distant, and monitoring the task. Grace has a multi-cultural background that can serve her well. Her US side is task-focused and individualistic; her Chicana side is more collective and hierarchical. Her Australian team members, Charlotte, Oliver, and Jackson are likely similar to Grace to some extent as they are also direct and individualistic, but less hierarchy-oriented, more horizontal, and loose. Australians are known for their informality and use of salty language, as well as dislike for hierarchy. The Thai (Gan) culture is highly indirect, high-context, collective, and respectful of authority. The fact that Gan approaches his boss in the most indirect way about Kiyoshi should be taken seriously. He is not likely to bring this type of problem up unless it is affecting him, a fact that may be playing into his resignation. Grace is paying attention to Gan’s words, but ignoring the context, and therefore not giving the matter the attention it may deserve. The Malaysian culture is similar to the Thai culture; indirect, collective, and respectful of authority. Ashraf will try to do what her boss tells her, but her indirect style, also related to her gender, provides a challenge. Kiyoshi is showing a desire to assert his authority over others both as a more experienced team member and as a male. The Japanese culture is highly collectivistic, hierarchical, and masculine. He is dedicated to helping his team and believes he deserves respect. 3. What role do you think culture plays in this case? Although some of the brewing conflict may simply be due to personality differences, they can also be tied to culture, both at the national and group levels, more specifically gender. On the national culture side, directness (Australian v. Malaysian; and Thai v. US) and power distance (Japan) play a role. The Australian’s direct communication and the overall .
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rambunctious style is hard for Ashraf to handle. Grace is not sensitive to this challenge. Similarly, Kiyoshi sees himself as a senior member who should be respected; while others are not reacting well to his asserting leadership. On the group culture side, gender may be playing a role for Ashraf in her dealings with the team. It also may play a role for Kiyoshi and Oliver, as Charlotte mentions. 4. What do you think Grace needs to pay attention to? Grace is focused on the task and on maintaining a professional, somewhat distant, style of management that has worked for her in the past. She is all business while also trying to be supportive of her team. Although the team is effective and generally cohesive, she is not paying attention to the simmering conflicts regarding hierarchy and gender roles brought on by Kiyoshi’s style that Gan brought to her and may have caused him to leave. Her refusal to join in on social activities, something that appears to be part of the Australian company culture, may be making her appear aloof. Her intense focus on the task and on maintaining an appropriate distance are preventing her from perceiving and acknowledging the potential problems. 5. What are your recommendations as Grace continues her assignment in Australia? The style Grace has developed and has been successful in the past is not a perfect fit for her current situation. Here are some things she should consider: •
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• • •
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Join in some of the social activities. Her lack of attendance may be making her look aloof, hierarchical, and unfriendly in an Australian culture that values informality and equality. Joining in would not only connect her to her team, but also to other managers in the company. Attend more of the team meetings. There are some tensions regarding roles, communication, and hierarchy that she has been told about, but she is not attending to. She does not have direct first-hand knowledge that she needs to decide whether and how they should be handled. She needs that information to make decisions. Monitor Kiyoshi’s situation. She ignored Gan’s comments and dismissed his departure, but Kiyoshi’s reported tendency to take over the group may cause problems. Attend to communication differences. The Asian members of the team are indirect and unlikely to directly assert themselves even if upset. The differences in communication styles may cause hard feelings and undo the group cohesion. Get cultural training. Both Grace and the team need to become more aware and skilled at interacting across cultures. They are in a global and multi-cultural environment and awareness of their own CMC and having knowledge and skills and work effectively across culture are critical.
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•
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Draw on her own multi-cultural background. The Chicana cultural values that Grace holds are more collective, although hierarchical. She could draw on those values to connect with her team more closely.
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Narian Bridges Role Play Instructions Instructions for Mr. Dafti Your culture focuses on harmony and respect for tradition and authority. You are taught from very early in life that disagreeing with others is rude and a sign of selfishness. Differences in points of view are expressed very gently and in an extremely roundabout way. As a result, business discussions are often veiled and lengthy. Leaders and bosses do not discuss the details of business deals. Even major contracts operate on a handshake from the leaders and there have been many conflicts with Western companies over the need to draft precise legal contracts. Narians find this aspect of Western business insulting and accept it very reluctantly. You come from an old aristocratic Narian family with close ties to the monarchy. You have received your higher education in Europe and Austria. As is the case with many wealthy Narians, you have traveled extensively throughout the world and are very knowledgeable in the cultures and customs of European countries. Your family spends a good deal of its time in Europe every year, and your two daughters are currently going to college in France and Switzerland. However, you have less familiarity with the US, as you have only been there on two official trips. Although you are aware of the importance of the US to your country's development, you are not very fond of their presence in Nari. You would prefer working with Europeans whom you find more cultured and more "civilized." The King, however, would like closer ties with the US and has asked that US companies be given every possible consideration. Americans seem to you to be rude, pushy, and unruly and lacking proper respect for tradition and authority. Your dealings with US companies have led you to believe that their eagerness for contracts with your country often clashes with your culture and way of life. However, the construction company you have been working with on the bridge project has, so far, been easy to work with, and you have found the young engineer in charge of the project, whom you have met once at a cocktail party, to be charming. The bridge project is particularly interesting to you because one of the bridges that is planned is located near a number of historical and religious sites and its placement and design need to be in harmony with the environment. Therefore, you have personally made several key decisions regarding that one bridge. You are aware that the US construction company is not happy about your choices, but that does not concern you as you believe that their role is to implement the wishes of your government. You have already made up your mind based on the needs of your country. Naran and Touran have been instructed to carry out your wishes and work on the details of the plans. The head project US engineer has asked for a meeting, and you are welcoming the opportunity to get to know him/her better, particularly in light of your positive first impression and your two associates' friendship with him/her. During this meeting, your goal is to solidify the social relationship that is essential to a good business relationship.
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Narian Bridges Role-Play Instructions Instructions for Naran and Touran Your culture focuses on harmony and respect for tradition and authority. You are taught from very early in life that disagreeing with others is rude and a sign of selfishness. Differences in points of view are expressed very gently and in an extremely roundabout way. As a result, business discussions are often veiled and lengthy. Leaders and bosses do not discuss the details of business deals. Even major contracts operate on a handshake from the leaders and there have been many conflicts with Western companies over the need to draft precise legal contracts. Narians find this aspect of Western business insulting and accept it very reluctantly. You are both from the higher levels of Narian society. You have traveled extensively around the world and are both US-educated with a BS in Engineering and a Masters in Business. Like many young Narians, you find the excitement of the West, particularly the US, appealing. You have many American and other Western friends, and you enjoy the openness and relaxed interactions that you have with them. You have a good relationship with the US project head whom you have met on a number of work and social occasions. In spite of your interest in the West, you remain Narian at heart and you have no ambivalence about your loyalties to your culture and country. The focus on harmony and civility in your culture remains a key focus for you. Like all Narians, you have a strong respect for authority, particularly for Mr. Dafti who has been a mentor for the two of you. You also know his family very well. You are both aware of the potential problem with one of the bridges. The head US engineer has mentioned it to you. However, you have complete faith in Mr. Dafti's skills as an engineer and a manager. You have found the US construction company's insistence on change irritating and have interpreted it as a typical sign of Western impatience and lack of knowledge of Nari. You have tried to explain the reasons to the US engineer without being rude, but you are not sure that you were able to get through. You are welcoming the opportunity for Mr. Dafti to get to know the head project engineer in order to establish better relations. Your role as Mr. Dafti's associates is to hash out the finer details later. During this meeting, your goal is to solidify the social relationship that is essential to a good business relationship. You also want to avoid any potential conflict that may jeopardize Mr. Dafti’s trust of the new US associates.
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Narian Bridges Role-Play Instructions Instructions for the head US engineer The Narian Bridge Project is key to your company's success. Although your company has done a lot of business all over the world, this is the first time it has been able to win a contract in Nari by beating several European firms in what appeared to be a secret, very confusing negotiation process. You are still not sure why you were awarded the contract, but are confident that you can perform. You have been with your company for eight years. As a result of your focus on international management in your MBA, your excellent technical skills, your outstanding performance, and your interest in foreign assignments, you have been put in charge of the key Narian project. You have already spent 3 successful years overseas, 6 months of which were spent in another middle-eastern country. You have been in Nari for 2 months and have very much enjoyed your stay. The culture is very warm and you have made friends with many young Western educated Narians who seem to share many of your values. You have even been trying to recruit several of them to leave Nari to join your firm, but have so far been unsuccessful. You have instructions from your company to finalize the details of the bridges. Particularly, you need to change the design on one of the bridges. Although you have not had the opportunity to go to the site, your team has. Their analysis, that you agree with, clearly shows that the location selected for one of the bridges and the design that has been proposed is unworkable. You are proposing to move the location by only three miles and build a much simpler and more functional bridge. Unless you can change the design, you will not be able to complete the project. Your associates have also been in Nari for over 6 months. Like you, they speak a few words of Narian and have found the culture to be welcoming. Their background is more technical and they have the expertise to evaluate and change the design more than you, while you have expertise in international negotiations. You are very optimistic about being able to achieve your goal of reaching a clear final agreement. You have had the contracts with the final changes drafted by your lawyers and reviewed by a Narian attorney. You have them ready for Mr. Dafti. You have met Mr. Dafti once before and found him to be charming. You are close friends with his two associates and, given their background, education, and your conversations with them, you know that they are aware of the location problem. Although you have not been able to get a clear commitment from them, you think that they will support you. You were granted the meeting with Mr. Dafti within days of requesting it. You are ready to do some business! Your goal is to obtain final agreements as soon as possible, including changes in design of that one bridge, and succeed in this contract in the hope of continued cooperation.
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Narian Bridges Role-Play Instructions Instructions for the US team members The Narian Bridge Project is key to your company's success. Although your company has done a lot of business all over the world, this is the first time it has been able to win a contract in Nari by beating several European firms in what appeared to be a secret, very confusing negotiation process. You are still not sure why you were awarded the contract, but are confident that you can perform. You each have been with your company for over five years. As a result of your excellent technical skills, your outstanding performance, and your interest in foreign assignments, you have already been assigned to several foreign countries as technical advisors on a variety of projects. You both tend to spend a limited time in each country, but you have gained considerably successful experiences. Nari has been one of your longer assignments. You have been here for over 6 months and have picked up some of the language. You have found the culture to be welcoming. You have made friends with many young Western educated Narians who seem to share many of your values. Your role has been to hash out the technical details, and, in that capacity, you have worked with several Narian engineers and have met Naran and Touran on many occasions. Your analysis clearly shows that the location selected for one of the bridges and the design that has been proposed are unworkable. You have proposed to move the location by only three miles and build a much simpler and more functional bridge. Unless you can change the design, you will not be able to complete the project. Your attempts at discussing the problem with your Narian counterparts have not been successful. You hope that the new head US engineer can negotiate the change during an upcoming meeting with Mr. Dafti. During this meeting, your goal is to support the head US engineer to obtain final agreements as soon as possible, including changes in design of that one bridge and succeed in this contract in the hope of continued cooperation.
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Chapter 5 SELF-AWARENESS AND PERCEPTION AS CORNERSTONES OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP Chapter Overview This chapter discusses the role that individual differences and traits play in leadership. Individual differences discussed include values, abilities (including intelligence and emotional intelligence) and skills, and several personality traits including the Big Five, proactivity, Type A, and narcissistic personality. Although traits do not define leaders, individual difference characteristics provide limits to leaders’ behavior and ability and ease of learning new behaviors and styles. The focus is to view individual difference characteristics as self-assessment and developmental tools. We further consider the critical role of perception in effective leadership. Both of these topics are essential tools to increase self-awareness, the first step in the TKD roadmap.
Chapter Outline
LEADERSHIP QUESTION: Key personal characteristics of leaders? I. The Role of Individual Differences (LO1 – AACSB Analytical thinking) What makes a person unique is a combination of many factors. The interactionist view suggests that we are the product of both our heredity and our environment suggesting that leadership is both born and learned. Figure 5.1: Individual differences framework A. Individual Characteristics Provide a Range Individual characteristics play the strongest role in determining behavior when the situation does not provide clear guidelines. They also set limits and create a behavioral range, rather than dictate behaviors with zones of comfort that include a range of behaviors that come naturally and are easy to perform because they are compatible with individual characteristics. Figure 5.2: Behavioral range and zones of comfort CRITICAL THINKING: How far do you push yourself? (AACSB Reflective thinking) II.
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Values, Abilities, and Skills (LO2 – AACSB Analytical thinking) A. Values Values are long lasting beliefs about what is worthwhile and desirable.
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Value system is the way in which people organize and prioritize their values. 1. Values and Culture Based on GLOBE studies, not all cultures value the same aspects of leadership. Group level culture, including gender also impact what people value. 2. Values and Ethics Ethics comprise a person’s value system regarding the concept of right and wrong. A relativist view of ethics states that what is right or wrong depends on the situation or the culture. A universalist view of ethics suggests that some things are right and wrong regardless of the context and situation. Leaders must take values and ethics into consideration as people have different value systems that guide their behaviors. STEPPING INTO LEADERSHIP: Managing Individual Differences (AACSB Application of knowledge) Teams are likely to be made up of people with many different characteristics. How can a leader manage those differences effectively? • Expect differences among people • Embrace differences; they will provide you with a team with many perspectives and strengths • Team up different but complementary people • Focus on the organizational mission as the common thread • Be aware of your own biases to favor people who are most like you B. Abilities Abilities or aptitude is a natural talent for doing something physical or mental. 1. Intelligence-IQ Intelligence as defined by IQ is the ability to solve abstract problems. Although intelligence and leadership are generally found to be related, the relationship is complex and moderated by many different factors. 2. Emotional Intelligence EQ Definitions of intelligence go beyond solving abstract problems. Emotional intelligence which includes ability to access and use emotions to promote growth and to relate to others. It includes: Self-awareness, self-regulation and self-management, empathy for others and social awareness, and relationship management Table 5.1: Components of Emotional Intelligence 3. Creativity Creativity or divergent thinking is the process of bringing into reality something novel and useful. Creative leaders have certain characteristics including being good listeners and valuing information, perseverance in the face of obstacles, willingness to take risks, willingness to grow, and openness to new experiences, and tolerance for ambiguity. Creative leaders shape the organizational context and culture and affect others’ creativity.
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4. Skills Skills are acquired talent related to a specific task. Competencies refer to being able to combine various skills and knowledge to address specific situations. The three types of leadership skills are technical, interpersonal, and conceptual. As leaders move up in their organization, they require more interpersonal and conceptual skills and less technical skills. Table 5.2: Leadership Skills LEADING ACROSS CULTURES: Dutch “Bespreekbaarheid” (AACSB Diverse and multicultural work environments) The Dutch value directness and frankness and the concept of “bespreekbaarheid” which translates into “speakability.” It refers to the belief that people should be able to say anything they need to say. This extreme directness is hard for those outside the culture. Bespreekbaarheid also means that automatic obedience to authority is not desirable. People value egalitarianism, focus on the task and goal, and consider their leaders as just another team member. Status is downplayed and unnecessary. III. Personality Traits and Leadership (LO3 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Personality traits are relatively stable psychological characteristics that develop early in life, make a person unique, and constitute the person’s character or temperament. Although traits do not define leaders, they impact leaders: • Leaders’ personality influences their preferences, style, and behavior. • Leaders’ personality impacts the quality and type of interaction they have with followers. • Personality may affect the ease with which leaders learn some skills and are able to implement them. • Traits are related to leadership when considered in an integrated system that includes several individual difference characteristics, and situational and contextual variables. • Awareness of one’s personality traits and their potential impact is critical to understanding one’s leadership style and to leadership development. Knowing where zones of comfort and discomfort may be, facilitates setting goals and learning. WHAT DO YOU DO? Assessing the New Team Member Scenario presents a situation where employee and supervisor perceptions do not match either because of different perspective, or because a person may behave differently with coworkers and with a supervisor. Some things to consider: • Gather information before you take any action; observe and keep data; focus on specific examples not just perceptions • Recognize and respect different working styles; not everyone works the same way and that diversity can be very valuable to a team • Consider gender-related issues; women are often perceived as more aggressive even when acting like other male coworkers
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Address the issue directly and proactively; focus on conflict resolution as needed Set clear expectations for all team members in regards to performance and team cooperation Mentor and coach and encourage self-reflection Keep monitoring the situation
A. The Big Five Personality Dimensions The Big Five personality dimensions have been found to be consistent components of personality. The Big Five (Five Factor Model – OCEAN): - Open to experience (O) - Conscientiousness (C) - Extraversion (E) - Agreeableness (A) - Neuroticism (N) Table 5.3: Big Five Personality Dimensions Although none are strong predictors of leadership, conscientiousness and extraversion have the strongest links to work-related behaviors. 1. Extraversion-Introversion (E-I) Part of the Big Five but often addressed separately Correlated with job related behaviors where social interactions are important US tends to have bias for extraversion often considered a necessary leadership trait The dichotomy may not be accurate, it’s a continuum with many people falling inbetween Ambiverts: Out-going introverts or quiet extroverts Figure 5.4: Introverts, ambiverts, and extraverts CRITICAL THINKING: Planning to act like an ambivert (AACSB Reflective thinking) B. Proactive personality Proactive individuals take control to influence events in their lives and attribute things that happen to them to their own efforts and abilities. They focus on changing the environment rather than being constrained by it. They tend to be more satisfied with their life and their work and be more entrepreneurial. All of these characteristics are likely to help those in leadership positions by allowing leaders to focus on action and achieving goals. Table 5.4: Characteristics and Behavior of Proactive People C. Type A Personality Type A is characterized by the need for control, and doing more and more in less and less time. Behaviors include: Time urgency, competitiveness, polyphasic behaviors, and hostility and their related behavior of poor delegation, preference for working alone, actionorientation, high perception of stress, and harder work are discussed. .
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Figure 5.5: Type A characteristics and behavior LEADING IN TIMES OF CHANGE: Shannon Maldonado’s Passion (AACSB Integration of real-world experiences) D. Undesirable Leadership Traits: Machiavellianism, Narcissism, and Psychopathy The combination of three traits called the Dark Triad that are detrimental to leadership are socially malevolent and conducive to destructive and toxic leadership. Machiavellianism, subclinical narcissism, and subclinical psychopathy People with these traits are self-focused, self-promoting, disagreeable, emotionally cold, and have duplicitous characteristics. Table 5.5: Machiavellianism, Narcissistic, and Psychopathic Personality Characteristics Leaders with these characteristics get ahead without establishing connections with others and by being manipulative and ruthless. Figure 5.6: Destructive leadership traits
WHAT DO YOU DO? The Selfish Contributor The scenario requires balancing the need for a cohesive team and the contributions of a skilled but divisive team member. Some things to consider: • Take time for individual meetings and discussions and acknowledge the concerns of team members • Set clear expectations for both performance and for team behaviors – don’t ignore the problem • Provide direct and honest feedback to the divisive team and encourage reflection to increase self-awareness • Emphasize shared team and organizational goals • Conduct some team building focusing on cooperation • Monitor and continue providing feedback • Provide clear consequences if there is no improvement Be firm and patient. Changing behaviors takes time but it is essential that the team function well together, not just one individual. E. Applying Individual Characteristics to Leadership Traits do not predict or determine leadership or effectiveness Useful for development and self-awareness THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION – REVISITED Emphasizes that no one trait or even a set of traits determines who will lead and be effective. While some characteristics are important and others may prevent effectiveness, leaders need to be aware of their own traits, strengths, and weaknesses.
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IV. Perception Shapes How Leaders View the World (AACSB Analytical thinking and Reflective thinking) Perception is the process by which we take in information from our environment, organize it, and use it to make decisions. Social perception is the same process, but focused on decisions about others. Figure 5.7: The social perception process A. Selective Processing We do not record information objectively; we instead contribute and change what we perceive through our experiences. We subconsciously select what will be recorded and organized. We have limited capacity – we are cognitive misers: People are limited in what they can process, so they try to be as efficient as possible and make a quick evaluation within a fraction of a second before moving on to other things. We rely on closure: the process of filling in missing information to understand a situation. B. Heuristics: Efficient Shortcuts To be efficient we use a number of strategies Heuristics are efficient shortcuts, methods, strategies or rules of thumbs we use to derive a solution They are essential to our cognitive processes and allow us to be efficient When over-used, they can lead to error Table 5.6: Three Common Heuristics C. Biases: Systematic Errors Heuristics that are overused and systematically lead to error become biases Biases are systematic and subconscious error in thinking They are the results of our cognitive need to be efficient Implicit biases are those that operate automatically and without our knowledge Their source can be a number of factors including - Personality - Culture - Personal experience - Pressure to make a decision quickly Table 5.7: Common Biases D. Role of Culture in Perception The rules of our small world are often subconscious – we are not aware they are operating and guiding our thinking and behavior Our CMC contributes to how we perceive our world Our cultural values can be the source of heuristics and biases Leaders must strive to be aware of how their CMC may shape how they perceive the world E. Managing the Perceptual Process for more Effective Leadership
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We cannot fully control and manage our cognitive processes, but we can strive to manage biases and errors through: - Awareness - Examination of our behavior through feedback and reflection - Knowledge about various processes - Active engagement with diverse groups - Applying logical thinking and using objective data to make decisions - Motivation to learn and expand APPLYING WHAT YOU LEARN: Avoiding Errors in Social Perception (AACSB Application of knowledge) Perceptual errors cannot be eliminated, but they can be managed through humility, active listening, reliance on data, and openness to learning and to different perspective.
I.
Summary
II.
Key Concepts
End of chapter wrap up – The TKD roadmap to more effective leadership: What did you learn?
THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION – Some leaders are focused onMaterials getting things done while End-Of-Chapter Activities and All the end of the chapter activities and materials address AACSB Application of knowledge.
What Do You Do? Assessing the New Team Member The scenario describes a new team member with a reputation for being difficult. Previous team members say she does not play well with others. Your supervisor thinks she is a star. How do you approach the situation? The employee’s behaviors may be as much a function of her personality as they are a function of her environment. She has some of the preconditions for being a good leader including drive, desire to lead, and knowledge of the business. However, working with others is also essential to effectiveness as a leader or followers. Getting a strong performer on the team is always a good opportunity. However, her potential weaknesses are likely to detract from her performance. Pointing that out to her is the path to getting her to moderate or change her behaviors. It also may be that being in a new environment will show a different side of her. In either case, you need to monitor the situation and address issues that may arise objectively, quickly, and consistently.
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What Do You Do? The Selfish Contributor The scenario is the case of a team member who contributes and is a good negotiator, factors that make the person valuable to the team and its manager. However, the person is disliked and mistrusted by team members for being selfish, self-focused, uncooperative, and potentially unethical. The team leader must carefully balance productivity and team cohesion and assess whether the team member’s contributions is worth potential lack of cohesion. The leader must also carefully assess the accuracy of the information coming from team members, so it is essential to gather data regarding performance and team cohesion – do not rely on hearsay and opinions; get the facts. • • • • • •
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Do nothing – leave things alone; there is rarely perfect cohesion; one person being disliked is not a big deal. Address the uncooperative behaviors directly with the team members after gathering facts and specific examples. Set up a plan for improvement. Remind everyone that cohesion and cooperation is a factor in performance; then walk that talk and be consistent in requiring and rewarding both performance and teamwork. Monitor the situation carefully to assess how much other team members may be affected. You could lose them either through quitting or poor performance. Move the selfish team member out or assign individual tasks to the person. Take all information into account when evaluating the team; promotions and raises will send a stronger message than all your words.
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Leadership Challenge: Using Personality Assessments The leadership challenge asks students to think about the use of personality assessment as a selection tool. The key point is to reinforce the idea that psychological testing, including personality assessment, are not typically designed and tested tools for managerial decision making regarding selection and promotion of employees. They should instead be used as a means of self-development. Factors students should consider: • Depending on which assessments are used and how they are administered, they can vary in the degree of reliability and validity. While organizations use some assessments that are well developed, valid, and reliable, they also often use many that do not satisfy these criteria. In addition, even with well-developed assessments, the link between personality and workrelated behaviors and performance is not well established and, in the case of management decisions, not fully defensible if challenged. • Because of these reasons, personality assessments should be used with caution. Their primary and safest use is for development rather than selection or promotion. In this case, the assessment may be used to help the team become aware of the strengths and weaknesses of its members and as a springboard for team building, or to help an individual gain awareness of strengths and weaknesses. o It is key to consider whether all the characteristics listed in the scenario are required for being a good team player. Particularly, whether assertiveness and competitiveness are highly desirable characteristics for a team member. Although these characteristics may typically be important for those in sales and marketing, they may not be necessary, and even detrimental for a research team where cooperation and ability to compromise are key. o While individual characteristics are one factor the leader must consider when selecting followers and team members, issues of diversity should also be part of the criteria. Building diversity is a social and managerial consideration that must be balanced with other needs.
Exercise 5.1: The Mysterious Case of the College Exam (AACSB Reflective thinking) I have used this short case for many years as an introduction to the topic of social perception to demonstrate the lack of accuracy of our perceptual processes and how we rely on closure to fill in missing information. It is easy and simple and highly engaging as most students think that they are highly accurate, but few are. Time needed: 20 minutes 1. Ask students to read the scenario. Tell them to take their time and read it as often as they would like. They then should set the case aside and answer the questions provided at the end of this chapter, without referring back to the case. You can hand out the questions or put them on the screen.
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T = the statement is correct F = the statement is false ? = they cannot tell from the case whether the answer is correct, or they are not sure 2 Remind them to not look at the case again and ask them how many they think they got correct. Almost everyone will estimate at least 50% and many will guess they have 8 or 9 questions correct. 3. Form small groups and ask them to discuss the case and their answers for 5 minutes, still without referring back to the case. 4. Review the answers with them referring back to the case (use of PowerPoint makes this easier). Typically, students get 4-5 questions correct, and they often argue about that the answers are ambiguous, but that is the point. They have used closure to make the situation clearer, but had no data to do so. Answer key 1. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
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The thief was tall, dark, and broad.
F – The scenario does not mention a theft. The professor turned off the light. ? – The college instructor turned off the lights; it may or may not be the same person as the professor. A tall figure demanded the examination. T The examination was picked up by someone. F – There is no information about the examination being in the drawer. The examination was picked up by the F – There is no information about the instructor. examination being picked up at all. A tall dark figure appeared after the professor T turned off the light. The man who opened the drawer was the T professor. The professor ran down the corridor. ? – There is no information about who ran down the corridor. The drawer was never actually opened. F – The professor did open the drawer. Three people are referred to in this case. ? – There are no more than four people (instructor, tall figure, professor, dean) but the answer depends on whether you consider the professor and the college instructor to be the same person.
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Discussion points • This is a simple scenario, yet many students get over half wrong • It is an example of how perceptual processes operate, making us efficient, but not always effective • You can refer back to this exercise when you discuss various perceptual processes and biases o Students use closure to fill in information that is lacking o They may have a halo/horn or stereotype the “tall figure” and use that to make inaccurate and broad assumptions o The cues that are salient encourage students to make the wrong, or at least overly broad, assumptions • Given that the primary function of leaders is to work with and through people, how they perceive others is a critical factor. We are not as accurate as we would like to think. Although specific biases may come into play, the issue is that our social perception processes are aimed at efficiency and therefore likely to miss information and be subject to error. • It is important for everyone, but leaders particularly since they are responsible for others, to be aware of the shortcomings of our perception, and to slow down and gather data before making decisions. Option: Kahneman’s work on System I and System II (Thinking Fast and Slow) can be used to further reinforce the key points of this exercise.
Self-assessments 5.1 to 5.7 (AACSB Reflective thinking) The self-assessments should be assigned to be completed prior to class. Students having their score on each of the scales allows for a much richer learning environment. The instructor should take special care in the discussion of EQ and Machiavellianism. Students may be upset if their EQ score is low. Similarly, being high or low may carry negative connotations that should be addressed. Type A do not present the same challenge as there is no strong negative connotation associated with either end of the scale. It is important to stress that these self-assessments are meant to develop a student’s selfawareness. They provide students with a general description of their behaviors and preferences and are a starting point for self-awareness. Course Assignment All the self-assessments in this chapter can be used to develop students’ self-awareness of their personal characteristics. Students can be asked to describe and analyze each of the characteristics measured in the self-assessments with a focus on identifying resulting strengths and weaknesses. Students should be reminded that the changing personality is not the goal, rather understanding should be their focus. By developing increasing self-awareness, they can build on their strengths and compensate for their weaknesses.
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Leadership in Action Case: Uma’s Dilemma Case summary Uma has just been promoted and has to pick her replacement. She has two strong candidates she knows well. Both are fully qualified but very different. Kennedy is a high-performer, highly engaged, hard-working, with a focus on quality and high performance standards. She is highly dedicated to her job and the company, has strong opinions about how to run things, and can be inflexible. Ari is also highly qualified and a high-performer, focused on creativity and working across functional areas. Somewhat reserved, he is highly supportive of this team whom he encourages to step outside the norm, and he has a tendency to get side-tracked. Uma has a closer personal relationship with Ari with whom she works well. Both candidates have received support from others. Uma is having a hard time deciding. 1. Based on the concepts from this chapter, what do you think are the strengths and weaknesses of each of the two candidates? Both candidates have the technical qualifications and experience for the job. They appear to have very different personalities and leadership styles. Neither shows any destructive leadership tendencies as they are respected and liked by their teams and colleagues. It is clear that both styles can be effective. Kennedy: task-focused, conscientious, extraverted, Type A, proactive, somewhat inflexible; data-based; highly-engaged and hands-on Ari: relationship-focused, conscientious, introverted, Type B, high EQ, creative and open to new experiences; idea-based 2. Why do you think Uma is having a hard time making this decision? Uma seems to be aware that her closer personal relationship with Ari may be impacting her decision making. She appears more comfortable with Ari’s easy-going style and focus on openness and creativity, than with Kennedy’s more hard-hitting and task-focused style. She is hesitating in making this decision because she may be thinking that biases might be entering her decision processes. 3. What role does the perception process play in her deliberation and decision? Given that Uma knows both candidates well, her previous professional and more personal interactions with both of them is bound to impact her decision. No decision is ever made purely based on facts. How she perceives these two candidates is impacted by her personal feelings towards them. 4. Which factors should Uma consider in making her decision? It appears that there are no bad choices. While Uma is looking at the candidates’ qualifications and characteristics, she could also consider the requirements of the job, the characteristics of the team, and the future direction of the department. Although both are qualified, the context in which they will be leading might provide some clue regarding what type of leadership would be best.
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5. If you were Uma, who would you pick? Why? Encourage students to consider their own personal characteristics and preferences in evaluating the candidates. Given that both are qualified, are they relating more to one who is more similar to them? While that is a bias, it is not necessarily negative in this case. Uma may prefer to work with someone she likes and is comfortable with. However, it also may be that picking someone with a different approach would bring a wider perspective to the job. To be most objective about the selection, consideration of the needs and characteristics of the department is critical.
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Chapter 6 POWER AND ETHICAL LEADERSHIP Chapter Overview Chapter 6 focuses on the role and use of power by leaders. Power is indispensable to leadership and allows leaders to influence others and accomplish team and organizational goals. We define power and its related concepts such as authority and influence and then review the sources of power available to formal and informal leaders throughout an organization. With power comes the opportunity for corruption and abuse. So, we discuss the antecedents, processes, and consequences of toxic and destructive leadership and power abuse, and explore how they can be prevented. The chapter ends with a discussion of ethical leadership which involves proper use of power for the good of followers and organizations.
Chapter Outline
LEADERSHIP QUESTION: How can leaders use power effectively? I. Defining Power and Its Sources (LO1 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Power is the ability of one person to influence others or exercise control over them. Influence involves being able to affect or sway someone or change the course of an action. Authority is power vested in a particular position. Politics is the ability to get things done outside of regular channels. A. Culture and Power (AACSB Diverse and multicultural work environments) Culture impacts our perception and use of power. 1. National Culture Figure 6.1: Culture and power The perception and use of power is affected by several cultural values and factors: Power distance, uncertainty avoidance, gender roles, membership in underrepresented groups, tight-loose, GLOBE’s CLT 2. Group Culture: Diversity and Power Unequal access to power is an essential aspect of the DEI discussions. Those with more power have a wider latitude in how they behave. Those with less power, typically people who are members of under-represented groups, have less access to sources of power and less opportunity to influence events and others. B. Sources of power
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Leaders use a combination of individual and organizational factors as their source of power. 1. Sources of Power for Individuals Sources of power are related both to the organization and the individual Table 6.1: French and Raven’s Sources of Power for Individuals Legitimate power (authority), reward, and coercive power stem from the organization Expert and referent power are based on attributes of the individual and provide more long-lasting influence Effective leaders rely on all sources of power 2. Organizational Sources of Power Individuals and teams that have access to or control of strategic contingencies gain power. These are factors that are essential or strategic to organizations achieving their goals. CRITICAL THINKING: Sources of Power (AACSB Reflective thinking) 3. Special Sources of Power for Top Executives In addition to access to the individual and organizational sources of power, top executives by virtue of their position and role have access to additional sources of power: - Distribution of resources - Control of decision criteria - Centrality in the organization - Access II.
Using Power: Impact and Consequences (LO2 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Use of power can have positive and negative consequences A. Impact on Power-Holder Both positive and negative consequences Figure 6.2: Impact of power on power holder
LEADING ACROSS CULTURES: From Ancient Greek Myths to Modern Day Leadership (AACSB Diverse and multicultural work environments) Greek gods and heroes demonstrated courage and loyalty. They demonstrated honor – philotimo. But they were also self-focused, capricious, and highly flawed. Leadership in Greece is based on family and connection. Greeks throughout their culture know that leaders, like gods, can be both good and bad. While they expect their leaders to be honorable, they will also expect and tolerate imperfections and shortcomings. B. Reactions to Power Followers’ reaction to power range from resistance, to compliance, to commitment. The reaction depends partly on the source of power that is used.
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Figure 6.3: Potential reactions to power C. Influencing Others Power and influence are related, but not equivalent Leaders can have power, but not be able to influence team members Or those without any formal power may yield influence. There are different sources of influence that can be used in different situations Table 6.3: Using power: Influence tactics and their consequences D. Distribution of Power and Empowerment Research shows that sharing power can have beneficial impact on employee satisfaction and performance. Empowerment is sharing power and pushing decision making and implementation power to the lowest possible level. 1. Impact of Empowerment Consider culture – some cultures are less egalitarian than others When well implemented, empowerment can yield positive results. STEPPING INTO LEADERSHIP: Power of New Managers (AACSB Application of knowledge) New managers must find a balance between being “one of the team members” and overusing their new powers. - Ask questions; don’t pretend that you know everything - Get help - Rely on expert and referent power as much as possible - Empathize with your team – see the world from their point of view - Set up new clear boundaries - Set up meetings with each person to connect with them - Keep you sense of humor III. Power Abuse of Toxic Leadership (LO3 – AACSB Analytical thinking) The potential for abuse and corruption is inherent in power and leadership A. Definitions: Abuse, Corruption, and Toxicity Abuse involves taking advantage of one’s power for personal gain through unethical and illegal actions Corruption is abusing one’s power to benefit oneself or another person, or getting others to do something unethical or illegal Toxic or destructive leadership is defined as leadership that violates the interests of the organization and the well-being of followers B. The Toxic Triangle
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Leadership that violates the interest of followers and the organization is not just caused by the personality and actions of the leader. It involves the leader, the followers, and the organization. Figure 6.4: The toxic leadership triangle 1. The Leader Leaders who are toxic have one or more of the destructive traits of narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. They are bullies who have inflated views of themselves; are controlling, rigid, power hungry, and ruthless. They are focused on their own goals. They can be effective, particularly in the short-run and are sometimes celebrated. In the long-run, they do harm to followers and the organization. 2. The Followers Toxic leadership does not happen without the compliance of followers. Followers who either comply or contribute play a key role through: Their silence The willingness to support the leader 3. The Organization Organizations that either ignore or even encourage toxicity play a role The culture of the organization is a key factor Centralized power, closed communication, pressure for short-term performance, and uncertainty are all critical contributing factors 4. The Processes and Outcome Figure 6.5: Abuse processes and outcomes The interaction among the leader, the follower, and the organization combines to allow toxicity and abuse. The more the leader gains power and misuses it, the more followers comply, further allowing the leader to continue abuse. Follower compliance provides evidence to the leader of their incompetence which is an excuse not to consult with them. In the long-run, unchecked toxicity leads to: Poor decisions, employee turnover, increased likelihood of unethical and illegal behaviors. CRITICAL THINKING: What will you do differently? (AACSB Reflective thinking) 5. The Solutions to Abuse and Toxicity Table 6.5: Managing Abuse and Toxicity The solutions focus on better selection, organizational culture and processes, and decentralizing power and empowerment. APPLYING WHAT YOU LEARN: Surviving a Toxic Leader (AACSB Application of knowledge) Working with toxic leader can be devastating. Here are some pointers:
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Take care of your health; remain calm and professional; continue to do your job; make the boss shine; stay out of the way; document; build your support network; seek HR help; get out! III. Ethical Leadership: Using Power for Good (LO4 – AACSB Ethical understanding and reasoning) Integrity is a universally desirable leadership attribute: People value leaders who are ethical and have integrity Are reaching goals enough, or should we also expect leaders to take care of the collective well-being? A. Defining Ethical Leadership 1. Leaders’ Motives, Attributes, and Behaviors Ethical leaders are those who are motivated to help others, who are virtuous and improve the well-being of their followers and their organizations. Characteristics include: prudence, fortitude, temperance, justice, humility, unpretentiousness, selflessness, self-sacrifice. Figure 6.6: Ethical leadership 2. Outcomes and Impact on Others: Reciprocity, Duty, and Caring Ethical leadership is partly identified by its outcomes and impact on followers and stakeholders Consider whether those around the leader are experiencing well-being and are being cared for Ethical leaders have good intentions, but also do not do harm and have happier and productive followers Ethical leaders have a mutual exchange and create a sense of reciprocity They fulfill their duties and obligations to the group They care for those who are entrusted to them B. Ethical Leadership in Organizations People confound morality and success and assume that those who achieve goals are ethical and those who fail are not. The two are not related. Organizations can select leaders with the right attributes and encourage ethical behavior. Factors that discourage toxicity (Table 6.5) can encourage ethical leadership. LEADING IN CHANGING TIMES: David Novak shares his leadership wisdom on how to change (AACSB Integration of real-world business experiences) THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION – REVISITED Using power is about balance and moderation. Power should be aimed at achieving organizational goals ethically. Leaders must use power while demonstrating integrity, caring for followers, and achieving goals. IV. Summary
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V.
Key Concepts
End of chapter wrap up – The TKD roadmap to more effective leadership: What did you learn?
THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION – Some leaders are focused onMaterials getting things done while End-Of-Chapter Activities and All the end of the chapter activities and materials address AACSB Application of knowledge; some have additional features that are further indicated.
What Do You Do? Handling Freeloaders The scenario describes a manager who is comfortable with empowering team members and allowing much freedom, input, and flexibility in how the work gets done without “pulling rank.” Most of the team members respond well and accept responsibility for the work. However, a couple of them are taking advantage of the situation and are not pulling their weight. What can you do? It is important to address the situation quickly; ignoring the problem will affect productivity and morale. Some options: •
•
•
•
•
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Observe and gather information: Begin by closely monitoring the team members' behavior and performance to ensure you have a clear understanding of the situation. Document specific instances where their lack of contribution or misconduct has been evident. This information will be useful during discussions. Schedule a one-on-one meeting with each team member individually to discuss your concerns. Approach the conversation with an open mind and give them an opportunity to share their perspective. Ask questions to understand any underlying issues that might be causing their behavior and listen actively to their responses. In a constructive manner, provide specific examples of the instances where their performance or behavior has fallen short. Focus on the impact it has on the team and the project's progress. Express your expectations clearly and emphasize the importance of everyone contributing their fair share. Allow the team members to share their thoughts on how they can improve their performance and commitment to the team. Encourage them to provide solutions and suggestions to address any challenges they might be facing. This approach promotes ownership and accountability. Collaboratively establish clear goals and expectations for their performance going forward. Ensure that they understand the consequences of not meeting these expectations and outline any changes in their responsibilities or deadlines if necessary.
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• • •
Inquire if there are any obstacles hindering their productivity and address them if possible. Provide support, guidance, or additional resources they may need to fulfill their responsibilities. This step shows your willingness to help them succeed. Regularly check in with the team members to track their progress and offer feedback along the way. Acknowledge and appreciate their efforts when they show improvement. Reinforce positive behaviors and address any recurring issues promptly. If the team members continue to neglect their responsibilities despite your efforts, it might be necessary to escalate the situation. Consult with your boss and HR. They can provide guidance on further steps, such as performance improvement plans or disciplinary actions.
Effective empowerment requires high performance standard and close monitoring. It is important to be fair to all team members, those working hard, and those who may have difficulties. However, the problem must be addressed.
Leadership Challenge: The Chain of Command The leadership challenge presents a case where the leader empowers the team to make decisions and implement them. However, team members are not able to do so when working with people from other departments who insist on a formal chain of command and want to work with their manager instead. Why is the team facing these challenges? • Successful empowerment requires wider organizational support. • The team and the manager are onboard, but the rest of the organization is not. What actions might you take to address the situation? • At the very least, the manager should clearly communicate with other departments, orally and in writing, about having delegated the task, so that when team members contact others, they are informed. • Make sure your own boss is informed and supportive, or at least not opposed to your practices. • Be aware that you, the manager, continue to be accountable for your team’s actions and performance. • Be patient; if the culture of the organization does not support empowerment, or if the concept is not familiar, it may take a while, and lots or repetition, to get everyone used to working with your team. • Address empowerment on an organizational level in a management meeting or retreat. Propose the practice either as a pilot to see how effective it may be, or suggest that others try it as well. This may start changing the culture a bit.
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Exercise 6.1: Words of Wisdom (AACSB Diverse and multicultural work environments) This exercise allows students to explore different views and definitions of power by considering quotes about power. The quotes are from various cultures further allowing for an exploration of cultural issues in power. Option: The exercise can be done individually before class but is best done in a group setting in class after students have reviewed the quotes individually either before class or in class. This type of activity works equally well with younger students and those with some work experience. Total time: Minimum 20 minutes in class Materials needed: Paper and pencil Part I: Individual review (Individual work; 5 minutes) Ask students to complete Step 1 either before class or during class. Ask them to think about what the quote would mean if implemented in today’s organizations and explore why the quotes appeal to them. It works well as an introductory exercise before the material on power is covered in class. Part II: Group discussion (Group work; 15-20 minutes) In this part of the exercise, groups of 5 to 7 students are asked to repeat their review and selection as a group. The group discussions should consider the following: •
Different ways of using power
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The potential impact of power on followers and organizations
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Possible reasons why students prefer different quotes
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Cultural issues that may play a role
There are clearly no right or wrong answers. The point is to explore what power means, how people like to use it and how it impacts people. Each group can be given 4-5 minutes to present their favorite quotes and explain their reasoning. Overall: This exercise is an easy and effective way of introducing the complexity of power and its importance to followers and organizations. It also allows for review and discussion of cultural factors and their impact on leadership. Quote
Implications
Be the chief, but never the lord. Egalitarian approach where the leader is seen as (Lao Tzu) guide
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You never have to ask anyone Indicates an independent approach to taking power permission to lead. When you to get things done. want to lead, you lead. (Kamala Harris) They’ll tell you you’re too loud, Refers to challenges faced by underrepresented that you need to wait your turn groups in organizations. The approach indicates and ask the right people for asserting power to get things done. permission. Do it anyway. (Alexandria Ocasio Cortez) I know of no safe repository of the ultimate power of society but people. And if we think them not enlightened enough, the remedy is not to take the power from them, but to inform them by education. (Thomas Jefferson)
A quote that indicates the US’s difficult relationship with power which is necessary, but should be watched. Strong democratic view of power is necessary, but must be carefully watched. Interesting possible link to how Semco is managed.
Darkness cannot drive out darkness; only light can do that. Hate cannot drive out hate; only love can that. (Martin Luther King Jr.)
Although the quote refers to broad social and historical events, it can be used to refer to ethical leadership and the need to act ethically in order to address toxicity and abuse.
Knowledge is power. (Francis Links to using information and expertise as a source Bacon) of power. Being powerful is like being a Perceptions of power are important. It is not up to lady. If you have to tell people the leader, but depends on how power is perceived. you are, you aren’t. (Margaret Thatcher) History has shown us that Addressing abuse requires courage and standing up courage can be contagious, and to power. Compliance does not work. Followers hope can take on a life of its must accept responsibility and stand up to abuse. own. (Michelle Obama) The only justification for ever The responsibility of leaders is to use power looking down on somebody is to ethically for the benefit of others. pick them up. (Jesse Jackson) Power tends to corrupt, and Famous quote about the potential for power to absolute power corrupts corrupt the power holder. Strong negative view of absolutely. Great men are non-egalitarian power.
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almost always bad men. (Lord Acton) Defining myself, as opposed to The challenge of underrepresented groups to gain being defined by others, is one and retain power in organization. Power depends of the most difficult challenges I on the situation and the context. face. (Carol Moseley-Braun) I suppose leadership at one time meant muscles; but today it means getting along with people. (Gandhi)
View is echoed by early management theorist Chester Barnard and other modern approaches to leadership that emphasize relationship with followers.
A woman is like a teabag; you Power and effectiveness are demonstrated in times never know how strong it is until of crisis. it’s in hot water. (Eleanor People of underrepresented groups are often Roosevelt) underestimated. The first principle of non-violent The role of followers in fighting abuse. Compliance action is that of non- does not solve the problem. cooperation with everything humiliating. (Cesar Chavez) Authority doesn’t work without Focus on importance of power for leadership and prestige, or prestige without governing and the need to maintain distance from distance. (Charles De Gaulle) follower to allow for authority. The quote disagrees with many of the current views of power that emphasize equality. Interesting link to French cultural values that focus on authority and hierarchy (e.g., Tromprenaars’ Eiffel Tower). If you can, help others; if you Basic example of ethical leadership aimed at cannot do that, at least do not helping others. harm them. (Dalai Lama) Feminism isn’t about making The challenge of unrepresented groups regarding women stronger. Women are power. already strong. It’s about changing the way the world perceives that strength. (G.D. Anderson) The glass ceiling will go away How to acquire power; importance of building when women help other coalitions. women break through that ceiling. (Indra Nooyi)
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One of the saddest lessons of The role of followers in abuse and toxicity. Leaders history is this: If we’ve been cannot abuse without consent or compliance from bamboozled long enough, we followers. The effect is long-term and hard to fix. tend to reject any evidence of the bamboozle. The bamboozle has captured us. Once you give charlatan power over you, you almost never get it back. (Carl Sagan) Nothing strengthens authority The importance of speaking up to abuse. so much as silence. (Leonardo Da Vinci)
Exercise 6.2: Who Holds Power in Your Team/Organization? This exercise is designed to help students recognize the different sources of power that are used in organizations. The exercise is best used for individual work after students have read the chapter. It tends to work best for mature students who have some work experience. However, younger students often have experiences with power in various settings including in their part-time work and in student and volunteer organizations. Students should be reminded to select their examples carefully. They can focus both on individual and groups. Total time: 10-20 minutes Materials needed: Paper and pencil Overall: This exercise is an effective way for students to apply the concepts about sources of power and influence to their personal experiences and thereby gain a deeper understanding of the concepts.
Course Assignment
This exercise can be used as an assignment for the course. It allows students to demonstrate their understanding of the sources of power and influence and apply their knowledge to a real-life situation.
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Self-assessment 6.1: Understanding Your Sources of Power and Influence (AACSB Reflective thinking) This is an individual exercise that allows students to identify the sources of power and influence they use. The assessment is most effective when used after class discussion of power to assure that students fully understand the concepts before they apply them. As is the case with the next exercise, any debriefing should emphasize the viewpoint that effective leaders should be able to use different sources of power and influence depending on the situational and contextual requirement.
Self-assessment 6.2: Views of Power (AACSB Reflective thinking) This is an individual exercise that allows students to identify their views towards the various sources of power. The assessment should be completed before the class on power and used for discussions regarding the consequences of each source of power. Debriefing should include a strong contingency viewpoint whereby not one source is assumed to be better than others. However, it is essential that students understand that the use of each source has consequences for their ability to influence followers.
Self-assessment 6.3: Recognizing Blocks to Empowerment This exercise allows students to assess their organization’s readiness for implementation of empowerment by identifying the leadership and structural blocks. It works best if completed after the discussion of empowerment so that students have a clear understanding of the concept. It can also be a very effective conclusion to the power lecture. Option: The exercise can be used as an individual assessment to help students understand empowerment better or as a group exercise (after the individual ranking). The group exercise focuses on devising strategies for removing obstacles to empowerment. This type of activity works best with more mature students who have some work experience. I have used it very successfully with part-time MBAs. The group activity is not as effective with traditional undergraduates who have limited or no work experience. The description below is for the group-based exercise. Total time: Minimum 30 minutes in class Materials needed: Paper and pencil; board or flip chart can be useful. Part I: Individual Description (Individual work; 5 minutes) Ask students to rate their organizations on the 16 questions and to calculate their score. They may need your help with the reverse-scored items. Part II: Strategies for removing obstacles (Group work; 15-20 minutes) In this part of the exercise, groups of students select one of their members’ organizations, clearly identify the blocks to empowerment, and develop strategies for their removal. Issues that they
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need to consider before they embark in their search for strategies to relate to readiness for change include: •
If the group feels that the answer to these questions is generally positive, then they should develop strategies to help move the organization towards empowerment.
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Is the leadership of the organization ready for moving towards empowerment?
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Are employees and managers ready for empowerment?
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Is empowerment appropriate given the culture, strategy, performance levels, etc.?
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Would the stress and pain of moving toward empowerment be worth the potential benefits?
The instructor needs to point out to the students that their strategies do not have to solve all the problems; each group can set priorities in what can and should be done. Each group can be given 4-5 minutes to present their organization and their solutions or a general class discussion of the solutions can take place. Overall: This exercise is very effective with students who already have some experience with teams, quality circles, or empowerment. Working on this exercise allows them to identify the obstacles and understand why the strategies their organization has been trying to implement may not be working. Discussions invariably turn towards the role of the leader in setting and encouraging a culture that would support sharing of power.
Course Assignment
This exercise can be used as an assignment for the course. The assignment uses the students’ organizations as live cases. The questionnaire is used as a tool to analyze the situation; other analysis can be required along with a description of the organization or departments the student is rating. The strategies portion involves developing and evaluating various alternatives for implementation of new management techniques. Leadership in Action Case: Nick’s Financial Crisis Case summary The case highlights the appointment of Nick as the department head, his declaration of a financial crisis, his controversial management style, and the resulting consequences for the department and its employees. After interviewing several candidates, Nick Latouf emerges as the frontrunner due to his credentials, experience, and compatibility with the department's culture. Nick promises an open-door policy and a hands-off management style that aligns with the department's cooperative environment. Claiming a financial crisis due to previous mismanagement, Nick announces a severe financial crisis and implements drastic cost-cutting measures and centralizes financial decisions, which disrupts the department's culture and operations. Anika, one of the
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senior area heads, questions Nick’s actions and offers alternative solutions. When her team members voice their concerns to Nick's boss, Ela, Nick confronts Anika and her team, accusing them of disloyalty and insubordination. Anika is eventually removed from her position as area head, and her colleagues react differently to the situation, with some criticizing her and others offering support. Over time, many employees leave the department, while Nick receives praise for his financial management and eventually secures a CEO position elsewhere with the help of positive references. 1. What is your overall assessment of the situation described in the case? • Despite initially presenting himself as a charming and personable leader, Nick quickly demonstrates an authoritarian approach, dismissing concerns and imposing drastic changes without transparently addressing the financial crisis. He shows a lack of receptiveness to differing viewpoints and an inclination to silence dissent. • Nick's communication regarding the financial crisis lacks clarity and consistency. His changing numbers and targets, coupled with his dismissive attitude toward inquiries, create confusion and erode trust among the department members. The lack of transparency contributes to a culture of uncertainty and speculation. • Nick's treatment of employees is questionable. He publicly reprimands and accuses Anika and her team, demonstrating an inability to provides constructive criticism. His disregard for their expertise and the dismissive response from his boss further exacerbate the strained employee relations. The subsequent departure of experienced staff and researchers indicates a loss of talent and expertise within the department. • The department's once collegial and cooperative culture undergoes a significant shift due to Nick's managerial style and the resulting tensions. The lack of support from colleagues and superiors for Anika and the subsequent turnover of employees suggest a breakdown in teamwork and morale. • The high turnover of administrative staff, the replacement of experienced area heads with less experienced managers, and the negative impact on employee satisfaction indicate potential long-term consequences for the department's efficiency and effectiveness. 2. How would you describe Nick’s leadership style? Nick's leadership style can be characterized as authoritarian and lacking in transparency; his actions create a toxic work environment. Similar to many toxic leaders, he initially appears charming, jovial, and personable. However, once in the position of department head, he demonstrates all the elements of toxic leadership. • He makes decisions alone • He lacks transparency • He dismisses concerns and disregards legitimate expertise • He punishes disagreement and dissent The impact in terms of turnover and employees’ morale are further indicators of toxic leadership. 3. What are the contextual and situational factors that contribute to the situation?
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The situation is somewhat uncertain and conducive to toxic leadership. Specifically: • The leadership transition with Terry’s retirement, the previous department head, creates a leadership vacuum that needs to be filled. The search for a new department head and the anticipation of change set the stage for a transition period, during which employees may be more receptive to a new leader. • The announcement of a severe financial crisis sets a sense of urgency and instability within the department. The perception of financial mismanagement by the previous manager adds to the gravity of the situation and creates a context where drastic measures may be seen as necessary. • As the new department head, Nick holds considerable authority and power over the department's operations and decision making. This power dynamic influences employee behavior and their willingness to voice concerns or challenge his actions. • The compliance and lack of resistance from team members, out of fear, or to seek favor allow Nick to continue his actions. • Lack of support from superiors contribute to the toxicity. The response from Ela, Nick's boss, to employee concerns about the financial crisis is vague and downplayed. The lack of support from superiors for employees seeking clarification or expressing doubts contributes to a sense of isolation and disempowerment. Together, these contextual and situational factors create a climate that allows the power abuse and destructive leadership to take hold and continue. 4. What are the ethical issues that need to be considered? Nick’s actions are an example of toxic leadership and violate the principles of ethical leadership in terms of his motives, actions, and their consequences. • Nick's lack of transparency and inconsistent communication regarding the financial crisis undermines trust within the department. Employees have a right to accurate and honest information about the organization's financial status, and deliberately providing misleading or incomplete information erodes trust and can be seen as unethical. • Nick's authoritarian leadership style suppresses employee voice and discourages open communication. Employees have a right to express their concerns, provide feedback, and engage in constructive dialogue. Silencing dissent and punishing employees for expressing different viewpoints is considered unethical, as it restricts individual rights and stifles organizational learning and improvement. • Nick's implementation of drastic cost-cutting measures, centralization of decision making, and restrictive policies disregard the well-being of the employees. The sudden changes disrupt their work, and lowers job satisfaction and morale. • Anika's removal from her position as area head are unjust and retaliatory. Her approval of a routine expense was in line with previous practices and she had consulted with a newly promoted administrator. The accusation of insubordination and subsequent dismissal are technically legal but unethical. Decisions regarding employee performance and disciplinary actions should be based on objective criteria and due process.
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Nick exaggerated or fabricated the severity of the financial crisis to justify his actions. Misrepresenting information to manipulate the perception of urgency and gain support for certain measures are not ethical actions. The lack of support from the organization further erodes ethical leadership. The organization has the responsibility to provide guidance, address employee concerns, and ensure a fair and ethical work environment. Failing to provide appropriate support contributes to the destructive and toxic climate.
5. What could have been done to address this situation? What can be done now? • The situation could have been prevented by: - Clear and consistent communication regarding the financial situation from the organization, not just Nick - Paying attention to employee concerns and complaints - Training Nick early regarding leadership style and the culture of the department - Closer supervision from Ela - Having clear ethical guidelines from the organization - Team members speaking up and supporting Anika • What can be done now: - Providing support to employees who have experienced negative consequences, such as Anika, can help rebuild trust and morale. Engaging in open dialogue, actively listening to their concerns, and addressing any unfair treatment would be important steps. - If tensions and conflicts persist within the department, engaging in conflict resolution and mediation processes can help facilitate dialogue, repair relationships, and find mutually agreeable solutions. This can be done through internal resources or external mediators, if necessary. - Efforts should be made to rebuild a positive and supportive organizational culture. This could involve team-building activities, fostering open communication channels, and encouraging collaboration and employee engagement. - Implementing clear ethical guidelines and providing training to all employees, including leaders, on ethical practices and decision making can help prevent similar issues in the future. This would promote a culture of ethics, integrity, and fairness within the organization. Overall, the case presents a case of toxic and destructive leadership that occurs because all three elements of the toxic triangle are present. The leader has destructive tendencies, the followers comply and collude, and the organization has centralized power – does not have processes to address complaints and does not address the issue.
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Chapter 7 CURRENT LEADERSHIP THEORIES Chapter Overview Chapter 7 presents the theories that currently dominate the leadership field. These include charismatic, transformational, and value-based approaches. It picks up where Chapter 2 left off as all the current theories focus on the connection between leaders and followers. Charismatic leadership is defined as an intense emotional relationship between leaders and followers where leader, follower, and situational characteristics all play key roles. Transformational leadership, which uses charisma as one of its elements and is focused on large-scale change in organizations, is discussed and contrasted with transactional leadership, which is primarily concerned with exchange between leaders and followers. Value-based approaches include servant, authentic, and positive leadership. The chapter ends with a discussion of the role and importance of followers and followership.
Chapter Outline
LEADERSHIP QUESTION: Is charisma necessary to effective leadership? I. New Era in Leadership Research: Neo Charismatic (LO 1 – AACSB Analytical thinking) The current era in leadership research is dominated by charismatic and transformational leadership approaches and by the burgeoning interest in value-based perspectives. The benefits include: consideration of leaders as inspirational visionaries, focus on followers’ emotional reactions, consideration of top-level leaders, and addressing the affective and cognitive aspects of leadership. CRITICAL THINKING: Who do you admire? (AACSB Reflective thinking) II. Charismatic Leadership: A Relationship Between Leaders and Followers (LO2 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Charismatic leadership is defined as a relationship between leaders and followers rather than a simple collection of leader traits and behaviors. It involves leaders, followers, and the leadership situation. Figure 7.1: Requirements of charismatic leadership A. The Charismatic Leader The personality and behavioral characteristics of charismatic leaders are presented. Charismatic leaders are those who have the gift and are divinely endowed with grace and charm and have a profound emotional effect on their followers.
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Table 7.1: Characteristics of Charismatic Leaders B. Followers of Charismatic Leaders The personality and behavioral characteristics of followers of charismatic leaders are discussed. Loyalty to and obedience of leaders are essential elements. Table 7.2: Characteristics of Followers of Charismatic Leaders C. The Charismatic Situation and Context Since charismatic leadership is defined as a relationship between leaders and followers, the elements of a charismatic relationship and the situation in which it occurs are key. Table 7.3: Characteristics of Charismatic Situations 1. External crisis and desire for change are key to the emergence of charismatic leaders. Whether real or perceived, a sense of crisis and ability for the leader to articulate his/her vision to resolve the crisis are important. 2. Organizational Decline: the organizational life cycle, the type of task, and the organizational culture and structure. The more uncertainty, the more likely that a charismatic leader will emerge. D. Culture and Charisma The role of culture in charismatic leadership is explored. Some research suggests that cultures with a strong prophetic salvation are more likely to give rise to charismatic leaders than those without such views. These cultures include many with a Judeo-Christian tradition. E. The Dark Side of Charisma This section discusses the characteristics of unethical charismatic leaders who use their relationship with followers to pursue their personal goals and agenda. Negative charismatic leaders may also present a flawed vision that is self-serving or unrealistic. Figure 7.2: Two sides of charismatic leadership F. Evaluation and Application The VUCA environment that many organizations face provides a perfect background for the rise of charismatic leadership, a factor that may explain its popularity. A number of different interpretations of charismatic leadership have been proposed. Charismatic leaders can be powerful agents of change. The concepts have a strong appeal although charismatic leadership should not be viewed as a cure-all. THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION – REVISITED While charisma can be a powerful leadership factor, it also has the potential for being destructive. It is neither a requirement nor sufficient for effective leadership. Charisma has to be accompanied by the other hard work of leadership. III.
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Transactional and Transformational Leadership (LO3 – AACSB Analytical thinking) 2
The concepts of transformational and transactional leadership are presented. Whereas transformational leadership is focused on large-scale change in organizations, transactional leadership focuses on basic exchanges between leaders and followers. A. Transactional Leadership Transactional leadership is based on the concept of exchange between leaders and followers. Contingent reward (CR) is an effective transactional leadership style whereby the leader provides followers with promised rewards when followers fulfill their agreed-upon goals. Management by exception (MBE) is an ineffective transactional leadership style whereby the leader interacts little with followers, provides limited or no direction, and only intervenes when things go wrong. B. Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership (TL) is concerned with inspiring followers to enable them to enact revolutionary change in their organization. Figure 7.3: Transformational leadership elements 1. Elements of Transformational Leadership - Idealized influence and charisma and inspiration - Inspirational motivation - Intellectual stimulation - Individual consideration WHAT DO YOU DO? New Boss (AACSB Application of knowledge) C. Evaluation and Application There are many studies of transformational leadership from those testing the basic hypothesis to several others looking at the concepts across culture and gender. Although the model has been generally supported, there are also serious critiques that go as far as recommending the model to be dropped. Nonetheless, the model continues to be popular. Several recommendations for application include: projecting confidence, providing a clear vision, encouraging creativity, setting high expectations, and establishing personal relationships with followers. LEADING IN CHANGING TIMES: Building a Business and Making a Difference (AACSB Integration of real-world experiences) IV.
Value-Based Leadership: Servant, Authentic, and Positive Approaches (LO4 – AACSB Analytical thinking) The theories presented in this section focus on more than leader behaviors and actions; they present a highly emotional process based on fundamental values. A. Servant Leadership
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First proposed by Robert Greenleaf, servant leadership focuses on followers rather than the organization or the leader. Service to followers and their development is essential to effectiveness. 1. Characteristics of Servant Leaders Figure 7.4: Key characteristics of servant leaders 2. Evaluation and Application The model is new and has generated much interest but is not yet well supported by research. Overall leaders who are considered servant can have many positive outcomes including high employee satisfaction and morale. The focus on followers and their needs is the primary lesson from servant leadership. B. Authentic Leadership Authentic leadership (AL) focuses on the importance of self-awareness and leadership based on true values and beliefs. Authentic leaders are those who know themselves well and remain true to their values and beliefs that guide their decisions and actions. The theory proposed that the most effective leaders are those who understand their strengths and true purpose, develop them, and base their leadership on them. 1. Four Factors of AL - Self-awareness - Balanced information processes - Behaviors that are true to self - Relational transparency C. Table 7.4: Four Factors of Authentic Leadership (AL) 2. Evaluation and Application AL is consistently linked to positive organizational outcomes such as engagement, proactive employee behaviors, and satisfaction and commitment. It has been critiqued for lack of clarity and poor measures and for being proposed as a cure-all. Nevertheless, awareness and clarification of one’s values are critical to leadership. STEPPING INTO LEADERSHIP: Being an Authentic Servant Leader – It’s all about Balance (AACSB Application of knowledge) Both servant and AL provide excellent tools for connecting with followers. Tips for finding the right balance include: - Setting boundaries - Caring for people as part of leading – but not the only part - Share information about yourself – appropriate self-disclosure - Balance between humility and authority - Manage conflict of values between you and the team D. Positive Leadership The concept of positive leadership (PL) is based on a new approach in psychology and organizational behavior that takes a strength rather than a deficit approach.
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PL involves having an affirmative bias and purposefully role-modeling and enhancing positive emotions in yourself and others. PsychCap is a key factor in PL; it refers to positive psychological states, confidence, positive attributions, perseverance, and resilience. The approach suggests that how one thinks influences behaviors and outcomes and recommends that leaders remain positive and optimistic, focus on strengths, create a positive climate while setting high standards, and dealing with negativity quickly. Figure 7.5: Characteristics of positive leaders Practicing positive leadership requires the following: being optimistic, encouraging positive deviance, focusing on strengths, creating a positive climate, maintaining positive relationships, having positive communications, and dealing with negativity quickly. 1. Evaluation and Application Research studies generally support that leaders who are positive engender many positive outcomes in their followers and organizations. In spite of theoretical foundations and research support, the model has been critiqued for encouraging excessive positivity and may discourage critical thinking. APPLYING WHAT YOU LEARN: Balancing a Positive Approach with Realism (AACSB Application of knowledge) While being positive is an important tool for leaders and can be infectious, it is important for leaders to also be realistic: - Optimism is infectious - Analysis should be data and fact-driven - Don’t overestimate your strengths - Positivity belongs in implementation - Deal with negativity – carefully - Get all sides of the issue - Be aware of the dangers of well-liked leaders E. A Critical Look at Neo-Charismatic and Value-Based Approaches There have been some critiques of value-based approaches that suggest that it can lead to delusional optimism or “Prozac leadership,” poor performance when leaders and followers become overly and unrealistically positive, overestimate their strengths, and have a bias for “brightsidedness.” More significantly, all these approaches appear to suggest a “one best” way to lead and ignore the power of the context and situation. LEADING ACROSS CULTURES: Japanese Ikigai – Finding Purpose (AACSB Diverse and multicultural work environments) The Japanese concept of Ikigai provides guidance to leaders on how to find purpose and connect to their work and their followers. Leaders should consider: - What they love to do - Match their passion with big and small problems they see around them - Manage to get paid for doing the work
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The goal is to connect passion and purpose, and match what you love with what the world needs. V.
Followership: Shifting Focus of Leadership Away From the Leader (LO5 – AACSB Analytical thinking) The field of leadership is heavily focused on the leader without consideration of the role and importance of followers. Some recent models address this gap.
CRITICAL THINKING: What makes a good follower? (AACSB Reflective thinking) A. Defining Followers and Followership Followers are often seen as those who are behind another or in service of another with obedience and devotion. The concept is often seen as negative because of lack of independence. Attempts at correcting these views provide a new approach. A follower is any person who engages in a relationship with a leader with the intention of accomplishing goals. Followership is the process of working together toward common goals while accepting the influence and direction of a leader. - Follower is not a trait – it’s a role - It is voluntary - It is action-oriented - It involves hierarchy - It requires voluntary acceptance of a leader’s influence B. Follower Types and Characteristics Classification of followers based on their independence and their engagement: Figure 7.6: Types of followers Effective followers: - Are committed to the organization and the goals - Are competent and hard working - Have strong ethical principles - Have the courage to challenge their leader C. Effective Followership Effectiveness requires consideration of follower characteristics and the situation. 1. Productive Dissent requires cooperation between leader and follower, some degree of obedience and intelligent disobedience which involves disobeying when obeying would produce harm. 2. Critical Factors in Effective Followership Table 7.5: Critical Factors in Effective Followership VI.
Summary
VII. Key Concepts
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End of chapter wrap up – The TKD roadmap to more effective leadership: What did you learn?
THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION – Some leaders are focused onMaterials getting things done while End-Of-Chapter Activities and All the end of the chapter activities and materials address AACSB Application of knowledge.
What Do You Do? New Boss The scenario presents the case of a leader who is effective but faces a change in upper management that focuses on transformation. As a result, the leader’s style no longer fits well. While effectively managing the status quo is highly valuable, this leader is finding that it is not enough. It may be that the organization actually needs change and transformation; or the new upper leaders simply may want change for the sake of change. In either case, it is important to adjust and fulfill organizational goals. The manager is clearly an effective transactional leader; the challenge is to adopt transformational leadership behaviors. Here are some steps you can take to navigate this situation: • Reflect on your style and what has worked and what has not – self-awareness and selfanalysis can help determine the next steps. • Recognize that change is inevitable in any organization. Take a step back, evaluate the changes objectively, and understand the reasons behind them. Consider the potential benefits and challenges that these changes may bring. • Schedule a meeting with the new CEO or your immediate supervisor to gain a better understanding of the proposed changes. Ask specific questions about how the changes will affect your role, responsibilities, and the overall direction of the company. This will help alleviate uncertainty and provide you with more information to work with. • Once you have a clearer picture of the changes, work on adopting a positive mindset and be open to new possibilities. Embrace the opportunity to learn and grow professionally. Recognize that change often brings new opportunities, even if they are not immediately apparent. • Identify areas where you can contribute positively to the new initiatives and demonstrate your willingness to support the company's goals. Offer your expertise, insights, and ideas to help shape the implementation of the changes and showcase your value as a dedicated employee. • If the changes require you to acquire new skills or knowledge, take the initiative to learn new skills. Look for training opportunities, workshops, or online courses that can help you adapt to the evolving needs of your role and the company.
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Re-establish connections with the colleagues. Network with them, seek their guidance, to see how they are handling the changes. Building strong relationships across the organization will help you navigate the changes more effectively. It is crucial that you think about your team and support them during times of change. This is the time to practice transformational leadership. Give your team individual attention; challenge them to learn and grow; find a new purpose together. Be empathetic, listen to their concerns, and provide them with guidance and reassurance. Help them understand the reasons behind the changes and encourage them to embrace the new opportunities. While it's important to give the changes a chance, reflect on how they align with your long-term career goals and personal values. If the changes significantly compromise your job satisfaction or growth prospects, you may need to explore other options within or outside the company.
Remember, change can be challenging and often unavoidable in the VUCA environments. But, it also offers opportunities for personal and professional growth. By approaching the situation with a positive mindset, adaptability, and proactive engagement, you can navigate the changes and potentially thrive in the new environment. In the process, you will expand your more transactional leadership style and learn to work more effectively with change. Leadership Challenge: Standing Up to a Charismatic but Unethical Leader Students are presented with the difficult situation of how to handle a potentially unethical and abusive leader. Issues of unethical charisma as well as destructive leaders (see Chapter 6) are key. Here are some steps to consider: 1. Evaluate your evidence: Make sure that you have concrete evidence to support your claims about the leader's behavior and self-interest. Having evidence and facts will give your concerns more credibility and protect you from potential backlash if you decide to act. 2. Reflect on your own motivations and your own values: Examine your own motivations for taking action. Are you genuinely concerned about the well-being of the followers, or do personal grievances or jealousy play a role? It's essential to act with integrity, authenticity, and a sincere desire to protect others rather than advancing your own agenda. 3. Seek advice from trusted colleagues: Before taking any action, it might be helpful to discuss your concerns with a few trusted colleagues or friends within the department. Get their perspectives on the situation and gauge whether they share similar concerns. 4. Consult your supervisor: If you have substantial evidence and believe that the leader's behavior poses a genuine risk to the well-being of the followers or the organization, talk to your boss first. Prepare a well-documented report outlining the issues and evidence and emphasize the potential negative consequences if the behavior continues. 5. Be prepared for potential consequences: Understand that taking action against a charismatic leader can have consequences, both positive and negative. If your concerns are taken seriously and addressed, it could lead to positive change and protect the well.
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being of the followers. However, there might also be backlash from the leader or her loyal followers, which could affect your own position and relationships within the organization. 6. Seek support from others: If you decide to take action, try to find like-minded individuals who share your concerns and are willing to stand with you. Collective support can make your voice stronger and provide some protection against negative repercussions. 7. Consider your own well-being: Weigh the potential risks and benefits carefully. Taking a stand against a powerful leader can be emotionally and professionally draining. Be sure to prioritize your own well-being and mental health throughout the process. The answer to this challenge is highly personal and individual. There clearly is no best or correct course of action, except for careful documentation. Students differ considerably in their choice of course of action. The case provides a good opportunity to discuss employee rights, organizational politics, and career management. Inaction in this situation could lead to the followers suffering due to the leader's lack of concern and extreme self-interest. However, acting against a charismatic leader without sufficient evidence or support could also have negative consequences for you and potentially for the followers. It's essential to carefully assess the situation, gather evidence, seek advice, and consider the potential outcomes before deciding on the best course of action.
Exercise 7.1: Do You Know a Charismatic Leader? This exercise is based on the concepts of charismatic leadership. It is designed to allow students to evaluate leaders they know and consider effective in terms of charismatic leadership. It can be used either as an opening or as a conclusion to the topic of charismatic leadership. Option: Step 4 can be used to make the exercise a group activity. Each group could then select one of its members as leader, analyze his/her behavior, followers’ behavior, and the situational elements that allow for the emergence and effectiveness of charismatic leadership. Course Assignment This exercise can be used as an assignment for the course by asking students to describe and analyze a charismatic leader, his/her followers, and the leadership situation. Exercise 7.2: Charismatic Speech This exercise focuses on the articulation skills of charismatic leaders. One of the major characteristics of charismatic leaders is their ability to articulate their vision clearly and to inspire their followers through their message. Although such skills often take much practice to develop, there are several specific aspects of charismatic speech that can be identified and practiced. This exercise provides students with a list of the major elements of charismatic speech and with an opportunity to practice those skills. It is most effective when assigned after the discussion on charismatic leadership.
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Because of the time required to complete this exercise, the groups should be required to do their preparation outside of class after having been provided with the necessary information. Total time: Minimum 50 minutes preparation (15 with the instructor; 35 in the group); 5 minutes per group presentation. Materials needed: Paper and pencil; use of board or flip chart. Step 1: Preparation Students should be assigned to groups of 3 to 5. Existing groups can be used. •
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Each group must select a topic for a 5-minute speech. The topics should have the potential to inspire and motivate. Good options are company or school mission statements. Other examples are the introduction of a new product or service to a sales group, the presentation of a major strategic change to a department or team, or the introduction (self or by someone else) of a new leader. Each group needs to select the target audience for their speech. All presentations will be made to the class after informing them of the target audience. The intended audience will affect the speech and therefore needs to be identified.
Following are definitions and examples of framing and rhetorical techniques to help the groups prepare for their speeches (for more details see Conger 1989 and 1991). Framing involves selecting a framework for the message around certain goals. For example, the two statements “our company goal is to build communication devices,” and “our company goal is to connect human beings to one another” deliver the same basic message with very different frames. Some methods for framing are: •
Amplify values and beliefs: Select values and stories that illustrate the core higher values that appeal to the audience. • Bring out the importance of the mission: Emphasize and exaggerate the need for change and the attractiveness of the solution. • Clarify the need to accomplish the mission: Focus on the “good” of the mission and the dangers of not accomplishing it. • Focus on the efficacy of the mission: Provide examples of how the mission will work in order to build the audience’s confidence in the correctness of the selected path. All the above techniques are designed to provide the audience of followers with a reason for accepting the proposed change or idea. Rhetorical techniques are used to further emphasize the message. These include:
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Use of metaphors, analogies, and brief stories to make the mission and goals concrete, set them apart for undesirable things or events that the audience is likely to know, and create the needed emotional reactions in followers. Use of language that the audience will understand is key to an effective message. Repetition of the key message through various means and media emphasizes its importance. Alliteration is the repetition of initial consonants sounds (e.g., mighty mountains of Montana) which provide a pleasing rhythm to the speech. Nonverbal messages need to be consistent and support the spoken words. For example, the style of dress, clear and confident voice, and lack of hesitation can all be used to further send a message of confidence.
Overall: This exercise is often difficult for students, but it can be very effective. The ability to develop a well-crafted message is often closer than most students think and even partially succeeding in that task demonstrates one of the major behavioral components of charismatic leadership. The fact that some students are more comfortable with this exercise than others can also be used to point to the effect of personality on one’s ability to practice and learn new behaviors. Course Assignment This exercise can be used as an assignment for an oral presentation in the course. Because of its difficulty, it may not be appropriate for a large percentage of grade. I have used it as an alternative or addition to class participation grade. Self-assessments 7.1, 7.2, and 7.3: Authentic Leadership, Positive Leadership, and Followership (AACSB Application of knowledge and Reflective thinking)
Course Assignment The self-assessments in this chapter can be used to develop students’ self-awareness of their personal characteristics regarding how they lead and how they may act as followers. Students can be asked to describe and analyze the characteristics measured in the self-assessments with a focus on identifying resulting strengths and weaknesses. Students should be reminded that the changing personality is not the goal, rather understanding their style should be their focus. By developing increasing self-awareness, they can build on their strengths and compensate for their weaknesses. Leadership in Action Case: Spence’s Plan Case summary Spence Butler is struggling with sleeplessness due to work-related stress. His department is facing challenges after their company acquired a specialized firm. The new acquisition overlaps with Spence's department's work, leading to fears of redundancy and job losses. Spence's boss Wendi Lee, expects him to reinvent the department to work alongside the new team. Despite presenting
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a detailed plan, Spence's team is resistant and emotional, leading to top performers leaving and productivity dropping. Spence's once-cohesive team now distrusts him, his tried-and-true approach to leading his team is not working. His connection with his team seems to be disappearing and he avoids interacting with them due to frustration. He feels they should listen to reason and cooperate for the department's success. 1. What is your assessment of the situation and the causes of the team’s reactions? The situation in Spence's department is challenging due to the acquisition of a specialized firm that overlaps with their work. It is also challenging Spence’s leadership style and breaking the trust and connection he had with his team. The fear of redundancy and job losses has caused the team to become emotional and resistant to change. They feel blindsided and have lost trust in Spence, their leader, as they believe their concerns were not adequately addressed. The team’s reaction can be attributed to several factors: • Lack of Effective Communication: .Spence's communication may have been insufficient or ineffective in addressing their concerns and reassuring them about their future roles. • Emotional Response to Change: The team is going through a significant change, and emotions are running high. The fear of losing their jobs and uncertainties about the future are affecting their ability to objectively evaluate the proposed plan. • Perception of Being Left Behind: The team might feel that they are being disregarded or undervalued compared to the newly acquired team, which can lead to resentment and resistance. 2. Applying relevant models from this chapter, what is your assessment of Spence’s leadership style? Spence has clearly been an effective leader for his team. The group is productive and cohesive. • Spence is most likely an effective transactional leader that has mastered providing contingent reward (CR). This style works well in routine situations which they have faced up to now. • Although Spence has a positive connection to his team, there does not appear to be a strong emotional connection or bond that would help support the team through the major changes they are facing. • Spence’s focus on the task does not fit a situation where his team needs emotional support. • He has some elements of servant leadership as he has taken care of his team. • He is not able to remain positive to motivate or encourage his team. • He further does not seem to have a strong awareness of his own values or style, something that would allow him to connect with his team better. 3. What could Spence have done differently and what can be done now? • Focus on the emotional connection with his team – the issue is not the plan; it is their fear.
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Adopt a more transformational style of leadership. Motivate and encourage his team, challenge them intellectually, provide individual consideration to support them. Take the time to listen - Spence should have taken more time to actively listen to his team members' concerns and fears after the acquisition. Demonstrating empathy and understanding would have been crucial in building trust and addressing their emotional reactions. Instead of presenting the plan after it was fully developed, Spence could have involved the team from the beginning in shaping the department's future. This would have given them a sense of ownership and control over their destinies. They also would have been challenged to contribute and may have come up with good ideas. Recognizing the emotional impact of the acquisition, Spence could have provided additional support to help his team cope with the uncertainties and fears. Practice positive leadership that would encourage the team – Spence’s own irritation and frustration does not provide the right role modeling for the team. Serve his team members’ need by addressing their fears and providing emotional support.
What can be done now? • Schedule team meetings to openly discuss concerns and feelings. Encourage open dialogue and reassure the team that their voices are heard and valued and that they are safe and can have input into their own future. • Involve the team in finding solutions to the challenges posed by the acquisition. Engage them in brainstorming and decision making processes. • Offer training opportunities to enhance the team's skills and competencies, aligning them with the new acquisition's technology and processes. • Work on rebuilding trust with the team through consistent and transparent communication, demonstrating empathy, and showing support for their well-being. • If necessary, seek assistance from human resources or organizational development specialists to facilitate the change process and address the team's emotional reactions. To resolve these challenges, Spence needs to focus on reconnecting with his followers and motivating them to address the change. He may need to change his leadership style from a more transactional one to one that incorporates elements of both transformational and other valuesbased models. The models suggest that this is possible. The interesting discussion in this case is whether such styles are easily learnable and can be adopted by all people at will.
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Chapter 8 PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP AND LEADING TEAMS Chapter Overview Chapter 8 focuses on the concept of the participative leadership which is an issue addressed in most leadership approaches in one way or another. We focus on using teams as an effective leadership tool. We discuss the use of participation and delegation, and the challenges they present for leaders. We then consider the special characteristics of teams, identify the most common team dysfunctions, and end the chapter with a discussion of the strategies for leading teams effectively.
Chapter Outline
LEADERSHIP QUESTION: What can be done to implement teams more effectively? I. Participative Leadership (LO 1 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Engaging employees in decisions and allowing them to participate, is one of the principal ways leaders can engage their teams. From consultation, to delegation, to full empowerment, involving employees is part of many leadership and management approaches. Figure 8.1: Continuum of participation CRITICAL THINKING: Learning from a Bad Situation (AACSB Reflective thinking) A. Conditions for Use of Participation Participation is not a cure-all and should not be the default style for decision making. There are some conditions that make its use more appropriate. Table 8.1: Criteria for Use of Teams and Participation 1. The Role of Culture In addition to the conditions described in Table 8.1, leaders must take culture into consideration. Degree of Ind-CoL, power distance, CLT from GLOBE that indicate whether people prefer team-orientation participation, and autonomous leadership should be taken into account. What is considered good team behavior also varies by culture. B. Benefits and Disadvantages of Participative Leadership Benefits include engagement, satisfaction, increased learning, and better performance on complex tasks.
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Disadvantages include: inefficiencies, conflict, dilution of accountability II. Delegation as a Critical Leadership Tool (LO 2 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Delegation involves appointing someone as a deputy or representative and entrusting that person with a task. It is a basic and fundamental management tool. • Goal can be to help manager handle excessive workload • Does not always involve power sharing and empowerment • Does not always involve input and participation A. Benefits of Delegation Table 8.2: Benefits of Delegation B. Guidelines for Good Delegation Table 8.3: Guidelines for Effective Delegation C. Why do Leaders Fail to Delegate? There are both legitimate reasons why leaders do not delegate, but most of the time, there are also strong counter-arguments as to why delegation should take place. Table 8.4: Arguments and Counter-Arguments for Lack of Delegation CRITICAL THINKING: Can You Delegate? (AACSB Reflective thinking) LEADING IN CHANGING TIMES: True Scoops is Disrupting the Ice Cream Industry (AACSB Integration of real-world experiences) III. Teams as the Evolution of Participative Management (LO3 – AACSB Analytical thinking) The use of teams has become a mainstay in most organizations. A. From Groups to Teams Groups are two or more people who work together on a task. Teams are mature groups with members who are committed to a common purpose and goals and are accountable to one another. It takes time for a group to become a team. There are 4 stages of development with conflicts at each stage that must be resolved for the group to mature. Figure 8.2: From groups to teams B. Characteristics of Teams Table 8.5: Groups and Teams C. Types of Teams 1. Self-Managed Teams (SMTs) Teams with full managerial control over their own work Figure 8.3: Defining elements of SMTs
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APPLYING WHAT YOU LEARN: Using a Sports Team Model in Organizations (AACSB Application of knowledge) Organizations can learn a lot from sports teams: - Build and maintain the right culture - Build cohesion and cooperation - Energize the team with competition - Provide resources - Early wins - Focus on learning and experimentation - Keep membership stable - Encourage shared responsibility - Review performance - Make it fun 2. Virtual Teams Teams whose members are not co-located and use communication technologies to work together and facilitate getting the job done. Supporting virtual teams - Careful selection - Time for socializing - Establish a team vision - Address the team structure - Meet face-to-face - Celebrate successes - Good meeting practices 3. Top Management Teams (TMT) TMT: The group of individuals in the upper echelon (UP) of organizations responsible for the strategic leadership of the organization Strategic leadership is the ability to consider and anticipate external and internal events and maintain flexibility and a long-term perspective to guide the organization. TMTs have influence over: - Strategy, mission, and purpose - Overall organizational culture - Select other top leaders - Decision criteria - Work with key players inside and outside - Represent the organization Strategic Leadership Approaches How much challenge they seek and how much they control when combined lead to 4 types of strategic leadership approaches: High-control innovators; participative innovators; status-quo guardians; process managers Figure 8.4: Four strategic leadership approaches
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LEADING ACROSS CULTURES: Brazilian Benevolent Paternalism and Jeito (AACSB Diverse and multicultural work environments) Brazil shares many cultural values with other South American countries, such as high collectivism, team orientation, and valuing charismatic leadership. Brazilian leaders are expected to: - Be authoritative and decisive - Provide answers and involve their team - Be kind and stern as benevolent father figures - Take care of their organizations like a family - Be adept at “jeito”—little way—which involves finding practical ways to solve problems even if it means bending rules - Match their passion with big and small problems they see around them - Manage to get paid for doing the work The goal is to connect passion and purpose, and match what you love with what the world needs. IV. Identifying and Managing Dysfunction in Teams (LO4 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Not all teams function well and there are some typical challenges that many face. A. Groupthink Dysfunctional group processes that can occur when group members focus on being cohesive, do not express disagreement or think critically, and as a result, make bad decisions. Figure 8.5: Groupthink B. Free Riders (Free Loaders) Team members who do not contribute fully but still benefit from the work of the team. C. Negativity and Bad Apples Team members who are negative, focused on their own goals, uncooperative or domineering, and unwilling to contribute. STEPPING INTO LEADERSHIP: Tips for New Team Leaders (AACSB Application of knowledge) Tips for transitioning from team member to effective team leader: - Lead by example - Continue to contribute as a member - Get to know your team - Set up regular check-ins - Practice good communication - Be transparent - Be decisive - Address problems - Encourage debate - Celebrate wins - Be humble and ask for help
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V. Strategies for Leading Teams Effectively (LO5 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Leaders can help their team be more effective by carefully selecting members who volunteer to be on the team, building the team from the ground up, and monitoring and supporting the team through a variety of means. A. Structural Factors Size and composition are two critical structural factors. 1. Size of the team There is no ideal group size, but keeping the team small enough so that all members can interact and work together is the primary concern. Groups of 8 to 12 can function smoothly. Having an odd number of members can help in case of voting ties. 2. Composition of the team The composition of the team should be guided by the nature and the requirement of the task. Leaders also need to decide whether to pick members who are similar or different to one another. Homogeneous teams with members who have similar background are more cohesive and can reach agreement faster. They are also more likely to fall prey to groupthink. Heterogeneous teams with members with diverse backgrounds have a broader perspective and can generate higher quality decisions, particularly in complex environments. They are more likely to experience conflict. Figure 8.6: Homogeneity vs heterogeneity in teams WHAT DO YOU DO? The Dream Team (AACSB Application of knowledge) B. Cultural Factors: Psychological Safety and Trust To live up to their potential, teams have to build the right culture where performance and constructive debate is encouraged and all members feel that they can contribute to the best of their ability. Developing psychological safety – the feeling that one would not be punished, rejected, or embarrassed for speaking up with concerns or divergent views, is one critical factor. Figure 8.7: Building psychological safety in teams Psychological safety allows teams to develop trust – the belief that team members are reliable, able and truthful, and reach their potential. To build trust leaders and team members must: - Act with integrity and fairness - Be competent and work hard - Communicate openly - Demonstrate mutual respect - Celebrate one another’s successes
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C. Specific Role of Team Leaders The role of leaders changes in teams, but they are still critical. Leaders are no longer in charge, but they still must guide and support their team by helping them develop goals, resolve conflict, obtain resources, and connect with others outside the team. Figure 8.8: Role of the team leader THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION – REVISITED While teams can be very productive, they are sometimes overused and they are not easy to implement. - In many individualistic cultures, working in teams is challenging. - Organizations often reward individuals To succeed, leaders should only use teams when necessary and appropriate, get training on culture, cooperative decision making and conflict management. They also must learn to delegate well and clarify their own and the team members’ tasks and responsibilities. VI.
Summary
VII. Key Concepts End of chapter wrap up – The TKD roadmap to more effective leadership: What did you learn?
THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION – Some leaders are focused onMaterials getting things done while End-Of-Chapter Activities and All the end of the chapter activities and materials address AACSB Application of knowledge.
What Do You Do? The Dream Team The challenge in this scenario is to create a highly performing team to address a high-profile client. The manager must take into account the client’s needs, and structural and cultural factors to select members. The easiest path is to simply pick the highest performers, the stars. Other considerations: • Carefully evaluate the task at hand to identify specific expertise and skills that are needed. • Evaluate all potential team members in regards to the skills set they would bring. Selected members should have a proven track record and/or proven abilities and skills that match the task at hand. • Evaluate all potential team members in terms of their ability to work as a team member including: - their emotional intelligence - their interpersonal skills - their flexibility and ability to adapt to change .
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the degree to which they cooperate with others their willingness to put their team ahead of their own goals their communication skills
While technical skills and expertise and past individual performance are important, so is the ability to work on a team and cooperate to achieve common goals. The winning team will combine members who are complementary and are able to work together to serve their client. Leadership Challenge: Who Gets the Project? Students are asked to make a delegation decision while considering the issue of in- and outgroup. Factors that they must consider include: •
How the original in-group was formed and how followers can become part of the leader’s ingroup.
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Reviewing the rules of delegation and objectively identifying candidates without the issue of in-group. In the US and many other Western cultures, the expectation is that the best person for the project should be selected based on objective criteria.
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The information regarding a potential complaint should not interfere with the current decision. However, the information is useful feedback for the leader to review his/her action and consider the potential for bias. The potential complaint provides an opportunity for review and self-analysis.
Other considerations and possible actions:
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Assign one of the “stars”: They are high performers and have the potential to excel in handling the new account. Assigning one of them could lead to a successful outcome and positive visibility for both the project and the leader overseeing it. However, it may also fuel the accusation of favoritism if the complaint is related to the promotion process or treatment of other team members.
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Assign the other experienced member: This person may have the necessary expertise and tenure to handle the project effectively. Assigning them to the project could potentially demonstrate fairness in distribution of opportunities and responsibilities within the team. However, it might raise suspicions if the complaint is from this specific individual, and ignoring the complaint could further exacerbate the situation.
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Temporarily hold the assignment: Inform the HR director that you appreciate the information, and in light of the informal complaint, you will put a temporary hold on the project assignment until HR completes its fact-finding interviews.
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Seek HR help: Seek advice from HR on how to proceed after their fact-finding interviews are completed. This will ensure you are making a decision that is compliant with company policies and avoids any perception of favoritism or unfair treatment.
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Careful review: Objectively evaluate the potential candidates for the project based on their skills, experience, and track record of handling similar tasks.
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Seek team input: Involve the team in the decision making process, either by seeking their input or by discussing the decision openly. This can help mitigate any concerns of favoritism and foster a sense of ownership and unity within the team.
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Maintain transparency: While waiting for HR's findings, maintain open communication with your team. You can inform them that you are currently evaluating the best fit for the project considering its importance, tight deadline, and the need for grooming and development. Once the decision is made, communicate it clearly and transparently to the team, explaining the reasoning behind the choice to address any potential misunderstandings or concerns.
Exercise 8.1: To Delegate or Not to Delegate? This exercise is a role play that demonstrates the elements of good delegation by providing students with various delegation options and requiring them to make a decision regarding which one of the subordinates should be delegated a task. The role-play situation requires no prior preparation from the instructor or the students. Having students read the basic scenario prior to coming to class can help save some in-class time. The role play works best after class discussion of delegation in order to allow students to apply the knowledge they acquire through the text and the class. Total time: Minimum 45 minutes in class (10-15 minutes preparation; 25 minutes role play; 10 minutes debriefing) Materials needed: Enough room for several groups to role play. Role Play (35 minutes minimum; includes preparation) Instructions for each role and manager and observer worksheets are included at the end of this chapter. The class should be divided in groups of five students each (one manager and four subordinates). All the names used in the role play are androgynous allowing for roles to be assigned to either male or female students. Students assigned to role play managers can use their own names. Review the general scenario with the whole class reminding them of the role-play rules (used in Narian Bridges): •
Stay in the general guidelines provided by your role
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Improvise as needed while keeping goal in mind
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Practice role for a few minutes alone or with your team
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Provide rich role play so that others can respond to you
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Be as creative as you feel comfortable; some of you will play your role more intensely than others; differences are normal
The instructor then needs to review each role with students playing that role (i.e., all managers, all Frans, all Gerrys, etc.). The role play takes place in two stages. Stage 1: In the first stage the manager meets with the four subordinates to describe the new client and asks for ideas and input from the group. This provides an opportunity for team members to reveal as much or as little as they want about their role and their motivation, and for the manager to have more information to make a decision on who gets the new account. This stage should last no longer than 10 minutes. Stage 2: In the second stage the manager makes a selection alone, and prepares for the meeting with the selected employee using the manager’s worksheet in the textbook (5-10 minutes). He/she then meets with the selected employee to hand-off the account (5-10 minutes). The other three employees will serve as observers in the meeting between the manager and the selected employee using the observer worksheet to evaluate the process. The selected employee should also complete the worksheet at the end of the meeting. Remind students that they will have to share their comments with the manager and the employee and that therefore they need to: •
Focus on specific behavior
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Be critical but constructive
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Be professional (stay away from personal comments)
Debriefing (10 minutes) The debriefing can be done either within the groups only or both in the groups and with the whole class. Students are often interested in other managers’ choices and their reasons. The instructor may want to put the choices and the justifications on the board. Although the choices are often similar, depending on how each student has played a role, there may be interesting differences. The evaluation of the delegation should be done in each group with the instructor’s help. Overall: I have a used this role play many times in my classes. It works well and provides students with an experience with the nuts and bolts of delegation. As with many other role plays, students with some work experience handle the task better, although the setting provides a nice opportunity for practice for more traditional and younger students with limited or no managerial experience. The only drawback of the exercise is its length.
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Exercise 8.2: Your Organization This exercise is designed to draw the students’ attention to the result of an upper echelon leader’s influence. When using the vignettes presented at the end of the chapter, it is most effective if students rate the organization prior to the discussion of strategic leadership types. The discussion and predictions regarding the leader’s strategic type should take place after coverage of the topic in class. Option 1: Ask students to rate their own organization, department, or team. This option is most effective with students with work experience. Option 2: Provide students with the cases at the end of this chapter and ask them to rate the organization and leaders described in the cases. This option is most effective with students with limited work experience, or as a practice for rating their own organization. Total time: Minimum 15 minutes for Option 1 (5 minutes for rating, 10 minutes for discussion); minimum 25 minutes for Option 2 (15 minutes for rating, 10 minutes for discussion). Materials needed: Paper and pencil In-class discussion: Option 1 If students have rated their own organization, their ratings and their predictions regarding the leader’s strategic type can be used as a basis of discussion of the chapter. Students can also be assigned to small groups of 2-3 to predict one another’s leader’s style based on the organization rating.
Case solutions for Option 2
Southern State University
Chip Factory
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Culture
Structure
Leadership
Loose and fluid Many sub-cultures co-exist
Decentralized
Process manager Low need for control and challenge averse
Tight controls; no tolerance for differences; one way of doing things
Centralized; formalized; high control
High-control innovator High need for control and innovative
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Northern Lights
D.C. Medical
Tight controls; no tolerance for differences; one way of doing things
Centralized; formalized; high control
Status quo guardians
Loose and fluid Many sub-cultures co-exist
Decentralized
Participative innovator
High need for control and challenge averse
Low need for control and innovative
Course Assignment
This exercise can be used as an assignment for the course. Students can be asked to either provide a description of their own organization or use one or more of the cases at the end of the chapter to do a case analysis of the organization, its culture, structure, and leadership. Self-assessment 8.1: Delegation Scale (AACSB Reflective thinking) This self-assessment is based on the typical myths about delegation and allows students to evaluate their level of comfort and inclination towards delegation. It should be assigned as a homework assignment prior to class discussion on delegation and used as a tool to encourage student participation in such discussion.
Self-assessment 8.2: Are You a Team Leader? (AACSB Reflective thinking) This self-assessment is based on the team leader roles presented in the chapter. It allows students to evaluate their general ability and level of comfort with the team leadership roles. It can be completed either before or after the discussion of team leadership. Self-assessment 8.3: What is Your Strategic Leadership Type? (AACSB Reflective thinking) This self-assessment is based on the four strategic leadership types presented in the chapter. Students can also use the scale to rate their organizational leaders. The quadrants are used to place students in one of the four categories. Self-assessment 8.4: Psychological Safety in Your Team
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This assessment allows students to evaluate the degree of psychological safety in the team or organization where they work; they can also use other settings such as sports teams or student organizations. Based on their score, they can devise ways to improve the psychological safety of their team by referring to Figure 8.7.
Leadership in Action Case: The Secretive Design Team Case summary The case revolves around the College of Business (COB) and its attempt to revise the outdated and uninspiring MBA curriculum. The COB Dean, Elaine Jackson, forms a task force consisting of faculty members from different functional areas to design an innovative and practical curriculum. From the beginning, the task force faces several challenges. They work in isolation, without seeking input from other faculty members, area experts, current students, alumni, or potential employers. This lack of transparency and communication leads to resentment and frustration among the faculty. Despite claims of having a well-planned curriculum, the task force fails to provide details or involve relevant stakeholders in the process. When the task force finally presents its plan, it includes many innovative features, but has no consideration for faculty workload, course scheduling, and implementation. The plan is voted down by the faculty, wasting considerable time and an opportunity to revise the curriculum. The case is an example of a well-designed team that functions well internally, but that fails because it does not connect with others who are affected by its decision and ultimately have the power to reject its work. 1. Evaluate the conditions for the creation of a team. There is a clear need to assign this task to a team rather than a single person. The dean alone, or any other administrator or faculty could not accomplish this task. It is a complex task that requires contributions from diverse members who have a particular expertise. The task is complex and there is enough time. More significantly, commitment from the faculty is essential to successful implementation. Therefore, electing members as well as appointing some with specific information is appropriate. 2. What type of team was created, and what is your assessment of the structural and cultural factors in the task force? The task force has some characteristics of a self-managed team. They have the expertise and the authority to make decisions as they develop their plan. Structural factors: The size and composition of the team are appropriate. Additionally, the agreement to rely on other individuals who are not on the team but have specific expertise that the team needs, provides the team with valuable resources as they start their work.
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Internal factors are in place; however, there are no formal processes for connecting the team with others whose expertise they need and those who are most affected by its decisions – the faculty. The reporting process is not taken seriously and is poorly implemented. Cultural Factors: The team members are cohesive and appear to have excellent working relationships. They spend time together inside and outside of work, and are able to develop trust. Because of the rank differences among the members, there appears to be some hesitation to share disagreements openly. Namely Gloria who is the most junior member, shares concerns, but is shut down. This may indicate a lack of psychological safety, and certainly a lack of willingness on the part of the team leader, David, to fully consider dissenting opinions. 3. Analyze the team dysfunctions that may be at play. Internally, the team is functioning well. However, groupthink played a significant role in the failure of the task force to design an effective curriculum plan. The lack of transparency, communication, and openness to feedback led to a flawed decision making process, ultimately resulting in the rejection of their proposed plan by the faculty (see Figure 8.5). Conditions: - High cohesion: The group is tight and cohesive - Complex situation: Redesigning a curriculum is a highly complex task, with no simple or single answer, many possible paths, and no immediate method or criteria for assessing success. It is also a high stakes situation since this is a rare opportunity for change. All of these factors make the task highly complex. - Directive leader: David Bloom is respected and liked and he appears to have a relatively directive style of leadership. He is also present in all the meetings and closely involved in all interactions. The other team members respect him, and, together with his rank, this makes it difficult for them to disagree with him. His style and presence are a key factor in groupthink. - Insulation from the outside: The decision to keep the team isolated and away from the faculty and not to seek needed help and input is one of the key elements of this case. The insulation prevents the team from getting essential information that it needs to design the right curriculum, address scheduling issues, and most importantly get buy-in from their colleagues, a factor that is critical and eventually leads to their failure. - Lack of procedures: While the team seems to be functioning well-enough internally, their fatal mistake is not establishing clear procedures for information sharing and obtaining feedback from their key constituents. The “agreements” regarding seeking help from experts and reporting schedules are not taken seriously, something that the dean and task force chair should have enforced. Symptoms: - Illusion of invulnerability: The task force members seemed to develop an unwarranted sense of confidence and optimism about their plan, ignoring potential risks and
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challenges. They believed that their innovative ideas would be widely accepted without adequately considering potential drawbacks or seeking external input. Illusion of unanimity: The lack of communication and transparency within the task force contributed to an illusion of unanimity, where members assumed that everyone agreed with their approach. In reality, some members may have had reservations but were reluctant to speak up. Belief in inherent morality: The task force members developed a belief that their curriculum plan was inherently right and aligned with the best interests of the college. This belief led them to resist feedback and dissenting opinions, viewing them as threats to the moral integrity of their ideas. Rationalization: The task force engaged in a process of downplaying or dismissing concerns raised by other faculty members. They rationalized their lack of transparency and communication as necessary to avoid interference and believed that their plan was superior without critically examining its weaknesses. Self-censorship: At least one member, Gloria, seems to be aware of the problem; however, she is first shut down and eventually no longer expresses her opinion. Stereotyping outsiders: The task force members seemed to stereotype their colleagues outside the group as uncooperative and unappreciative, dismissing their concerns as complaints from those who had not contributed to the task force's work. This perception prevented them from valuing external input. Direct pressure on dissenters: The task force members discouraged dissenting viewpoints and feedback from faculty members who raised concerns or questioned their approach. They defended their work and responded defensively, making it difficult for dissenting opinions to be heard or considered. Mindguards: Certain members of the task force, such as Jason and Sofia, acted as mindguards by shielding the group from external criticism and reinforcing the belief that the task force was doing a good job. This prevented the group from critically examining their approach.
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Overall, groupthink played a significant role in the failure of the task force to design an effective curriculum plan. The lack of transparency, communication, and openness to feedback led to a flawed decision making process, ultimately resulting in the rejection of their proposed plan by the faculty. 4. If you were a member of the task force or its leader, what would be your next step? Even though the members of the team may be upset and disappointed, their next action should be to accept responsibility for their missteps and focus on rebuilding trust with their colleagues. Some steps: -
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A simple apology (with no “but” or “sorry you feel that way”) – just an apology, for not seeking feedback and abiding by the agreement to get input, either in writing or delivered in a meeting, and/or one-on-one with each faculty. Act with humility and rebuild relationships, one colleague at a time.
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Seek individual and group input regarding what the faculty, MBA director, students, and alums may want – this should have been done earlier, but it still needs to happen. Share details of the failed plan and the processes and data that led to the plan with the faculty. Offer to step back and cooperate with a new task force in any way possible.
It is unlikely that the members of this taskforce will be trusted to work as a team again. However, their work and ideas should not go to waste. They should be used as resources by a new group that can work on a new curriculum plan. 5. If you were the dean, what would you do now? Although the dean was trying not to interfere with what is a faculty process, her lack of enforcement of agreements that were made regarding input and feedback played a key part in this failure. As a leader, she should have stepped in much earlier to request reports and feedback mechanisms before the taskforce completed its task. Since she created the task force, she is therefore responsible for the team’s actions. Some options now: - Dedicate a faculty meeting to review the plan and the process. Focus on the issues, not personalities and accusations. This should take place after the task force has reconnected with colleagues. Help from an outside facilitator may be needed at this stage. - Create a new taskforce with some new and some past members. - Set clear processes and procedures for reporting and feedback. - Promote a culture of collaboration and focus on problem solving rather than blame. Overall, while the team had the right structural and cultural factors and it was well designed, its isolation from stakeholders and the failure to provide and enforce specific processes that would ensure feedback and would have kept lines of communication open caused the process to fail. Even well-designed teams can fail if they are not connected with the rest of the organization.
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To Delegate or Not to Delegate Instructions for the Team Manager You come to Sunshine with an MBA from a major state institution. Your undergraduate background is also in general business. After your B.S., you started working for a major hotel firm and, as a result of several mergers they experienced, you have worked in different aspects of the hospitality industry for the past nine years. You managed to quit to go back for your MBA which you finished just over a year ago. Sunshine offered you a great opportunity just before you finished, and you joined the organization 18 months ago. You have really enjoyed your job, although it is the first time you are actually managing people. You are responsible for their growth and development, a responsibility you take very seriously. Your boss is only interested in results. Like many others in the industry, Sunshine has been slow at adopting new management techniques. Many of its employees move up through the ranks without major formal training. You are actually one of the few outside managers but your career track is very attractive and you know that the only way to move up is to deliver results without problems. Your boss leaves you alone and expects no requests for help. Your employees Fran Smith has been with Sunshine for 8 years and has been a strong performer. S/he is one of your trusted employees. Gerry Narden has been with Sunshine for 5 years moving up through the ranks. S/he is very eager but makes mistakes. Terry Chan has a 9-year tenure at Sunshine. S/he is a high performer and seems to like to do her/his own thing with personal contacts. J.P. Ricci is the youngest member of the team with barely one year at Sunshine. S/he is very bright but not always very motivated.
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To Delegate or Not to Delegate For Managers: Decision and Meeting Worksheet
Who are you selecting? What are your reasons?
Plan the meeting during which you will delegate the task. What do you need to say? What areas do you need to cover? How are you addressing your employees’ needs?
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To Delegate or Not to Delegate Instructions for Fran Smith You have enjoyed working at Sunshine for 8 years now, but you are getting bored with the job. You have plans to go to graduate school, but except for your current boss, not too many managers of the organization have higher-level degrees, so you are not sure that the organization would value it. You also have recently taken on several projects in your community that you are enjoying, and you have, as a result, started to reduce your involvement with Sunshine. You would like to talk to your boss about your loss of interest, but are afraid that it may affect your relationship. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Instructions for Gerry Narden You consider yourself one of Sunshine's most dedicated employees. The organization has been very good to you since you joined 5 years ago, and you love your job. The career progression has been great, and you have dreams of some day running this place! You are eager to learn and not afraid to make mistakes. You have made some mistakes in your new job but are now getting the hang of it, and you are feeling very good about your performance and looking for new challenges. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Instructions for Terry Chan You have been a loyal Sunshine employee and a successful performer for 9 years. You were looking forward to becoming the manager of the team before they brought in the new boss, and you have had trouble getting over the resentment. By all accounts, you should have had the job! You have your own sources and your own clients, and you are particularly plugged into several major corporations that just bring you their business. You are not planning to help the new boss look good yet; but you are taking a wait-and-see position for now.
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Instructions for J.P. Ricci You are still looking for something that would really excite you, career-wise. You know you can do the job at Sunshine with your hands tied behind your back, and you have for the past year, but you have not found the right challenge yet. Things just have not been interesting enough. You really like the job and your colleagues, but you are just not sure that this is the right thing.
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For Employees: Observer Worksheet
What does the selected employee need to do a good job?
Evaluate the manager based on: 1. Clarity of information about the task:
2. Clarity of expectations regarding the task:
3. What are the manager’s strengths?
4. What could have been done better?
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Your Organization: Cases for Option 2 Southern State University The College of Foreign Languages at Southern State University has 15 full-time faculty and 4 support staff. The College offers courses in French, Italian, Spanish, German, Japanese, and Mandarin Chinese. Many of the faculty teach in more than one language program, and they are not divided into the typical departments. Over half the faculty are tenured. The rest are at various career stages. The atmosphere is generally collegial. The faculty associate with those who teach similar classes, and it appears that everyone is left alone to do their “own thing” as long as the students are taken care of and the quality of instructions stays high. Most decisions are made by faculty committees, and the dean, Robert Hunt, is very supportive of shared governance. He has been dean for seven years and is well-liked. For the past three years, there has been much debate among the faculty regarding computerized language instruction. Several faculty have been very vocal in asking the dean’s support to write grants to obtain the necessary equipment and training. Although the dean has not voiced his disagreement, he appears to be siding with several of the more senior faculty who are strong proponents of traditional language instruction and appear to be “computer phobic.” Several other issues regarding changes in tenure and promotion procedures and criteria and curricular changes have also been sitting on the dean’s desk for over a year after having been approved by faculty committees. The Chip Factory The Chip Factory is an entrepreneurial success story. The small company has become famous throughout its Northwestern home state for its high-quality cookies and cakes, and the growth in its sales has been phenomenal. Since its creation four years ago, the one Chip Factory store has grown to 28 throughout the state, and there is much talk about franchising the operation to support the growth. The stores are very cheap to operate. Each needs three to five low-skill employees and two supervisors who are trained for one week at the mother store by the owner and her husband for one week. They are taught everything they need to know, from how to dress (they all wear uniforms), to how to clean the stores, how to talk to customers, how to arrange the display..., etc. The cookie and cake secret dough and ingredients are shipped three times a week to all stores and require simple mixing and baking. Almost every month, the stores offer new flavors and new goodies ranging from special seasonal items to novelty containers and gourmet coffees. Most of the new items are very successful, and they are regularly replaced. All employees receive thorough training on how to prepare and present the new items, and very strict quality control is maintained through regular spot inspections, and a variety of awards are handed down by the owners. The employees are generally high-school students who are attracted to the flexible hours and the better than average pay.
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Michelle Gerard and her husband, Alberto, are sole owners of all the Chip Factory stores. Michelle is responsible for all the recipes and the training. Alberto runs the other business aspects including managing the 3 quality-control inspectors. Northern Lights Northern Lights utilities is one of two major utility companies in a three-state region in the Midwest. In spite of the changes in the industry and the increasing competition as a result of new deregulation, the publicly owned company continues to be successful as it has been for the past 35 years. The company is known for its performance-based incentive system that focuses entirely on monetary rewards for employees and managers. The system has been in place for almost the life of the company and has been very effective. The turnover rate is considerably below industry averages. As a result, the average tenure of employees and managers is over 10 years. All of the managers are promoted from within, and most have come up through the ranks with companysupported education. Productivity is high, and profits have been good. The organization has a strong family atmosphere. In spite of its size, most people know one another and family members by name. The president, Thomas Wysocki, has also come through the ranks. He is a “company man,” and both his sons also work for Northern Lights. Whereas many of the company’s competitors have ventured into acquiring other companies and new industries, Northern Lights has stuck to its core business. Their growth has been through the growth of their region. D.C. Medical As a result of the major changes in the health-care industry, D.C. Medical was divested by a major hospital that owned this out-patient clinic. Instead of risking shut-down, the employees and managers of the clinic decided to buy their own organization. Three years after the buy-out, the employee-owned clinic is thriving. Its 20 physicians and 42 staff are known for quality, low-cost health-care. Quality and concern for their patients are the common threads for all the employeeowners who are managing the clinic with the help of their administrator, Amy Hidalgo, one of the few people who is not an owner. The employees have organized themselves into cross-functional teams that run the different departments and report to Hidalgo. The employees see Hidalgo as the “obstacle remover.” Her role is to obtain resources and facilitate providing quality health-care. She has focused much of her attention on external relations and marketing, which are her strong points. She has developed a number of very successful P.R. campaigns and has established partnership with several businesses. The various teams have been very successful in running the facility. Each department has come up with many new procedures to address their clients’ needs leading to considerable success for the clinic.
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Chapter 9 LEADING CHANGE Chapter Overview Chapter 9 focuses on how to lead change successfully. We review the factors the internal and external forces contribute to the VUCA environment. We then provide a model for understanding the types of changes organizations and their leaders face. Lewin’s model for change and Kotter’s Eight Stage process are presented as key tools for managing planned change. Next, we discuss the unique aspects of leading in times of crisis and unplanned change and then explore why people resist change and possible solutions. The chapter ends with a detailed presentation of the critical elements and tools of leading change effectively, including use of creativity and vision, implementing learning organizations and a positive approach, and managing the organizational culture.
Chapter Outline
LEADERSHIP QUESTION: How should leaders introduce change? The Leadership Question – Change is hard and most people will resist it. Given this, should leaders simply push change through (get it over with) or should they take their time, introduce things slowly and give followers time to adjust? I. Forces for Change (LO 1 – AACSB Analytical thinking) In the current VUCA environment, change is constant due to internal and external forces. Change is the transformation or adaptation to a new way of doing things. Innovation is the use of resources and skills to create an idea, product, process, or service that is new to the organization and its stakeholders. Figure 9.1: Forces for change A. External Forces PESTE are external forces that pressure the organization to change. - Political - Economic - Social - Technological - Environmental
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B. Internal Forces The performance gap—the difference between expected and actual performance—is a key internal force for change. Others include leadership and strategic changes. C. Culture and Change Culture at the national and organizational levels can affect how people and organizations manage change. Tolerance for ambiguity and perceptions of time are two cultural values that impact how people manage change. D. Types of Change Types of change are classified based on whether they are planned or reactive and evolutionary or revolutionary yielding 4 types: tuning, adaptation, re-orientation and recreation. Figure 9.2: Types of change CRITICAL THINKING: Change is hard (AACSB Reflective thinking) II. Leading Planned Change (LO2 – AACSB Analytical thinking) A. Lewin’s Model for Change Lewin’s force field model for change is presented and a three-stage process for unfreezing, change, and refreezing is described. Figure 9.3: Lewin’s stages of change The importance of the often-ignored unfreezing and refreezing phases is highlighted. B. Kotter’s Eight-Stage Process of Change The model mirrors Lewin’s with a focus on preparing people for change first and then being supportive of the change. Figure 9.4: Kotter’s eight-stages STEPPING INTO LEADERSHIP: Change 101 for New Managers (AACSB Application of knowledge) 1. Change is hard 2. The leader matters 3. Prepare people (unfreeze) 4. Involve people 5. Be patient 6. Evaluate and start over III. Leading in Times of Crisis (LO3 – AACSB Analytical thinking) The VUCA environment requires leaders to learn how to manage a crisis. The practices of good leadership and change management do not change; they become more important. A. Preparing the Organization
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Leading through a crisis starts during times when there is no crisis. Leaders can prepare their organization by: • Avoiding becoming too formal, hierarchical, rigid, and inflexible. • Regularly infusing moderate amounts of uncertainty, unpredictability, and spontaneity into decisions to help prevent complacency. • Staying on the offensive and being proactive with introducing new strategies, products, services, or processes. • Replacing and rotating leaders to bring in fresh ideas, methods, and visions. • Experimenting often with new methods, products, processes, structures, and so forth, to help followers practice dealing with change. B. It’s About People Successfully managing through a crisis depends on the connection between leaders and followers. Taking care of people and consideration behaviors are critical. Figure 9.5: Leading people through crises CRITICAL THINKING: Why did you resist change? (AACSB Critical thinking)
IV. Resistance to Change and Solutions (LO4 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Change, no matter how positive, leads to some degree of resistance and stress. There are organizational, group, and individual factors that contribute to resistance. Inertia: A tendency for an organization as a whole to resist change and to want to maintain the status quo. Table 9.1: Causes of Resistance to Change WHAT DO YOU DO? Implementing Change (AACSB Application of knowledge) A. Solutions The solutions for resistance to change need to match the various causes. There are leadership tools related to charismatic and transformational leadership. There are management tools that rely on education, participation, facilitation, and negotiation. There are power tools that manipulate or coerce. Table 9.2: Methods of managing resistance to change V. Leading Change: Creativity, Vision, Organizational Learning, and Organizational Culture (LO3 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Key factors in successful change: - Change must be meaningful - People must trust their leaders - “One size” does not fit all organizations
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A. Creativity Creativity, also called divergent or lateral thinking, is the ability to link or combine ideas in new ways. It is a key factor in generating and implementing meaningful change. Leaders can put in place several processes to encourage creativity in their team or organization including: avoiding autocratic styles, an open organizational culture, encouraging a questioning attitude, and tolerating mistakes and experimentation. B. Improvisation Another related leadership factor in successful change is the leader’s ability to improvise, a process that involves creation of something spontaneously without specific preparation, but with considerable overall expertise and experience. LEADING IN CHANGING TIMES: Sustainable High Fashion (AACSB Integration of real-world experiences) C. Visionary and Inspiration The concept of visionary leadership focuses on providing a clear vision and inspiring followers as a key to successful change. In addition, followers must be empowered, given flexibility, and be encouraged to cooperate. A motivating vision is part of exemplary leadership that supports change (Figure 9.4). Such a leader sets clear standards, expects the best from employees, encourages the heart, provides personalized recognition, celebrates success, and role models desired behaviors. 1. Exemplary Leadership Figure 9.6: Practices of exemplary and visionary leadership • Set clear standards • Expect the best • Pay attention and be present • Personalize recognition • Tell a story • Celebrate together • Role model LEADING ACROSS CULTURES: Leadership in First Nations (AACSB Diverse and multicultural work environments) Tribal nations in the US are culturally diverse; yet they share some common practices and principles regarding what they value in their leaders, particularly: - Experience - Wisdom - Kindness - Willingness to accept responsibility for others Additionally, specific themes of leadership include:
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Selection of leaders based on their expertise and experience Equality among genders Equality among individuals with leaders having no power over others Focus on the welfare of the tribe and community Decision making based on consensus rather than majority Justice based on restoration and rebuilding of relationships Reliance on spirituality
D. Learning Organizations Organizations where people expand their capacity to create, where innovation and cooperation are nurtured, and where knowledge is transferred are learning organizations that are likely to handle change well. Table 9.3: Core Elements of Learning Organizations Several blocks to being a learning organization are presented. Figure 9.7: Blocks to learning in organizations Organizations can avoid such blocks by remaining open to new ideas, developing local solutions, providing time for learning, and putting in place appropriate leadership. E. Positive Approach The concept of positive leadership discussed in Chapter 6 is presented as an effective approach for leading change. Knowledge alone does not change behavior; rather having examples and role models that show a positive outcome can be used as a powerful tool to create and encourage change. F. Changing Organizational Culture Leaders have considerable influence on their organization. They can encourage change by communicating priorities clearly, being a role model, and allocating resources and rewards to support change. THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION – REVISITED People will resist change, no matter what it is. Shocking the system and “Ripping off the band aid” is likely to engender more long-term resistance and cause the change effort to fail. Investing time and effort to prepare people, convince them of the need for change, and involve them in implementation options and ideas, is time consuming, but likely to pay off in the long run. APPLYING WHAT YOU LEARN: Change Agents and Peer Pressure (AACSB Application of knowledge) Change management can be supported by relying on change agents who are early adopters and can role model to their peers. Some guidelines include: - Don’t approach change alone – find partners - Find a few people who are excited about the change - Win over opinion leaders
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Set up a pilot that can demonstrate success Actions speak better than words – show rather than tell
VI. Summary VII. Key Concepts End of chapter wrap up – The TKD roadmap to more effective leadership: What did you learn?
End-Of-Chapter Activities and Materials All the end of the chapter activities and materials address AACSB Application of knowledge.
What Do You Do? Implementing Change The scenario presents an example of a leader having to push through change that is not supported unanimously but needs to be implemented quickly. Even when there is little time and not much opportunity to prepare the team and establish the need for change (unfreezing), leaders can still involve their followers in other stages. For example, it would help to get input into how to do what is required to do, how to divide the task, how to minimize the negative impact, etc. Any input helps in reducing resistance. In addition, the leader has to communicate extensively and as openly as possible with followers. Handling a situation where half of the team is skeptical about a change while the deadline is short requires careful communication and leadership. Here are some steps to address the challenge: • Show empathy: Take the time to connect with individual team members and listen to their concerns. You can empathize, show understanding, and validate their concerns without backing down on what needs to be done. Being heard and knowing that your team leader cares can help alleviate some of the anger and resentment. • Clarify the benefits of the change. Take the time to go over, and repeat, the benefits of the upcoming change and how it can enhance productivity and efficiency. • Be honest about the positions that are being eliminated and how the decision will be made. You may be able to negotiate with your boss not to hire for open positions rather than eliminating existing positions. • Rely on those who are onboard to help you convince their colleagues. • Involve the team in any decision that you can. It can be small, but keep them abreast of anything that is going on and seek their input. • Highlight success stories from other departments that have adopted the change. Share their experiences with your team. • Offer training to make sure they are ready to handle the new system.
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Lead by example to make sure you are a role model for what you want your team to do. Walk the talk and stay positive. Be patient: It may take a few tries before everyone comes on board.
Leadership Challenge: Implementing Unpopular Change The challenge for this chapter presents a case of a manager who must implement several unpopular changes that he/she does not agree with and that come on the heels of other recent changes. There has been no input into the change and it is implemented top-down. None of the recommended processes for successful change in this chapter have been implemented. There has not been a period of unfreezing, although some of the changes may be appropriate, and there was little freezing last time change was announced. The case is relatively typical of what mid-level leaders face in many organizations. They are charged with putting in place changes without much warning or input. •
How to approach the team? The best strategy is presenting the facts clearly; give it to them straight. The plan is required from upper management and must be presented as it is. The team leader should not either defend or oppose the plan. It is important to retain “authenticity” without criticizing upperlevel decision making. The change is a “fait-accompli.” There is not much discussion besides venting, which should be allowed, but controlled. The challenge now is how to move to implementation. This is an area where the team can have input. Take the time to listen to their concerns and show empathy. You can feel their pain and let them know that you care without changing course. Being heard helps reduce the stress and resentment. Within the limits set by upper-level leadership and by the situation, what can the team do to make this work? What are some strategies and processes they can implement? How can they reduce the negative impact? All these are areas of participation that can help reduce resistance and provide support within a cohesive team.
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How much of your personal feelings should you share? Authenticity and honesty are important factors; however, it is important to keep the information-sharing to statements such as “I don’t like this much myself either” or “I know how you feel.” However, the team leader’s behaviors and reactions are role models for the followers. Therefore, she/he must present an optimistic and positive front to encourage the followers to accept and manage the change well. Negativity from the leader is likely to feed into the team’s anger and be unproductive.
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What are some key actions? o Provide as much information as possible; ask your supervisor for information and share it with the group in a timely basis
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o Seek training and resources for the group o Allow some venting, but keep it focused and limited o Empathize and encourage the group to focus on what it can do rather than what it does not like o Provide as many opportunities for participation and input into the implementation as possible o Seek support for the group from HR if available o Help the 2 members who are let go through team support, recommendations, emotional support, and through organizational support if available Remember that leading during times of change can be challenging, but with empathy, open communication, and support, you can help your team navigate through the restructuring successfully. Exercise 9.1: Analyzing and Planning for Change The exercise encourages students to consider the steps in planned change in a systematic way. It is designed to familiarize them with those steps and teach them how they can be implemented to plan for change. Time needed: 30 to 40 minutes for preparation; 2-5 minutes per group for presentation if used as an in-class assignment Material needed: Paper and pencil; room for teams to meet. Part I: Form teams and select a problem Students form teams of 4 to 6 members either as assigned by instructor or based on previously existing teams in class. Each team considers various problems that need change in their organization or other settings they are familiar with. They then select one of the team member’s “problem” as the issue for which they will plan a change process. Part II: Define the problem The second step involves a careful definition of the problem. In this step team members should consider all the different issues that may be involved with the problem and make sure that they have a common understanding of what the problem really is. For example, if the problem is that two departments do not cooperate well, they should consider personal and organizational factors that may contribute to the lack of cooperation, the various internal and external people who are affected, the impact on performance, the physical setting, and so forth. Another example would be poor performance of a sales team in a retail environment. Considering the various employees, the context (e.g., time of year), the sales managers, the retail
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space, the products they sell, the types of customers they serve, etc., can all be important in understanding the problem. Careful problem definition will help the teams narrow their focus when planning for the change and assure that their plans provide a possible solution to the problem. Part III: Plan for change This section focuses on the actual implementation of the change and requires students to consider how to manage the unfreezing, change, and refreezing phases. This is a brainstorming process where they should be encouraged to consider as many issues and perspectives as possible rather than jump into quick a decision and action plan. This part should take them the longest to complete as it involves multiple steps and consideration of many diverse factors. Part IV: Presentation Each group provides a 2 to 5 minute presentation of the issue they chose to address and their team’s plan to implement a change to address the problem. Course Assignment This exercise can be used as a team assignment for the course by asking teams to identify a problem and present a plan for change to address the problem. The assignment can be as simple or as complex as an instructor chooses to make it. It has the potential to be a highly involved assignment, even requiring students to seek help and involvement from the organization, or it can be a simple hypothetical exercise to make them familiar with the steps in the process of planned change. Because of the potential complexity and the need to brainstorm, this is a team rather than an individual exercise.
Exercise 9.2: Creativity and Parallel Thinking – The Six Hats Method This exercise is a highly engaging activity based on the work of Edward de Bono. It teaches students a method for encouraging creativity that uses parallel thinking and exploring “what can be” rather than arguing. All of the group’s energy is focused on the same goal at any one time. It is time consuming, but well worth the investment in class time. Time needed: 60 to 75 minutes; 10 minutes for preparation, 45 minutes for the group process, 15 minutes for discussion and debriefing. Material needed: Time keeping tool; paper hats of different colors can be useful and fun. 1.
Instruct the students to follow the directions in the exercise and select a topic.
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Explain the meaning of each of the color hats and provide examples to assure that students understand each: White Hat: Neutral and objective: Focus on objectivity, facts, and figures
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Ask questions such as: What information do we have? What do we know? Are there any data available on this? Are we sure this is a fact, not just an opinion? Red Hat: Anger (seeing red), rage, and emotions: Focus on the emotional view. Ask questions such as: How does this make people feel? Why do people get so angry or unhappy? Black Hat: Somber, serious, and cautious: Focus on pointing out weaknesses and problems. Ask questions such as: What are the shortcomings? What are the problems? What is the negative impact? Yellow Hat: Sunny and positive: Focus on hope and positive thinking; look at the best possible outcome. Ask questions such as: What is the up side? What are the benefits and advantages? How can this benefit us? Green Hat: Abundance: Focus on creativity and new ideas. Ask questions such as: What are the different ways of looking at this? What are some crazy approaches to this? What could we do if there were no limits or restrictions? Blue Hat: Sky view: Focus on control, integration, and putting together of ideas from a broad perspective. Ask questions such as: What’s the view from 10,000 feet? How does it impact the overall system or organization? What’s the big picture? 3.
Review the rules with the students and insist that they follow them closely: • Designate a facilitator who will keep track of time, direct the group to switch hats, reiterate their function, and remind everyone of the rules. The facilitator will use language such as “now let’s all put on our red hats” to transition from one hat to the other. • Always refer to the hat colors, not the function. For example, you can say “Let’s put on our white hats” not “Let’s look at the facts.” • Begin and end with the blue hat. At the beginning, it allows you to address general issues and what you are doing (i.e., reviewing the rules and deciding the order of the hats). At the end, it allows you to review and sum up. • You may put the other hats on in any order your group wants. • Keep your “hat on” when you are in a color mode. For example, if the group is wearing the green hat and focusing on creativity, members cannot decide in the middle of the green period to put on their black hats and discuss the weaknesses of the ideas being proposed. You can only switch hats when time is up and the whole group wears a different hat. • You can also give each person a minute or two to think when you start and when you switch hats. With the hats “on,” each member has about one minute to express his/her views under each color. The total amount of time will depend on the number of people in your group. For example, four people will take about 24 minutes to discuss an issue (6
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x4 = 24) + an extra 4 minutes for the blue hat at the end + 6 minutes for reflection, for a total of 34 minutes (approximately). Have fun!
Review and debrief Review the process focusing on benefits and difficulties (what was easy, what was hard), what could have been done differently and on applications to real life.
Overall: This can be an engaging exercise. The biggest challenge students have is keeping to the theme of the hat and not arguing. If you have large groups, designating one facilitator who does not participate can be helpful.
Self-assessment 9.1: Building Credibility (AACSB Reflective thinking) Having credibility is suggested to be one of the central factors in effective change-oriented leadership. This self-assessment is designed to allow students to evaluate their credibility and identify areas where their actions may be jeopardizing their credibility. The first part includes a questionnaire based on elements of credibility identified by Kouzes and Posner. The second part requires students to identify areas where they may be weak and develop an action plan to enhance their credibility. Students should be encouraged to develop their action plan following the principles of good goal-setting. The goals should be: behavioral, specific, measurable, achievable and reasonable, and have a clear timeline. This is a very effective developmental exercise particularly for students who have some work experience. Course Assignment This assessment can be used as an assignment for the course by asking students to analyze the elements of their credibility and present an action plan to improve it. Self-assessment 9.2: Openness to Change This self-assessment focuses on the openness to change. Once completed students can reflect on their score and consider areas they may want to address.
Leadership in Action Case: Business as Usual Case summary Andrea was promoted to Senior Manager at Parson Solar Technology. She was excited about the opportunity to lead the sales and marketing department and bring her innovative ideas to improve performance. However, the company was facing significant challenges due to the impact of COVID, supply chain disruptions, and changes in the solar industry. The company's founders,
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Jeri and Craig, made sweeping changes without input from anyone, eliminating a division and moving Andrea's department to a new group. They also implemented new company-wide changes in purchasing and accounting processes and introduced a state-of-the-art software system. Without input and preparation, the transition did not go well. The changes were introduced but not implemented, leaving everyone frustrated. 1. What is your evaluation of the change process at Parson Solar Technology? The change was introduced suddenly without taking the time to prepare the organization or persuade anyone of the actual need for change. Although the company is facing challenges that must be addressed, the employees are not fully aware of the reasons for the change. In addition to lack of preparation, the support needed to implement the changes is not provided. Employees don’t have access to training to learn the new system. From a more personal perspective, eliminating Sanjay’s position without any notice or information, especially in a relatively small company, affects everyone negatively. Andrea’s new supervisor seems to be as overwhelmed as everyone else and cannot support her either. The feedback about the change is not sought or provided, further making the situation worse. As a result, the company's progress stalled, and the sales and marketing department struggled to move forward. The focus shifted from embracing innovation to maintaining the status quo. To achieve the intended benefits of the changes, the company needs to address these issues promptly and involve all stakeholders in the decision making process. Overall, although the need for change is real, the change process is handled poorly from the preparation to the implementation. 2. Using the change models from the chapter, what has been done well and what is missing? Lewin’s model At the most basic level, the forces against the change are considerably more powerful than those pushing the change, a factor that explains the status quo. The owners have recognized the need for change, but have not taken the time to unfreeze anyone else. The change is sudden with little information about why it’s happening. Therefore, the departments are not ready to change. The change itself seems to be justified given the challenges the company faces. The third stage of change, freezing, is also poorly handled. Employees do not have access to the help, training, and support they need to implement the change. There is little feedback and accountability about what everyone is doing. Since they continue to deliver, no one feels like they need to really implement the change. Kotter’s Model
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1. Creating a Sense of Urgency: The owners have the sense of urgency but it is not well communicated to everyone else. 2. Creating a coalition: There is no coalition, as managers are not aware of the change and are not provided the opportunity to provide feedback or ideas ahead of the change. There is therefore not a coalition to help implement the change. 3. Develop and communicate a common vision: Once again, the vision may be sound, but it is not communicated until the change happens. It is the owners’ vision, which is fine, but it is not shared by anyone else, leading to confusion and resistance. Besides knowing that changes are needed because of turbulence, there is no clear idea of how the proposed changes make a difference. 4. Empowering actions: Employees, including Andrea and her team, were not adequately empowered to be involved in the change process and contribute their ideas. 5. Generating Short-Term Wins: The lack of clear progress and tangible successes in the early stages of the change process contributed to employee skepticism and resistance. 6. Consolidate gains and anchor change to the culture: There are no gains to be celebrated or anchored. Whether using specific models for change, or based on general principles that recommend empathy, patience, and employee involvement followed by support to implement change, the change at Parson is a case study in what not to do. Additionally, Andrea’s department’s interest and plans for gradual and incremental change, which are signs of a learning organization, are never tapped. 3. What are the sources of resistance and how were they addressed? From an organizational point of view, inertia is clearly a source of resistance. People do nothing and maintain the status quo. The culture of the organization is disrupted without much explanation and there are few rewards and resources to implement the change. From a group point of view, Andrea’s group is cohesive and able to act on their own without needing help. They can continue to do their job as before and support one another. The lack of leadership from Jordan who is also overwhelmed, allows Andrea to also just leave things in place. From an individual perspective, fear of the unknown and failure may play a key role. Andrea’s group was highly motivated in developing solutions, but their motivation dies out when their input is not sought and their ideas go to waste. Lack of training and support further increase the chances of failure if they adopt the new system, reinforcing their desire to maintain the status quo. 4. If you were consulting with Jeri, Craig, and the Parson’s senior management team, what would you advise them to do now?
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The management team needs to backtrack a bit and improve their communication. They should: Create a clear and compelling vision for the changes and communicate it effectively to all employees. Ensure that the reasons for the changes and the expected benefits are clearly conveyed. Empower Employees: Involve employees in the change process by seeking their input, ideas, and feedback. Empower them to take ownership of the changes and their implementation. Invest in comprehensive training to support adoption of the new system. Once a few successes are achieved, celebrate them and acknowledge the efforts that have been needed. Foster a culture of innovation and a learning organization by seeking input regarding change and improvements from the people actually doing the job. Support managers such as Jordan and Andrea who are the ones who have to lead the change effort. Monitor carefully; seek feedback; collect data about the implementation and use the information to course correct and move forward.
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Chapter 10 Developing and Flourishing as a Leader: Implementing the TKD Roadmap Chapter Overview Leadership can be learned and leaders should be on a lifelong journey to develop and grow. This chapter focuses on how leaders can develop and thrive. The elements of leader and leadership development are presented along with the factors involved in learning and the criteria for effective leader development programs. We review the application of the THINKKNOW-DO (TKD) roadmap we have highlighted in every chapter to present the personal and organizational ways in which leaders can learn to lead better and flourish. As we review the research and practice related to leader development, we will refer back to the three steps of the roadmap: THINK – T, KNOW – K, and DO – D.
Chapter Outline
LEADERSHIP QUESTION: What can we teach and can leaders really learn? I. Leader Development and Learning (LO 1 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Leadership is not just a trait. Organizations invest considerable resources to train and develop leaders. A. Development Development An ongoing, dynamic, long-term change, or evolution that occurs because of various learning experiences Leader development Expanding an individual’s capacity to be effective in leadership roles and processes Leadership development An organization’s capability to get the work done through its many leaders Figure 10.1: Type of development B. Learning Learning: A relatively permanent increase or change in behavior, knowledge, or skill that results from experience Determinants of learning - Awareness - Capacity to learn
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- Motivation to learn - Access to learning opportunities - Self-efficacy and experience with success: A belief and capacity to learn as a result of positive experiences - Organizational support Figure 10.2: Determinants of learning CRITICAL THINKING: What contributes to your learning? (AACSB Reflective thinking) The goals of leader development are then to address the 3 steps in the TKD roadmap: - Provide opportunities for self-awareness (THINK) - Build knowledge (KNOW) - Offer time, space, and resources to practice new skills (DO) II. Content and Requirements of Leader Development (LO2 – AACSB Analytical thinking) A. What is Developed: The Content Table 10.1: The Content of Leader Development B. Required Elements of Effective Development Figure 10.3: Essential elements of effective development Conditions that further support effective development: - Clear objectives that are tied to the organizational and the leader’s’ goals - Rewards for learning and experimentation - Combination of various development tools and methods - Program assessment and follow-up STEPPING INTO LEADERSHIP: TAKING CHARGE OF YOUR OWN DEVELOPMENT (AACSB Application of knowledge) While many organizations may provide leader development programs, many do not. It is important that leaders take responsibility for their own growth and learning: - Learn about yourself - Take training wherever and whenever it is available - Learn to accept feedback even if it is negative or unfair and act on what you hear - Seek multiple mentors - Continue your education any chance you get - Make life-long learning a goal - Maintain a healthy work-life balance III. Tools of Development (LO3 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Table 10.2: Comparison of Development Methods This table outlines the various development tools based on the degree to which they satisfy the various requirements of effective development. A. Self-Awareness Knowing yourself is the cornerstone of development and the first step in TKD.
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To increase self-awareness: - Clarify your values and priorities - Seek new experiences - Observe your own behavior, and reflect on it - Seek feedback B. Experience The core of learning to lead is practicing what is learned in as many settings as possible. Experience addresses all three steps of the TKD roadmap. C. Developmental Relationships: Coaching and Mentoring Through connection with coaches and mentors, leaders can develop self-awareness and knowledge and practice their new skills, addressing all three steps of the TKD roadmap. • Coaching: Providing individualized and constructive feedback on someone’s behavior and performance while focusing on future improvement • Mentoring: Individualized attention with feedback and future orientation that can be both generic or specific to a task Table 10.3: Elements of Effective Coaching Productive mentoring requires: - Many mentors to address different areas and skills - Mentors at different levels - Informal relationships not tied to performance evaluation - Adding mentors as jobs and responsibilities change D. Feedback-Intensive Programs Programs to formally provide feedback to leaders about their performance in various aspects of their job can be highly effective. They are even more effective when combined with other tools such as coaching and mentoring. 360-degree feedback: Multisource and multimethod feedback programs through which information about leaders’ style, strengths, weaknesses, and performance is gathered from multiple individuals inside and outside the organization Figure 10.4: 360 degree feedback sources Table 10.4: Factors that Contribute to the Success of 360-degree Feedback Programs CRITICAL THINKING: Accepting feedback (AACSB Reflective thinking) E. Classroom Education One of the most common and most efficient types of programs aimed at increasing knowledge and skills It can also address self-awareness and may provide some experiences with more applied and experiential learning
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LEADING IN CHANGING TIMES: Fiverr Reinvents Collaboration (AACSB Integration of real-world experiences) F. Outdoor Challenges Popular and entertaining tool, but not very effective in long-term learning and development WHAT DO YOU DO? Picking the Right Program (AACSB Application of knowledge) IV. Development and Culture (LO4 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Culture at all levels impacts development and learning A. National Cultural Values Different programs may be effective in different cultures based on the values of the individual and the organization. Table 10.5: Cultural Values and Leader Development LEADING ACROSS CULTURES: The United States Culture in a Nutshell (AACSB Diverse and multicultural work environments) The US culture includes many diverse cultures. However, some national prototypes are supported by considerable research: • Individualism is a key value and reflected in the political system and organizational policies and practices • Relatively low power distance with ideals of egalitarianism • Strong performance orientation • Moderate gender egalitarianism • Unique approach to cultural diversity B. Gender and Diversity Group level culture – gender and diversity impact development in several ways: - Not all groups have the same levels of access to development opportunities such as mentoring for example - Different groups may have different needs for development To address diversity well in development: - Provide opportunity for single-identity development programs - Encourage development relationships - Support development of networks V. Flourishing and Personal Development (LO5 – AACSB Analytical thinking) Three factors support leader development: the leader’s personal commitment; the organizational commitment; and the fit between the two. Figure 10.5: Three keys to successful development
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Quiet quitting: focusing on the primary and essential tasks and fulfilling the basic requirement of a job without showing any initiative or going beyond the routine responsibilities. A. Disengagement and Languishing Many employees are not flourishing and are instead languishing: a feeling of being joyless and aimless with a sense of stagnation and emptiness B. Flourishing The aim is to not only to grow and learn, but for individuals and leaders to flourish: having the vitality and the presence of positive feeling; feeling well and living a fulfilling life. THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION – REVISITED • Leader development can and does work. • However, you cannot teach anything to someone who does not want to learn. • People cannot learn without practice. • With proper support and the right experience, we can teach leaders a lot about being effective. • But they have to be motivated to learn and the organization has to provide support and allow them to practice and occasionally fail. APPLYING WHAT YOU LEARN: Personal Development (AACSB Application of knowledge) In addition to formal development programs there are some steps any leader can take to learn and grow: - Know yourself - Be open to new experiences - Consider volunteer work to acquire leadership skills - Seek feedback - Focus on understanding your strengths - Learn by observing other leaders around you - Practice and be persistent VI. Summary VII. Key Concepts End of chapter wrap up – The TKD roadmap to more effective leadership: What did you learn?
End-Of-Chapter Activities and Materials
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All the end of the chapter activities and materials address AACSB Application of knowledge. What Do You Do? Picking the Right Program The challenge in this scenario is picking the right type of training and development to prepare a bright employee for management. The goal of the training is generally to improve the person’s interpersonal and people skills. Given the limited resources for training, it's essential to focus on targeted developmental experiences that can address the specific areas where the person needs improvement. Keep in mind that the best development would involve self-awareness, knowledge, and application (TKD). Here are some cost-effective and practical options to consider: 1. Start with a discussion regarding the person’s goals and aspirations, the needs of the organization, and the fit with the organization. This will allow you to assess the person’s interest in learning and get them started on the path to development. 2. Self-assessment tools: Encourage the person to use self-assessment tools related to emotional intelligence, leadership style, and conflict management. These can help them gain insights into their strengths and areas for growth and start the first step in TKD by developing self-awareness. 3. Find one or more mentor and coach: Pair the person with a seasoned manager or leader within the organization who excels in the areas where the direct report needs improvement. A mentor can provide valuable guidance, share real-life experiences, and offer personalized advice. A coach could teach specific skills. 4. Job shadowing: Arrange for the person to spend time shadowing a successful manager or leader. Observing someone skilled in team facilitation, conflict management, delegation, and collaboration can provide valuable insights and practical examples. Having direct experience is a valuable learning tool. 5. Peer learning: Set up peer learning groups within the organization where people can share experiences, challenges, and solutions related to management and leadership. This can create a supportive learning environment for your team member, expose the person to a team environment, allow for networking, and benefitting others as well. This type of setting can build self-awareness and knowledge and provide opportunity to practice some new skills; all three steps of the TKD. 6. Courses in person or online: There are numerous free or affordable online courses and webinars on leadership, conflict resolution, communication, and team-building. These can be easily accessed and completed at the direct report's own pace. They would help increase knowledge (K) and can also contribute to self-awareness (T). 7. New job assignments in teams: This will expose the person to different teams and individuals, encouraging collaboration and building their ability to work with others. Once again, the direct experience will be a valuable learning tool and can satisfy all three steps of the TKD roadmap.
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8. Regular monitoring and feedback: Set up a regular time to discuss goals, progress, and concerns, and support the person as they learn and grow. Keep in mind that development takes time and consistent effort from both you and your team member. It is essential to have open and supportive communication with the person to understand their progress, challenges, and aspirations. By combining these developmental experiences, you can help groom your team member for a future management position and foster their growth as a well-rounded leader. Leadership Challenge: Finding the Right Fit The challenge presents a dilemma of whether one should commit more time and energy to an organization that may not be a good fit in order to be promoted within that organization. It is designed to help students understand their priorities and values and consider the benefits and disadvantages of continuing to work in an organization that does not fit them well, but provides a stable income. Such a situation is relatively common for both undergraduate and graduate students who often work at jobs that pay the bills, but do not necessarily fit their values and passion. While the idealist view is to follow one’s passion and bliss all the time, the practical aspects of daily life do not always make that possible. Additionally, while an organization may not be a great fit, many young students do not yet fully know what their passion is, making it harder to pursue. •
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Factors to consider are: -
Immediate needs against long-term goals
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Clarity of long-term goals and values (do you really know what you want?). It is important for the individual to carefully assess what his/her priorities are.
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Potential long-term benefits of the training program. Are the skills transferable to other organizations? Can they help in other jobs or in searching for other jobs?
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What are some other options? Is there a way to move within the company? What else can be done to create a better fit between the person and the current organization?
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What are the costs of looking for another job? Consider both financial loss and emotional challenges.
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Some people are more comfortable with risk-taking than others. What is the best decision for you? Students should be encouraged to explore the various issues. There is no right or wrong answer. It is important to clarify values and priorities both in the short-term and the longterm. Any decision that is based on careful thinking and awareness of the challenges that will be present regardless of the decision made, will be the right one. For the purpose of this exercise, the process of thinking about fit and priorities is what matters.
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Exercise 10.1: Identifying Your Mentoring Needs and Potential Mentors Mentoring can be a powerful tool in organizational and personal success. Almost all successful leaders credit their interactions with a mentor at least as part of the reason for their success. This exercise is designed to encourage students to identify potential mentors and to start the mentoring process. Total time: 30 minutes for Steps I and II; more time needed for reflection and making contacts with mentors. Materials needed: Paper and pencil.
Step I: What do you need? In this step, students identify particular areas where they may need development and mentoring. They should be encouraged to spend some time reflecting on those needs (for example using the book’s self-assessment or their performance rating at their job), seek feedback from trusted others, review their performance records, and so forth. Once that process is completed, students write down specific areas where they could seek the help of a mentor. Some examples of areas may be: •
They have consistently had trouble working in teams
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They have held several jobs that have all proven to be a poor fit for them
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They have trouble speaking in public
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They cannot seem to decide on a major or area of specialization
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They do not handle conflict well
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They cannot negotiate effectively
The list is dynamic and changes as students develop new competencies and face new challenges. They should be encouraged to review the list every few months to identify potential gaps. Step II: Who do you know? In this step students make a list of their contacts and people in their networks who may have some expertise and competence in their areas where they do not. They start with a long and inclusive list and then use trust and comfort to pare their list down to people who may be good mentors. It is important to identify several people as potential mentors rather than only one person. Different people not only have different expertise, but they also provide different perspectives. Step III: Creating a mentoring relationship
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The final step is to identify potential mentors and approach them for help. Guidelines for how to approach and manage the mentoring relationship are provided.
Course Assignment
This exercise can be used as an assignment for the course. Steps I and II can be assigned at the end of the semester as a developmental exercise. Or, these steps can be assigned earlier in the semester and a follow up to see how the process of establishing a mentoring relationship (Step III) can be done at the end of the semester. Grading this assignment cannot be based on the content of the mission statement, rather students should be evaluated on how thoroughly they complete the process. Preferably, a pass/fail grade should be assigned.
Self-assessment 10.1: Plan for Flourishing – PERMA (AACSB Reflective thinking) The PERMA worksheet provides a checklist for students to identify factors that can contribute to flourishing. It is based on the extensive research on positive psychology. Identifying PERMA factors is the first step in deciding what can be targeted. It may also allow students to realize areas that may not be supporting their growth and happiness. Encourage students to review their list regularly to remove some items and add others as they experiment, learn, and grow. They can also use the PERMA list to focus more specifically on leadership.
Self-assessment 10.2: My Personal Mission Statement (AACSB Reflective thinking) This exercise provides students with the opportunity of self-reflection and a start at developing a personal mission statement that can guide their career and their development as a leader. This is an individual exercise that can be used as a concluding exercise or even as an on-going exercise throughout the semester. The various self-assessments throughout the book, especially Selfassessment 4.1, the other self-assessments in Chapter 4 and throughout the book can be used as supporting information to allow students to understand themselves, and their values. Total time: Minimum 30 minutes and up to 2 hours depending on level of student involvement. Materials needed: Paper and pencil. Step 1: What I want to be when I grow up? This step is a self-exploration. Encourage students to answer the questions honestly and to take their time doing so. Remind them that there are no right or wrong answers and that this is a personal discovery. Step 2: My personal mission
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Using the answers that students have developed in the first step, they should write their own mission statement. The career site Indeed.com provides some good examples (https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/personal-mission-statementexamples).
Course Assignment
This exercise can be used as an assignment for the course. It can be used either as a concluding exercise or as a staged exercise that students revise several times during the semester. Grading this assignment cannot be based on the content of the mission statement, rather students should be evaluated on how thoroughly they complete the process. Preferably, a pass/fail grade should be assigned.
Leadership in Action Case: Tara’s Training Challenge Case summary Putting together a virtual global team (VGT) and preparing team leaders for the challenges ahead is both exciting and demanding. Tara has quite a task ahead of her, but with proper planning and resources, it can be accomplished. Let's break down the steps for Tara's "to-do" list: 1. Identify the list of skills and attributes the VGT team leader needs. Tara should collaborate with the managers from the four divisions to identify the essential skills and attributes the team leader must possess to successfully lead a virtual and diverse team. These may include: - A Cultural Mindset that allows the person to keep culture in mind when making decisions and includes self-awareness of their own culture. - Appropriate technical experience and competence - Fit with the company mission and goals - Strong communication skills - Adaptability and flexibility – willingness to go with the flow (Using OCEAN – openness to experience) - EQ: Ability to connect with others, empathize, and self-manage - Team building and cooperation - Time management and task organization - Conflict management skills 2. Identify the types of soft-skills training the leader and team members need. The soft-skills training should address: - All aspects of working across cultures (self-awareness, knowledge of cross-cultural differences, and skills development) - Managing conflict - Flexibility - Knowledge regarding VGTs - Team building .
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3. Decide the content and methods of delivery for the training. Providing early support as teams form and start working is critical. The training content should include: - Basic knowledge of the areas above - Personal awareness - Skills development The methods that can used: - Classroom instruction to build T and K (simplest methods and cost effective) - Virtual classes and seminars - In-person experiences whenever possible - Focus on self-awareness and knowledge - Get feedback on areas of strength and development - Learn about leadership and team dynamics (e.g. stages of development and dysfunction) concepts - Experiential learning including cases and simulation to practice new skills Experience – working in teams while supported by facilitator – TKD (core of the program) - Get support and facilitation as teams start forming - Coaching for specific skills while working on teams - Help teams work through the forming and storming stages of group development Mentoring and coaching for team leaders - Pair them up with experienced mentors - Coach them to enhance their task and people behaviors 4.
Find trainers/consultants. Tara needs to carefully select leaders and team members who not only have the technical competence and experience, but also have the right soft skills. The next step then is to get the VGT and their leaders started on the right foot by providing training and support before they start and as the teams start their work. Once the teams are launched, they can determine what other training they need. Finally, a factor that must be built-in is feedback and assessment tools and opportunities to keep track of performance and be able to correct course as needed.
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