Instructor Manuals for Visions of America A History of the United States, Combined Volume, 2E Jennif by Ace Test Banks

INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE MANUAL

VISIONS OF AMERICA A History of the United States Second Edition

Jennifer D. Keene Chapman University

Saul Cornell Fordham University

Edward T. O’Donnell College of the Holy Cross

Prentice Hall Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo

Table of Contents Introduction.............................................................................................................................................1 Chapter 1 People in Motion: The Atlantic World to 1590....................................................................18 Chapter 2 Models of Settlement: English Colonial Societies, 1590–1710 ...........................................33 Chapter 3 Growth, Slavery, and Conflict: Colonial America, 1710–1763 ...........................................52 Chapter 4 Revolutionary America: Change and Transformation, 1764–1783......................................67 Chapter 5 A Virtuous Republic: Creating a Workable Government, 1783–1789 ................................87 Chapter 6 The New Republic: An Age of Political Passion, 1789–1800 ...........................................106 Chapter 7 Jeffersonian America: An Expanding Empire of Liberty, 1800–1824...............................124 Chapter 8 Democrats and Whigs: Democracy and American Culture, 1820–1840............................139 Chapter 9 Workers, Farmers, and Slaves: The Transformation of the American Economy, 1815–1848.................................................152 Chapter 10 Revivalism, Reform, and Artistic Renaissance, 1820–1850 ............................................166 Chapter 11 “To Overspread the Continent:” Westward Expansion and Political Conflict, 1840–1848.....................................................181 Chapter 12 Slavery and Sectionalism: The Political Crisis of 1848–1861 .........................................192 Chapter 13 A Nation Torn Apart: The Civil War, 1861–1865 ...........................................................206 Chapter 14 Now That We Are Free: Reconstruction and the New South, 1863–1890.......................218 Chapter 15 Conflict and Conquest: The Transformation of the West, 1860–1900.............................230 Chapter 16 Wonder and Woe: The Rise of Industrial America, 1865–1900 ......................................241 Chapter 17 Becoming a Modern Society: America in the Gilded Age, 1877–1900 ...........................252 Chapter 18 Creating a Democratic Paradise: The Progressive Era, 1895–1915.................................263 Chapter 19 Imperial America: The United States in the World, 1890–1914......................................274 Chapter 20 The Great War: World War I, 1914–1918........................................................................288 Chapter 21 A Turbulent Decade: The Twenties .................................................................................303 Chapter 22 A New Deal for America: The Great Depression, 1929–1940.........................................315 Chapter 23 World War II: Fighting the Good War, 1939–1945 .........................................................335 Chapter 24 A Divided World: The Early Cold War, 1945–1963 .......................................................347 Chapter 25 In a Land of Plenty: Contentment and Discord, 1945–1960 ............................................359 Chapter 26 A Nation Divided: The Vietnam War, 1945–1975 ..........................................................371 Chapter 27 A Decade of Discord: The Challenge of the Sixties.........................................................381 Chapter 28 Righting a Nation Adrift: America in the 1970s and 1980s .............................................392 Chapter 29 Building a New World Order: The United States, 1989–2009.........................................404

iii

Introduction to Keene, Cornell, and O’Donnell Visions of America 2e MyHistoryLab Instructor’s Manual Welcome to Visions of America 2e MyHistoryLab Instructor’s Manual. This guide is designed to provide several things: • • • •

an overview of how to utilize the Visions of America text with MyHistoryLab a syllabus demonstrating how to integrate MyHistoryLab with a U.S. survey course a listing of relevant material from MyHistoryLab possible ideas on how to utilize MyHistoryLab in the classroom to further critical thinking skills

Prof. Keene and her colleagues state clearly that one simple purpose motivated them in the design of their text: “to enhance the accessibility of American history and thereby increase students’ chances of success.” MyHistoryLab can be a critical component in helping to increase students’ chances of success. Its resources provide methods for teachers to assess and enhance their teaching, while at the same time offering tools students can use to improve research, critical thinking, and comprehension skills.

Description MyHistoryLab is available for U.S. History, African-American History, World History, and History of Western Civilization courses. The moment you know. Educators know it. Students know it. It’s that inspired moment when something that was difficult to understand suddenly makes perfect sense. Our MyLab products have been designed and refined with a single purpose in mind—to help educators create that moment of understanding with their students. The new MyHistoryLab delivers proven results in helping individual students succeed. It provides engaging experiences that personalize, stimulate, and measure learning for each student. And it comes from a trusted partner with educational expertise and an eye on the future. MyHistoryLab can be used by itself or linked to any learning management system. To learn more about how the new MyHistoryLab combines proven learning applications with powerful assessment, visit www.pearsonhighered.com/newmylabs. MyHistoryLab—the moment you know.

1 .

Features MyHistoryLab delivers proven results in helping individual students succeed. • Pearson MyLabs are currently in use by millions of students each year across a variety of disciplines. • MyHistoryLab

works—but don’t take our word for it. Visit www.pearsonhighered.com/elearning to read white papers, case studies, and testimonials from instructors and students that consistently demonstrate the success of our MyLabs.

MyHistoryLab provides engaging experiences that personalize, stimulate, and measure learning for each student. • Closer Look tours walk students through a variety of key primary sources in detail, helping them to uncover their meaning and understand their context. • A History Bookshelf enables students to read, download, or print up to 100 of the

most commonly assigned history works like Thomas Paine’s Common Sense, Homer’s The Iliad, and Machiavelli’s The Prince. • Complete audio of the entire book is included to suit the varied learning styles

of today’s students. • The Pearson eText lets students access their textbook anytime, anywhere, and

any way they want—including listening online or downloading to iPad. • A personalized study plan for each student arranges content from less complex

thinking—like remembering and understanding—to more complex critical thinking—like applying and analyzing. This layered approach promotes better critical thinking skills and helps students succeed in the course and beyond. • Assessment tied to videos, applications, and chapter enables both instructors and

students to track progress and get immediate feedback. With results feeding into a powerful gradebook, the assessment program helps instructors identify student challenges early—and find the best resources with which to help students. • An assignment calendar allows instructors to assign graded activities, with

specific deadlines, and measure student progress. • Class Prep collects the very best class presentation resources in one convenient

online destination, so instructors can keep students engaged throughout every class. MyHistoryLab comes from a trusted partner with educational expertise and an eye on the future. • Pearson supports instructors with workshops, training, and assistance from Pearson Faculty Advisors—so you get the help you need to make MyHistoryLab work for your course. • Pearson gathers feedback from instructors and students during the development of

content and the feature enhancement of each release—to ensure that our products meet your needs.

2 .

An Overview of Assets MyHistoryLab is a fully comprehensive website with the needs of students and teachers in mind. The program consists of the following components: •

Assignment Calendar

•

Study Plan & Assignments

•

eText and Chapter Audio

•

Closer Looks

•

Multimedia Library

•

Student Resources

•

Student Grades

•

Communication

•

Instructor’s Resources

Assignment Calendar Section allows you to completely lay out assignments from your course syllabus or outline and plan out your semester/quarter/year. Assignments once created can be selected to show on student calendar. Tools help instructor for planning and student for keeping track of deadlines. Study Plan & Assignments Contains several tools helpful for student planning including Learning Objectives, Study Plan, Exam, Media, Quick Reviews, and Summary subsections. •

Learning Objectives – Objectives provided in text for each chapter.

•

Study Plan – A personalized study plan for each student, arranges content from less complex thinking—like remembering and understanding—to more complex critical thinking—like applying and analyzing. This layered approach promotes better critical-thinking skills and helps students succeed in the course and beyond.

•

Exam – An exam provided by Pearson, timed, scored, and sent to instructor, informs students of which questions they answered incorrectly.

•

Media – Contains two tabs: Media Links and Media Assignment. 3 .

Media Links provides three areas for study: Review the Timeline, which lists dates accompanied with significant events or people; if student selects marker, it then provides brief explanation. Study the Flashcards enables the student to study key terms in flashcard form. Read the Text allows student to go into eText and begin to read and study chapter. Media Assignment contains chapter resources and provides six (6) categories: Audio folder provides an audio recording of a song, recital, or lecture with assignment. Closer Look folder uses visual images to provide a deeper explanation to a concept. The visual may be an image, map, chart, or graph and is accompanied by a Critical Thinking Question. Document folder has documents available with questions for use as assignments or classroom tools. Exploring America examines a topic and goes into greater depth, providing readings and visuals combined in an assignment to help students see a connection between an idea and history. The questions that follow the assignment may be clicked on and answered online for easy grading and sent to the instructor. Images are provided for students to examine ranging from drawings to paintings to cartoons and to photographs. Some questions are provided and answered online, again for easier grading. Map folder provides a series of maps ranging from outline maps to interactive maps. An exercise accompanies the map, which the student completes and emails to the instructor. Exercises can be short answer or multiple choice. •

Quick Reviews – Provides a tab for each section in the chapter. Within each section is a series of questions provided for the students to check on their comprehension of the chapter. Each question has a time limit and is designed to be sent to the teacher via email.

•

Chapter Summary – Provides the chapter summary examining the chapter and helping the student examine each section and its main themes.

eText and Chapter Audio The eText is a complete copy of the textbook online. It offers instructors the chance to highlight important sections for themselves and their students. Teachers can allow access to highlighted sections or keep them closed for their personal use only. Students, through their own password, can highlight the text as they see fit. They can make notes and bookmark pages and, just like professors, they can allow those to be seen or be hidden. Each chapter may also be downloaded to an Apple iPod/iPad with the Pearson eText app. This enables student or teacher to have access to chapters at any time. 4 .

Closer Looks Provides access to all the Closer Look exercises from each chapter. Multimedia Library Here, ten kinds of resources are gathered for student and instructor use. They include Documents, Images, Audio, Video, Closer Looks, Exploring America, Learning Activity, Pearson Profile, Interactive Maps, and Maps. As an instructor, this may perhaps be the most valuable section. The old expression of not wanting to “reinvent the wheel” applies here. The time teachers might spend looking for resources can be put to other uses by utilizing this section. Many of the documents include prompting or comprehension questions to help students with the reading of these primary sources and/or to be used as assignments to measure student success. The Images include some of the more famous images in American history as well as new and unique images to spark student curiosity. Like the documents, most have questions to go with them to help further student understanding and/or be used to measure student success. Both the audio and video sections provide unique additional perspectives to help students push for greater understanding and succeed in comprehending the material. The audio clips include songs, speeches, and readings that take the student to the moment in time they are from and give a feel for the time they were performed, drawing the student into a better understanding of the period. Many of the video clips are segments recorded with leading historians who provide a more in-depth examination of an issue, usually through an individual or an event, to help give greater clarity to a period or movement in history. They include a brief quiz to check for understanding by students and/or instructors. Some of the later chapters in the text have clips showing speeches, political ads, and even short documentary clips. Some of the newer resources Pearson provides in this section combine several of the other media assets with tools for instructors to measure progress, comprehension, and even critical thinking skills. Many of these tools will engage the students more fully in the process of learning and many will find them helpful in retaining knowledge and developing a greater understanding of topics developed in and out of the classroom. The interaction and engagement are what make these new sections so invaluable. Student Resources Here MyHistoryLab has provided another way to find the activities included in the program as well as several new activities not in other sections. • MyHistoryLibrary – Hundreds of primary source documents and featuring the History Bookshelf, which contains 100 of the most commonly assigned readings in American history. • History Toolkit – A section providing links to tutorials on analyzing primary sources, several online resources, and a handbook on how to succeed in the environment of a history course. • Tutorial: How to Analyze Primary Sources – A section listed in the History Toolkit, here it stands by itself. It teaches students to use the provided 5 .

• •

activities to learn how to analyze various types of sources and to become historian themselves. The section sources include Primary and Secondary Sources, Primary Source Documents, Visual Sources, and Maps. Each section focuses on helping the student better understand how to utilize the type of source and gain from it what historians gain in their own studies of history. MySearchLab – Here Pearson’s MySearchLab™ offers extensive help on the research process and four databases of credible and reliable sources so students can quickly and efficiently do their research. Writing Resources – This area connects to Pearson’s main site and is provided for all Pearson texts. It includes sections on Avoiding Plagiarism, History Writing, Starting the Research Process, Finding Reliable Research Sources, Writing and Grammar Resources, and Style Guidelines for History.

Student Grades Keeps track of your student’s progress in the course. All auto-graded activities are recorded for your student here and in your Instructor Gradebook. Your Instructor Gradebook shows Chapters with Content in the first column, student names and IDs in the second, and student work from MyHistoryLab in the final column—a complete gradebook tool for any instructor. Communication This section provides communication tools for your students and for you. They can communicate with each other and you, while you can reach out to them. It is divided into three parts: • Discussion – A blog-like tool that allows you and your students to discuss and share ideas by creating discussion topics or adding responses. • Chat & ClassLive – A collaborative online classroom where instructors and students can share a whiteboard, software applications, text, images, and videos. You or your students can begin sessions, leaving and returning at any time. Anyone in the class can join a discussion in progress. • Email – Students and instructors can send email to each other from this section. Instructor Resources Pearson pulls together several tools into one convenient location for instructors to use. It is divided into two main parts: Grades & Reporting Tools and Instructor Resources. Within each section are several folders for teachers to access. The Grades & Reporting Tools provide access to: • Assign Content – Here instructors can assign content through use of the course calendar. • Gradebook – Accesses the Gradebook section discussed previously. • Custom View – Allows instructor to use Custom View section of Gradebook. • Reports – Reports can be viewed for instructors to generate based on their course. 6 .

•

Today’s View – Provides a view of Course Performance Information. Instructors can view a window with course catalog and type in messages for students.

Instructor Resources provides: • Class Prep – A “Best Of” instructor resources section, including art and figures from our leading texts, videos, lecture activities, classroom activities, demonstrations, and much more. • Instructor’s Manual – A thorough collection of resources in an easy-to-use format, including activities, assignments, handouts, and much more. • PowerPoints – Here both lectures and highly visual interactive PowerPoints are available. • Test-Item File – Thousands of questions to help build tests and quizzes for your class are housed here. Teaching Advantages In years past at the survey level, and to a degree at the secondary level, I have had to include a primary source reader or gather my own collection of primary sources. Many times I spent valuable time searching, followed by additional time developing questions and exercises to help students come to grips with the sources chosen. This semester, my second full semester using MyHistoryLab, I have not only reduced that time but also enhanced the student experience by bringing them into the exercise more fully. Students selected a chapter from the text and selected the resources to use in our discussions. They were required to pick one visual image and one document; the third resource was of their choosing. I had students tell me they chose a map thinking it would be the easiest to analyze or a video because it had no question of its own and they could make questions up. They found the selection gave them a kind of ownership of the choice. Many expressed surprise at the difficulty in creating a question that made their selection clear in its value and significance to the greater story the chapter was trying to tell. Several students utilized MySearchLab to select and narrow topics for the paper required in the class. The sections on style guidelines and writing resources cut down on extra sections I used to have to include on my blackboard page for students who struggled with writing. I look forward to developing continued activities and exercises, but with MyHistoryLab the options have expanded. Below you will find a sample syllabus indicating various uses you can utilize to put the resources of MyHistoryLab to work. Syllabus & Course Outline: American History I American History I Semester Professor Professor Contact Information Professor Office Location 7 .

Course Description: Primary Texts: Keene, Jennifer, et al. Visions of America. 2nd Ed. New York: Pearson Publishing Co., Inc. 2012. Course Themes: Course Requirements: Grading:

Course Outline: Week One: A New World Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 1 – People in Motion (pp. 2–33) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 1 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Competing Visions: European and Huron Views of Nature • Video: What Is Columbus’s Legacy? MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 1

Week Two: Beginnings of English Colonial Societies Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 2 – Models of Settlement (pp. 34–63) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 2 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: The Chickahominy Become “New Englishmen” • Primary Document: Profile: John Winthrop MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 2

8 .

Week Three: Colonial America Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 3 – Growth, Slavery, and Conflict (pp. 64–95) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 3 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: African Slave Trade, 1451–1870 • Primary Document: Profiles: Benjamin Franklin MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 3

Week Four: The American Revolution Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 4 – Revolutionary America (pp. 96–127) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 4 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: The Bloody Massacre • Primary Document: Slave Petition to the Governor of Massachusetts, 1774 MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 4

Week Five: Founding a Nation Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 5 – A Virtuous Republic (pp. 128–155) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 5 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Competing Visions: Reactions to Shays’s Rebellion • Primary Document: Patrick Henry Speaks Against the Constitution MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 5

Week Six: The New Republic Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 6 – The New Republic (pp. 157–187) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 6

9 .

MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Competing Visions – Congressional Debates Over the Sedition Act • Primary Document: A Virginia Slave Explains Gabriel’s Rebellion MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 6

Week Seven: The Rise of Republicanism Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 7 – Jeffersonian America (pp. 189–219) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 7 MyHistoryLab – Required • Video Lecture: Lewis and Clark: What Were They Trying to Accomplish? • Primary Document: Monroe Doctrine MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 7

Week Eight: Democracy in America Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 8 – Democrats and Whigs (pp. 220–251) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 8 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Images as History: Old Hickory or King Andrew: Popular Images of Andrew Jackson • Primary Document: Michel Chevalier, Society, Manners and Politics in the U.S. MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 8

Week Nine: The Market Revolution Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 9 – Workers, Farmers, and Slaves (pp. 252–281) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 9 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Competing Visions – The Lowell Strike of 1834 • Primary Document: Petition of the Catholics of New York (1840)

10 .

MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 9

Week Ten: An Age of Reform Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 10 – Revivalism, Reform, and Artistic Renaissance (pp. 282–315) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 10 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Images as History: The Greek Slave • Interactive Map: Utopian Communities before the Civil War MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 10

Week Eleven: Westward Expansion Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 11 – “To Overspread the Continent (pp. 316–339) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 11 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Images as History: George Catlin and Mah-To-Toh-Pa • Primary Document: John L. O’Sullivan, “The Nation of Great Futurity” MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 11

Week Twelve: The Sectional Crisis Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 12 – Slavery and Sectionalism (pp. 340–373) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 12 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Competing Visions: Slavery and Christianity • Primary Document: John C. Calhoun, Proposal to Preserve the Union (1850) MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 12

11 .

Week Thirteen: The Civil War Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 13 – A Nation Torn Apart (pp. 374–403) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 13 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Lincoln Visits McClellan • Primary Document: Letter from a Free Black Volunteer to the Christian Recorder MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 13

Week Fourteen: Reconstruction Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 14 – Now That We Are Free (pp. 404–437) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 14 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: First Vote • Primary Document: Charlotte Forten, “Life on the Sea Islands” MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 14

Syllabus & Course Outline: American History II American History II Semester Professor Professor Contact Information Professor Office Location Course Description: Primary Texts: Keene, Jennifer, et al. Visions of America. 2nd Ed. New York: Pearson Publishing Co., Inc. 2012.

12 .

Course Themes: Course Requirements: Grading:

Course Outline: Week One: Settling the West Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 15 – Conflict and Conquest (pp. 438–467) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 15 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Railroad and Buffalo • Primary Document: Autobiographical Narrative by Zitkala-Sa on Her First Days at Boarding School in Indiana (1900) MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 15

Week Two: Industrial America Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 16 – Wonder and Woe (pp. 468–497) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 16 MyHistoryLab – Required • Interactive Map: Organizing American Labor in the Late Nineteenth Century • Primary Document: Andrew Carnegie, “Wealth” MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 16

Week Three: Urbanization Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 17 – Becoming a Modern Society (pp. 498–529) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 17 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Immigration to the U.S. 1870–1915 • Primary Document: Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives

13 .

MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 17

Week Four: The Progressive Era Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 18 – Creating a Democratic Paradise (pp. 530–559) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 18 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Triangle Fire: March 25, 1911 • Primary Document: Upton Sinclair, from The Jungle (1905) MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 18

Week Five: Becoming an Empire Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 19 – Imperial America (pp. 560–591) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 19 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Competing Visions – The White Man’s Burden • Primary Document: Josiah Strong, from Our Country (1885) MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 19

Week Six: World War I Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 20 – The Great War (pp. 592–623) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 20 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Choices and Consequences: Defining Neutrality: America’s Path into World War I • Primary Document: Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 20

14 .

Week Seven: The 1920s Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 21 – A Turbulent Decade (pp. 624–653) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 21 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Competing Visions – Marriage and Birth Control • Primary Document: The “Creed of Klanswomen” MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 21

Week Eight: The Depression and the New Deal Textbook Assignment • Read: Chapter 22 – A New Deal for America (pp. 654–683) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 22 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Images as History – Post Office Murals • Primary Document: Franklin D. Roosevelt – Radio Address (1933) MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 22

Week Nine: World War II Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 23 – World War II (pp. 684–717) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 23 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Images as History: “We Can Do It!” Visual Myths about Women’s Roles During World War II • Primary Document: Charles Lindbergh, Radio Address (1941) MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 23

Week Ten: The Cold War Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 24 – A Divided World (pp. 718–749) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 24

15 .

MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Images as History: Fallout Shelters • Primary Document: George F. Kennan, “The Long Telegram” (1946) MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 24

Week Eleven: The 1950s and the Early Civil Rights Movement Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 25 – In a Land of Plenty (pp. 750–777) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 25 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Choices and Consequences: Does Father Know Best? • Primary Document: SNCC Statement of Purpose (1960) MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 25

Week Twelve: Vietnam Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 26 – A Nation Divided (pp. 778–809) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 26 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Competing Visions – Popular Music and the Vietnam War • Primary Document: Johnson’s Defense of the U.S. Presence in Vietnam (1965) MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 26

Week Thirteen: The Sixties Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 27 – A Decade of Discord (pp. 810–841) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 27 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Competing Visions: The Federal Government, Friend or Foe? • Primary Document: Voting Literacy Test (1965) MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 27

16 .

Week Fourteen: The Rise of Conservatism Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 28 – Righting a Nation Adrift (pp. 842–873) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 28 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Competing Visions: Two Presidential Views of America • Primary Document: Boston Busing (1975) MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 28

Week Fifteen: America in a Global Age Textbook Assignment • Read: Visions of America, Chapter 29 – Building a New World Order (pp. 874–905) • Watch: Critical Visions video for Chapter 29 MyHistoryLab – Required • Closer Look: Competing Visions: Global Warming: Good Science or Media Hype? • Primary Document: George W. Bush, National Security Strategy of the United States of America (2002) MyHistoryLab – Optional • Complete the Study Plan for Chapter 29

17 .

CHAPTER ONE PEOPLE IN MOTION: THE ATLANTIC WORLD TO 1590 I. The First Americans A. Migration, Settlement, and the Rise of Agriculture B. The Aztecs C. Mound Builders and Pueblo Dwellers D. Eastern Woodlands Indian Societies E. American Societies on the Eve of European Contact II. European Civilization in Turmoil A. The Allure of the East and the Challenge of Islam B. Trade, Commerce, and Urbanization C. Renaissance and Reformation D. New Monarchs and the Rise of the Nation-State III. Columbus and the Columbian Exchange A. Columbus Encounters the “Indians” B. European Technology in the Era of the Columbian Exchange C. The Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires IV. West African Worlds A. West African Societies, Islam, and Trade B. The Portuguese-African Connection C. African Slavery V. European Colonization of the Atlantic World A. The Black Legend and the Creation of New Spain B. Fishing and Furs: France’s North Atlantic Empire C. English Expansion: Ireland and Virginia To the people who had lived in the Americas for millennia, the idea that theirs was a “New World” would have seemed strange. Scientists continue to debate when the first people arrived in the Americas from Asia, but estimates range from between 40,000 and 14,000 years ago. In the millennia that followed, the peoples of the Americas fanned out and established a range of societies. Yet to the Europeans who arrived in the Americas toward the end of the fifteenth century, America was indeed a “brave new world,” as William Shakespeare wrote, inhabited by exotic plants, animals, and peoples. In images and words Europeans portrayed this extraordinary land in the most fantastic terms. Some accounts spoke of America as an Eden-like earthly paradise inhabited by good-natured, but primitive, peoples. Others emphasized themes like those featured in the engraving, Amerigo Vespucci Awakens a Sleeping America. Vespucci, an Italian-Spanish navigator from whose first name the New World came to be called the Americas, gazes upon a naked native woman rising from her hammock. Her nudity symbolizes the wild sexuality Europeans believed characterized the native inhabitants of the Americas. The cannibals 18 .

behind her, devouring human flesh, represent savagery, a second prominent element of the European vision of the New World. Neither vision of the Americas was accurate, but both would greatly complicate Europeans’ understanding of the American civilizations they encountered, leading to a legacy of violence, exploitation, and conquest. The European arrival in the Americas was part of a process of exploration and colonization pursued primarily by Portugal, Spain, France, and England. This impulse was driven both by a hunger for riches as well as by profound changes in European society, religion, economics, and politics brought on by the Renaissance and Reformation. Africa was eventually drawn into this vast trading network encompassing the entire Atlantic world. Colonization almost always involved the severe exploitation of native peoples, including dispossession of land and coerced labor. Eventually Europeans turned to the international slave trade and the labor of enslaved Africans to draw the wealth from the mines and fields of the New World. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 1, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

Why did Paleo-Indians migrate to the Americas?

How did economic and political changes in Europe facilitate overseas expansion?

What was the Columbian Exchange, and how did it affect societies in the Americas and Europe?

What were the chief similarities and differences between the civilizations of Africa and the Americas?

How did the different labor systems employed by the Spanish, French, and English affect the indigenous populations of the Americas?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Discuss pre-Columbian Native American culture, stressing the diversity and complexity of indigenous societies in the New World. Point out differences in population dispersal and density and the variety of religions, architecture, art, and political and economic organization in these cultures. Discuss the meaning of the term “civilization” and what modern-day Americans mean when they describe a society or culture as “civilized.” Have students question the traditional historical assertion that American history began with the arrival of Europeans and suggest that European settlement simply initiated another phase of American history.

Present a discussion of the factors contributing to the development of European interest in exploration and settlement in the New World. Because the United States originated as British colonies, focus specifically on the British motivation. 19 .

A complete treatment of the issue would examine both political and individual reasons for movement into the New World. Include in the political discussion such issues as the national pursuit of a mercantile economic policy, the political power associated with the acquisition of empire, the expansion of military power, and the missionary motive. Considering the individual, how did religion, economic hardship, and the lure of adventure impact many people’s decisions to go to the New World? 3.

Discuss aspects of Aztec human sacrifice.

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Compare and contrast Native American, European, and West African society on the eve of contact. How did beliefs regarding land ownership, family, religion, law, and justice impact relations among these groups? How did each group regard the others and why?

Compare and contrast the European perception and treatment of Native Americans and Africans during the sixteenth century. What negative impressions did Europeans hold about each society? Did they see anything positive or worthy in either culture? Discuss the distinction between race and culture. To what extent did race and culture define the European perception and treatment of each group? Which of these factors, race or culture, contributed most to the European perception of Native Americans? Which contributed most to the European perception of Africans?

Organize a group classroom activity in which students develop an understanding of Native American, West African, and European culture. Organize students in the classroom into groups so that one third of the class is working on Native American culture, one third on West African culture, and one third on European culture. For example, in a class of 30, set up six groups of five, with two groups working on each culture. Have them examine religion, family, politics, and the economy in their assigned society. After the groups have finished this assignment, reorganize the class into groups of three. Each group will include one member who has studied each of the three groups. Have each student teach the other two about “his” or “her” culture. You can test the material by giving a take-home essay in which the students are asked to compare and contrast the Native American, West African, and European cultures.

Why did Benin restrict the use of slaves?

Topics for Term Papers and Class Projects 1.

Research the primary historical resources left by western Europeans in which they recorded the events of their initial contact with Native Americans in the New World. These resources could include written records, such as journals or diaries 20 .

from explorers and early colonists, or European art, particularly paintings and sketches based on a Native American theme. Discuss how these primary resources teach us about the European response and reaction to Native American culture. 2.

Research the debate over slavery in Spain. Why did the institution present special problems within Spanish culture? How did the debate impact the characteristics of the institution of slavery in Latin America?

Examine the Spanish and British approaches to colonial administration. How did Spanish colonial rule reflect the political system of the mother country? How did British administration of its colonies reflect its political philosophies? Can we connect these distinctions to the futures of these respective colonies (particularly the American quest for independence)?

Write a paper exploring the British colonial experience in Ireland. How did this experience prepare the British for creating a colonial empire in the New World? How would British treatment of the Irish be reflected in the plantation society of the American South? Can the British experience in Ireland be tied to the emergence of slavery in the British colonies?

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects James Axtell, The Invasion Within: The Contest of Cultures in Colonial North America (1986). Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (1997). Winthrop Jordan, White Over Black (1986). Gary Nash, Red, White, and Black (2007). John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1680 (1992). Audio-Visual Resources 500 Nations, Warner Brothers Home Video, 1995. This eight-part video series explores the Native American populations of North and Central America from pre-Columbian times until the turn of the twentieth century. American Indian Artists, KAET-TV, 1975. This three-part video allows students to investigate Native American culture through the art of six artists from the Pueblo, Navajo, and Hopi cultures. In Search of History: The First Americans, A&E Video, 50 minutes. This video examines the origins of the first human population in North America. Roanoak, South Carolina Educational Television, 1986, 180 minutes. This series chronicles the mysterious history behind “The Lost Colony.” 21 .

The West: The People, Insignia Films/WETA/Florentine Films/Time-Life Video, 1991. The first episode of the nine-part Ken Burns series on the West, this film chronicles the early Native American populations of North America and the impact of Spanish conquistadores on these native cultures. Learning Objectives and Answers After a careful examination of Chapter 1, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

Why did Paleo-Indians migrate to the Americas? Answer: Humans first migrated to North America from Asia across a land bridge (now the Bering Strait) to hunt big game mammals like the wooly mammoth, which provided wool for clothing and meat for food. Once the glaciers melted, a migration southward and eastward occurred into modern-day Canada, the United States, and eventually the tip of South America. The Paleo-Indians roamed in search of big game across the continent, where they also fished and gathered nuts and berries.

How did economic and political changes in Europe facilitate overseas expansion? Answer: The rise of powerful monarchs across Europe created new nation-states out of the relatively weak decentralized governments, and so the monarchs of nations like England, France, and Spain sought money for state-building purposes, which led to the colonization and exploration of Africa and the Americas. Once Europe had recovered from the Black Death pandemic, populations experienced high growth, while city-states, such as Venice, began to dominate trade and finance with the East. Innovations in financial practices (such as accounting) reduced the risks of maritime trade. The emergence of deposit banking also helped trade and commerce and encouraged overseas ventures.

What was the Columbian Exchange, and how did it affect societies in the Americas and Europe? Answer: This exchange refers to the encounter between the native peoples of the Americas and the first Europeans to cross the Atlantic, such as Christopher Columbus. The Old World and New World exchanged their foods, plants, animals, and diseases. Both sides of the Atlantic were subsequently transformed. For example, European food acquired characteristics of the native peoples, while the Europeans brought their horses, sheep, cattle, and pigs to the New World. Unfortunately, both sides also shared their diseases with each other, in the form of syphilis that European sailors picked up on the Caribbean islands and smallpox that devastated native peoples in the New World. Some of these indigenous 22 .

populations were nearly wiped out as a result of the diseases brought over by the Spanish. 4.

What were the chief similarities and differences between the civilizations of Africa and the Americas? Answer: Both Africa and the Americas had a wide range of societies as far as social stratification and cultural and religious diversity. Africa and the Americas had urban centers, such as the Aztec empire in Mesoamerica. Some of the simpler, more egalitarian societies of West Africa were organized around kinship, like America’s Eastern Woodlands Indians. Also, some groups in both Africa and the Americas practiced animist religions in which aspects of nature were considered to be gods and spirits. But there were vast differences between the civilizations of Africa and the Americas. Slavery was widely practiced on a tribal level in Africa, even before the arrival of the Europeans. On the other hand, the empires of the Americas such as the Aztecs used systems of tribute and taxation instead of slavery. Additionally, there were large domesticated animals in Africa but not in the Americas prior to the arrival of the Europeans. Trade also played a bigger role in the economic life of Africa than the Americas. The North African states on the Mediterranean had been trading with Europe since ancient times.

How did the different labor systems employed by the Spanish, French, and English affect the indigenous populations of the Americas? Answer: The economy of New Spain was based on a highly exploitive system of forced labor. The Spanish used a system known as the encomienda that was not much different than slavery. Indians were considered “vassals” who owed their labor to noblemen, who would save the souls of the Indians by converting them. This system led to a high mortality rate among the indigenous population, which resulted in the Spanish using other types of labor, including conscript labor, wage labor, and slavery. The French encounter with Native Americans was much different. They sought to maintain good relations with the local tribes because they depended on them to provide furs for trade. The French population often intermarried with local Indians (with the encouragement of the French government) in the hope that this would facilitate a gradual assimilation of the Indian population into the French culture of New France. The French were just as eager as the Spanish to convert the Indians, but French missionaries lived among Indians and learned their customs instead of imposing Catholicism by force.

23 .

The English would create a slave-based labor system in the Americas in the form of plantations. In this system, the indigenous populations would be kicked off of their lands, which would be repopulated with colonists, instead of incorporated into their culture. Crawl Questions and Answers What theories have been proposed to account for the migration of Paleo-Indians to North America? (p. 4) Answer: Many scholars agree that Paleo-Indians first migrated to North America from Asia across a land bridge that formed during the Ice Age about 20,000 years ago. A secondary, less supported theory argues that humans may have traveled to the New World by boat even earlier. What impact did agriculture have on the evolution of the societies of the Americas? (pp. 5–6) Answer: Agriculture changed groups like the Archaic Era Indians, who implemented basic weeding practices to facilitate the growth of edible plants. They also learned about seeds and developed basic concepts about irrigation. Such groups increased their food supplies and needed to hunt less as a result. By about 5000 BCE, natives in the region of modern-day Mexico could grow crops like maize, squash, and beans, which led to food surpluses and large population increases. All of this allowed urbanization and the creation of towns and cities to occur. These ancient peoples could then focus their attention on things besides growing food, such as cultural, artistic, and engineering endeavors. Societies thus became more advanced and complex, with increased social stratification, written languages, mathematical systems, sophisticated irrigation techniques, and impressive architecture. What role did commerce play in Aztec culture? (pp. 6–7) Answer: Commerce was a central part of the Aztec culture and revealed the richness and complexity of the economy. The smaller towns had daily markets with a wide array of goods for sale, while Tenochtitlán had a massive open-air market. Here there were countless foods, textiles, ceramics, and other goods available for trade. What role did trade play in ancient American societies? (p. 7) Answer: Trade served to make the ancient American societies more complex than earlier hunter-gatherer civilizations and led to increased urbanization. The Aztecs had a great open-air market where foods, textiles, ceramics, and other goods were available for trade. Groups like the Anasazi made pottery and textiles for use in a vast trade network that stretched hundreds of miles in their vicinity. The Anasazi traded turquoise for prized luxuries such as sea shells from the Gulf of California and for carved images and feathers from Mesoamerica.

24 .

How did Eastern Woodlands Indians and Mesoamerican societies differ? (pp. 8–9) Answer: While the Mesoamerican societies were highly urbanized and stratified, the Eastern Woodlands Indians lived as hunter-gatherers and as agriculturalists. The Eastern Woodlands tribes lived in small villages rather than settled urban areas and moved with the seasons in order to acquire their different food sources through hunting and fishing. As a result, the settlements of Eastern Woodlands Indians did not suffer the sanitation problems and diseases that afflicted ancient cities in Mesoamerican societies. The tribal societies of the Eastern Woodlands were relatively egalitarian as compared to the more hierarchical ones of Mesoamerica. Also, Eastern Woodlands societies were matrilineal instead of patrilineal like in many indigenous societies of Mesoamerica. As compared to the more stratified Mesoamerican societies, trade played a lesser role in Eastern Woodlands societies, who were more communal than individualistic, with the concept of owning land as private property being alien to most of these tribal societies. What were some of the distinctive characteristics shared by all of the societies of the Americas? (p. 9) Answer: All of these societies had little scientific knowledge, widespread belief in magic, toiled on the land to acquire the necessities of life, and endured hard, short lives. There were no large domesticated animals, which meant that the ability to move around was more difficult than for Europeans, Africans, and Asians, who had horses. The peoples of the Americas were also relatively isolated as far as trade with other regions, which meant they could not build up immunity to certain diseases, which led to mass population dieoffs with the arrival of Europeans to the Americas. What trade goods from Asia were most sought after by Europeans? (p. 10) Answer: In China and the Far East, Europeans sought spices for their foods and exotic textiles like silk and cotton for their fashions. How did printing affect European society? (p. 11) Answer: Printing changed how knowledge was produced and disseminated. Books could be produced at a much faster rate and volume, and the knowledge they contained could be preserved more easily. This led to advances in science and the ability to collect, organize, and analyze information, while the printed texts and engraved images encouraged geographic exploration. Also, a brand new industry was created for the production, dissemination, and sale of books. Images could be made at lower costs, with engraving becoming a widespread technique for image creation. How does this painting of Adam and Eve reflect European views of nature? (p. 12) Answer: The painting shows two people among the wild animals, about to eat an apple from a tree. This reflects the belief that nature existed as a resource for humans to tame and exploit. The animals depicted are surrounding Adam and Eve, as in a form of reverence. This goes along with the Europeans’ belief that people had a God-given right to rule over nature, i.e., have “dominion . . . over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.”

25 .

What were the essential teachings of Calvinism? (p. 13) Answer: Calvinism, a variant of Protestantism, focused on the concept of predestination, which meant that God had destined people to salvation or damnation prior to their birth. Calvinists also believed that the church was embodied in a chosen group of the “elect” and not by any official organization. The elect did not require a physical place of worship or formal ministry to serve their spiritual needs. Protestants only needed the Bible and personal faith to have a true church wherever they lived. Why did Calvinists wish to remove all icons from their churches? (pp. 13–14) Answer: Some Calvinists were iconoclasts who viewed “graven,” or carved images as being sacrilegious and a form of idolatry. As a result, some Calvinists destroyed stained glass windows and religious carvings that adorned Catholic churches. They felt that if they purged all such Catholic images, they could focus on the words of the Bible alone. How was the English Reformation different than the Continental Reformation? (pp. 14–15) Answer: The English Reformation was different because Henry VIII rejected the authority of the Roman Catholic Church and broke away from it entirely. He made himself head of his own independent Anglican church. This was different than the Continental Reformation in western Europe, where despite the reforms they still considered themselves to be of the Catholic faith. What was the Columbian Exchange? (pp. 16–17) Answer: It was the biological encounter between the native peoples of the Americas and the first Europeans to cross the Atlantic. Christopher Columbus had begun this cultural exchange, which included foods, plants, animals, and diseases that moved between the Old and New Worlds. What role did disease play in the Columbian Exchange? (p. 17) Answer: Disease played a major role in this exchange. Europeans took smallpox to the New World, which killed huge numbers of Indian men, women, and children. The New World also received smallpox, chickenpox, measles, mumps, diphtheria, typhus, whooping cough, and influenza from the Old World. Such diseases brought by the Spanish nearly wiped out indigenous populations on the island of Hispaniola. Europeans took home tuberculosis and a plague in the form of a deadly strain of the disease syphilis. What technological advances facilitated European expansionism? (pp. 18–19) Answer: Explorers were aided by the rise of map making and the invention of navigational devices that allowed mariners to better calculate latitude. Ship-building technology improved with the caravel, which had sails that were better suited to catching wind than the sails of traditional European ships. Europeans also had better weapons technology than the native peoples they encountered, which gave them the advantage of having firearms in their skirmishes.

26 .

What role did disease play in the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs? (pp. 18–19) Answer: It played a critical role in the Spanish defeat of the Aztecs. The Spanish unknowingly carried with them the deadly smallpox virus, which infected and killed large numbers of Aztecs. This allowed the Spanish conquistador Cortes to vanquish the Aztecs within two years of his arrival in Mexico. What were the major religious traditions of Africa? (p. 20) Answer: Monotheistic faiths such as Christianity and Islam were popular in northern, western, and eastern Africa. West Africa had many polytheistic faiths that were based on animist beliefs in which aspects of nature were considered to be gods and spirits. What arguments were used to justify the enslavement of the Guanche? (p. 21) Answer: The Pope blessed the Guanche enslavement because he considered the Guanche to be “infidels and savages.” As a result, the Europeans exposed the Guanche people to diseases that killed thousands. What roles did slaves play in African societies? (p. 22) Answer: Slavery was widely practiced in Africa long before the arrival of the Portuguese. Slaves were taken as spoils of war by rival tribes, though some slaves were eventually absorbed into the societies that held them. After 1600, slaves were needed to meet the demand for labor in the Americas to cultivate the highly profitable sugar plantations. With the value of slaves increasing, Africans would raid neighboring territories in order to obtain slaves. What theories account for Benin’s ability to resist involvement in the international slave trade? (p. 23) Answer: One theory is that Benin refused to become a major supplier of slaves by restricting the trade in male slaves while allowing women to be traded. This resulted in Benin having more political autonomy than many neighboring African states. Benin’s rulers realized that ending its involvement in the slave trade would allow it to avoid the effects of destabilizing warfare associated with the slave trade. What was the Black Legend? (pp. 24–25) Answer: The “Black Legend” refers to the legacy of Spanish cruelty toward the native peoples of the Americas during its conquest. This idea was depicted in various gruesome wood-cut images and writings, such as those of the Spanish bishop, Bartolomé de las Casas, in the 1550s. What does the architecture of the central plaza of Mexico City tell us about Spain’s approach to colonization? (pp. 25–26) Answer: The central plaza illustrates how the Spanish used urban centers to help in the administration of the territories they conquered. The Spanish used architecture to emphasize the strong power of the church and state, with the plazas being a place for commerce and a symbolic space where religious and civic monuments were built.

27 .

What types of labor systems were employed in the Spanish colonies? (p. 26) Answer: The Spanish used the encomienda system, which was a system of forced labor being close to slavery. Indians were considered to be “vassals” who owed their labor to noblemen, who in turn were responsible for the Indians’ spiritual welfare. The Spanish wanted to convert the Indians in order to save their souls. But the Spanish used this guise as a means to brutally exploit the Indians, who had a high mortality rate and were devastated by the diseases brought by the Spanish. This led to the Spanish using other forms of labor such as conscript labor, wage labor, and slavery. What were the most important differences between New France and New Spain? (p. 27) Answer: There were a few significant differences. Unlike the brutal and exploitative conquest carried out by the Spanish, the French maintained good relations with the Native Americans because they needed their help in the fur trade. Another difference was that the Native Americans of New France were able to assimilate into French culture, with the French government encouraging intermarriage. The method of conversion used by the French was also different than that used by the Spanish. The Spanish used force to impose their Catholicism, but the French missionaries lived among Indians in order to understand their culture. What lessons did the English learn from their experiences in Ireland? (p. 28) Answer: England’s experiences in Ireland foreshadowed its future colonial policy in the New World. It used a policy of expulsion and plantation to quell religious animosity between the Irish Catholics and Protestant England. The English would expel the Irish from their lands and replace them with loyal Protestant farmers from England and Scotland to create plantations. The plantation system became a model for the slave-based labor system used in much of the New World by the conquering Europeans. What is the symbolic importance of the position of Queen Elizabeth’s hand in the Armada portrait? (pp. 28–29) Answer: The fact that the Queen’s hand was on a globe and covered North America symbolized the fact that England had become a dominant power in the Atlantic world, especially in regards to its naval supremacy over Spain. This would aid in its ability to colonize the New World. How did the English model of financing colonial projects differ from the Spanish model? (pp. 29–30) Answer: Whereas Spain directly financed colonial projects and exploration, the English colonial enterprises were funded by private investors who formed companies and issued stock to finance exploration and settlement by people like Sir Walter Raleigh. How did de Bry represent the religious beliefs of the Americas? (p. 31) Answer: He used his engravings to depict the natives as practicers of unholy and demonic religious practices in order to grab the attention of Catholics and Protestants. His emphasis was on the “otherness” of the indigenous populations. As a result, the people of the New World were often viewed as un-Christian savages. 28 .

Review Questions and Answers 1.

What were the chief advantages of fixed agriculture, and how did it contribute to the rise of more complex civilizations? Answer: Fixed agriculture had a variety of advantages. The use of cultivation techniques such as plant seeding and irrigation led to a greater focus on farming instead of hunting. Once the native peoples learned how to grow maize, squash, beans, and other crops, food surpluses were possible and large population increases occurred. The need to plant and guard crops led to the creation of larger permanent settlements and eventually urbanization. Food surpluses allowed people to turn their attention to other pursuits, such as cultural, artistic, and engineering projects.

How did new technology affect European overseas expansion in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries? Answer: The invention of the printing press transformed the way knowledge was produced and spread to the people. Printed books encouraged scientific advancements and geographic exploration by making it easier to organize and analyze information. These books contained images and accounts of exotic places such as India and China that helped inspire European exploration. There were improvements in map making and navigational devices that helped mariners perform more precise travel calculations during their explorations. Europeans also improved the technology of their ships in various ways, including better sails. Europeans also had a major technological and military advantage over the native peoples they conquered. They had stronger and more powerful weapons because of their metallurgical techniques and knowledge of gunpowder. They also had domesticated horses that could support their armies as a cavalry. Such technology allowed the Spanish to conquer the Aztecs in their expansion into the New World.

What were the most important ideas associated with the Renaissance? Answer: One of the most significant changes during the Renaissance was the shift from theology to the liberal arts, which included such areas as poetry, history, and philosophy. Renaissance scholars known as humanists used painting and sculpture to focus on the human capacity for self-improvement and the beauty of the human body. Another common theme was the spirit of exploration, which later inspired explorers to discover new lands and trade routes. Renaissance scholars also sought to civilize humanity through public art, architecture, and philosophy. Artists and philosophers were supposed to participate in public life (especially cities) in order to encourage learning and glorify God. People during the Renaissance had a renewed interest in the study of ancient languages, which led to 29 .

curiosity about the early church and later inspired religious figures to call for the reformation of the Roman Catholic Church. 4.

What role did food and animals play in the Columbian Exchange? Answer: The Columbian Exchange refers to the encounter between the native peoples of the Americas and the first Europeans to cross the Atlantic, such as Christopher Columbus. The Old World and New World exchanged their foods, plants, animals, and diseases. Both sides of the Atlantic were subsequently transformed. For example, European food acquired characteristics of the native peoples, while the Europeans brought their horses, sheep, cattle, and pigs to the New World. Unfortunately, both sides also shared their diseases with each other, in the form of syphilis that European sailors picked up on the Caribbean islands and smallpox that devastated native peoples in the New World. Some of these indigenous populations were nearly wiped out as a result of the diseases brought over by the Spanish.

Compare the impact of Spanish, French, and English approaches to colonization on the indigenous populations of the Americas. Answer: The Spanish colonization of the indigenous populations was marked by brutality and exploitation. They subjected the natives to torture and punishment through a system of forced labor called the encomienda. The Spanish used a network of interconnected urban centers to administer the peoples and territories they conquered. The natives were treated as “vassals” who worked for the Spanish noblemen for the salvation of their souls once they converted to Christianity. The indigenous peoples suffered mass population loss due to diseases brought by the Spanish. Conversely, the French encounters with Native Americans were friendlier and less destructive. The French had good relations with the native tribes, which was beneficial to their fur trade. French males often intermarried with local Native Americans, which led to their gradual assimilation into the French culture. French missionaries lived among the tribes in a much less forceful conversion process than that used by the Spanish. The first English contact with the indigenous populations of the Americas was marked by violence, with the first colony at Roanoke ending in disaster. The English later colonized North America and forced the indigenous populations from their lands in order to implement the plantation system.

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

What role did human sacrifice play in Mesoamerican societies, and how did Europeans view these practices? 30 .

Answer: In the Aztec culture, human sacrifice was a central religious ritual used to appease the gods, such as the gods of rain and war. Peoples who were conquered by the Aztecs were often required to provide slaves to be used in human sacrifices. 2.

How did European views of nature differ from those of Eastern Woodlands Indians? Answer: Europeans believed strongly in the notion of private property and that nature exists as a resource for humans to tame and exploit. Thus Europeans believed that they had a God-given right to rule over nature. Conversely, the Eastern Woodlands Indians viewed nature in a completely different way. They had the animist belief that all living things had spiritual power. For example, the Hurons believed that animal bones should be treated with respect to avoid angering the animal spirits, which could make hunting more difficult for them.

What was Columbus’s legacy? Answer: Columbus should be remembered for the fact that his voyage was the beginning of a two-way exchange across the Atlantic between the Old and New Worlds that has continued ever since. Things that are now common to us (certain animals, food, diseases) have come and gone across the Atlantic between these two previously separate hemispheres. Columbus thus had a significant environmental impact that has forever changed our world.

What was the Black Legend? Answer: This phrase refers to the torture inflicted upon the native groups by the Spanish conquistadores as they conquered Central and South America. The conquistadores’ action devastated local native populations, which caused the Catholic Church to demand reform.

What do early European artistic representations of the Americas tell us about Europeans in the period after Columbus? Answer: They viewed the Indians as simple savages instead of people having complex cultures. Europeans were also impressionable and easily influenced by depictions of the Indians, which in fact lacked authenticity and were completely made up by the artists. The artistic representations of the Americas also reveal that Europe had a variety of taboos relating to nakedness and sexuality, which made Europeans desire such freedoms upon viewing the fantastical images. The emphasis on cannibalism in these images also shows how Europeans sought to justify their conquest and religious conversion of the “profligate” native peoples. 31 .

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 1 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 1 View the Closer Look Images as History: Blood of the Gods View the Image Pueblo Indian Ruins View the Map Native American Peoples to 1450 Read the Document Iroquois Creation Story View the Map Spread of Printing View the Closer Look Competing Visions: European and Huron Views of Nature View the Map Western Europe During the Renaissance and Reformation Watch the Video What is Columbus’s Legacy? View the Map Native American Population Loss, 1500–1700 View the Map Benin Empire View the Image Torturing Native Amerindians View the Map Spanish America to 1610 Read the Document Thomas Hariot: A Briefe and True Report of the Newfound Land of Virginia (1588) View the Closer Look An Early European Image of Native Americans

32 .

CHAPTER TWO MODELS OF SETTLEMENT: ENGLISH COLONIAL SOCIETIES, 1590–1710 I. The Chesapeake Colonies A. The Founding of Jamestown B. Tobacco Agriculture and Political Reorganization C. Lord Baltimore’s Refuge: Maryland D. Life in the Chesapeake: Tobacco and Society II. New England A. Plymouth Plantation B. A Godly Commonwealth C. Challenges to Puritan Orthodoxy D. Expansion and Conflict III. The Caribbean Colonies A. Power Is Sweet B. Barbados: The Emergence of a Slave Society IV. The Restoration Era and the Proprietary Colonies A. The English Conquest of the Dutch Colony of New Netherland B. A Peaceable Kingdom: Quakers in Pennsylvania C. The Carolinas V. The Crises of the Late Seventeenth Century A. War and Rebellion B. The Dominion of New England and the Glorious Revolution C. The Salem Witchcraft Hysteria VI. The Whig Ideal and the Emergence of Political Stability A. The Whig Vision of Politics B. Mercantilism, Federalism, and the Structure of Empire Theodore de Bry’s 1619 engraving, The Chickahominy Become “New Englishmen,” from his book America, portrays treaty negotiations between Virginia Indians and the English. Captain Samuel Argall, the Englishman negotiating the treaty, sits on a mat with a tribal elder. Another tribal leader addresses his people, informing them about the terms of the treaty, which were meant to promote trade and peace between the English and the Virginia Indians. As the engraving title suggests, which refers to the Chickahominy as “New Englishmen,” the English insisted that Indian tribes submit to English rule and accept the English king as their lord. By contrast, the Indians believed that negotiating a treaty with the English did not mean that they had given up control of their own political affairs. These differing visions frequently led to conflict between Native Americans and English settlers throughout the seventeenth century. At the dawn of the 1600s, England trailed far behind Spain and France in the race to exploit the wealth of the Americas. By 1700, however, England had become a 33 .

formidable colonial power in both North America and the Caribbean. In contrast to Spain and France, whose colonization efforts relied on active support from the monarchy and church, England’s first efforts to colonize America relied on joint stock companies, which were privately financed commercial ventures. The two great early English experiments in colonization, in Virginia and New England, faced many challenges in their early years, including how to deal with local Indian populations. The solution for the English was not simply rendering the Indians politically subservient to the king but also segregating themselves from the Indians whenever possible. Relations between settlers and Indians complicated colonial politics for most of the seventeenth century. Bacon’s Rebellion (1676), a popular uprising in Virginia triggered by colonists’ conflict over Indian policy, shook the foundations of the colony. In New England, persistent conflict between Indians and settlers exacerbated existing social and economic tensions and contributed to the worst outbreak of witchcraft accusations in colonial America, the Salem witchcraft hysteria (1692). The reassertion of political control by England, whose Glorious Revolution (1688) contributed to the emergence of a new, more stable colonial world, helped facilitate the resolution of the witchcraft crisis. In the years to come, colonists would often invoke the political and constitutional ideas of the Glorious Revolution to defend their liberties. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 2, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

How did tobacco agriculture shape the evolution of Chesapeake societies?

How did the religious ideals of New England society shape its early history?

Why did slavery take root in the Caribbean earlier than in the mainland colonies of British North America?

How did the Restoration colonies differ from earlier efforts at colonization in British North America?

What does the outbreak of witchcraft accusations in Salem tell us about the crisis of the late seventeenth century?

What political and legal concepts defined Whig ideology?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Discuss the Chesapeake and New England colonies in a series of lectures in which you concentrate on the differences between the cultures and societies established in each of the two regions. Because the United States history course is normally split at the Civil War, you can use this opportunity to begin to discuss the fundamental differences between these two areas and introduce some distinctions between the 34 .

two regions that will persist until the Civil War. Some topics for discussion might include the following: a. The different characteristics of the populations that originally settled these regions. From which regions in England did these original settlers come, and how did the cultures and mores of these regions influence the societies that developed in North America? b. The differences in how the original settlers of each region were motivated to come to the New World. To what extent was the state of the British economy a factor? To what extent was religion a factor? How did the differences in motivation impact the societies that emerged? c. The differences in the socioeconomic characteristics of each region. Point out the distinction between the plantation society of the Chesapeake and the freeholder society of New England, explain distinctions in how land was distributed in each region and the impact that the systems of land distribution had on the nature of each area’s social structure, and point out the diversity of the New England economy versus the one-crop economy of the Chesapeake. d. The difference in the level of importance placed on religion in each region. Explain the importance of Calvinist theology in defining New England society and culture. Contrast this emphasis with the lower priority placed on religion in the South (at least until the Great Awakening). How did these religious differences impact the emergence of regional ethics? e. The differences in the political systems that emerged in the Chesapeake and New England. Why did the Chesapeake evolve into a political aristocracy while New England developed one of the most democratic political systems in America? f. In discussing fundamental differences between the North and the South prior to the Civil War, many historians have emphasized the progressive nature of the nineteenth-century North and the conservative nature of the Old South. Begin now to discuss the meaning of these terms. Was there already, during the colonial period, a philosophical distinction between the settlers of New England and the Chesapeake? Was there something progressive, even radical, about the decision of the Pilgrims and Puritans to come to the New World? Were they seeking something new or trying to retain the old? Was there something conservative about the decision of the early settlers of the Chesapeake to come to the New World? Were they seeking something new or were they more intent on preserving the England they knew and loved? 2.

Prepare a lecture focusing on the life of Anne Hutchinson. A treatment of her experiences in New England can open discussion regarding a number of issues pertinent to New England culture, including the following: a. Her theological differences with the Puritan fathers. This discussion will allow an examination of covenant theology, including the distinction between the covenant of grace and the covenant of works, as well as how 35 .

religious intolerance emerged within the Puritan community as a requisite aspect of the covenant principle. The gender issues involved with Hutchinson’s challenge to the authority of the Puritan fathers and her instruction of theology, particularly her instruction of theology to mixed-gender groups.

What moral lesson does Jan Steen’s painting In Luxury, Look Out teach, and how does the artist visually represent the vices of city life in Holland?

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Discuss the nature of colonial political development in the British colonies. How did the political institutions created in the colonies reflect British political tradition in terms of structure and function? Do today’s state and federal political structures in America resemble the institutions created by the original British colonists? How does this reflect the element of persistence over time?

Conduct a classroom discussion that focuses on “freedom of religion.” Have students discuss the irony of the fact that we often associate freedom of religion with the Puritans who came to America to escape religious persecution. To what extent was freedom of religion a reality in the Puritan community? How did these dissenters treat dissenters within their own ranks?

Compare and contrast the institutions of slavery that emerged in Virginia, South Carolina, and the Caribbean. Even though each of these colonial regions was British, the institutions of slavery that developed in each were distinctive. What factors contributed to these distinctions? What impact did South Carolina’s central location between Virginia and the Caribbean have on the nature of its plantation economy and its institution of slavery?

What aspects of Quaker belief contributed to William Penn’s more expansive vision of religious freedom?

Topics for Term Papers and Class Projects 1.

Choose one of the three major continental colonial regions and write a paper in which you examine the British background of the settlers in that region. How did the cultural mores of each geographical region of Britain impact the nature and characteristics of the various British colonial settlements?

Research one of the Puritan dissenters such as Anne Hutchinson or Roger Williams. How did their beliefs necessitate their removal from the Puritan community? How did their experiences serve to expand the meaning of religious freedom in America?

36 .

Examine the origins of slavery in South Carolina. Look at the demographics of the state, including the density of the slave population as well as the link to the Caribbean. How did the link to the Caribbean impact the institution of slavery that developed in South Carolina?

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects David Hackett Fischer, Albion’s Seed: Four British Folkways in America (1989). Philip J. Greven, Jr., Four Generations: Population, Land, and Family in Colonial Andover, Massachusetts (1970). Edmund Morgan, The Puritan Dilemma (1958). Mary Beth Norton, Founding Mothers and Fathers: Gendered Power and the Forming of American Society, (1996). Peter Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (1975). Audio-Visual Resources American Visions: The Promised Land, Time, Inc./BBC/Thirteen WNET, New York, 1997, 60 minutes. This episode from the six-part series created by Robert Hughes depicts the origins of American ideas about art. Ranging from the Spanish West to Protestant New England to the aristocratic Chesapeake, Hughes takes a look at how American art began and flourished. Colonization of North America, PBS Video, 150 minutes. An exploration of early European discovery and settlement in the New World, including such North American locations as St. Augustine, Plymouth, and Roanoke. Jamestown Rediscovery: A World Uncovered, A&E Video. An examination of the search for the original Jamestown settlement, including footage from the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities. Learning Objectives and Answers After a careful examination of Chapter 2, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

How did tobacco agriculture shape the evolution of Chesapeake societies? Answer: People in the Chesapeake were driven by the profit motive due to the success of tobacco. Tobacco production increased substantially in the midseventeenth century. Exports from Virginia to England went from over 10,000 pounds in the first years of production to over a million pounds by the end of the 1630s. Indentured servants were a main source of labor for the tobacco fields, while African slaves were also used (though slavery was not a fixed status yet). 37 .

Since men were preferred for tobacco work, immigrants to the Chesapeake society were mostly male. But the small number of women who migrated to the region and managed to survive the high mortality rates did have considerable control over their decision to marry. Tobacco agriculture led to a pattern of settlement where colonists spread out in search of arable land to plant instead of organizing themselves into towns. The most desirable locations were those close to rivers that fed into major waterways because that facilitated the cheap shipping of tobacco. The colonists’ insatiable need for additional land exacerbated tensions with local Indians who did not like further encroachments on their territories. 2.

How did the religious ideals of New England society shape its early history? Answer: Religion played a major role in shaping early New England society. The Pilgrims of the Plymouth colony had a goal of Protestant purity by creating a pure form of Christian worship. John Winthrop took a group of Puritans to New England in order to create a church and community without the corruption that existed in England. Winthrop’s vision for the new settlement focused on the holy ideal of “a city upon a hill.” This led to Puritans being selective about who could be part of their colony, which meant that they would select godly persons and try to establish “a right form of government” that would promote their religious mission. During the Great Migration, whole Puritan congregations followed their ministers to America. Puritans settled in towns and villages to build stable communities, and the town structures consisted of homes clustered towards the center of town with fields at the outskirts. This allowed for defense against Indian attack and helped enforce communal norms and beliefs. With family being another building block of Puritan society, the Massachusetts colonists made disobedience to parents a crime punishable by death. Conversely, there were some challenges to the Puritan orthodoxy. The devout Separatist minister Roger Williams attacked the government of Massachusetts Bay for using the power of the state to enforce religious orthodoxy. Williams supported the idea of complete separation of church and state. He wanted to protect religion from government corruption. Facing the prospect of being arrested for his religious views, Williams fled the colony and headed south, where he purchased land from the Narragansett Indians and later started the Rhode Island colony. Another challenge to Puritan orthodoxy was by Anne Hutchinson, who did not accept the inferior status that Puritan theology gave to women and also openly questioned the theological purity of the colony’s leading ministers. She felt that only one minister, John Cotton, was preaching the true Calvinist idea that God’s grace alone could bring about salvation. Thus, the Puritans charged Hutchinson with violating the Fifth Commandment by refusing to honor and obey the colony’s ministers. Because the colony’s leaders feared that Hutchinson and her followers had succumbed to the Antinomian heresy, she was tried before a special court and subjected to a grueling examination. She was subsequently banished 38 .

from Massachusetts Bay Colony. Eventually Hutchinson settled on what is now Long Island, near the Dutch town of New Amsterdam in the colony of New Netherlands. 3.

Why did slavery take root in the Caribbean earlier than in the mainland colonies of British North America? Answer: Sugar generated enormous profits for Caribbean planters, and a power struggle had ensued in the early 1600s between Spain, France, England, and Holland, which all had colonies in the area. England considered these Caribbean “sugar islands” to be the economic jewel in the Atlantic world. Sugar production in the region entailed backbreaking and dangerous agricultural labor, which required a labor force capable of surviving the brutal heat. For example, the harsh conditions of Barbados meant a high mortality rate for workers in the sugar fields, and so maintaining an adequate labor force was a serious problem. When the use of indentured servants as a labor source did not work, this caused English planters to emulate the Portuguese and Spanish and turn to slave labor. Barbados became the main destination for African slaves in the colonies of the English Atlantic world.

How did the Restoration colonies differ from earlier efforts at colonization in British North America? Answer: One major difference between the Restoration colonies and earlier efforts at colonization was that the impetus behind colonization came from a small group of courtiers and aristocrats rather than pilgrims seeking to establish Protestant purity in their settlements. The Restoration-era proprietors sought to increase their wealth as well as promote their own particular political and religious ideals. The New York colony was different in that English forces seized lands already colonized by the Dutch (to make the New York and New Jersey colonies) instead of taking away lands from the Indians as done previously. The Pennsylvania colony also differed from previous efforts in that the Quakers’ “peaceable kingdom” embraced the Indians and sought to avoid conflicts. The tactic used by William Penn was to submit disputes regarding land claims to arbitration by a committee composed of Indians and Quakers. Pennsylvania was also influenced by the idea that a stable society depended on a broad distribution of property. The Carolinas were also different in that their economy was closely tied to that of the West Indies (especially Barbados). Many of the colony’s first settlers came from the West Indies, which meant Carolina was essentially a colony of a colony. While prior New England colonies produced goods to export to England, Carolina provided goods for the West Indian islands. Given the close economic ties 39 .

between Carolina and Barbados, its early settlers were more familiar with slavery than colonists from earlier settlements. 5.

What does the outbreak of witchcraft accusations in Salem tell us about the crisis of the late seventeenth-century? Answer: The outbreak of witchcraft accusations reflected a sense of heightened anxiety that had engulfed colonists of Protestant New England, especially regarding the Puritans and their relations with their Indian neighbors. Colonists in Massachusetts had accused the Indians of using witchcraft against them. The purported occurrence of witchcraft that occurred in Salem was centered around a minister’s daughter and her cousin, who accused two Salem women and Tituba (a Caribbean Indian slave) of practicing witchcraft. A main theme of the hysteria was that the Devil had taken the form of an American Indian. The Puritans compared the suffering that Satan inflicted on them with how the Indians tortured settlers in the brutal frontier war in Maine. Patterns in the witchcraft controversy indicate that those most often accused were women who did not fit the Puritan ideal of the pious, submissive female. This tells us that the crisis of the late seventeenth-century had a major impact on the Puritan colonists.

What political and legal concepts defined Whig ideology? Answer: The Whigs strongly believed in the ideal of civic virtue, or placing the public good above personal interest. This meant that property ownership should be widespread in society. The Whigs believed that an agricultural nation was less likely to become corrupt than a society based on commerce and manufacturing. Politics would have less of a divisive effect because everyone’s interests would be similar. This would prevent representatives from subjecting the people to tyrannical laws. The Whig view of politics was not democratic because only men who owned property were able to vote, given that they had an important and permanent stake in society. As a result, only the most virtuous men would serve as representatives, and frequent elections were a major facet of Whig politics. The fear of corruption mandated that the electorate could not be manipulated by unscrupulous politicians. Parliament added the Bill of Rights of 1689, which established the ideal of the rule of law—that no one, not even the king, was above the law. The Bill of Rights protected the rights to petition government for redress of grievances, trial by jury, and bail, and a ban on cruel and unusual punishments.

Crawl Questions and Answers Why did Jamestown turn out to be such a poor choice for a permanent settlement? (pp. 36–37) Answer: The location of Jamestown greatly compromised the health of the settlers. The swampy environment was a breeding ground for mosquitoes, which transmitted disease 40 .

through various pathogens, especially malaria. Salt water from the nearby estuary contaminated the colonists’ drinking water supply. The area’s poor drainage sometimes resulted in the colonists’ own waste contaminating the water supply. Another issue was that the settlers were misled to believe they could become rich through mineral wealth, when in fact, a life of arduous labor awaited them. Settlers would spend time searching for gold and silver instead of tending to crops or repairing fortifications. Additionally, the settlers’ relations with the Powhatan Indians eventually broke down, which led to various conflicts and misunderstandings. What was the “starving time”? (p. 37) Answer: The “starving time” refers to the difficult winter of 1609–1610 experienced by the Jamestown colonists. The lack of food resulted in enormous suffering and high mortality for the colonists, who in some cases resorted to cannibalism to survive. The population of Jamestown dropped from between 500 and 600 to 60 in this period. What role did women play in Indian diplomacy? (pp. 37–38) Answer: Women played the role of cultural intermediaries in Indian diplomacy. This can be seen in the example of Pocahontas, who was a local Powhatan Indian woman that was kidnapped by English settlers in order to facilitate a peace treaty. She later married John Rolfe, and in doing so, she became a mediator between the Powhatan Indians and the English. What important reforms did Sir Edwin Sandys implement in 1618? (pp. 39–40) Answer: Sandys’ reforms had the goal of making the colonial government more effective. He created a representative body called the House of Burgesses to make laws, and free men who owned property would be able to elect those representatives. Thus, the colonists had more control over their own political affairs in this early example of representative government in America. Sandys also wanted to attract settlers. He did this with the headright system, which gave 50 acres to anyone who would pay his own fare to Virginia, and 50 additional acres for each person he brought with him. What was a proprietor? (pp. 40–41) Answer: The name “proprietor” was a legal title that gave a person almost king-like authority over his colony. Once such proprietor was Cecil Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore, who started the Maryland colony. Colonists challenged Lord Baltimore for control of the colony. How did the unbalanced sex ratio of the Chesapeake affect gender roles in this colonial region? (p. 41) Answer: Because immigrants to the Chesapeake society were overwhelmingly male (by as much as six to one), women had a lot of control over who they wanted to marry. Given 41 .

the high mortality rate of the men (due to their difficult lives as planters), a woman could marry several times during her life and accumulate a large estate. Why were English reformers called Puritans? (p. 42) Answer: The Puritans wanted to reform or “purify” the Church of England so that all traces of the Catholic influence were removed. The Puritans thought themselves to be more pure than all other churches and congregations. What does Jan Steen’s painting tell us about the world English Separatists encountered in Holland? (p. 43) Answer: The painting shows that life in Holland was chaotic and the opposite of the ideals of domestic tranquility, godliness, and order that the English Separatists desired. According to the painting, life in Holland was full of corruptive vices, temptations, and lewd behavior. Why did John Winthrop describe New England as “a city upon a hill”? (pp. 44–45) Answer: Winthrop referred to New England as “a city upon a hill” because he felt that his colony would serve as an example of true reformation for others to follow in the quest to achieve their holy ideal of the Puritan vision. Winthrop believed that the “eyes of all people” were upon them. He wanted to establish “a right form of government” that would promote their religious mission. What does John Cotton’s interpretation of the Fifth Commandment reveal about Puritan society? (p. 45) Answer: Cotton’s interpretation of the Fifth Commandment tells us that Puritan society placed a high value on obedience to all superiors whether it be family, school, church, or any other institution. The geographical distribution of population in New England consisted of homes clustered near the center of town and fields arranged at the outskirts. The meeting house had both a religious and a civic purpose and was the nucleus of the community. The Puritans of New England also maintained smaller, more tight-knit communities than the people of the Chesapeake, who chose to expand the size of towns and allow settlers to spread out. Instead, Puritans created new towns and villages that were less vulnerable to Indian attack and that facilitated the enforcement of communal norms and beliefs. As a result, people were easier to control, and there was less deviant behavior. What were the most important differences in the settlement patterns typical of the Chesapeake and New England? (p. 46) Answer: Puritan towns were centered around a meeting house, which served as places of worship and as the political center of the community. This system allowed Puritans to preserve their religious mission because neighbors were able to report anti-social or religiously disruptive behavior to the authorities. Settlement in the Chesapeake was based on the profit motive and the desire to find the most fertile lands and access to navigable rivers, and so the settlers in the Chesapeake were pulled outward as they scattered across 42 .

the area in search of good land and access to waterways they could use to export their cash crops. What do New England’s laws reveal about its culture? (p. 47) Answer: Laws such as the Fifth Commandment (which enjoined believers to honor their father and mother) reveal how family and obedience were important parts of the culture. The Minister John Cotton emphasized that the Fifth Commandment applied to “all our Superiors, whether in Family, School, Church, and Commonwealth.” This Commandment also typifies the role of patriarchal authority in New England. Massachusetts allowed all male church members to vote, which was different than England, where property determined the right to vote. Other ideas represented in Puritan laws were sobriety, a strong work ethic, and the avoidance of frivolity. Traditional folk customs were banned from New England worship, and Christmas was disallowed in any nonreligious context. Such laws show how the Puritan leaders wanted to enforce orthodoxy. Why was Anne Hutchinson such a threat to the Puritan elite? (pp. 47–48) Answer: Hutchinson’s views on gender were a threat to Puritan orthodoxy. She did not agree with the inferior status that Puritan theology gave to women. Hutchinson also questioned the purity of the colony’s leading ministers, who veered away from the Calvinist idea that only God’s grace could bring about salvation, not the performance of good works. Colonial leaders were afraid that the Antinomian heresy put forth by Hutchinson could lead to moral anarchy. The Puritans felt that Hutchinson was violating the Fifth Commandment by refusing to honor and obey the ministers, who were the colony’s patriarchs. Why did Puritans oppose religious toleration? (p. 49) Answer: The Puritans were against religious toleration because they thought that giving “liberty of conscience in matters of religion” would eventually lead to moral anarchy. They felt that religion must be used to guide behavior so that people would avoid the temptation to sin. The Puritan Nathaniel Ward typified this belief when he said: “[I]t is farre better to live in a State united, though a little Corrupt, then in a State, whereof some Part is incorrupt, and all the rest divided.” Why did the Caribbean become the jewel in the crown of England’s colonial empire? (p. 50) Answer: The Caribbean was England’s economic jewel because of the enormous wealth it acquired in the “sugar islands.” The amazing profits generated by the Caribbean planters surpassed the value of all exports from the mainland English colonies. As a result, nearly two-thirds of all English migrants headed for the Caribbean. By the midseventeenth century, the population of the region was approximately 44,000, which exceeded the combined population of the Chesapeake and New England settlements.

43 .

Why did Barbados turn to slavery as its primary source of labor? (p. 51) Answer: The challenge of maintaining an adequate labor force under harsh conditions dictated that English planters turn to slave labor. The planters had tried indentured servants and using convicts as a labor source, but neither of these supplied enough workers given the high mortality rate of workers in the sugar fields. What was the Restoration? (p. 52) Answer: The Restoration was the reestablishment of the English monarchy by Charles II in 1660. How did Pennsylvania embody Quaker ideals? (pp. 53–54) Answer: It was a “peaceable kingdom” where Quakers lived in harmony with people of other faiths, including Indians. Pennsylvania was a religious refuge for Quakers as well as others facing religious persecution elsewhere. William Penn resolved land claim disputes with arbitration by a committee composed of Indians and Quakers. In fact, Penn praised the local Leni-Lenape people for their eloquence and honor and tried to learn their language and customs. Penn also sought to establish a government where there was a relatively broad distribution of property so that individuals had a permanent stake in society and did not feel manipulated or intimidated when voting. This overriding peaceful sentiment was at least true for the first generation of settlement in Pennsylvania, when there was plenty of land and the immigrant population small. How did the Restoration era colonies differ from earlier colonies on the issue of religious toleration? (p. 54) Answer: One major difference between the Restoration colonies and earlier efforts at colonization was that the impetus behind colonization came from a small group of courtiers and aristocrats rather than pilgrims seeking to establish Protestant purity in their settlements. The Restoration-era proprietors sought to increase their wealth as well as promote their own particular political and religious ideals. The New York colony was different in that English forces seized lands already colonized by the Dutch (to make the New York and New Jersey colonies) instead of taking away lands from the Indians as done previously. The Pennsylvania colony also differed from previous efforts in that the Quakers’ “peaceable kingdom” embraced the Indians and sought to avoid conflicts. The tactic used by William Penn was to submit disputes regarding land claims to arbitration by a committee composed of Indians and Quakers. Pennsylvania was also influenced by the idea that a stable society depended on a broad distribution of property. The Carolinas were also different in that their economy was closely tied to that of the West Indies (especially Barbados). Many of the colony’s first settlers came from the West Indies, which meant Carolina was essentially a colony of a colony. While prior New England colonies produced goods to export to England, Carolina provided goods for the West Indian islands. And given the close economic ties between Carolina and 44 .

Barbados, its early settlers were more familiar with slavery than colonists from earlier settlements. What were the main causes of Bacon’s Rebellion? (pp. 55–56) Answer: Bacon’s Rebellion was the result of an undercurrent of tensions between colonists and Indians in the Chesapeake, specifically Virginia. The corrupt practices of the royal governor, Sir William Berkeley, frustrated Bacon. Berkeley handed out lucrative patronage positions and generous land grants to his friends, while also significantly profiting from the fur trade with Indians. The governor refused to adopt a more expansionist policy regarding settlement of Indian lands. As a result, there were long-simmering class resentments among people like Bacon, planters, landowners, and the bottom levels of Virginia society (indentured servants and slaves). Bacon was especially able to exploit the anger of the “giddy headed multitude” of non-landholding white indentured servants and Africans slaves, who exhibited an interracial solidarity that troubled the colony’s leaders. What economic and demographic forces contributed to the emergence of slavery in the Chesapeake region? (pp. 56–57) Answer: One factor that increased the need for slaves was that the number of immigrants into the Chesapeake region had declined during the late seventeenth century, which reduced the available workforce. Purchasing slaves became more economical as the price of slaves decreased and the high mortality levels dropped. Slaves were more economically advantageous than indentured servants. What was the Glorious Revolution? (p. 57) Answer: The Glorious Revolution refers to the removal of James II as King of England and the ascension of Prince William of Orange and Mary II to England’s throne. As a result, a Protestant monarchy was reestablished in England. This bloodless revolution was seen as a vindication of English liberty. New Englanders believed that the Devil made his minions sign a book or contract for what purpose? (pp. 58–59) Answer: The Puritans believed that the Devil made people renounce their covenant with God and sign a new contract with him. The signing of a book symbolized Satan’s demonic contracts with his disciples or witches. What was spectral evidence? (p. 59) Answer: Testimony that witches were using magic to torture victims. What religious ideas were associated with the Glorious Revolution? (p. 60) Answer: The Whig concept of civic virtue sprang from the Glorious Revolution. This idea meant that someone should put the public good above personal interest. An agricultural nation with widespread property ownership was seen to foster honesty, frugality, and independence and lower the chances of corruption. Politics would be less divisive because everyone had similar interests, and representatives would be equally affected by the laws they passed. 45 .

The fear of corruption was another major idea resulting from the Glorious Revolution and was an important feature of Whig political culture. The Whigs felt there should be a virtuous elite and an electorate that could not be manipulated by corrupt politicians. Many laws were implemented by the Glorious Revolution, such as the concept of the rule of law. This meant that no one (including the king) was above the law. Parliament gained the right to tax, and the practice of raising a standing army was not allowed without the consent of the legislature. A Bill of Rights was added that allowed for the rights to petition government for redress of grievances, trial by jury, bail, and a ban on cruel and unusual punishments. What was the theory of mercantilism? (p. 61) Answer: The mercantilist theory means a system in which the wealth of the “mother” country (England in this case) is increased by heavy governmental regulation of imports and exports to its colonies. The role of the colonies was to generate wealth for the mother country by supplying it with raw materials and buying consumer goods from it. Adam Smith sums this up in The Wealth of Nations: “The encouragement of exportation and the discouragement of importation [of manufactured goods] are the two great engines by which the mercantile system proposes to enrich every country.” Review Questions and Answers 1.

How do you account for the early failures of Jamestown and its eventual successes? Answer: The early failures of Jamestown had much to do with the unfortunate location the colonists had chosen. The swampy environs were a breeding ground for mosquitoes and their associated diseases. The colonists also had difficulty maintaining a clean and fresh drinking water supply. Also, many settlers were initially misled to think they would live an easy life while having a multitude of opportunities to become rich. As a result, many colonists were unprepared for the arduous life in Virginia. Dissension and a lack political leadership also undermined the colony. The Virginians of early Jamestown also faced hostility from the Powhatan Indians, with whom they failed to establish cordial relations in seeking to settle in their lands. Because the English did not grasp basic rituals of hospitality and gift giving, the colonists had no way to easily solve conflicts and misunderstandings with the Powhatans. The colonists of early Jamestown also foolishly wasted time searching for gold and silver instead of planting crops, which led to a severe food shortage. The lack of food in Jamestown led to the “starving time” during the difficult winter of 1609–1610, which the colony barely survived.

46 .

Things improved somewhat for Jamestown once it found a profitable commodity in the form of tobacco. Profits from tobacco created a boom in the colony, and people chose to use nearly every acre of land to grow the “sot weed.” Exports increased dramatically in the decades following the introduction of the crop. However, the single-minded focus on profits diverted time and resources from the planting of food crops and repairing buildings, which meant that settlers during this boom-time continued to die at an alarming rate. Sir Edwin Sandys later introduced the headright system to provide incentives to attract immigrants to Jamestown, which it accomplished despite the continual high mortality rates. But two years after deteriorating relations with local Indians, the communities reached a crisis point, and 347 colonists were killed in an attack. King James revoked the colony’s charter. 2.

Why were the patterns of settlement in the Chesapeake and New England so different? What forces and ideas shaped the spatial organization of each region? Answer: The regions’ respective settlement patterns and spatial organization were different because of their varying motives. Colonists in the Chesapeake were driven by profit and the desire to find the most fertile lands and access to navigable rivers. As a result, the settlements would spread out over time as people scattered across an area in search of good land and access to waterways. The settlers wanted to be able to export their cash crops. The Puritans’ settlements were carried out with the purpose of maintaining stable and cohesive communities. Puritan towns were centered on a meeting house, which served as a place of worship and as the political center of the community. Town ordinances did not allow settlers to establish homesteads too far from the meeting house. The size of towns was controlled, and settlers were not allowed to spread out and weaken the bond of community. Instead of spreading out, Puritans created new towns and villages. This system allowed Puritans to preserve their religious mission and limit deviant behavior in their communities.

Why was the term Puritan an apt characterization of the Calvinists within the English church seeking further reformation? Answer: This term was fitting because the Puritans did want to purify their church, in the sense that they wanted to create a pure form of Christian worship that was not tainted by unreformed Catholic practices.

47 .

What role did conflicts with Native Americans play in the crisis of the latter part of seventeenth century? Answer: Conflicts with Native Americans played a major role in the crisis of the late seventeenth century and exacerbated tensions among many groups. The Wampanoag tribe fought against New Englanders in King Philip’s War, which resulted in the death of 3,000 Indians and 1,000 colonists. Dozens of towns in New England were impacted by the war. Bacon’s Rebellion was likewise a result of tensions between colonists and Indians. Bacon, along with planters and landowners, had become frustrated by the Virginia governor’s refusal to adopt a more expansionist policy that would allow settlers to acquire additional Indian lands. Bacon exploited deep class resentments under the promise to exterminate Indians and distribute land to all. Unrest in New Spain was also related to conflicts with Native Americans. The Pueblo Revolt occurred when several groups of Pueblo people sought to disavow the Catholicism of their Spanish conquerors and return to traditional practices. When the Spanish Catholic missionaries in New Mexico attempted to use the power of church and state against these “heretics,” the pueblos rose up against Spanish authority and killed most of the missionaries. And finally, the outbreak of witchcraft accusations in New England reflected the anxiety felt by colonists regarding their relations with their Indian neighbors. Fierce fighting between colonists and native tribes had been occurring in Maine along the northern border of Massachusetts. This fighting led to some colonists in Massachusetts accusing the Indians of using witchcraft against them.

What ideas and values were most closely associated with Whig politics? Answer: The Whigs strongly believed in the ideal of civic virtue, or placing the public good above personal interest. This meant that property ownership should be widespread in society. The Whigs believed that an agricultural nation was less likely to become corrupt than a society based on commerce and manufacturing. Politics would have less of a divisive effect because everyone’s interests would be similar. This would prevent representatives from subjecting the people to tyrannical laws. The Whig view of politics was not democratic because only men who owned property were able to vote, given that they had an important and permanent stake in society. As a result, only the most virtuous men would serve as representatives, and frequent elections were a major facet of Whig politics. The fear of corruption mandated that the electorate could not be manipulated by unscrupulous politicians. Parliament added the Bill of Rights of 1689, which established the ideal of the rule of law—that no one, not even the king, was above the law. The Bill of Rights protected 48 .

the rights to petition government for redress of grievances, trial by jury, and bail, and a ban on cruel and unusual punishments. MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

Why did relations between the English and Indians deteriorate so quickly in the seventeenth century? Answer: Both groups wanted peace, but they had conflicting assumptions that formed the basis of their peace negotiations. The English assumed the Indians would submit to their rule and accept the king as their lord. Conversely, the Indians believed they were equals to the British in their diplomatic relations. As a result of these conflicting assumptions and the fact the British wanted to settle on the Indians’ lands, the negotiations were doomed, and relations broke down.

What were the most important differences between the Chesapeake colonies and New England? Answer: The main differences between the Chesapeake colonies and New England were in their motivations, settlement patterns, background of settlers, and gender roles. People in the Chesapeake were driven by profit, specifically the money they could earn from growing tobacco. Settlers sought out the most fertile lands and access to navigable rivers to facilitate the export of their cash crops. As a result, a distinctive pattern of settlement occurred in the Chesapeake. The settlements spread out over time as people scattered across an area in search of good land and access to waterways. Also, because of an initial major imbalance of the sex ratio between males and females (almost 6 to 1) and the high mortality rate of plantation workers, women had considerable control over their decision to marry and might have been able to marry multiple times in their lives. The purpose of Puritans’ settlements was maintaining stable and cohesive communities. Puritan towns centered on a meeting house as both a place of worship and as the political center. People were not allowed to establish homesteads too far from the meeting house, with such forced proximity strengthening the bond of community. Instead of spreading out, Puritans created new towns and villages. Puritans could thus preserve their religious mission and limit unwelcome behavior in their communities. The background of settlers was another main difference. Many immigrants to Puritan New England were already married, while the opposite was true for settlers of Chesapeake colonies. Also, many of the first Virginians were gentlemen, but the Puritans derived mostly from the middling ranks of society, such as farmers. In fact, whole Puritan congregations might follow their ministers from England to America. 49 .

Why did the Caribbean become the jewel in the crown of England’s colonial empire? Answer: The Caribbean was England’s economic jewel because of the enormous wealth it acquired in the “sugar islands.” The amazing profits generated by the Caribbean planters surpassed the value of all exports from the mainland English colonies. As a result, nearly two-thirds of all English migrants headed for the Caribbean. By the mid-seventeenth century, the population of the region was approximately 44,000, which exceeded the combined population of the Chesapeake and New England settlements.

Why did the Restoration colonies adopt a more expansive view of toleration? Answer: One major difference between the Restoration colonies and earlier efforts at colonization was that the impetus behind colonization came from a small group of courtiers and aristocrats rather than pilgrims seeking to establish Protestant purity in their settlements. The Restoration-era proprietors sought to increase their wealth as well as promote their own particular political and religious ideals. The New York colony was different in that English forces seized lands already colonized by the Dutch (to make the New York and New Jersey colonies) instead of taking away lands from the Indians as done previously. The Pennsylvania colony also differed from previous efforts in that the Quakers’ “peaceable kingdom” embraced the Indians and sought to avoid conflicts. The tactic used by William Penn was to submit disputes regarding land claims to arbitration by a committee composed of Indians and Quakers. Pennsylvania was also influenced by the idea that a stable society depended on a broad distribution of property. The Carolinas were also different in that their economy was closely tied to that of the West Indies (especially Barbados). Many of the colony’s first settlers came from the West Indies, which meant Carolina was essentially a colony of a colony. While prior New England colonies produced goods to export to England, Carolina provided goods for the West Indian islands. Given the close economic ties between Carolina and Barbados, its early settlers were more familiar with slavery than colonists from earlier settlements.

What legal ideas were associated with the Glorious Revolution? Answer: The Whig concept of civic virtue sprang from the Glorious Revolution. The idea of civic virtue meant that the public good should be put above personal interest. An agricultural nation with widespread property ownership was seen to foster honesty, frugality, and independence and lower the chances of corruption. 50 .

Politics would be less divisive because everyone had similar interests, and representatives would be equally affected by the laws they passed. The fear of corruption was another major idea resulting from the Glorious Revolution and was an important feature of Whig political culture. The Whigs felt there should be a virtuous elite and an electorate that could not be manipulated by corrupt politicians. Many laws were implemented by the Glorious Revolution, such as the concept of the rule of law. This meant that no one (including the king) was above the law. Parliament gained the right to tax, and the practice of raising a standing army was not allowed without the consent of the legislature. A Bill of Rights was added that allowed for the rights to petition government for redress of grievances, trial by jury, bail, and a ban on cruel and unusual punishments. MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 2 • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com View the Closer Look The Chickahominy Become “New Englishmen” Read the Document Mayflower Compact Read the Document John Winthrop, A Model of Christian Charity Read the Document Profile: John Winthrop Read the Document Calvin on Predestination View the Closer Look Sugar and Slavery View the Map European Empires in 1660 View the Map Atlas Map: Settlement in North America, c. 1660 View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Lord Baltimore and William Penn: Two Visions of Religious Toleration Read the Document Nathaniel Bacon’s Declaration 1676 Read the Document English Bill of Rights (1689) View the Image Powhattan in Longhouse

51 .

CHAPTER THREE GROWTH, SLAVERY, AND CONFLICT: COLONIAL AMERICA, 1710–1763 I. Culture and Society in the Eighteenth Century A. The Refinement of America B. More English, Yet More American C. Strong Assemblies and Weak Governors II. Enlightenment and Awakenings A. Georgia’s Utopian Experiment B. American Champions of the Enlightenment C. Awakening, Revivalism, and American Society D. Indian Revivals III. African Americans in the Colonial Era A. The Atlantic Slave Trade B. Southern Slavery C. Northern Slavery and Free Blacks D. Slave Resistance and Rebellion E. An African-American Culture Emerges under Slavery IV. Immigration, Regional Economies, and Inequality A. Immigration to the Colonies B. Regional Economies C. New England D. The Mid-Atlantic E. The Upper and Lower South F. The Back Country G. Cities: Growth and Inequality H. Rural America: Land Becomes Scarce V. War and the Contest Over Empire A. The Rise and Fall of the Middle Ground B. The Struggle for North America Life in the seventeenth-century American colonies, even for the wealthiest, was crude and primitive. Beginning in the eighteenth century, however, a more cosmopolitan and refined culture began to emerge. Prosperous colonists sought out the latest British and European consumer goods, such as finely woven Turkish or English carpets, tea sets, and pattern books with English architectural and furniture styles. Captain Archibald Macpheadris, a fur trader in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, built an elegant new house in 1716, complete with beautifully executed wall murals, signifying his wealth and refinement. One of the most striking murals depicted two Mohawk Indian chiefs. The unknown painter copied these images from an engraving of a group of Indians who had traveled to London to meet with Queen Anne (r. 1703–1714). The engraver and the painter included authentic elements, such as the tomahawk wielded by 52 .

the Indian on the right. Yet the image of the Indians also reflected the conventions of European painting: The position of the Mohawk “Indian Kings’” hands at their hip resembled a common aristocratic pose found in English portraits from this period. Books, newspapers, and letters all were part of the expanding commerce of the Atlantic world. This economy included a lively exchange of ideas on a wide array of subjects, including architecture, fashion, politics, religion, science, and philosophy. One highly influential set of ideas was associated with the Enlightenment and its ideals of reason and social progress. These ideas fostered new social experiments, such as the founding of the colony of Georgia. Religious ideas also crossed the Atlantic. The English evangelical minister George Whitefield crisscrossed the colonies from New Hampshire to Georgia. His tour helped spread the ideas of the religious revival movement known as the Great Awakening. Enlightenment ideals of liberty, human dignity, and progress and new religious ideas led some Americans to question the institution of slavery, despite its growing importance to the colonial economy. The stark contrast between the wealthy planters and wretchedly housed slaves was not the only divide in American life. As the overall wealth of the colonies increased, so did the disparity between the wealthy and the poor. Land itself became scarce by the mid-eighteenth century. Expansion westward was hampered by the Appalachian Mountains, and the French and a host of Indian tribes controlled the rich lands of what is now America’s Midwest. Ultimately, the balance of power in North America was decided by the French and Indian War. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 3, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

In what ways did American colonial society become more English in the first part of the eighteenth century?

What were some of the main ideas of the Enlightenment?

What forces contributed to the growth of the African-American population of colonial America?

What role did economic forces play in the emergence of distinctive regional cultures in eighteenth-century America?

How did the French and Indian War transform the map of North America?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Discuss Anglo-American transatlantic commerce. Explain the role of each continent, making a distinction between which regions imported raw materials 53 .

and which exported finished goods. Discuss how each continent profited from the institution of slavery, regardless of how many slaves they actually possessed. 2.

Create a slide presentation of American colonial dwellings from New England, the Middle colonies, and the South. Trace the various architectural features to their origins in England. Also, point out how the architectural distinctions reflect the cultural, social, and climate differences among the major colonial regions.

Discuss the settlement of the American backcountry during the early eighteenth century. How did the settlers of this area differ from the settlers of the seventeenth century? Consider the religious, regional, cultural, and moral backgrounds of the settlers. How would these characteristics define the relationship between the settlers of the backcountry and the established eastern population?

What difficult question did Quakers face during the Paxton Uprising?

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Have students discuss the Enlightenment and the Great Awakening as intellectual preludes to the American Revolution. Connect Enlightenment political thought to the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the writings of John Locke. Use these issues to foreshadow Thomas Jefferson’s writing of the Declaration of Independence. Connect the Great Awakening to the cultural unification of the colonies and the emphasis on individual religious choice and autonomy. How did these developments help prepare colonists for revolutionary thinking? Why have historians linked the tradition among colonists of American religious revolution to their experience with political revolution?

Was the American Revolution “revolutionary”? Have students look at the nature of British colonial administration and explain how it contributed to the American love of liberty. In fighting for independence and freedom, were the colonists fighting for something with which they were unfamiliar? Were they fighting for political change or for a status of independence they had come to expect by the mid-eighteenth century?

Topics for Term Papers and Class Projects 1.

Explore the development of rice cultivation in South Carolina. Trace the African origins of this agriculture, how it was brought to Carolina settlers, and its impact on the economic and social development of South Carolina.

Explore the importance of the Great Awakening to the American South. How did the movement impact the emergence of southern religious style? What was the particular impact of the Great Awakening on the southern backcountry?

54 .

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Richard Hofstadter, America at 1750: A Social Portrait (1971). Frank Lambert, Inventing the “Great Awakening” (1999). Henry F. May, The Enlightenment in America (1976). Audio-Visual Resources Biography: Benjamin Franklin: Citizen of the World, A&E Video, 50 minutes. This video from the A&E Biography series examines the eclectic life of Benjamin Franklin and presents a nice accompaniment to the study of the Enlightenment in the colonies. The Battle of Quebec: 1759, Video, 32 minutes. The battle between England and France, which was decided in Quebec, determined the future of Canada, and of the United States as well. This program describes the founding of Quebec in 1608, and of the French colony, Canada. A hundred and fifty years later, in 1759, it was officially named New France—a small colony of some 60,000 living along the banks of the St. Lawrence; Montreal had been founded; and French explorers had explored, and claimed in the name of their king, territories from the frozen North down to the Gulf of Mexico. Seeking to restrain the English colonists, who outnumbered the French perhaps 20 to 1, the French built a series of forts, Ft. Duquesne and Ft. Niagara among them. The program analyzes the causes for the French and Indian War, the strategies and feints, and shows the siege of Quebec and the final bitter battle on the Plains of Abraham in which both Wolfe and Montcalm perished. Three days later Quebec fell to the British—the end of Quebec as a province of France, but not, as we have come to understand, as a French province. Learning Objectives and Answers After a careful examination of Chapter 3, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

In what ways did American colonial society become more English in the first part of the eighteenth century? Answer: The expanding trade with the British Empire increased the presence of wealthy colonists who could add luxury goods into their affluent American homes. This allowed colonists to have a more cosmopolitan lifestyle. For example, the wealthiest Americans could dine on fine porcelain imported from England or Holland instead of simple earthenware ceramics as in the past. This refined taste was proof of gentility and thus wealth and sophistication. And so Americans emulated the English in various ways, including their tastes in furniture, foods, clothing, and customs. This rise of gentility and the increasing Anglicization of colonial America were typified by the tea serving ritual, which became more refined and complicated. Changes in furnishings (such as desks, 55 .

bookcases with writing surfaces) reflected the expansion of trade networks in the British Empire. Formal portraits were also used by wealthy colonists as a way to show their riches and gentility. Men and women would make aristocratic poses in such portraits. Women dressed in elegant, flowing gowns to mimic Queen Anne, while men and young boys had elegant outfits that reflected their wealth, status, and power. Colonial houses also became more English-looking. English-style manor houses used ideas from English pattern books. For instance, the pineapple became a common architectural motif in the mansions of wealthy Americans because it was both a culinary delicacy and a symbol of affluent hospitality. 2.

What were some of the main ideas of the Enlightenment? Answer: Prison reform was an important theme in the Enlightenment. James Oglethorpe wanted to create Georgia as an alternative to imprisonment. Oglethorpe supported the views of Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke, who believed that humans could be rehabilitated if placed in a healthier environment. Newtonianism was another main idea of the Enlightenment. This concept focused on the visible world of nature, and was based on observation and reason. In the Newtonian vision, God created the universe to run according to predictable natural laws. Practicality was the approach taken regarding the Enlightenment in America. Benjamin Franklin was the symbol of this in his life as a printer, scientist, reformer, and statesman. Franklin was famous for his experiments with lightning and electricity and his commitment to the advancement of knowledge.

What forces contributed to the growth of the African-American population of colonial America? Answer: The Atlantic slave trade and the desire for profits was the main force behind the growth of the colonial African-American population. The high demand for agricultural labor to produce cash crops created a strong market for African slaves, with most slaves in the Atlantic trade ending up in the sugar colonies. Africans made the tortuous voyage across the Atlantic from Africa to the Americas in a journey referred to as “the middle passage.”

What role did economic forces play in the emergence of distinctive regional cultures in eighteenth-century America? Answer: Economic forces played a major role in the emergence of distinctive regional cultures in eighteenth-century America. The thirteen colonies were 56 .

grouped into five regions—New England, the mid-Atlantic, the upper South, the lower South, and the back country—reflecting their diverse economies. The New England economy depended on the sea in the form of fishing, shipbuilding and merchant trade (especially of spirits). It thus follows that New England (Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island) was the most ethnically homogenous region in colonial British America, being mostly white and English. The mid-Atlantic (New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware) was the most ethnically diverse region in the colonies, which was reflected in its economy. Major cities like Philadelphia and New York were centers of commerce and finance. These cities traded with Europe and other ports in the Atlantic world. Agricultural products from rural Pennsylvania and Delaware were sold in the markets of Philadelphia. New York’s Hudson River carried agricultural products from upriver farms and furs from northern New York. The mid-Atlantic region also had small manufacturing enterprises, such as flour milling, lumber, mining, and metal foundries. The region depended on indentured servants for much of its labor. The region’s merchant class was very influential in mid-Atlantic society. The culture of the South was closely tied to slave labor. The South was comprised of two distinct regions: the upper South (Chesapeake Region) and the lower South (parts of South Carolina and Georgia). Both regions produced different cash crops and used slave labor in different ways. The upper South had immigrants mainly from England and Scotland. These colonists dominated this region and became the planter elite who built great fortunes from their tobacco plantations through the use of slave labor. The lower South benefited more from the growth of immigration and was more religiously diverse than the upper South. Charleston was a major cultural and economic center of the region because the wealthiest planters would build their second homes there to avoid the damp, hot climate of the low country. The back country region had lots of Scots-Irish, who settled in large numbers in Pennsylvania and the Carolinas. The Scots-Irish sought to create farmsteads, which led to tensions with the Indians, who were displaced. Back country settlers were less connected to the Atlantic economy and more independent than people in other regions. They farmed, hunted, and raised livestock for their own consumption and for local trade. The egalitarian culture of the back country meant that there were few representatives of either the colonial or the British governments. 5.

How did the French and Indian War transform the map of North America? Answer: As a result of the French and Indian War, Britain gained control of Canada and also gained a large swath of territory west to the Mississippi River that was reserved for the Indians. Thus, westward expansion by colonists was 57 .

actually limited to territory east of the Appalachian Mountains. Additionally, Britain acquired East and West Florida from Spain. Crawl Questions and Answers Define Anglicization and give an example of an aspect of colonial life transformed by this process. (pp. 66–67) Answer: Anglicization was the colonial American desire to emulate English society, including English taste in foods, customs, and architecture. The increasing Anglicization of colonial America was exemplified by sudden popularity of imported tea. The consumption of tea increased dramatically between the end of the seventeenth century and the beginning of the eighteenth. The rituals of serving tea became more refined and complicated, with the serving of tea to one’s guests becoming less of a luxury and more of a necessity in colonial life. Tea drinking started among the wealthy and subsequently spread to all levels of American society. Why did new pieces of furniture like drop-leaf bookcases become popular in the eighteenth century? (p. 67) Answer: This reflected the deeper changes in colonial society and economy. New pieces of furniture like drop-leaf bookcases with writing surfaces reflected the expanding trade networks in the British Empire and the growing wealth of colonists. Such furniture was adapted to the needs of merchants, who looked at a variety of written documents as they broadened the range of their correspondence on business and political matters. How does Westover Plantation illustrate the growing wealth of the colonies? (p. 68) Answer: The doorway of Byrd’s mansion was crafted in England and had the latest architectural details that were popular among the wealthy. There was also a carved pineapple above the door. This is significant because the pineapple was an exotic West Indian fruit that was considered both a culinary delicacy and a symbol of affluent hospitality. How is slavery represented in this portrait? (p. 69) Answer: In the portrait, young Henry Darnall III’s slave wears a silver yoke around his neck, which symbolizes his inferior status. Also, Darnall is depicted to be higher than his slave despite the fact he was much younger. The portrait shows the African American to be a docile slave, which reflects the slave owner’s point of view. What does the design of the Pennsylvania State House reveal about colonial society? (p. 70) Answer: It was built in the Palladian style and showed the powerful influence of Anglicization. Its ornate windows and red brick exterior symbolized the colonists’ fondness and knowledge of the latest English architectural styles and symbolized the growing wealth of colonial Pennsylvania.

58 .

Why were colonial governors so weak? (p. 71) Answer: Colonial governors were weak as compared to the powerful colonial assembly. Various developments in American colonial history helped reinforce the growth of legislative power. There was a larger voting population in the colonies than in England, meaning a higher percentage of Americans were politically active as compared to Britons. Unlike the House of Lords in England, colonial governors did not have an upper house with much power. The governors’ councils, in fact, had little power. America’s native-born elites did not have a distinct legislative body like the House of Lords to guard their privileges and powers. Also, the royal governors depended on the assemblies for their salaries, which weakened their position with regard to the legislature. By controlling the power of the purse, colonial assemblies were able to hinder the plans of the royal governors because the governors dared not anger the assemblies. As a result, most royal governors did not have enough power to tame their legislatures. How did Georgia reflect Enlightenment ideals? (p. 73) Answer: Georgia was in a sense a utopian experiment to reform criminals and the poor by taking them from England to a better environment in America. In America the poor would have a new opportunity to earn a living and avoid the impoverishment they faced in England. This reflected the views of Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke, who rejected the notion that humans were born depraved and could not be rehabilitated if placed in a healthier environment. What was the Newtonian view of the universe? (p. 73) Answer: Newtonianism focused on the visible world of nature, which functioned according to the rules discerned by observation and interpreted by reason. The Newtonian universe has a God, but one that is different from the traditional Christian notion of God as a patriarch or king. How does this portrait of Franklin reflect his reputation as a champion of the Enlightenment? (p. 74) Answer: Franklin’s fame came from his scientific experiments with lightning and electricity. His insights on electricity led to his invention of the lightning rod, which is captured in the portrait. The painting depicts Franklin at his desk, a lightning storm in the background, and a lightning rod prominently positioned on a building visible through a window. Lightning destroys one building, but the other survives a strike because one of Franklin’s lightning rods is attached. What aspects of the Great Awakening encouraged democratization? (p. 75) Answer: Evangelical methods used by preachers during the Great Awakening challenged the hierarchical assumptions of colonial society about gender, race, and social status. Individuals were inspired to leave their own congregations and find one that better suited their spiritual needs. Many people also decided to try their hand as lay preachers. This marked the first time in American religious history that ordinary people had a significant public voice, especially women, blacks, artisans, or poor folk. Such people could talk about their spiritual lives (often to mixed crowds of people similar to themselves as well 59 .

as their social betters) and challenge traditional ideas about hierarchy. Thus, many previously excluded groups such as Quakers, blacks, and Indians had voices, which contributed to the growth of a more democratic culture. Why was Moravian art so helpful to missionaries interested in converting American Indians? (p. 76) Answer: The Moravians used art to promote the gospels to American Indians. Their art focused on the redemptive power of Christ’s suffering as the means of religious salvation. Moravian artists like John Valentine Haidt used visually rich images of Christ’s suffering, which resonated with Indian converts. Young male Indians (who were brought up on the ideal of physical strength, bravery, and the endurance of pain) could especially identify with the Moravian religious imagery showing Jesus as a brave spiritual warrior. Which regions of the Atlantic world imported the greatest number of slaves? (p. 77) Answer: The greatest demand for slaves came from the sugar-producing regions of Brazil and the Caribbean. An additional 300,000 slaves arrived in the British mainland colonies, with the greatest demand in the upper and lower South. The highest proportion of slaves lived in the lower South, where Africans outnumbered Europeans. Slaves were also important to urban life in New York, Philadelphia, and Boston. Which European nations were most heavily involved in the international slave trade? (p. 78) Answer: Most of the slaves transported to the Americas ended up in the sugar islands of the Caribbean or in Brazil. Statistics show that from 1701 to 1800 the regions most involved in the international slave trade were Portuguese Brazil (1,989,017), the British Caribbean (1,813,323), and the French Caribbean (995,133). What was “tight packing”? (p. 79) Answer: The term “tight packing” refers to the horrific conditions on ships carrying slaves from Africa to the Americas during the middle passage. The tight packing of slaves had the purpose of maximizing the number of bodies carried without any concern for the health of the slaves being transported. Slaves endured minimal rations and unsanitary conditions, which resulted in mortality rates during the middle passage being over 10 percent. What were the main differences between the task system and the gang system of labor? (p. 80) Answer: The task system was implemented in the Carolinas, and it gave slaves a sense of autonomy over their work. When the slaves completed their tasks, they were able to use the remaining time to hunt, fish, or tend their own gardens. The task system worked well for rice cultivation in the low country Carolinas. The gang system of labor was used in the Chesapeake because the growing of tobacco required more oversight in order to avoid damaging the plants. Planters would organize their slaves into gangs that worked together under the supervision of a white overseer or a black slave driver chosen by the master. 60 .

How did slaves resist the authority of their masters? (p. 81) Answer: Slaves used various methods for coping with the pains of slavery and escaping the domination of their masters. Temporary relief was accomplished by stealing, avoiding responsibility, feigning illness, or breaking tools. Other slaves would run away, hide in the woods, or seek refuge with a family on a nearby plantation in the slave quarters. Some slaves stole weapons and took part in major uprisings, such as in the Stono Rebellion of 1739 in South Carolina. In this case, rebel slaves broke into a storehouse and seized arms, murdered whites, and burned the homes of slave owners in the hopes this would inspire other slaves to join the rebellion. The rebellion eventually failed and resulted in harsher slave codes. What evidence exists for the persistence of African cultural traits among American slaves? (p. 82) Answer: The naming practices of American slaves indicated the presence of African cultural traits. Plantation records commonly show the use of West African names like Cudjo (Monday) for boys or Cuba (Wednesday) for girls. There were also distinctive music and dance forms created by American slaves that reflected their African heritage. They made drums and stringed instruments using African techniques. Masters often noticed the exotic African styles of dancing and singing in their slaves. How did the ethnic composition of America change in the eighteenth century? (p. 83) Answer: In the eighteenth century, the number of non-English immigrants increased. Immigrants from other parts of the British Empire, including Scotland and Ireland, rose as well. Another major source of immigration was continental Europe, especially Germany and Holland. One-fifth of the immigrants were enslaved Africans. Which region of colonial America was the most culturally diverse? (p. 84) Answer: The mid-Atlantic (New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware) was the most ethnically diverse region in the colonies. The main urban centers were New York and Philadelphia, which had a wide range of ethnic and religious groups. What were the main cash crops produced by slave labor in the South? (p. 85) Answer: The lower South began as a colony of a colony, and rice was its most profitable export at first. Indigo was introduced into the region in the 1740s. The planter elite of the upper South grew tobacco on plantations through a gang system of slave labor. How was American society becoming more unequal toward the end of the eighteenth century? (p. 86) Answer: The gap between the rich and poor increased at the end of the eighteenth century. The percentage of wealth owned by the richest Americans increased in places 61 .

like Boston and Philadelphia, where 5 percent of the population owned nearly half of their city’s wealth. At the same time, the number of the urban poor also rose dramatically in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. As a result, cities like Boston increasingly had to provide poor relief from the mid-century onward. Another issue was the scarcity of land. Due to population growth, people struggled to find enough land to help them establish their own farms. Thus, many sons and daughters delayed marriage until they could acquire a farmstead and establish their own household. What made the middle ground a distinctive region of colonial America? (p. 87) Answer: This was a unique region because it was a cultural and geographical region in the western Great Lakes where the Indians and French agreed not to start any conflicts with each other and negotiated for goods. There were young, French traders known as coureurs des bois who established their own trade networks independent of the direct control of the French government. These traders often married Indian women to produce children who became a distinctive group called métis (people of mixed French and Indian descent). Familiar with both Indian and French customs, the métis were important intermediaries between Indian and French cultures. The intermarriage between French traders and Indian women promoted cultural exchange and mutual understanding. Why did British expansion threaten the middle ground? (p. 88) Answer: The British were a threat here because they wanted to incorporate this region into their colonial empire and did not care to preserve the distinctive culture of the middle ground. The British planned to eliminate the native tribes, transplant their British agricultural practices, and establish permanent settlements. What was William Pitt’s new policy for North America? (p. 89) Answer: His policy was to completely remove the French from North America and make a direct assault on their strongholds of Quebec City and Montreal. He promoted young and talented officers to lead the campaign against Canada and sent an army of 10,000 regulars along with a sizeable fleet to North America to accomplish this goal. What role does the Indian figure play in West’s painting? (p. 91) Answer: The Indian is supposed to symbolize the noble warrior who looks on as a form of tribute to the heroic General Wolfe. How did the Proclamation of 1763 serve British interests? (p. 92) Answer: Britain had gained possession of nearly all of North America east of the Mississippi River. It allowed the British to acquire French territory in Canada as well as Florida from Spain. The British also gained a large amount of land west of the Mississippi, which it designated as Indian reserve. This development only delayed the eventual settlement by colonists seeking to expand west of the Appalachian Mountains. Why did Paxtonians demand that the Quakers create a militia? (p. 93) Answer: The Paxtonians and other settlers in western Pennsylvania wanted a militia to defend against the Indians, with whom relations had rapidly deteriorated during the 62 .

eighteenth century, due to encroachment on their lands by the white population. Conflicts such as Pontiac’s Rebellion had increased the tensions to a dangerous level, but the Quakers chose to continue their pacifist policies. Review Questions and Answers 1.

How did changes in architecture and home furnishing reflect Anglicization and the rise of gentility in colonial America? Answer: The highly specialized furnishings reflected the growing wealth of many colonists and their associated Anglicization. The rising popularity of writing desks and drop-leaf bookcases with writing corresponded with the needs of merchants to keep better track of a variety of written documents they encountered in business and political matters. Home portraits in the English style were also used by wealthy colonists to showcase their riches and gentility. According to the conventions of European portraits, men and women struck standard aristocratic poses while wearing elegant clothing. Changes in colonial architecture were implemented that used ideas from English pattern books. For example, the doorway of Byrd’s mansion had a London design that included classical columns, a swan-shaped broken pediment at the top of the doorframe, and a carved pineapple (as a symbol of affluent hospitality). The architecture of churches and public buildings also showed this Anglicization. The Pennsylvania State House was built in the Palladian style and symbolized the colonists’ interest in and knowledge of the latest English architectural styles.

What were the leading Enlightenment ideals, and what was the significance of America’s role in that movement? In what ways did the colony of Georgia strive to embody Enlightenment ideals? Answer: Newtonianism was another main idea of the Enlightenment. This concept focused on the visible world of nature and was based on observation and reason. In the Newtonian vision, God created the universe to run according to predictable natural laws. Practicality was the approach taken regarding the Enlightenment in America. Benjamin Franklin was the symbol of this approach in his life as a printer, scientist, reformer, and statesman. Franklin was famous for his experiments with lightning and electricity and his commitment to the advancement of knowledge. Franklin furthered the belief in education and the spread of knowledge by his founding of various institutions, such as the American Philosophical Society, the College of Philadelphia, and the Library Company. Prison reform was an important theme in the Enlightenment. James Oglethorpe wanted to create Georgia as an alternative to imprisonment. Oglethorpe supported 63 .

the views of Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke, who believed that humans could be rehabilitated if placed in a healthier environment. Georgia embodied Enlightenment ideals because it was a sort of utopian experiment to reform criminals and the poor by taking them away from England to a better environment in America. There the poor would have a new opportunity to earn a living and avoid the impoverishment they faced in England. This reflected the views of Enlightenment thinkers who rejected the idea that humans were born depraved and could not be rehabilitated. 3.

How did the experience of slavery differ between the upper South and the lower South? Answer: In the lower South, the task system was implemented. This system gave slaves a sense of autonomy over their work. When the slaves completed their tasks, they were able to use the remaining time to hunt, fish, or tend their own gardens. The task system worked well for rice cultivation in the low country Carolinas. The upper South (Chesapeake area) used a gang system of labor because the growing of tobacco required more oversight in order to avoid damaging the plants. Planters would organize their slaves into gangs that worked together under the supervision of a white overseer or a black slave driver chosen by the master. Slaves in the Chesapeake were a minority, and they usually lived on plantations smaller than those in the lower South.

How did the French and Indian War affect colonial–Indian relations? What new problems did the British victory create for the empire? Answer: The French and Indian War had a mostly negative impact on colonial– Indian relations. Even after the British defeated the French in Canada, relations with Indians along the frontier (especially in Ohio) remained tense. In 1762, a pan-Indian movement rallied the tribes of the Midwest against the British. Then, in Pontiac’s Rebellion, Midwest Indian tribes attacked poorly-defended frontier garrisons in modern-day Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, and settler communities in western Pennsylvania. This led to settlers seeking revenge against the tribes. Pennsylvania nearly became involved in a major conflict due to the march of the “Paxton Boys,” who attacked friendly Indians, but violence was averted. Pontiac’s Rebellion forced the British to be conciliatory toward the powerful tribes along the frontier, and the Proclamation of 1763 set a fixed line beyond which colonial expansion westward was not allowed.

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

In what ways did colonists become more English in the early decades of the eighteenth century? 64 .

Answer: The expanding trade with the British Empire increased the presence of wealthy colonists, who could add luxury goods into their affluent American homes and live a more cosmopolitan lifestyle. For example, the wealthiest Americans would use fine porcelain imported from England, which was proof of gentility and thus wealth and sophistication. Americans emulated the English in various ways, including their tastes in furniture, foods, clothing, and customs. This rise of gentility and the increasing Anglicization of colonial America were typified by the tea serving ritual, which became more refined and complicated. Changes in furnishings (such as desks and bookcases with writing surfaces) reflected the expansion of trade networks in the British Empire. Formal portraits were also used by wealthy colonists as a way to show their riches and gentility. Men and women would make aristocratic poses in such portraits. Women dressed in elegant, flowing gowns to mimic Queen Anne, while men and young boys wore elegant outfits that reflected their wealth, status, and power. Colonial houses also became more English-looking. English-style manor houses used ideas from English pattern books. For instance, the pineapple became a common architectural motif in the mansions of wealthy Americans because it was both a culinary delicacy and a symbol of affluent hospitality. 2.

In what ways did Benjamin Franklin represent the ideals of the Enlightenment? Answer: Franklin devised his own set of beliefs—a kind of civil religion that would benefit a person individually and the society in which he lived collectively. His virtues—temperance, silence, order, resolution, frugality, industry, sincerity, justice, moderation, cleanliness, tranquility, chastity, and humility—not only reflect the influence of Franklin’s Puritan upbringing but also his connection to the Enlightenment, a way of arriving at “moral perfection” so that he might “live without committing any fault at any time.” Benjamin Franklin was also the symbol of a major Enlightenment virtue, practicality, in his life as a printer, scientist, reformer, and statesman. Franklin was famous for his experiments with lightning and electricity and for his commitment to the advancement of knowledge.

Which regions of the Atlantic world were most heavily involved in the international slave trade? Answer: Most of the slaves transported to the Americas ended up in the sugar islands of the Caribbean or in Brazil. Statistics show that from 1701 to 1800 the regions most involved in the international slave trade (based on numbers of arrivals) were Portuguese Brazil (1,989,017), the British Caribbean (1,813,323), and the French Caribbean (995,133).

65 .

How did French and English aims differ and how did these differences impact relations with Indians? Answer: The goal of the British was to conquer the land they discovered and drive out the native peoples they encountered to facilitate the expansion of their colonial empire. This inevitably led to fierce tensions with the Indians much of the time. The goal of the French was to build a trading empire. As a result, their relations with the Indians were more peaceful in order to promote their trade goals. Intermarriage was not uncommon between the French and native tribes. This resulted in distinct cultures like the middle ground. The French and Indians supported each other in the fight to hold off Britain from taking over their lands.

What impact did the French and Indian War have on the colonies? Answer: As a result of winning the French and Indian War, the British controlled Canada, Florida, and all land east of the Mississippi. But in order to quell hostilities with the powerful tribes along the frontier, the British signed a peace treaty that placed severe restrictions on westward expansion by colonists.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 3 • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com View the Closer Look A Portrait of Colonial Aspiration Read the Document William Byrd II, Diary: An American Gentleman (1709) View the Closer Look Slavery and Georgia Read the Document Profiles: Benjamin Franklin Read the Document Benjamin Franklin on George Whitefield View the Closer Look African Slave Trade, 1451–1870 View the Map Interactive Map: Colonial Products Read the Document Of the Servants and Slaves in Virginia (1705) View the Closer Look Expanding Settlements c. 1750 Read the Document Cadwallader Colden, An Iroquois Chief Argues for his Tribe’s Property Rights (1742) View the Closer Look European Claims in North America, 1750 and 1763 View the Map Interactive Map: The Seven Years War

66 .

CHAPTER FOUR REVOLUTIONARY AMERICA: CHANGE AND TRANSFORMATION, 1764–1783

I. Tightening the Reins of Empire A. Taxation without Representation B. The Stamp Act Crisis C. An Assault on Liberty D. The Intolerable Acts and the First Continental Congress E. Lexington, Concord, and Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation II. Patriots versus Loyalists A. The Battle of Bunker Hill B. Common Sense and the Declaration of Independence C. The Plight of the Loyalists III. America at War A. The War in the North B. The Southern Campaigns and Final Victory at Yorktown IV. The Radicalism of the American Revolution A. Popular Politics in the Revolutionary Era B. Constitutional Experiments: Testing the Limits of Democracy C. African Americans Struggle for Freedom D. The American Revolution in Indian Country E. Liberty’s Daughters: Women and the Revolutionary Movement Britain’s decisive victory in the French and Indian War in 1763 removed the French threat to its American empire. But the war had been expensive to wage, and the ongoing costs of administering and protecting North America nearly drained the British treasury. To pay these costs, Britain adopted a new set of policies for America, including new taxes, more aggressive ways of collecting them, and more severe methods of enforcing these measures. The colonists viewed these policies as an ominous first step in a plot to deprive them of their liberty. When King George III (r. 1760–1820) assumed the British throne, monarchism was deeply rooted in American culture, and Americans were proud of their British heritage. Opposition to British policy began with respectful pleas to the king for relief from unjust policies. Gradually, over the next decade, Americans became convinced that it was no longer possible to remain within the British Empire and protect their rights. Resistance to British policies stiffened, and the colonists eventually decided to declare independence from Britain. Tensions between Britain and the American colonies reached a boiling point with the Tea Act in 1773, as seen in the theme of the cartoon, The Tea-Tax-Tempest. In the image, “Father Time” displays the events of the American Revolution to four figures who symbolize the four continents. The “magic lantern” shows a tea pot boiling over, 67 .

symbolizing revolution, while British and American military forces stand ready to face one another. The ideals of liberty and equality that Americans invoked in their struggle against British tyranny changed American society. The claim that “all men are created equal” and that every person enjoyed certain “inalienable rights,” as America’s Declaration of Independence asserted in 1776, were radical notions for those who had grown up in a society that was ruled by a king and that enthusiastically embraced the idea of aristocracy. Slavery continued to present a problem for champions of the Revolution. For some slavery was incompatible with the Revolution’s ideals, while others sought to reconcile the two. New England effectively eliminated slavery after the Revolution. The new states of the mid-Atlantic adopted a more gradual approach to abolishing slavery. In the South, however, where planters made fortunes from crops produced with slave labor, slavery remained deeply entrenched. Although women were not yet full political participants, revolutionary notions of equality led them to demand that husbands treat wives as partners in their marriage. A new idea of companionate marriage blossomed. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 4, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

How did British policy toward the colonies change after the French and Indian War?

How did revolutionary events in 1775 and 1776 transform the competing visions of Patriots and Loyalists?

What were the major battles and turning points in the war from the summer of 1776 to its conclusion?

How did the Revolution’s ideals of liberty and equality influence American politics and society?

Topics for Classroom Lectures 1.

Prepare a presentation focusing on the Stamp Act Crisis as the first example of formal American resistance to British imperial policy after the French and Indian War. Explain the disagreement between American colonists and the British regarding the concepts of virtual representation and actual representation, and discuss their disagreement over the concepts of internal and external taxation. Look at the major pieces of legislation coming out of the Grenville administration and demonstrate the distinction of the Stamp Act from the others, such as the Sugar Act, the Quartering Act, or the Currency Act. Examine the phrase, “Taxation without representation is tyranny!” and have students understand the

68 .

true meaning of the words. In other words, colonists were saying, “[Internal] taxation without [actual] representation is tyranny!” 2.

Discuss the evolution of colonial unity between 1755 and 1774. Examine the Albany Congress, the Stamp Act Congress, and the First Continental Congress. What was the extent of colonial participation in each congress? What issues motivated the convening of these meetings? How successful was each in demonstrating or promoting the degree of unity among the colonies?

Prepare a lecture on the Declaration of Independence in which you describe the adoption of this document by the Second Continental Congress as the “moment of revolution.” Begin by explaining the distinction between the terms “resistance” and “revolution” and how the adoption of the Declaration of Independence moved Americans from the former to the latter. Ask students about the legality of the actions of the Second Continental Congress. Was the adoption of the Declaration a legal act? What did Americans have to do to validate that action? Explain the importance of military victory and recognition of American independence by other nations in making the Declaration legitimate. Point out how the FrancoAmerican alliance promoted validation of the Declaration by helping to achieve military victory and by offering Americans recognition of independent status.

Prepare a lecture on the factors that contributed to the American victory in the Revolution. Offer treatment of a variety of issues, including these American advantages: home territory, passion and commitment to the cause, and the French alliance. Among British disadvantages, include lack of commitment or passion, overconfidence, personal and kinship ties to Americans, and distractions at home as the war evolved into world war.

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Hold a class discussion on the circumstances surrounding the Boston Massacre. How much do we know about what really happened? Take this opportunity to introduce students to the inconsistencies in the detail of historical research, pointing out that accounts of this incident offer divergent views of the “facts of the case.” Look at the role of Crispus Attucks in this affair. How have historians defined both his ethnicity and his actions in the event? How did Attucks’s role in this incident differ from the popularly held ideas on what it meant to be “black” during the era? How do students explain the difference?

Have students read an article challenging the propriety of the American colonial response to British imperial policy after the French and Indian War. Were Americans treated unfairly? Were they treated differently or worse than other British colonists? What was the true cause of revolution?

Was the American Revolution “revolutionary”? Have students look at the nature of British colonial administration and explain how it contributed to the American 69 .

love of liberty. In fighting for independence and freedom, were the colonists fighting for something with which they were unfamiliar? Were they fighting for political change or for a status of independence they had come to expect by the mid-eighteenth century? 4.

Discuss the choices that Loyalists faced during the Revolutionary War.

Arrange a classroom discussion focusing on the content of the Declaration of Independence. Have students read the Declaration before coming to class and then present some of the following issues for discussion: a. Focus on the philosophical connections between the Declaration and the writings of John Locke by asking students to point out specific phrases in the document that directly reflect Lockean theory regarding natural law and the contract theory of government. b. Ask students to comment on Jefferson’s use of the phrase “all men are created equal.” What did Jefferson mean when he used the phrase “all men”? Use this opportunity to discuss the meaning of the term “democracy” in the eighteenth-century Western world. c. This is also a good time to initiate a conversation about the issue of historical relevancy. Have students address the strengths and weaknesses of applying twenty-first-century social and political standards to an eighteenth-century document. Explain how the assessment of history can be carried out on two levels. First, an assessment can be made based on historical relevancy. What does Jefferson’s use of the term “all men” teach us about eighteenth-century social and intellectual history? Within what historical context is Jefferson writing? Second, point out to students the value of assessing history based on the social and cultural changes that have taken place in America since 1776. Twenty-first-century Americans should be disturbed by the gender-specific language used by Jefferson and should use that reaction to recognize the strides that Americans have made as a nation to make the term “all men” more inclusive. d. Explore the meaning of the phrase “pursuit of happiness.” What did it mean to Jefferson within the context of eighteenth-century philosophy? Are there connections between this phrase and the principles of a capitalist economy? e. Have students comment on religious references in the Declaration of Independence. Did the Revolution have a moral tone? What do these references say about the American tradition of separation of church and state?

Discuss the British southern strategy in the American Revolution. Why did the British believe the South to be a hotbed of Toryism? What populations in the South had a reason to resent patriotism and embrace loyalism? Why did the southern strategy fail, and what factors convinced the South to choose revolution?

70 .

Topics for Term Papers and Class Projects 1.

Examine the roles of John Adams and Samuel Adams in the events leading up to the American Revolution. Study their religious, philosophical, and family backgrounds and how these aspects of their lives helped to define the nature of their support for the Revolution. Why were their roles so different, and how did their political styles complement each other?

Explore American colonial opposition to the American Revolution. Who were the Tories? Were there regional, social, or economic factors that contributed to a colonist’s resistance to revolution? How did Tories respond to the actuality of the Revolution?

Explore how the ideas of the American Revolution provided much-needed legal reform for women.

Research the relationship between John and Abigail Adams during the years of the Second Continental Congress and the Revolution. Suggest that students read manuscripts of the letters written between John and Abigail and use them to research the role Abigail played in the life of her husband and her influence on him and his role in the Revolution. A study of Abigail Adams can also shed light on the general condition of many American women during the war. Abigail’s letters reveal her political philosophy and her feelings about the Revolution.

Examine Thomas Jefferson’s influences in writing the Declaration of Independence. Was John Locke the only philosophical influence? How important were Scottish political philosophers of the Enlightenment?

George Washington has been described by one historian as the “Indispensable Man.” Write a paper exploring this premise. Was Washington indispensable to the American victory in the American Revolution? If so, why?

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects John K. Alexander, Samuel Adams: America’s Revolutionary Politician (2002). Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (1992). Wallace Brown, The Good Americans: The Loyalists in the American Revolution (1969). James Thomas Flexner, Washington: The Indispensable Man (rev. 1994). Robert A. Gross, The Minutemen and Their World (1976). Merrill Jensen, The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution, 1763–1776 (1968). Linda Kerber, Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America (1980). Benjamin Woods Labaree, The Boston Tea Party (1964). Pauline Maier, American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence (1997).

71 .

Pauline Maier, From Resistance to Revolution: Colonial Radicals and the Development of American Opposition to Britain, 1765–1776 (1972). David McCullough, John Adams (2001). Edmund S. Morgan and Helen S. Morgan, The Stamp Act Crisis (rev. 1962). Ray Raphael, A People’s History of the American Revolution: How Common People Shaped the Fight for Independence (2001). Audio-Visual Resources The American Revolution, A&E Video. This six-part series presents the History Channel’s look at the birth of the American nation. Biography: John and Abigail Adams: Love and Liberty, A&E Video. This episode features the unique love and friendship between John and Abigail Adams. Biography: George Washington: American Revolutionary, A&E Video, 50 minutes. This video takes a look at the leader of the American Revolution and comes from the popular A&E Biography series. Fighting for Freedom: Revolution and Civil War, PBS Video, 2003, 90 minutes. This video presents an examination of American freedom as it developed through the two defining moments of American history: the Revolution and the Civil War. Founding Brothers, A&E Video, 2002, 200 minutes. Based on the Joseph Ellis book, this set of videos explores six moments that dramatically impacted American history. Showcased are such founding fathers as Benjamin Franklin, George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison. Founding Fathers, A&E Video, 2000, 200 minutes. This video offers a personal and intimate look at the men behind the founding of the United States. George Washington: The Man Who Wouldn’t Be King, The American Experience, David Sutherland, 1992, 60 minutes. This film explores the life of America’s first president, offering both personal and professional perspectives on the man who originated the American presidency. John Adams, HBO Miniseries, 2008, 501 minutes. Based on the David McCullough book, this seven-episode set explores the political and social life of John Adams and the formation of the United States of America. Liberty! The American Revolution: The Reluctant Revolutionaries, Catherine Allan/KCTA, 1997, 60 minutes. This episode from the PBS series on the American Revolution explores pre-revolutionary politics in the colonies, focusing on the Stamp Act and the Boston Tea Party. 72 .

Save Our History: The Declaration of Independence, A&E Video, 50 minutes. This video, narrated by Harry Smith, examines the origins of the Declaration of Independence. Learning Objectives and Answers After a careful examination of Chapter 4, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

How did British policy toward the colonies change after the French and Indian War? Answer: Britain needed to pay the costs of the French and Indian War and administer the colonies, so it adopted some new policies. These measures included new taxes, aggressive ways of collecting such taxes, and more severe methods of enforcing these policies. For example, Grenville’s Revenue Act of 1764 (known as the Sugar Act) lowered the duties colonists had to pay on molasses, but it taxed sugar and other goods imported to the colonies and increased penalties for smuggling. Violators could be prosecuted in British viceadmiralty courts without jury trials. The colonists considered these policies as a way to deprive them of their civil rights and liberty. And when the colonists resisted the Sugar Act, Britain reacted by imposing a harsher tax, the Stamp Act, which required colonists to buy special stamps and use them on everything from newspapers to playing cards. Britain also wanted to stop any further wars between the colonists and Indians, so it passed the Proclamation of 1763, which prohibited settlement in lands west of the Appalachian Mountains.

How did revolutionary events in 1775 and 1776 transform the competing visions of Patriots and Loyalists? Answer: British actions such as Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation (considered “diabolical” by many colonists) helped to convince Patriots that a break with Britain was inevitable and necessary. Americans were becoming convinced that the British political and legal system would no longer protect their liberty. Conversely, the Loyalists felt liberty could only be preserved by upholding English law and that the Patriots’ actions were examples of lawlessness. George III’s rejection of the Olive Branch Petition and subsequent adoption of the Prohibitory Act (which banned all trade with the thirteen colonies) only fanned the flames of colonial discontent. After this, the Continental Congress basically told the colonies they were independent states no longer under the authority of Parliament or the king. The Declaration of Independence formalized America’s decision to part with Britain by explaining the reasons and grievances that necessitated the separation. Many prominent Loyalists were against the decision for independence but instead wanted Britain to change its policy toward the colonies so as to avoid the “dismemberment” of the empire. Other Loyalists like 73 .

the Quakers opposed a war for independence on religious grounds, while some slaves believed that a British victory gave them the best chance for freedom. Military battles also influenced the views of Patriots and Loyalists. The Patriots’ strong showing at the Battle of Bunker Hill proved they could be a formidable opponent to the British military. The British suffered a heavy toll in this battle. When King George III rejected the “Olive Branch” petition for peace, written by the Continental Congress, the push for independence gained momentum. Patriots like Thomas Paine argued forcefully for American independence in such writings as Common Sense, in which Paine made a strong indictment of monarchy and supported a democratic theory of representative government. Paine’s intense critique of the monarchy equated George III with savagery itself, and so he gave a voice to many who wished to radically transform American political life. Common Sense became a blueprint for those who wished to try a democratic form of government, though Loyalists who supported reconciliation with Britain were appalled by Paine’s scathing attacks on the King. 3.

What were the major battles and turning points in the war from the summer of 1776 to its conclusion? Answer: General Washington suffered a major defeat at Brooklyn Heights in August 1776 and was eventually driven by British Major General Sir William Howe from New York and across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania. However, this led to Howe becoming overconfident and complacent in New York City, where he established his base camp for the winter holidays. Washington subsequently launched a surprise attack on Christmas night 1776 when he took his troops across the partially frozen Delaware River and stormed an outpost manned by German mercenaries at Trenton. This was a turning point because Washington won another battle at Princeton, took advantage of Howe’s overconfidence, and completely changed his strategy of fighting a conventional war to one where he wanted to wear down his opponents and avoid a decisive defeat. This caused Howe to change his strategy to focus on using British naval power to capture American cities and to isolate ardently Patriot New England from the rest of the nation with the help of General John Burgoyne coming down from Canada. But this failed when American General Horatio Gates defeated Burgoyne at Saratoga, New York. This victory helped persuade the French to send troops and naval forces to aid the colonists. This changed the entire scale of the conflict, as France was at war with Britain and committed to helping America win its independence. Spain later joined France as an opponent of Britain and attacked the British in the Mississippi valley and Florida. In 1779–1780, the British focused on the South in the hopes of taking advantage of Loyalist sympathies there, as well as in the hopes of retaining the more economically valuable southern colonies. But the colonial militias led by people 74 .

such as South Carolina’s Francis Marion used hit-and-run tactics to prevent the British from consolidating their power in the region. American forces inflicted heavy losses on the British at the battles of Cowpens and Guilford Court House, which caused the British commander Lord Cornwallis to commit a major strategic blunder in retreating to Yorktown to regroup. The French dispatched a strong naval fleet from the Caribbean to North America, which gave the Americans a naval advantage. A large French army in the North under the Comte de Rochambeau then joined American troops in an assault on Yorktown, which trapped Cornwallis there and forced his surrender in October 1781. The British defeat at Yorktown led to the Treaty of Paris (1783), which officially ended the war. 4.

How did the Revolution’s ideals of liberty and equality influence American politics and society? Answer: The ideals of liberty and equality had a major influence American politics and society. The Regulators fought for equality in the Carolinas by using their class-conscious rhetoric and critique of power and corruption to bring the rule of law to places that lacked it. The Regulators resented planters and merchants and opposed taxes, including those enacted to pay for a lavish new palace for the royal governor. Some Regulators, like Herman Husband, combined religious themes with democratic ideas to attack corruption and inequality in North Carolina. Husband fought against the eastern elites who dominated state politics. In 1770, 1,000 Regulators marched on the courthouse in Hillsborough, shut down the court, and attacked a court official and lawyers whose high fees angered backcountry residents. Such fees fell heavily on poor folk and blocked their access to the courts. The first constitutions drafted by the states in 1776 were laboratories for constitutional experimentation and included language that echoed the Declaration’s pledge to liberty and equality. Virginia’s slave-owning planter elite framed a detailed Declaration of Rights that became a model for other states, while Massachusetts was a pioneer in many essential features of American constitutionalism, particularly the concept of separation of powers and checks and balances. The Virginia Declaration asserted that life, liberty, and property were fundamental rights, that “all men are by nature equally free and independent,” that “a well regulated militia . . . is the proper, natural, and safe defense of a free state,” and that “standing armies, in time of peace, should be avoided as dangerous to liberty.” Pennsylvania’s constitution was created by more democratic types of people, including urban artisans and backcountry farmers similar to the Regulators who were resentful of the eastern colonial elites. The Pennsylvania Constitution created a citizens’ militia, became the first state constitution to expressly protect the right to bear arms, and rejected property requirements for voting by allowing one-year resident male taxpayers to vote. 75 .

Debates occurred over the Whig theory of representation that only allowed property owners to vote. Those without property worried they were at the mercy of the rich and powerful, who could influence their votes on election day. The Revolution led to a more democratic vision of government, with many of the attitude that a propertied elite was not needed to act as a check on the people. Some leading figures, including the Patriot John Adams, feared the dangers of too much democracy and worried that Thomas Paine’s “feeble” ideas about government would mislead Americans. And so most states did not follow Pennsylvania’s radical model and kept a property requirement for voting and office holding, though the new requirements were lower than they had been during the colonial period. The pool of eligible voters did increase, proving that the Revolution led to a greater democratization of politics. The Massachusetts Constitution (the oldest continuously functioning written constitution in the world) had some interesting innovations. Its constitution was considered the supreme law and was directly ratified with the express consent of the people. Even white men who did not meet the property requirements for voting for the legislature under the proposed constitution could vote on the constitution. It was the first constitution to have an effective system of checks and balances. The governor had much power and could veto acts of the legislature. The legislature could override a veto by a two-thirds vote. The governor was directly elected by the people. Another byproduct of the Revolution was the Articles of Confederation, which created “a firm league of friendship” among the sovereign states. Congress wanted to avoid the British-style government, and so the Articles abandoned the idea of a single unified executive to enforce the law. But since Congress had little power, the Articles created a weak government whose power depended entirely on the goodwill of the states. Crawl Questions and Answers Why is the scale in the cartoon, The Great Financier, out of balance? (p. 98) Answer: The scale in the cartoon is out of balance because Britain’s debts far outweighed its profits in administering the American colonies. As a result, the British felt they should be able to implement new taxes on sugar and other imports. Which parts of the British empire were most heavily taxed? (p. 99) Answer: Britain and Ireland. How did colonists react to the Stamp Act? (pp. 100–101) Answer: This tax required colonists to buy special stamps and place them on things such as newspapers and playing cards. Many colonists disagreed with Parliament’s sentiment that it was a reasonable tax for colonists because it was at a lower rate than a similar tax in Britain. The colonists felt that taxation without their consent was illegal. Thus, there was great anger over this tax, especially in the seaports. This tax in fact alienated more 76 .

Americans than any previous parliamentary tax. Colonial newspapers and a variety of pamphlets printed protests against the Stamp Act. Nine of the thirteen colonies sent a delegate to the Stamp Act Congress, which produced the “Declaration of the Rights and Grievances of the Colonies.” While on the streets of American cities and towns, angry crowds attacked tax collectors and British officials, including in their homes. How did nonimportation transform women’s political role in the colonies? (pp. 101– 102) Answer: This movement allowed women to actively participate in an organized boycott against the purchase of imported British goods. Women told Americans to wear only clothes made from domestic homespun fabrics and avoid buying imported fabrics. As a result, women became more politically active and helped to defend American rights with their support of colonial causes. How does Revere stage the events of the Boston Massacre to evoke sympathy for the colonists’ cause? (pp. 102, 104) Answer: Revere’s engraving of the Boston Massacre makes it appear as if the British intentionally fired on the unarmed crowd of colonists. He depicted the British troops in a formal military pose that seems to indicate that they acted under the orders to fire from the officer who was standing beside them. Revere’s version of the event was an example of good propaganda but was not an accurate rendering of the massacre. Why did British policy seem to strike at the essence of colonists’ liberty? (p. 103) Answer: Colonists felt the Intolerable Acts flagrantly violated their rights and liberties. The acts closed the Port of Boston, annulled the Massachusetts colonial charter, severely restricted the colony’s political institutions, and allowed the British to quarter soldiers in private homes. The British were trying to force the colonists to drink their tea by giving a monopoly to the East India Company. There was also a provision in the acts that said British officials who were charged with capital crimes could be tried outside the colonies—which essentially allowed soldiers charged with murder to avoid prosecution. What is the symbolic significance of Lord Chief Justice Mansfield’s actions in this political cartoon? (p. 104) Answer: Mansfield’s actions symbolize the oppressive power that Britain was trying to impose on the colonies by forcing them to buy East India tea. The half-naked Indian woman who was forced to consume the tea represents how Britain was trying to “strip” the colonists of their rights and ability to protest. What was the impact of Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation on southern colonists? (p. 105) Answer: Many southern colonists lost their slaves as a result of the proclamation, which many viewed as diabolical because it encouraged slaves to join the British forces against the colonists to gain their freedom. Hundreds of slaves joined “Dunmore’s Ethiopian Regiment.” The colonists were compelled to support a separation from Britain, though some Virginians realized that Virginia’s slaves wanted the same liberty that colonists wanted. 77 .

Why did British regulars choose Concord as their military objective? (p. 106) Answer: Massachusetts had become a hotspot for colonial resistance, with Concord an important target. Militias were a critical part of the Patriots’ movement. The British wanted to put down the colonial militia in Concord because this would prevent Americans from mobilizing and organizing their opposition to British policy. What does The Political Cartoon for the Year 1775 reveal about the nature of relations between the colonies and Britain? (p. 107) Answer: The fact that the cartoon shows a carriage with George III and Lord Mansfield going toward the edge of a cliff shows that the relations between the colonies and Britain had significantly deteriorated and were headed to disaster. Also, the depiction of the crushing of the Magna Carta and the British Constitution by the carriage shows how the British were trampling on the colonists’ liberty. Americans no longer felt that the British political and legal system served their liberty. How did Trumbull craft his painting so it would appeal to both an American and British audience? (p. 108) Answer: The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill (1786) shows a complex event in which neither side was completely victorious. Both armies are depicted showing heroism and nobility. What does Trumbull’s portrayal of African Americans tell us about his views and those of his likely audiences? (p. 109) Answer: In The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill (1786), African Americans are depicted as being scared and unwilling to participate in the heroic and noble manner that the white soldiers are depicted as fighting in. The fact that African Americans are marginalized in the painting in this way tells us that Trumbull and his audience viewed African Americans as inferior and incapable of performing heroically on the battle field. What arguments did Paine’s Common Sense present? (p. 110) Answer: Common Sense attacked the monarchy while supporting a democratic theory of representative government. Paine said that history proved monarchy was always incompatible with liberty, and then he focused on the current British monarch George III. Paine concluded that separation from England was the only action that made sense for the colonies. Common Sense was a blueprint for people who wanted to try out a democratic form of government. What audiences did the Declaration of Independence address? (p. 111) Answer: The drafters of the Declaration of Independence aimed it at both a domestic and a foreign audience. It defended the reasons for independence to the American people and announced to the British government the reasons for taking up arms and separating from the motherland. The Declaration also sought the help of other European powers, such as Holland, Spain, and France to help the colonies fight Britain, the world’s greatest power at the time.

78 .

How did the metaphor of dismemberment influence Loyalist thought? (p. 112) Answer: Dismemberment was a powerful image in the minds of colonists and Britons. Loyalists like the Minister Samuel Seabury wrote, “To talk of a colony independent of the mother-country, is no better sense than to talk of a limb independent of the body to which it belongs.” Benjamin Franklin made an engraving having the theme of dismemberment called Magna Britannia Her Colonies Reduced as an appeal to Parliament, which symbolized the horror of a possible separation between the colonists and the mother country that was felt by Americans unsure about independence. Loyalists used the dismemberment metaphor to persuade Americans to oppose independence. What does Martin v. Commonwealth reveal about women’s roles in Revolutionaryera America? (p. 113) Answer: The concept of property was still evolving for women at this time, and the legal status of the property of a woman married to a Loyalist was a complicated affair. Even though Grace Galloway had inherited property from her own family, the fact that her husband had been an exiled Loyalist eventually resulted in her being evicted from her property by the Massachusetts high court. This was despite the fact her husband Joseph Galloway had been wealthy and influential in Pennsylvania politics. Why did Washington have Paine’s The American Crisis read to the troops before he crossed the Delaware to attack the British and German mercenaries? (p. 114) Answer: Washington wanted to use Paine’s essay to inspire his troops not to give up hope of defeating the British despite the hardships they endured in the winter of 1776. How does Peale’s painting of Washington differ from Trumbull’s The Death of General Warren? (p. 115) Answer: In Peale’s painting, Washington stands firm, a symbol of the virtuous new republic that rises from the noble sacrifice depicted in the background. This painting differs from Trumbull’s The Death of General Warren precisely because General Warren is depicted by Trumbull as being part of the noble sacrifice, while Washington symbolizes that America has made it through the dark hour, and will become a great nation. What role did the French navy play in the victory at Yorktown? (p. 116–117) Answer: The French navy gave the Americans a naval advantage. The French Admiral Paul de Grasse’s fleet forced a British naval squadron that was supposed to help Cornwallis to withdraw, which allowed the Americans and French to trap Cornwallis in Yorktown. Cornwallis was forced to surrender in October 1781. What was the Treaty of Paris? (p. 118) Answer: The Treaty of Paris officially ended the war between the United States and Britain. The treaty recognized American independence, acknowledged America’s border with Canada, and recognized American fishing rights off Newfoundland. Who were the Regulators? (p. 119)

79 .

Answer: The Regulators fought for equality in the Carolinas by using their classconscious rhetoric and critique of power and corruption to bring the rule of law to places that lacked it. The Regulators resented planters and merchants and opposed taxes, including those enacted to pay for a lavish new palace for the royal governor. Some Regulators, like Herman Husband, combined religious themes with democratic ideas to attack corruption and inequality in North Carolina. Husband fought against the eastern elites who dominated state politics. In 1770, 1,000 Regulators marched on the courthouse in Hillsborough, shut down the court and attacked a court official and lawyers whose high fees angered backcountry residents. Such fees heavily impacted the poor and blocked their access to the courts. Though the Regulators were not victorious, their classconscious rhetoric and critique of power and corruption resonated in the Carolina backcountry. What made Pennsylvania’s Constitution so radical for its day? (p. 120) Answer: It was radically different than other constitutions in various ways. Unlike Virginia’s constitution, which was drafted by members of a slave-owning planter elite, the Pennsylvania constitution was created by more democratic types of people, including urban artisans and backcountry farmers, similar to the Regulators, who were resentful of the eastern colonial elites. The Pennsylvania Constitution created a form of representative government with a single legislature, which is known as unicameralism. The Pennsylvania Constitution also created a citizens’ militia, became the first state constitution to expressly protect the right to bear arms, and rejected property requirements for voting by allowing one-year resident male taxpayers to vote. Why did the traditional Whig view of representation oppose democracy? (p. 121) Answer: Whigs felt that only property owners could exercise the independent judgment necessary to vote and that possession of property showed that a person had a permanent stake in society and would act in the long-term best interests of the people represented. What was the impact of the American Revolution on the institution of slavery? (p. 122) Answer: Some slaves were able to escape bondage by fleeing to Britain. The Revolution intensified the ideas of liberty and equality, which increased the abolition movement in New England and the mid-Atlantic regions. Slaves often implemented the Revolution’s language of liberty in their protests, as in the Stamp Act protests in South Carolina (1765), where slaves held their own parade and chanted “liberty.” This put the South Carolina militia on alert to quell any possible slave rebellion. Blacks in New England were more successful. They petitioned the government of Massachusetts for their freedom using the language of the Declaration of Independence, including the idea of natural rights and consent of the governed. This foreshadowed the achievements of another slave named Mum Bett, who successfully sued for her freedom in western Massachusetts based on the ideas of the state’s Declaration of Rights. The state’s highest court later abolished slavery in Massachusetts in the 1780s. Why did so many Indians side with the British during the American Revolution? (p. 123) 80 .

Answer: Many Indians sided with Britain because its colonial policies (such as the Proclamation of 1763) blocked American westward expansion. The Indians did not want more settlers coming into their lands and destroying their critical habitats. Additionally, anti-Indian sentiment was high among the colonists. America had a deep-seated fear and hostility toward Indians, as exemplified by Thomas Jefferson’s view of Indians as being “savages” engaged in acts of barbarism. Was Hannah Corbin’s argument for women’s suffrage consistent with Whig theory? (p. 124) Answer: Yes, her argument was consistent because she owned a plantation and questioned why women who owned property were prohibited from voting. Whigs felt that only property owners could exercise the independent judgment necessary to vote, and that possession of property showed that a person had a permanent stake in society. And so Hannah Corbin’s argument for women’s suffrage was in line with Whig theory. Was Abigail Adams’s demand for women’s rights consistent with the Revolution’s ideals? (p. 125) Answer: Yes, because one of the Revolution’s ideals was equality and the fight against the tyranny of the British monarchy. Likewise, Abigail Adams’s demand for women’s rights was a fight against the tyranny of males over females. She believed that people should “not put such unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands” and “all Men would be tyrants if they could.” Review Questions and Answers 1.

What arguments did colonists use to oppose the Stamp Act? Answer: The strongest argument used by the colonists to oppose the Stamp Act was their rejection of the notion of taxation without representation. Since the colonies had no voice in British parliament, they believed it was wrong and unfair to be taxed, especially with regard to the Stamp Act because it was so onerous. The act placed a great burden on the colonists since the act required all legal transactions to contain a stamp.

How did Paul Revere’s representation of the Boston Massacre in his famous engraving stir up resentment against the British? How did Revere manipulate the events to present them in the worst possible light?

81 .

Answer: Revere’s engraving of the Boston Massacre makes it appear as if the British intentionally fired on the unarmed crowd of colonists. He depicted the British troops in a formal military pose that seems to indicate that they acted under the orders to fire from the officer who was standing beside them. Revere’s version of the event was an example of good propaganda but was not an accurate rendering of the massacre. 3.

How did Jefferson’s argument for independence in the Declaration differ from Paine’s argument in Common Sense? Answer: Unlike Paine’s Common Sense, the Declaration did not use inflammatory antimonarchical rhetoric. It was a public defense of America’s decision to declare independence from Britain and had a long list of grievances against George III, not monarchy itself. In Common Sense, Paine attacked recent British policy, framed a stinging indictment of monarchy, and defended a democratic theory of representative government.

How did the Massachusetts Constitution depart from the earlier models of Virginia and Pennsylvania? Answer: The Massachusetts Constitution implemented Revolutionary-era constitutional ideas in interesting ways. In Massachusetts, the constitution was considered the supreme law that rested on the express consent of the people. A special convention drafted the Massachusetts constitution instead of a legislative assembly. Once drafted, the constitution was directly ratified by the people. Property requirements were eliminated for this special ratification process. This was a radical innovation that later became an accepted feature of American constitutional life. Massachusetts also went further than any other state in achieving an effective system of checks and balances. The Massachusetts governor had the right to veto acts of the legislature, while the legislature could check the governor overriding a veto by a two-thirds vote. Also, the governor was directly elected by the people, not appointed by the legislature.

Did the Revolution’s ideals of liberty and equality significantly affect the lives of blacks, women, and American Indians? Answer: The lives of blacks were significantly affected by the Revolution’s ideals of liberty and equality. The abolition movement gained strength in New England and the mid-Atlantic regions. Slaves often used the Revolution’s language of liberty in their protests, as in the Stamp Act protests in South Carolina (1765), where slaves held their own parade and chanted “liberty.” They petitioned the government of Massachusetts for their freedom using the language of the Declaration of Independence, including the idea of natural rights and consent of the governed. This foreshadowed the achievements of another slave named Mum 82 .

Bett, who successfully sued for her freedom in western Massachusetts based on the ideas of the state’s Declaration of Rights. The state’s highest court later abolished slavery in Massachusetts in the 1780s. Neutrality appealed to many Indians, but they could not avoid becoming involved in the conflict between Britain and America. Many Indians sided with Britain because its colonial policies (such as the Proclamation of 1763) blocked American westward expansion. The Indians did not want more settlers coming into their lands and destroying their critical habitats. Despite the Revolution’s ideals of liberty and equality, the Indians were still considered by many colonists to be “merciless Indian Savages” engaged in acts of barbarism. Anti-Indian feelings among Americans only intensified after events like the murder of Jane McCrea. The ideals of liberty and equality inspired women to take an active role in the revolutionary cause. Mercy Otis Warren (wife of Patriot leader James Warren) wrote satirical plays that mocked British policy and leading British politicians and military figures. She depicted them as sinister plotters against American liberty, while she made the Patriots appear as talented and virtuous with such classical Roman names as Brutus and Honestus. Women also served in the war effort by providing moral support, making cartridges, and by carrying water and other supplies to soldiers. A few women even disguised themselves as men and served in the Continental Army. The concept of gender equality was also boosted by the ideals of liberty and equality. Abigail Adams demanded that men “remember the ladies” and work toward greater legal equality for women. Some women such as Hannah Corbin wanted political equality for women who owned property. She felt that women who owned property should be able to vote. Women also started to put forth the view that marriage was an egalitarian relationship between husband and wife in which the two lived together as companions (known as companionate marriage). Attitudes regarding patriarchal authority also changed, as evidenced by family portraits. For example, Charles Wilson Peale’s painting of the Cadwalader family shows a companionate marriage with an intimacy between husband and wife, and the parents and children. This contrasts with a style of family portraiture seen in a painting of the Isaac Royall family done 30 years earlier in which the husband has no physical contact with his wife or his children. The Royall family is depicted with little of the closeness seen in the Cadwalader painting. MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

Why did colonists believe Parliament could regulate trade, but not tax them without representation? Answer: Regulating trade was considered essential to the relation between a mother country and its colonies and necessary for the common good. But the colonists believed taxing them without representation for the purpose of raising revenue was “a most dangerous innovation” because it would not promote the 83 .

general welfare or a mutually beneficial intercourse between the colonies and Britain. Colonists felt that taxation without representation violated their “most essential rights as freemen.” 2.

What ideas and images helped persuade Americans to support the Patriot cause? Answer: Images such as Paul Revere’s engraving of the Boston Massacre had a major influence on getting Americans to support the Patriot cause. Such images showed the British unjustly attacking the colonists, who were depicted as disorganized victims. Revere renamed the shop in the scene as “Butcher’s Hall” in reference to the British troops’ brutality. Another influential image was that of Faith Trumbull’s depiction of the story of Absalom in a colorful needlework. It reflected the dominant Patriot view in the early 1770s that the king was deaf to his subjects’ complaints and had been misled by advisors who sought to take away the liberties of the colonists. The metaphor of kingship as a form of fatherhood was a powerful symbol for Americans at this time.

What military advantages did the Americans possess and how did their strategy shift to take better advantage of these realities? Answer: The Americans had the advantage of their colonies having a wide spread along the East Coast, meaning that even if the British gained control of all the cities, conquering and pacifying all thirteen colonies would be virtually impossible. Also, British supply lines were stretched thin and American forces could be supplemented by the militias. The British in effect never realized that they were fighting an unconventional type of war against a decentralized independence movement. General Washington realized that his early strategy of fighting a conventional war was not successful, so he shifted the strategy to one where the primary goal was to wear down the British and avoid a decisive defeat. The Americans employed the aid of the French in fighting the British, which completely changed the dynamics of the conflict. Spain then joined France as an opponent of Britain and attacked British outposts in the Mississippi valley and Florida. What had begun as a colonial war for independence in North America had evolved into a global conflict involving the Mediterranean, Africa, India, and the Caribbean. This eventually forced the British to accept that they could not conquer America.

What impact did the Revolution have on the institution of slavery? Answer: While some slaves chose to escape bondage by fleeing to Britain, the Revolution intensified the ideas of liberty and equality. This furthered the abolition movement in New England and the mid-Atlantic regions. Slaves often implemented the Revolution’s language of liberty in their protests, as in the 84 .

Stamp Act protests in South Carolina (1765), where slaves held their own parade and chanted “liberty.” This put the South Carolina militia on alert to quell any possible slave rebellion. Blacks in New England were more successful. They petitioned the government of Massachusetts for their freedom using the language of the Declaration of Independence, including the idea of natural rights and consent of the governed. This foreshadowed the achievements of another slave named Mum Bett, who successfully sued for her freedom in western Massachusetts based on the ideas of the state’s Declaration of Rights. The state’s highest court later abolished slavery in Massachusetts in the 1780s. 5.

How did the Revolution impact gender roles? Answer: The Revolution inspired women to take on new roles. Many women became active in the revolutionary cause. For instance, Mercy Otis Warren used satirical plays to mock British policy and to depict the British as sinister plotters against American liberty. Women also served in the war effort by providing moral support, making cartridges, and by carrying water and other supplies to soldiers. A few women even disguised themselves as men and served in the Continental Army. The concept of gender equality was also boosted by the Revolution’s ideals. Women such as Abigail Adams demanded that men “remember the ladies” and work toward greater legal equality for women. Women like Hannah Corbin wanted political equality for women as well. She felt that women who owned property should be able to vote. Corbin also rejected contemporary moral codes by having a common-law relationship with another man in order to preserve control of her estate. Attitudes regarding patriarchal authority also changed. Women put forth the view that marriage was an egalitarian relationship between husband and wife in which the two lived together as companions (known as companionate marriage). Women’s suffrage was not improved much by the Revolution, however. Every state, except New Jersey, limited suffrage to men. New Jersey women who fulfilled the state’s property requirements could vote in elections until the state legislature revoked this right in 1807.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 4 • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 4 View the Closer Look Tea-Tax Tempest View the Image Stamp Act Read the Document John Dickinson, Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer View the Closer Look The Bloody Massacre 85 .

• • • • • • •

Read the Document Patrick Henry, Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death Read the Document Thomas Paine, Common Sense View the Image Tory’s Day of Judgment View the Closer Look “Washington at the Battle of Princeton” Read the Document Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776 Read the Document Slave Petition to the Governor of Massachusetts, 1774 Read the Document Adams Family Correspondence between Abigail and John (March–April 1776)

86 .

CHAPTER FIVE A VIRTUOUS REPUBLIC: CREATING A WORKABLE GOVERNMENT, 1783–1789

I. Republicanism and the Politics of Virtue A. George Washington: The American Cincinnatus B. The Politics of Virtue: Views from the States C. Democracy Triumphant? D. Debtors versus Creditors II. Life Under the Articles of Confederation A. No Taxation without Representation B. Diplomacy: Frustration and Stalemate C. Settling the Old Northwest D. Shays’s Rebellion III. The Movement for Constitutional Reform A. The Road to Philadelphia B. Large States versus Small States C. Conflict over Slavery D. Filling out the Constitutional Design IV. The Great Debate A. Federalists versus Anti-Federalists B. Ratification C. The Creation of a Loyal Opposition In 1776, patriot leader John Adams wrote that “public virtue is the only foundation of Republics. There must be a positive passion for the public good, the public interest.” Adams echoed many Americans’ views when he wrote that republican government depended on the concept of civic virtue, which meant pursuing the public good and placing it ahead of personal interest or local attachments. Men were expected to serve in the militia, sit on juries, and, if they were truly virtuous and wise, take on the burden of public service as elected representatives. Women, too, were expected to play a major role in the political life of the new republic, assuming the role of republican mothers and wives who would instill patriotism and virtue in their children and spouses. Americans of the revolutionary generation took their cues from the lessons of history, particularly the example of the Roman Republic and its ideal of public virtue. When Dr. Joseph Warren, physician and Patriot leader, addressed Bostonians on the fifth anniversary of the Boston Massacre in 1775, he literally donned a Roman toga, the long flowing gown that symbolized a free, adult Roman man’s freedom and citizenship. Warren’s dramatic gesture, linking himself with Roman republicanism, was mirrored in the pages of nearly every American newspaper of the day, where letters and essays on 87 .

political matters were signed with pen names drawn from the history of the Roman Republic, such as the senators Brutus and Cato and the general Cincinnatus. To mold a new generation of virtuous citizens, Americans looked to education, religion, and even architecture. No American was more enthusiastic about architecture’s capacity to instruct than Thomas Jefferson. Public buildings, Jefferson wrote, “should be more than things of beauty and convenience, above all they should state a creed.” Rather than emulate contemporary Georgian-style buildings such as the Pennsylvania State House (see Chapter 3), where the Declaration of Independence was drafted, Jefferson argued for a return to the “purity” of Roman architecture. In his design for the Virginia State Capitol, Jefferson recreated the simple beauty of Roman architecture. He believed that the Capitol would inspire citizens to emulate the ideals of the ancient Roman Republic, which included an emphasis on civic participation and public virtue. In the decade following independence, Americans’ faith in their ability to create a virtuous republic was challenged. An aborted coup led by disgruntled Continental Army officers, conflicts between debtors and creditors, and an uprising in western Massachusetts drove the nation to a political crisis. The postwar period tested America’s faith in republicanism and led some leaders to abandon traditional republican theory, with its emphasis on virtue, and to embrace a new approach to constitutional government that relied on a balance of conflicting interests and a system of checks and balances. The culmination of this struggle between the two competing visions of constitutional government was the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 5, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

What role did the concept of virtue play in American politics after the Revolution?

What major problems did America face during the Confederation period?

What were the main differences between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution?

What were the Anti-Federalists’ major objections to the Constitution?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Discuss the impact of the American Revolution on the institution of slavery. Focus particularly on the abolition of slavery north of the Mason-Dixon Line. Often, the emancipation of slaves by Northern states after the Revolution was based on the principle of gradual emancipation. How effective was gradual emancipation as a means of liberating slaves? What motivated the Northern 88 .

interest in emancipation: concern for the individuals enslaved, or the desire to eliminate the troubling institution of slavery from its borders? 2.

Prepare a lecture on the nature of early state constitutions and their historical and political importance as the link between two eras in American constitutional history. Point out the roots of state constitutions in the original colonial charters as well as their use at the Constitutional Convention as models on which to base the new federal document. Choose a state such as Connecticut and provide students with copies of the original colonial charter and the original state constitution and have them comment on the similarities. What characteristics of the state constitution predicted the United States Constitution?

The Articles of Confederation are often dismissed as the failed first attempt by Americans to create a federal government. Prepare a presentation on the successes of the Confederation Congress ruling under the Articles. Point out the successful negotiation of the Peace of Paris of 1783, which awarded to the United States all of the western lands east of the Mississippi River. Place special emphasis on the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, pointing out its re-adoption by Congress under the new Constitution, the continued use of its plan for admitting states to the union, and the legal precedent it established for congressional regulation of slavery.

Explain how Shays’s Rebellion had such an impact on the young republic.

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Prepare a class discussion on the socioeconomic backgrounds of the framers of the Constitution, perhaps having the students read an excerpt from Charles Beard’s Economic Interpretation of the Constitution before the class. Was there a connection in the late eighteenth century between wealth and the rising interest among some Americans in nationalism? How could a strong federal government provide security for the upper class? Was the United States Constitution conceived as an elitist document?

Prepare a class discussion focusing on the concept of federalism. What is the meaning of the term, and what characteristic of the American political system does it describe? How does the movement from the Articles of Confederation to the Constitution reflect eighteenth-century American concerns about federal versus state and local power? To what extent is American fear of centralized power rooted in the American colonial and revolutionary experience? Do ambiguities regarding this balance of power persist today? Invite students to comment on how modern-day Democrats and Republicans disagree on this issue. How is this disagreement reflected in their views on current political issues?

Discuss the debate over the ratification of the Constitution. Who were the Federalists? Who were the Anti-Federalists? How did the regional and 89 .

socioeconomic backgrounds of the two factions define their political views? What factors contributed to the Federalists’ success? Use this opportunity to set the stage for future battles by the common man to effect political change (e.g., the Jeffersonian revolution of 1800, the Jacksonian era, and the Populist movement of the late nineteenth century). How has agrarian political influence changed over time? 4.

Discuss the importance of sectionalism as a political force in the late eighteenth century. How did sectionalism impact foreign affairs? What decisions were made by the Confederation Congress and the Constitutional Convention that would aggravate sectional tensions in the future?

Conduct a class discussion on whether the American Revolution was conservative or radical. Be sure students understand the meanings of these terms. Think back to Chapter 5 in the text, and have students comment on how new American political thinking regarding liberty, independence, and republicanism was at the time of the Revolution. Then, have them work with the Crevecoeur piece in the text and ask them to comment on his perceptions of American radicalism.

Discuss how New York played such an important role in the ratification of the Constitution.

Topics for Term Papers and Class Projects 1.

Structure a creative controversy focusing on the debate over the ratification of the Constitution. Divide the class into an even number of small groups. Have half the groups examine the Federalist argument supporting ratification and the other half the Anti-Federalist argument against ratification. Pair the groups (one Federalist group with one Anti-Federalist group) and have them debate the issue. Finally, have the groups switch sides and debate again. In this way, all students must argue both sides of the issue.

Write a paper describing the status of free African Americans in the North after the Revolution. How did the number of free African Americans change after 1783? What did freedom mean to African Americans in the northern United States after the Revolution? Were Northern supporters of emancipation necessarily supporters of racial equity? How does racism figure into these issues?

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Charles Beard, An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution (rev. ed. 1986). Mark W. Kruman, Between Authority and Liberty: State Constitution Making in Revolutionary America (1997). Forrest McDonald, Novus Ordo Seclorum: The Intellectual Origins of the Constitution (1986). 90 .

Richard B. Morris, The Forging of the Union, 1781–1789 (1987). Edmund S. Morgan, Inventing the People: The Rise of Popular Sovereignty in England and America (1988). Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the American Revolution (1961). Robert A. Rutland, The Ordeal of the Constitution: The Antifederalists and the Ratification Struggle of 1787–1788 (1966). Gordon S. Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (1991). Audio-Visual Resources Liberty! The American Revolution: Are We to Be a Nation? Catherine Allan/KTCA, 1997, 60 minutes. The final episode of this six-part PBS series explores the American struggle to create a republic by examining the Articles of Confederation and the Constitutional Convention. Learning Objectives and Answers After a careful examination of Chapter 5, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

What role did the concept of virtue play in American politics after the Revolution? Answer: After the Revolution, virtue was an ideal held in high esteem by many Americans. George Washington epitomized the ideal of virtue. He used a plea of “reason and virtue” to prevent a possible military coup by the Continental Army’s officers, who were angry at Congress regarding their pay and pensions. Washington’s passionate speech quelled the Newburgh conspiracy and allowed civic virtue to triumph over corruption. He later resigned from office to take leave of “the employments of public life” and go back to a simple life of the plow. Washington was seen as placing the good of the nation ahead of personal glory. Washington notwithstanding, the republican emphasis on virtue permeated American culture. The first state constitutions in places such as Massachusetts and Virginia contained declarations of rights in which the ideal of virtue was literally written into American law. These declarations outlined the rights of citizens and also taught citizens the premises of virtuous republican government. Virtue was also reflected in the nation’s art, architecture, and fashion. After the Revolution, the decorative elements of home furnishings that copied British fashions were replaced with the symbols that represented the new republican values. For example, the fancy carvings in a chest of drawers of the colonial era might be replaced by the goddess of liberty along with a set of carvings that illustrate the prosperity that republicanism. 91 .

Education was also linked with virtue in the new nation. The Massachusetts Constitution expressly linked republicanism, virtue, and education by providing public primary education for boys and girls. In Virginia, Thomas Jefferson sought to have a publicly funded system of education where white children (including boys and girls) would be educated at public expense for three years; however, Jefferson’s bill never passed in the state legislature. Enlightenment ideas were also used to further the concept of virtue. Jefferson and other American Founders felt that people should cultivate their innate morality to become enlightened citizens. Such a fusion of Lockean psychology and Enlightenment moral theory resulted in the belief that education could shape morality and mold character. This led to the founding of new educational institutions to help create an enlightened citizenry. North Carolina, Georgia, and Vermont established public institutions of higher education, while private colleges were created in Massachusetts (Williams), Kentucky (Transylvania), South Carolina (the College of Charleston), and Maine (Bowdoin). In schools, educators used patriotic lessons with illustrations that reinforced their republican message. The Great Seal of America became the new nation’s official symbol of virtue and had designs representing the new government’s power to make war and negotiate peace. Women also had new opportunities, as reformers sought ambitious plans to educate the nation’s female population. People like Benjamin Rush felt that women should be familiar with the political ideas of republicanism, and so new institutions were created, such as the Philadelphia Young Ladies Academy. This school offered classes in music, dance, needlework, rhetoric, oratory, and history. Other Americans used religion to foster virtue in the new nation. Some ministers believed that religion was closely tied with the morals of the people, though postrevolutionary America remained a predominantly Protestant culture where religious dissent was only somewhat tolerated. Some states continued to bar Catholics and Jews from public office because the underlying notion was that only Protestants had the necessary virtue to seek the public good. This idea slowly changed as America moved toward the separation of church and state, and religious tests requiring potential office holders to swear a belief in the divinity of Jesus were abolished in many states. 2.

What major problems did America face during the Confederation period? Answer: The economy was a problematic issue during the Confederation period. Congress had relatively little power compared to the states. Congress did not have the power to tax, so it could not resolve the nation’s economic problems after the Revolution. The Articles relied on the states providing funding for government business, but few states complied with these requisitions in a timely manner, which led to a shortage of funds in Congress. Because of the dire lack of funding, Congress was forced to print almost $250 million in paper currency, which had no gold or silver backing. Staggering inflation occurred as a result of this and the 92 .

Continental dollars had very low purchasing power. Other economic issues arose due to the boycotts of British goods and the disruption of trade during wartime. Post-war, the demand for British luxury goods soared, and the new nation was flooded with imports. Americans often bought those goods on credit, while few American goods went to Britain to offset the increase in imports. This trade deficit cleared the country’s remaining gold and silver reserves, which eventually resulted in a constriction of credit by the bankers and merchants, who were forced to call in debts to satisfy their British suppliers. The economy suffered drastically, with a drop in agricultural prices and falling wages. This period marked the nation’s first depression. There were also various military issues faced by the nation during the Confederation period. There was not a powerful navy to protect American commerce, which meant that ships were often attacked by pirates, especially from the Barbary States of Africa. American sailors who could not pay the ransom required by Barbary pirates were taken captive and moved to North African prisons or they were sold into slavery. The American navy was too weak to challenge these pirates, which was a source of embarrassment for the new nation. The nation also faced threats along its borders from Indians, the British, and the Spanish in North America. And because Congress had little power to make the states follow the treaties it had negotiated, Americans did not pay prewar debts and compensate Loyalists for property confiscated during the war. Britain used the non-repayment to justify keeping control of its forts in the Old Northwest, which allowed it to continue a lucrative fur trade with the Indians. Issues with the Indians were also prevalent because of the fact that the Treaty of Paris was unfavorable to their interests. The treaty gave the entire Old Northwest territory to the United States, and the American diplomats were not sympathetic to their claims. And so Indians organized to resist the encroachment of their lands and the post-Revolution period was one of continued conflict between Indians and Americans. As a result of the Indians’ resistance, Congress was forced to shift its policy toward Indians and negotiate more fairly and peacefully through such means as missionary work and trade. The Spanish were also a threat in that they denied Americans free access to the Mississippi and New Orleans, which were important to the economy since they were along the transport route for oceanbound goods. The economic downturn then led to frustrations boiling over in such uprisings as Shays’s Rebellion. In it, Daniel Shays and an armed crowd of protesters shut down the local courts of Northampton by preventing the judges from entering the courthouse. The protesters were alarmed by the increase of farm foreclosures and wanted to stop creditors from taking away their farms for the “good of the commonwealth.” This inspired angry farmers in Great Barrington in western Massachusetts to close their local court, which drew the state militia. Interestingly, it turned out that 800 of 1,000 members of the militia actually supported the rebels and wanted to keep the courts closed. Shays and his 93 .

followers were later defeated in a battle near Springfield. Despite this failure, Shays’s Rebellion was a major impetus to those eager to reform the structure of the Articles of Confederation and create a more powerful central government. 3.

What were the main differences between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution? Answer: There were a few major differences between the Articles and the Constitution. The Articles allowed for a one house legislature in which each state had one vote. The Constitution created a two-house legislature, with one determined by a state’s population and the upper house having equal representation. Regarding taxation, the Articles did not give Congress the power to tax, while the Constitution did. The Articles did not create a judicial branch, but the Constitution vested such power in the federal judiciary. As far as an executive branch, the Articles used a committee of states to perform executive functions when Congress was not in session. The Constitution allowed for the executive (president) to be chosen by electors who were in turn chosen by state legislators. Overall, the Constitution created a government that was far more powerful than the government under the Articles.

What were the Anti-Federalists’ major objections to the Constitution? Answer: The Anti-Federalists felt that they were the true supporters of federalism and called pro-Constitutional forces “consolidationists” who wished to consolidate the union into a single national government and take away the states’ power. Anti-Federalists wanted the bulk of governmental power and most functions to be in the hands of the states. Anti-Federalists supported the theory that a republican government could only survive if a nation remained small and the people’s interests were homogeneous. The Anti-Federalist author Brutus argued that when a republic became too large, the common good was sacrificed because competing factions were only concerned with their own narrow interests. Many Anti-Federalists felt that the lawyers and rich merchants who backed the Constitution favored the interests of the aristocratic few over those of the democratic many. In short, Anti-Federalists feared that the federal government would become tyrannical under the Constitution.

Crawl Questions and Answers Why did Americans believe Washington was the modern Cincinnatus? (p. 130) Answer: George Washington epitomized the ideal of virtue. He had a reputation for public virtue, and his ability to command the respect of his troops had saved the Continental Army in its more difficult campaigns during the Revolutionary war. He used a plea of “reason and virtue” to prevent a possible military coup by the Continental Army’s officers, who were angry at Congress regarding their pay and pensions. Washington’s passionate speech quelled the Newburgh conspiracy and allowed civic 94 .

virtue to triumph over corruption. He later resigned from office to take leave of “the employments of public life” and go back to a simple life of the plow. Washington was seen as placing the good of the nation ahead of personal glory by turning over his military commission to Congress after the war. Washington, like the Roman general Cincinnatus, had returned to his farm after serving as supreme commander of the republic’s army. What was the Newburgh Conspiracy? (p. 131) Answer: This conspiracy was a potential uprising in Newburgh, New York, by the Continental Army’s officers, who were frustrated by Congress’s failure to deal with complaints about their pay and pensions. These officers had considered an armed revolt against Congress, but Washington quelled the uprising with his plea that his men give posterity “proof of unexampled patriotism and patient virtue.” How did changes in furniture design reflect the influence of republican ideas? (p. 132) Answer: Before the Revolution, decorative elements on American furniture copied British fashions with their fanciful designs. But after the Revolution, such purely decorative elements were replaced by symbols representing new republican values. For example, a fancy carving on a chest of drawers might be replaced with the goddess of liberty herself. The chest would have two classical columns to reflect the ideal of Roman Republicanism, along with another set of carvings to illustrate the future prosperity of republicanism. Why was education so important to the Founders of the American Republic? (p. 133) Answer: Education was considered to be linked with virtue and the Enlightenment ideal that reason and science would improve humanity. People like Rush and Jefferson believed that education would help nurture the virtue necessary for the survival of republicanism. And so Americans founded new educational institutions to create an enlightened citizenry. Educators would include patriotic lessons with illustrations to reinforce their republican message. How did republican ideas change notions about women’s roles? (p. 134) Answer: Educational reformers recommended more ambitious plans to educate the nation’s female population to increase their role as republican citizens. As the mothers of future citizens of the republic, women had a special role to play. This led to the creation of new institutions for educating women. Republican ideas mostly kept the traditional view that a woman’s primary duties were to her family, but in some needlework imagery, politics replaced the home as the symbol of domesticity. For example, a needlework sampler prepared by a school girl might center on the Rhode Island State House instead of the home.

95 .

Why did many supporters of republicanism fear democracy? (p. 135) Answer: Supporters of the elitist republican view of politics felt that the humble origins of the new politicians would prevent them from being good legislators. And so “a man of middling circumstances” and “common understanding” was seen to be a less virtuous member of society as compared to a man of wealth or the educated elite. For example, one Boston newspaper writer complained that “since the war, blustering ignorant men” had pushed “themselves into office.” Why did William Smith’s portrait cast him as a country gentleman rather than an urban merchant? (p. 136) Answer: Smith was depicted this way in order to symbolize his virtue and dispute the claims of his enemies, who alleged he became rich at the expense of the poor. The painter Charles Wilson Peale chose not to include symbols that reflected Smith’s life as a wealthy city merchant and instead made him appear as a country gentleman who was a man of great knowledge, integrity, and character and was above temptation. How did the composition of the state legislatures change after the American Revolution? (p. 137) Answer: The composition of the state legislatures changed significantly after the Revolution. The Revolution greatly expanded the number of white male voters eligible to participate in the political process, and most states lowered the property requirements for voting. As a result, the percentage of wealthy citizens elected to the legislature dropped, while the numbers of those in the middle classes increased. This meant that ordinary citizens felt more encouraged to serve in government. For example, the economic status of legislators in New Hampshire, New York, and New Jersey changed in the following manner: pre-war: moderate 17%; wealthy 36%; well-to-do 47%; and post-war: moderate 62%; wealthy 12%; well-to-do 26%. Why did the Articles of Confederation fail to give the Confederation Congress power to tax? (p. 138) Answer: The main reason was that Americans had been angered by British efforts to tax them before to the Revolution, and so these fears of strong government and the hostility towards taxation resulted in the Articles being a rather weak constitution that withheld the power to tax from Congress. What diplomatic frustrations hampered the new American nation? (p. 139) Answer: There were various military issues faced by the nation during the Confederation period. There was not a powerful navy to protect American commerce, which meant that ships were often attacked by pirates, especially from the Barbary States of Africa. American sailors who could not pay the ransom required by Barbary pirates were taken captive and moved to North African prisons or were sold into slavery. The American navy was too weak to challenge these pirates, which was a source of embarrassment for the new nation. 96 .

The nation also faced threats along its borders from Indians, the British, and the Spanish in North America. Because Congress had little power to make the states follow the treaties it had negotiated, Americans did not pay prewar debts and compensate Loyalists for property confiscated during the war. Britain used the non-repayment to justify keeping control of its forts in the Old Northwest, which allowed it to continue a lucrative fur trade with the Indians. Issues with the Indians were prevalent because of the fact that the Treaty of Paris was unfavorable to their interests. The treaty gave the entire Old Northwest Territory to the United States, and the American diplomats were not sympathetic to Indian claims. Indians organized to resist the encroachment on their lands and the post-Revolution period was one of continued conflict between Indians and Americans. As a result of the Indians’ resistance, Congress was forced to shift its policy toward Indians and negotiate more fairly and peacefully through such means as missionary work and trade. The Spanish were also a threat in that they denied Americans free access to the Mississippi and New Orleans, which were important to the economy since they were along the transport route for ocean-bound goods. What was the theory of conquest, and how did it influence diplomatic relations with Indian peoples? (p. 140) Answer: The theory of conquest reflected the fact that American diplomats were not sympathetic to the land claims of Indians after they were defeated. From the American view, Indians were “a subdued people” who should relinquish all claims to Western lands and allow expansionism to continue. As a result, the period after the Revolution was one of continued conflict between Indians and Americans. However, the Indian resistance caused Americans to negotiate more fairly by the use of missionary work and trade, instead of conquest and military confrontation. What republican features distinguish the Northwest Ordinance? (p. 141) Answer: The Northwest Ordinance as planned by Thomas Jefferson would combine republican theories of self-government with Enlightenment ideas about geography. The names for the new territories (such as Polypotamia, which meant “land of many rivers”) chosen by Jefferson reflected republicanism. Jefferson also wanted the new territories to be incorporated into the union as states on an equal basis with the original thirteen. He also sought local self-government for settlers in the new territories. Given that Jefferson envisioned the Northwest Territory to be populated by white yeoman farmers, he recommended that land be available in parcels small enough for average Americans to purchase. But the final Northwest Ordinance that was actually adopted in 1787 was less democratic than Jefferson’s original proposal, though it maintained his orderly model for dividing up the territory. When the population of a given territory reached 5,000 adult males, the settlers could elect their own territorial legislatures. If the population reached 60,000 free inhabitants (including women), the territories could seek admission to the Confederation. The language of the Northwest Ordinance represented republican ideals, in that the “fundamental principles of civil and religious liberty” would be the foundation for the 97 .

new states to be created. The ideals of virtue and the need for education were seen in the Ordinance’s declaration that “Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged.” The Ordinance also rejected slavery in the new states. What was Shays’s Rebellion? (p. 142) Answer: Shays’s Rebellion was one of the many uprisings that occurred post-Revolution due to the economic downturn. In it, Daniel Shays and an armed crowd of protesters shut down the local courts of Northampton by preventing the judges from entering the courthouse. The protesters were alarmed by the increase of farm foreclosures and wanted to stop creditors from taking away their farms for the “good of the commonwealth.” This inspired angry farmers in Great Barrington in western Massachusetts to close their local court, which drew the state militia. Interestingly, it turned out that 800 of 1,000 members of the militia actually supported the rebels and wanted to keep the courts closed. Shays and his followers were later defeated in a battle near Springfield. Despite this failure, Shays’s Rebellion was a major impetus to those eager to reform the structure of the Articles of Confederation and create a more powerful central government. What were the main features of the Virginia Plan? (p. 143) Answer: This plan had a model of government with both federal and national features. The states would retain power, but the national government would rule in those areas it was given authority. The new government included a single executive, a two-house legislature, and a separate judicial branch. The lower house of Congress would be directly elected by the people, and the upper house would be elected by the lower house based on a list provided by the state legislatures. This meant that each state’s representation was in proportion to its population. The new Congress had the power “to legislate in all cases to which the separate States are incompetent.” The authors of the Virginia Plan used a more general grant of authority, rather than a long list of enumerated powers. Why did small states oppose the Virginia Plan? (p. 144) Answer: The Virginia Plan proposed that each state’s representation be in proportion to its population, which favored larger states over small states. This was a major change from the Articles, in which small states had the same vote as large states based on the one-state one-vote principle. How did the conflict over slavery shape the debates of the Constitutional Convention? (p. 145) Answer: The issue was whether to count slaves in the apportionment of the new lower house. The Southern states wanted slaves to be counted, while opponents of slavery wanted to see slaves taxed as property but did not wish to count them when calculating representation in the new lower house. The convention settled on a solution in which slaves were counted as three-fifths of a person for purposes of taxation and legislative apportionment. 98 .

This issue led to a lot of conflict during the Constitutional Convention. A compromise was reached that Congress could not ban the slave trade until 1808. The word slavery never appeared in the Constitution, but a number of clauses in the document protected it, such as Article IV, Section 2 (fugitive slaves law) and Article I, Section 8 (which prevented the products of slave labor from being taxed). How did the electoral college strengthen the powers of the states and further the ideals of republicanism? (p. 146) Answer: The electoral college was composed of men chosen by each state as according to the individual state legislatures. This gave the states some control over selection of the president. The electoral college reflected the ideals of republicanism because it created a filtering mechanism for the selection of the president, which helped to ensure that the men chosen were taken from the ranks of the leading citizens, with these men having traits of knowledge and virtue. What were the most important differences between the federal Constitution and the typical state constitutions of this period? (p. 147) Answer: Unlike most state constitutions, the federal Constitution did not have a declaration of rights containing the basic rights and liberties of the people. The federal Constitution also did not reassert the basic republican ideals upon which government rested. The Constitution also provided for an indirect method of electing the president, while the states directly elected their governors. Why did Federalist and Anti-Federalist authors adopt names such as Publius and Brutus? (p. 148) Answer: They used such names because they were associated with the ideal of Roman virtue, which had the purpose of focusing the public’s attention on the ideas behind their essays, and not the authors themselves. Why did Brutus and Publius differ about the relationship between size and republicanism? (p. 149) Answer: Brutus, the Anti-Federalist, felt that a free republic could survive only on a small scale in which the people shared the same values, culture, and history. If a republic became too large, the common good would be sacrificed because competing factions would seek to promote their own narrow interests. History had shown that it was impossible for a nation the size of the United States to remain a free republic without having a confederation-style government. Publius, the Federalist, disputed the traditional theory of republicanism advanced by Brutus. By increasing the number of factions and expanding the size of the republic, it was less likely for any one faction to further their agenda and dominate politics. This would allow politics to become a kaleidoscope of ever-shifting alliances, with the political system itself acting like a filter to yield leaders of skill and talents. Such a federal system would also act like a firewall, isolating factions within individual states and preventing them from poisoning other states. 99 .

How does The Looking Glass for 1787 portray the Anti-Federalists? (p. 150) Answer: The Anti-Federalists were denounced as “Shaysites” by the cartoon and made to look silly, with one Anti-Federalist character having his bottom exposed to his Federalist opponents. The cartoon also implies that Anti-Federalists would lead Connecticut toward a shadowy future, which is symbolized by dark clouds. In contrast, the Federalists proclaim “Comply with Congress” and pull the state toward a bright sun. Why did urban artisans support the Constitution? (p. 151) Answer: Urban artisans in places such as New York City felt that a strong government could protect their economic interests from foreign competition. These artisans sang that “All Arts Shall Flourish in Columbia’s Land.” Why did New York Anti-Federalists compromise on the question of amendments? (p. 152) Answer: New York Anti-Federalists compromised on the question of amendments because if they had insisted on amendments before ratification, Federalists would likely have stood their ground and the convention might have failed to ratify the Constitution. Why was there no anti-Constitution movement after ratification? (p. 153) Answer: There was no such movement because the Anti-Federalists conceded that they would now have to work within the framework of the Constitution. They also realized that continued opposition to the Constitution might lead to anarchy, which most AntiFederalists wanted to avoid just like the Federalists. The Anti-Federalists thus were more concerned with securing future amendments to the Constitution. Review Questions and Answers 1.

Americans in the post-revolutionary era looked to Rome for inspiration in building a virtuous republic. How were these ideas reflected in American art and architecture in this period? Answer: After the Revolution, the decorative elements of home furnishings that copied British fashions were replaced with the symbols that represented the new republican values. For example, the fancy carvings in a chest of drawers of the colonial era might be replaced by the goddess of liberty along with a set of carvings that illustrate the prosperity that republicanism. Jefferson’s design for the new Virginia Capitol was a visible symbol of a virtuous republic with its reforming of architecture with republican values. As far as art, educators used illustrations to reinforce a republican message. For example, the bald eagle from the Great Seal might be used in a book of alphabet rhymes. The design of the Great Seal also reflected virtue. It depicted an American eagle clutching an olive branch and thirteen arrows, which symbolized the new government’s power to make war and negotiate peace. The thirteen states 100 .

are represented by the same number of stars, stripes, and arrows. The fact that the eagle bore a shield symbolized that “the United States ought to rely on their own Virtue.” 2.

What were the most notable achievements and failures of the Confederation government? Answer: There were not many notable achievements of the Confederation government. It was able to end the taxation without representation imposed by the British government, but because Congress had no power to tax Americans, it relied on requisitions made to the states to fund government business. This failed miserably, and few states complied with these requisitions in a timely manner, which led to a shortage of funds in Congress. Because of the dire lack of funding, Congress was forced to print almost $250 million in paper currency, which had no gold or silver backing. Staggering inflation occurred as a result of this, and the Continental dollars had very low purchasing power. Other economic issues arose due to the boycotts of British goods and the disruption of trade during wartime. The economic downturn then led to frustrations boiling over in such uprisings as Shays’s Rebellion. Despite its failure, Shays’s Rebellion was a major impetus to those eager to reform the structure of the Articles of Confederation and create a more powerful central government. There were also various military issues faced by the nation during the Confederation period. There was not a powerful navy to protect American commerce, which meant that ships were often attacked by pirates, especially from the Barbary States of Africa. American sailors who could not pay the ransom required by Barbary pirates were taken captive and moved to North African prisons or they were sold into slavery. The American navy was too weak to challenge these pirates, which was a source of embarrassment for the new nation. The nation also faced threats along its borders from Indians, the British, and the Spanish in North America. Because Congress had little power to make the states follow the treaties it had negotiated, Americans did not pay prewar debts and compensate Loyalists for property confiscated during the war. Britain used the non-repayment to justify keeping control of its forts in the Old Northwest, which allowed it to continue a lucrative fur trade with the Indians. Issues with the Indians were also prevalent because of the fact that the Treaty of Paris was unfavorable to their interests. The treaty gave the entire Old Northwest territory to the United States, and the American diplomats were not sympathetic to Indians’ claims. Indians organized to resist the encroachment on their lands, and the postRevolution period was one of continued conflict between Indians and Americans.

What were the most divisive issues the Constitutional Convention faced and what compromises did the delegates reach to solve them? 101 .

Answer: There were a few divisive issues. One was the question of how the states would be represented in the legislatures. The small states favored the one stateone vote idea, while the large states wanted representation to be in proportion to their populations. The compromise that was reached resulted in there being two houses: one determined by population, and an upper house with equal state representation. Another major issue was slavery. The issue was whether to count slaves in the apportionment of the new lower house. The Southern states wanted slaves to be counted, while opponents of slavery wanted to see slaves taxed as property but did not wish to count them when calculating representation in the new lower house. The convention settled on a solution in which slaves were counted as three-fifths of a person for purposes of taxation and legislative apportionment. The executive branch needed a compromise as well. Some people wanted a plural executive, which could better represent the different regional interests of the nation. The method to elect the executive was also a contested issue. The convention settled on a unitary executive, who was chosen by electors that were chosen by state legislators. 4.

Which groups in society tended to support or oppose the Constitution? Answer: Support for the Constitution was strongest along coastal regions and frontiers exposed to threats from external enemies (such as Indians) and among the smaller states. These were often merchants and artisans in regions tied to commerce, such as seacoasts and inland areas close to navigable rivers, who sought a stronger union to protect their economic interests. Officers of the Continental Army who had dealt with a weak Congress under the Articles also supported the Constitution. Anti-Federalists were a diverse coalition that opposed any effort to centralize authority and lessen the power of the states. This included backcountry farmers, particularly those less closely connected to major commercial markets. State politicians, especially the newly empowered men of moderate wealth and more humble origins who dominated politics in states such as Pennsylvania and New York, were strongly Anti-Federalist. Also, wealthy planters in the South who feared that a distant and powerful government would not represent their interests became Anti-Federalists.

Anti-Federalists were alarmed by the power of the federal government. Do you think the Anti-Federalist objections to the Constitution have any validity today? Answer: The debate over the role of the federal government vs. states’ rights continues today. Rather than accept the need for an overly powerful central 102 .

government, many people would agree with the Anti-Federalists that the bulk of governmental functions should reside with the states. MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

How did George Washington embody the ideas of republicanism? Answer: George Washington epitomized the ideal of virtue. He had a reputation for public virtue, and his ability to command the respect of his troops had saved the Continental Army in its more difficult campaigns during the Revolutionary war. He used a plea of “reason and virtue” to prevent a possible military coup by the Continental Army’s officers, who were angry at Congress regarding their pay and pensions. Washington’s passionate speech quelled the Newburgh conspiracy and allowed civic virtue to triumph over corruption. He later resigned from office to take leave of “the employments of public life” and go back to a simple life of the plow. Washington was seen as placing the good of the nation ahead of personal glory by turning over his military commission to Congress after the war. Washington, like the Roman general Cincinnatus, had returned to his farm after serving as supreme commander of the republic’s army.

What impact did republican ideals and nationalism have on American culture after the Revolution? Answer: The republican emphasis on virtue permeated American culture. The first state constitutions in places such as Massachusetts and Virginia contained declarations of rights in which the ideal of virtue was literally written into American law. These declarations outlined the rights of citizens and also taught citizens the premises of virtuous republican government. Virtue was also reflected in the nation’s art, architecture, and fashion. After the Revolution, the decorative elements of home furnishings that copied British fashions were replaced with the symbols that represented the new republican values. For example, the fancy carvings in a chest of drawers of the colonial era might be replaced by the goddess of liberty along with a set of carvings that illustrate the prosperity that republicanism. Education was also linked with virtue in the new nation. The Massachusetts Constitution expressly linked republicanism, virtue, and education by providing public primary education for boys and girls. In Virginia, Thomas Jefferson sought to have a publicly funded system of education where white children (including boys and girls) would be educated at public expense for three years. However, Jefferson’s bill never passed in the state legislature. Enlightenment ideas were also used to further the concept of virtue. Jefferson and other American Founders felt that people should cultivate their innate morality to 103 .

become enlightened citizens. Such a fusion of Lockean psychology and Enlightenment moral theory resulted in the belief that education could shape morality and mold character. This led to the founding of new educational institutions to help create an enlightened citizenry. North Carolina, Georgia, and Vermont established public institutions of higher education, while private colleges were created in Massachusetts (Williams), Kentucky (Transylvania), South Carolina (the College of Charleston), and Maine (Bowdoin). In schools, educators used patriotic lessons with illustrations that reinforced their republican message. The Great Seal of America became the new nation’s official symbol of virtue and had designs representing the new government’s power to make war and negotiate peace. Women also had new opportunities, as reformers sought ambitious plans to educate the nation’s female population. People like Benjamin Rush felt that women should be familiar with the political ideas of republicanism, and so new institutions were created, such as the Philadelphia Young Ladies Academy. This school offered classes in music, dance, needlework, rhetoric, oratory, and history. Other Americans used religion to foster virtue in the new nation. Some ministers believed that religion was closely tied with the morals of the people, though postrevolutionary America remained a predominantly Protestant culture where religious dissent was only somewhat tolerated. Some states continued to bar Catholics and Jews from public office because the underlying notion was that only Protestants had the necessary virtue to seek the public good. This idea slowly changed as America moved toward the separation of church and state, and religious tests requiring potential office holders to swear a belief in the divinity of Jesus were abolished in many states. 3.

What does Shays’s Rebellion reveal about the problems of the Confederation government? Answer: The rebellion was a result of the weak Confederation government created by the Articles. Because Congress did not have the power to tax, it could not solve the economic issues plaguing the nation after the war. This resulted in frustrations boiling over when families saw their farms seized by their creditors. Protestors like Daniel Shays believed they were protecting the “good of the commonwealth” and opposing the “tyrannical government.” Shays’s Rebellion was a major impetus to those eager to reform the structure of the Articles of Confederation and create a more powerful central government.

Who were the Anti-Federalists and why did they oppose the Constitution? Answer: Anti-Federalists were a diverse coalition that opposed any effort to centralize authority and lessen the power of the states, as proposed in the Constitution. This included backcountry farmers, particularly those less closely connected to major commercial markets. State politicians, especially the newly empowered men of moderate wealth and more humble origins who dominated 104 .

politics in states such as Pennsylvania and New York, were strongly AntiFederalist. Also, wealthy planters in the South who feared that a distant and powerful government would not represent their interests became Anti-Federalists. 5.

Did the ideas embodied in the Constitution mark a break with traditional republicanism and Revolutionary era constitutionalism, or were they a logical outgrowth of them? Answer: The ideas in the Constitution did mark somewhat of a break with traditional republicanism and Revolutionary era constitutionalism. The Federalists felt that virtue alone was a weak foundation for republicanism, and so they devised a system of checks and balances to protect the republican government against corruption. The Constitution also created a strong central government, which was a major departure from Revolutionary era constitutionalism, where the tyranny of a British-style central authority was to be avoided at all costs.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 5 • • • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 5 Read the Document George Washington, The Newburgh Address (1783) Read the Document Noah Webster, An American School Teacher Calls for an American Language, 1789 View the Map Territorial Claims in Eastern America after the Treaty of Paris View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Reactions to Shays’s Rebellion Read the Document Military Reports on Shays’s Rebellion Read the Document Virginia or Randolph Plan Watch the Video Lecture Slavery and the Constitution Read the Document Patrick Henry Speaks Against the Constitution Read the Document Federalist No. 10 View the Map Interactive Map: Ratification of the Constitution

105 .

CHAPTER SIX THE NEW REPUBLIC: AN AGE OF POLITICAL PASSION, 1789–1800 I. Launching the New Government A. Choosing the First President B. The First Federal Elections: Completing the Constitution C. Filling Out the Branches of Government II. Hamilton’s Ambitious Program A. Hamilton’s Vision for the New Republic B. The Assumption of State Debts C. Madison’s Opposition D. The Bank, the Mint, and the Report on Manufactures E. Jefferson and Hamilton: Contrasting Visions of the Republic III. Partisanship without Parties A. A New Type of Politician B. The Growth of the Partisan Press C. The Democratic-Republican Societies IV. Conflicts at Home and Abroad A. The French Revolution in America B. Adams versus Clinton: A Contest for Vice President C. Diplomatic Controversies and Triumphs D. Violence along the Frontier V. Cultural Politics in a Passionate Age A. Political Fashions and Fashionable Politics B. Literature, Education, and Gender C. Federalists, Republicans, and the Politics of Race VI. The Stormy Presidency of John Adams A. Washington’s Farewell Address B. The XYZ Affair and Quasi-War with France C. The Alien and Sedition Acts D. The Disputed Election of 1800 E. Gabriel’s Rebellion The adoption of the Constitution did little to lessen the divisions in America that had arisen during ratification. The Federalist supporters of the Constitution splintered into two opposing groups. One side rallied around Alexander Hamilton, who became the chief theorist and driving force for an ambitious Federalist agenda. For Hamilton and his allies, the adoption of the Constitution was simply the first step in creating a powerful central government. These new Federalists envisioned America as a great commercial empire 106 .

that would, inspired by Britain’s lead, develop a strong military and pursue economic development aggressively. Opposing this bold agenda was a group that coalesced around Thomas Jefferson, who, with his friend James Madison, a former ally of Hamilton, helped define the core of the Republican opposition. This movement, although lacking the coherence and formal organization of a modern political party, battled its Federalist opponents over political, economic, and constitutional issues. Republicans sought to limit the powers of the new federal government and opposed the creation of a powerful financial and military state. The radicalism of the French Revolution further polarized American political life, and political passions intensified during the turbulent 1790s. Federalists denounced the excesses of revolutionary France even as Republicans affirmed their support for France. By the end of the 1790s, the partisan animosities had grown intense, as reflected in the pro-Federalist political cartoon, The Times, A Political Portrait. In the cartoon, group of American volunteers rides out to confront an invading French Army. As they march forward, they trample a Republican printer, while a dog urinates on his newspaper. The artist shows Republican James Madison attempting to block the progress of America’s troops with a giant pen, while Republicans Albert Gallatin and Thomas Jefferson work from behind to achieve the same goal. The text at the bottom announces the triumph of American government and warns traitors that they will receive their just punishments. After a decade of Federalist domination, Americans in 1800 turned to Thomas Jefferson, head of the Republican opposition, as their leader. In a close election, power was peacefully transferred from the Federalists to their opponents, and Jefferson became the nation’s third president. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 6, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

Did the Washington administration and the first Congress neutralize or exacerbate Anti-Federalist fears?

What were the main features of Hamilton’s economic program?

How did the press encourage partisanship?

How did the French Revolution influence American politics?

Why did reading novels seem so threatening in the 1790s?

Why did Federalists enact the Sedition Act, and was it constitutional?

107 .

Topics for Classroom Lectures 1.

Prepare a lecture on the distinctive role of New England in American life during the early national period. In his history of the Civil War, Battle Cry of Freedom, James M. McPherson commented on traditional perceptions regarding regional distinction: Through most of American history, the South has seemed different from the rest of the United States with “a separate and unique identity . . . which appeared to be out of the mainstream of American experience.” But when did the Northern stream become the mainstream? From a broader perspective, it may have been the North that was exceptional and unique before the Civil War. Was New England already unique by 1789? How did climate, geography, economics, and religion contribute to the region’s distinction? Why did New England lean toward a more centralized government than the South or West? How successful would the region be in appealing to sympathies of the South and West? What did this predict about the Civil War?

Prepare a lecture examining the American West. Again, in anticipation of studying the Civil War, focus on the distinctions between the West and the rest of the nation. Even though the South and West generally voted alike in political elections, to what extent were their interests and concerns really similar? Anticipate the emergence of the West as the region caught in the middle during the Civil War, a region without strong political similarities or allegiances to either the North or the South.

Prepare a presentation focusing on Alexander Hamilton’s financial policy and the sources of opposition to it. Who were the major critics of the program, what region of the country did they represent, and what was the socioeconomic background of their constituency? To what extent did the debate over financial policy contribute to the emergence of political parties?

Prepare a lecture focusing on the emergence of states’ rights political philosophy during the early national period. Using the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, discuss the concepts of state nullification of federal law and interposition. Historically, have we considered the use of these principles to be constitutional? Why or why not? Have we historically had a clear understanding in the United States about where sovereignty lies? Use this opportunity to help students anticipate the reemergence of these issues prior to the Civil War and during the Civil Rights Movement.

Explain how the painting “Liberty Displaying the Arts and Sciences” shows the cultural achievements of the new nation. 108 .

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Have a class discussion focusing on the Whiskey Rebellion. Among questions for student consideration, include the following: a. Were the people of western Pennsylvania justified in protesting the excise tax on whiskey? b. Was the Washington administration justified in using force to put down the rebellion? c. Two men involved in the rebellion were found to be guilty of treason. Did their participation in the rebellion constitute treason? Why or why not? d. Who were the rebels? What was their socioeconomic background? With which class did the sympathies of the Federalists rest? e. To what extent is a democratic government obligated to respond to the will of the people? To what extent are the people of a republic bound to support and obey the government they create? f. What modern-day issues continue to reflect American ambiguities regarding the power of government versus the will of the people?

Have students discuss the Federalist use of the Alien and Sedition Acts against the Republican Party. Among questions for consideration are the following: a. How did Federalists justify the enactment of the Alien and Sedition Acts? How did they justify their use against members of the Republican Party? b. Have students connect the Sedition Act to the Bill of Rights. Was the Sedition Act unconstitutional? c. Does war, or the threat of war, justify an abridgment of civil liberties? Why or why not? At what point does the exercise of free speech become treasonous? Does freedom of speech take precedence over national security? d. Tie this issue to the future by discussing World War I and the Sedition Act of 1918. Pass out a copy of both the 1798 act and the 1918 act, and ask students to comment on the two. Even though most students will not have yet studied World War I, ask them if they think the two laws were passed under similar circumstances. Was one law more justified than the other? Were both laws justified? Was neither law justified? e. Have students consider the twenty-first-century war in Iraq. Are current laws or government policies comparable to the Alien and Sedition Acts? How do students feel about Americans who publicly oppose the war? Do actions such as those sanctioned by the Alien and Sedition Acts make the United States safer? What is the impact of such actions on U.S. power in the world?

Compare and contrast the Federalist and Republican parties with the modern-day Republican and Democratic parties. Is there any similarity between the issues that divided Americans in the eighteenth century and the issues that divide Americans today? In making the comparisons, look at policies related to federalism, economics, socioeconomic sympathies, foreign affairs, and regionalism. 109 .

With regard to both Federalist and Republican arguments over the Sedition Act, which one seems more persuasive? Why?

Topics for Term Papers and Class Projects 1.

Research the status of women in the late eighteenth century, focusing particularly on the ideal of “republican motherhood.” How did the experience of resistance and revolution change American women and cultural perceptions of them? How had the image of motherhood changed in America since the seventeenth century? How did these changes in the image of motherhood combine with the radical political changes of the Revolutionary era to create new expectations about the role of women in America?

Examine Jay’s Treaty as an example of early American foreign policy. What were the weaknesses of the document? Were there any strengths? Were there sectional implications in the provisions of the document? Overall, was the treaty good for the United States or did it hurt the country?

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Joyce Appleby, Inheriting the Revolution: The First Generation of Americans (2000). Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism (1993). Joseph J. Ellis, Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation (2000). Richard Hofstadter, The Idea of a Party System (1969). Linda Kerber, Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America (1980). Phyllis Lee Levin, Abigail Adams (1991). Thomas Slaughter, The Whiskey Rebellion: Frontier Epilogue to the American Revolution (1986). James Morton Smith, Freedom’s Fetters: The Alien and Sedition Laws and American Civil Liberties (1950). Audio-Visual Resources American Visions: The Republic of Virtue, Time, Inc./BBC/Thirteen WNET, New York, 1997, 60 minutes. The second episode of Robert Hughes’s series on American art examines the work of the early republican era. This video looks at the impact of early American political ideals on the development of national art. The Duel: The American Experience, Oregon Public Broadcasting, 1999, 60 minutes. This video chronicles the relationship between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr, a political rivalry that culminated in the most famous duel in American history.

110 .

Learning Objectives and Answers After a careful examination of Chapter 6, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

Did the Washington administration and the first Congress neutralize or exacerbate Anti-Federalist fears? Answer: For the most part, the Washington administration and the first Congress were able to neutralize the Anti-Federalists’ fears. To pacify the Anti-Federalists, James Madison helped frame the first ten amendments to the Constitution (later known as the Bill of Rights), which included protections for both basic individual liberties and for the states. These amendments resolved the most important issue remaining from the struggle between Federalists and Anti-Federalists. To allay fears that the federal courts would “swallow all the State Constitutions,” Congress created a three-tier system of district courts, circuit courts, and the Supreme Court. In this system, each state would have at least one district court. For the executive branch, Congress created new cabinet positions to advise the president on various policy matters, such as foreign affairs, the economy, and the military. For these cabinet positions, Washington assembled a group of leaders who had distinguished themselves in American public life during the Revolutionary War. Washington’s choices varied across the political spectrum, with Hamilton representing the extreme nationalist position and Jefferson being far more sympathetic to state power. It turned out that the federal government was far less imposing than that feared by Anti-Federalists, who envisioned a large and expensive government with a vast bureaucracy. In fact, the scale of the new government was modest, and its bureaucracy was small, with about 350 officers.

What were the main features of Hamilton’s economic program? Answer: One of the main features was his idea that the nation should consolidate the war debt of the individual states and the federal government. This meant that the federal government would fund any outstanding debts that the states owed. Creditors who held state paper would exchange it for a new type of paper that promised to pay interest until the bearer redeemed the original value of the note. Hamilton’s “Second Report on Public Credit” focused on financing this scheme and included a plan for taxing whiskey. Hamilton envisioned a permanently funded national debt where income from taxes would service the interest. This would allow the federal government to pay its other expenses. The most controversial feature of Hamilton’s plan related to the issue of speculation in these paper notes. After the adoption of the Constitution, a few 111 .

financial speculators bought large amounts of this devalued paper while hoping that the new government would later redeem it at face value for a huge profit. Hamilton did, in fact, insist that the government redeem the debt at full face value. Republicans disagreed with Hamilton and favored paying the full value of the debt to the original holders, but not to the speculators. But Hamilton defeated his opponents, and it was agreed that state debt certificates would be exchanged for federal ones at full face value. Hamilton also recommended that the federal government charter a national bank, called the Bank of the United States. This bank would serve as a depository for government funds, boost confidence in government securities, make loans, and provide a stable national currency. The government would own part of the stock in the new bank, but private investors could buy the majority of stock. Hamilton also proposed the idea of a federal mint. The mint would create a currency that would include a variety of coins in different denominations emblazoned with patriotic symbols. The final part of Hamilton’s economic plan called for a comprehensive program that would encourage domestic industry by providing incentives for industrial development and tariffs to help American industry compete against cheaper imported foreign goods. But Congress refused to raise these tariffs sharply and was not very interested in Hamilton’s scheme to encourage industrial development. 3.

How did the press encourage partisanship? Answer: As the number of newspapers increased, the press facilitated the rise of partisan politics. Many of these papers chose to align themselves with one or the other main political movements in the country. For example, John Fenno’s Gazette of the United States articulated the Federalist point of view, while Philip Freneau created the National Gazette to combat Fenno’s influence by rallying opposition to Hamilton and the Federalists. This led to a war of words between the two publications that intensified the politically charged atmosphere. Federalists and Republicans realized that political success was correlated with managing public opinion. Another example is the Federalist William Cobbett (who wrote under the pen name Peter Porcupine), who used the press to label the Republicans as atheists and radical democrats who sought to destroy government. His attacks resulted in harsh replies from his Republican adversaries.

How did the French Revolution influence American politics? Answer: The French Revolution had a major impact on American politics. At first, American support for the French Revolution had partisan ties, with proFrench Republicans even addressing each other as “citizen,” a custom borrowed 112 .

from revolutionary France. After the French Revolution became more radical and violent, many Americans changed their tune, so to speak. Federalists were angered when King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were executed in 1793. The French Revolution did become a symbol for both Republicans and Federalists. Republicans celebrated the democratic ideals of the Revolution and considered its violence a small price to pay for liberty. In fact, Philadelphia’s Republican women dressed in red, white, and blue to welcome France’s new minister to the United States after the execution of Louis XVI. Federalists despised the French Revolution’s violence and radicalism and opposed it to the point of wanting to align America with Britain. When revolutionary France declared war on Britain in 1793, American attitudes toward France became a political lightning rod, focusing the political leanings of both Republicans and Federalists. Republicans defined the Revolution by its ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity; Federalists focused on the Revolution’s bloody policies and saw it as confirmation of the danger of taking liberty and equality too far. 5.

Why did reading novels seem so threatening in the 1790s? Answer: The novels often wove political themes prominently into their tales and also enabled women to further their causes, which seemed threatening to the status quo of the time. For example, Judith Sargent Murray became an outspoken advocate of equality and education for women and used the novel to spread her ideals about the equality of the sexes. Murray used characters such as Margaretta to show that intelligence and superior education could help a woman better her life and increase her available opportunities.

Why did Federalists enact the Sedition Act, and was it constitutional? Answer: They enacted the Sedition Act because they needed to protect America from foreign and domestic uprisings and prevent people from conspiring against the government. The act made it illegal to “write, print, utter, or publish” statements “false, scandalous, or malicious” against “the government of the United States, or either house of Congress of the United States, or the President.” Federalists used the Sedition Act to prosecute Republican sympathizers. In modern times, the Sedition Act would be considered unconstitutional because it tried to use the government to control political opinions, which conflicted with the ideas of free speech and theory of freedom of the press.

113 .

Crawl Questions and Answers Why did Madison shift his views on the need for a Bill of Rights? (p. 158) Answer: Madison had originally opposed Anti-Federalist calls for amendments during the struggle over ratification. However, this changed after ratification, and he felt the Bill of Rights were necessary to eliminate the Anti-Federalist suspicions of the new federal government. Why were some ardent Anti-Federalists not satisfied with Madison’s proposed amendments? (p. 159) Answer: The most ardent Anti-Federalists in Congress feared central power and wanted the federal government to weakened, which the amendments did not accomplish. Why did Hamilton believe that America needed to create a national bank? (p. 160) Answer: He believed that a national bank would help stabilize the economy of the new nation and link the interests of the wealthy to the prosperity of the new nation. The Bank of the United States would be a depository for government funds, boost confidence in government securities, make loans, and provide the nation with a stable national currency. How does Hamilton’s own life help explain his vision for America’s future? (p. 161) Answer: Hamilton envisioned America as a powerful nation with a strong government and a vigorous commercial economy. Hamilton’s background was that of a self-made man who lacked the aristocratic upbringing of his fellow government leaders. He was from a modest background and was the illegitimate son of a Scottish merchant and a planter’s daughter. Despite being orphaned at an early age, he became an apprentice clerk in a merchant firm, where he was talented, ambitious, and hard working. He later attended Kings College in New York City, and during the American Revolution, he quickly rose through the ranks of the Continental Army to become Washington’s personal aide. He was a successful lawyer and had many friends and allies within New York’s merchant community. Hamilton was an American nationalist and elitist who viewed democracy with suspicion. He believed that there would always be class divisions. All of these traits were reflected in his vision for America’s future. Why did Virginians, including Madison and Jefferson, oppose Hamilton’s economic program? (p. 162) Answer: Madison felt that that Hamilton’s program would undermine the republican values that the Constitution was designed to protect. He also did not agree with Hamilton’s policy of assumption, which could cause a speculative frenzy. Madison believed that Hamilton’s system would create inequalities of wealth and encourage corruption. Madison and his fellow Virginian Jefferson shared a similar republican vision of an agrarian republic, which was in stark contrast to Hamilton’s vision for the country as a powerful fiscal-military state.

114 .

What did Madison and Jefferson gain by moving the location of the new capital to what is now Washington, D.C.? (p. 163) Answer: Jefferson and Madison feared that keeping the nation’s capital in New York City would cause the government to be dominated by commercial and financial interests. Moving the capital to a site on the Potomac River would lessen the influence of financial interests over the government. How did Hamilton and Jefferson differ in their interpretations of the phrase “necessary and proper”? (p. 164) Answer: Jefferson took “necessary and proper” to an almost literal extent when interpreting Congressional power granted by the Constitution. Jefferson felt that if the Constitution did not grant a given power to the federal government, then, according to the theory of strict construction, the Tenth Amendment reserved that power to the states and the people. Conversely, Hamilton supported a “loose” theory in which he interpreted the language of the Constitution broadly. This meant that the federal government should have enormous latitude in determining the appropriate means for accomplishing any legitimate constitutional goal. Hamilton believed the Constitution implied powers that were not specifically listed, such as the power to charter a bank. Hamilton argued that “the intention is to be sought in the instrument itself.” The actual text of the Constitution, not the arguments of Federalists, Anti-Federalists, or state ratification conventions, should be given primary consideration in constitutional interpretation. What were the most important points of disagreement between Hamilton and Jefferson? (p. 165) Answer: They differed in various ways. Hamilton favored giving the national government additional powers, while Jefferson wanted to limit federal power and protect state authority. As far as the economy, Hamilton envisioned a thriving commercial republic (like that of Britain), but Jefferson wanted us to be a nation of independent yeoman farmers. Regarding Constitutional interpretation, Hamilton believed in a broad, or loose, construction of the Constitution, while Jefferson wanted a strict construction of the Constitution, with the powers of the new government being limited to those clearly expressed by the Constitution. In foreign matters, Jefferson was a big fan of the French ways. Hamilton was an Anglophile who believed that Britain’s economic system should be a guide for America. What role did the partisan press play in the politics of the 1790s? (p. 166) Answer: The partisan press played a major role in the politics of the 1790s. Many newspapers chose to align themselves with one or the other main political movements in the country. For example, John Fenno’s Gazette of the United States articulated the Federalist point of view, while Philip Freneau created the National Gazette to combat Fenno’s influence by rallying opposition to Hamilton and the Federalists. This led to a war of words between the two publications that intensified the politically charged atmosphere. Federalists and Republicans realized that political success was correlated 115 .

with managing public opinion. Another example is the Federalist William Cobbett (who wrote under the pen name Peter Porcupine), who used the press to label the Republicans as atheists and radical democrats who sought to destroy government. He called the leading Republican newspaper, the Aurora, “a lewd and common strumpet” that was full of falsehood and slander. His attacks resulted in harsh replies from his Republican adversaries. Why did the Federalists oppose the Democratic-Republican Societies? (p. 167) Answer: The Federalists saw these societies as a dangerous means for sowing the “seeds of jealousy and distrust of the government.” Such societies would destroy the people’s confidence in their government and lead to an outgrowth of radical ideas. Federalists disagreed with the concept of this type of political organization and supported the more traditional republican ideal of virtue in which citizens trusted the wisdom of their leaders. Did the French Revolution fulfill or betray the ideal of the American Revolution? (p. 168) Answer: At first, it epitomized the ideals of the American Revolution, in that France was changing from a monarchy to a republic, just as had happened in America. So, in a way, the French Revolution grew “as it were out of the American Revolution.” When the French Revolution turned more radical and violent, it became a polarizing symbol for both Republicans and Federalists. Republicans celebrated the democratic ideals of the Revolution and considered its violence as a small price to pay for liberty, but Federalists despised the French Revolution’s violence and radicalism and saw it as representing the danger of taking liberty and equality too far. In a sense, the French Revolution both fulfilled and betrayed the ideals of the American Revolution. Why did Federalists become such ardent critics of the French Revolution? (p. 169) Answer: Federalists considered the French Revolution’s bloodshed to be representative of the danger of taking liberty and equality too far. How did French ideas influence American political culture? (p. 170) Answer: French ideas had a major impact on American political culture, especially during the French Revolution. For example, pro-French Republicans began addressing each other as “citizen,” a custom taken from revolutionary France. When France’s new minister to the United States Edmund Genêt arrived two days after news of the execution of Louis XVI had reached the United States, the Republican women of Philadelphia welcomed him while wearing red, white, and blue clothing and tricolor pins to show support for France. Such support for France in the states resulted in sarcastic responses from Federalists, such as one commentator who described “these fiery frenchified dames” as “monsters in human shape.” In fact, Americans closely identified with the ideals of the French Revolution, which came to symbolize many of the hopes and fears of Americans reflecting on their own revolutionary heritage. Republicans defined the Revolution by its ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity; Federalists focused on the Revolution’s bloody policies and saw it as confirmation of the danger of taking liberty and equality too far. 116 .

Why did Republicans oppose Jay’s Treaty? (p. 171) Answer: Republicans felt that the treaty was too generous to the interests of the British. They also questioned the role of the Federalist contingent of the House of Representatives in the treaty-making process, believing that Federalists always intended to be generous regarding the concessions of the British. How did American and Indian views of the Treaty of Greenville differ? (p. 172) Answer: The Native Americans believed that the treaty meant they would now join with the United States in one great family. In fact, Native Americans gave a wampum belt to American negotiators at the Treaty of Greenville ceremony to signify this idea. Conversely, the American view was that the gift of wampum was a submissive gesture, meaning that the Native Americans were joining the American family as dependents, not equals. Why did the Whiskey Rebellion present such a problem for Republicans? (p. 173) Answer: The Whiskey Rebellion damaged the reputation of the Democratic-Republican Societies, which the Federalists blamed for causing the discord leading to the rebellion. When negotiations with the protestors failed, Washington dispatched the militia and stopped the resistance to the federal government. Why did Federalist enforcement of the whiskey tax fail in Kentucky? (p. 174) Answer: In Kentucky, there was more support for people to resist taxes they disliked, and few citizens were willing to act as tax collectors. Also, juries were unlikely to convict people who refused to pay the taxes there. Thus, Washington’s efforts to peacefully persuade the rebels to give up eventually failed. This meant he had to call in the militia to put down the rebellion. How did fashion become politicized in the 1790s? (p. 175) Answer: Americans wore the latest Paris or London styles to represent their political allegiances and foreign policy preferences. Republican supporters of the French Revolution adorned their hats with a tricolor cockade, while Federalists wore a black cockade (a decoration soldiers had used during the American Revolution). By 1800, a person wearing the “wrong” type of ornament on one’s hat in the streets of Philadelphia could easily cause a riot. How is virtue represented in Maria Crowninshield’s allegory of female education? (p. 176) Answer: The needlework conformed to the traditional ideas of female education. Another aspect to the piece is the fact the young girl in Crowninshield’s needlework is reading a copy of English author Hannah Moore’s Strictures on the Modern System of Female Education, which advocated an expansion of educational opportunities for women. Why did Republicans oppose normalizing relations with Saint-Domingue? (p. 177) Answer: The Republicans were loyal to France (which had been overthrown in SaintDomingue), and they wanted to protect the practice of slavery. Republicans feared that 117 .

American slaves might do the same as the slaves in Saint-Domingue, which would have been a nightmare for American slave owners. Northern Republicans were also concerned, with Congressman Albert Gallatin saying that supporters of L’Ouverture’s ideas might “spread their views among the Negro people there [in America] and excite dangerous insurrections among them.” What symbols does the artist use to represent the achievements of the arts and science in the new American nation? (p. 178) Answer: The artist shows the goddess of liberty holding a liberty pole topped by a liberty cap, which is symbolic of the American Revolution. The painting shows copies of the writings of Homer and Virgil, two of the greatest authors of the classical world. Books by John Milton and Shakespeare represent modern literary achievements, and a telescope is depicted as a symbol of the advancement of science. What advice did Washington offer in his Farewell Address? (p. 179) Answer: He advised that America “steer clear of permanent alliances, with any portion of the foreign world” to avoid divisive foreign policy disputes. Basically, he wanted America to pursue a policy free of irrational hatreds or allegiances to foreign nations. He also attacked the growing factionalism, partisanship, and regional tensions in American politics. How does the artist represent the future of America in this portrait of George Washington? (p. 180) Answer: The artist uses allegorical symbols to suggest that the nation had weathered its worst storms before and during Washington’s presidency. With the appearance of the rainbow, he indicated that America had a bright future. How did the XYZ Affair affect American politics? (p. 181) Answer: The XYZ Affair caused Americans to unite behind Adams’s decision to prepare for war against France. “Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute,” became the rallying cry. Though Hamilton’s allies among the Federalists wanted a declaration of war against France, Adams resisted them. Instead, an undeclared naval war broke out between France and America, which was known as the Quasi-War (1798 to 1800). The war resulted in the creation of a new Department of the Navy. Congress also tripled the size of the regular army and created a special provisional army of 50,000 men, which was led by Washington. Why did the Federalists believe that it was vital to American security to restrict immigration? (p. 182) Answer: They felt they needed to protect America from foreign and domestic subversion. They wanted to prevent citizens and alien residents from conspiring against the government and starting any incursions. Federalists also wanted to limit the speech of Republican sympathizers who might start uprisings against the government.

118 .

What strategies were used to challenge the Sedition Act? (p. 183) Answer: Republicans first sought to petition Congress to repeal it and then tried to use the courts to challenge its constitutionality. When this failed, they tried to pass two separate documents, the Virginia Resolution (by Madison) and the Kentucky Resolution (by Jefferson), which defended the rights of the states to judge the constitutionality of federal laws. Later, Jefferson wrote a second set of Kentucky Resolutions, where he introduced the doctrine of nullification, which asserted that states could nullify unconstitutional laws. All of these efforts led to arguments about states’ rights. This theory said that the Constitution was a compact among the states and that the states had the right to judge when the federal government’s actions were unconstitutional. Why did the Federalist political cartoon show Jefferson about to burn the Constitution? (p. 184) Answer: Federalists had attacked Jefferson as an atheist and radical supporter of the French Revolution who was a friend of the devil, making him an enemy of the Constitution. What events in the 1790s helped inspire Gabriel’s Rebellion? (p. 185) Answer: The French Revolution and the struggles between Federalists and Republicans leading up to the election of 1800 helped spread ideas about liberty throughout American society, including among slave communities in the South. The most dramatic illustration of this came in Virginia in 1800. Gabriel’s Rebellion, a slave insurrection, united free blacks and slaves in a plot to liberate Richmond’s slaves. Review Questions and Answers 1.

Were Anti-Federalist fears vindicated by the events of the 1790s? Answer: Many programs that were implemented and laws that were passed in the 1790s supported and strengthened the federal government, such as the establishment of the Bank of the United States and the imposition of tariffs on imported goods in order to support manufacturing in the United States. During the 1790s, Hamilton, a Federalist, was able to implement programs that reflected his broad construction of the Constitution, that is, the belief that the Constitution allowed the federal government a great deal of power to make and enforce laws. Hamilton’s Anti-Federalist, or Republican, opponents, who believed in a strict construction that limited the powers the Constitution granted the federal government, were largely defeated. However, the partisan press and the events of the French Revolution kept the views of both groups in the public conversation.

How did the French Revolution affect domestic American politics? Answer: The French Revolution had a major impact on American politics. At first, American support for the French Revolution had partisan ties, with proFrench Republicans even addressing each other as “citizen,” a custom borrowed 119 .

from revolutionary France. After the French Revolution became more radical and violent, many Americans changed their tune, so to speak. Federalists were angered when King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were executed in 1793. The French Revolution became a symbol for both Republicans and Federalists. Republicans celebrated the democratic ideals of the Revolution and considered its violence as a small price to pay for liberty. In fact, Philadelphia’s Republican women dressed in red, white, and blue to welcome France’s new minister to the United States after the execution of Louis XVI. Federalists despised the French Revolution’s violence and radicalism and opposed it to the point of wanting to align America with Britain. When revolutionary France declared war on Britain in 1793, American attitudes toward France became a political lightning rod, focusing the political leanings of both Republicans and Federalists. Republicans defined the Revolution by its ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity; Federalists focused on the Revolution’s bloody policies and saw it as confirmation of the danger of taking liberty and equality too far. 3.

How did the novel reflect and influence ideas about women’s roles in the new republic? Answer: Women were an important audience for the novel, and they also wrote many of the most successful early novels. The novels enabled women to further their feminist causes and expand their roles in the new republic. Susanna Rowson’s heroine in Charlotte Temple reflected the idea of the foolish woman who ends up abandoned by a man she falls in love with. Such a morality tale was very popular in America among women readers. Conversely, Judith Sargent Murray became an outspoken advocate of equality and education for women and used the novel to spread her ideals about the equality of the sexes. Murray used characters such as Margaretta to show that intelligence and education could help a woman better her life and increase her available opportunities. Rather than fall prey to seduction, abandonment, and ruin, a fate typical of many female characters in popular novels, Margaretta uses her intelligence and superior education to avoid these perils. The most radical voice regarding changes in women’s roles was Mary Wollstonecraft, an English writer. She wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women, which sparked a major debate in the 1790s about the need for equality of education for men and women.

Did Republican opposition to the Sedition Act owe more to states’ rights or individual rights? Answer: Republican opposition used the idea of states’ rights, which was a new concept at the time, to preserve the rights of individuals. Because the Republicans 120 .

were not successful in defeating the Sedition Act by using Constitutional means, they articulated a new strategy in the Virginia Resolution and the Kentucky Resolution. These documents defended the rights of states to judge the constitutionality of federal laws, and to protect their citizens from the federal government. In this view of government, individual states retained all government powers, and the Constitution was a compact among these individual states, not the ultimate authority over them. When the original Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions were struck down by state legislators from New England, Jefferson authored a second version of the Virginia Resolution that asserted the right of individual states to nullify federal laws they determined were unconstitutional. Although Republican opposition was a result of the party’s desire to protect its individual members and supporters from persecution, this opposition was organized and argued as a states’ rights issue. 5.

How did Federalists view Jefferson in the election of 1800? Answer: The Federalists considered Jefferson to be an atheist and radical supporter of the French Revolution. They believed the fanatical ideas he would implement as president would destroy the Constitution. However, this changed after a deadlock occurred in the electoral vote that resulted in a tie between Jefferson and the Republican candidate for vice president, Aaron Burr. Alexander Hamilton persuaded Federalists in the sitting House of Representatives that Jefferson was the lesser of the two evils. After Jefferson then assured Federalists that he would not undermine previous Federalist policies, the House finally elected him.

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

What was Hamilton’s vision for the new republic? Answer: Hamilton envisioned America as a powerful nation with a strong government and a vigorous commercial economy (like that of Britain). Hamilton wanted to give the national government additional powers at the expense of the states. He believed in a broad, loose construction of the Constitution in which the federal government had leeway to perform its duties and interpret the Constitution. He was also an Anglophile who believed that Britain’s path to economic power ought to guide America. Hamilton was an American nationalist and elitist who viewed democracy with suspicion. He believed that there would always be class divisions. All of these traits were reflected in his vision for America’s future.

What was Jefferson’s vision for the new republic? Answer: Jefferson wanted to limit the powers of the federal government and protect state authority. Regarding the economy, he envisioned a nation of 121 .

independent yeoman farmers who worked the land rather than be “occupied at a work bench.” Jefferson also believed in a strict interpretation of the Constitution, where the powers of the new government would be limited to those clearly established by the Constitution. In foreign affairs, he enjoyed all things French and thought America’s interests were best served by supporting France. 3.

Did Jefferson’s statements about the French Revolution justify Federalist charges that he was a dangerous radical? Answer: Both Federalists and Republicans initially supported the French Revolution, seeing it as a victory for American ideals of liberty and even as an extension of the events of the American Revolution. However, as the revolution became more violent, American opinion fractured. Jefferson, in contrast to Federalists like Alexander Hamilton, argued that the bloodshed was justified. Those killed were, according to Jefferson, like war casualties in a battle against tyranny. Jefferson’s statements, in light of the events in France, were certainly troubling to many Americans, and could be interpreted as a dangerous position.

What does the Alien and Sedition Crisis reveal about political tensions in the new republic? Answer: The crisis reveals that the Federalist-controlled Congress greatly feared uprisings and revolt from pro-Republican citizens and resident aliens, as well as the press. The Federalists worried that rebels stirred up by the press might conspire against the government. As a result, the Sedition Act made it a crime to “combine or conspire together with the intent to oppose any measure or measures of the government of the United States.” The act also criminalized any attempt to “write, print, utter, or publish” statements “false, scandalous, or malicious” against “the government of the United States, or either house of Congress of the United States, or the President.” Notably, there were no penalties for attacking Republican Vice President Thomas Jefferson. Federalists used the Sedition Act to prosecute 25 people, all Republican sympathizers, including printers, outspoken politicians, and other prominent figures. The Republicans subsequently used various constitutional means to protest the Sedition Act. The Alien and Sedition Crisis led to the development of the new theory of freedom of the press.

Explain the meaning and significance of Gabriel’s Rebellion. Answer: This rebellion was significant because it revealed the extent to which ideas about liberty had spread throughout American society, including among slave communities in the South. Gabriel’s Rebellion was a slave insurrection that united free blacks and slaves in a plot to liberate slaves in Richmond, Virginia. Gabriel, the slave leader, knew about the slave uprising in Saint-Domingue and the French Revolution, as well as the ideas of the American Revolution. Gabriel, 122 .

in fact, took Patrick Henry’s famous words, “Give Me Liberty Or Give Me Death,” and reversed them to make into the rallying cry for a slave rebellion. MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 6 • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 6 View the Image George Washington’s Arrival in New York City (1789) Read the Document Alexander Hamilton, Opposing Visions for the New Nation Read the Document Thomas Jefferson, Notes on Virginia View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Jefferson and Hamilton’s Reactions to the French Revolution Read the Document The Jay Treaty Read the Document Whiskey Rebellion Address, George Washington’s 6th Annual Address to Congress View the Image Lady’s Magazine Read the Document James Wilson on woman’s legal disabilities in James Wilson, An Introductory Lecture to a Course of Law Lectures (1791) Read the Document George Washington’s Farewell Address Read the Document The Alien and Sedition Acts View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Congressional Debates Over the Sedition Act Read the Document A Virginia Slave Explains Gabriel’s Rebellion

123 .

CHAPTER SEVEN JEFFERSONIAN AMERICA: AN EXPANDING EMPIRE OF LIBERTY, 1800–1824 I. Politics in Jeffersonian America A. Liberty and Small Government B. The Jeffersonian Style C. Political Slurs and the Politics of Honor II. An Expanding Empire of Liberty A. Dismantling the Federalist Program B. The Courts: The Last Bastion of Federalist Power C. The Louisiana Purchase D. Lewis and Clark E. Indian Responses to Jeffersonian Expansion: Assimilation or Revivalism III. Dissension at Home A. Jefferson’s Attack on the Federalist Judiciary B. The Controversial Mr. Burr IV. America Confronts a World at War A. The Failure of Peaceable Coercion B. Madison’s Travails: Diplomatic Blunders Abroad and Tensions on the Frontier C. The War of 1812 D. The Hartford Convention V. The Republic Reborn: Consequences of the War of 1812 A. The National Republican Vision of James Monroe B. Diplomatic Triumphs C. Economic and Technological Innovation D. Judicial Nationalism VI. Crises and the Collapse of the National Republican Consensus A. The Panic of 1819 B. The Missouri Crisis C. Denmark Vesey’s Rebellion In 1800, Republican Thomas Jefferson won the presidential election against his Federalist opponent John Adams. After nearly a decade in opposition, Republicans celebrated their presidential triumph with toasts and songs about “Jefferson and Liberty.” Federalists, however, feared that the new president—whom they had denounced as an atheist, a tool of the French, and a supporter of Thomas Paine’s radical democratic ideas—would undo all their work of the previous decade. 124 .

President Jefferson turned out to be a rather different person from Vice President Jefferson, the leader of the Republican opposition during the Adams administration. Rather than mount a full-scale attack on Federalist policy, Jefferson adopted a less confrontational approach. In his presidential inaugural, he struck a conciliatory tone and reminded Americans: “We are all republicans—we are all federalists.” In his inaugural, Jefferson also promised the nation “a wise and frugal government.” Implementing this vision of government, however, proved difficult as he took over the reigns of power in his first term of office. The opportunity to purchase the Louisiana Territory, thus doubling the size of the new nation, led him to cast aside scruples such as the idea of strict construction, which restricted the powers of the federal government to those explicitly delegated by the Constitution. By the end of Jefferson’s second term, some Americans came to believe that the Jeffersonian Republicans had become indistinguishable from their Federalist opponents. Jefferson’s anointed successor, James Madison, made compromises that some of his supporters believed amounted to a betrayal of the ideas he had championed as a member of the Republican opposition in the 1790s. Foreign affairs proved especially vexing for both Jefferson and Madison. Each had tried to prevent American entanglement in the war raging between Britain and France. Despite their efforts, however, America was dragged into the European conflict, eventually going to war against Britain in 1812. Although the war had been fought against the British, the conspicuous losers in the conflict were the Indian tribes in the Northwest and Southwest, who lost a valuable ally in Britain and suffered military defeats by American troops. The demands of fighting the war also forced Republicans to reconsider the necessity of many aspects of Hamiltonian economic policy. By the end of the presidency of James Monroe, who became the fourth Virginian to become president, the old political labels of Republican and Federalist had become nearly meaningless, soon to be supplanted by two new political parties. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 7, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

What was the Jeffersonian vision of government?

How did Jefferson’s policy toward Indians fit into his vision of America?

Was Jefferson’s response to the Federalist judiciary consistent with his political and constitutional beliefs?

What was peaceable coercion, and why did it fail to avert war?

How did the War of 1812 change American society?

What did the Missouri crisis reveal about the tensions in American society? 125 .

Topics for Classroom Lectures 1.

Deliver a lecture on the fundamental principles of Jeffersonian democracy. Start with the premise that the evolution of American politics has generally been a movement to the left, in that we have generally directed political reform toward expanding the principle of democracy and making it more inclusive. How did the emergence of Jeffersonian democracy initiate this process? Explain Jefferson’s reverence for the yeoman farmer, his contempt for the growth of business and industry, and his vision of American political leadership as an “aristocracy of the talented.” Place Jefferson in a historical context by asking students if he was more democratic than the Federalists who preceded him and if his political ideology seems democratic to Americans today.

Discuss the Louisiana Territory and how the debate over its acquisition reflected changes in the Federalist and Republican parties during the first Jefferson administration. Why did Federalists oppose the purchase? Why did Republicans support it? Comment on the Republicans’ willingness to overlook constitutional issues in order to preserve relations with France and guarantee the growth of Republican support. To what extent were Federalists sounding like old Republicans and to what extent were Republicans sounding like old Federalists? How did gaining control of the federal government change Republicans?

Deliver a lecture on the Monroe Doctrine and why it is considered the most important piece of American foreign policy in early U.S. history. Why did Monroe issue the statement? How does it reflect diplomatic nationalism? Ask students to comment on its importance to future American relations with Latin America.

Prepare a lecture on the congressional debate that culminated in the Missouri Compromise. Outline and explain the provisions of the Tallmadge Amendment. Establish the question of debate: Did Congress have the authority to regulate the institution of slavery? Explain the use of property rights in the Fifth Amendment and the claim to equal access to new lands as the foundations of the Southern opposition to the amendment. Then, explain how the North used the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 as a legal precedent allowing congressional regulation of the institution of slavery. Was the debate over slavery in 1820 primarily a legal argument or a moral debate?

Topics for Classroom Discussion and Essays 1.

Discuss the transformation of the Republican Party between 1800 and 1824. How did Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe contribute to altering the original ideology of the Republican Party? Look at issues such as states’ rights, the agrarian ideal, the appeal to the common man, and strict construction of the Constitution, and assess 126 .

the extent to which Republican views on these issues were preserved or altered during the party’s domination of national politics between 1800 and 1824. 2.

Discuss the War of 1812 as the Second War for American Independence. What issues pushed the United States into war with Britain? Were all the factors that contributed to the war defensive, or was there evidence of some degree of aggression among War Hawks? Even though the war ended as a draw, did Americans succeed in proving anything to themselves or to Britain? What issues were resolved as a result of the war?

Many historians characterize the years from 1815 to 1824 as a period of nationalism in American history. Conduct a class discussion in which you ask students to consider the extent to which nationalism is a valid term to use in describing the United States during this period. Introduce and define the terms “nationalism” and “sectionalism.” Look at the trends that historians generally associate with nineteenth-century nationalism, and ask students to comment on the ways in which they reflect nationalism. Then, have students look at the Panic of 1819 and the Missouri Compromise and connect them to sectionalism. Were these sectional concerns new issues that temporarily interrupted nationalism, or was nationalism a temporary reprieve from the persistent aggravation of a sectionalism that dated back to colonial times?

Discuss American foreign policy between 1800 and 1824. What issues defined American foreign policy during the early nineteenth century? Was American policy defensive or aggressive? Were there sectional implications in foreign policy? How did foreign policy during this period promote nationalism?

How did Samuel Morse’s painting reflect his vision of Republicanism?

Topics for Term Papers and Class Projects 1.

Investigate the controversy surrounding Thomas Jefferson and his position on the issue of slavery. One approach to such a paper would be to research Jefferson’s thoughts and writings about slavery and liberty and explain how Jefferson was able to reconcile the two. A more personal approach would be a study of the relationship between Jefferson and his female slave Sally Hemings.

Research the life of Aaron Burr, focusing on his role in the Republican Party. Trace his career from his being chosen as Jefferson’s vice presidential running mate in 1800 to his brush with conviction for treason after the Burr conspiracy in 1807.

Look at the election of 1824 as a turning point in American political history. Use the election to explore the status of the Republican Party by 1824. How did Americans feel about the loss of democracy through the entrenchment of 127 .

Republican elitism? How would many Americans feel about Jackson’s loss of the presidency in 1824? How had the way been opened for the emergence of Jacksonian democracy? Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Stephen Ambrose, Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening Up of the American West (1996). Joseph J. Ellis, American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson (1997). William Freehling, The Road to Disunion: Secessionists at Bay, 1776–1854 (1990). Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American Controversy (1997). Ernest R. May, The Making of the Monroe Doctrine (1975). Glover Moore, The Missouri Compromise, 1819–1821 (1953). Merrill D. Peterson, The Great Triumvirate: Webster, Clay, and Calhoun (1987). Audio-Visual Resources Jefferson’s Bloodline. Frontline Series. Thomas Lennon, 2000, 60 minutes. This video explores the controversy regarding Thomas Jefferson’s relationship with his slave Sally Hemings. Lewis and Clark: The Journey of the Corps of Discovery. Florentine Films/Ken Burns/WETA, 1997. This four-part series provides an in-depth investigation into the Lewis and Clark expedition. Thomas Jefferson. Florentine Films, 1997. This two-part series, crafted by Ken Burns, chronicles the life of Thomas Jefferson while exposing students to the art, architecture, and literature of Jefferson’s time. Learning Objective Questions and Answers 1.

What was the Jeffersonian vision of government? Answer: Jefferson envisioned a government in which tolerance, unity, peace, and the rights of every individual were the central principles. He believed that strong government did not necessarily mean a strong central government, as had been the case under the Federalist presidents who preceded him. In his inaugural address, Jefferson spoke of a government “which shall restrain men from injuring one another” but “shall leave them otherwise free to regulate their own pursuits of industry and improvements.” Jefferson hoped to limit the powers of the federal government and transfer many of these powers to the individual states.

128 .

How did Jefferson’s policy toward Indians fit into his vision of America? Answer: Jefferson believed that Native Americans had a primitive nobility that was worthy of respect. However, to be part of America, it was necessary for them to abandon their traditional beliefs and customs and adopt Western cultural values. To promote this assimilation, Jefferson supported trade with Native Americans and taught them Western agricultural practices. Integral to assimilation was the adoption of Western gender roles. Native American women were encouraged to give up agricultural work and instead pursue activities like spinning and focus on taking care of their children.

Was Jefferson’s response to the Federalist judiciary consistent with his political and constitutional beliefs? In an attempt to curtail the powers of the judiciary, which remained strongly Federalist during Jefferson’s presidency, Jefferson sought to remove two controversial Federalist judges through impeachment. According to Jefferson’s own strict constructionist reading of the Constitution, impeachment was only to be used in cases of “high crimes and misdemeanors.” The drunkenness and partisan obnoxiousness of the judges Jefferson sought to impeach were not impeachable offenses according to this reading. In order to further his political goals and advance Republican interests, Jefferson went against his own stated political and constitutional beliefs.

What was peaceable coercion, and why did it fail to avert war? Answer: “Peaceable coercion” was the term used to describe Jefferson’s plan to keep the United States out of the war between France and Britain. The United States had continued to trade with both France and Britain after war broke out, but each nation attempted to blockade the other’s ports. As a result, American cargoes were seized, and American sailors were impressed into service in the British navy. Jefferson hoped that cutting off trade with both nations through the Embargo Act of 1807 would show them the economic necessity of trade with the United States. The Embargo Act did not intimidate Britain or France, and both continued their blockades. Peaceable coercion failed to achieve neutral trade rights for the United States and ended up damaging the American economy as a result of decreased trade.

How did the War of 1812 change American society? The War of 1812 changed America’s economy, diplomacy, and government. The War of 1812 brought about technological innovation and a greater demand for manufactured goods, which grew America’s industrial economy. After the war, President Monroe established the Monroe Doctrine, which limited America’s involvement with Europe while sealing off the newly-founded nations of Latin 129 .

and South America from European colonization. The patriotism and nationalism that the war created helped unify political parties that had previously been bitterly partisan. Finally, the war demonstrated the need for a more powerful central government to manage necessary infrastructure improvements and to create a strong national military. 6.

What did the Missouri crisis reveal about the tensions in American society? Answer: The Missouri crisis brought the issue of slavery to national attention. Missouri applied for admission to the Union as a slave state in 1819, which caused a national debate of the institution of slavery. Northern congressmen argued that slavery violated the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution and insisted that Missouri could only join the Union if it banned further imports of slaves and eliminated slavery. Southern congressmen defended slavery and the right of individual states to determine whether or not to allow it. For the first time, the depth of the divide between Northern and Southern economies, societies, and beliefs was exposed.

Crawl Questions and Answers What does Monticello reveal about Jefferson’s values? (p. 190) Answer: Jefferson rejected much of the pomp and circumstance of his predecessors and worked to meld democratic ideals with aristocratic tastes. Monticello, the home Jefferson designed for himself, demonstrated his wealth, taste, and knowledge of current European culture. In some ways, this was at odds with the democratic, informal image he put forth to the American public. Monticello was also a working plantation that used slave labor, which belied Jefferson’s impassioned defense of liberty. What does Monticello reveal about Thomas Jefferson’s ideas and values? (p. 191) Answer: Jefferson rejected much of the pomp and circumstance of his predecessors and worked to meld democratic ideals with aristocratic tastes. Monticello, the home Jefferson designed for himself, demonstrated his wealth, taste, and knowledge of current European culture. In some ways, this was at odds with the democratic, informal image he put forth to the American public. Monticello was also a working plantation that used slave labor, which belied Jefferson’s impassioned defense of liberty. What role did slavery play in life at Monticello? (p. 192) Answer: Slaves greatly outnumbered Monticello’s free white population, which consisted of the Jefferson family and a group of free white craftsmen. Slaves did all the work in Monticello’s fields, gardens, and kitchen, and also worked as skilled craftsmen. Nearly all the daily work at Monticello was done by slaves.

130 .

What role did honor play in the political culture of Jeffersonian America? (p. 193) Answer: Honor was a central concern in the political culture. Politicians needed to respond to any attacks on their honor, and if they were unable to get an appropriate apology or retraction they often challenged the offender to a duel. Was Jefferson’s election in 1800 a real revolution? (p. 194) Answer: It was not. Rather than an assault on the Hamiltonian system, Jefferson opted for a more modest, less confrontational approach as president. Was the Louisiana Purchase consistent with Jefferson’s ideals? (p. 195) Answer: Jefferson embraced the idea of westward expansion in order to provide land for future generations of yeoman farmers. However, the reality of westward expansion, which excluded African Americans and required the assimilation or death of the Native Americans who inhabited the land, was inconsistent with Jefferson’s concepts of liberty and democracy. Additionally, Jefferson had to abandon his strict constructionist view of the Constitution, which did not give the president the power to purchase new territory. The Louisiana Purchase was therefore inconsistent with Jefferson’s personal and constitutional ideals. How did John Marshall avoid a showdown with Jefferson in Marbury v. Madison? (p. 196) Answer: Marshall was able to legitimate Marbury’s claim that he was entitled to the commission while asserting that, because the Supreme Court lacked jurisdiction to hear the case, he could not order Madison to deliver the commission. By using a technical legal issue, Marshall was able to give both parties some satisfaction. What role did Sacagawea play in the Lewis and Clark Expedition? (p. 197) Answer: Sacagawea served as a translator between members of the expedition and the Native Americans they encountered. The presence of Sacagawea and her child also helped the expedition avoid conflict by signaling that their intentions were peaceful. What were the main goals of the Lewis and Clark expedition? (p.198) Answer: One goal of the expedition was to gather information about native plants, animals, and geography. Another significant goal was to negotiate commercial treaties with Indian tribes and inform the European and American traders inhabiting the Louisiana Territory that they were now subject to the laws of the United States. What were the central beliefs of Handsome Lake’s religious revival? (p. 199) Answer: The central beliefs of Handsome Lake’s revival were the rejection of Western influences and the embrace of the Iroquois Great Law of Peace, which advocated diplomatic solutions to conflicts. The Western influence that Handsome Lake most strongly rejected was the consumption of alcohol, because he had seen and personally experienced the negative effects of alcohol addiction on Native American communities. Why did Jefferson target the federal judiciary and seek to limit its power? (p. 200) 131 .

Answer: Jefferson targeted the judiciary because it was the last stronghold of the Federalists, whose policies of large government he wanted to reform. Strong Federalist judges hampered Jefferson’s efforts to transition the government to Republican rule. What was peaceable coercion? (p. 201) Answer: “Peaceable coercion” was the term used to describe Jefferson’s plan to keep the United States out of the war between France and Britain. The United States had continued to trade with both France and Britain after war broke out, but each nation attempted to blockade the other’s ports. As a result, American cargoes were seized, and American sailors were impressed into service in the British navy. Jefferson hoped that cutting off trade with both nations would show them the economic necessity of trade with the United States, and as a result the United States would be able to return to unhampered nonmilitary trade with both nations. How did British relations with Indians in the Northwest exacerbate political tensions with America? (p. 202) Answer: The British had established a lucrative trade with the Native Americans in the Northwest, which included selling firearms to the Native Americans. As American settlers moved into the new state of Ohio and the Indiana Territory, they blamed the British for instigating the Native Americans to attack them and for providing these Native Americans with the weapons with which to successfully mount these attacks. The British were therefore seen as supporting the Native Americans in their fight against American settlers’ expansion into their lands. Who were the War Hawks? (p. 203) Answer: The War Hawks were a group of young Republican congressmen from the South and West who were intensely nationalistic, resented British attacks on American rights, and favored an aggressive policy of expansion into Indian-occupied territory and the annexation of Canada. These congressmen supported President Madison’s decision to declare war on Britain. Why did Westerners believe that the British were encouraging Indian violence against Americans? (p. 204) Answer: Westerners, including Representative Felix Grundy, argued that Native Americans would never attack settlers without the support and influence of another, larger power because they knew that the United States was far too powerful an opponent. Knowing that Britain had long-established trade with the Native Americans, these Westerners assumed that Britain must be the larger power behind the Native American attacks. What were the main military consequences of the War of 1812? (p. 205) Answer: During the War of 1812, the British were able to repel U.S. incursions into Canada and were even able to capture Washington, D.C., and burn the capital. In the South, commander Andrew Jackson became a legend by defeating the British at New Orleans. The war demonstrated the need for a national military rather than state militias, 132 .

so President Madison expanded the size of the military, putting some control that Jefferson had given individual states back into the hands of the federal government. What were the main goals of the Hartford Convention? (p. 206) Answer: The Hartford Convention was organized to protest the War of 1812. The Federalists of New England who organized the convention wanted to strengthen New England’s influence in the Union. To accomplish this, they proposed that a two-thirds majority vote in Congress be required for commercial regulations, declarations of war, and the admission of new states. They also called for a repeal of the three-fifths compromise, which allowed Southerners to count each slave in the state as three-fifths of a person when determining the number of representatives the state could send to the House. How are the actions of New England states represented in the political cartoon on the Hartford Convention above? (p. 207) Answer: The New England states are represented as unpatriotic cowards, torn between staying with the Union or seeking the favor of Britain. In the wake of the War of 1812, which had energized the American public, these states’ self-interested demands at the Hartford Convention were seen as anti-American, and even pro-British. Why was Monroe’s presidency described as an “Era of Good Feelings”? (p. 208) Answer: Monroe worked to unite Jeffersonian political ideals and aspects of Hamiltonian economic theory, and thereby created an administration that was largely free from partisan divisions. He appointed men from different regions to his cabinet to heal sectional tensions. He also embarked on a goodwill tour of the nation and restored the damage to the capital caused by the British invasion, winning the support of the people and returning dignity to the presidency. What were the major ideas associated with the Monroe Doctrine? (p. 209) Answer: The Monroe Doctrine summarized the United States’ policy toward Spanish America. It stated that America would stay out of European affairs and also warned European powers that the United States would view intervention in the affairs of the newly independent states of Spanish America as a threat to its security. What was the economic significance of Whitney’s cotton gin? (p. 210) Answer: The cotton gin made the task of removing the seeds from cotton fifty times faster than it had been. As a result, cotton production nearly doubled between 1810 and 1812. This increased the profits and the power of the slave-based agricultural economy of the South. Why did Morse highlight architecture and minimize the people in his painting? (p.211) Answer: Morse highlighted architecture and minimized the people in his painting because he wanted to present a scene of cordiality and harmony in order to capture the time before 133 .

political business became defined by conflict and tension. He wanted to shift the focus away from the actions of politicians. Which Marshall Court decisions best illustrate the Court’s nationalism? (p. 212) Answer: The decision in the case McCulloch v. Maryland is the best illustration of the Court’s nationalism. In this case, the court decided that the state of Maryland could not levy a tax on a federally chartered institution (the Second Bank of the United States). This decision affirmed the power of the federal government over state affairs and, most importantly, demonstrated that only the Supreme Court, not individual states, could determine when the federal government had exceeded its authority. The decision in the Gibbons v. Ogden case also affirmed the power of the federal government by giving it power over interstate commerce. What was the Missouri crisis? (p. 213) Answer: The Missouri crisis brought the issue of slavery to national attention. Missouri applied for admission to the Union as a slave state in 1819, which caused a national debate of the institution of slavery. Northern congressmen argued that slavery violated the Declaration of Independence the Constitution and insisted that Missouri could only join the Union if it banned further imports of slaves and eliminated slavery. Southern congressmen defended slavery and the right of individual states to determine whether or not to allow it. What were the main provisions of the Missouri Compromise? (p. 214) Answer: The Compromise called for the admission of Missouri as a slave state, while Maine entered as a free state. Thus, there remained balance in the Senate between free and slave states. The Compromise also drew an imaginary line across the territory acquired through the Louisiana Purchase at 36 30’ latitude. Land below this dividing line would be slave territory; land above it would be free. How did the Missouri crisis contribute to the climate of fear in Charleston during the Vesey trial? (p. 215) Answer: The national attention that slavery received as a result of the Missouri crisis led to vocal condemnations of slavery among Northern antislavery congressmen and abolitionists. This rhetoric, combined with the relative freedom enjoyed by slaves and free African-Americans in Charleston, led white residents of the city to fear that a revolt such as Vesey supposedly planned would have wide support and could quickly turn violent. They worried that Northern zeal to end slavery could translate into African Americans taking direct and possibly violent actions to realize this goal. Why did white residents of Charleston blame Northerners for the Vesey insurrection? (p. 216) Answer: The antislavery rhetoric of Northern congressmen and abolitionists led white residents of the city to fear that a revolt such as Vesey supposedly planned would have wide support and could quickly turn violent. They worried that Northern zeal to end 134 .

slavery could translate into African Americans taking direct and possibly violent actions to realize this goal. Review Questions and Answers 1.

What role did honor play in the political culture of the new nation? Answer: Honor was a central concern in the political culture. Politicians needed to respond to any attacks on their honor, and if they were unable to get an appropriate apology or retraction they often challenged the offender to a duel. The most famous of these duels was between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr, in which Vice President Burr fatally shot Hamilton. On a larger scale, although the War of 1812 was in reality a draw between the United States and Britain, most Americans interpreted the outcome as a victory for the United States, which they believed had defended its honor against Britain’s challenges and uphold its position in the world.

Why was Jefferson ridiculed as a mammoth of democracy? Answer: Throughout his life and certainly during his presidency Jefferson was influenced by the Enlightenment, particularly reason and science. His thirst for scientific knowledge led him to research fossils, and ultimately write about mammoths in his book Notes on Virginia. Upon his inauguration, Jefferson also supported Charles Wilson Peale’s expedition to exhume the remains of a mastodon in upstate New York. Jefferson’s devotion to scientific discovery prompted his political opponents and enemies to name him the “mammoth of democracy.”

Which features of Jefferson’s domestic policy agenda were the most successful and why? Answer: Jefferson was successful in reducing the size and power of the federal government with several of his policies. For example, he repealed unpopular taxes such as the whiskey tax, replacing the lost income with profits from the sale of Western lands and tariffs on imports. He was also successful in expanding America’s “empire of liberty” through the Louisiana Purchase, although this purchase went against his own ideals of small government and limited executive power. The features of Jefferson’s agenda that were most successful were those that were not radical revisions of earlier Federalist interests; instead, they were those that appealed to both political parties and many different groups of people in the United States.

What were the main causes of the War of 1812? What were its most important economic consequences? 135 .

Answer: The War of 1812 began as a conflict between France and Britain. The United States was drawn into the war when its attempts to maintain neutral trade with both nations were challenged. Both Britain and France began seizing American cargo, and Britain impressed American merchant seamen into service in the British navy. Jefferson’s attempt to restore successful neutral trade through “peaceable coercion” failed. In addition to the economic harm the War of 1812 caused American trade, many Americans blamed the British for arming Native Americans and encouraging them to attack American settlers in the Northwest. Finally, when a British warship fired on the Chesapeake, an American navy ship, Jefferson prepared to enter the war. 5.

What was the “Era of Good Feelings”? Answer: The “Era of Good Feelings” refers to the years after the War of 1812 during which James Monroe was president of the United States. Monroe worked to unite Jeffersonian political ideals and aspects of Hamiltonian economic theory, and thereby created an administration that was largely free from partisan divisions. He appointed men from different regions to his cabinet to heal sectional tensions. He also embarked on a goodwill tour of the nation and restored the damage to the capital caused by the British invasion, winning the support of the people and returning dignity to the presidency.

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

Was Jefferson successful at implementing his vision of government? Answer: Jefferson envisioned a government in which tolerance, unity, peace, and the rights of every individual were the central principles. He believed that strong government did not necessarily mean a strong central government, as had been the case under the Federalist presidents who preceded him. In his inaugural address, Jefferson spoke of a government “which shall restrain men from injuring one another” but “shall leave them otherwise free to regulate their own pursuits of industry and improvements.” Once in power, however, Jefferson’s policies toward Native Americans and slaves undermined his ideals of personal rights and freedoms. Additionally, despite his call for small central government, he invoked unprecedented presidential power to make the Louisiana Purchase.

What role did the Louisiana Purchase play in Jefferson’s vision for the future? Answer: The acquisition of the Louisiana territory helped Jefferson realize his vision of an “empire of Liberty.” With such a large swath of land now part of the United States, the American people could eventually expand westward. Settling this territory would mean expanding herrenvolk or “white man’s democracy,” 136 .

which would help Jefferson to realize his vision of democratizing and civilizing Native Americans. Jefferson believed that, to be part of America’s “empire of liberty,” it was necessary for Native Americans to abandon their traditional beliefs and customs and adopt Western cultural values. To promote this assimilation, Jefferson supported trade with Native Americans and taught them Western agricultural practices. Integral to assimilation was the adoption of Western gender roles. Native American women were encouraged to give up agricultural work and instead pursue activities like spinning and focus on taking care of their children. In essence, Native Americans were allowed to take part, in at least a limited way, in America’s empire of liberty only if they subjugated their own sense of liberty to Western ideals. 3.

What was the Monroe Doctrine? Answer: The Monroe Doctrine was a policy establishing the relationship between America and European powers that President Monroe developed after the War of 1812. The Monroe doctrine stated that the United States would not interfere in any European matters. It also declared that all newly established nations in Central and South America were off limits to European colonization and that any European interference in these countries’ affairs would be considered interference with the United States. Through the Monroe Doctrine, the United States sealed off the Western Hemisphere from European involvement in exchange for the promise of friendly but laissez-faire relationship with the European powers.

How did the rise of cotton agriculture help precipitate the Missouri crisis? Answer: The rise of cotton agriculture, particularly after the invention of the cotton gin, made cotton a tremendously profitable crop in the South. These profits were, however, dependent on slave labor. As a result, Southern states that produced cotton had a large economic stake in whether states newly admitted to the Union would allow slavery. At this time, there was a balance of power between slave and free states in Congress. If this balance were upset, the cottongrowing Southern states might not be able to protect their interests, primarily the institution slavery, which allowed cotton agriculture to flourish.

What does the Denmark Vesey conspiracy trial reveal about the growing tensions over slavery in American politics? Answer: In published records of the trial, Vesey was described as intelligent but also as “despotic” and “savage.” White citizens, reading these accounts, feared that a revolt like the one Vesey supposedly planned would have wide support and could quickly turn violent. They worried that Northern zeal to end slavery could translate into African Americans taking direct and possibly violent actions to realize this goal. 137 .

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 7 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 7 Read the Document Jefferson’s First Inaugural Address Read the Document Memoirs of a Monticello Slave Read the Document Marbury v. Madison Read the Document Constitutionality of the Louisiana Purchase Watch the Video Video Lecture: Lewis and Clark: What were they trying to accomplish? Read the Document Jefferson’s Confidential Message to Congress (1803) View the Image British Impressment Hear the Audio Jefferson and Liberty Read the Document Pennsylvania Gazette Indian Hostilities (1812) View the Map Interactive Map: War of 1812 Read the Document Monroe Doctrine (1823) View the Closer Look Images as History: Samuel Morse’s House of Representatives and the National Republican Vision Read the Document Missouri Act (1820) Read the Document An Account of the Late Intended Insurrection Among a Portion of the Blacks of this City (1822) View the Map Interactive Map: Missouri Compromise 1820–1821

138 .

CHAPTER EIGHT DEMOCRATS AND WHIGS: DEMOCRACY AND AMERICAN CULTURE, 1820–1840 I. Democracy in America A. Democratic Culture B. Davy Crockett and the Frontier Myth II. Andrew Jackson and His Age A. The Election of 1824 and the “Corrupt Bargain” B. The Election of 1828: “Old Hickory’s” Triumph C. The Reign of “King Mob” D. States Rights and the Nullification Crisis III. White Man’s Democracy A. Race and Politics in the Jacksonian Era B. The Cherokee Cases C. Resistance and Removal IV. Democrats, Whigs, and the Second Party System A. Third Party Challenges: Anti-Masonic and Workingmen’s Parties B. The Bank War and the Rise of the Whigs C. Andrew Jackson, the Whigs, and the Bank War D. Economic Crisis and the Presidency of Martin Van Buren V. Playing the Democrats’ Game: Whigs in the Election of 1840 A. The Log Cabin Campaign B. Gender and Social Class: The Whig Appeal C. Democrats and Whigs: Two Visions of Government and Society Democracy did not yet embrace all Americans; it excluded women, African Americans, and Indians. The crowd Bingham depicts is overwhelmingly male and, apart from a lone African American in the background, all white. While the white men participate in the political life of the nation, the lone black figure labors on a wagon selling refreshments to the crowd. No figure better personified this new age than Andrew Jackson, the country’s leading Democrat. Jackson’s 1828 election changed American politics, forcing his opponents, the Whigs, to make more effective use of the tools of democratic politics and the symbols of democracy in their campaigns. Indeed, in their electoral win in 1840, the Whigs had outdone the Democrats, portraying their candidate William Henry Harrison as a simple man born in a log cabin who drank hard cider like an ordinary farmer. Although the Whigs may have learned valuable political lessons from the Democrats about how to campaign, their party steadfastly opposed Jacksonian policies on every major issue of the day. From economic issues to the question of how to deal with American Indians, the two parties battled one another, offering the American people 139 .

competing visions and clear choices. Political participation in this period rose as Americans responded to the messages of the two parties and turned out to vote in unprecedented numbers. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 8, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

What changes in American society facilitated the rise of democracy?

What political and constitutional ideas defined Jackson’s presidency?

How did race shape the nature of democracy in the Jacksonian era?

Who were the Whigs and what did they believe?

Why did the Whigs win the election of 1840?

Topics for Classroom Lectures 1.

Discuss the Second Great Awakening and the strengthening of evangelical Christianity in America during the early nineteenth century. Focus particularly on the impact of the movement on the American South. How would the religious nature of the South be more clearly defined through this movement? What would the movement mean to the state of religion in the Southern backcountry? Would evangelical religion threaten or strengthen the Southern institution of slavery?

Examine the presidential election of 1828. Is Jackson’s victory in this election an example of democracy’s impact on the presidency or is it the beginning of the presidency’s impact on American democracy? Compare Jackson’s victory in 1828 to Thomas Jefferson’s victory in 1800. Consider the following issues in the comparison: (a) parallels in regional support for Jefferson and Jackson, (b) similarities in the political ideologies of Jefferson and Jackson, (c) the role of the common man in defining the outcome of each election, and (d) the transfer of power from one party to another in each election (i.e., from the Federalists to the Republicans in 1800 and from the Republicans to the Democrats in 1828). Another interesting parallel is the fact that Jefferson and Jackson followed the only one-term presidents at that time in American history: Jefferson followed John Adams and Jackson followed John Quincy Adams, John Adams’s son.

Discuss Andrew Jackson as a Southern president. Which aspects of the Southern political agenda did Jackson actively support? If we recognize states’ rights and slavery as the hallmarks of the Southern political agenda, to what extent did Jackson support these broad issues? In so doing, was he the friend of the common 140 .

man, as he is so often characterized, or was he the friend of the Southern planter? What was the most significant occasion on which he refused to support the Southern agenda? 4.

Discuss the importance of territorial expansion to the deepening of sectional divisions in America during the early nineteenth century. What was the connection between the acquisition of western land and the sectional issues of states’ rights and slavery? Was it mere coincidence that the defining issue in the presidential election of 1844 was territorial expansion and the defining issue of the election of 1848 and every election thereafter until the Civil War was slavery?

Topics for Classroom Discussion and Essays 1.

Have students compare and contrast Jeffersonian and Jacksonian democracy. How are the two ideologies similar? How are they different? Does the emergence of Jacksonian democracy continue the American ideological shift to the left? To what extent did the early nineteenth century see the expansion of democracy? What limits to Jacksonian democracy are evident to twenty-first-century Americans?

Compare and contrast the political ideologies of the Democratic and Whig parties. How did they resemble the Federalist and Republican parties that preceded them? How did they differ? Are they comparable to the Democratic and Republican parties of today?

Discuss the issue of nullification as it had evolved to this point in American history. Begin by thinking back to the Suffolk Resolves and the colonial nullification of the Intolerable Acts. Proceed to the use of the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions by Republicans against the Sedition Act in 1800. Finally, consider the nullification crisis of 1832. How do these events reflect American concerns about the powers of central authority? How justified was each act of nullification? How effective was each challenge to central authority?

Should white men without property have the vote?

Should the Cherokee have resisted Jackson’s removal policy?

What accounts for the positive and negative images of Andrew Jackson?

Topics for Term Papers and Class Projects 1.

Research the Cherokee experience on the Trail of Tears. What does this event reveal about U.S. Indian policy and the status of Native Americans living in the United States in the early nineteenth century? Why were the Cherokee considered “civilized”? 141 .

Explore the impact of the nullification crisis on John C. Calhoun’s political career. Having started his career as a nationalist who supported the War of 1812, the National Bank, and the Tariff of 1816, by 1832 Calhoun was a selfproclaimed sectionalist and the originator of the theory of nullification. Use Calhoun’s life, particularly his political transformation from nationalist to sectionalist, as a prism through which to study America’s larger transition from an era of nationalism to an era of sectionalism between 1815 and 1848.

Have students examine the impact of politicians’ personal lives on their professional lives. This chapter looks at the Eaton Affair. Compare Eaton’s dilemma with those of Grover Cleveland, Warren G. Harding, John F. Kennedy, and Bill Clinton. Should a politician’s personal life impact public assessment of his or her professional life? To paraphrase a feminist slogan, “Should the personal be political?”

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects William W. Freehling, Prelude to Civil War: The Nullification Controversy in South Carolina, 1816–1836 (1966). Richard P. McCormick, The Second Party System (1966). John Nivens, John C. Calhoun and the Price of Union (1988). Merrill Peterson, The Great Triumvirate: Webster, Clay, and Calhoun (1987). Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Empire, 1767–1821 (1977). Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Freedom, 1822–1832 (1981). Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833–1845 (1984). Ronald N. Satz, American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era (1974). Audio-Visual Resources How the West was Lost, A&E Video, 60 minutes. This video includes a 15-minute treatment of the Cherokee Trail of Tears. Learning Objective Questions and Answers 1.

What changes in American society facilitated the rise of democracy? Between 1800 and Andrew Jackson’s candidacy in 1828, American culture and politics were transformed. Democracy appeared to suffuse every aspect of culture and politics. Whereas in 1800 most states had some type of property requirement for voting, within three decades most of these restrictions had been swept aside. Many of the new Western states that entered the Union in the intervening years adopted constitutions with no property requirements. As population shifted westward, the nation’s center of political gravity also shifted. Many of the 142 .

politicians who dominated the national scene came from Western states such as Tennessee and Kentucky, not the older, settled regions such as Virginia and Massachusetts. 2.

What political and constitutional ideas defined Jackson’s presidency? Jackson defined himself as a true democrat: He was not from the East Coast political elite, he was a war hero, and he was a man of the people. All these qualities appealed to Americans at a time when the country was rapidly expanding and the public was filled with a sense of possibility. He filled his cabinet with friends and supporters, rather than career politicians. Jackson promoted the constitutional ideals of freedom and equality, although during his presidency, these ideals were only available to white men.

How did race shape the nature of democracy in the Jacksonian era? Answer: Jackson’s policies toward African-Americans and Native Americans stood in direct opposition to his espoused democratic ideals. Jackson allowed Northern states to rewrite their constitutions to significantly limit the suffrage rights of free African-Americans. Jackson treated Native Americans like conquered subjects, which was consistent with his belief that they were culturally inferior to whites. Jackson was only concerned with the needs of white settlers. After gold was discovered on their land, even the Cherokee, who had adopted Western culture, were given the choice to relocate or be reduced to the status of free African Americans in the South. Jacksonian democracy was democracy for white men only; all other groups were given few, if any, rights.

Who were the Whigs, and what did they believe? Answer: The Whigs were a political party opposed to the Democratic party led by Andrew Jackson. They opposed Jackson’s policy toward Native Americans, supported a strong central government that would be involved in the nation’s economy in the manner outlined in Clay’s American System, and sought to change the view of executive power that Jackson had established with his Bank Veto. In their policies and beliefs, the Whigs were similar to the former Republican Party, and fashioned themselves as defenders of the Constitution in the face of despotism.

Why did the Whigs win the election of 1840? Answer: The Whigs ran an innovative campaign for the 1840 election, using a Democratic derision of their candidate, William Henry Harrison, to their advantage by portraying him as a simple farmer who was born in a log cabin and enjoyed the same simple pleasures as common folk. By using the images of a log cabin and a barrel of hard cider wherever they could, writing campaign songs for 143 .

their candidate, and attacking the Republican candidate as a dissipated aristocrat, the Whigs successfully caught the public’s attention and mobilized the popular vote for Harrison. The Whigs were also successful in appealing to groups that were overlooked by the Democrats, such as women, free African Americans, and Native Americans. Their wide-reaching appeal and creative campaign led to victory in the election of 1840. Crawl Questions and Answers How did the frontier nurture the growth of democracy? (p. 222) Most of the new Western states adopted constitutions that did not require citizens to own property in order to vote, expanding democracy to a population that had previously been disenfranchised. Additionally, in the Western states it was possible for figures like Davy Crockett, who were not among the East Coast elite, to become important political figures. The egalitarian quality of life on the frontier allowed a greater portion of the population to meaningfully participate in government. What aspects of Davy Crockett’s life made him a symbol of frontier democracy? (p. 223) Davy Crockett was not a career politician and did not come from a prominent family. He distinguished himself as a soldier under Andrew Jackson during the Creek War, and according to his own account, became a politician by accident when he came to town to sell pelts. He won election to Congress through his inspiring stump speeches and popular appeal, not the least of which was his fame undertaking daring feats and adventures such as wrestling crocodiles and hunting bears. Crockett’s humble Tennessee background, his popular appeal, and his larger-than-life personality made him a symbol of frontier democracy. Why did James Kent oppose eliminating property requirements? (p. 224) Kent argued that expanding suffrage by eliminating property requirements would lead to an unchecked democracy in which the less privileged, emboldened by their new political power, would plunder the more privileged, destabilizing society and destroying the right of private property. What were the strengths of John Quincy Adams as a presidential candidate? (p. 225) John Quincy Adams was well educated, the son of President John Adams, and had extensive diplomatic experience. He had served as a diplomat in Holland, Prussia, Great Britain, and Russia, had negotiated the Treaty of Ghent, and had helped formulate the Monroe Doctrine. What role did Clay’s American System play in the election of John Quincy Adams? (p. 226) Clay’s American System was a plan for America’s economic development using the power of the federal government to encourage American industry by placing tariffs on 144 .

imported goods, creating a national bank, and creating the country’s infrastructure. Adams endorsed this plan. In the election of 1824, no candidate received enough electoral votes to win the presidency, so the House of Representatives, with Clay as its speaker, chose Adams to be president because of his support for Clay’s American System. Why did Jackson view the election of 1824 as a “corrupt bargain”? (p. 227) Jackson won the greatest number of votes in the 1824 election, but because no candidate received enough electoral votes to win the presidency, the House of Representatives chose Adams for president. Adams was the candidate favored by House speaker Henry Clay, so Jackson saw the election results as a bargain between Adams and Clay to deprive him of the presidency. How did the “Coffin Handbill” attempt to discredit Andrew Jackson? (p. 228) The “Coffin Handbill” presented Jackson as a brutal military despot, unable to control himself. The six coffins on the handbill represented six militiamen that Jackson had executed for desertion during the Creek Wars. How did the spoils system promote Jackson’s democratic agenda? (p. 229) Unlike Adams, who had appointed individuals to office based on their merit, Jackson appointed his supporters to office when he became president. Most of these appointees were not from the wealthy, elite class that had, up to this point, controlled American politics. By appointing those loyal to him to office, regardless of their wealth or education, Jackson gave political power to those who had previously been excluded. What was the theory of states’ rights? (p. 230) The theory of states’ rights held that when the states and the federal government disagreed over the constitutionality of a federal law, the states were entitled to judge whether the law was constitutional. States could call special conferences to nullify federal laws that they believed were unconstitutional. This theory challenged the power of the federal government and the right of federal courts to make the final decision as to whether a law was constitutional. How did Webster’s theory of the Union contrast with Calhoun’s theory of states’ rights? (p. 231) Webster’s theory held that in order to maintain the Union, the central government must have supremacy over individual states. Allowing states to reject federal laws would endanger the unity, and therefore the power, of the Union. How does the political cartoonist represent the nullification theory in the cartoon Despotism? (p. 232) The cartoonist shows nullification as the first step in a ziggurat that Calhoun is climbing. Nullification is the bottom step, and above it, in ascending order, are the South Carolina Ordinance, treason, civil war, deception, and disunion. Once nullification, the first step, is allowed, nothing will prevent the supporters of nullification and states’ rights from 145 .

ascending the rest of the steps, destroying the Union and claiming despotic power for themselves. What types of legal disabilities did free blacks face outside the South? (p. 233) Although the new state constitutions drafted under President Jackson extended the vote to white men who did not own property, they took away the vote from most free, propertyowning African Americans. In addition, many states required that free African Americans moving to the state post a bond or be deported. States such as Illinois and Ohio limited or eliminated African American’s access to the courts, prohibiting them from testifying or bringing any sort of suit. What does Indian policy reveal about the limits of Jacksonian democracy? (p. 234) Jackson treated Native Americans like conquered subjects, which was consistent with his belief that they were culturally inferior to whites. Jackson was only concerned with the needs of white settlers. After gold was discovered on their land, even the Cherokee, who had adopted Western culture, were given the choice to relocate or be reduced to the status of free African Americans in the South. Jacksonian democracy was democracy for white men only; all other groups were given few, if any, rights. How does the Grand Caravan represent Jackson’s Indian policy? (p. 235) The Grand Caravan represents Jackson’s Indian policy as a deal with the devil, who plays a fiddle in the parade with Jackson at its head. The Native Americans are in a cage that flies a flag with the phrase “Rights of Man.” Jackson’s policy toward the Native Americans was a direct contradiction of the ideals of democracy he espoused. What do the Cherokee cases reveal about the limits of judicial power? (p. 236) In the Cherokee cases, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Cherokee, determining that the Cherokee retained certain rights associated with sovereign nations and that “the laws of Georgia can have no force” on Cherokee territory. Jackson, however, dismissed these rulings, claiming that they were unenforceable. With a few concessions, Jackson was able to ignore the Supreme Court’s ruling and continue to pursue his own agenda of relocating the Cherokee. In these cases, presidential power superseded judicial power. Was resistance to removal a viable strategy for the Cherokee? (p. 237) It is unclear whether resistance to removal would have led to further harassment and persecution and simply delay the inevitable outcome, as Cherokee leader Elias Boudinot argued, or whether resistance could have won the support of enough of Jackson’s political opponents to overturn the removal policy, as Cherokee leader John Ross argued. At the time, Boudinot’s argument might have seemed more reasonable than resistance, but it is impossible to know whether continued resistance would have been viable or successful.

146 .

What was the “Trail of Tears”? (p. 238) The route that relocated Cherokee people traveled from Georgia to Oklahoma became known as the “Trail of Tears” after 4,000 of the 12,000 Cherokee who made the journey died along the way due to harsh weather, a shortage of supplies, and poor sanitation. Why was Masonry a cause for concern among some Americans? (p. 239) Freemasons, a group that included a great number of prominent politicians, had secret handshakes, rituals, and passwords, many drawn from mystical traditions. This made many Americans uneasy. Additionally, the Masons’ support of Enlightenment ideals caused many groups of Christians, particularly evangelicals, to believe that the group was anti-Christian. What lasting contributions did the Anti-Masons make to American politics? (p. 240) The Anti-Masonic party, though short-lived, was the first party to use a national nominating convention to select a presidential candidate and the first to adopt an official platform. Both these innovations are now standard practice for all major political parties. How did Jackson use democratic rhetoric to rally support for his Bank Veto? (p. 241) In his famous Bank Veto Speech, Jackson portrayed the Bank of the United States as a tool of the rich and powerful who had used their influence to win congressional support for the Bank. Jackson did not criticize the wealthy in general, only those who sought to impose their agendas on the “humble members of society.” By vetoing the Bank, Jackson, according to this portrayal, was protecting the interests of the American public and the public’s democratic voice. How did Whigs interpret the Bank Veto? (p. 242) The Whigs argued that Jackson’s veto, rather than protecting democracy and the voice of the American people, was the act of a tyrant who had contempt for Congress and its role in government. By advancing his own political agenda through whatever means necessary, Jackson was no better than King George III. What are the signs of economic distress in this political cartoon on the Panic of 1837? (p. 243) In this cartoon, workers stand idle, tools in hand, or stagger around drunk. Respectablelooking women and children beg in the streets. In the background, a mob of people rush the Mechanics Bank, which is failing. The storefronts that remain open are pawnbrokers and liquor stores. Why is Jackson portrayed as a monarch in this political cartoon? (p. 244) By vetoing the Bank of the United States and withdrawing federal funds from the Bank for deposit in state banks, Jackson ignored the power the Constitution granted to Congress. His Bank Veto imposed his personal goals on the American people, without the approval of Congress, which was elected by the people to represent them. By overruling Congress, Jackson acted like a monarch. 147 .

How does this pro-Jackson cartoon portray the Whigs? (p. 245) This cartoon portrays the Whigs as weak and helpless in the face of Jackson and his Bank Veto. The president of the bank, Nicholas Biddle, is portrayed as a demonic figure who is fleeing Jackson and the collapsing bank. What political innovations helped the Whigs out-democrat the Democrats? (p. 246) The Whigs used a Democratic derision of their candidate, William Henry Harrison, to their advantage by portraying him as a simple farmer who was born in a log cabin and enjoyed the same simple pleasures as common folk. By using the images of a log cabin and a barrel of hard cider wherever they could, writing campaign songs for their candidate, and attacking the Republican candidate as a dissipated aristocrat, the Whigs successfully caught the public’s attention and mobilized the popular vote for Harrison. Why were women drawn to the Whig message? (p. 247) Although women could not vote, the Whigs hoped that they could influence their husbands’ votes. They appealed to the moral values of Christianity and the importance of the family, and cast the Democrats as immoral atheists. The Whig message of bringing back American prosperity also appealed to women as well as men. What were the most important differences between Whigs and Democrats on economic issues? (p. 248) The Whigs favored a strong central government that was heavily involved in financially supporting and promoting industry, innovation, and the market revolution. The Democrats did not want the federal government so involved in economic affairs and favored allowing states to promote their own economic growth in the ways they thought best. What role did ethnic politics play in the contest between Whigs and Democrats? (p. 249) Although the Whig version of democracy held that the country should be governed by a talented, virtuous elite, the party appealed to groups that needed the protection that this elite could provide. These groups included free African Americans, women, and Native Americans. Those of English origin were also more likely to be Whigs. The Democrats appealed to white working men, such as farmers, urban workers, and planters, and also to Southern slaveholders. Catholics and less affluent Protestants were also more likely to be Democrats. These groups were drawn to the Democrats’ egalitarian message and emphasis on states’ rights. Review Questions and Answers 1.

What were the main features of Clay’s American System? Answer: Clay’s American System was a plan for America’s economic development using the power of the federal government to encourage American 148 .

industry by placing tariffs on imported goods, creating a national bank, and creating the country’s infrastructure. 2.

How did states’ rights affect Andrew Jackson’s presidency? Answer: Jackson was a moderate on the issue of states’ rights, and when South Carolina moved to nullify a federal law, he supported the preservation of the Union over the rights of individual states. However, Jackson used the argument of states’ rights to support his Bank Veto, which took federal funds intended for the Bank of the United States and distributed them to state banks. He also allowed individual states to revise their constitutions to take rights away from free African-Americans and Native Americans.

Was Jackson’s Indian policy consistent with his democratic ideals? How did Jackson’s perception of Indians allow him to reconcile his policy with his ideals? Answer: Jackson’s Indian policy was in direct opposition to his espoused democratic ideals. Jackson treated Native Americans like conquered subjects, which was consistent with his belief that they were culturally inferior to whites. Jackson was only concerned with the needs of white settlers. After gold was discovered on their land, even the Cherokee, who had adopted Western culture, were given the choice to relocate or be reduced to the status of free African Americans in the South. Jacksonian democracy was democracy for white men only; all other groups were given few, if any, rights.

How did Democratic and Whig cartoonists represent Jackson during the Bank War? Answer: Whig cartoonists represented Jackson as a monarch, trampling the Constitution by ignoring the power it granted to Congress and imposing his personal political goals on the American people. In contrast, Democratic cartoonists represented Jackson as a strong leader who stood up to the tiny, weak Whig politicians and proponents of the Bank.

How did the Whigs out-democrat that Democrats in the election of 1840? Answer: The Whigs used a Democratic derision of their candidate, William Henry Harrison, to their advantage by portraying him as a simple farmer who was born in a log cabin and enjoyed the same simple pleasures as common folk. By using the images of a log cabin and a barrel of hard cider wherever they could, writing campaign songs for their candidate, and attacking the Republican candidate as a dissipated aristocrat, the Whigs successfully caught the public’s attention and mobilized the popular vote for Harrison.

149 .

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions and Answers 1.

Why did so many commentators on American life comment on the democratic character of life in Jacksonian America? Answer: Jackson was the first president who was not a member of the educated, political class that had governed the United States before him. European visitors noted that, in Jacksonian America, power was truly in the hands of the public, which took an active role in politics. The image and policies of “frontier democracy” that Jackson embodied stood in stark contrast to the cultured class of aristocrats that controlled politics in Europe during this period.

Who was Davy Crockett, and why did his life become a symbol of American during the Jacksonian period? Answer: Davy Crockett came from a poor Tennessee frontier family. He distinguished himself as a soldier under Andrew Jackson during the Creek War, and according to his own account, became a politician by accident when he came to town to sell pelts. He won election to Congress through his inspiring stump speeches and popular appeal, not the least of which was his fame undertaking daring feats and adventures such as wrestling crocodiles and hunting bears. Crockett’s humble background, his popular appeal, and his larger-than-life personality made him a symbol of frontier democracy. His autobiography, A Narrative of the Life of David Crockett in the State of Tennessee, preserved his life as a symbol of this time period.

How did images of Jackson represent him, and what do they reveal about political life in the 1820s and 1830s? Answer: Images of Jackson represented him very differently depending on the political beliefs of the artist. While some images represented Jackson as a demon, devil, tyrant, or monarch, others portrayed him as a champion of democracy or a great general in the War of 1812. If Jackson was portrayed as a monarch or demon, it would be a direct result of the artist’s disapproval of Jackson’s policies as president, whether it is Indian Removal or his veto of the Bank bill. Conversely, if Jackson was depicted as a champion of democracy, the artist would obviously be in support of his policies. The varying depictions of Jackson tell us that Americans were politically polarized by Jackson’s policies in the 1820s and 1830s.

What role did race play in Jacksonian democracy? Answer: Jackson treated Native Americans like conquered subjects, which was consistent with his belief that they were culturally inferior to whites. Jackson was only concerned with the needs of white settlers. Under Jackson, Native Americans 150 .

were removed from their lands to reservations in the West, and their land was given to white settlers and gold prospectors. Many Native Americans died during their relocations, the most well-known of which was the Cherokee “Trail of Tears.” 5.

Was the Bank Veto an example of radical democracy? Answer: Jackson acted radically by asserting that he knew the needs of the American public better than Congress did, and that his Veto, an act of a single individual rather than a democratically elected body, preserved democracy. Whether or not the proposed Bank of the United States served the interests of the wealthy and hurt the majority of Americans, Jackson’s veto was an individual, not a democratic, action. It was an exercise of executive power, not democracy.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 8 • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 8 Read the Document Profile: Davy Crockett Read the Document Michel Chevalier, Society Manners and Politics in the U.S. Read the Document John Adams, A Corrupt Bargain or Politics as Usual View the Image 1824 Election Cartoon Read the Document South Carolina Refuses the Tariff Read the Document Andrew Jackson, The Force Bill Read the Document The Cherokee Treaty of 1817 View the Map Interactive Map: Native American Removal Hear the Audio Van Buren Read the Document Andrew Jackson, Veto of the Bank Bill View the Closer Look General Harrison’s Log Cabin March—Sheet Music View the Image Matty’s Dream View the Closer Look Images as History: Old Hickory or King Andrew Popular Images

151 .

CHAPTER NINE WORKERS, FARMERS, AND SLAVES: THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE AMERICAN ECONOMY, 1815–1848 I. The Market Revolution A. Agricultural Changes and Consequences B. A Nation on the Move: Roads, Canals, Steamboats, and Trains C. Spreading the News II. The Spread of Industrialization A. From Artisan to Worker B. Women and Work C. The Lowell Experiment D. Urban Industrialization III. The Changing Urban Landscape A. Old Ports and the New Cities of the Interior B. Immigrants and the City C. Free Black Communities in the North D. Riot, Unrest, and Crime IV. Southern Society A. The Planter Class B. Yeomen and Tenant Farmers C. Free Black Communities D. White Southern Culture V. Life and Labor Under Slavery A. Varied Systems of Slave Labor B. Life in the Slave Quarters C. Slave Religion and Music D. Resistance and Revolt E. Slavery and the Law The United States experienced extraordinary economic growth and change in the first half of the nineteenth century. But the economies of the Northern and Southern regions of the nation evolved along very different paths. The North developed a free labor economy marked by rapid industrialization and urbanization and massive immigration. Economic growth was spurred by new technologies that made agriculture more productive and factories more efficient, as well as by improvements in transportation and communication that spurred consumer demand for the latest goods. By contrast, while the South experienced some industrialization and urban growth, most of its expansion and development focused on raising cash crops with slave labor. The huge profits generated by cotton cultivation prompted the expansion of plantations into the so-called Black Belt that stretched from Alabama west to east Texas. 152 .

By mid-century, Northerners and Southerners became increasingly self-conscious about the distinctiveness of the labor system in their own region and more critical of that employed in the other half of the nation. Although North and South had developed different labor systems, each was tied to the expanding market economy that Henry Clay praised in 1824. The expansion of the market economy transformed the countryside in both the North and South and fueled urban growth. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 9, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

What was the Market Revolution?

How did early industrialization change the nature of work?

How did the growth of cities affect American society?

How did race and class shape Southern society?

How did African-American culture adapt to the hardships imposed by slavery?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Prepare a presentation on historical myth with a focus on the antebellum South. Begin the class with a clip from the film Gone with the Wind and ask students to comment on the images they associate with the antebellum South. Then, discuss the reality of life in the Old South. Ask students why Americans have created myths about their history in general and why we have created myths about the antebellum South in particular.

Discuss the status of women on the antebellum southern plantation. Consider both plantation mistresses and female slaves. Describe the living conditions of each, and their relationship with each other. How did the sexual mores of southern planters impact the lives of both female slaves and plantation mistresses? How did the patriarchal system of the antebellum South validate this situation?

Discuss the connection between religion and politics in the slave community. What roles were played by the black preacher in the slave community? Examine the lyrics of spirituals and have students point out the connection between the lyrics of these religious songs and the slaves’ political agenda of freedom. Play some spirituals for the class to give students a feel for the power of the music. An excellent collection is Spirituals in Concert by Kathleen Battle and Jessye Norman. 153

Prepare a lecture on southern white dissent in the antebellum South. Was the white South united in its defense of slavery? Where did dissent appear, and what issues promoted opposition to the proslavery argument? How were dissenters treated by the defenders of slavery?

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Introduce students to the concept of historiography by reviewing some of the classic works on the institution of slavery. Use a variety of historical treatments of this issue to help students understand the idea of revisionist history and to help them see how a historian’s objectivity is situated within a historical context. Some classic historical treatments of the issue of slavery include U. B. Phillips’s American Negro Slavery (1918), Kenneth Stampp’s The Peculiar Institution (1956), Stanley Elkins’s Slavery (1959), Eugene Genovese’s Roll, Jordan, Roll (1972), and Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman’s Time on the Cross (1974).

Have the class examine the proslavery arguments. Why did white southerners change their perception from believing slavery to be a necessary evil to believing it to be a positive good? Discuss the fact that, by 1850, the national debate on slavery had changed from being a primarily legal debate to being a moral debate. What impact did this transformation of the debate have on the southern defense of the institution? Why was the biblical defense of the institution so critical to the argument?

Have students look at the connection between racism and slavery. Increasing numbers of Americans began to oppose the institution of slavery during the early nineteenth century. Did opposition to slavery necessarily mean a person was not racist? Was it possible to have racist reasons for opposing slavery? Were there any aspects of the proslavery argument with which opponents of the institution might actually agree?

Which aspects of the Lackawanna Valley painting present a positive view of technology? Which aspects suggest a negative view of technology?

Why did the protestors at Lowell seek to wrap their cause in the banner of the American Revolution and its ideals?

Most modern scholars agree that the decision in State v. Mann reflects the fundamentally immoral nature of slavery. The controversy over the decision focuses on a more basic question about law itself. Does law simply reflect the dominant power relations of society? Or, can the law embody ideals of justice or fairness that are not simply a mask to disguise the naked exercise of power?

154 .

Topics for Term Papers and Class Projects 1.

If your location permits, have students visit plantations from the antebellum period. If not, contact historical sites such as Natchez, Mississippi, or Charleston, South Carolina, or visit Web sites (e.g., for Natchez http://www.visitnatchez.org and for Charleston http://www.charlestonmuseum.org) and show students slides of the various architectural styles and varying degrees of opulence reflected in the southern plantation lifestyle.

Write a paper on the life of Sojourner Truth. Involved in both the abolitionist and women’s movements of the early nineteenth century, her life offers an insight into the connection between these two social reform movements.

Write a paper on children in slavery. An issue only recently examined, the plight of children in slavery reveals to students a particularly moving and poignant aspect of slavery’s horror.

Write a paper on the circumstances surrounding the Nat Turner revolt. How successful was the revolt? What factors contributed to the outcome? Slave rebellion was generally unsuccessful in the antebellum South. Why, then, did southern whites fear it so strongly?

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects John W. Blassingame, The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South (second ed., 1979). Catherine Clinton, The Plantation Mistress: Woman’s World in the Old South (1982). Carl Degler, The Other South: Southern Dissenters in the Nineteenth Century (1974). Stanley M. Elkins, Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life (third ed., 1976). Henry Louis Gates, Jr., ed. The Bondwoman’s Narrative (2002). Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation Household: Black and White Women of the Old South (1988). Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (1974). Eugene D. Genovese, The Slaveholders’ Dilemma: Freedom and Progress in Southern Conservative Thought, 1820–1860 (1992). Eugene D. Genovese, The World the Slaveholders Made (1969). Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750–1925 (1976). Wilma King, Stolen Childhood: Slave Youth in Nineteenth Century America (1995). Larry Tise, Proslavery: A History of the Defense of Slavery in America, 1701–1840 (1988). Deborah Gray White, Ar’n’t I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South (1985). Gavin Wright, The Political Economy of the Cotton South (1978).

155 .

Audio-Visual Resources Africans in America, WGBH Educational Foundation, 1998. This four-part series examines the American experience with slavery from 1450 until the abolition of the institution during the Civil War. Ship of Slaves: The Middle Passage, A&E Video, 50 minutes. This video explores the story behind Steven Spielberg’s 1997 movie Amistad. Learning Objectives and Answers After a careful examination of Chapter 9, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

What was the Market Revolution? Answer: It was a set of interrelated developments in agriculture, technology, and industry that led to the creation of a more integrated national economy in the United States. Impersonal market forces impelled the maximization of production of agricultural products and manufactured goods. As a result, the American economy became more commercially-oriented. Farmers began producing cash crops for sale in distant markets, and a wider range of consumer goods, many of them made in factories, became available.

How did early industrialization change the nature of work? Answer: Driven by new manufacturing technology and techniques, industrialization led to a vast increase in the number of goods—everything from clothing and shoes to tools and toys—available to the American consumer. But for many workers, especially skilled artisans, the new industrial economy led to a devaluation of their skills and loss of social status. For less-skilled workers, industrialization often meant exploitation, long hours, and low pay. For others, however, the new manufacturing economy opened up opportunities for advancement.

How did the growth of cities affect American society? Answer: Immigration fostered cultural diversity in cities, but it also led to tensions and violence along ethnic, racial, and religious lines. Hostility between Protestants and Catholics and between whites and blacks increased urban violence. Policing became a far more complex problem in these growing cities.

156 .

How did race and class shape Southern society? Answer: The slave-owning planter class heavily shaped Southern culture and society. While the typical planter lived modestly in a simple wood-framed house, more substantial plantations often resembled a small town, with multiple residences, a hospital, and other buildings. Southern plantations fused the concepts of work and home together. Planters were supposed to act not only as the master of his slaves, but also their lawgiver and judge and protector and friend. This symbolized the patriarchal aspect of Southern society with the whites having dominion over their African-American slaves. On the other hand, many Southerners owned no land and worked as tenant farmers. And in parts of the Deep South some poor whites fraternized with slaves and helped to smuggle liquor into the slave quarters, facilitated runaways, or had sexual liaisons and permanent relationships with slaves. Though, a white supremacist ideology typically overcame class solidarity across racial lines in the South.

How did African-American culture adapt to the hardships imposed by slavery? Answer: Music was one coping mechanism for the hardships imposed by slavery. Slaves used song to preserve their African traditions, relieve the monotony of work, and to entertain themselves. Slaves also turned to religion to provide spiritual comfort and to resist the domination of their masters.

Crawl Questions and Answers How did technology change agriculture in the era of the market revolution? (p. 254) Answer: Improved technology such as iron plows and steam-powered cotton gins enabled farmers to produce more crops, while cheaper, more efficient forms of transportation like the railroad allowed them to deliver these goods to markets. Why did the Farmers Almanac frown on huskings and frolics? (p. 255) Answer: They led to waste and slovenliness instead of economy and profit. What impact did the Erie Canal have on New York’s economy? (p. 256) Answer: It made transport cheaper and more efficient. Before the canal opened, wheat from western New York state took 20 days to reach Albany by wagon and cost almost $100 per ton to transport. After the canal was built, the same ton of wheat could be transported all the way to New York City in ten days at a cost of $5. The Erie Canal fueled the development of new cities such as Rochester, Buffalo, and Syracuse.

157 .

How did George Inness view technological progress in his painting of the Lackawanna Valley? (p. 257) Answer: Inness portrays the railroad in a positive light, but he also suggests the cost of technological progress. For example, a field of tree stumps reminds viewers that economic development has taken a toll on the landscape. So the painting presents both a positive view of progress and a negative view. How did the telegraph transform communication? (p. 258) Answer: The telegraph used electricity to send coded messages over wires. It revolutionized communication by allowing for nearly instantaneous communication of messages over long distances. Why was the firm of Currier and Ives so successful? (p. 259) Answer: They produced colored lithographic images using a new process that was cheaper than traditional engraving techniques. Currier made “cheap and popular pictures” of contemporary events, historical figures, and scenes of everyday life. Touted as “Printmakers to the People,” the firm produced images costing as little as fifteen cents. These images were sold on city street corners, and peddlers carried them to country stores across the nation. How did the factory change work? (p. 260) Answer: The artisan system of small-scale production was replaced with a new set of roles: owners, managers, and wage workers. The owner provided the money for the enterprise, the manager supervised the workers, and the laborers did the actual work, which was usually less skilled than the traditional crafts practiced by skilled artisans. Some industries, such as textiles, shifted relatively rapidly to the use of power-driven machinery. Shoe production, by contrast, continued to employ many manual laborers into the 1860s. In both cases, manufacturers undermined the old craft traditions by breaking down the productive process into simple steps that could be performed by workers with minimal training. Factory work forced laborers to give up many aspects of working-class culture. Under industrialization the clock ruled. Factory workers were required to follow a strict schedule and perform at a steady pace day in and day out. Beyond the rigid regulations of the workers’ day, the factory robbed them of the pride of craft associated with handmade goods. In addition to creating a labor force of less skilled workers, the new system also led to a sharp separation between home and workplace. The factory system diminished the control that working people had over their time and work, but it also increased the goods they could buy.

158 .

What was the Lowell system? (p. 261) Answer: The Lowell mill consolidated all aspects of cloth production. Cotton from the South arrived at the mills where it was cleaned, carded, spun, and woven into a finished fabric. The mill owners recruited young, single women from rural New England to work at the factory towns. To accommodate this workforce and appease concerned parents, they built dormitories and libraries and provided boardinghouse matrons to supervise the morality of the workers. Each boardinghouse, with up to ten bedrooms per building, housed between 20 and 40 women. Two women sometimes had to share a single bed. The boardinghouses also contained a kitchen, a dining room, a parlor, and separate quarters for the housekeepers, who were generally older women. Lowell allowed women to earn significantly more money than did farm labor and domestic service—the two most common occupations for single women. The women operatives in the mills also made friends with their coworkers and enjoyed free time away from the factories to socialize and pursue cultural and educational opportunities not available in their small home towns. How did urban industrialization differ from other models of industrialization such as the Waltham (Lowell) model? (p. 262) Answer: Urban industrialization was far more diverse than mill town industrialization. In New York and Philadelphia, factories turned out products by using everything from skilled handwork, similar to artisan production, to steam-powered machinery run by lowskilled factory operatives. The urban factories produced an enormous range of goods under this system, including chemicals, paints and varnishes, musical instruments, clothing and hats, tools, machines, furniture, and books. How did ideas about gender shape the response of critics of the Lowell strike? (p. 263) Answer: Critics of the Lowell strike saw the women as acting unladylike and as being unAmerican, radical followers of the British feminist thinker Mary Wollstonecraft. What was the Five Points neighborhood and why did it become so well known? (p. 264) Answer: Five Points was a poor but thriving multiethnic and racially mixed community in New York. It illustrated the profound changes in the urban landscape caused by rapid economic development. Its shabby housing and reputation for crime, especially prostitution, made it a symbol of urban decline. What does the creation of gated parks such as Gramercy Park tell us about urban life in this period? (p. 265) Answer: Middle- and upper-class families wanted to escape contact with working people, immigrants, and free blacks. These exclusive enclaves (with St. Johns Square in New York being another example) segregated the rich residents from individuals such as poorer African Americans. 159 .

How did immigration patterns change in the early nineteenth century? (p. 266) Answer: There was a sharp rise in urban populations in the nineteenth century due to the migration of Americans from rural areas and massive immigration from Europe. Europeans left their homelands for the United States for many reasons, including poverty, poor harvests, warfare, and political and religious persecution. For the first time many non-Protestants entered American society. Irish immigrants were almost entirely Catholic, whereas Germans included both Catholics and Protestants. Ethnic enclaves with names like Kleindeutchland (Little Germany) and Little Ireland, with their own churches, mutual aid societies, theaters, newspapers, restaurants, and social clubs, developed in many cities. Why did urban violence increase in the early nineteenth century? (p. 267) Answer: Urbanization in the first half of the nineteenth century led to a rise in crime and disorder. Violence increased as growing cities became more divided racially, economically, and ethnically. Anti-Catholic sentiment spurred much of the intensified violence. Racial animosity between the African-American community and white mobs also inspired urban unrest in places such as Cincinnati, Providence, and New York. Violence also occurred due to political battles between Democrats and Whigs, antagonisms between supporters and opponents of slavery, and conflicts over regulating or eliminating behaviors such as gambling and drinking. Contributing to the rise in urban violence was the steady increase in the number of single men living outside traditional family units, a trend that arose from industrialization and immigration. What does the murder of Helen Jewett reveal about nineteenth-century city life? (p. 268) Answer: The media used salacious tales about the city’s seamier side of life to raise circulation, which fueled the growth of the press. This crime also reflected the low regard in which prostitutes were held. And the informal policing mechanisms that cities had relied on in the eighteenth century (such as night watchmen and sheriffs) proved to be woefully inadequate to police a major metropolitan area in the nineteenth century. Does the historical evidence support the concerns expressed by moral reformers about the prevalence of commercial sex in New York? (p. 269) Answer: Yes, the evidence shows that the cash value of prostitution was second only to that derived from the tailor business. What do plantation architecture and the arrangement of buildings tell us about slavery? (p. 270) Answer: Large plantations were like small towns and planters created something akin to an English style landed aristocracy. The typical planter lived modestly in a simple twostory wood-framed house. His home, generally described as “the big house,” was always the largest domestic dwelling on a plantation and was located at the center of smaller outbuildings, including a kitchen, well, dairy, ice house, smokehouse, and laundry.

160 .

What values defined the planter class? (p. 271) Answer: Planters emulated the life of English country gentlemen, taking tea in the afternoon and treating less affluent neighbors as social inferiors. In theory, masters sought to “govern absolutely.” “Plantation government,” a Georgia planter wrote, “should be eminently patriarchal.” The planter was not only “the head of the family” but also “should, in one sense, be the father of the whole concern, negroes and all.” Southern men claimed that slavery had helped elevate the status of the white woman and liberated her from the drudgery of domestic life, making her “no longer the slave, but the equal and idol of man.” Hospitality was a central part of Southern plantation culture, and the plantation mistress played a key role in the rituals associated with it. How did the experience of free blacks in the South compare with those in the North? (p. 272) Answer: The South’s Slave Codes were even more restrictive than the Black Codes enacted in the North. Free Southern blacks had to carry identification to prove that they were not slaves. They could not hold office nor, in some areas, could they testify in court against whites. But the shortage of skilled artisans in many Southern cities enabled them to enter trades like cabinet making. Southern African Americans played a prominent role as domestics and in some fields and trades such as tailoring and hair cutting. Southern cities were also less spatially segregated than Northern cities. What role did honor play in Southern culture? (p. 273) Answer: Reputation and honor were central values in the male-oriented Southern culture. An “unsullied reputation,” one observer noted, was all that a man required to be “on a social level with his fellows.” A Scottish traveler remarked that Southern men “consider themselves men of honor” and “more frequently resent any indignity shown them even at the expense of their life, or that of those who venture to insult them.” Dueling was used for settling matters of honor among gentlemen. Where was the Black Belt? (p. 274) Answer: This was the soil-rich region stretching from Alabama to Texas in the lower South. What role did violence play in slave society? (p. 275) Answer: Labor discipline was enforced by violence. A popular management book that many planters consulted argued that “after reason and persuasion have been exhausted without producing the desired effect, punishment of some sort must be resorted to.” As an English observer noted, “Absence from work, or neglect of duty, was punished with stinted allowances, imprisonment, and flogging.” Masters sometimes employed slaves to act as drivers, or supervisors, a role that required them to discipline other slaves or face punishment themselves. Why did so many slaves marry slaves living on other plantations? (p. 276) Answer: On smaller plantations and farms, husbands and wives might reside on neighboring plantations. Such “abroad” marriages were common. Visiting a spouse under 161 .

these circumstances required permission, and husbands might see their families only once a week. The slave family included extended kin, such as uncles, aunts, and, most importantly, grandparents, all of whom helped rear children. Why did biblical themes from the story of the Exodus figure so prominently in slave spirituals? (p. 277) Answer: The story of the Exodus told of Moses and the flight of the Israelites from slavery in Egypt. Because the slaves identified with the Israelites, references to the Exodus were particularly common in their spirituals. Who was Nat Turner? (p. 278) Answer: He led the largest slave uprising in American history. Nat Turner’s Rebellion lasted two days and attracted between 60 and 80 slaves before authorities subdued the rebels. Before the carnage ended, 55 whites were killed and as many African Americans. Many Northerners viewed Nat Turner as a righteous and heroic warrior against the evil of slavery. Does the law of slavery support the claim that the law is a tool of the powerful or a constraint on them? (p. 279) Answer: Many view the law of slavery as vindicating those who believe that the law is a tool that enables the powerful (the masters) to dominate the weak (the slaves). However, Justice Ruffin’s anguish and the later ruling in State v. Will might be seen as proof that the rule of law does impose constraints on the powerful. Review Questions and Answers 1.

What role did technological change play in the market revolution? How did such changes affect values? Answer: Technology such as iron plows and steam-powered cotton gins enabled farmers to produce more crops. Forms of transportation like the railroad allowed them to deliver these goods to markets more efficiently. New communication technology, such as the telegraph and printing press, increased the ability to quickly spread the information available to Americans. Market-oriented farming challenged traditional ideas of neighborliness and some ritual communal celebrations were seen as inefficient and wasteful.

How did ideas about gender roles change in response to the market revolution? Answer: Ideas about gender roles changed somewhat, as men increasingly needed to work outside the home as part of the factory system, while women’s economic role remained primarily within the home. Some women were able to participate in the new manufacturing economy through “outwork.” In the outwork system simple tasks were farmed out to women to perform in their homes as 162

supplemental income. But the rural woman’s main role was still traditional agricultural work, such as producing milk, butter, and cheese. 3.

How did slavery shape Southern society and the lives of non-slaveholders? Answer: A few planters shaped the political and economic life of the whole South. Slavery was a part of all of the South’s institutions and affected “the personal interests of every white man.” Most Southern whites were not planters but yeoman farmers who owned no slaves. The yeomanry helped to catch runaway slaves and guard against slave insurrection.

How did slaves modify Christianity to articulate their distinctive religious vision? Answer: Slaves used Christianity to suit their own needs and hopes as slaves. The biblical story of the Exodus was especially relevant to African Americans because it told of the flight of the Israelites from slavery in Egypt. African Americans also created covert churches known as “brush arbors” or “hush arbors” to practice their version of the faith. The “ring shout” was a form of worship that involved a rhythmic circle dance where people exhibited counterclockwise movement to a steady beat, along with hand clapping, and free-form upper-body movements. Slaves also had spirituals, which were a distinctive musical art form that drew heavily on biblical themes. The figure of Moses and the plight of the ancient Hebrews were two common themes. Slave spirituals also featured images of crossing over the River Jordan to freedom in this life or redemption in the next.

Why did Judge Ruffin argue that masters must have absolute power over slaves? Answer: He believed “The power of the master must be absolute to render the submission of the slave perfect” and that to give slaves basic rights would undermine slavery.

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

How did the Transportation Revolution transform the American economy and society? Answer: One way it changed the economy is that it allowed those previously unable to deliver farm products to the growing cities of the Northeast and Midwest to enter the market. For those already in the market, the costs of business were dramatically lowered. These changes also spread information, including things such as almanacs. A network of roads and turnpikes built by the 1820s helped knit together the major urban areas along the eastern seaboard. The new 163

road network dramatically cut travel times. The arrival of the steamboat revolutionized upriver travel time and was an economic boon to river cities such as St. Louis, New Orleans, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and Louisville. Canals provided another means of moving goods more cheaply and faster than by road. Charles Caldwell, the founder of the University of Louisville, praised the railroad as an agent of civilization that would help spread morality and education by linking people together more effectively. Improvements in roads, canals, and railroads also facilitated the spread of communication. 2.

What were some of the negative consequences of rapid economic change for American society? Answer: One cost of such rapid economic development and technological progress is that the environment suffers as a result. The landscape often becomes scarred with the signs of technology. The new economy favored efficiency and progress and placed less value on more traditional communal activities.

What does the Lowell Strike reveal about the changing nature of work during the early phase of industrialization? Answer: It showed that working conditions were becoming more harsh and distribution of wealth had become less equal. The rich controlled a large percentage of the nation’s wealth, which industrial workers considered to be unfair.

How did changing patterns of immigration impact American society during the era of the market revolution? Answer: It changed America’s ethnic composition. For the first time many nonProtestants entered American society. Irish immigrants were almost entirely Catholic, whereas Germans included both Catholics and Protestants. Ethnic enclaves such as Little Germany and Little Ireland appeared in many cities and had their own churches, mutual aid societies, theaters, newspapers, restaurants, and social clubs. This resulted in tensions between the opposing groups. Urban centers in the North and Midwest were home to large free African-American communities. Free blacks in enclaves such as Boston’s “New Guinea” or Cincinnati’s “Little Africa” were the most urbanized subgroup in America. Racial segregation was more pronounced in the urban North than in the cities of the South, where urban slaves were likely to live in their masters’ homes. There was much ethnic tension between African-Americans and whites, who often had the fear that free blacks would steal the jobs of white workingmen.

164 .

What role did religion play in the lives of slaves? Answer: It played an oppressive role sometimes. White ministers used religion in an effort to convert slaves to Christianity and to maintain their control over them. For example, slaves were not allowed to dance during religious services and ministers used biblical passages to remind them to obey their masters. It also played a major role in slaves’ lives as a form of escape. African Americans would use Christian themes to articulate their hopes for freedom. The biblical story of the Exodus was often used because it told of the flight of the Israelites from slavery in Egypt. Slaves hoped that God “would deliver them from bondage as sure as the children of Israel were delivered from Egyptian bondage.” Brush arbors or “hush arbors” were used to practice their version of the faith. Slaves used elements from African religions to define their own distinctive African-American religious culture in rituals such as the ring shout. Religion also played a role in the funeral practices of slaves, where they fused African and Christian rituals. For example, slaves would sometimes scatter broken ceramics over a grave, which was a practice carried over from African burial practices. Religion was seen in the music of slaves as well, in the form of spirituals, which were a distinctive musical art form that drew heavily on biblical themes. The figure of Moses, the plight of the ancient Hebrews, and the crossing of the River Jordan were common themes.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 9 • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 9 Watch the Video Coming of Age in 1833 View the Closer Look Impact of the Transportation Revolution on Traveling Time Hear the Audio File Erie Canal View the Closer Look Nature, Technology, and the Railroad Watch the Video Mastering Time and Space Read the Document A Second Peep at Factory Life View the Closer Look Competing Visions: The Lowell Strike of 1834 View the Closer Look Images as History: Fairmont Waterworks Sculptures Read the Document Petition of the Catholics of New York (1840) View the Image Free Black Church Read the Document A Slave Tells of His Sale at Auction Hear the Audio File “Go Down Moses”

165 .

CHAPTER TEN REVIVALISM, REFORM, AND ARTISTIC RENAISSANCE, 1820–1850 I. Revivalism and Reform A. Revivalism and the Market Revolution B. Temperance C. Schools, Prisons, and Asylums II. Abolitionism and the Proslavery Response A. The Rise of Immediatism B. Anti-Abolitionism and the Abolitionist Response C. The Proslavery Argument III. The Cult of True Womanhood, Reform, and Women’s Rights A. The New Domestic Ideal B. Controlling Sexuality C. The Path toward Seneca Falls IV. Religion and Secular Utopianism A. Millennialism, Perfectionism, and Religious Utopianism B. Secular Utopias V. Literature and Popular Culture A. Literature and Social Criticism B. Domestic Fiction, Board Games, and Crime Stories C. Slaves Tell Their Story: Slavery in American Literature D. Lyceums and Lectures VI. Nature’s Nation A. Landscape Painting B. Parks and Cemeteries C. Revival and Reform in American Architecture The expansion of democracy and the changes resulting from the market revolution left Americans concerned about their lives and the nation’s future. Rising levels of inequality and a bitter debate over slavery further intensified anxieties. Americans sought solutions for the nation’s social problems and clamored for reforms. Many turned to mainstream religion for guidance. Religious reform movements focused on improving education and prisons or dealing with the danger posed by alcohol. Some religious movements viewed the market economy as the root of America’s problems and advocated the abandonment of private property. Several secular utopian movements came to similar conclusions. Still other reformers adopted a radically different critique of market society. The day’s leading thinkers, including Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, urged Americans to reject the values of the marketplace and turn to nature or to their individual 166 .

consciences for inspiration. Other writers grappled with the changes in American society in their writing, exploring America’s past and the market revolution and probing philosophical issues. The rise of a more aggressive abolitionist movement and the development of an equally fervid defense of slavery intensified the public debate over slavery. Abolitionism helped radicalize many women and gave them the opportunity to develop effective organizing skills. Inspired by a more radical theory of equality and equipped with their new skills, women’s rights advocates applied their critique of slavery to women’s status under American law. Reform efforts affected architecture as well. Many reformers advocated transforming the American landscape itself, including the built environment, as a means of promoting social reform and spiritual renewal. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 10, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

How did religion influence reform movements?

Did changes in abolitionism affect the proslavery argument?

What values were associated with the new domestic ideal?

How did the market revolution influence utopian ideals?

How did literature and popular culture respond to the changes in American society?

How did architecture, parks, and cemeteries reflect the larger changes occurring in American society?

Topics for Classroom Lectures 1.

Discuss the impact of early nineteenth-century Irish immigration on the United States. Focus on a variety of issues, including the provision of an industrial labor force, the emergence of urban slums, and the Irish immigrants’ cultural and religious distinctions from middle-class, native-born Americans. How did their presence in the United States impact American moral and political values? How did their presence lead to the popularity of temperance and nativism as parts of the American nineteenth-century social and political agenda?

Prepare a lecture on changing gender roles in the American middle class during the nineteenth century. Focus on the separation of men and women in American middle-class society and the increasing distinctions in their roles, as men were 167 .

identified with the world of work and women with home and hearth. Why do we associate these gender role changes with the middle class? How were gender roles in the middle class distinctive from gender roles in the upper class and the working class? 3.

Prepare a lecture focusing on the temperance movement as a middle-class reform movement. Although there was a religious agenda involved in the movement, were there other more secular issues at stake? With what population did most middle-class Americans associate unacceptable drinking habits? Of what class and national origin was this population? How was the issue of alcohol consumption connected to the laboring class? Was the rise of the temperance movement in any way connected to the rise of nativism during the nineteenth century? Were there as many secular as religious motivations for promoting temperance in the nineteenth century?

Discuss the types of antislavery reform that emerged during the early nineteenth century. Be sure to address the following questions, connecting antislavery reform to racism: a. Could a person in the nineteenth century oppose slavery without being an abolitionist? b. Could a person in the nineteenth century oppose slavery and be a racist? c. Could a person in the nineteenth century be an abolitionist and be a racist? d. Did abolitionists actually appeal to northern racist fears in an effort to popularize the agenda of the abolitionist movement?

Topics for Classroom Discussion and Essays 1.

Discuss the Lowell girls of Massachusetts as an example of a labor force utilized during the early nineteenth century. Is the use of women for labor and their treatment by management at the Lowell factory an example of empowerment of women or exploitation of women? Were women strengthened by the economic rewards of labor or victimized by a patriarchal management style? Have students connect this issue from the early nineteenth century to the ongoing debate in America regarding women in the labor force.

Discuss the impact of nineteenth-century northern economic and social change on the issue of sectionalism. How did the construction of transportation networks during the nineteenth century promote a mutually beneficial, interdependent economic relationship between the Northeast and Northwest to the virtual exclusion of the South? How would industrialization, urbanization, and immigration impact the northern political agenda for the remainder of the nineteenth century?

168 .

Have students read the Declaration of Sentiments from the Seneca Falls Convention; then, have a class discussion focusing on some of the following issues: a. Have students point out phrases from the document that were lifted from the Declaration of Independence. Why did the women at Seneca Falls choose to model the Declaration of Sentiments on the Declaration of Independence? What did the Declaration of Independence mean to Americans? By using the Declaration of Independence as a model, what were Stanton and Mott saying about the status of women? b. Explain to students the significance of the year 1848 in Western history. Is there any significance to the fact that the year the Seneca Falls Convention adopted the Declaration of Sentiments is also the year of the revolutions of 1848 in Europe and the year Karl Marx published The Communist Manifesto? c. Have students discuss the Declaration of Sentiments as a document of its times. Have students choose phrases from the document that reflect nativism, the cult of domesticity, and the traditional nineteenth-century links among women, moral superiority, and social reform.

In what way did Beecher’s position as a minister inform his views of temperance? How did Baldwin’s legal training shape his approach to the issue?

In relation to The Greek Slave, how would viewers in different parts of the nation have responded to this work of art? How would abolitionists have interpreted its message? How would defenders of slavery?

Did the Oneida community provide women more power or was it just another form of female oppression?

Topics for Term Papers and Class Projects 1.

Explore the issue of social mobility in nineteenth-century America. American historical myth often cites the “rags to riches” phenomenon as being typical of the American social condition. Was social mobility a reality in nineteenth-century America? What has typically been the nature of American social improvement over time?

Choose one of the nineteenth-century American utopian societies and write a paper on the origins, leadership, defining philosophy, and success of the community. What was it about nineteenth-century American society that sparked the creation of the community, and how effective were its members in offering a workable alternative lifestyle? What characteristics of American culture and which American values have made it most difficult for Americans to embrace communal living as anything more than a passing fancy? 169 .

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Nancy F. Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood: “Woman’s Sphere” in New England, 1780– 1835 (1977). Barbara Leslie Epstein, The Politics of Domesticity: Women, Evangelism, and Temperance in Nineteenth Century America (1981). Michael Fellman, The Unbounded Frame: Freedom and Community in Nineteenth Century American Utopianism (1973). Oscar Handlin, Boston’s Immigrants (1976). John Larkin, The Reshaping of Everyday Life, 1790–1840 (1988). David Leverenz, Manhood and the American Renaissance (1989). Stephen Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life (1988). David Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum (1971). Kathryn Kish Sklar, Catherine Beecher: A Study in American Domesticity (1976). Stephan Thernstrom, Poverty and Progress: Social Mobility in a Nineteenth Century City (1964). Audio-Visual Resources The Irish in America: The Long Journey Home, Lennon Documentary Group, 1997. This four-part series, narrated by Michael Murphy, examines Irish immigration to the United States during the 1840s. Frederick Douglass: When the Lion Wrote History, WETA/ROJA Productions, 1994, 90 minutes. This three-part series examines the life and times of Frederick Douglass, the African American leader of the abolitionist movement. The Shakers: Hands to Work, Hearts to God, American Documentaries, Inc., 1991. Ken Burns examines this intriguing religious sect in one of his early historical documentaries. Not for Ourselves Alone: The Story of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, Florentine Films, Inc., 1999. This three-and-a-half-hour series chronicles the professional lives and personal friendship of the two women who are credited with originating the American women’s movement. Learning Objectives and Answers After a careful examination of Chapter 9, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

How did religion influence reform movements? 170 .

Answer: During the Second Great Awakening, an emotional style of evangelical Protestantism arose, which encouraged individual improvement and success through hard work and moral choices. These values aligned with the market revolution, encouraging people to embrace change and reform to usher in the new millennium and aim for individual perfection. The temperance movement was closely tied to these ideas. In contrast to Calvinism—a pervasive doctrine of the period that held that individual salvation was predestined and could not be achieved through one’s own actions—religious leaders such as Charles Grandison Finney preached that individuals and communities could achieve their own salvation and success for themselves, their communities, and the nation. 2.

How did changes in abolitionism affect the proslavery argument? Answer: As a result of the market revolution, abolitionists were able to more aggressively promote their cause through advancements like improvements in printing. Abolitionists started papers (such as The Liberator), formed societies, and inundated the South with antislavery literature. Pamphlets, songbooks, and almanacs dramatically publicized the conditions in which slaves lived and the evils they endured. Hiram Powers’s statue, The Greek Slave, drew even more attention to the institution of slavery and the abolitionist cause. The proslavery argument attempted to counter this powerful wave of antislavery sentiment. Thomas R. Dew wrote in defense of slave owners and argued that slavery was a biblical institution that had existed since ancient times and was divinely sanctioned. The movement also argued that the conditions in which slaves lived were far better than those of the very poor in England and even of the poor workers in the North. This active defense of slavery as an institution that was good for masters, slaves, and the nation replaced the opinions of the Founding generation that slavery was a complex issue and a necessary evil.

What values were associated with the new domestic ideal? Answer: The new domestic ideal was coined the “cult of true womanhood.” In the face of social changes and the market revolutions, the “cult of true womanhood” embraced the power of women as wives and mothers. This new ideal defined female values such as piety, motherhood, and sexual passivity, in contrast to male values such as aggressiveness in the competitive marketplace. This furthered a separation between home and the workplace. In the new notion of domesticity, the woman was in charge of the home, and the man was in charge of the workplace. Female values defined one sphere, and male values defined the other.

171 .

How did the market revolution influence utopian ideals? Answer: Utopian movements were more radical embodiments of the general push for social reform in America that came with the Second Great Awakening. They sought to establish communities that were heaven on earth. By eliminating private property and the limitations of conventional gender and family roles, these movements appealed to many who felt threatened by or uneasy about the climate created by the market revolution.

How did literature and popular culture respond to the changes in American society? Answer: Literature and popular culture responded differently to these changes. Many writers, such as Hawthorne, Thoreau, and Melville, responded critically to the market revolution. In Walden, Thoreau wrote about attempting to escape conformity and worldly values and return to nature. Many of Hawthorne’s novels and stories parodied the utopian movements of the time and also exposed the hypocrisy of revivalism in the context of the market revolution. Melville also searched for meaning within a restrictive economic system in his epic novel, Moby-Dick, and in many of his stories. In contrast, many elements of popular culture, such as the board game “The Mansion of Happiness,” embraced and encouraged the changes and reforms in American society. In this game, players moved forward by landing on spaces marked with desirable traits like “temperance” and “piety,” and moved backward by landing on spaces marked with undesirable traits like “idleness.” This system of reward and punishment reflected the rewards and punishments one would receive in life for displaying such traits, thereby reinforcing the religious and family ideals of the time, ideals that supported success in the market revolution.

How did architecture, parks, and cemeteries reflect the larger changes occurring in American society? Answer: Architecture of the time reflected Americans’ sense of expanding democracy and belief that individuals could be transformed and uplifted by their surroundings. The Greek Revival was a result of both the contemporary fight for Greek independence and Greece’s status as the birthplace of democracy. The Gothic Revival of the 1840s and 1850s reflected the idea that architecture could transform and uplift individuals. Gothic Revival homes drew the eye upward, toward heaven, and echoed the power of nature. The creation of parks in urban areas, such as New York City’s Central Park, reflected American’s belief in the power of nature to uplift and inspire the individual. Both parks and rural cemeteries provided space for individuals otherwise confined to factories and squalid living conditions to improve themselves. 172 .

Crawl Questions and Answers What was the Second Great Awakening? (p. 284) Answer: As a result of the economic, political, and social changes in American society in the early 1800s, many Americans worried about the erosion of individual morality, community, and family integrity. These concerns sparked a movement toward moral reform, known as the Second Great Awakening. Secular reformers pushed for improvements in schools, care for the mentally ill, and treatment of criminals, and religious reformers preached about the reform and eradication of individual behaviors such as drunkenness. How did Finney use the tools of the market revolution to further the goals of the Second Great Awakening? (p. 285) Answer: In his preaching, Finney emphasized free will, which is the individual’s potential for improvement and success through individual effort and moral choices. In contrast to Calvinism, a pervasive doctrine of the period, Finney’s message encouraged people to usher in the new millennium by aiming for individual perfection. Through hard work and sobriety, individuals could create their own success in the new markets. What does this painting of a militia muster reveal about alcohol consumption in America? (p. 286) Answer: During the time period illustrated in this painting, alcohol consumption in American was higher, per capita, than ever before. All social classes drank alcohol at all types of social functions. As a result, even occasions as serious as militia musters, as pictured here, became disorganized, drunken affairs. How did Mann’s vision of educational reform differ from that of the Working Men’s Party? (p. 287) Answer: Mann’s vision of educational reform was based on a universal public education that employed a uniform curriculum. The goal of this public education was to create good workers and citizens, implying, through textbooks such as McGuffy’s Reader, that the students’ place was to work for and defer to society’s wealthier, more powerful members. The Working Men’s Party opposed this idea as “despotism,” declaring that it destined most American children to ignorance and kept power in the hands of a few. What was a panopticon? (p. 288) Answer: A panopticon was a layout for penitentiaries that featured a series of spokes radiating from a central guard tower. This layout allowed the guards to see the inmates, but the inmates could not see the guards, meaning that the inmates were potentially always under surveillance. What does prison architecture reveal about reform in this period? (p. 289) Answer: Prison architecture reveals that reformers in this period placed a high value on the ideals of the Enlightenment. Prisons were built so that prisoners were potentially under surveillance at all times and could never be sure if the eyes of the state were on 173 .

them. The goal was to impose discipline and have prisoners internalize it as an ideal. This vision of penal reform fit with the Enlightenment’s ideals of reason and control. Why was David Walker’s Appeal so radical? (p. 290) Answer: David Walker, a free black man, wrote his Appeal to urge active insurrection among slaves in the United States. His insistence that America belonged to the slaves even more than to their masters, and the fact that he condoned the use of force in the slaves’ rebellion against their masters, set him at odds with other abolitionist groups in America. Who was Henry “Box” Brown? (p. 291) Answer: Henry “Box” Brown was a slave who mailed himself from Richmond, Virginia to Philadelphia in a wooden crate. Abolitionists used his dramatic story to publicize their cause. Why did the public accept The Greek Slave’s nudity? (p. 292) Answer: Hiram Powers, the artist who created the sculpture The Greek Slave, explained her nudity by saying that she was clothed in a robe of virtue by maintaining her dignity in the face of her difficult circumstances. Audiences saw the slave, with her face turned away modestly from viewers, as an illustration of Christian virtue. What was the “gag rule”? (p. 293) Answer: The “gag rule” was a procedural motion that required that the House of Representatives automatically table antislavery petitions and not consider them. The gag rule passed in Congress, and a similar practice that effectively kept any antislavery petitions from being considered was passed by the Senate. What was the proslavery argument? (p. 294) Answer: The proslavery argument held that slavery had religious, philosophical, and economic benefits. Proponents of slavery argued that slavery was sanctioned by the Bible and by ancient philosophers. Additionally, the conditions in which slaves lived, according to this argument, were far better than those of the very poor in England and even of the poor workers in the North. How does Domestic Happiness represent the ideal of family? (p. 295) Answer: This painting by the artist Lilly Martin Spencer portrays the family in a casual household setting. The woman’s hand gently restrains her husband from disturbing the sleeping children, demonstrating both family intimacy and the dominant role the woman played in the household. Which reform movements attracted antebellum women? (p. 296) Answer: Reform movements that attracted antebellum women included temperance, reproductive rights and women’s health, the crusade against prostitution, and opposition to President Jackson’s policy of Indian removal. Women were also heavily involved in the antislavery movement. 174 .

How did Stanton’s upbringing influence her approach to women’s rights? (p. 297) Answer: The daughter of a wealthy lawyer who later became a state Supreme Court judge, Stanton spent hours reading her father’s law books in his office. As a result, Stanton grew up well-informed about American law and impassioned to change it. How did the Shakers recast the idea of the family? (p. 298) Answer: The Shakers were a celibate sect of Quakers who did not marry and did not procreate. Men and women did not adopt the traditional roles of husband and father or wife and mother and were therefore able to live equally as brothers and sisters. Because they did not have children, they took in orphans and new members to grow their communities. The Shakers’ way of life offered an alternative to the ideals of marriage and domesticity that were so pervasive during this period. What did the Oneida community believe? (p. 299) Answer: The Oneida community believed that any man or woman who had experienced saving grace was free to have sexual relations with any other person of the opposite sex. Members practiced birth control, such as male continence, and allowed only the most spiritually perfect members to have children. They lived in a complex marriage arrangement, sharing semiprivate enclosures in the Oneida mansion house. What do reactions to Shaker gender roles reveal about nineteenth-century American values? (p. 300) Answer: Some reactions, such as Hawthorne’s The Shaker Bridal, reveal that it was difficult for many Americans to see the Shakers without imagining that they longed for the traditionally defined roles of marriage and family. In this example, Martha is miserable living according to Shaker values. Other reactions, however, showed awe and admiration toward the Shakers, revealing that for many Americans, the Shakers’ gender roles exemplified the values of tranquility, comfort, and kindness. Why did Mormon values appeal to farmers and other small producers in the era of the market revolution? (p. 301) Answer: The Mormons believed that the millennium was coming, which would bring an end to debt, the return of Christ, and a new era of peace, happiness, and prosperity. These groups had suffered economically under the market economy, so the idea of freedom from debt and renewed prosperity was particularly appealing. Why might a woman like Mary Cragin have been drawn to the Oneida community? (p. 302) Answer: During this period in American history, most women lived in oppressive, restrictive environments and could make few meaningful choices. The alternative living situation in Oneida gave women more control over their sexual lives and more power and equality than was otherwise possible. Many women might have seen Oneida as a liberating way of life when compared to their traditional roles as wives and mother. 175 .

What geographical patterns are evident from this map of utopian communities? (p. 303) Answer: This map shows that utopian communities were scattered across northern parts of the United States; none of the communities were in the South. How did Thoreau, Hawthorne, and Melville respond to the market revolution? (p. 304) Answer: Thoreau, Hawthorne, and Melville all responded critically to the market revolution. In Walden, Thoreau wrote about attempting to escape conformity and worldly values and return to nature. Many of Hawthorne’s novels and stories parodied the utopian movements of the time and also exposed the hypocrisy of revivalism in the context of the market revolution. Melville also searched for meaning within a restrictive economic system in his epic novel, Moby-Dick, and in many of his stories. What ideas about the family and religion are reflected in “The Mansion of Happiness”? (p. 305) Answer: When playing “The Mansion of Happiness,” a board game invented in 1843, players moved forward by landing on spaces marked with desirable traits like “temperance” and “piety,” and moved backward by landing on spaces marked with undesirable traits like “idleness.” This system of reward and punishment reflected the rewards and punishments one would receive in life for displaying such traits, thereby reinforcing the religious and family ideals of the time. Why did Douglass need to prove that he was the author of his autobiography? (p. 306) Answer: Douglass was such an eloquent writer that many thought it might have been written by someone else to promote the abolitionist cause. The book’s power lay in its authenticity, so Douglass went to great lengths to prove that it was indeed the work of a former slave. Why was phrenology so popular during this period? (p. 307) Answer: At a time when America was experiencing rapid change, and urban Americans lived in an impersonal world filled with strangers, phrenology offered a way to see an individual’s true character. A common figure during this period was the “confidence man,” a person who appeared respectable and middle class, but was actually a swindler whose goal was to fleece strangers of their money. Phrenology offered a way to distinguish these dishonest characters from honest middle-class citizens. What does Cole’s painting reveal about American views of nature? (p. 308) Answer: By rejecting the artificial beauty depicted in much European art of the time, Cole embraced a uniquely American form of landscape painting, one that focused on the country’s wilderness. Americans embraced and celebrated nature as they experienced it, which was so different from the landscapes of Europe, particularly its wild character. What was the rural cemetery movement? (p. 309) 176 .

Answer: The rural cemetery movement was part of an initiative to bring nature to the urban areas of the country, thereby uplifting those whose lives were confined to industrial workplaces and squalid living conditions. These new cemeteries, such as Mount Auburn cemetery in Boston, which were both burial places and natural parks, provided a place of calm for the dead and also served as destinations for urban dwellers seeking to experience nature. Why did Egyptian architectural styles inspire Americans in the 1830s? (p. 310) Answer: Inspired by the “rural cemetery movement,” architects looked for inspiration to represent death and found it in ancient Egypt’s pyramids, monumental structures, and funeral practices. As a result, many cemeteries of the period include Egyptian features such as obelisks. These styles also inspired architects working on public projects, such as prisons, because of their monumental and forbidding style. What was the Greek revival? (p. 311) Answer: The Greek revival was a popular style of architecture, interior design, and dress during the 1820s and 1830s. What does Shaker furniture reveal about Shaker values? (p. 312) Answer: Shaker furniture embodied the Shaker ideal of simplicity. In contrast to the Greek Revival furniture that was popular at the time, Shaker furniture was devoid of ornamentation and highly functional. Why did phrenologists favor the octagon as an architectural style? (p. 313) Answer: Rejecting the box-like homes of the time, phrenologists like Orson S. Fowler believed that the octagon, because it more closely approximated a circle, encouraged harmony. Phrenologists believed that the octagon house would both encourage Americans to adopt an attitude of inquisitiveness in the face of advancing civilization and to accept insights gained from new fields of study, such as phrenology. Review Questions and Answers 1.

What values associated with the Second Great Awakening contributed to the success of the market revolution? Answer: During the Second Great Awakening, proponents of revival such as Charles Grandison Finney embraced the possibilities for reform and change that the market revolution offered. In his preaching, Finney emphasized free will, which is the individual’s potential for improvement and success through individual effort and moral choices. Finney’s message encouraged people to usher in the new millennium by aiming for individual perfection. Through hard work and sobriety, individuals could create their own success in the new markets. The values of free will, self-determination, hard work, and moral living contributed to the success of the market revolution. 177 .

What was the cult of true womanhood? How did this ideal fit into the new notion of domesticity? Answer: The “cult of true womanhood” defined female values, such as piety, motherhood, and sexual passivity, in contrast to male values, such as aggressiveness in the competitive marketplace. This furthered a separation between home and the workplace. In the new notion of domesticity, the woman was in charge of the home, and the man was in charge of the workplace. Female values defined one sphere, and male values defined the other.

What role did the family play in the utopian worlds created by the Shakers, Oneidans, and Mormons? How were the reform efforts of these movements a response to social and economic conditions? Answer: The Shakers, Oneidans, Mormons, and other utopian societies rejected the period’s traditional conceptions of family and of private property. These groups embraced various levels of communism. The Shakers lived celibate lives, with men and women working as equals and living as brothers and sisters, unrestrained by the traditional roles of wife and mother and husband and father. The Oneidans embraced a complex form of marriage and family, embracing free love. The Mormons encouraged economic communism, sharing land ownership and living apart from the general population. These movements were more radical embodiments of the general push for social reform in America that came with the Second Great Awakening. They sought to establish communities that were heaven on earth. By eliminating private property and the limitations of conventional gender and family roles, these movements appealed to many who felt threatened by or uneasy about the climate created by the market revolution.

What was phrenology? Answer: Phrenology was a popular pseudo-science that focused on the relationship between the bumps on the human head and character and personality. At a time when America was experiencing rapid change, and urban Americans lived in an impersonal world filled with strangers, phrenology offered a way to see an individual’s true character.

How did architecture reflect the ideals of social reformers in the mid-nineteenth century? Answer: One style of architecture embraced during the mid-nineteenth century was that of ancient Egypt. Architects involved in the rural cemetery movement looked to ancient Egypt for its representations of death. As a result, cemeteries of 178 .

the time often included obelisks. Ancient Egyptian architecture also added a somber, grim aspect to public buildings like prisons. Greece was another source of architectural inspiration, due to its struggle for independence from the Ottoman Empire. Greece, the birthplace of democracy and the current location of a fight for independence, mirrored America’s broad democratization and its fight for independence from Britain. In contrast to the highly decorative Greek styles of the day, the Shakers embraced an aesthetic that reflected their values of simplicity and functionality. Finally, the Gothic Revival of the 1840s and 1850s reflected the idea that architecture could transform and uplift individuals. Gothic Revival homes drew the eye upward, toward heaven, and echoed the power of nature. MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

What did American concerns about intemperance reveal about cultural anxieties in the era of the market revolution? Answer: Before the market revolution, drinking was a staple of life in the home and workplace, which were closely related. In the 1820s, when manufacturing moved out of the household, business owners realized that workers’ drinking led to less efficient production. Additionally, the religious reforms of the day were also at odds with the drinking culture of workers. Many women became involved in the temperance movement, seeing drinking as a threat to home and family.

Why did Mann believe education could transform America and eliminate most social ills? Answer: Horace Mann, along with other reformers of the period, believed that education was necessary to create a moral foundation in all American citizens. Mann introduced the idea of a uniform curriculum for all schools, education for all children, and the idea of civic education. Mann’s curriculum included not only basic skills like reading and writing (which were being taught in schools across the country) but also skills necessary to be a good, moral citizen in America’s democratic society. If all children had this education, they would be prepared to succeed as citizens of this new country.

What did the different responses to The Greek Slave reveal about the problem of slavery in American culture? Answer: In The Greek Slave, Northerners and opponents of slavery focused on her suffering, comparing it to the suffering of slaves in America. If this sculpture aroused feelings of compassion in viewers, how could they continue to defend the institution of slavery in America? Southerners, however, saw the slave as “clothed 179 .

with chastity,” an example of Christian virtue. In their eyes, this sculpture illustrated that slaves could maintain their dignity and embody the Christian virtue of modesty. 4.

How did women’s rights advocates apply the lessons they learned through their involvement with moral reform? Answer: In the early nineteenth century, women were powerful advocates on behalf of slaves. Some of these women attended antislavery conferences, some of which were held in England. At these conferences, women activists realized that their right to speak in public was challenged because they were women. As a result, women’s rights advocates began to draw analogies between the situation of slaves and their own situation. Under the common law of coverture, married women could not own property. The women’s rights movement fought to repeal this law that shackled married women to their husbands.

Why did utopian movements appeal to Americans in the era of the market revolution? Answer: These movements were more radical embodiments of the general push for social reform in America that came with the Second Great Awakening. They sought to establish communities that were heaven on earth. By eliminating private property and the limitations of conventional gender and family roles, these movements appealed to many who felt threatened by or uneasy about the climate created by the market revolution.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 10 • • • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 10 Read the Document Reverend Peter Cartwright, Cane Ridge and the New Lights Watch the Video Video Lecture: Drinking and the Temperance Movement Read the Document Horace Mann, Report on the Massachusetts Board of Education Watch the Video Video Lecture: Who Was Horace Mann and Why Were So Many Schools Named After Him? Read the Document The American Antislavery Society Declares Its Sentiments Read the Document David Walker, A Black Abolitionist Speaks Out View the Closer Look The Greek Slave Read the Document Thomas R. Dew’s Defense of Slavery Read the Document Catherine Beecher, Treatise on Domestic Economy Read the Document Lucretia Mott, Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions, Women’s Rights Convention, Seneca Falls, New York 180 .

• • • •

Watch the Video Video Lecture: The Women’s Rights Movement in Nineteenth Century America Read the Document John Noyes on Free Love at Oneida View the Map Interactive Map: Utopian Communities before the Civil War View the Image Shaker Village, Maine (1845)

181 .

CHAPTER ELEVEN “TO OVERSPREAD THE CONTINENT”: WESTWARD EXPANSION AND POLITICAL CONFLICT, 1840–1848 I. Manifest Destiny and Changing Visions of the West A. The Trapper’s World B. Manifest Destiny and the Overland Trail C. The Native American Encounter with Manifest Destiny D. The Mormon Flight to Utah II. American Expansionism into the Southwest A. The Transformation of Northern Mexico B. The Clash of Interests in Texas C. The Republic of Texas and the Politics of Annexation D. Polk’s Expansionist Vision III. The Mexican War and Its Consequences A. A Controversial War B. Images of the Mexican War IV. The Wilmot Proviso and the Realignment of American Politics A. The Wilmot Proviso B. Sectionalism and the Election of 1848 The Mexican War facilitated westward expansion, bringing new lands into American possession, but it also vastly complicated American politics by making slavery a central issue. By 1840, all the land east of the Mississippi (excepting the territories of Florida and Wisconsin) had been organized into new states, but Americans remained hungry for land. By this time, many had come to believe that America was destined to conquer and settle the entire North American continent, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. As a result, tens of thousands of Americans migrated west in search of land and opportunity. Some were part of the migration along the Overland Trail to the Pacific Northwest, others came with the large Mormon migration to the Great Salt Lake. The American defeat of Mexico dramatically increased the size of the nation. The United States incorporated a huge swath of new territory, stretching from Texas to California. The war was also deeply divisive, exacerbating the divisions between Democrats and Whigs and intensifying the conflict between abolitionists and proslavery forces. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 11, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

How did Manifest Destiny influence American ideas about the West? 181 .

Why did so many Americans oppose Texas annexation?

How did the Mexican War affect American politics?

How did President Zachary Taylor appeal to both Northerners and Southerners?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Prepare a slide and lecture presentation exploring the theme of the West in American art. Focus on the depiction of Native Americans by American artists. What is negative about American artistic images of Native Americans? What is positive? If you discussed European images of Native Americans in Chapter 1, you may want to invite a comparison and contrast of seventeenth-century European depictions of Native Americans and nineteenth-century American depictions of Native Americans. Also, have students comment on American artists’ treatment of the western landscape. How did the West stimulate American imagination? Ask students to share their own images and impressions of the American West, even if they have never actually visited the region. From where have many twentieth-century Americans derived their images of the West?

Prepare a lecture on the philosophy of Manifest Destiny. Was Manifest Destiny the only motivation for American westward expansion? Was it the most important motivation? Have students consider the economic, political, and military issues involved. Why did Americans require more than pragmatic justifications for western expansion? Connect Manifest Destiny to Protestant Christianity and to the emergence of feelings of racial and cultural superiority in the Western world during the nineteenth century.

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Compare and contrast the development of agriculture in the old Northwest and the old Southwest during the first half of the nineteenth century. How did the technology and innovation of the agricultural revolution impact American farming during the nineteenth century? To what extent did the old Northwest embrace new agricultural technology? Why? What impact did the adoption of technology have on the development of both the agricultural and industrial sectors of the Northwestern economy? Did agricultural technology impact the development of agriculture in the old Southwest in the same way? Why? What was the primary example of agricultural technology widely embraced in the American South? How would the distinctions between Northwestern and Southwestern agriculture impact sectionalism during the nineteenth century?

Was the Mexican War a defensive war or a war of aggression? Were Mexicans justified in attacking Americans on the Texas border? Who started the war? Did 182 .

Americans accomplish their goals in the Mexican War? Why did many Americans feel that they fell short? 3.

How did Manifest Destiny impact sectionalism in America? What positions did the Whig and Democratic parties take on the issue of westward expansion? Why? Did regional issues influence the level of support for Manifest Destiny? Why did the North tend to oppose westward expansion while the South tended to support it?

How did George Catlin fashion his Indian subject and represent him to his American audience? What do these decisions tell us about American attitudes toward Indians in the early nineteenth century?

Philosophers continue to debate the morality of civil disobedience. If one condones civil disobedience, does this principle invariably lead to anarchy, that is, lawlessness and political disorder, or is it possible to support the rule of law and still accept the moral legitimacy of civil disobedience? Another controversial issue that continues to divide supporters of resistance theory is the role of nonviolence. Must civil disobedience always be nonviolent, or can one legitimately use violence to further the ideals of justice and morality?

How did the end of the Mexican War lead to a deeply contentious issue in the election of 1848?

Topics for Term Papers and Class Projects 1.

Write a paper focusing on the role of women in the westward movement during the nineteenth century. Excellent sources that would expose students to some primary material in this area are the edited journals left by pioneer women that describe the impact the movement west had on their lives and the lives of their families.

Explore the other side of Manifest Destiny by looking at the Mexican impression of American foreign policy during the first half of the nineteenth century. How was the Mexican government impacted by Manifest Destiny? How did Manifest Destiny impact the status of Hispanics living in the far West?

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Gene M. Brack, Mexico Views Manifest Destiny, 1821–1846 (1975). Manuel G. Gonzales, A History of Mexicans in the United States (1999). Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial AngloSaxonism (1981). Robert Hughes, American Visions: The Epic History of Art in America (1997). Julie R. Jeffrey, Frontier Women: The Trans-Mississippi West, 1840–1880 (1979). 183 .

Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (1987). John H. Schroeder, Mr. Polk’s War (1973). Richard White, “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own”: A New History of the American West (1991). Audio-Visual Resources The Alamo, American Heritage, A&E Video. This two-part series looks at the defeat that turned the tide in the War for Texas Independence. American Visions: The Wilderness and the West, Time, Inc./BBC/Thirteen, WNET, New York, 1997, 60 minutes. This episode from the Robert Hughes series examines the American romance with the West. At once awed and challenged by the great expanse, American artists depicted a nation’s dream of Manifest Destiny. The Mexican War, KERA TV/Dallas-Ft. Worth, 1998. This four-part series examines one of the most controversial wars in American history. It offers a fresh look at the war that was intended to see America’s realization of its Manifest Destiny. The Way West: Westward, The Course of Empire Takes Its Way, The American Experience, Lisa Ades and Ric Burns, 1994. This episode from the four-part series examines America’s western expansion from the 1840s through the Civil War. The West: Empire Upon the Trails, Insignia Films/WETA/Florentine Films/Time-Life Video, 1991. This is the second episode of the nine-part Ken Burns series. It examines the Texas War for Independence as well as the experience of American travelers on the Oregon Trail. Learning Objectives and Answers 1.

How did Manifest Destiny influence American ideas about the West? Answer: The theory of Manifest Destiny transformed migration to the West from a practical necessity to an active enactment of God’s will. Manifest Destiny was the belief that God had destined America to spread westward to the Pacific. It was the duty and destiny of Americans to move West, spreading civilization and fulfilling God’s plan.

184 .

Manifest Destiny inspired artists, whose work depicted stunning Western landscapes under bright skies, a vision that echoed both the descriptions of the lush Oregon landscape and God’s blessing on those undertaking the journey West. 2.

Why did so many Americans oppose Texas annexation? Answer: The primary opposition to Texas annexation came from the opponents of slavery, who feared that the addition of such a large territory would create more slave states. The addition of congressional representatives from these new slave states would then upset the delicate balance of power in Congress between free and slave states.

How did the Mexican War affect American politics? Answer: The Mexican War not only further divided the two major parties of the time, the Democrats and the Whigs, from each other, but also created internal divisions within each of the parties. The Northern Whigs denounced the war as an unjust conflict manufactured by President Polk to secure California and New Mexico. In contrast, the Southern Whigs supported the war and believed it would benefit Southern enterprise. The Democrats were similarly divided into Northern and Southern contingents. Additionally, in response the Mexican War, the Free-Soil Party, a third party committed to blocking the spread of slavery, emerged as a force in American politics.

How did President Zachary Taylor appeal to both Northerners and Southerners? Answer: As a candidate, Taylor portrayed himself as a unifier and a “no party” man to avoid isolating either Northerners or Southerners. He was known primarily as a military man and a war hero. As a result, Taylor’s views on many important political issues, such as the Wilmot Proviso, were unknown. This allowed the Whigs, Taylor’s party, to run two separate campaigns, one in the South and one in the North. In the South, they stressed that Taylor owned slaves, and was therefore committed to the South’s interests. In the North, they emphasized that Taylor’s commitment to Whig values meant that he would not be a strong executive and would therefore not veto a Wilmot Proviso-type law. He was therefore able to campaign as a proslavery candidate in the South and a proWilmot Proviso candidate in the North, without ever directly addressing the issue of slavery.

185 .

Crawl Questions and Answers What function did the yearly rendezvous play for fur trappers? (p. 318) Answer: The yearly rendezvous not only gave the Indians and mountain men a chance to exchange their pelts for goods but also provided the trappers a social outlet filled with gambling, drinking, and sex. How did reports of the West both impede and encourage migration? (p. 319) Answer: Some reports from the early nineteenth century, such as Zebulon Pike’s map, which labeled the southern Great Plains the “Great American Desert,” discouraged potential settlers. However, later reports, such as John C. Frémont’s account of his travels west in 1845, which included detailed information about topics such as weather, terrain, and grasslands, made the West a more appealing destination and provided potential migrants with useful information. What were the most important ideas associated with Manifest Destiny? (p. 320) Answer: The basis of Manifest Destiny was the belief that God destined America to spread westward across the continent, all the way to the Pacific. Embedded in this idea was the belief that the “White” race was superior to other races and was therefore destined to “subdue and replenish the earth.” Manifest Destiny was a combination of Jacksonian democracy, which stressed opportunity for all white Americans, and Protestant millennial vision, which defined the nation’s future in terms of the progress of “civilization” and the triumph of Christianity over “savagery.” Why were tales of Indian attacks on immigrants so popular in American culture? (p. 321) Answer: Tales of Indian attacks were powerful and compelling stories that engaged Americans’ imaginations. They also reinforced the commonly held stereotype of Native Americans as bloodthirsty savages, a stereotype that existed before western expansion and persisted into the twentieth century. How did the Mormon immigration differ from other westward migrations? (p. 322) Answer: Unlike other western migrants, whose primary goal was economic opportunity, the Mormons traveled west to escape the religious persecution they faced the East. How did Catlin represent his Mandan subject for an American audience? (p. 323) Answer: Catlin’s goal was to capture and preserve the nobility of Native American cultures that were “doomed” as settlers moved west. To portray his Mandan subject’s “grace and simplicity” to an American audience, Catlin did not paint his subject as the subject would have appeared. Rather, he styled his subject according to Western ideas of beauty. The result was a portrayal of a Native American chief in a style that was how he felt the chief should appear to an American audience, not how the chief would have portrayed himself.

186 .

How did Mormon communalism affect their experiences at Nauvoo? (p. 324) Answer: The Mormons, who dominated the city, did not tolerate dissent, either from inside or outside the church. Smith, who was both the founder of the Mormon church and the mayor of Nauvoo, ordered the destruction of the printing press of a dissident Mormon paper. As a result, Smith was killed, and his successor, Brigham Young, decided to move the entire community farther west to escape criticism and maintain a unified vision of the Mormon church. What was the ranchero system? (p. 325) Answer: The ranchero system replaced the earlier mission system of labor and allowed faster economic development of California by placing huge tracts of land formerly owned by missions into the possession of a few families. Poorly paid Indians performed much of the labor needed to cultivate the land. What advantages did Americans have over Mexicans in the lucrative trade with Santa Fe? (p. 326) Answer: The primary advantage the Americans had over the Mexicans was an established trade route called the Santa Fe Trail. This route was safer and far less rugged than the 1,700-mile journey to Mexico City that Mexican traders needed to travel. How did Anglo-Texans use their defeat at the Alamo to rally support for their cause? (p. 327) Answer: Anglo-Texans used popular images and accounts that depicted the courage and bravery of the Alamo’s defenders, including Davy Crockett, to gain support for a declaration of independence from Mexico. How did the Liberty Party affect the election of 1844? (p. 328) Answer: The Liberty Party, with its strong antislavery and anti-annexation stance, succeeded in winning a large number of voters who otherwise would likely have voted for Henry Clay, the Whig candidate, who opposed the annexation of Texas. As a result, the pro-annexation Democratic candidate, James K. Polk, won the election of 1844. How did Polk pursue his expansionist agenda? (p. 329) Answer: First, Polk moved to acquire Oregon and set the boundary between American and Canada at the latitude 54°40’. Though he had to compromise on the coordinates of the border, the Oregon settlement secured the most valuable lands in the region for American settlers. Polk also annexed Texas in 1845, and, as a result of Polk’s refusal to compromise on the location of the Mexican-Texas border, declared war on Mexico on May 13, 1846. What were the most important differences between the leadership styles of Generals Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott? (p. 330) Answer: Zachary Taylor was a man without pretensions, a common soldier’s general. His reputation for bravery on the battlefield earned him the nickname “Old Rough and 187 .

Ready.” In contrast, Scott was a brilliant tactician and strategist, but arrogant. His fondness for pomp and ceremony earned him the nickname “Old Fuss and Feathers.” How significant was Thoreau’s essay when it was published? (p. 331) Answer: When it was published, Thoreau’s essay attracted little attention. However, the question of civil disobedience influenced later activists like Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. and remains relevant to this day. What role did images play in shaping American perceptions of the Mexican War? (p. 332) Answer: The Mexican War was the first American conflict that was covered by journalists who reported to the people directly almost daily. Along with this coverage, more and more newspapers, such as the New York Herald, included images, particularly daguerreotypes, with their stories. These images allowed the American public to see the war in a far less biased and far more accurate light than had previously been possible. Why did the artist pose Henry Clay in the same posture as earlier artists had used for fallen leaders such as General Wolfe? (p. 333) Answer: This artist intended his representation of Clay’s death to present a heroic vision of the war, with Clay urging his troops on to victory, which was the type of image and message most popular among Americans at this time. Images such as this stood in contrast to the daguerreotypes of the period, which presented a much more realistic, sobering image of the war. Why was the Wilmot Proviso so controversial? (p. 334) Answer: The Wilmot Proviso, which would have banned slavery from all territory acquired from Mexico, heightened conflict between Northerners and Southerners over the already-controversial issue of slavery. It shifted American political debate to the problem of slavery in the territories, splitting both Northerners and Southerners into proslavery and free-soil factions. Why does this political cartoon show a phrenologist examining Taylor’s skull? (p. 335) Answer: As a candidate who portrayed himself as a unifier and a “no party” man, Zachary Taylor’s views on many important political issues, such as the Wilmot Proviso, were unknown. In this cartoon, the phrenologist is attempting to determine Taylor’s political stances from the shape of his head, implying that other more direct means had proved ineffective. Who were the Barnburners? (p. 336) Answer: “Barnburners” was a nickname given to Democrats who opposed slavery and resented the growing influence of Southerners in their party. The nickname is taken from a Dutch tale in which a farmer burns down his barn to get the rats out.

188 .

What were the most important differences between the strategy of the Whigs and Democrats in the election of 1848? (p. 337) Answer: During the election of 1848, the Whigs avoided mentioning slavery and instead chose to focus their campaign on the merits of their candidate, war hero Zachary Taylor. In contrast, the Democrats focused on their stance on slavery, asserting that it was an issue that the Constitution had left for the individual states to decide. Review Questions and Answers 1.

What role did ideas of race play in the theory of Manifest Destiny? Answer: Embedded in the theory of Manifest Destiny was the belief that the “White” race was superior to other races and was therefore destined to “subdue and replenish the earth.” It was therefore the responsibility of settlers to spread their religion and values to the “savage” Native Americans of the West.

What symbolic function did Indians play in American artists’ representations of the West during the era of expansion? Answer: American artists of this era played to the American public’s craving for sensationalized images of the West, including stereotypes of Native Americans. In these popular images, the Native Americans are depicted as violent savages, supporting the theory of Manifest Destiny.

Why did the young Whig Abraham Lincoln oppose the annexation of Texas? Answer: The Whig party, including Abraham Lincoln, argued that economic development, not territorial expansion, was the key to America’s prosperity. Lincoln believed that America should focus on better educating its people and cultivating its current territories. Underlying this argument is the knowledge that acquiring the vast amount of new territory would likely bring the expansion of slavery.

Who were the “Conscience Whigs”? Answer: Whigs who were unwilling to support a slaveholder as their party’s candidate. These Whigs migrated to the Free-Soil Party.

How did Zachary Taylor’s campaign in 1848 deal with the divisive issue of slavery? Answer: Zachary Taylor’s campaign dealt with the issue of slavery by never addressing it directly. Taylor ran two separate campaigns, one in the South and one in the North. In the South, they stressed that Taylor owned slaves and was therefore committed to the South’s interests. In the North, they emphasized that 189 .

Taylor’s commitment to Whig values meant that he would not be a strong executive and would therefore not veto a Wilmot Proviso-type law. MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

How did western expansion transform American life? Answer: Western expansion opened new land for settlement and cultivation. Settlers, encouraged by the theory of Manifest Destiny and artists’ visions of the West, undertook long and perilous journeys into the frontier. The movement West transformed the lives of those who undertook the journey, but it also transformed the imagination and self-concept of all Americans.

What was Manifest Destiny? Answer: The theory of Manifest Destiny was the belief that God had destined America, a new country unencumbered by the past, to spread westward to the Pacific.

How did American artists represent the West? Answer: All American artists represented the West in ways that reflected their desires and values. Many American artists represented the ideas of Manifest Destiny in their work, depicting stunning Western landscapes under bright skies, emphasizing God’s blessing on those undertaking the journey West. Others created sensationalized images of Native Americans attacking settlers, reinforcing stereotypes of Native Americans and the duty of white Americans to impose their values on these “savages.” Finally, artists such as George Catlin attempted to capture and preserve the nobility of Native American cultures that were “doomed” as settlers moved west. To portray his Mandan subject’s “grace and simplicity” to an American audience, Catlin did not paint his subject as the subject would have appeared. Rather, he styled his subject according to Western ideas of beauty. The result was a portrayal of a Native American chief in a style that was how Catlin felt the chief should appear to an American audience, not how the chief would have portrayed himself.

Why did Texas annexation arouse such intense feelings? Answer: The intense controversy that surrounded the Texas annexation was actually a controversy about the balance of power in Congress between free and slave states. The Whigs, primarily from the North, feared that the addition of such a large territory would create more slave states. The addition of congressional representatives from these new slave states would then upset the delicate balance of power in Congress between free and slave states. 190 .

How did the Wilmot Proviso transform American politics? Answer: The Wilmot Proviso, a measure introduced to Congress that would have banned slavery from all territory acquired from Mexico, radically divided Northern and Southern politicians. Southerners opposed it because the representatives from the resulting free states would shift the balance of power in Congress heavily in favor of the North. Zachary Taylor’s undefined stance on the Wilmot Proviso likely won him the 1848 election.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 11 • • • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 11 View the Map Atlas Map: National Expansion and Movement West to 1830 Read the Document John L. O’Sullivan, The Nation of Great Futurity View the Image Oregon Trail Marker Read the Document Black Hawk from The Life of Black Hawk View the Closer Look Images as History: George Catlin and Mah-To-Toh-Pa View the Image Texas, Home for the Emigrant Watch the Video Video Lecture: The Annexation of Texas View the Map Interactive Map: The Mexican War 1846−1848 Read the Document Thomas Corwin Against the Mexican War View the Image Political Cartoon: Fillmore and Taylor

191 .

CHAPTER TWELVE SLAVERY AND SECTIONALISM: THE POLITICAL CRISIS OF 1848–1861 I. The Slavery Question in the Territories A. The Gold Rush B. Organizing California and New Mexico C. The Compromise of 1850 D. Sectionalism on the Rise II. Political Realignment A. Young America B. The Kansas-Nebraska Act C. Republicans and Know-Nothings D. Ballots and Blood E. Deepening Controversy III. Two Societies A. The Industrial North B. Cotton Is Supreme C. The Other South D. Divergent Visions IV. A House Divided A. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates B. John Brown’s Raid C. The Election of 1860 D. Secession The seizure of vast tracts of land from Mexico in 1848 ushered in a period of intense conflict between the North and the South over the question of whether to permit slavery in the territories west of the Mississippi. At the root of these tensions were the starkly different paths of economic and social development being pursued in the two regions. The South prospered in the 1840s and 1850s by expanding its agrarian, slave labor economy; the North, by becoming more urban, industrial, commercial, and multicultural. In the process, the two regions developed divergent visions of the ideal society: The South celebrated the virtues of slavery, states’ rights, and white supremacy, while the North touted the benefits of free labor, upward mobility, and equal opportunity. One of the first and most bitter controversies of the period emerged with the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act in 1850, a law requiring Northerners to assist Southerners in the apprehension of escaped slaves. It produced almost immediately a series of sensational incidents where abolitionists tried, with some success, to thwart the law and spirit escaped slaves to freedom. This controversy set the tone for a decade that was to be rocked by a series of political, legal, and economic disputes that ultimately led back to the slavery question. By 192 .

the mid-1850s, each region increasingly came to see the other’s system as a threat. Northerners became convinced that Southerners wanted to spread slavery to the West and even to the North, while Southerners believed Northerners sought to destroy slavery and the Southern way of life. When Republican Abraham Lincoln won the presidency in 1860, Southerners declared the Union dissolved, setting in motion events that led to a far more bloody conflict, the Civil War. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 12, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

Why did slavery emerge as a national political issue in the late 1840s?

What significant political changes occurred in the mid-1850s?

What were the major differences between the North and South in the 1850s?

Why did Southerners interpret the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 as cause for secession?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Discuss the failure of political compromise as a means of resolving the slavery dispute in the United States between 1820 and 1860. Focus specifically on the Missouri Compromise, the Compromise of 1850, and the Kansas-Nebraska Act while addressing some of the following questions: a. Which provisions of each law almost guaranteed its failure? b. How did the provisions of each law impact sectional divisions in the nation? Did these laws ease sectional differences or deepen them? c. Why did compromise fail? Could a different compromise have been more successful or were sectional differences so deep and fundamental that compromise was never really an option?

Prepare a lecture focusing on the year 1857 as a turning point in the road to disunion. Look at the Dred Scott decision, the Panic of 1857, and Buchanan’s ineffectiveness in confronting sectionalism as they relate to the coming of the Civil War.

Prepare an in-depth presentation on the fundamental differences that divided the North and the South by 1860. Focus on the deep sectional differences in the industrial-agrarian balance in each section’s economy, urbanization, labor ideology, quality and quantity of internal improvements, literacy rates and commitment to education, work ethic, and degrees of social mobility. To what extent was the institution of slavery in the South connected to each of these differences? 193 .

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Have students read the selection in Alexis de Tocqueville’s Democracy in America that addresses the issue of “the tyranny of the majority.” Hold a class discussion on this intriguing criticism of American democracy, and focus on the following questions: a. What does de Tocqueville mean by “the tyranny of the majority”? b. How did John C. Calhoun use this idea in his defense of Southern rights and the larger issue of defending minority rights within a democracy? What minority was Calhoun interested in defending? c. Is de Tocqueville’s criticism of democracy valid? Is the majority always correct or morally right? Does a minority have any rights within a democracy? How can a minority protect itself within a democracy? d. Connect the idea of “the tyranny of the majority” to more recent historical events such as the Civil Rights Movement. Have students comment on the irony that Martin Luther King Jr.’s defense of the rights of African Americans was based on the same reasoning as Calhoun’s defense of Southern slaveholders. Also look at contemporary works dealing with the issue of minority rights, such as those by Lani Guinier.

Have students look at the issues of morality and legality as they have related to revolutionary moments in American history. Focus on the American Revolution, the Civil War, and the Civil Rights Movement. Some questions to consider include the following: a. In the American Revolution, was the adoption of the Declaration of Independence legal? Did the delegates of the Second Continental Congress consider their adoption of the document to be moral? b. Prior to the Civil War, was the institution of slavery legal? Was it moral? Why would abolitionists protest the strengthening of the Fugitive Slave Act in 1850 as an act designed to force Americans to act immorally? c. Prior to the Civil Rights Movement, was racial segregation in the American South legal? Was it moral? When they violated segregation laws, did the followers of the Civil Rights Movement act illegally? Did they act immorally?

When are acts of civil disobedience and violence to further the cause of justice legitimate? In the 1850s, abolitionists deemed slavery such an outrageous violation of American freedom that acts of resistance—even violence—were justified. This question would reemerge and generate heated debate in every subsequent era in American history, including movements for suffrage in the 1910s and civil rights in the 1960s.

What attitudes and actions might these kinds of images of the “foreign menace” have inspired among native-born Americans? 194 .

Competing Visions: Secession or Union: What evidence did the Southern states cite to back up their claim that the mere election of Lincoln justified secession? How does Lincoln reject the idea of secession and seek to place the burden of responsibility for any hostilities upon them?

Topics for Term Papers and Class Projects 1.

Write a paper on John Brown’s raid in Harpers Ferry, Virginia. Discuss the Northern and Southern responses to the raid as well as the Northern and Southern responses to Brown’s execution. Why was this event a turning point for both sections? Why would the South turn almost irrevocably to secession after 1859? Did all Northerners embrace Brown’s actions? Why would the Union go into the Civil War singing “John Brown’s Body”?

Research Southern unionism prior to the Civil War. Was the South united behind secession? If not, who were the unionists? Why did they oppose secession? Who were the secessionists and why, especially in the lower South, were they able to effect secession so rapidly?

Analyze Uncle Tom’s Cabin as a historical artifact. Analyze Harriet Beecher Stowe. What was her mindset while writing the book? How did her family’s history affect her writing? What was the plot and summary of the book? How was the book interpreted and received during the era, and since? Have other creations of popular culture created such a political and social dialogue among Americans? Explain what other movies, plays, or novels have affected the history of the United States.

Write a paper on the origins of the modern-day Republican Party. What political factions coalesced to transform the Republican Party into a national party? What ideologies defined the Republican agenda? Was the party a product of pre-Civil War sectionalism? Compare and contrast today’s Republican Party with that of the era of Lincoln.

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Charles B. Dew, Apostles of Disunion: Southern Secession Commissioners and the Causes of the Civil War (2001). Don E. Fehrenbacher, Slavery, Law, and Politics (1981). Eric Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War (1970). Eric Foner, Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War (1980). William Freehling, The Road to Disunion (1990). William E. Gienapp, The Origins of the Republican Party, 1852–1856 (1987). James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (1988). 195 .

Stephen B. Oates and Buz Wyeth, The Approaching Fury: Voices of the Storm, 1820– 1861 (1997). James Roark, Masters Without Slaves: Southern Planters in the Civil War and Reconstruction (1977). Manisha Sinha, The Counterrevolution of Slavery: Politics and Ideology in Antebellum South Carolina (2000). Kenneth Stampp, America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink (1990). Audio-Visual Resources The Civil War: The Cause, 1861, Florentine Films/Ken Burns/WETA, 1990. This first episode of the classic Ken Burns series examines the prelude to Civil War through the events of the 1850s. The West: Death Runs Riot, Insignia Films/WETA/Florentine Films/Time-Life Videos, 1991. The fourth episode from Ken Burns’s series looks at the impact of sectional crisis and Civil War on the West, including an examination of Bleeding Kansas. Learning Objectives and Answers 1.

Why did slavery emerge as a national political issue in the late 1840s? Answer: In the 1840s, the nation had developed two distinct economies: the agrarian economy of the South, largely fueled by slave labor, and the more industrial economy of the free North. Because these societies and economies were so different, both the North and the South wanted to insure that their interests were represented in Congress. Therefore, maintaining a balance of power in the Senate between free states and slave states was important to both North and South.

What significant political changes occurred in the mid-1850s? Answer: In the mid-1850s, one of the two most powerful political parties of the period, the Whig Party, collapsed as a result of increasing tensions between Northern and Southern party members. In the wake of the violence in Kansas and increased tensions over slavery and the future of the nation, the new Republican party was founded, attracting former Northern Whigs, Northern Democrats, and other Free-Soilers and antislavery groups. The establishment of the strongly antislavery Republican Party was the most politically significant event of the period.

What were the major differences between the North and South in the 1850s? Answer: By the 1850s, the United States had two distinct economies: the agricultural economy of the South, which was based on cotton, and the industrial 196 .

economy of the North. The industrial North had a well-developed infrastructure, including roads and railroads, while the South’s infrastructure was relatively undeveloped. Raw materials were grown in the South, but their processing occurred in the North. The high profit margins and relatively low cost of U.S. cotton at this time was a result of the free labor provided by slaves, so the Southern economy was dependent on the institution of slavery. In the North, developments in production and transportation grew industries, which were fueled by immigrant labor. As a result of these two different economies and the different societies they created, Northern and Southern interests overlapped less and less. 4.

Why did Southerners interpret the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 as cause for secession? Answer: Although he was a moderate on most issues, including the issue of slavery, the fact that Lincoln was a Republican meant that he opposed the spread of slavery and believed in its eventual abolition. Southerners called him a “Black Republican,” and believed that, as president, he would abolish slavery. The abolition of slavery would lead to a collapse of the Southern economy and society. To avert this potential crisis, several Southern states called for secession immediately after Lincoln’s election, before he took any actions as president.

Crawl Questions and Answers What was the fate of most fortune seekers who headed west to mine for gold? (p. 342) Answer: Most gold seekers initially found gold by panning, but once the gold on the surface was gone, they ended up as wage laborers for corporations that had the technology to mine the deeper, harder-to-reach gold. As a result, few ended up with the wealth they expected when they headed west. How did the Gold Rush affect the Native Americans of California? (p. 343) Answer: The diseases that migrants carried west killed tens of thousands of Native Americans. Tens of thousands more were driven off their land by miners who wanted to access to the territory. As a result, the Native American population in California dropped from 150,000 in 1848 to 30,000 in 1870. Why did Southerners react so negatively to President Taylor’s plan? (p. 344) Answer: After taking office, President Taylor proposed that California and New Mexico be made states immediately, and that the question of whether they would allow slavery be left up to the states themselves. Southerners anticipated that Taylor’s plan would upset the balance of power between slave states and free states in the Senate, which, at the time, had 15 representatives from each group. If this balance was upset, Northern senators could block legislation that served Southern interests, and potentially abolish slavery altogether. 197 .

What did Seward mean by a “higher law”? (p. 345) Answer: Seward gave voice to the antislavery movement by arguing that, whether or not the Constitution guaranteed the right to extend slavery into the territories, as Southerners argued, the United States should obey a “higher law” than the Constitution: the law of God under which all people deserved to live in freedom. According to this law, the United States should work to end slavery, gradually and peacefully. How did the Congressional vote on the Compromise of 1850 reveal growing sectionalism? (p. 346) Answer: Although Congress passed the bills contained in the Compromise of 1850, votes on the five components showed that the interests of the North and South were increasingly divided. Most Northern Whigs supported the bill that admitted California as a free state, but opposed the Fugitive Slave Act. Southern Whigs voted in the opposite way. Only 20 percent of Congress, the more moderate members, voted for all five bills contained in the Compromise of 1850. Why did Southerners demand a Fugitive Slave Act? (p. 347) Answer: The Fugitive Slave Act was part of the Compromise of 1850, intended to serve Southern interests and make up for the fact that California was admitted as a free state. The Act created a force of federal commissioners with the power to pursue and return slaves, who had escaped to the North, to their owners. Knowing that abolitionists had been aiding escaped slaves, Southerners insisted that Northerners uphold the act. What made Uncle Tom’s Cabin such an influential piece of antislavery literature? (p. 348) Answer: Uncle Tom’s Cabin described the brutality of slavery in the South and showed the humanity of the slaves who were its main characters. Readers could identify with these characters’ goals and emotions; the book created empathy for slaves and made what had been, for many, an abstract institution very personal. What caused the furor over the Fugitive Slave Act to eventually subside? (p. 349) Answer: After strong resistance to the Fugitive Slave Act in the North, including acts of civil disobedience and violence, the number of slave captures decreased sharply and the furor subsided, largely because thousands of free blacks and escaped slaves fled to Canada. What ideas inspired Young America’s vision of westward expansion? (p. 350) Answer: Young America, a movement within the Democratic Party, was inspired by the idea of Manifest Destiny, America’s God-given right and obligation to expand its territory and spread democracy and free enterprise. The movement promoted territorial expansion, particularly to Latin America and the Caribbean, increased trade, and the spread of American values abroad.

198 .

Why did many Southerners support efforts to annex Cuba and seize other Caribbean and Latin American countries? (p. 351) Answer: Southerners saw the annexation of these countries, many of which had slavery and plantation economies, as a chance to tip the balance of power in Congress in their favor. Why did most Northerners oppose the repeal of the Missouri Compromise line of 36° 30’? (p. 352) Answer: This line had ensured peace between Northerners and Southerners since its creation. Although some Northerners were willing to allow Western territories to enter the Union as slave states if they chose, the repeal of this line would allow Kansas, which was north of the line, to enter the Union as a slave state. Northerners saw the repeal of this line as a chance for the South, which Northerners had begun to call the “slave power,” to spread slavery, and thereby spread its influence and the “curse” of slavery, to the North. What events led to the formation of the Republican Party? (p. 353) Answer: Disagreements within the Whig and Democratic parties, the two most powerful political parties of the time, over the issue of slavery and the future of the nation were intensified during the Kansas-Nebraska controversy. These divisions led many ex-Whigs, Northern Democrats, and Free-Soilers to form local antislavery parties. This group of parties eventually coalesced into the Republican Party. What anti-immigrant laws did the American Party propose? (p. 354) Answer: The American Party, also known as the “Know-Nothings,” proposed that all government offices be open only to native-born citizens, that public funds should not be used for parochial schools (which were primarily Catholic), and that the period of naturalization for citizenship be raised from five to 21 years. Why did anti-immigrant sentiment rise in the 1850s? (p. 355) Answer: Part of the reason for the increase in anti-immigrant senitment was the sheer number of immigrants arriving in the United States during this period: Three million immigrants arrived between 1845 and 1855. Additionally, unlike previous immigrants who were largely Protestants from Britain, a majority of these immigrants were Catholics from Germany and Ireland. Fear of Catholicism and the unfamiliar cultures and languages of these immigrants led many Americans to worry that these newcomers would take jobs from native-born Americans, would refuse to assimilate, and would increase poverty, disease, and crime in the nation. How did events in Kansas expose the flaw in the policy of popular sovereignty? (p. 356) Answer: Popular sovereignty turned into a contest in Kansas. Because Kansas had a large population of Northern settlers, Southern “border ruffians” crossed into Kansas to vote for Kansas to enter the Union as a slave state. These illegal voters helped elect a proslavery territorial government, which legalized slavery in the state. As a result, the status of Kansas as a slave state was not actually determined by popular sovereignty. This 199 .

led to violent conflict among Kansas settlers and even conflict in the Senate, where Southern Congressman Preston Brooks attacked abolitionist and Northern Senator Charles Sumner with a cane. How did events in Kansas benefit the Republican Party? (p. 357) Answer: The fighting in Kansas was described as “Bleeding Kansas” in newspapers, particularly in the antislavery press of the North. Images represented Southern Democratic leaders as “border ruffians” who were responsible for the bloodshed. The antislavery stance of the young Republican Party gave a political voice to the Northerners who sent aid to the antislavery cause or moved to settle in Kansas to help the Free-Soilers establish Kansas as a free state. How did the Supreme Court use the Dred Scott case to expand and protect the rights of slaveholders? (p. 358) Answer: By declaring that African Americans, whether free or enslaved, could never become citizens of the United States and therefore never have the right to sue, the Supreme Court prevented slaves who had lived in free territories from suing for their freedom. The Supreme Court also declared that Congress lacked the right to regulate slavery in the territories. This established the property rights of slaveholders as inviolable and completely out of the hands of any level of the American government. Slaveholders maintained the rights to their property—their slaves—whether they were in slave or free territory. Why did Congress reject the Lecompton Constitution? (p. 359) Answer: The Lecompton Constitution was a proslavery state constitution for Kansas, drafted as a preliminary step to applying for statehood. It was first passed, then rejected by Kansas residents. When it reached Congress, the Senate approved it, but the House narrowly rejected it. As a result of this deeply divided Congress, Kansas remained a territory. What developments helped spur industrialization in the North? (p. 360) Answer: Three main developments spurred industrialization in the North in the 1840s. The first was the creation of machines made with interchangeable parts, like firearms, clocks, and sewing machines. Interchangeable parts meant that these machines could be manufactured quickly and inexpensively. Second, manufacturers adopted steam power, which was a more powerful, reliable, and flexible energy source than water power. Finally, the steady influx of immigrants during that time supplied manufacturers with the labor needed to maintain and increase production of goods. How did new technology transform American agriculture? (p. 361) Answer: New agricultural machines, such as the mechanical reaper and steel plow, allowed for faster harvesting and decreased the amount of human labor required. As a result, farmers could work larger farms. The development of the railroad also transformed agriculture because it allowed farmers to transport their goods for sale in distant markets. 200 .

This allowed farmers to specialize in single crops rather than raising a mixture of grains, animals, and vegetables. What made cotton production so profitable between 1830 and 1860? (p. 362) Answer: Slave labor made cotton production profitable during this period. Nearly four million slaves worked in the South in 1860, providing free labor for the Southern cotton industry. What did Southerners mean by the phrase “Cotton is King”? (p. 363) Answer: Prior to the Civil War, American cotton accounted for three-fifths of all American exports and three-quarters of the world supply. The high profit margins and competitive costs of American cotton were the result of the unpaid labor that produced it. Why did Southern whites who owned no slaves support slavery? (p. 364) Answer: Southern whites who did not own slaves supported slavery for different reasons. Some aspired to own slaves, or knew people who did own slaves. Many poor white subsistence farmers believed that the institution of slavery improved their status. These whites could feel superior to all blacks, no matter what their social or economic situation was. Most of all, Southerners generally accepted the tenets of white supremacy and believed that blacks were inferior to whites and destined to live under their dominance. How did the Panic of 1857 strengthen the Southern argument for secession? (p. 365) Answer: The Panic of 1857 on Wall Street sent the economy into a recession. However, the Northeast and the West experienced the brunt of this recession, while the Southern economy was relatively unaffected. Southern nationalists argued that this proved the superiority of their type of economy and demonstrated that the South could prosper on its own should it leave the Union. How did the Lincoln-Douglas debates harm Douglas’s presidential ambitions? (p. 366) Answer: During the Lincoln-Douglas debates for an Illinois Senate seat, Lincoln made bold statements about slavery, forcing Douglass to make statements that affected his credibility with different political groups. Lincoln challenged Douglas’s moral indifference toward slavery, which alienated Douglass from Northern Free-Soilers, and also his approval of popular sovereignty, which angered proslavery Southerners. Why did many Northerners consider John Brown a martyr? (p. 367) Answer: Brown was executed as a result of his attempt to start a violent slave insurrection across the South. Through his words and actions, Brown showed that he was acting in accordance with biblical calls to fight for justice. Brown’s pure spiritual fanaticism excited abolitionists in the North, who shared his opinions and used his death to spread his ideas.

201 .

What was unique about Lincoln’s victory in the election of 1860? (p. 368) Answer: The election of 1860 was the first election in which a purely regional party, the Republicans, had won the presidency. Lincoln, the Republican candidate, won all the Northern states except New Jersey, as well as Oregon and California, while Breckinridge, the Southern Democrat, won all the states in the Deep South. What prevented a compromise in the spring of 1861? (p. 369) Answer: In the spring of 1861, the question of slavery extending to the territories kept President Lincoln from compromising with the South. In the South, Confederate President Jefferson Davis insisted that the South’s decision to secede was permanent and not open to compromise. Why did Lincoln attempt to resupply Fort Sumter? (p. 370) Answer: After the secession, Lincoln asserted that the Union would “hold, occupy, and possess” all federal property in the seceding states, which included Fort Sumter in South Carolina. When Fort Sumter was running low on supplies, Lincoln attempted to resupply the fort and support his assertion of Union control over federal property. How did the slavery issue factor into Mississippi’s decision to secede? (p. 371) Answer: Slavery was the largest factor in Mississippi’s decision to secede. Mississippi’s declaration of secession described slavery as the “greatest material interest in the world” and stated that “a blow at slavery is a blow at commerce and civilization.” Mississippi rejected “negro equality” and slaveholders’ loss of their rightful property. The abolition of slavery would lead to “utter subjugation” of the state as part of the Union, and, accordingly, secession was the only possible course of action. Review Questions and Answers 1.

What led to the rise of the Republican Party? How did the party define its position on slavery? Answer: Previously existing disagreements within the Whig and Democratic parties, the two most powerful political parties of the time, over the issue of slavery were intensified during the Kansas-Nebraska controversy. These divisions led many ex-Whigs, Northern Democrats, and Free-Soilers to form local 202 .

antislavery parties. This group of parties eventually coalesced into the Republican Party. The Republican Party unified these groups with its strongly antislavery position. 3.

What were the sources of nativism that led to the rise of the Know-Nothings? Answer: Nativism in the United States was fueled by the sheer number of immigrants arriving during this period—approximately three million between 1845 and 1855. Additionally, unlike previous immigrants who were largely Protestants from Britain, a majority of these immigrants were Catholics from Germany and Ireland. Fear of Catholicism and the unfamiliar cultures and languages of these immigrants led many Americans to worry that these newcomers would take jobs from native-born Americans, would refuse to assimilate, and would increase poverty, disease, and crime in the nation. The American Party, or Know-Nothings, sought to allay these fears through antiimmigrant legislation.

Why did many Northerners believe that Southern slaveholding interests had gained control of the national government? Answer: First, Northerners saw the Kansas-Nebraska act, which included the repeal of the ban on slavery north of 36° 30’, as a chance for the South, which Northerners had begun to call the “slave power,” to spread slavery, and thereby spread its influence and the “curse” of slavery, to the North. The resulting violence in Kansas demonstrated to Northerners that Southerners would go to great lengths, including using illegitimate election practices, to bypass popular sovereignty. The Dred Scott decision, which granted inviolate property rights to slaveholders and forbade any government interference with slavery, increased the sense that Southern interests controlled the government.

What role did economic development play in the rise of sectional tension? Answer: By the 1850s, the United States had two distinct economies: the agricultural economy of the South, which was based on cotton, and the industrial economy of the North. The high profit margins and relatively low cost of U.S. cotton at this time was a result of the free labor provided by slaves, so the Southern economy was dependent on the institution of slavery. In the North, developments in production and transportation grew industries, which were fueled by immigrant labor. As a result of these two different economies and the different societies they created, Northern and Southern interests overlapped less and less, and tensions grew.

203 .

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

What did Calhoun argue constituted the primary threat to the Union? Answer: Calhoun argued that the primary threat to the Union was the slavery question, as well as the imbalance of power in the federal government. He argued that government was run entirely by the North, and that Southern states had no ability to protect themselves from the “encroachment and oppression” imposed on them.

How did abolitionists try to characterize the Fugitive Slave Act as a violation of American ideals? Answer: Abolitionists argued that the Fugitive Slave Act was a violation of the freedom of escaped slave and the freedom of state and local governments in the North. The Fugitive Slave Act established a federal force of slave hunters and also forced local and state law enforcement to assist in the capture and return of escaped slaves. Any member of law enforcement, as well as any member of the public, who assisted an escaped slave was committing a crime punishable by law. Abolitionists argued that this was a gross violation of personal freedoms and the right to democratically-determined state and local laws.

Why did many Americans come to see immigrants as a danger to the republic? Answer: Many Americans feared that Roman Catholic immigrants would hold allegiance to the Pope above allegiance to the United States. Fearing that American democracy was a fragile construction, they worried that these immigrants would spread their beliefs westward and even convert Protestants. Underlying these fears was the anxiety that Irish and German immigrants were taking jobs from native-born Americans.

How was Christianity cited as a source to defend as well as condemn slavery? Answer: Supporters argued that slavery was a biblical institution, because the Bible makes numerous references to slavery. They also argued that slavery “civilized” enslaved Africans by teaching them Christianity. Opponents of slavery argued that slavery was the antithesis of American democracy, which celebrated liberty as a God-given right. Freedom and equality were biblical laws that transcended the laws of any nation. They also argued that slavery was damaging to Southern society, promoting laziness among slaveholders rather than the Protestant virtues of hard work and thrift.

204 .

Which Southern states had the most counties opposed to Secession? Answer: Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 12 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 12 View the Image Gold Mines of California Lecture Announcement View the Closer Look Chinese Gold Mining in California Read the Document John C. Calhoun, Proposal to Preserve the Union (1850) View the Closer Look The Compromise of 1850 View the Map Interactive Map: The Underground Railroad View the Closer Look The Fugitive Slave Act Watch the Video Video Lecture: The Making of Uncle Tom’s Cabin Read the Document John O’Sullivan, The Great Nation of Futurity (1845) View the Map Interactive Map: The Compromise of 1850 and the KansasNebraska Act Watch the Video Lecture Burn Down the Convent Read the Document John Gihon, Kansas Begins to Bleed (1856) Read the Document A Slave Sues for Freedom in 1857 Watch the Video Lecture: Dred Scott and the Crises that Led to the Civil War View the Map Interactive Map: Slavery in the South View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Slavery and Christianity Read the Document The Lincoln-Douglas Debates of 1858 Hear the Audio John Brown: An Address by Frederick Douglass, pamphlet excerpt View the Closer Look 1860 Election Cartoon View the Map Atlas Map: Secession

205 .

CHAPTER THIRTEEN A NATION TORN APART: THE CIVIL WAR, 1861–1865 I. Mobilization, Strategy, and Diplomacy A. Comparative Advantages and Disadvantages B. Mobilization in the North C. Mobilization in the South D. The Struggle for the Border States E. Wartime Diplomacy II. The Early Campaigns, 1861–1863 A. No Short and Bloodless War B. The Peninsular Campaign C. A New Kind of War D. Toward Emancipation E. Slaughter and Stalemate III. Behind the Lines A. Meeting the Demands of Modern War B. Hardships on the Home Front C. New Roles for Women D. Copperheads E. Conscription and Civil Unrest IV. Toward Union Victory A. Turning Point: 1863 B. African Americans Under Arms C. The Confederacy Begins to Crumble D. Victory in Battle and at the Polls E. War is Hell The Civil War began in 1861 as a conflict over whether Southern states possessed the right to secede from the Union. But when the Lincoln administration’s Emancipation Proclamation took effect on January 1, 1863, it became a war against slavery. The soldiers depicted in this joyous scene were among the 180,000 African American soldiers who contributed to the Union army’s successful campaign to defeat the Confederacy. Emancipation was but one of the many extraordinary aspects of the Civil War that make it the most written-about event in American history. The war pitted American against American, in some cases brother against brother. Senator John J. Crittenden of Kentucky, for example, saw two sons rise to the rank of general, one Confederate and the other Union. Mary Todd Lincoln, the president’s wife, lost three brothers who were fighting for the Confederacy. The Civil War was also, for its time, an unusually bloody conflict. The 618,000 Americans who died in the four years of conflict far outnumber the 115,000 lost in World War I and the 318,000 in World War II. The war also brought to the fore larger-than-life personalities such as Generals William Tecumseh Sherman, 206 .

Ulysses S. Grant, Robert E. Lee, and Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson, and it produced moments of heroism that would become the stuff of legend. If these aspects of the war explain its popularity as a historical subject, they also indicate why the Civil War has generated so much heated debate. For generations Americans have argued over the true cause of the war and why the North won (or as some like to put it, why the South lost). They have debated the significance and wisdom of crucial decisions such as Lee’s move to attack the North in 1863 or Union general Meade’s failure to pursue the weakened Confederates after Gettysburg. Yet for all this debate, few commentators dispute this fact: The Civil War brought profound social, political, and economic change to the United States. Most also agree that while the war ended the contentious question of slavery, it immediately raised equally challenging questions about racial equality. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 13, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

What advantages and disadvantages did the North and South possess at the outbreak of the war?

Why did Lincoln expand the goal of war from preserving the Union to including emancipation?

How did the demands of war lead to changes in government policy and lifestyle on the home front?

What decisions by the Lincoln administration and Union army commanders led to the defeat of the Confederacy?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Discuss the Confederacy in terms of its government organization and effectiveness during the Civil War. Explain to students the link between a confederate form of government and the Southern devotion to states’ rights. What characteristics of a confederate form of government would make it difficult for Jefferson Davis to conduct a war? How would the dominating principle of states’ rights in the Confederacy impact recruiting soldiers, raising finances, and creating the fundamental unity needed to wage war and win? Discuss the irony of the fact that the Confederacy was fighting for states’ rights, yet a states’ rights form of government would be one of the factors that would lead to defeat.

Discuss the distinctions between Union and Confederate military leadership during the Civil War. What strengths and weaknesses existed on each side regarding the quality and effectiveness of leadership? What advantages did the 207 .

North have that would offset its difficulties in finding effective generals to lead the Union Army? 3.

Discuss the issue of dissent during the Civil War. Choose either the North or the South as the focus of the lecture. If the North is the focus, look at the Copperheads or at the Irish in New York City. Who opposed the war and why? In what regions of the North was dissent strongest? Is there a reason for this? Was socioeconomic background a factor? Do the same for the South. Who in the South opposed the Civil War and why? Again, is region a factor in defining dissent? Was class a factor?

Discuss the role of women in the Civil War. Consider American views on womanhood during the early nineteenth century, particularly the cult of domesticity. How did the Civil War impact these ideals regarding women and the home? Compare the roles of women in the Civil War to the roles of women during earlier wars in America and to the role of women in modern wars. Are there parallels? Distinctions?

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Have students read a copy of the Emancipation Proclamation before class, and then conduct a discussion focusing on some of the following questions: a. Did the Emancipation Proclamation end slavery in the United States? b. Where did the proclamation end slavery? Were there slave states where slavery was protected and not abolished? Where were those states? Why did Lincoln protect slavery in these states? c. Was the Emancipation Proclamation primarily the result of a moral decision or a military decision on Lincoln’s part? Was it an emotional decision or a pragmatic decision? d. How might the Emancipation Proclamation be the result of a diplomatic decision on Lincoln’s part? e. What is the historical significance of the Emancipation Proclamation?

Have students read the Gettysburg Address, and then hold a discussion focusing on some of the following areas: a. Have students choose phrases from the address that speak directly to the Union war aims of reunion and emancipation. b. Have students comment on Lincoln’s meaning of the phrase “all men are created equal.” Ask students to recall where the phrase originates. What did the original author mean by it? What did Lincoln mean by it? What happened to the American understanding of equality during the period between the American Revolution and the Civil War? c. Ask students to think about the phrase “new birth of freedom.” Again, were American ideas about freedom changing during the Civil War? To 208 .

what extent? If the reference is to emancipation, how much freedom was inherent in the Northern interpretation of emancipation? 3.

Discuss the issue of civil rights during the Civil War. Have students respond to the suspension of the writ of habeas corpus by the Lincoln government during the war and the subsequent arrests for disloyalty. Does civil war justify this abridgment of civil rights? Should the Lincoln administration have tolerated Copperhead opposition? How does this situation during the Civil War compare to the use of the Sedition Act of 1798 by Federalists at the turn of the century? How does it compare to the use of the Sedition Act of 1918 by the Wilson administration during World War I? How does it compare to the second Bush administration’s antiterrorism policies?

Some historians have discussed the American Revolution as the First American Civil War. Now that students have studied both the Revolution and the Civil War, have them discuss the parallels and distinctions between the two. a. Consider the Continental Congress’s adoption of the Declaration of Independence and the South’s secession from the Union. Are there parallels between these two events? Are there distinctions? b. Was the Declaration of Independence by Americans in 1776 an act of secession? How could it be seen that way? Was the Southern secession in 1860–1861 a declaration of independence? How could it be seen that way? c. How do victory and defeat define the way people identify military events in history? Would the American Revolution be called a revolution if the United States had lost? Would the American Civil War be called a civil war if the South had won?

How do such grim images of the Civil War compare to the romantic visions of war Northerners and Southerners expressed at the outset of the conflict? How do you imagine such images shaped the public’s attitude toward this and future wars?

Were Lincoln’s actions on civil liberties justified? Are principles such as civil liberties subject to different treatment during times of national crisis such as war?

Why was the pay of black soldiers lowered?

Topics for Term Papers and Class Projects 1.

Write a paper on the history of the 54th Massachusetts Regiment, focusing specifically on its performance at Fort Wagner, South Carolina. How was the regiment recruited? What is the significance of the Massachusetts 54th in terms of the lasting reputation and historical legacy of African American troops who fought in the Civil War? What was the 54th’s role in the Darien affair? Who led the Massachusetts 54th? How were white officers perceived by black soldiers, or 209 .

other white soldiers? In answering this question, focus specifically on the life and death of Robert Gould Shaw. 2.

Research the role of Southern women in the Civil War, focusing on the diary of Mary Chesnut of South Carolina. Chesnut left an extensive record in which she addressed issues such as slavery, gender roles in the antebellum South, class distinction in the antebellum South, and the impact of the Civil War on Southern society.

Research the military personality of William Tecumseh Sherman. Examine his innovative contributions to the Northern war effort. Why is Sherman often considered the originator of concepts about modern war? What is Sherman’s legacy? How is he viewed in the South today as opposed to the North?

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Ira Berlin et al., Freedom’s Soldiers: The Black Military Experience in the Civil War (1998). Burchard, Peter, One Gallant Rush: Robert Gould Shaw and His Brave Black Regiment (1965). Catherine Clinton and Nina Silber, eds., Divided Houses: Gender and the Civil War (1992). William C. Davis, “A Government of Our Own”: The Making of the Confederacy (1994). Drew Gilpin Faust, Mothers of Invention: Women of the Slaveholding South in the American Civil War (1997). Gary W. Gallagher, The Confederate War (1997). Louis S. Gerteis, From Contraband to Freedom: Federal Policy Toward Southern Blacks, 1861–1865 (1973). Doris Kearns Goodwin, Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (2005). John P. Marszalek, Sherman: A Soldier’s Passion for Order (1993). James B. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (1988). Joshua Wolf Shenk, Lincoln’s Melancholy: How Depression Challenged a President and Fueled His Greatness (2005). Lee Ann Whites, The Civil War as a Crisis in Gender, Augusta, Georgia, 1860–1890 (1995). C. Vann Woodward, ed., Mary Chesnut’s Civil War (1981). Audio-Visual Resources The Civil War, Florentine Films/Ken Burns/WETA, 1990. This nine-part epic series, which made Ken Burns an icon of popular history, uses archival photos and historical narrative to chronicle the events of the most tumultuous war in American history. 210 .

Civil War Journal: Women at War, A&E Video, 50 minutes. This video takes a look at the role of women in the Civil War. Fighting for Freedom: Revolution and Civil War, PBS Video, 2003, 90 minutes. This video examines the American idea of freedom as it developed during the two defining moments in American history: the Revolution and Civil War. Glory, Columbia/Tristar Studios, 1989. This feature film starring Denzel Washington and Matthew Broderick depicts the role of the Massachusetts 54th Colored Infantry in the Civil War. Images of the Civil War, A&E Video. Civil War historian James McPherson narrates this examination of visuals from the Civil War, focusing primarily on the paintings and illustrations of Mort Kurtsler. Lincoln, Kunhardt Productions, Inc., 1992. This four-part series examines the complicated personal and political life of a statesman who was arguably the greatest president in American history. Massachusetts 54th Colored Infantry: The American Experience, Jacqueline Shearer, 1991, 60 minutes. Shearer presents a historical account of the events that inspired the feature film Glory. Learning Objectives and Answers After a careful examination of Chapter 13, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

What advantages and disadvantages did the North and South possess at the outbreak of the war? Answer: The North had a much larger population to draw soldiers from as well as more factories and money. Both the North and the South were confident of victory at the outset of the war. The South felt the North would have a difficult time invading an area as large as the South and that a defensive strategy would result in victory.

Why did Lincoln expand the goal of war from preserving the Union to including emancipation? Answer: Lincoln realized that by including emancipation as a goal it would weaken the Confederacy by causing slaves to leave the Confederacy and possibly join the Union army.

211 .

How did the demands of war lead to changes in government policy and lifestyle on the home front? Answer: In the North, there were layoffs in many textile factories due to the scarcity of cotton, and inflation went up faster than wages. In the South, things were worse, since there were no goods from Europe due to the naval blockade and there were major labor shortages due to army enlistments. These factors resulted in dramatic decreases in manufactured and agricultural goods.

What decisions by the Lincoln administration and Union army commanders led to the defeat of the Confederacy? Answer: Lincoln finally found the right commander, General Grant, to lead the war effort. Grant vigorously took the battle to the Confederates with able commanders by attacking General Lee in Virginia and sending General Sherman on his march through Georgia.

Crawl Questions and Answers What significant advantages did the North hold over the South on the eve of war? (p. 376) Answer: Population, factories, and money, among other things, were advantages for the North. Why did Southerners seek to link secession to the American Revolution? (p. 377) Answer: The Southerners sought to link secession to the American Revolution in order to inspire their followers to seek independence just as the Patriots did in the Revolutionary War. How did the doctrine of states’ rights hinder the Southern war effort? (p. 378) Answer: Many Southern states resisted the strong efforts to centralize the Confederate Army, believing that each state should remain free to wage war as they wished. What made the Border States so economically and militarily valuable to the Confederacy? (p. 379) Answer: These states were strategically located along rivers and were the homes of 50 percent of the males who could have joined the Confederate army. Why did Lincoln decide to back down and release the Confederates in the Trent Affair? (p. 380) Answer: Lincoln was determined to avoid war with England.

212 .

Why did the First Battle of Bull Run take place before either army was adequately prepared? (p. 381) Answer: Both sides faced pressure from the home front to engage in a battle, emerge victorious, and thus end the war quickly. Why did the Peninsular Campaign fail? (p. 382) Answer: The campaign failed primarily because of the incompetence of the Union General, McClellan. Why is the Civil War considered the first modern war? (p. 383) Answer: Massive armies were the order of the day and the telegraph and railroad were first used. How did Lincoln expect the Emancipation Proclamation to benefit the Union war effort? (p. 384) Answer: This proclamation would encourage slaves to leave the South, thereby hurting the Confederate’s efforts, and many former slaves would join the North, helping their efforts. How did the actions of slaves push Lincoln toward emancipation? (p. 385) Answer: Many slaves rushed to the Union front lines as the war progressed thereby encouraging Lincoln to issue the proclamation. Why did photography have a more powerful impact on the public than artists’ depictions of battles? (p. 386) Answer: The deaths of the soldiers and the numbers of deaths were now much more realistic and undeniable. No imagination was needed in photography, as opposed to artists’ depictions. How did the Union fund the war? (p. 387) Answer: The first income tax was passed and the borrowing of huge sums was initiated. What new opportunities did the war open up for women? (p. 388) Answer: With the men gone, women worked in factories, schools, and field hospitals in large numbers for the first time. Why did the Lincoln administration impose a draft in 1863? (p. 389) Answer: There had been massive battlefield losses, and the terms of enlistment were up for many soldiers, and they began returning home. How did Lincoln justify the suspension of habeas corpus? (p. 390) Answer: The U.S. Constitution allows the suspension during time of rebellion.

213 .

Why did New Yorkers riot against the draft? (p. 391) Answer: The protesters were angered by the ability of the wealthy to buy their way out of the war by paying substitutes $300 to take their place. Why did Lee decide to invade the North a second time? (p. 392) Answer: Lee hoped to divert Union troops from their successful campaign in the West and also to demoralize the North with a victory on Northern soil. How were African American soldiers treated in the Union Army? (p. 393) Answer: They were segregated and served mostly in support roles in the early years of the Civil War; later they were combatants. What role did African American soldiers play in the Union war effort? (p. 394) Answer: They eventually fought on the front lines and made up about 10 percent of the Union army. Why did Lincoln initially agree to pay African American soldiers less than white soldiers? (p. 395) Answer: Lincoln believed there would be a backlash by the white soldiers if the black soldiers received the same pay. How did the Union’s 2:1 advantage over the Confederacy in overall population play a role in winning the war? (p. 396) Answer: The huge battle losses began to decimate the numbers of Confederate army members. There were few men left to draft, and the North was capturing more territory, which resulted in even fewer men being available. How did the Union blockade affect the Confederate war effort? (p. 397) Answer: The blockade prevented the South from exporting cotton to England, which would have supplied money for the war effort. What distinguished Grant’s approach to war from his predecessors? (p. 398) Answer: Grant understood “total warfare,” that is, to seek out and destroy the enemy and his supplies with a single-minded determination. What steps did the Republican Party take to improve Lincoln’s chances for victory in 1864? (p. 399) Answer: Republicans adopted the name Union Party to attract pro-war Democrats, and they replaced the vice president with Andrew Johnson of Tennessee, a pro-union Democrat. Why did Sherman destroy so much property in Georgia? (p. 400) Answer: Sherman destroyed property in Georgia in order to bring the war to the people of Georgia and not just the soldiers. 214 .

What conciliatory measures toward the Confederates did Grant adopt at Lee’s surrender? (p. 401) Answer: Grant let the soldiers return to their homes and gave them three days of food for the trip. Review Questions and Answers 1.

What advantages allowed the Confederacy to enjoy military success in the early years of the war? Answer: The South had better military leaders such as Lee and Jackson who prepared their armies better and had better strategies.

Why did both North and South consider the Border States vital? Answer: There were large numbers of potential soldiers who could be utilized, and the states had strategic locations along rivers.

How did African Americans contribute to emancipation? Answer: By actively leaving the South and volunteering to join the Union army, African Americans accelerated the emancipation movement.

How did the war change Northern society and the federal government? Answer: The federal government grew enormously during the war and remained much bigger even after the war. The North became more industrialized during the war and grew rapidly afterwards.

What approach to warfare set Generals Ulysses S. Grant and William T. Sherman apart from less successful Union military leaders? Answer: Total warfare was their approach—that is, the enemy was relentlessly pursued, and all supplies and infrastructure that could be used to help the enemy was destroyed.

How did social, economic, and class differences in Southern society contribute to the Confederacy’s defeat? Answer: Many poor Southerners were outraged by the “Twenty Negro Law,” which allowed wealthy plantation owners to avoid the war and resulted in significant desertions and dissent from the rank-and-file soldiers.

215 .

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

How did both the Union and Confederacy use religious and patriotic ideals to bolster support for the war? Answer: Both sides used patriotic music with religious overtones such as the Battle Hymn of the Republic in the North and the Secession Quick Step in the South.

Why did the Union army have so much difficulty in defeating the Confederacy? Answer: Poor military leadership in the Union army for the first few years of the conflict was a major problem until General Grant assumed command.

How did the war create new opportunities for women? Answer: Women began careers in teaching and nursing as well as in factories due to the shortage of men caused by their enlistment in the army.

What did African Americans hope to achieve by serving in the Union army? Answer: African Americans hoped to show that they could perform as well as the white soldiers and to show that their emancipation was deserved.

How did abolitionist sentiment in Britain benefit the Union war effort? Answer: The abolitionist movement in Britain was strong enough to resist the efforts of others to help the South since the South had the raw materials (cotton) that Britain needed for their textile factories.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 13 • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 13 Hear the Audio Battle Hymn of the Republic Read the Document Joseph E. Johnston, A Confederate General Assesses First Bull Run (1861) View the Map Interactive Map: The Civil War Part I, 1861–1862 View the Closer Look Lincoln Visits McClellan View the Closer Look Images as History: Photography and the Visualization of Modern War View the Closer Look Nurse Ann Bell Tending to Wounded… Read the Document Clara Barton: Memoirs Read the Document Letter from J. R. Underwood to Wm. H. Seward (October 24, 1863) 216 .

• • • • • • • •

Read the Document Testimony from Victims of New York’s Draft Riots, July 1863 Read the Document Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address (1863) Read the Document James Henry Gooding, Letter to President Lincoln (1863) Read the Document Letter from a Free Black Volunteer to the Christian Recorder Read the Document The Working Men of Manchester, England Write to President Lincoln on the Question of Slavery in 1862 View the Map Interactive Map: The Civil War Part II, 1863–1865 Hear the Audio When This Cruel War Is Over Watch the Video Lecture The Meaning of the Civil War for Americans

217 .

CHAPTER FOURTEEN NOW THAT WE ARE FREE: RECONSTRUCTION AND THE NEW SOUTH, 1863–1890 I. Preparing for Reconstruction A. Emancipation Test Cases B. Lincoln’s Ten Percent Plan C. Radical Republicans Offer a Different Vision II. The Fruits of Freedom A. Freedom of Movement B. Forty Acres and a Mule C. Uplift through Education D. The Black Church III. The Struggle to Define Reconstruction A. The Conservative Vision of Freedom: Presidential Reconstruction B. Congressional Reconstruction and the Fourteenth Amendment C. Radical Republicans Take Control IV. Implementing Reconstruction A. The Republican Party in the South B. Creating Reconstruction Governments in the South C. The Election of 1868 D. The Fifteenth Amendment E. The Rise of White Resistance V. Reconstruction Abandoned A. Corruption and Scandal B. The North Retreats C. The Election of 1872 D. Hard Times E. The Return of Terrorism F. The End of Reconstruction VI. The New South A. Redeemer Rule B. The Lost Cause C. The New South Economy D. The Rise of Sharecropping E. Jim Crow The Civil War ended in April 1865, concluding the bloodiest and most divisive conflict in American history. The period that followed came to be known as Reconstruction for several reasons. Most obviously, the name called to mind the need to rebuild the war-torn 218 .

South. It also referred to the effort to reestablish the Union torn apart by secession. Finally, it indicated the need to remake Southern society in the wake of slavery’s destruction. Americans entered the Reconstruction period facing the profound questions raised by war and emancipation. Was it possible for whites and former slaves to live together in peace and mutual respect? What rights were the freedmen entitled to, and who would guarantee these rights? The different answers articulated by freedmen and white Southerners revealed sharply divergent visions of the future and led to a bitter struggle to define the meaning of freedom. “Verily,” observed ex-slave Frederick Douglass, “the work does not end with the abolition of slavery, but only begins.” Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 14, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

How did Reconstruction efforts during the war reveal conflicting visions over the kind of freedoms former slaves would be granted?

How did freedmen envision and act on their freedom after the war?

Why did Northern Republicans reject President Johnson’s Reconstruction plan?

What policies did the Republican Party in the South pursue?

How did changing Northern attitudes affect the end of Reconstruction?

What were the key economic developments in the South after 1877?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Discuss the transition from slave labor to free labor in the South after the Civil War. Consider sharecropping. How did living arrangements for laborers change with sharecropping? What were the terms of agreement between cropper and landlord? To what extent did sharecropping differ from slavery? Consider, as well, the fates of middle- and lower-class Southern whites. Were they immune to the same fate as former slaves? Was sharecropping a racial institution?

Prepare a lecture on the impact of the Civil War and Reconstruction on the women’s movement. Trace the political maturation of American women from their involvement in the abolitionist movement to the creation of the New England Woman Suffrage Association and the American Equal Rights Association. How did the fight for abolition refine women’s understanding of their own status in the United States? How did progressive supporters of women’s suffrage respond to the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments? How did these 219 .

amendments impact the organization of the woman’s suffrage movement? Were women poised after the Civil War and Reconstruction to become more effective in realizing their own political goals? 3.

Discuss the Compromise of 1877. Who was involved in the deal, and what were each side’s motivations to “mend” sectional strife? To what extent were the terms of the compromise realized? What impact would the compromise have on the legacy of Reconstruction?

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Discuss the successes and failures of Reconstruction in terms of providing for economic stability in the Southern African American community. For a reference, Eric Foner’s Reconstruction: The Unfinished Revolution (1988) is one of the best assessments of the long-term effectiveness and legacy of Reconstruction. Also look at Foner’s Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War (1980). Have students consider some of the following questions connected to the debate on land redistribution: a. Did the federal government have an economic or financial responsibility to freedmen after the Civil War? b. How far did the promise of emancipation go? Did it include personal freedom, civil rights, political rights, and economic rights? c. During Reconstruction, even some Radical Republicans opposed a federal program guaranteeing property to freedmen—especially if it involved federal confiscation of private property. Why would they oppose such a policy? What traditional American economic and political principles prevented even Radical Republicans from supporting a land redistribution policy? d. Was the failure to provide economic security and independence to the freed black population in the South the major downfall of Reconstruction? In spite of traditional American principles, was there anything unique about the ex-slave population and the economic challenges it faced after the Civil War? Did the federal government abdicate its responsibility in failing to meet that challenge? e. Students may also want to comment on present-day debates regarding reparations to African Americans for their suffering during slavery and their involuntary contributions to the nation’s wealth.

Who won the Civil War? Have students consider the years from 1865 to 1900. If the Civil War was intended to resolve issues connected to emancipation and the preeminence of the federal government, to what extent was it successful? Have students look at the Compromise of 1877, sharecropping, racial segregation, African American disfranchisement, and the lack of Northern resistance to these trends. What did these trends in the South say about the supposed victory over slavery and states’ rights? 220 .

Discuss the differences and similarities between the disputed election of 1876 and the disputed election of 2000. Why were these two elections disputed? How did the South and race issues figure into these disputes? How was each election resolved? Do students feel that each resolution was constitutional?

As you read the “Competing Visions” documents, one from a convention of freedmen and the other from the state legislature of Mississippi, consider the starkly contrasted visions for the future of Southern society. Why did the freedmen feel compelled to say they bore no ill will toward their “former oppressors”? Why did Mississippi legislators define vagrancy in such vague terms?

How did the political cartoons of Thomas Nast change during Reconstruction?

What choices did the justices face during the Plessy v. Ferguson case?

Topics for Term Papers and Class Projects 1.

Have students write a comparative book review on Reconstruction. Ask each student to choose two books dealing with the period of Reconstruction and write a comparison and contrast of the two writers’ treatments of the period. Some excellent choices for the review would include something from the Dunning school, such as Claude Bower’s The Tragic Era (1929); a revisionist treatment such as Kenneth Stampp’s The Era of Reconstruction, 1865–1877 (1965); an economic analysis, such as Roger L. Ransom and Richard Sutch’s One Kind of Freedom: The Economic Consequences of Emancipation (1972); or a treatment by an African American historian, such as John Hope Franklin’s Reconstruction after the Civil War (1966).

Write a paper on white terrorism in the South during Reconstruction, concentrating on some of the more obscure local paramilitary groups such as the Mississippi Riflemen or the South Carolina Red Shirts.

Have students examine the role of black politicians during Reconstruction. Who were the black congressmen or senators during Reconstruction? What roles did these individuals play in politics (specifically look at the life of Hiram Revels)? What were the goals of these individuals? What was their background and what was their idea of an effective leader? How were they different or similar to their white counterparts? How successful were black politicians?

Have students look at the persistence of sectional tensions in the United States today. Are there Southerners who “won’t forget”? What issues still distinguish the South from other parts of the nation? Do these same issues divide modern-day Southerners? Is the South still a region apart? 221 .

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Richard Nelson Current, Those Terrible Carpetbaggers: A Reinterpretation (1988). Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (1988). Tony Horwitz, Confederates in the Attic: Dispatches from the Unfinished Civil War (1998). Leon F. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long (1979). James L. Roark, Masters Without Slaves (1977). Allen W. Trelease, White Terror (1971). Jonathan Wiener, Social Origins of the New South: Alabama, 1860–1865 (1978). Joel Williamson, After Slavery (1965). C. Vann Woodward, Reunion and Reaction (1951). Audio-Visual Resources The Promised Land: Anywhere but Here, A&E, 60 minutes. This video looks at the legacy of sharecropping in the American South by the early twentieth century. The Twentieth Century with Mike Wallace: The Ku Klux Klan: A Secret History, The History Channel, 50 minutes. This video chronicles the history of the Ku Klux Klan from its origins during Reconstruction to the present day. Learning Objectives and Answers After a careful examination of Chapter 14, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

How did Reconstruction efforts during the war reveal conflicting visions over the kind of freedoms former slaves would be granted? Answer: Some former slaves believed that they should be allowed to keep the land they had worked on as simple justice for their servitude. Congress later established the Freedman’s Bureau, which allowed former slaves to rent abandoned land and receive a mule. General Sherman distributed confiscated land to former slaves.

How did freedmen envision and act on their freedom after the war? Answer: Education became a key objective for the freedmen since education had been prohibited before the war. Literacy rates increased dramatically as 3,000 grammar schools and some colleges were built throughout the South.

Why did Northern Republicans reject President Johnson’s Reconstruction plan? 222 .

Answer: They considered Johnson’s policies too lenient on the former slave owners, and his policies didn’t do enough for the former slaves. Former Confederates were being elected and “Black Codes” were being enacted to limit the economic and civil rights of the freedmen. 4.

What policies did the Republican Party in the South pursue? Answer: The Republican Party in the South formed an alliance to establish state governments and to elect African Americans, which they accomplished in large numbers in states such as South Carolina and Louisiana.

How did changing Northern attitudes affect the end of Reconstruction? Answer: Many Northerners believed that the fundamental goals of Reconstruction had been met, that is, citizenship, civil rights, and suffrage for the freedmen had been accomplished.

What were the key economic developments in the South after 1877? Answer: The South rapidly industrialized, particularly in the areas of textiles and cigarettes, furniture, and lumber. Cheap labor and taxes resulted in many Northern companies moving to the South.

Crawl Questions and Answers How did freedmen define freedom in the Sea Islands? (p. 406) Answer: They wanted to be independent farmers free of white control. Why did Union officials define freedom for former slaves so narrowly in Louisiana? (p. 407) Answer: Union officials believed that African Americans could not handle their freedom and needed strict rules of conduct and work. Therefore, blacks were required to remain on their plantations working as wage laborers with a one-year contract. Travel was restricted and required a pass from the plantation owners. What advantages did Lincoln see in a moderate Reconstruction policy? (p. 408) Answer: Lincoln believed that moderate policies would bring the war to an end quicker and hasten the healing process once it was over. Why did freedmen believe they were owed land? (p. 409) Answer: Freedmen believed they were owed land because they had created the wealth of the plantation owners by their work as slaves.

223 .

Why did education become such a priority for African Americans? (p. 410) Answer: Increasing literacy rates would allow the former slaves to take care of their own legal and business issues without depending on their former white owners. How did the black church become such a vital institution in freedmen communities? (p. 411) Answer: The black churches allowed their members to be independent of the churches that were predominantly white, and they operated their own schools and charitable services. What was Andrew Johnson’s primary motivation in devising his lenient Reconstruction policy? (p. 412) Answer: Johnson was committed to maintaining white supremacy, as evidenced by his pardons, amnesty, and rapid return of confiscated property. What events in the South in 1865–1866 angered Northern Republicans? (p. 413) Answer: President Johnson’s lenient policies and his announcement that Reconstruction was over, as well as the establishment of the “Black Codes,” caused widespread discontent among Northern Republicans. What is significant about the freedmen’s use of the term “citizen”? (p. 414) Answer: The freedmen were, by using the word “citizen,” letting people know that they considered themselves equals and thus would vote for those who would serve their best interests just as others did. How did Black Codes calling for freedmen to sign labor contracts curtail their freedom? (p. 415) Answer: Once a freedman had signed a labor contract, he or she could be sold by the owner of the contract thereby virtually recreating the system of slavery. How did the Civil Rights Act promote equal rights for all Americans, regardless of race? (p. 416) Answer: The Civil Rights Bill declared African Americans and all persons born in the United States (except Native Americans) citizens. It also defined the rights of all citizens regardless of race—for example, the right to sue and to make contracts. Why did moderate Republicans decide not to remove Johnson from office? (p. 417) Answer: They felt it would set a bad precedent to remove a president for political reasons. Why did many Northerners move south after the Civil War? (p. 418) Answer: Many were opportunists looking to take advantage of the situation while others were genuinely looking for new opportunities in the war-ravaged economy.

224 .

How did African American voting affect the political situation in the South in 1867– 1868? (p. 419) Answer: They were extremely successful. African Americans were elected to Congress and state legislatures in significant numbers. Why did Southerners charge that Reconstruction governments were corrupt? (p. 420) Answer: There were numerous examples of waste and mismanagement but Southerners charged that Reconstruction governments were corrupt primarily because so much money was being spent to aid the poor and freedmen. Why did some women’s rights activists oppose the ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment? (p. 421) Answer: The Fifteenth Amendment was opposed by some activists because it didn’t include the right of women to vote. Why did groups like the Klan indulge in anti-black violence? (p. 422) Answer: Some groups indulged in anti-black violence primarily to satisfy lower income whites that they were not at the bottom of the social order, as well as to stop any alliance between poor whites and blacks. How did the scandals of the Grant administration affect Reconstruction? (p. 423) Answer: Grant scaled back his Reconstruction plans in order to better his chances for a second-term victory. Why did Liberal Republicans lose faith in Reconstruction by the early 1870s? (p. 424) Answer: They accepted the argument that the Southern state governments were filled with corruption and were ineffective. Why are political cartoons so popular and effective? (p. 425) Answer: They sum up the issues of the day concisely and can be viewed quickly by busy readers. What was the political impact of the resurgence of white vigilante violence? (p. 426) Answer: Many voters stayed away from the polls, and Democrats gained more power. Why is the eventual result of the election of 1876 considered the end of Reconstruction? (p. 427) Answer: Federal troops left the South. What groups constituted the political leadership of the New South? (p. 428) Answer: Redeemers championed and led a return to white supremacy.

225 .

How was the Lost Cause a useful myth for Southerners? (p. 429) Answer: It provided Southerners with a psychologically soothing explanation for why they lost the war. What weaknesses limited the success of the New South economy? (p. 430) Answer: The South relied on poor white and black farmers for their industrial workers and paid them much less than their Northern counterparts, which kept the standard of living and the quality of the workforce in the South much lower than the North. How did sharecropping provide limited independence to freedmen? (p. 431) Answer: Sharecroppers did control their own time and set their own routines. How did the poverty and indebtedness associated with sharecropping curtail the freedom of African Americans? (p. 432) Answer: Sharecropping and the tenancy system exploited the freedmen. Landlords demanded they grow cash crops like tobacco, wheat, and especially cotton. Because they often needed to buy seed, tools, and animals on credit (usually on unfavorable terms) from their landlords or local suppliers, most tenants found themselves in a condition of ever-mounting debt, which prevented them from moving to better land or to a landlord offering better terms. It also exposed freedmen to economic reprisals should they try to vote or stand up for their rights. What role did the black middle class play in the Jim Crow South? (p. 433) Answer: They provided leadership and direction for their communities by building churches and social networks. How did the Supreme Court play a role in the imposition of segregation? (p. 434) Answer: In 1896, they issued the Plessy v. Ferguson decision, which said that segregation was lawful. How did the poll tax and literacy test allow Southerners to circumvent the Fifteenth Amendment? (p. 435) Answer: These laws disenfranchised large numbers of poor and illiterate African Americans so that they couldn’t vote. Review Questions and Answers 1.

Why did African Americans want land? How did they justify their claims to plantation lands? Answer: They wanted to be independent farmers, and they believed they had a right to these lands because they had worked on these plantations and made the owners wealthy.

226 .

Why did Reconstruction become violent? How did Congress and the Grant administration try to curb the violence? Answer: After the war, Southerners resisted the integration and enfranchisement of African Americans. The federal government sent the U.S. Army into the states to restore law and order.

How did feminists react to the Fifteenth Amendment? How did this affect the women’s rights movement? Answer: Many resisted passage of the Fifteenth Amendment since women were not included. This caused a split in the movement, which lasted over twenty years.

Why did Reconstruction end? Answer: Reconstruction ended after the election of 1876, when the federal troops were removed as part of the Compromise of 1877.

What was the Lost Cause? What purposes did it serve in the post-Reconstruction South? Answer: The Lost Cause was the independence of the South, which didn’t happen because the South lost the Civil War. It gave Southerners a romantic ideal of life before the War and justification for their contemporary actions.

Who were the “Bourbons” and what was their vision for the New South? Answer: They were also known as “Redeemers” who wished to return control of the South to the plantation owners and pre-Civil War rulers.

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

How did former slaves make use of their new freedoms? Answer: Many went to school to become literate, and many started working as sharecroppers, which gave them a degree of freedom.

Why did some Americans believe the federal government was obligated to assist the freedmen? Answer: Since the former slaves had few financial or educational resources and since Southerners were still resisting change, Northerners believed that assistance was required and the right thing to do.

227 .

What changes did Republican governments bring to Southern society? Answer: The biggest change was much more voting by African Americans, and they won many political offices.

How did the system of sharecropping sharply limit the freedom of African Americans? Answer: They returned to where they had been before the war, and the system made it very difficult to get ahead financially or own the land they were working on.

What role did violence play in establishing white supremacy in the New South? Answer: Violence through such organizations as the KKK was widespread and intimidated potential voters and witnesses to crimes, which resulted in the reestablishment of white supremacy.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 14 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 14 Read the Document Charlotte Forten, Life on the Sea Islands Read the Document Carl Schurz, Report on the Condition of the South (1865) Read the Document James C. Beecher, Report on Land Reform (1865, 1866) Watch the Video Lecture The Schools that the Civil War and Reconstruction Created View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Federal Authority and Equal Rights Read the Document Address of the Colored State Convention to the People of the State of South Carolina (1865) Read the Document Affidavit of Former Slave Enoch Braston (1866) Read the Document Charles F. Johnson and T. W. Gilbreth, The Memphis Riot (1866) View the Map Interactive Map: Congressional Reconstruction View the Closer Look First Vote Read the Document Hannah Irwin Describes Ku Klux Klan Ride (Late 1860s) Read the Document Credit Mobilier/Union Pacific Railroad Scandal Testimony of C.P. Huntington (1873) Read the Document Blanche K. Bruce, Speech in the Senate (1876) Read the Document Confederate Song, “I’m a Good Old Rebel,” by R. B. Buckley (1866) View the Image Cotton Plantation, United States of America Read the Document James T. Rapier, Testimony before U.S. Senate Regarding the Agricultural Labor Force in the South (1880) 228 .

• • •

View the Map Atlas Map: The Rise of Tenancy in the South (1880) Hear the Audio The Black Laws by Bishop B.W. Arnett, pamphlet excerpt Hear the Audio A Georgia Lynch Law

229 .

CHAPTER FIFTEEN CONFLICT AND CONQUEST: THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE WEST, 1860–1900 I. Natives and Newcomers A. Congress Promotes Westward Settlement B. The Diversity of the Native American West C. Native American Tribes of the Great Plains D. The Great Westward Migration II. The Economic Transformation of the West A. The Railroad Fuels Western Development B. Hard Times for Farmers C. The Cattle Kingdom D. Fortunes Beneath the Ground: The Mining Booms E. The Environmental Legacy III. Native Americans Under Siege A. Mounting Problems for Native Americans B. Wars on the Plains C. War and Conflict in the Far West D. In Pursuit of a Solution IV. Resistance and Romanticism A. Persecution and Persistence B. Creating Mythical Heroes and Images C. The West in Art and Literature D. Historians Reinterpret the American West Before 1840, most Americans viewed the lands west of the Mississippi as a great, untamed, and dangerous wilderness of rugged terrain, extreme temperatures, wild animals, and hostile Native Americans. But beginning in the 1840s, an ever-growing number of farmers, miners, ranchers, entrepreneurs, and adventurers moved west, aided after 1869 by the completion of the transcontinental railroad and soaring demand for western products and resources. Gast’s celebratory scene reveals, doubtless unintentionally, the bitter conflict that accompanied the transformation of the West. On the painting’s left border, a cluster of Native Americans flee before the advancing whites. Above them, a herd of buffalo likewise make their escape. Gast’s matter-of-fact portrayal of the seizure of Indian land and the near extinction of the buffalo reflected the nation’s enthusiasm for “progress” and the inability—or unwillingness—to confront the human and environmental costs associated with it. By 1900, the West had been radically transformed. Great networks of railroads and telegraph lines crisscrossed the landscape, as did untold miles of fencing that marked the boundaries of millions of farms and ranches. The western landscape also featured cities like San Francisco and Denver that rivaled their eastern counterparts. 230 .

Perhaps even more remarkable than the appearance of these new aspects of western life was the disappearance of others. By 1900, the American government had confined hundreds of independent Native American tribes that had once lived in virtually every corner of the West to a series of reservations. Gone, too, were the millions of buffalo from the plains and, in areas of intensive mining, large mountain sections of once-pristine landscape. The conquest of the West between 1865 and 1900 included many stories of success, achievement, and undeniable progress, but it was far more complex, violent, and tragic than Gast’s dreamy vision suggests. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 15, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

Why did so many Euro-Americans settle in the trans-Mississippi West?

What major economic pursuits and industries developed in the West?

Why did the federal government pursue a policy of military confrontation and forced assimilation when dealing with Native Americans?

How did images and myths about the American West develop and persist?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Discuss the role of African Americans in western migration and settlement. Create a regional connection between the post-Civil War South and West by looking at cause and effect in African American western migration. What factors drove African Americans out of the South during the late nineteenth century, and what opportunities lured them westward? Comment on the impact of African Americans on the development of the West as well as their status in western society.

Prepare a presentation on the depiction of the West in various American art forms. See previous chapters for guidelines on a slide and lecture presentation focusing on the West in American art. In exploring the West in other art forms, have students listen to music inspired by the American West, such as Aaron Copland’s Rodeo, or show examples of the choreography of Agnes de Mille.

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Have students discuss gender imbalance in the American western mining camps. How did gender imbalance impact the lives of the few women who lived in these communities? Were the causes or results of the gender imbalance in western 231 .

mining camps any different from the causes or results of gender imbalance in other early settlements in American history? Why or why not? 2.

Have students read an excerpt from Frederick Jackson Turner’s The Significance of the Frontier in American History, and then hold a class discussion focusing on some of the following questions: a. What is Turner’s thesis? What did he feel was significant about the western frontier? b. Was Turner right? Was the American frontier a haven for American democracy, liberty, and individualism? c. What impact did corporations have on this image of the West? Were political, economic, and social opportunities open to all genders, races, and ethnicities? d. Was the West assimilated into eastern American society, or does it remain today something unique, different, and alluring?

Discuss the interdependence of the American Northeast, South, and West after the Civil War. In studying the post-Civil War era, we traditionally deal with these three regions separately and distinctly. Choose from among the following topics and discuss them regionally and nationally: a. Corporate development in the late nineteenth century in the Northeast, in the South, and in the West. b. African American migration: Why did African Americans leave the South? What lured them northward? What lured them westward? c. Foreign immigration: To what extent did it impact the Northeast, the West, and the South? What is distinctive about it in each region? d. Urbanization: To what extent did it develop in the Northeast, the West, and the South? How was it similar in each region? How was it different? In summary, have students consider the potential for improved national unity at the turn of the century as well as the potential for continued regional tension.

How does Hastings invoke the language of Manifest Destiny to justify his vision of the settlement of the West? How does he view the natural resources of the West? How does Marsh challenge the ideas that nature possesses limitless resources and that economic development is glorious progress?

What choices existed between assimilation and cultural preservation of Native Americans?

What traits did Annie Oakley portray to present an ideal woman of the West?

Topics for Class Projects and Term Papers 1.

Research the image and the reality of the American cowboy. What is the historical myth surrounding this figure? Where have most late twentieth-century Americans 232 .

received their defining images of the American cowboy? Students may want to choose one figure from the American West, such as Wyatt Earp or Billy the Kid, and compare the person’s image as it has been represented in twentieth-century popular culture to the historical facts of his or her life. 2.

Analyze the HBO dramatic series Deadwood in relation to other pop-culture depictions of the West. To what extent does the series seem to reflect accurately the demographics and dynamics of a booming mine town, and to what extent is it simply a repackaging of the same old myths, with more foul language and more on-screen sex?

Explore the relationship between Native Americans who remained traditional versus those that assimilated into the mainstream society of the United States. Trace these groups back to previous eras such as King Philip’s War or individuals like Tecumseh. Historically, who attempted to “Americanize” the Native Americans, and what were their motives?

Research one of the Native American religions, such as the Ghost Dance religion, that was targeted by the federal government for annihilation. Describe the components of the religion and the means used by missionaries and federal agencies to destroy the practice of the religion.

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects David Courtwright, Violent Land: Single Men and Social Disorder from the Frontier to the Inner City (1996). Dayton Duncan and Ken Burns, The West: An Illustrated History (1996). William L. Katz, The Black West (1996). Nell Painter, The Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas after Reconstruction (1992). Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West (1990). Glenda Riley, The Female Frontier: A Comparative View of Women on the Prairie and the Plains (1988). Frederick Jackson Turner, The Significance of the Frontier in American History (1920). Richard White, “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own”: A New History of the American West (1991). Donald Worster, Under Western Skies: Nature and History in the American West (1991). Audio-Visual Resources Geronimo and the Apache Resistance, Neil Goodwin, 1988, 60 minutes. This video examines the life of the Native American who successfully resisted the American government for 25 years before finally being defeated.

233 .

Rediscovering America: The Real American Cowboy, Discovery Channel, 30 minutes. This video makes the distinction between the myth and reality surrounding the image of the American cowboy. Last Stand at Little Big Horn: The American Experience, Paul Stekler, 1992, 60 minutes. This video takes a new look at Custer’s Last Stand. The White Man’s Image: The American Experience, Christine Lesiak and Matthew Jones, 1991, 60 minutes. This episode of The American Experience looks at the Carlisle School, which was established by the government in the 1870s for the purpose of “civilizing” American Indians. Learning Objectives and Answers After a careful examination of Chapter 15, students should be able to answer the following: 1.

Why did so many Euro-Americans settle in the trans-Mississippi West? Answer: The free or inexpensive land drew them if they were farmers, or if not, the jobs in the mines and railroads.

What major economic pursuits and industries developed in the West? Answer: Farming, ranching, mining and the railroads were some of the larger industries.

Why did the federal government pursue a policy of military confrontation and forced assimilation when dealing with Native Americans? Answer: The influx of immigrants to America and the movement of peoples from east of the Mississippi westward led to increased demands for more land. This could be for farming or mining, but the Native Americans were usually seen as impediments to this “progress,” and the military was called in to make room for the settlers and confront the Native Americans.

How did images and myths about the American West develop and persist? Answer: Through paintings and books, myths and images of the West developed that told stories of triumph and riches. Historian Frederick Jackson Turner also developed his thesis that the frontier created a distinct American character of rugged individualism and innovation.

234 .

Crawl Questions and Answers Why did the Homestead Act have uneven results? (p. 440) Answer: Some areas had better land and/or weather than others, and speculators frequently invested in the land but never lived on the land. Why did the federal government provide land and loans to the companies that built the transcontinental railroad? (p. 441) Answer: The government was anxious to speed the development of the West, and by subsidizing the railroads it would accelerate the process. What was the impact of European contact with Indians in the trans-Mississippi West before 1850? (p. 442) Answer: The Spanish, French, and Russians frequently brought conflict and disease with them, with devastating results. What is significant about the diversity of Native American life in the transMississippi West? (p. 443) Answer: Many Plains tribes, such as the Wichitas, Pawnees, Dakota Sioux, Mandans, and Omahas, were more sedentary and settled in villages near rivers and grew crops, fished, hunted, and traded with white settlers. Other tribes, such as the Crow, Blackfeet, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Comanche, and Lakota Sioux took to using horses and adopted a more migratory lifestyle and followed the seasonal migrations of the buffalo. How did the introduction of horses change the lifestyle of some Plains Indians? (p. 444) Answer: The horse provided a great military advantage to its owners and also greatly facilitated hunting for buffalo and other game. Why did different groups migrate to the West? (p. 445) Answer: The land was free or inexpensive if they wanted to farm or ranch. There were also thousands of mining and railroad jobs. Why did railroads promote the migration of immigrants to the West? (p. 446) Answer: The railroads wanted to sell the land adjacent to the railways to the settlers, and they also wanted more settlers to use the railroads for shipping and receiving goods in the future. How did the railroad shape western economic development? (p. 447) Answer: The number of farms exploded, as did the number of mines and ranches. What challenges did Western farmers face? (p. 448) Answer: Unpredictable weather and prices resulted in many farmers carrying high levels of debt, and sometimes they went bankrupt. Also, the loneliness of farming was an additional burden. 235 .

Why did Western farmers resent the railroads? (p. 449) Answer: They felt that the railroads were gouging them for shipping their goods to market, and they rarely had any alternative. How did the reality of cowboy life differ from the image presented in popular culture? (p. 450) Answer: Cowboys were very poorly paid for their work, which consisted of working from dawn to dusk and battling the elements as well as rustlers and Indians. How did human settlement and economic development alter the Western environment? (p. 451) Answer: Mining resulted in badly scarred landscapes while hunting ravaged many species of game such as the buffalo, and excessive farming caused topsoil erosion. Why did the government sign treaties with Native American tribes? (p. 452) Answer: The treaties opened up lands that the tribes had been using and allowed white travelers to pass through Indian lands without being attacked. Why did many white Americans believe they had a right to take lands inhabited by Native Americans? (p. 453) Answer: Because they believed the white race was a higher and more civilized race. White culture was considered superior, and Native Americans were obstacles to progress. How did negative stereotypes of Native Americans influence government policy? (p. 454) Answer: After signing treaties with Native Americans, the federal government constantly revised and altered them to help recently arrived settlers since the American Natives were considered impediments to progress. How did the dependence of the Plains Indians on the buffalo weaken their ability to resist the loss of their lands? (p. 455) Answer: The railroads in particular recognized that by killing the buffalo, they would deprive the Plains Indians of a major source of their food supply and make them more likely to stay on reservations where food would be brought to them. How did the victory over Custer and his men ultimately prove costly to the Plains Indians? (p. 456) Answer: American opinion influenced the U.S. government to increase military actions against all Native Americans, which resulted in most Indians being placed on reservations. Why did Native Americans resist the government’s demand that they settle on reservations? (p. 457) Answer: They felt the land was theirs to use as they had before the white settlers came. Life on a reservation would completely change life as they had always known it. 236 .

Why did reformers like Dawes believe the breakup of reservations would benefit Native Americans? (p. 458) Answer: Dawes agreed with author Helen Hunt Jackson, who believed that Native Americans should be educated and assimilated into American society rather than be confined to reservations. What assumptions about Native American culture influenced the boarding school program? (p. 459) Answer: The plan was to minimize or destroy the Native American culture by establish off-reservation boarding schools. How did the Dawes Act play a key role in the loss of Native American land? (p. 460) Answer: Despite safeguards for the land that the Indians were given by the Dawes Act, con men manipulated many American Natives out of their lands. Why was Wovoka’s message so appealing to Indians and so frightening to military officials? (p. 461) Answer: Wovoka’s message was that by performing the “Ghost Dance,” Native Americans would be protected from the white man and that their former way of life would be restored. Why did the West become such a popular topic in entertainment and literature? (p. 462) Answer: Heroism, adventure, and rugged individualism were the typical way the West was portrayed, which had high entertainment value as exemplified by “Buffalo Bill’s Wild West” show. What traits did Annie Oakley portray to present an ideal woman of the West? (p. 463) Answer: She was feminine but tough. She rode sidesaddle and wore ladylike clothes. How have new Western historians changed the way many Americans understand the history of the West? (p. 464) Answer: They view the expansion of Americans as violent and in many cases illegitimate. Why are Native Americans so committed to reshaping the interpretation of historic sites like Little Bighorn? (p. 465) Answer: This site can be looked at in two ways, but the Native American way was never presented. Since this battle is so well-known, it is important to present both interpretations of the battle.

237 .

Review Questions and Answers 1.

What was the significance of railroad building to the West as a region and to its peoples? Answer: It greatly accelerated the movement of people to the West by making travel cheaper and faster.

What challenges did American farmers face in establishing successful farms in the West? Answer: The weather was very harsh in some places and unpredictable in others. Also, the prices of their goods fluctuated, which made farming unprofitable in many cases.

What significant industries, including agriculture, developed in the West, and how were they linked to the economy of the Eastern United States? Answer: Mining and cattle ranching became huge industries, which provided the food for the factory workers and the raw materials for the factories in the East.

What critical factors led to the conquest of Native American tribes and their forced relocation to reservations? Answer: Horses and guns and soldiers were plentiful for the U.S. Army. They eventually overwhelmed the Native Americans.

Why did U.S. officials favor forced assimilation for Native Americans in the late nineteenth century? How did they implement it? Answer: They were convinced it was in the Native Americans’ best interest, so they closed the reservations down, sold off the land, and started Indian schools off the reservation areas.

Why did Americans embrace a romanticized vision of the American West in the late nineteenth century? How close was this image to reality? Answer: The romanticized vision was much more satisfying than the image of cruelty and injustices. Rugged individualism was valued all across America. There were elements of a romantic life, but the images presented were highly exaggerated.

238 .

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

How did Congress promote westward migration and settlement? Answer: The two major congressional actions were the Homestead Act, which provided free land to settlers, and the promotion and subsidization of the railroads, which took people out to the West and brought the goods back.

What role did immigration play in the peopling of the trans-Mississippi West? Answer: A significant number of the settlers were newly arrived immigrants from countries such as Ireland and Germany. They came to the United States because they heard about the free land and/or jobs available in the West.

How did the dependence of the Plains Indians on the buffalo make them vulnerable to white settlement? Answer: Once the white settlers started killing off the buffalo, the Plains Indians were deprived of a major source of their food. This made them more willing to settle on reservations where the food was brought to them, thus making it easier for white settlers to move into areas that had previously been hunting grounds.

What was the goal of Indian boarding schools? Answer: Indian boarding schools were developed for the sole purpose of civilizing Native Americans and forcing them to assimilate into white American culture.

How did historians help shape the mythical image of the West? Answer: Historians glorified the romantic life that Western settlers would have in the West. They cast white Western settlers as being meant to spread civilization.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 15 • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 15 Read the Document Homestead Act of 1862 View the Map Atlas Map: Western Migration, 1850–1880 View the Map Atlas Map: Immigration View the Image Ho for Kansas! View the Closer Look Thirty-Three Horse Team Harvester Watch the Video Video Lectures: “The Urban West” View the Closer Look Railroad Routes, Cattle Trails, Gold and Silver Rushes View the Map Atlas Map: The New Economy of the West, 1850–1893 239 .

• • • • • • • • • •

View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Preservation versus Exploitation Read the Document Chief Seattle, Oration (1854) View the Map Atlas Map: Native Americans, 1850–1896 View the Closer Look Railroad and Buffalo Read the Document Chief Red Cloud’s Speech Read the Document Helen Hunt Jackson, from A Century of Dishonor (1881) Read the Document Autobiographical Narrative by Zitkala-Sa on Her First Days at Boarding School in Indiana (1900) Read the Document Secretary of Interior’s Congressional Report on Indian Affairs (1887) Read the Document Accounts of the Wounded Knee Massacre Read the Document Frederick Jackson Turner, The Significance of the Frontier in American History (1893)

240 .

CHAPTER SIXTEEN WONDER AND WOE: THE RISE OF INDUSTRIAL AMERICA, 1865–1900 I. The Emergence of Big Business A. Sources of the Industrial Revolution B. The Railroads C. Modern Business Practices D. Rising Concern over Corporate Power E. Andrew Carnegie: Making Steel and Transforming the Corporation F. Rockefeller and the Rise of the Trust II. Creating a Mass Market A. The Art of Selling B. Shopping as an Experience: The Department Store C. Bringing the Market to the Frontier D. Selling the World III. The World of Work Transformed A. The Impact of New Technology B. Hard Times for Industrial Workers C. Exploitation, Intimidation, and Conflict D. New Roles and Opportunities for Women IV. Conflicting Visions of Industrial Capitalism A. Capitalism Championed B. Capitalism Criticized C. Power in Numbers: Organized Labor D. The Great Upheaval of 1886 The last third of the nineteenth century saw the United States thoroughly transformed by the Industrial Revolution, from a predominantly agricultural nation that ranked well behind England, Germany, and France to the world’s most formidable industrial power by 1900. While many Americans celebrated the Industrial Revolution for the unprecedented material wealth and progress it brought to American society, others grew disturbed by some of the grim consequences of industrialization, especially the immense power accrued by big businesses and capitalists and the growing number of workers living in squalid slums. The result of these conflicting visions was an intense debate over the proper role of government in regulating the economy, the rights of workers to form unions and strike for better wages and working conditions, and the impact of growing disparities of wealth on America’s republican traditions.

241 .

Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 16, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

What factors led to the rise of big business?

How did U.S. businesses promote consumption?

How did industrial capitalism change American workers?

Why did many Americans fear the power of big business?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Discuss the development of early American labor organization. Compare and contrast the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor as two efforts to organize labor nationally during the late nineteenth century. The major distinction between the two organizations is that one failed and one succeeded. Outline the reasons for this by examining the membership, policy, agenda, and recruitment practices of each organization. What do the failure and success of these two unions say about nineteenth-century skilled and unskilled labor? Describe to students the tremendous challenges faced by any organization trying to unionize the large unskilled labor force of the nineteenth century.

Look at middle-class residences from the eighteenth century through the twentieth century and demonstrate to students how the architectural styles of the residences reflect the evolution of American middle-class values and priorities. How does the eighteenth-century farmhouse differ from the nineteenth-century Victorian suburban dwelling? How do these differences reflect the American movement from an agrarian to an industrial society and from a rural to an urban society? How do the differences reflect technological innovations and an improvement in the standard of living? Do the differences reflect changes in middle-class family life and the level of importance attached to family life? How does the nineteenthcentury Victorian dwelling differ from the 1960s ranch house? What room tends to become the center or core of the 1960s home? Why? Again, look at how the differences in these two houses reflect economic and technological as well as social and psychological distinctions between nineteenth-century and twentiethcentury middle-class suburban life.

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Have students discuss the impact of late nineteenth-century business consolidation on traditional American values regarding work and the economy. Consider the following issues for discussion: 242 .

Ask students to define capitalism as an eighteenth-century economic philosophy emphasizing free enterprise, competition, individualism, and laissez-faire. Ask students to consider how late nineteenth-century entrepreneurship signaled the ultimate realization of these characteristics of capitalism. Then, have them consider how late nineteenth-century entrepreneurship undermined the promise of capitalism. In other words, did the success of men like Carnegie and Rockefeller demonstrate the power of free enterprise, individualism, and competition as the means to attain success? Or, did their success ultimately destroy the promise of free enterprise, competition, and individualism for others? Would Americans have to forfeit part of capitalism in order to save it? Of free enterprise, competition, individualism, and laissez-faire, which tenet of capitalism would prove to be most important to Americans? Which one would be sacrificed by Americans in the belief that it would preserve the other three?

Have students discuss the impact of urban poverty on nineteenth-century American social philosophy. Why has urban poverty been such a difficult issue for Americans to address? a. Have students recall the Protestant work ethic as one of the earliest and yet most lasting American philosophies regarding work, wealth, and social status. How did the new urban industrial society challenge this seventeenth-century philosophy that emphasized individual responsibility for wealth and that created a strong connection among work, wealth, and salvation (morality)? Did nineteenth-century urban middle-class Americans see in their urban industrial society examples of people who worked hard but reaped little reward, either financially or morally? How would that impact the strength of the Protestant work ethic as a social and moral philosophy? b. How did the Gospel of Wealth and social Darwinism address urban poverty? Do these social philosophies borrow anything from the Protestant work ethic? In what sense are they distinctive from the Protestant work ethic? c. Have students consider the debate regarding individual responsibility for wealth or poverty versus social responsibility for wealth or poverty. Have Americans resolved this issue yet? Invite students to share their opinions regarding the propriety or impropriety and the success or failure of modern-day entitlement, welfare, and social reform programs.

Why did employers find unions so objectionable, even dangerous? What benefits did workers see in unions?

How should organized labor deal with the rising number of women in the workforce? The admission of women into the KOL did not end the longstanding 243 .

opposition of many American workers to the rights of women to work and to join unions. They continued to argue that keeping women out of the workforce would open up jobs for men and raise overall wages. When the KOL fell apart in the 1890s, so did the status of women in the labor movement. The American Federation of Labor, the organization that succeeded the KOL, admitted few female members until well into the twentieth century. 5.

How did advertisers cultivate anxiety to generate sales of their products?

Topics for Class Projects and Term Papers 1.

Research the impact of immigration on American public education. Identify the challenges that faced the public school system at the end of the nineteenth century. How did native-born Americans expect public education to support the assimilation of the immigrant population into American society?

Research the early corporate cases that were decided by the Supreme Court. How did these cases reflect American concerns about the future of capitalism? How did corporations defend themselves against these fears?

Choose one of the ethnic and/or racial groups identified with nineteenth-century urban migration and explore the role of family in that culture.

Compare and contrast the new immigrants from previous waves of immigration; specifically address the themes of geography, economics, and culture. Additionally, identify which groups arrived as families versus single males and/or females. What problems did these groups face when they arrived to the United States? What was the nativist response to each wave of immigrant; how and why did it differ based on ethnicity? Identify the rate that each group assimilated into American society.

Examine the Supreme Court case Muller v. Oregon. What questions did this case raise concerning women and the workplace? Was the decision a victory or a defeat for women?

United States immigration at the turn of the twenty-first century is being compared in many ways to immigration at the turn of the twentieth century. Ask students how the two demographic trends are similar. How are they different? Have students examine the number of immigrants who have entered the United States in the past 25 years or so. From where have many of these immigrants come? How has the United States addressed the economic, social, ethnic, racial, and political challenges that have accompanied present-day immigration?

244 .

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects John Bodnar, The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America (1985). Howard P. Chudacoff and Judith E. Smith, The Evolution of American Urban Society, 5th edition (2000). Leon Fink, Workingmen’s Democracy: The Knights of Labor and American Politics (1982). Charles N. Glaab and A. Theodore Brown, A History of Urban America (1983). David Goldfield and Blaine Brownell, Urban America: A History (1990). Gerald N. Grob, Workers and Utopias (1961). Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America (1976). John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860–1925 (1988). Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought and Culture, 1850–1920 (1995). Stuart Kaufman, Samuel Gompers and the Origins of the American Federation of Labor (1973). Alice Kessler-Harris, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States (1982). Noel Ignatiez, How the Irish Became White (1995). Audio-Visual Resources Destination America, Discovery Channel, 30 minutes. This program examines the history of American sentiment regarding immigration and asks whether Americans have historically regarded it as a right or a privilege. Ellis Island, A&E Video, 150 minutes. This video is a four-part chronicle of the gateway for immigration at the turn of the century, drawing heavily from interviews from the Ellis Island Oral History Project. Empires of Industry: The Story of Oil, The History Channel, 50 minutes. This video explores the history of the oil industry in America from its origins in the nineteenth century. The Richest Man in the World: Andrew Carnegie: The American Experience, WGBH Boston, 1997, 120 minutes. This video is a biography of Andrew Carnegie narrated by David Ogden Stiers. The Rockefellers: Biography, A&E Video, 50 minutes. This video examines the lives of the nineteenth-century oil barons.

245 .

Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 16, students should be able to answer the following: 1.

What factors led to the rise of big business? Answer: The United States had vast amounts of raw materials and cheap labor fueled by a huge population increase. These factors, combined with new technologies and numerous inventions such as the sewing machine and the telephone, resulted in numerous big businesses such as the railroads, steel, and oil.

How did U.S. businesses promote consumption? Answer: Advertising became its own big business as it grew and developed a consumer culture. Department stores and mail order catalogs also helped consumption grow rapidly.

How did industrial capitalism change American workers? Answer: As the workforce grew and working conditions deteriorated, workers began demanding better pay and working conditions. This led to worker unions, which started with strikes and protests.

Why did many Americans fear the power of big business? Answer: The gap between the rich and poor widened dramatically as big businesses made thousands of millionaires but left millions in abject poverty.

Crawl Questions and Answers How did human migration foster American industrialization? (p. 470) Answer: Millions of people came primarily from Europe to work in these huge big businesses. People also left their farms and moved into cities to work in the factories. How did government officials defend the practice of making huge land grants to the railroads? (p. 471) Answer: Government officials defended this practice by saying that the economic growth resulting from these subsidies benefited everyone. How did railroad grants both reflect and promote national economic growth? (p. 472) Answer: Railroads provided cheaper and more dependable transportation for the country to move goods and people, which resulted in even more economic growth. 246 .

What advantages did standardization bring to business? (p. 473) Answer: It allowed railroads, for example, to go from one track to another track, which couldn’t be done if the tracks were of different widths. Standardization of products generally makes them cheaper and thus more available for consumers, which results in greater sales and profits. Why did many Americans come to see railroads as potential threats to democracy? (p. 474) Answer: The railroads created fabulous wealth for their owners primarily because they were monopolies that were allowed to exist by bought-off government officials. This corruption undermined the theory of democracy where all people are equal. What policies contributed to Andrew Carnegie’s success in business? (p. 475) Answer: Carnegie pioneered vertical integration, where he bought the suppliers of his goods and the retailers. He also practiced cutthroat pricing strategies to drive his competitors out of business. Why did big business find trusts so useful and attractive? (p. 476) Answer: Trusts limited competition and resulted in huge profits for companies due to little pressure to reduce prices. Why did efforts to curb the power of trusts fail? (p. 477) Answer: Efforts to curb the power of trusts failed due to the efforts of corporate lobbyists, who successfully weakened the language of bills such as the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890. Why did advertising become so important to business success? (p. 478) Answer: It created more demand for products as people learned about the benefits of new products and how their neighbors were also buying them. Why did retailers spend so much money to build lavish stores? (p. 479) Answer: These huge stores, such as Macy’s in New York, were like resorts or wonderlands where shoppers could escape from their humble households and be surrounded by innovation and variety. How did advertising promote the development of a national consumer culture? (p. 480) Answer: By seeing the same product images around the country in catalogs or newspapers, Americans began to adapt to the same fashions and develop similar buying habits. How did new technology weaken the independence of skilled workers? (p. 481) Answer: Lower skills were needed to operate the new machines, thus skilled labor was less in demand, and lower skilled labor, which was plentiful, could replace the higher skilled laborers. 247 .

Why were industrial workplaces so dangerous? (p. 482) Answer: There were few laws that required safety be considered in the workplace, so most employers concluded that it was unnecessary to implement preventative measures. Why were employers so hostile to labor unions? (p. 483) Answer: Most employers saw unions as a threat to their profits and freedom to run their businesses as they wanted. Why were industrial workers so divided? (p. 484) Answer: Skilled and unskilled workers looked at the workplace differently. Also, the race and ethnicity of the workers divided them, as did their views of private property and economic equality. Why do labor activists argue that unions are defensive in nature? (p. 485) Answer: Since unions usually react to the abuses in the workplace such as long hours or unsafe working conditions, they are said to be defending their lives and livelihood. Why did more women enter the paid workforce? (p. 486) Answer: More women entered the paid workforce primarily due to economic necessity. An additional wage earner in the family became essential, in many cases, for survival. How did business leaders like Carnegie defend industrial capitalism? (p. 487) Answer: He considered himself and his friends as visionaries that brought immeasurable benefits to society and improved the quality of life for the masses. Why was the self-made man idea so popular in the age of industry? (p. 488) Answer: The self-made man idea was popular because it promoted the concept that a virtuous and hard working life would result in great rewards. The industrial society rewards those who work hard. Why was the theory of social Darwinism so attractive to the wealthy and successful? (p. 489) Answer: For starters, the wealthy and powerful were obviously the “fittest” humans and so deserved their possessions. Those who were hurt or sick should be left to perish, and government intervention to help them was actually counterproductive, according to social Darwinism. What conditions led to rapid membership growth in the Knights of Labor? (p. 490) Answer: Workers were angered by their declining power in the face of big business. Why did so many Americans come to fear big business in the Gilded Age? (p. 491) Answer: The rich were so fabulously rich that they appeared to operate outside the laws of the country. This resulted in citizens wondering if the republic itself was at stake, since some men were much more “equal” than others. 248 .

Why did so many workers find the Knights of Labor appealing? (p. 492) Answer: The Knights were viewed as practical; they wanted an eight-hour day and equal pay for men and women as well as African Americans. The Knights also led successful strikes, which inspired confidence. What made strikes so risky for workers? (p. 493) Answer: They could lose their jobs and also be denied jobs at other companies. What role did the press play in promoting a negative impression of labor unions? (p. 494) Answer: The press used phrases such as “murderous rioters” in news stories about strikes and showing images, which made the strikers appear to be vicious and always at fault. Review Questions and Answers 1.

What strengths did the United States possess in terms of resources, culture, technology, and public policy that facilitated industrialization after 1865? Answer: The strengths of the United States included population size and growth, raw materials such as coal and timber, new patents, and a laissez-faire policy by government.

Why were the Supreme Court and Congress so slow to curb the power of big business? Answer: Big business lobbyists had a tremendous effect on the willingness of Congress to regulate business, and most Supreme Court justices also had to receive the approval of business interests before being placed on the Supreme Court.

How was advertising transformed after 1865? How did it affect the Industrial Revolution? Answer: Advertising expanded into catalogs and took more of the space in most newspapers. It created a consumer nation by increasing demand for products by expanding awareness of their existence and attributes.

Why did American workers have such a difficult time uniting to oppose abusive and exploitative employers? Answer: The workers had little resources compared to the wealth and power of those they were fighting. Also, they were constantly in danger of losing their jobs while they were organizing.

249 .

How did industrialization create new opportunities for women? How and why were these opportunities limited? Answer: There was a huge and constant demand for labor as the country grew, and some of those jobs such as typists and nurses were almost exclusively designated for women. However, most of these jobs paid less than men and offered little career growth.

Why did the Knights of Labor expand in the 1880s? Why did it collapse almost as suddenly? Answer: The Knights had great success in organizing strikes and asked for reasonable improvements in the workplace such as the eight-hour day. The Haymarket Riot in 1886 resulted in increased attacks on the Knights in the press and the arrests of hundreds of union activists. Public opinion had been pushed to oppose the Knights’ efforts by the creation of a climate of fear, and their support diminished accordingly.

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

Why did Americans come to fear large corporations like railroads? Answer: Americans feared large corporations because they not only had monopoly power in many cases, which allowed their owners to become incredibly wealthy, but they also appeared to be above the law and ruled the country by buying out the elected government officials.

How did the introduction of new technology impact American workers? Answer: New technology decreased demand for skilled labor and allowed for the use of low-skilled labor to operate the machines. This also led to lower wages and longer hours since there was plenty of low skilled labor available.

How did industrialists champion industrial capitalism? Answer: They believed that social Darwinism was the rule of the day. The fittest would survive, and there was no need to worry about those who couldn’t fend for themselves since supporting the weak would interfere with the natural order. Also, the industrialists were bringing good and dramatic change to the country through the production of new and plentiful products.

250 .

How did critics of industrial capitalism argue that it threatened the republic? Answer: The rich and powerful were corrupting the political system by “buying off” the elected officials. The concept of equality under the law was being placed in serious doubt.

What challenges did workers face in trying to organize unions? Answer: Primarily, their jobs were in jeopardy if their employer found out about their efforts to help the union effort. Losing a job was a very serious issue then, when there was virtually no safety net.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 16 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 16 Read the Document Thomas Edison, The Success of the Electric Light (October 1880) Watch the Video Video Lecture: Mastering Time and Space: How the Railroad Changed America View the Image Modern Colossus of (Rail) Roads (1879) Read the Document Interstate Commerce Act View the Image John D. Rockefeller Cartoon (1901) View the Closer Look Images as History: Advertising and the Art of Cultivating Anxiety and Desire View the Closer Look “Testing” Clark’s O.N.T. Spool Cotton Read the Document Technology and the Shoe Industry in Fincher’s Trade Review (1864) Read the Document Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, from The Working Girls of Boston (1884) Read the Document Chinese Exclusion Act View the Map Atlas Map: Changing Lives of American Women, 1880–1930 Read the Document Andrew Carnegie, “Wealth” Read the Document Herbert Spencer, Social Darwinsim (1857) Read the Document Horatio Alger, Ragged Dick Read the Document Henry George, Progress and Poverty View the Map Interactive Map: Organizing American Labor in the Late Nineteenth Century Read the Document George Engel, Address by a Condemned Haymarket Anarchist (1886)

251 .

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN BECOMING A MODERN SOCIETY: AMERICA IN THE GILDED AGE, 1877–1900 I. The Rise of the City A. To the Cities B. The Emergence of Ethnic Enclaves C. The Troubled City D. “Boss Rule”: The Political Machine II. A Search for Solutions A. The Nativist Impulse B. A Different View: Urban Reforms C. Capturing a New View of Poverty D. Living among the Poor: Settlement Houses E. The White City III. New Habits, Roles, and Lifestyles A. The New Urban Landscape B. New Roles and Expectations for Women C. New Forms of Leisure and Popular Culture D. Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous IV. The Challenge from Below A. Out of Touch Politics B. The People’s Party C. Industrial Conflict and Depression D. The Election of 1896 and Political Realignment Hundreds of thousands of people, including President Chester A. Arthur and countless dignitaries, participated in the joyful ceremonies marking the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge on May 23, 1883. Americans in the late nineteenth century celebrated the onset of the urban age. An astonishing sight and the very embodiment of the modern age, it was the world’s largest suspension bridge, a style made possible by the one product that in many ways defined the industrial revolution—steel. The bridge’s designer, German immigrant John Roebling, emphasized this transition to the modern age by using a stark contrast: he constructed the bridge’s twin towers out of the ancient building material (stone) and formed them into gothic archways, a style reminiscent of the great medieval cathedrals of Europe. The Brooklyn Bridge embodied the new urban and industrial era in ways beyond its cutting-edge technology and symbolic design. Workers who were either immigrants or the children of immigrants constructed the bridge. By connecting the nation’s largest city (New York) and third largest city (Brooklyn), a prelude to their consolidation into one city in 1898, the new bridge also symbolized rapid urban growth. Finally the bridge hinted at the emergence of a new, more independent American woman. When 252 .

Washington Roebling (who succeeded his father as chief engineer) fell gravely ill in 1872, his wife, Emily Warren Roebling, spent the next eleven years as the project’s onsite manager. The enthusiasm that attended the bridge’s opening masked the grave problems that attended rampant urban growth. Indeed the era’s name, the Gilded Age, reflected this notion that the amazing achievements of the period were like a thin gold layer that covered many unresolved social problems. The sections of New York and Brooklyn connected by the bridge, for example, were vast working-class immigrant districts beset by high rates of poverty, crime, and disease. Equally unseen in the immediate glow of the fireworks was the rising discontent among American workers over exploitation at the hands of employers and alienation from an unresponsive political system. Indeed, dozens of men had died during the bridge’s construction, and on several occasions workers went on strike. These sentiments and those of hard-pressed American farmers in the heartland would explode in the 1890s, leading to the emergence of the People’s Party. The party eventually faded away, but not before establishing a reform agenda that would shape the Progressive Era (1900–1920). Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 17, students should be able to answer the following: 1.

What challenges emerged with the rise of large cities?

How did reformers seek to improve urban life?

How did the roles and expectations of women change?

How did American workers and farmers respond to the economic turmoil of 1880s and 1890s?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Present a comparison and contrast of the Democratic and Republican parties at the turn of the century. Include some of the following issues: a. Who composed the membership of each party? Look at the regional, racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, and religious characteristics of each party’s membership. b. Consider perspectives on fiscal policy, social reform, sympathy toward business and agriculture, immigration, prohibition, civil service reform, and tariffs. c. Allow students to compare and contrast the characteristics of the Democratic and Republican parties at the turn of the century to the modern-day parties. Would modern-day Republicans feel comfortable in the nineteenth-century party? Would modern-day Democrats feel comfortable in the nineteenth-century party? Where have the major 253 .

changes occurred in each party’s membership and policies? Can students predict when in the twenty-first century these changes will occur? 2.

Discuss the impact of populism on Southern politics. Why did white Southerners find the Populist movement threatening? Explain the potential danger Southerners saw in the political union of lower-class whites and blacks. How could that union have impacted the white elite political structure already in place? How were members of the Populist Party treated by Southern Democrats? Explain the concept of fusion and how it figured into the 1892 and 1896 presidential elections. Is there a connection between the Populist movement and the Southern disfranchisement movement of the 1890s? Did Southern disfranchisement impact only the black community?

Discuss the importance of the issue of prohibition at the turn of the century. Consider some of the following issues: a. If you have not addressed it in earlier chapters, provide a moral and political context for this reform issue. How does prohibition connect to evangelical Protestantism, to nativism, to modern industrialism, and to feminism? b. Provide an overview of turn-of-the-century parties and organizations dedicated to prohibition. Focus particularly on the Prohibition Party and the WCTU. c. Make a connection between prohibition and the politicization of the modern American woman. Have students comment on the fact that this movement would not only achieve federal prohibition of the production and distribution of alcohol, but it would achieve that prohibition through a constitutional amendment. Is there any connection between the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Amendments?

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Discuss the Populist movement as the first major modern American reform movement. Some issues to consider include the following: a. Have students define the word reform. What does it mean, and how does it apply to the Populist movement? b. Analyze the Omaha Platform. Does it reflect a conservative or liberal agenda? What components of the agenda eventually became American law? c. Was the Populist movement successful or was it a failure? Help students anticipate the Progressive movement by predicting who would be successful in realizing much of the Populist agenda. Why would Progressives be successful when Populists were not? d. Was the Populist movement conservative or liberal? In what ways did Populists seek change? Was there a conservative element in the movement? Were the Populists in any way motivated by a desire to 254 .

prevent change or to conserve some aspects of American cultural, social, and economic tradition? 2.

Have the class look at the appeal of laissez faire in American history. In Chapter 20, students will consider the nature of capitalism and how it was changing at the turn of the century. Why did many Americans, by 1900, demand a retreat from laissez faire? Were they interested in abandoning capitalism or retaining it? How did the federal government respond to the demand to move away from laissez faire? How did business respond? Why did Americans turn to the government for help against business, railroads, and the banking system? Why did they not solve their problems without government involvement?

How did George Washington Plunkitt and Josephine Shaw Lowell differ in their understanding of the causes of poverty? How do these views shape their approach to helping the poor?

How did Jacob Riis’s portrayal of the poor differ from traditional notions of poverty?

How did President Cleveland justify using federal power to break the Pullman strike?

Topics for Class Projects and Term Papers 1.

Research the children’s author L. Frank Baum and prepare a paper or presentation on his Oz series. Baum was a zealous Populist who used children’s literature as a medium for communicating his political agenda. Look at the characters, symbols, and themes of The Wizard of Oz and explain how they are representative of components of the Populist agenda. Also, some attention can be given to the idea of using children’s literature as a means of education or even indoctrination. Can students think of other children’s books that do more than entertain?

Choose one of the political figures associated with the Populist movement, such as Mary Lease or “Sockless” Jerry Simpson, and examine his or her political agenda and style. Why has the Populist movement sometimes been connected to “the lunatic fringe”?

Have students examine Bill Gates’s late twentieth-century conflict with the federal government. What charges did the government bring against Gates and why? Do the students agree with the charges? Should Microsoft have been split in the interest of preserving competition in the marketplace? Have them examine different points of view regarding the case. Why did some people support Gates? Why did others see him as a spoiler? Why might twentieth-century Americans have felt differently from nineteenth-century Americans about Gates’s success? 255 .

Was there a link between Gates’s success and, at least, some of the prosperity some Americans enjoyed during the market boom of the nineties? Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Ruth Bordin, Women and Temperance (1981). John A. Garraty, The New Commonwealth, 1877–1890 (1968). Lawrence Goodwyn, The Populist Movement (1978). Robert C. McMath, American Populism: A Social History, 1877–1898 (1993). R. Hal Williams, Years of Decision: American Politics in the 1890s (1978). Audio-Visual Resources America 1900: The American Experience, WGBH Educational Foundation/David Gurbin Productions, Inc., 1998, 180 minutes. This series examines American political, social, and cultural history at the turn of the century. The Wizard of Oz, Warner Studios, 1939, 101 minutes. This is the film adaptation of L. Frank Baum’s Populist-inspired children’s novel. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 17, students should be able to answer the following: 1.

What challenges emerged with the rise of large cities? Answer: Huge amounts of immigrants resulted in increases in crime and disease as they lived in tight quarters with inadequate public sanitation. Also, transportation modes became issues as horses were replaced by trains and trolleys.

How did reformers seek to improve urban life? Answer: They built settlement houses to help young mothers with their children, they expanded public education, and they improved public sanitation and safety.

How did the roles and expectations of women change? Answer: More women entered the workforce in less wealthy families in order to support the family. Higher income women entered college and did a great deal of charity work outside of the house.

How did American workers and farmers respond to the economic turmoil of the 1880s and 1890s? 256 .

Answer: They demanded Washington put more regulations and controls on big businesses. They also tried to create they own political movements and to influence the Democratic Party. Crawl Questions and Answers Why did so many people flock to American cities? (p. 500) Answer: Many came to escape poverty, warfare, political and religious persecutions, and natural disasters. But most people came for the economic opportunity and the chance for upward mobility. Why did immigrants form ethnic enclaves in cities? (p. 501) Answer: One major reason was to protect themselves from discrimination from other immigrants and Americans. However, the major reason was their recognition that grouping together enhanced their chances of success. Why was life in tenement districts so difficult? (p. 502) Answer: Tenements consisted of two to three dimly lit rooms where there were high rates of disease caused by poor sanitation and contaminated water. Why were crime rates so high in cities? (p. 503) Answer: Poverty and despair were two of the causes of high crime rates—women resorted to prostitution and men resorted to stealing. Also, high proportions of young men were immigrating to the United States, which added to the crime rate since this age cohort is associated with higher crime rates. How did political machines gain the support of working-class and immigrant voters? (p. 504) Answer: Political machines offered jobs and some social benefits such as payments for funerals or bags of coal to the poor. They also resisted anti-immigrant legislation such as attempts to deny jobs to recent immigrants. Why did nativists oppose immigration? (p. 505) Answer: They were convinced that by limiting and reducing immigration it would lower crime rates, disease, and political corruption. How did urban reformers try to improve the safety and livability of cities? (p. 506) Answer: They increased the professionalism of the police and fire departments, improved the quality of the drinking water, cleaned up the waste on the streets, built parks, and expanded public education. Why was the Pledge of Allegiance adopted in the 1890s? (p. 507) Answer: To teach the children respect for democracy and the law as well as to promote civic pride. 257 .

What services did settlement houses provide the urban poor? (p. 508) Answer: They provided educational classes such as literature and art as well as more practical subjects such as cooking, sewing, and vocational training. How did Jacob Riis’s portrayal of the poor differ from traditional notions of poverty? (p. 509) Answer: Riis argued that the poor were victims of the unhealthy and unregulated housing where they lived. Previous writers blamed the poor themselves for being of poor moral quality. How did the White City reflect an optimistic vision of urban life in the future? (p. 510) Answer: The designers wanted to show the potential glory of America’s cities by showing what could be done with urban planning and civic leadership. How did new modes of transportation promote the development of specialized urban and suburban districts? (p. 511) Answer: The downtown area became specialized for commercial interests as trolleys and horse cars transported people back to their homes in the neighborhoods and eventually to the suburbs as the lines were extended. Why did public activism among women increase? (p. 512) Answer: Women went to school more often and for more years. By 1900, women had attained a 20 percent college graduation. Also, the need for more charity services to help the poor brought more women out of the house. What was new about the “New Woman”? (p. 513) Answer: She was more educated, engaged in public activism, delayed marriage, and had fewer children. How did commercial interests shape the new forms of leisure in the Gilded Age? (p. 514) Answer: Business recognized the potential to make money from sporting events such as baseball or football, and so they built stadiums, sold refreshments, and player cards. How did varied forms of leisure reflect class differences? (p. 515) Answer: The wealthier and better educated went to operas and Shakespearian plays while the not-so wealthy watched vaudeville shows, musical comedies, and sporting events. How did the great displays of wealth in the Gilded Age represent a break with America’s republican traditions? (p. 516) Answer: The opulence of the wealthy lifestyle, such as at the Bradley Ball in 1897, appeared to the masses as an attempt to create an aristocracy in America. This went against the American dream of political equality. 258 .

Why were election results in the Gilded Age so close? (p. 517) Answer: The two parties were equal in strength but divided in purpose and vision. Why did Congress in this period fail to address major social issues? (p. 518) Answer: Most politicians of the day were reluctant to have the government intervene since they were believers in the laissez-faire approach to business. Also, business lobbyists were very powerful and prevented strong social legislation. What grievances led to the rise of farmers’ alliances? (p. 519) Answer: The members were outraged by high interest rates when they bought their farms and by high freight charges charged by the railroads to ship their goods. They also felt they were not getting a fair share of the profits when their goods were sold. How did the People’s Party platform reflect the concerns of farmers and industrial workers? (p. 520) Answer: They believed that the newspapers and the two major political parties were merely instruments of the wealthy and that the country was being divided into two economic groups—tramps and millionaires. How did opponents try to discredit the Populists? (p. 521) Answer: They ridiculed them as a patchwork of dangerous political movements as well as a few lunatics. Why did critics accuse Carnegie of hypocrisy during the Homestead strike? (p. 522) Answer: While Carnegie was building libraries for cities and towns across America, he did so at the expense of his workers in Homestead, near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, when he called in the Pinkertons to break up the workers union. What did Coxey and his followers want from the federal government? (p. 523) Answer: They wanted public works projects to be created by the government so that the unemployed would have work during the Panic of 1893. Why did the Pullman workers strike? (p. 524) Answer: Their wages were cut 30 percent, but the rent they paid to Pullman stayed the same. Why did silver hold such political significance in the late nineteenth century? (p. 525) Answer: Silver was considered the metal of the common man whereas gold was the metal of the rich. Many silver believers advocated for the coinage of silver to help end the depression.

259 .

How did President Cleveland justify using federal power to break the Pullman strike? (p. 526) Answer: He reasoned that the strike, by interfering with the delivery of the U.S. mail, was a conspiracy to restrain trade. What factors led to the demise of the People’s Party? (p. 527) Answer: Primarily, its demise was caused by the Democrats’ nomination of William Jennings Bryan and his advocacy of using silver, which was a key People’s Party issue. Review Questions and Answers 1.

Why did cities grow in the late nineteenth century? Answer: Industrialization and mass immigration transformed older cities and created new cities.

Who supported political machines and why? Why did reformers dislike political machines so much? Answer: Political machines were mostly supported by recent immigrants who knew few people when they arrived and needed someone to help them find a job and take care of their needs in return for their vote. Reformers disliked the machines because they challenged their authority, threatened to have the foreign born rule, and gave charity away unasked.

How did the approach to poverty by reformers like Jacob Riis and Jane Addams differ from traditional approaches? Answer: They blamed the government instead of the poor themselves.

How did the roles and expectations for middle-class women change in the Gilded Age? What social and economic developments made this possible? Answer: They became more independent, more educated, and more involved in their communities through charities to help the poor.

What were the primary grievances of people who supported the People’s Party? How did they propose to resolve them? Answer: Supporters of the People’s Party were primarily concerned with the political system’s corruption and failure to act on issues such as the tariff and currency regulations. They wanted to elect their own politicians, start a national income tax, and have the direct election of U.S. senators.

260 .

What was the long-term impact of the 1896 election? Answer: The Republican Party became dominant in the Midwest and Northeast for the next three decades.

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

What role did immigration play in the rise of large cities? Answer: It couldn’t have happened without immigrants since they built most of the buildings and infrastructure as well as worked in the factories.

Why did political machines grow so powerful in the late nineteenth century? Answer: There were few benefits available for immigrants during this time. Many immigrants didn’t speak English or know where to get a job. The machine provided valuable assistance.

How did reformers offer a new interpretation of the causes of poverty? Answer: Heart-wrenching photographs of the poor, as well as magazine and newspaper stories and occasional books, offered new interpretations of the causes of poverty.

What led to the emergence of new forms of leisure in the Gilded Age? Answer: To a large extent, leisure activities presented opportunities for commercial interests to make money while people were enjoying themselves. They built parks and theaters and sold refreshments.

What did Populists identify as major threats to American values like democracy and equality? Answer: Monopoly and millionaires were two major threats, as the disparity of income distribution in the country became very disturbing and the numbers of poor grew alarmingly.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 17 • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 17 Read the Document Adna Weber: The Growth of Cities View the Closer Look Immigration to the U.S. 1870–1915 Read the Document George Waring, “Sanitary Conditions in New York” (1897) Read the Document Lincoln Steffens, The Shame of the Cities 261 .

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

View the Closer Look Competing Visions: How Best to Help the Poor? Read the Document Josiah Strong, Anglo-Saxon Culture Under Siege (1885) Read the Document Proposal to Buffalo, New York, Park Commission (1888) Read the Document Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives Read the Document Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House View the Closer Look The Bowery at Night Read the Document Susan B. Anthony, The “New Departure” for Women (1873) View the Map Atlas Map: Changing Lives of American Women, 1880–1930 Read the Document Coney Island Frolics Read the Document Thorstein Veblen, excerpt from The Theory of Leisure Class Read the Document Mary Elizabeth Lease, The Popular Crusader (1892) Read the Document N.A. Dunning, ed., Alliance’s Vision of Community (1891) Read the Document The People’s Party Platform (1892) Read the Document Jacob S. Coxey, “Address of Protest” (1894) Read the Document Address to 1894 Convention of American Railway Union by Jennie Curtis Read the Document William Jennings Bryan, “Cross of Gold” Speech (1896) View the Closer Look Republican Campaign Poster of 1896, William McKinley

262 .

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN CREATING A DEMOCRATIC PARADISE: THE PROGRESSIVE ERA, 1895–1915 I. The Progressive Impulse A. The Angst of the Middle Class B. The Progressive Vision II. Reigning in Big Business A. Roosevelt’s Trust-Busting B. Taft and Wilson: Competing Progressive Visions C. Preservation versus Conservation III. Competing Views on Transforming the Workplace A. Capitalist Visions of Industrial Harmony B. Working-Class Labor Activism C. The Progressives’ Limited Progress IV. Protecting Women and Children A. Women at Work B. Stamping Out Vice C. Restoring Childhood V. Reforming the Government A. Containing Socialism B. Ending Government Corruption C. Accepting Separate but Equal Female employees of the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory, many recently arrived from Italy and Eastern Europe, worked on sewing machines six days a week, twelve hours a day, making blouses. On March 25, 1911, a fire engulfed the top floors of the new Asch Building that housed the factory in New York City’s Lower East Side, killing 146 women and men. As bundles began falling onto the street, onlookers below assumed that workers were throwing their best cloth out the window to save it. They soon realized their mistake. Female workers were jumping by twos and threes to escape the flames. Americans’ expectations of their government had radically changed. This new vision took hold during the Progressive Era, partially in response to events like the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory. In Gatto’s painting, the immense stone buildings tower above the lifeless workers, the artist’s way of representing the complete domination of big business over labor at the beginning of the twentieth century. Previous attempts to unionize the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory had failed, leaving these women at the mercy of their employers, who had locked the workshop doors from the outside to prevent them from stealing materials or leaving early. With the doors bolted and flimsy fire escapes collapsing under the weight of fleeing workers, the windows offered the only means of escape from the fire for the rest. 263 .

To many Progressive Era reformers, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire illustrated the tragic consequences of capitalist exploitation and the government’s lack of interest in the plight of workers. Middle-class activists championed an array of reforms that envisioned using local, state, and federal governments to protect Americans from the greed and indifference of big business. Their agenda aroused considerable criticism. Progressives, aided by three reform-minded presidents, proved remarkably adept at negotiating this difficult political terrain. They found enough common ground to construct cross-class alliances that sought to end exploitive business practices and class conflict, and curtail the growth of monopolies. Progressive-led coalitions also tackled pressing political and social issues. From the mid-1890s to mid-1900s, Progressives transformed the role of government in American society and laid the foundation for liberal reform movements of the twentieth century. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 18, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

What factors led to the emergence of Progressivism?

How did the federal government tackle the problem of monopolies and trusts in the Progressive Era?

How did industrialists, workers, and Progressive reformers differ in their approaches to ending labor conflict?

How did Progressive Era reforms change the lives of women and children?

How did the role of government change during the Progressive Era?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Discuss the life and work of Margaret Sanger as an example of the political complexity of the Progressive Era. On one hand, she contributed to the liberation of American women by removing barriers to birth control and fighting for reproductive rights for women. On the other hand, she was a student of eugenics, a pseudoscientific theory that advocated the promotion of reproduction within “superior” gene pools and the discouragement of reproduction within “inferior” gene pools. Have students consider whether Sanger was a liberal or a conservative.

Discuss the issue of laissez faire during the Progressive Era. Describe how Progressives continued to change traditional American ideas about the role of government. Cite specific laws passed during the Progressive Era that gave more power to the federal government. Discuss the issue of police power and the laws 264 .

that expanded that area of authority for the federal government. Examine the office of the presidency during the Progressive Era. How did it change under Theodore Roosevelt? How did it change under Woodrow Wilson? How did Wilson’s love of order and organization impact the size of the federal government? Why did Americans endorse these changes in the size and power of the federal government? Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Have students discuss American ideas regarding poverty, focusing on a comparison of the Social Gospel and the Protestant work ethic. How did Progressives at the turn of the century challenge traditional American ideas regarding the source of individual poverty? How did changes in beliefs about the source of poverty impact Progressive ideas about who was responsible for minimizing the suffering associated with poverty? How did religion contribute to both the Protestant work ethic and the Social Gospel?

Discuss American socialism during the Progressive Era. After providing some historical background on socialist leaders, organizations, and parties at the turn of the century, ask students to assess the appeal (or lack thereof) that socialism has held for Americans historically. What factors have contributed to socialism’s limited appeal in the United States? Have students consider traditional American political values, the structure and function of the American political system, and traditional American ideas regarding wealth and poverty. How have these issues defined the American response to socialism?

Compare and contrast the populist and Progressive movements. Have students recall the Omaha Platform from the populist movement and determine which of these goals were achieved by the Populists themselves and which by the Progressives. Look at the participants in each movement. How do they differ from each other? Are there any groups that were drawn to both movements? Did the nature of the membership in each movement impact the level of success attained by each? Also, use this opportunity to predict the next link in the evolution of twentieth-century American reform between the Progressive movement and the New Deal. What had been achieved in the Progressive movement that would be used, resurrected, or extended during the New Deal?

Was the Progressive movement liberal or conservative? The Progressive movement is included in the string of American reform movements dating from the populist movement through the reform era of the 1960s. Yet, historian Gabriel Kolko has characterized the Progressive Era as “a triumph of conservatism.” Have students discuss this issue by focusing on the following questions: a. How were the Progressives motivated? What did they want, and why did they want it? b. How did middle-class Progressives feel about the communities they assisted? Have students consider the impact of nativism and social 265 .

Darwinism on Progressive motivation. How did these ideas connect to the Social Gospel and the Gospel of Efficiency? Consider issues connected to paternalism, control, and authority. Why were Progressives willing to take responsibility for reform? If they did not assume responsibility for change, who did they fear would take that responsibility? Was the Progressive movement in any way a contest between mainstream Americans and radicals for the right to control reform?

Should the government limit work hours, child labor, or set a minimum wage?

How does Booker T. Washington take into account the racially hostile climate that prevailed in the South during the Progressive Era? Is W. E. B. Du Bois’s criticism of Washington accurate?

Topics for Class Projects and Term Papers 1.

Have students participate in a class project focusing on muckraking. Assign students the task of writing an exposé of wrongdoing in their own community. You may want to provide students with a list of topics from which to choose or let them choose their own. This is a good option for group projects that can be presented in class. It is also a good way to help students link the past and present.

Examine Prohibition from the perspective of a distillery. Look at the growth of the distillery business at the turn of the century, perhaps focusing on one company, such as Anheuser-Busch. Connect the growth in the distillery business to turn-of-the-century immigration. How did distilleries like Anheuser-Busch fight Prohibition? How did these companies survive the years of Prohibition?

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Ellen Chesler, Woman of Valor: The Life of Margaret Sanger (1992). Steven J. Diner, A Very Different Age: Americans of the Progressive Era (1998). Eric Goldman, Rendezvous with Destiny (1952). Sara Hunter Graham, Woman Suffrage and the New Democracy (1996). Dewey Grantham, Southern Progressivism: The Reconciliation of Progress and Tradition (1983). Louis Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Wizard of Tuskegee (1983). Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to FDR (1955). Gabriel Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism (1963). Seymour Martin Lipset and Gary Marks, It Didn’t Happen Here: Why Socialism Failed in the United States (2000). James Timberlake, Prohibition and the Progressive Movement (1963). Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877–1920 (1967).

266 .

Audio-Visual Resources Not for Ourselves Alone: The Story of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, Ken Burns, PBS Video, 1999, 180 minutes. Ken Burns looks at the story of the historic friendship between Stanton and Anthony and how it figured into the quest for women’s suffrage. TR: The Story of Theodore Roosevelt: The American Experience, David Grubin, 1996, 240 minutes. This video is a four-part series chronicling the life of Theodore Roosevelt. Teddy Roosevelt: An American Lion, A&E Video, 2002, 200 minutes. The video presents a look at the life of Theodore Roosevelt with commentary by Edmund Morris. Learning Objectives and Answers After a careful examination of Chapter 18, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

What factors led to the emergence of Progressivism? Answer: Industrialism, immigration, and urbanization were the major factors that created an environment begging for change.

How did the federal government tackle the problem of monopolies and trusts in the Progressive Era? Answer: Laws were passed to outlaw monopolies, such as the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890.

How did industrialists, workers, and Progressive reformers differ in their approaches to ending labor conflict? Answer: Most industrialists believed that unions should be considered illegal and that the “open shop” should be enforced. The workers demanded “closed shops” where everyone would be required to join the union. The Progressive reformers wanted to regulate the workplace by improving safety and limiting hours in order to improve working life.

How did Progressive Era reforms change the lives of women and children? Answer: The reforms limited women’s work hours and in many states ended child labor and required more years of schooling for children. 267 .

How did the role of government change during the Progressive Era? Answer: An activist government, in terms of regulating business, started and has continued. No longer was government on the sidelines allowing free rein for business.

Crawl Questions and Answers What economic challenges did the nation face at the end of the nineteenth century? (p. 532) Answer: There was a concentration of wealth that was unprecedented in American history. Most Americans worked long hours for little pay with little opportunity for advancement. How did a mix of sympathy and fear spur middle-class interest in reform? (p. 533) Answer: The middle class was concerned about the plight of the working class, but they were also fearful of a revolution where there would be no private property and they would lose what little they did have. How did the Progressive vision take shape? (p. 534) Answer: Progressives sought the middle ground of government regulation to protect workers and curtail the excesses of big business while keeping the market system. Why did Roosevelt’s personality and behavior captivate the public? (p. 535) Answer: He was a robust man who was frequently seen talking to citizens, playing tennis, or playing with his children. He also supported many of the workers’ concerns, such as labor unions. What competing visions did Roosevelt, the Supreme Court, and leading industrialists offer on the trust issue? (p. 536) Answer: Rockefeller of Standard Oil didn’t believe that competition was beneficial to the consumer. Roosevelt, however, believed that they were “good” trusts and “bad” trusts, and the bad ones had to be broken up. The Supreme Court eventually ruled that all trusts were illegal. How did exposés and caricatures in the popular media shape public views of Standard Oil? (p. 537) Answer: They depicted the company frequently as a menacing octopus with dangerous tentacles strangling everyone in its path. What clear philosophical differences separated the four candidates in the 1912 election? (p. 538) Answer: Taft was willing to enforce existing Progressive reforms but not new ones. Roosevelt wanted increased government regulation. Wilson wanted to restore a 268 .

competitive marketplace. Debs, the Socialist, wanted the government to take ownership of many of the largest companies. How did Wilson’s economic vision and policies differ from those pursued by the Roosevelt and Taft administrations? (p. 539) Answer: Wilson tried to help small businesses rather than focusing on big businesses. He was also willing to create the Federal Reserve Bank in 1913. How did Americans disagree about the environment during the Progressive Era? (p. 540) Answer: Some were in favor of setting aside national parks and reserves while others thought that this was an antibusiness policy that cost people their jobs. What different methods did industrialists use to end labor conflict? (p. 541) Answer: They insisted on “open shops” where workers decided whether to join a union. They also spied on workers and fired them if they were sympathetic to the union. How much did Ford’s innovations and paternalism benefit workers? (p. 542) Answer: He paid them more than his competitors, and his company supervised the workers’ private lives by checking their habits and living arrangements because he thought it was in their best interest. What conflicting visions divided working-class union activists? (p. 543) Answer: Some preferred to strike frequently to gain company concessions while more radical activists rejected the notion of working with the companies and worked to end private property. How effective were the different strategies that Progressives and unions employed to reform the workplace? (p. 544) Answer: Some abuses of the workers continued despite the Progressives’ reforms, but they did have significant success. The unions, through strikes primarily, also had significant success as wages and work conditions improved. What competing views existed concerning a state’s right to regulate the workforce? (p. 545) Answer: Some believed that the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution made it unlawful to deprive individuals their right to work as long as they wanted to and that the government should not interfere with private agreements between workers and employers. Why did the campaign for maximum work hour laws succeed for women, but fail for men? (p. 546) Answer: The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that women’s reproductive health was of interest to society and therefore could be protected from long work hours. 269 .

What diverse concerns about alcohol helped the temperance movement gain momentum? (p. 547) Answer: Saloons became havens for gambling and prostitution, and their proliferation resulted in increased public drunkenness and family problems. What does this advertisement reveal about middle-class ideals of childhood? (p. 548) Answer: It shows how the American middle-class yearned for simpler and better days where their children could enjoy their youth and did not have to work in factories and on farms 10–12 hours a day. What obstacles did reformers face while trying to eliminate child labor? (p. 549) Answer: Some immigrants saw nothing wrong with child labor since it provided needed income. The Supreme Court resisted any prohibition of child labor, and factory owners wanted the practice continued. How did the composition of this photograph reinforce Hine’s message about child labor? (p. 550) Answer: The huge sewing apparatus and the menacing supervisor overwhelm this little girl. It’s hard not to feel great sadness for the girl’s situation. Did these images offer similar or different reasons to oppose child labor? (p. 551) Answer: These pictures show more reasons to oppose child labor, as children are transformed from being healthy and well-groomed to street urchins and sad-looking children after a few years of work. What importance did the socialist movement have during the Progressive Era? (p. 552) Answer: The socialists pushed for government takeovers of certain industries; however, most Americans and Progressives were not willing to go that far. Regulation became the compromise to better working conditions and food, for example. What reforms did Progressives introduce to improve the democratic process? (p. 553) Answer: They pushed for at-large city councilors in cities to reduce the patronage system. They advocated direct primaries, ballot initiatives, and the direct election of U.S. senators. What do these budgets reveal about urban lifestyles? (p. 554) Answer: The budget categories that reveal the most about urban lifestyles are food, rent, taxes, and total expenses versus total monthly income. For the urban laborer, less was spent on food because diet was poor. Rent for the urban worker was about equal to that of a white collar worker, but living conditions were far drabber. Taxes for the urban worker were significantly lower than those of the white collar worker, but that was because living conditions were much poorer. Overall, after monthly expenses, the urban worker was only able to save a few dollars a month, while the white collar worker was able to 270 .

save much more. These budget category comparisons tell us that life was much harder for urban American families. How does this photograph convey the Hampton Institute’s educational philosophy? (p. 555) Answer: The people in the photograph are perfectly groomed, hard working, and had good skills, which is what the school wanted people to believe. What alternatives did critics of Booker T. Washington offer to improve life for African Americans? (p. 556) Answer: Critics believed that the integration of society should be the goal, and thus the focus should be working to guarantee the right to vote and integration of the schools. Was Washington a sellout, as Du Bois implies, or a master strategist? (p. 557) Answer: Both positions have merit, but Washington didn’t consider himself to be a sellout. He believed that economic freedom would result in political freedom eventually. Review Questions and Answers 1.

What social problems did middle-class Progressives identify at the beginning of the twentieth century? How did their solutions differ from those embraced by socialists and laissez-faire industrialists? Answer: Dismal living conditions, low pay, few advancement opportunities, and long working hours were identified by the middle class as serious problems at the beginning of the twentieth century. They preferred to regulate business in order to improve the situation, while socialists wanted government ownership of key industries and the industrialists resisted virtually all proposed changes.

Why did the Progressive notion of an activist, regulatory government create controversy on both the right and the left? Answer: The right believed that these proposed regulations were unconstitutional and an infringement on business. On the left, the socialists didn’t think the regulation went far enough to curb the abuses of businesses.

How did visual images and investigative journalism transform Americans’ views of poverty and corruption? Answer: It was hard to ignore or be unsympathetic to the poor and child laborers when their images were in the newspapers. The stories about food and medicine directly affected people, so they demanded reforms.

271 .

What role did the government, including presidents, the Supreme Court, and state and local governments, play during the Progressive Era? Answer: Eventually all levels of government became involved in the reform movement. Presidents criticized businesses and demanded legislation, which eventually was upheld by the Supreme Court. States passed legislation increasing education requirements and safety requirements.

In what ways did the Progressive agenda succeed? How did it fail? Answer: Many regulations were enacted that continue today, such as those by the Food and Drug Administration. However, the concentration of wealth has resurfaced, and laborers are working longer hours and their pay is decreasing.

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

What interpretation did this painting offer of the 1911 Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire? Answer: The painting depicts enormous human tragedy that could have been avoided except for the greed of the industrialists.

Why did these photographs arouse controversy? Answer: The photos made it look like the Native Americans were disappearing, and thus there was no need to consider their situation.

How did Taylorism transform the workplace? Answer: It made the workplace much more robotic in the sense that it defined every movement that workers should make in the course of their work, thus destroying individuality and creativity.

What insights does Sinclair offer on workers’ lives and food safety? Answer: He documented the unsanitary conditions and procedures that were prevalent in the food industry as well as all the unsafe working conditions that were causing injuries and deaths in the workplace.

How did Washington and Du Bois differ? Answer: Washington preferred self-help and economic independence as the best way to improve life for African Americans. Du Bois emphasized politics and civil rights as the primary and best way to improve life for African Americans. 272 .

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 18 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 18 Read the Document Eugene V. Debs, “The Outlook for Socialism in America” (1900) View the Closer Look Triangle Fire: March 25, 1911 View the Image Teddy Roosevelt as “Jack the Giant Killer” (1904) Read the Document Louis Brandeis, from “Other People’s Money” (1913) View the Image John D. Rockefeller Cartoon (1901) View the Map Interactive Map: Resources and Conflict in the West View the Closer Look Photographing a Vanishing Race Read the Document Frederick Winslow Taylor, “A Piece-Rate System” from The Principles of Scientific Management (1911) Read the Document Profiles: Samuel Gompers View the Image Logo for the Industrial Workers of the World Read the Document Report of the Vice Commission, Louisville, Kentucky (1915) Watch the Video Video Lecture: What was the Progressive Education Movement? View the Closer Look Images as History: Exposing the Evils of Child Labor Read the Document Upton Sinclair, from The Jungle (1905) View the Closer Look Envisioning Evidence: The Family Economy Watch the Video Video Lecture: The Conflict Between Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. DuBois View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Seeking Racial Uplift

273 .

CHAPTER NINETEEN IMPERIAL AMERICA: THE UNITED STATES IN THE WORLD, 1890–1914 I. Becoming a World Power A. European Imperialism B. The Impulse for Expansion II. The Spanish-American War A. The Growing Conflict with Spain B. The Decision to Intervene in Cuba C. Fighting the War against Spain III. Creating an American Empire A. The Debate over Colonies B. The Philippine-American War IV. America and East Asia A. The Open Door in China B. Relations with Japan C. Angel Island V. In America’s Backyard A. The Panama Canal B. The Roosevelt Corollary On February 15, 1898, a naval officer awoke President William McKinley in the middle of the night with the stunning news that the American battleship Maine had exploded in Havana, Cuba, killing 266 of the 354 crew members. The explosion turned the battleship into a hunk of molten steel. Americans read moving firsthand accounts in the press, including one from survivor James R. Young. “I was feeling a bit glum,” Young recalled, “and in fact was so quiet that Lieutenant J. Hood came up and asked laughingly if I was asleep. I said, ‘No, I am on watch.’ Scarcely had I spoken when there came a dull, sullen roar. Would to God that I could blot out the sounds and the scenes that followed.” The United States and Spain had long been at odds over the question of independence for Cuba, then a Spanish colony. McKinley had sent the Maine to Havana to stop Spanish-instigated attacks on U.S.-held property in Cuba. Many Americans suspected that Spanish saboteurs had blown up the ship to protest the U.S. incursion into Spanish territorial waters. The shocking images and accounts of the Maine explosion fueled public anger against Spain for its supposed attack on the U.S. Navy, creating a moment of crisis between the two nations. An official investigation confirmed these widely held views, blaming the Maine explosion on a Spanish mine in the harbor. The exact cause of the blast, however, remained a mystery. Some experts now cite a spontaneous combustion from the coal stored alongside ammunition as the most likely culprit, a misfortune shared by thirteen similar American naval vessels between 1895 and 274 .

1898. Others suggest that Cuban revolutionaries may have planted the explosives, expecting the United States to blame Spain and declare war. The Maine’s explosion ignited a short, four-month war between the United States and Spain in 1898. This “splendid little war,” as one official called it, ended with an overwhelming American victory. The overseas possessions that the United States gained from Spain, including Puerto Rico and the Philippines, gave the nation a new formal colonial empire. The United States simultaneously constructed an informal economic empire throughout the Caribbean and East Asia at the turn of the century. As the United States established itself as a budding world power, Americans offered conflicting visions of how the United States should behave outside its borders. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 19, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

What factors propelled the United States beyond its borders?

Why did the United States fight the Spanish-American War?

What conflicting visions divided imperialists and anti-imperialists?

How did the United States protect its economic and strategic interests in East Asia?

Why was it so difficult to build the Panama Canal?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Contrast the imperialist and anti-imperialist arguments that were popularized in the United States at the turn of the century. In presenting the imperialist argument, stress the pragmatic motivations connected to economic, political, and military empowerment as well as the “moral” justification offered by social Darwinists under the guise of Manifest Destiny. In looking at the anti-imperialist position, consider questions some Americans had regarding the distinctions between early nineteenth-century westward expansion and late nineteenth-century colonial acquisition. Also, consider American concerns about the foreign lands and populations targeted by American imperialism at the turn of the century. Note that many anti-imperialists pointed out the historical and political inconsistencies of a nation that resisted its own colonial status and then grew up to colonize other territories itself.

Discuss Theodore Roosevelt’s “big stick” diplomacy and Woodrow Wilson’s missionary diplomacy. Explain to students the similarities between the two 275 .

diplomatic philosophies as well as the significant differences between them. Examine foreign affairs under Theodore Roosevelt and assess the extent to which these events were reflections of his philosophy. Do the same for Wilson. Which president executed his philosophy more effectively? Topics for Classroom Discussion and Essays 1.

Have students discuss the tie between progressivism and imperialism. Theodore Roosevelt is an excellent example of a person who embodied both of these causes. Consider the following questions: a. How does imperialism represent an extension of the Social Gospel? What motivations and philosophical justifications behind the progressive movement could also be used to justify imperialism? b. How is social Darwinism reflected in both progressivism and imperialism? c. How are paternalism and the desire to exert control and authority reflected in both progressivism and imperialism? d. Did all progressives support imperialism? Why not?

Discuss the American relationship with Europe at the turn of the century. To what extent did Europe figure either directly or indirectly in the development of American foreign policy? Did America still fear European power at the turn of the century? How did the Open Door Policy, the Roosevelt Corollary, and Dollar Diplomacy reflect American concerns regarding Europe? Would these lingering worries about Europe impact the American role in World War I?

How much power do atrocity stories and pictures have to shape public opinion? Can the press convince the public to fight a war?

For American imperialists, Rudyard Kipling’s 1899 poem “The White Man’s Burden” offered a strong justification for annexing the Philippines. Social reformer and poet Ernest Crosby, president of the Anti-Imperialist League of New York, offered a competing vision of “the white man’s burden” in his 1899 poem “The Real ‘White Man’s Burden.’” What different views do these poems offer on the benefits and drawbacks of colonization? Are there any points of agreement?

What determines racial identity?

Topics for Class Projects and Term Papers 1.

Prepare a paper on the Spanish governor Valeriano “Butcher” Weyler. Examine his style of rule, the threat he presented to Cubans and foreign interests in Cuba, and his reputation as the originator of the concentration camp.

Examine nationalist responses to American imperialism at the turn of the century. Have students research and present reports on examples of native resistance to 276 .

American expansion. Among topics to consider, include Queen Liliuokalani and the Hawaiian nationalist movement, Emilio Aguinaldo and the Filipino-American War, and Augusto Sandino and the Nicaraguan resistance. Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Robert L. Beisner, Twelve Against Empire: The Anti-Imperialists, 1898–1900 (1985). William B. Gatewood, Jr., Black Americans and the White Man’s Burden, 1898–1903 (1975). Walter LeFeber, The American Search for Opportunity, 1865–1913 (1993). Walter LeFeber, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860–1898 (1963). Stuart C. Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation”: American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903 (1982). David McCullough, The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870–1914 (1977). Emily S. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890–1945 (1982). Audio-Visual Resources Crucible of Empire: The Spanish-American War, Great Projects Film Company, Inc., 1999, 120 minutes. This series examines the Spanish-American War and includes some early footage and photography from battle sites. Hawaii’s Last Queen: The American Experience, WGBH Boston, 1997, 60 minutes. Part of The American Experience series, this video examines the life of Queen Liliuokalani of Hawaii. Learning Objectives and Answers 1.

What factors propelled the United States beyond its borders? Answer: At the end of the nineteenth century, the United States wanted to be a world power, on par with nations like Britain, Spain, and France. These countries all had colonies that supplied them with the raw materials necessary to support and grow their industrial economies. Additionally, the colonies expanded these nations’ reach around the globe. The United States wanted to gain similar benefits and cement its status as a world power. Ideologically, Americans were influenced by social Darwinism, an ideology that applied Charles Darwin’s theory of biological evolution to human society through the notion of “survival of the fittest.” Americans felt they needed to demonstrate 277 .

that they, like Britain and Northern European nations, were the “fittest” by taking control of lands currently held by less fit peoples. 2.

Why did the United States fight the Spanish-American War? Answer: The Spanish-American war gave the United States an opportunity to acquire colonies and begin establishing an empire. By forcing Spain out of Cuba, the United States began to exert its influence in the Caribbean. Additionally, by attacking the Spanish Navy in the Philippines, the United States was able to eventually take the Philippines as a colony for itself. There were other, more immediate factors that pushed President McKinley into war with Spain, including the yellow press that published stories and images of Spanish atrocities against Cubans and attacked McKinley’s character, and the sinking of the Maine, which the press blamed on the Spanish.

What conflicting visions divided imperialists and anti-imperialists? Answer: Economically, imperialists argued for the strategic and commercial importance of colonies, particularly the Philippines. They maintained that “trade follows the flag”; that is, a U.S. colony in the Philippines would strengthen the United States’ trading relationship with China. Anti-imperialists emphasized that maintaining distant colonial outposts like the Philippines would be expensive and that there was no market for American goods in undeveloped Asian countries like China. Ideologically, imperialists used the theory of social Darwinism to argue that, as in the case of the Native American peoples that were dominated in the push west, it was a moral responsibility for white Americans to civilize and educate the peoples of colonial lands. Anti-imperialists argued that imposing imperial rule on other countries would violate the principles outlined in America’s own Constitution, summarized in the slogan “the Constitution follows the flag.”

How did the United States protect its economic and strategic interests in East Asia? Answer: At the turn of the century, leading nations each attempted to claim a sphere of influence in China, that is, exclusive political and trading rights. The United States wanted to prevent this and maintain China’s policy of granting commercial privileges to every world power that asked. To accomplish this, Secretary of State John Hay laid the foundations for the Open Door Policy, a U.S.-sponsored nonbinding international agreement that kept the Chinese market open to all foreign nations. All the nations with spheres of influence agreed to abide by this policy. 278 .

The United States also helped stop the Boxer Rebellion, a movement for Chinese sovereignty that could have led to the interruption of trade or the colonization of China. In another move to maintain the balance of power in China, the United States negotiated a peace settlement between Japan and Russia to end the RussoJapanese War over control of Chinese resources. 5.

Why was it so difficult to build the Panama Canal? Answer: One of the difficulties of this project was the landscape and climate of Panama. Mudslides, earthquakes, and disease had brought the initial French construction of the canal to a halt. The government of Panama was also unstable, and Panamanians were revolting against Colombia. Finally, tropical rains and the Chagres River, which crisscrossed the proposed route of the canal, were geological challenges that required the expertise of American engineers.

Crawl Questions and Answers How did European imperialism affect the U.S. effort to create a formal empire? (p. 562) Answer: By 1898, much of Africa, East Asia, and South Asia had long been colonized by Britain, France, Germany, and the Netherlands. The potential territory for a U.S. empire was therefore limited to China and the Western Hemisphere. Which characteristics defined a nation as a world power in the late nineteenth century? (p. 563) Answer: Economic and cultural imperialism defined a nation as a world power. A nation’s colonies provided it with the raw materials necessary to fuel its industrial economy. Additionally, nations with colonies saw it as their mission to spread their culture and values to “civilize” non-white and non-Christian populations. How did technology and ideology fuel the nation’s expansionist impulses? (p. 564) Answer: Technology, such as the telegraph and steam-powered ships, allowed for a far easier flow of communication, people, and supplies around the world than had previously been possible. Ideologically, Americans were influenced by social Darwinism, an ideology that applied Charles Darwin’s theory of biological evolution to human society through the notion of “survival of the fittest.” Americans felt they needed to demonstrate that they, like Britain and Northern European nations, were the “fittest” by taking control of lands currently held by less fit peoples. Why did Americans take an interest in the Cuban rebellion against Spain? (p. 565) Answer: Americans saw the Cuban rebellion against Spain as an opportunity to gain possession of Spanish colonies in the Caribbean and Pacific, thereby creating the foundations of a colonial empire.

279 .

Why was McKinley unable to avoid war with Spain? (p. 566) Answer: McKinley’s decision to declare war with Spain was largely a result of the “yellow journalism” of the time. Testimonies from Cuban exiles in the United States about Spanish atrocities in the colony were published, with pictures, in American newspapers, galvanizing public support for U.S. intervention in Cuba. McKinley was also criticized as “weak” by a Spanish ambassador in a letter that was published in and exploited by this “yellow press.” McKinley sent the Maine, a U.S. battleship, to Havana Harbor, where it exploded. After the press speculated that the sinking was a result of a Spanish mine, war was unavoidable. Why did popular media accounts depict the Cubans as light-skinned and the Spanish as dark-skinned? (p. 567) Answer: Depicting Cubans as light-skinned tapped into the racial prejudice of white Americans. As a result of these depictions, white Americans identified strongly with light-skinned Cubans, and saw them as the victims of the dark-skinned Spanish. Why did the United States first attack Spain in the Philippines? (p. 568) Answer: Commodore George Dewey attacked Spain in the Philippines to destroy Spain’s Pacific fleet before it could sail to Cuba. As a result of this decision, the Filipinos, in the middle of their own rebellion against Spain, welcomed the Americans as liberators. Why did Hawaii lose its independence in a war to liberate Cuba? (p. 569) Answer: Because the United States had defeated the Spanish navy in the Philippines, Americans who supported the annexation of Hawaii argued that U.S. ships heading to the Philippines needed guaranteed access to Pearl Harbor, an existing U.S. naval base in Hawaii. This argument ended previous vacillation on the question of Hawaii’s annexation by depicting it as a military and colonial necessity. How accurate were the legends that surrounded the charge up the San Juan Heights? (p. 570) Answer: These legends did not reflect the actual battle. Images and accounts published in American newspapers showed waves of Americans advancing on horseback with the flag flying, but in reality a small group of soldiers advanced slowly on foot to reach the crest of San Juan Heights. Were Americans right to characterize the Spanish-American War as “the splendid little war”? (p. 571) Answer: In contrast to press reports and illustrations, the Spanish-American War did not end with a heroic, frontal attack of the San Juan Heights and the city of Santiago. In reality, the American troops lay siege to Santiago, forcing the Spanish to escape in ships, all of which were sunk or beached by the American Navy. Both the methods employed and the resulting casualties of war were far from the romantic portrayal in the press. Additionally, as a result of the war, 2,000 Americans died from yellow fever while occupying Cuba, over five times as many as those killed in battle. The realities of the war and its results were far from splendid. 280 .

What steps did the United States take to construct a formal and informal empire after its victory over Spain? (p. 572) Answer: In the Treaty of Paris, the peace treaty with Spain, the United States received Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines as territories, which expanded its formal empire. Although the United States had promised Cuba that it would become an independent nation after the Spanish-American War, the Platt Amendment gave the United States various political, military, and trading rights with Cuba. This essentially made Cuba a protectorate of the United States and an informal part of its empire. What competing economic arguments did imperialists and anti-imperialists offer about colonies? (p. 573) Answer: Imperialists argued for the strategic and commercial importance of colonies, particularly the Philippines. They maintained that “trade follows the flag”; that is, a U.S. colony in the Philippines would strengthen the United States’ trading relationship with China. Anti-imperialists emphasized that distant colonial outposts like the Philippines would be expensive to maintain and that there was no market for American goods in undeveloped Asian countries like China. How did white Americans’ racial views influence the debate over colonizing the Philippines? (p. 574) Answer: Many white Americans held that, according to the popular ideology of social Darwinism, they were racially and morally superior to the native Filipinos and were obligated to civilize and educate them. According to this argument, because they were racially inferior, the Filipinos were unable to effectively govern themselves. How did imperialists define the nation’s civilizing mission? (p. 575) Answer: Imperialists defined this mission as “the white man’s burden,” the Anglo-Saxon quest to better the lives of so-called racially inferior peoples by spreading Western economic, cultural, and spiritual values and institutions. Did Shurz and Lodge interpret history correctly in their arguments? (p. 576) Answer: Arguing that the U.S. colonization of the Philippines was a break from previous U.S. expansion efforts, Shurz made many accurate points but ignored several important aspects of U.S. history. First, by arguing that previously acquired territories were “but thinly settled,” he overlooked the Native American population and the Mexican population, and the efforts the U.S. Army needed to take to conquer and relocate these peoples. He also failed to address the Mexican-American war when arguing that previous expansions had not required any additional effort from the U.S. Army or Navy. Lodge, in contrast, more accurately argued that the United States had never sought the consent of the governed when taking possession of new territory. African Americans, women, Mexicans, and Native Americans had never been involved in the decisionmaking process. This interpretation of U.S. history more accurately reflected previous territorial expansion, demonstrating that annexation of the Philippines was comparable to all previous annexations. 281 .

What tactics did the U.S. Army adopt to fight the Filipino rebels? (p. 577) Answer: To combat the guerilla tactics of the Filipino rebels, the U.S. Army used persuasion and coercion. They improved the quality of life in many villages, constructing roads, improving sanitation, providing vaccinations, and establishing schools. However, when these tactics failed, the U.S. Army burned villages and crops and tortured and killed suspected rebels. How does this image of a Philippine classroom compare to the schoolroom setting satirized in School Begins? (Uncle Sam (to his new class in Civilization) p. 575) (p. 578) Answer: In this image of a Philippine classroom, the students are well-behaved, paying close attention to their teacher, who is dressed in modern clothing. Unlike the students in School Begins, they appear focused in a traditionally Western setting. Another way in which the students differ is that many of them are dressed in traditional Filipino clothing, unlike the students in School Begins, who are dressed in Western clothing typical of agricultural workers and manual laborers. Why did Americans develop a strong interest in China at the turn of the century? (p. 579) Answer: The United States wanted to preserve its connection to the Chinese market, particularly after securing the Philippines as a colony. At the turn of the century, leading nations each attempted to claim a sphere of influence in China, that is, exclusive political and trading rights. The United States wanted to prevent this and maintain China’s policy of granting commercial privileges to every world power that asked. What does this map reveal about relations between China and the world’s leading powers, including the United States? (p. 580) Answer: The map shows that many nations, including Russia, Britain, and Japan, had spheres of influence in China, but that China had not been colonized. Although American missionaries and businesspeople had a presence in China, the United States did not have spheres of influence there. How did domestic racial prejudices affect diplomatic relations with Japan? (p. 581) Answer: Many Americans saw the Japanese as part of a greater “Yellow Peril,” a term which described the fear that Asian culture was degenerate and would both threaten American culture and create unfair competition with white Americans for jobs in the United States. These prejudices insulted the Japanese and jeopardized the friendship President Roosevelt had established with Japan, which protected U.S. interests in China. What insights does this photo offer into issues of ethnicity and gender in the early twentieth century? (p. 582) Answer: In this photo, the congressmen, tall and dressed in suits and ties, represent the white America that many policies in the early twentieth century intended to protect. They tower over the Japanese women, who are dressed in clothing that was unfamiliar to Americans. Their downcast eyes do not meet the congressmen’s glances, demonstrating 282 .

that, as women, they were subservient to men. Their distinctly foreign facial features emphasize their status as ethnic outsiders. What different methods have Americans used to define racial identity? (p. 583) Answer: Into the twentieth century, Americans defined racial identity in terms of biologically-based racial differences such as skin color and measurements of various facial features. However, decisions such as the Takao Ozawa case in 1922 caused many to think of race in terms of a person’s cultural assimilation to American society. Racial identity became a cultural, rather than a scientific, question and often depended on a specific culture. For example, prior to desegregation, many Southern states held that anyone who had “one drop” of blood from an African ancestor was not white, no matter how white the individual appeared. How did U.S. intervention in Panama compare with its colonization of the Philippines? (p. 584) Answer: In Panama, the United States provided financial, political, and naval support for its revolt against Colombia. In contrast, the United States had actively fought the rebels in order to gain the Philippines as a colony. This difference in tactics reflected the fact that the United States did not desire to acquire Panama as a colony; the goal was to obtain perpetual control over a strip of land that contained the Panama Canal in exchange for an annual “rent” payment to Panama. How did U.S. engineers overcome the geological obstacles to building the Panama Canal? (p. 585) Answer: U.S. engineers were able to solve the problem of the Chagres River, which passed through the intended path of the canal and flooded due to tropical rains, by damming it. This created a huge artificial lake, Gatun Lake, through which ships could pass via a series of locks. What does this photograph convey about Roosevelt and the feat of building the Panama Canal? (p. 586) Answer: The photograph shows Roosevelt as a hands-on president, playing an active role in the creation of the Panama Canal rather than directing its development from a safe distance. It directly connects President Roosevelt to the excitement of the technical innovation and adventurous spirit of America during this period. How did the Roosevelt Corollary bolster U.S. stature as a world power? (p. 587) Answer: The Roosevelt Corollary of 1904 stated that when confronted with “flagrant cases” of wrongdoing by Latin American nations, the United States would act as an “international police power” in the region. This negated the need for European activity in Latin American nations, which could have led to further European colonization or control in the area. The Roosevelt Corollary established the United States as the dominant power in the area, helping other powerful nations recoup their loans in Central and South America. 283 .

What steps did Taft and Wilson take to protect the Caribbean as a U.S. sphere of influence? (p. 588) Answer: Hoping to peacefully increase the United States’ influence in the Caribbean, Taft instituted a policy of Dollar Diplomacy, which encouraged U.S. investment in Latin America. Roosevelt continued Taft’s programs, and also intervened militarily in areas where American businessmen had invested heavily in order to hinder European access to the Western Hemisphere. Why were protectorates less controversial than colonies? (p. 589) Answer: Protectorates allowed the United States to maintain an active military and commercial presence in an area without raising arguments between imperialists and antiimperialists about the costs of supporting and maintaining distant colonies. Protectorates allowed the United States to exert influence without the need to govern and support a colony. Review Questions and Answers 1.

What concerns and fears encouraged the United States to look outside its borders in the 1890s? Answer: In the 1890s, powerful countries such as Britain, France, and Japan had developed a new form of empire building, called imperialism. These countries established business, military, political, and military control over colonies in Africa, East Asia, and South Asia that allowed them access to the colonies’ raw materials and to their markets. The United States was concerned about its standing and its future in a world that seemed smaller than before. Therefore, the United States looked outside its borders to establish itself as a world power, secure its reputation among other powerful nations, and gain the strategic military and economic advantages that a presence in other areas of the world would provide.

How did Americans picture Spanish rule in Cuba and the American war against Spain? Answer: Americans’ views of Spanish rule in Cuba were shaped primarily by the yellow press, tabloid journals and newspapers that printed lurid, sensational stories to capture the public’s interest and increase sales. This yellow press printed atrocity stories from Cuban exiles living in America about the horrors perpetrated by the Spanish. Combined with shocking images, these stories shaped Americans’ picture of Spanish rule as savage and brutal oppression of the Cuban people.

How did imperialists and anti-imperialists reconcile their ideas with traditional American values? 284 .

Answer: Imperialists argued that American expansion into colonies was an extension of Manifest Destiny and necessary for America’s continued greatness in the political and economic spheres, summarized in the phrase “trade follows the flag.” Additionally, imperialists argued that, as in the case of the Native American peoples that were dominated in the push west, it was a moral responsibility for white Americans to civilize and educate the peoples of colonial lands. Anti-imperialists argued against the economic costs that colonial rule would require. They also argued that imposing imperial rule on the Philippines would violate the principles outlined in America’s own Constitution, summarized in the slogan “the Constitution follows the flag.” 4.

How did American views about race and racial identity shape the nation’s development as a world power? Answer: American racial prejudice allowed the United States to justify its control of colonized people such as the Filipinos. The ideology of social Darwinism and “the white man’s burden” summarized the popular sentiment that other races were unable to govern themselves and that it was the duty of white Americans to teach other races their economic, cultural, and spiritual values. The United States, as the “fittest” nation, was destined to be a world power and spread its influence to other, less “fit” cultures.

What different tactics did the United States use to protect its economic and strategic interests in East Asia versus those used in the Caribbean at the turn of the century? Answer: In East Asia, particularly in the Philippines, the U.S. military intervened directly, using persuasion and coercion to defeat Filipino rebels in order to gain the Philippines as a colony. In the Caribbean, the United States used less forceful tactics, taking many Caribbean nations as protectorates. For example, the United States provided financial, political, and naval support for Panama’s revolt against Colombia in order to obtain perpetual control over a strip of land that contained the Panama Canal in exchange for an annual “rent” payment to Panama.

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

Who were the world’s leading imperial powers in 1900? Answer: In 1900, the world’s leading imperial powers were Britain, France, Germany, Japan, Russia, and Spain.

285 .

How did social Darwinism fuel expansionism? Answer: In the late nineteenth century, writers like Josiah Strong argued that the Anglo-Saxon race was superior to other races because it had evolved to include the two great ideas of civil liberty and Christianity. Americans like Strong believed that the United States was the perfect home of the Anglo-Saxon race and that this race was destined to control the future of the world. It was therefore the duty of Anglo-Saxons to bring their culture to the rest of the world to eliminate other, inferior cultures.

How does this image announce the emergence of the United States as a world power? Answer: This image depicts steam-powered battleships, each flying the American flag, all moving toward the edges of the frame from a central point. After its victory in the Spanish-American War, the United States was ready to bring its power and influence to the rest of the world, as shown by the battleships heading out in every direction.

What views do these poems offer on the benefits and drawbacks of colonization? Answer: Kipling’s poem warns that, although the “white man’s burden” is a noble and godly task that would, in the end, win the admiration and approval of peers, the “sullen peoples” the white man is charged with civilizing will likely reward him with “blame” and “hate.” The work of the white colonizer is done for the betterment of ungrateful “captives” who do not want to change their ways. Filipino rebellion against American colonization of their homeland demonstrated Kipling’s “savage wars of peace” that were part of the colonizer’s burden.

What does this cartoon reveal about American dominance in the Western Hemisphere? Answer: This cartoon demonstrates that, by the twentieth century, the United States was the dominant power in Central and South America. Through the Roosevelt Corollary and increasing involvement in Central and South American countries, many of which became protectorates of the United States, America successfully shut Europe out (“cooped up” these countries) of the political and economic activity of the Western Hemisphere. European nations could “squawk” about affairs in these regions, but the United States was the only country that could take meaningful action.

286 .

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 19 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 19 View the Image World Colonial Empires (1900) Read the Document Josiah Strong, from Our Country (1885) Watch the Video Burial of the Maine Victims View the Closer Look Images as History: Atrocity Stories and Public Opinion Read the Document The Teller Amendment (1898) Watch the Video Roosevelt’s Rough Riders View the Image Our Victorious Fleet in Cuban Waters Read the Document The Platt Amendment (1901) Read the Document Platform for the American Anti-Imperialist League (1899) View the Closer Look Competing Visions: The White Man’s Burden View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Annexing the Philippines View the Image African American Troops in the Spanish American War Read the Document Katherine Mullikin Lowry, The Boxer Rebellion (1900) View the Image His Foresight (1901) View the Map Activities of the United States in the Caribbean 1898–1930s

287 .

CHAPTER TWENTY THE GREAT WAR: WORLD WAR I, 1914–1918 I. The Decision for War A. The War in Europe B. The Perils of Neutrality C. America Enters the War D. Conflicting Views among the Allies on the War’s Purpose II. The War at Home A. Gearing Up for War B. Black Migration C. Female Suffrage D. Rallying the Public E. German Spies and Civil Liberties III. Fighting the War A. Raising an Army B. “You’re in the Army Now” C. On the Western Front D. Flu Epidemic E. The Final Campaigns IV. Peace A. The Paris Peace Conference B. The Treaty Fight at Home On May 7, 1915, Ernest Cowper was chatting with a friend aboard the Lusitania, a British passenger ship traveling from New York to the British Isles, as it passed the lush, green coast of Ireland. Looking into the water, Cowper suddenly felt a stab of terror when he spotted a German torpedo just seconds before it hit the ship. Peering through the periscope, the German submarine captain watched hundreds of people jumping into the water in a desperate attempt to reach empty lifeboats. The ship sank within eighteen minutes, killing 1,198 passengers, including 128 Americans. Cowper was one of the lucky survivors, a Toronto newsman whose vivid recollections soon appeared in American newspapers. The sinking of the Lusitania was a defining moment for the United States during World War I, often also called the Great War. The nation had remained neutral when the war began nine months earlier in August 1914, refusing to choose sides among the European powers involved, led by Great Britain and France on one side and Germany and Austria-Hungary on the other. When, however, the war spread to the high seas and American business initiated a lucrative arms trade with Great Britain, Americans increasingly found themselves in the line of fire. American newspapers highlighted the tragic deaths of innocent women and children on the Lusitania, stirring outrage against Germany. One U.S. news report 288 .

described the corpse of a mother embracing her three-month old baby, noting that “her face wears a half smile. Her baby’s head rests against her breast. No one has tried to separate them.” Not all Americans, however, blamed Germany for the attack. German Americans pointed out that the Lusitania was secretly transporting munitions from New York to the British Isles. Rural Americans castigated Northeast business interests for pursuing a lucrative arms trade with Britain, fearful that favoring Britain and its allies would draw America into the war. President Woodrow Wilson offered a competing vision of the Lusitania’s importance. Through increasingly strident diplomacy, Wilson decided to defend the rights of neutrals to travel wherever they liked. This stance put the United States on a collision course with Germany that resulted in America entering the war two years later. Once America entered the war, President Wilson gave the country a larger purpose than defeating Germany. Introducing a new vision of American world leadership, Wilson promised to achieve a lasting peace by spreading democracy throughout the world. To mobilize the nation’s economic and human resources to fight the grim trench warfare underway along the Western Front, the government unfurled a far-reaching propaganda campaign, offered unprecedented support to labor unions, granted women the vote, and raised a mass army through conscription. Americans suffered severe casualties in a short time, and their war effort helped the Allies defeat Germany by November 1918. The nation expected a peace treaty that embodied Wilson’s promise to make this conflict “the war to end all wars.” Americans held conflicting visions, however, over how to achieve this goal. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 20, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

Why was neutrality difficult for the United States to define and maintain?

How did the government mobilize resources and support to fight a total war?

What was it like to serve as a soldier in World War I?

Why did Americans disagree over ratifying the Versailles Treaty?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

The Treaty of Versailles is often cited as one of the major causes of World War II. First, present an examination of the provisions of the treaty with an eye on World War II. Discuss the punitive clauses targeted at Germany. What psychological, social, and financial effects would the war guilt and reparations clauses have on postwar Germany? Second, look at the clauses that reorganized the European continent. What issues connected with the creation of new nations in Eastern 289 .

Europe would aggravate future relations between Germany and the rest of the continent? Finally, consider the provision for the League of Nations. How effective would the League be in averting future wars? 2.

Discuss the evolution of American foreign policy from 1865–1918. Look at Roosevelt and American imperialism. What was the goal of American foreign policy at this time? Review the ideals and philosophies that defined American imperial policy. Consider the role the United States hoped to play in world affairs. Then examine Wilson and the philosophy of moral diplomacy. Examine the ways in which Wilson changed American foreign policy by the end of World War I. By this time, what ideals and philosophies defined American foreign policy? What role did the United States seek in foreign affairs? Henry Kissinger’s Diplomacy (1994) provides an interesting look at the importance of Wilsonian moral diplomacy in the development of American foreign policy through World War II and until the end of the Cold War. In light of the war in Iraq, is the United States currently experiencing another shift in long-term foreign policy vision?

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Conduct a class debate on American neutrality during the early years of World War I. Begin with a formal definition of the word neutrality, and then have students consider the following issues: a. Was the United States ever neutral during the years prior to its entry into World War I? Why or why not? b. Should the United States have been strictly neutral through the entirety of the war? What issues justified its entry into the war? What issues might have prevented its involvement in the war? c. Who determined American foreign policy between 1914 and 1917? Was there a gap between what the Wilson administration wanted and what the majority of the American people wanted?

Discuss the links between the progressive movement and World War I. Consider some of the following issues: a. Did reform groups tend to support American involvement in World War I? Why or why not? b. Once the United States entered World War I, what evidence of progressivism was seen in the process of mobilization? Look into the federal government for examples of the Gospel of Efficiency, government bureaucracy, and the desire to control and dictate conformity. c. Did Progressives support moral diplomacy? Why or why not?

Have students discuss the issue of civil rights during a state of war. This discussion can be a continuation of issues considered earlier in connection with the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 and Lincoln’s handling of civil rights during 290 .

the Civil War. Provide students with copies of the Sedition Act of 1918, and then have them consider the following: a. Do the provisions of the Sedition Act of 1918 violate the First Amendment freedoms of Americans? b. When the United States is at war, do issues of national security justify an alteration in the guarantee of civil liberties? c. American entry into World War I was preceded by years of debate regarding American neutrality and the propriety of American involvement in the war. In 1916, Wilson was reelected to the presidency largely based on a promise to keep the United States out of the war. Did Wilson betray the American people by breaking his promise to keep them out of war, or did Wilson have the right to promote unity and suppress dissent when he felt public support for the war was wavering? d. What should be done in the United States when the people oppose a war and the government supports it? Should the government respect the democratic character of the American political system by only endorsing policies that reflect the people’s will, or should the people bend to the republican aspect of the American political system by trusting important decisions to their elected officials? e. Compare and contrast the experience of the United States with loyalty and dissent during World War I and the Vietnam War. Remember to point out to students that the Vietnam War was never a formally declared war. Which was better for America: the suppression of dissent during World War I or the expression of dissent during the Vietnam War? f. How are the American public and the American government dealing with issues of loyalty in the “war on terror”? 4.

What made wartime posters effective propaganda?

What is the ultimate meaning of Alvin York’s experience?

In 1919, President Woodrow Wilson and Senator Henry Cabot Lodge debated the wisdom and value of joining the League of Nations. Consider the exact wording of Article X, and then the differing interpretations offered by Lodge and Wilson. Who has the more compelling argument regarding the League of Nations? What changes in American foreign policy does each foresee arising from the League? Are there any points of agreement between the two?

Topics for Class Projects and Term Papers 1.

Choose a figure associated with radical politics in the pre-war/World War I era. Focus on the person’s background and the issues that drew him or her to the left. Determine whether the individual remained a devotee of radicalism throughout his or her life. 291 .

Research the roles of African Americans in the military history of World War I. How were African Americans recruited? How were they treated in the armed forces? How were they treated in combat? What impact did the war have on the psychology of African Americans and their feelings about racism in America?

Have students research recent American policy in the Balkans. How were the events in Kosovo and Serbia in the 1990s connected to pre-World War I European affairs? Examine United States’ policy in the Balkans during the George H. W. Bush and Clinton administrations. Do students agree with those policies? How has the most recent war in Iraq changed the American role in European affairs? How does this role differ from 1914?

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Ross Gregory, The Origins of American Intervention in the First World War (1971). David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (1980). Arthur S. Link, Woodrow Wilson: Revolution, War, and Peace (1979). Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919–1920 (1980). H. C. Peterson and Gilbert C. Fite, Opponents of War, 1917–1918 (1957). William Preston, Jr., Aliens and Dissenters: Federal Suppression of Radicals, 1903–1933 (1963). David M. Smith, The Great Departure: The United States and World War I, 1914–1920 (1965). Robert H. Zieger, America’s Great War: World War I and the American Experience (2000). Audio-Visual Resources The Great War: 1918: The American Experience, Tom Weidlinger, 1989, 60 minutes. This video explores the role played by the United States in the final year of World War I. The Great War and the Shaping of the Twentieth Century, KCET/BBC, 1996, 480 minutes. This eight-part series chronicles World War I and offers students insights into how this war shaped events in World War II, the Cold War, and current events in the Middle East and Bosnia. Learning Objectives and Answers 1.

Why was neutrality difficult for the United States to define and maintain? Answer: The first challenge to the definition of neutrality for the United States was its potential consequences for trade with Europe. The United States wanted its neutrality to allow it to maintain trade relationships with all the warring nations, which, for a time, was successful, although American trade with Allied 292 .

nations increased dramatically while trade with the Central Powers nearly disappeared. The first challenge to this definition was the sinking of the Lusitania, a British passenger ship that was carrying American passengers, many of whom died. As a result, President Wilson redefined neutrality, stating that neutral nations have the right to trade and travel wherever they liked. Because the waters around Britain were patrolled by German U-boats, this idea had little chance of success and put the United States on a course toward war with Germany. When Germany returned to unrestricted submarine warfare, the United States was no longer able to trade with the Allies, who were in desperate need of supplies. Additionally, anticipating war with the United States and attempting to slow the mobilization of American troops, Germany sent aid to Mexican rebels who desired to take back territory from the United States, activities that were exposed by the Zimmermann Telegram. When German submarines began sinking over 500,000 tons of Allied shipping per month, Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war. 2.

How did the government mobilize resources and support to fight a total war? Answer: The government used official and unofficial means to mobilize resources and support. One strategy was the creation of official government agencies such as the War Industries Board (WIB), which ranked industries and made sure that those most crucial to the war effort received the raw materials they needed before nonessential businesses. Another strategy used to ensure that the country produced enough food for civilians, soldiers, and refugees oversees was to charge high prices for agricultural goods, which stimulated production. Additionally, an extensive propaganda campaign encouraged Americans to conserve food, grow their own vegetables in “victory gardens,” and replace certain foods with others. Additionally, to keep arguments between workers and management from affecting production, the government heavily regulated industries that were essential to the war effort, such as steel and oil, and took over management of the nation’s railroads for the duration of the war. As part of this regulation, the government established and enforced high wages, eight-hour workdays, 40-hour weeks, safety standards, and union protection for workers in these industries. As a result, these industries ran smoothly and efficiently throughout the war.

What was it like to serve as a soldier in World War I? Answer: Soldiers in World War I experienced trench warfare. Unlike traditional warfare, trench warfare was not fought across open spaces, with territory gained or lost as a result of large battles. Troops lived in the trenches, under a constant barrage of artillery, sniping, and strafing from enemy aircraft. Death became 293 .

impersonal and mechanical, because enemy forces rarely confronted each other directly. In the trenches, soldiers faced wet, muddy conditions, enormous rats, crowding, and constant stress and fatigue. 4.

Why did Americans disagree over ratifying the Versailles Treaty? Answer: A particularly controversial part of the Versailles Treaty among Americans was the creation of the League of Nations. Many Americans resented the creation of the League of Nations and worried that involvement in the League would mean that U.S. foreign policy would be shaped, in part, by European interests. Additionally, the League could open the Western Hemisphere, which had been primarily under U.S. control as a result of the Roosevelt Corollary, to European activity. Other Americans desired to adopt a position of neutrality and isolation and to stay out of future foreign conflicts. Some critics argued that the Versailles Peace Treaty placed unreasonable demands on Germany, including $33 billion in reparations and a war guilt clause, holding Germany alone responsible for starting World War I. They wished to see a return to the balance of power that existed in Europe before the war, rather than the redrawn map the Versailles Treaty created. In sum, most Americans who disagreed with the Versailles Treaty saw it as detrimental to America’s own interests and self-determination.

Crawl Question and Answers What role did nationalism and imperialism play in bringing about World War I? (p. 594) Answer: In the early twentieth century, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Germany wanted to expand their territories and become dominant powers in Europe, challenging Britain and France. These countries saw war as an opportunity to realize these ambitions. Why did the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand spark a global world war? (p. 595) Answer: Countries that were seeking ways to expand their territories saw the assassination as a chance to realize these ambitions. Austria-Hungary held Serbia responsible for the assassination, sent Serbia a list of ultimatums, and, when one was rejected, declared war on Serbia in order to gain control of this strategically important region. Russia did not want to cede control of the area and therefore decided to support Serbia. Germany, worried about an alliance between Russia and France and seeing an opportunity to expand its own territories, declared war on Russia and France and moved troops into Belgium. This caused Britain to declare war on Germany, effectively involving all of Europe and the European colonies in the war.

294 .

What miscalculations stymied German expectations of a short war? (p. 596) Answer: The Schlieffen Plan, developed by the German chief of staff, intended Germany to quickly defeat France in the west by first attacking through Belgium while Russia slowly mobilized its army and then turning its attention to Russia in the east. In reality, Germany encountered a great deal of resistance in Belgium, giving France and Britain time to mobilize their armies, and the Russian army mobilized much more quickly than expected. What competing visions did Americans offer on the question of trading with warring European nations? (p. 597) Answer: In theory, American banks and manufacturers were free to loan money to and trade with any of the warring European nations. In reality, Americans dramatically increased their trade with the allied nations and decreased trade with the central powers. This change was partially a result of American upper-class reverence toward British and French cultures and the resulting anti-German propaganda. German and Irish Americans and Americans living in the Midwest and the South saw this change as an Eastern prejudice and desired a strict vision of neutrality and an arms embargo that would prevent all American companies from trading with nations at war. Why was the sinking of the Lusitania a turning point in the neutrality debate? (p. 598) Answer: When it was sunk by a German U-boat, the Lusitania was carrying American passengers, many of whom died. As a result, President Wilson redefined neutrality, stating that neutral nations have the right to trade and travel wherever they liked. Because the waters around Britain were patrolled by German U-boats, this idea had little chance of success and put the United States on a course toward war with Germany. How did Wilson link domestic and foreign issues during the 1916 presidential campaign? (p. 599) Answer: In 1916, Wilson ran on the slogan “He Kept Us Out of War.” Wilson had secured many reforms for American workers, and trade with Europe had created economic prosperity. Wilson’s slogan “Peace with Honor” referred to the pledge he had secured from Germany that the lucrative trade between the United States and the Allies would not be interrupted. According to Wilson’s campaign, continued peace meant continued domestic improvement, honor, and prosperity. Why did the United States finally decide to fight Germany? (p. 600) Answer: Despite its pledge to allow unmolested American trade and travel within the European war zone, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare. Additionally, anticipating war with the United States and attempting to slow the mobilization of American troops, Germany sent aid to Mexican rebels who desired to take back territory from the United States, activities that were exposed by the Zimmermann Telegram. When German submarines began sinking over 500,000 tons of Allied shipping per month, Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war. 295 .

How did the Fourteen Points lay the foundation for future domestic and international debates? (p. 601) Answer: Wilson’s Fourteen Points described a world dominated by democracy, free trade, disarmament, self-determination, resolved territorial disputes in Europe, and a league of nations to mediate international crises. The goal of many of these elements, particularly the league of nations, was to discourage war and encourage cooperation among nations in future debates. Additionally, the Fourteen Points contrasted democracy and free trade with the Russian Communists that had come to power, establishing the ideological debate between the United States and the Soviet Union that would continue throughout the twentieth century. What varying strategies did the government use to mobilize economic resources? (p. 602) Answer: One strategy was the creation of official government agencies such as the War Industries Board (WIB), which ranked industries and made sure that those most crucial to the war effort received the raw materials they needed before nonessential businesses. Another strategy used to ensure that the country produced enough food for civilians, soldiers, and refugees oversees was to charge high prices for agricultural goods, which stimulated production. Additionally, an extensive propaganda campaign encouraged Americans to conserve food and replace certain foods with others. How did workers and unions fare during the war? (p. 603) Answer: During the war, the government heavily regulated industries that were essential to the war effort, such as steel and oil, and took over management of the nation’s railroads for the duration of the war. As part of this regulation, the government established and enforced high wages, eight-hour workdays, 40-hour weeks, safety standards, and union protection for workers in these industries. What class and regional tensions existed in the African American community? (p. 604) Answer: Class tensions in the African American community were largely a result of differences between northern and southern African Americans. Southern African Americans were used to rural life, and many of their customs were not compatible with the requirements of life in the North. Northern African Americans, many of who were middle class and used to urban, industrial living, worried that the influx of rural Southern African Americans might hurt their standing in both the African American and larger Northern communities. As a result, African American groups in the North published lists of do’s and don’ts for the migrants and entreated them to blend in to the Northern community by sending their children to school, minding their language, and keeping their houses clean, for example. What competing arguments and strategies did moderate and radical female suffragists offer? (p. 605) Answer: Radical suffragists argued that female suffrage was essential to true democracy. They protested outside the White House with signs intended to humiliate President 296 .

Wilson. The picketing suffragists were arrested and initiated a hunger strike while in prison to advance their cause. More moderate suffragists argued that the vote would reinforce the traditional female desire to protect the family and that female citizens were loyal voters whose votes would replace those of the soldiers fighting at the front. What limitations did the government put on free speech during the war? (p. 606) Answer: During the war, the Espionage Act made it a crime to obstruct military recruitment, encourage mutiny, or to aid the enemy by spreading lies. The Sedition Act prohibited Americans from uttering, writing, or publishing “any abusive or disloyal language” concerning the flag, constitution, government, or armed forces. Any speech that could create a “clear and present danger” was prohibited. How did visual depictions of the Germans compare to the images of the Spanish during the Spanish-American war? (p. 607) Answer: Both the Germans during World War I and the Spanish during the SpanishAmerican War were depicted as ape-like beasts in propaganda, carrying bloody knives and clubs. These visual depictions dehumanized the enemy armies and stirred up public hatred of the ethnic groups portrayed. What challenges did German Americans and anti-war activists face during the war? (p. 608) Answer: German Americans were victims of propaganda. Many were suspected of espionage, and some were attacked in their homes and businesses, tarred and feathered, or even killed. German immigrants, who were previously a respected group in the United States, had to constantly prove their patriotism and loyalty. Antiwar activists and members of radical political groups that advocated peace were also targets of propaganda, and their speech was limited by the Espionage Act and the Sedition Act. Those who continued to speak out, such as Eugene Debs, were imprisoned. Why did the government choose to draft the wartime army? (p. 609) Answer: The draft allowed the government to quickly split Americans into two groups: those who worked in essential wartime industries, and should therefore not be drafted, and those who did not. This ensured that the food and munitions production necessary for the war would not be disrupted by the loss of essential workers who volunteered to serve. What factors influenced York’s choice to serve? (p. 610) Answer: The intensely patriotic atmosphere of the training camp to which he was sent was the primary reason York, a member of a pacifist Christian sect, chose to serve. He believed that he would disobey the biblical commandment “Thou shalt not kill” by going to war. His officers, however, convinced him that the biblical injunction “Blessed are the peacemakers” overrode the command against killing because this war would “end all wars.” York accepted his officers’ opinion, which allowed him to “be a good Christian and a good American too.”

297 .

Take these intelligence tests yourself. Who would fare well on these tests and why? (p. 611) Answer: Individuals who had more education, a middle-class background, and a general familiarity with mainstream American culture would fare better on these tests than those with less education, a poorer background, or little familiarity with American culture. What was it like to fight in the trenches along the Western Front? (p. 612) Answer: The trenches along the Western Front were crowded and filled with mud and rats that grew enormous from feasting on corpses. Soldiers in the trenches were under constant threat of artillery fire, gas, snipers, and strafing from enemy plains. What perspective does this diagram offer on the reality of trench warfare? (p. 613) Answer: The diagram shows how complex and intricate a trench network really was. Stretching nearly 35,000 miles, soldiers had to learn how to navigate the trench network very quickly in order to survive. What impact did the flu epidemic have at home and worldwide? (p. 614) Answer: Nearly 25 million Americans fell ill, a quarter of the entire population, and 675,000 died. The virus also sickened over one million American soldiers, hampering the overseas military campaign. From 1918 to 1919, the disease killed 30 million people in total. What role did the United States play in the Allied victory? (p. 615) Answer: Although the United States did not win the war for the Allies, American troops played a key role in many battles, helping to keep the German army from taking Paris and participating in French counteroffensives. The American navy also helped protect Allied vessels filled with supplies navigate U-boat infested waters. Additionally, the vast number of American recruits available to enter the war in 1919 convinced Germany to seek peace. What opposition to his peace plan did Wilson face overseas and at home? (p. 616) Answer: Overseas, British and French leaders downplayed America’s role in the Allied victory and sought to limit Wilson’s involvement in the terms of the peace agreements. Particularly, the British and French wanted stronger punitive measures against Germany than Wilson was willing to approve. At home, the Republicans took control of Congress and used the opportunity to energize opposition to Wilson’s plan to create a League of Nations as part of his peace plan. Opponents of the League of Nations argued that such an organization could weaken U.S. foreign policy and endanger its control of the Western Hemisphere. What complaints did critics make about the Versailles Peace Treaty? (p. 617) Answer: Some critics argued that the Versailles Peace Treaty placed unreasonable demands on Germany, including $33 billion in reparations and a war guilt clause, holding Germany alone responsible for starting World War I. Others resented the creation of the League of Nations, which favored white, Western nations. Various nations, including 298 .

Italy, expressed unhappiness about the way territory and colonies were distributed among the victors. What significance did the re-drawn maps of Europe and the Middle East have? (p. 618) Answer: These maps, drawn by leaders of the Allied victors, did not take into account the demands and political and ethnic realities of the areas that were restructured. In the Middle East, distinct groups such as the Kurds and Sunni and Shiite Arabs, which had lived in semi-autonomy, were brought together under puppet monarchs, leading to century-long conflicts of interest. The British decision to allow Jewish immigrants to settle in Palestine led to conflicts that continue to this day. In Eastern Europe, the new boundaries ignored the desires of Polish, Czechoslovakian, and Austrian groups to unite with Germany, creating weak states that were taken over by Germany and the Soviet Union in the 1930s. What competing views do these political cartoons offer on the question of ratifying the Versailles Treaty? (p. 619) Answer: The cartoon Looking a Gift Horse in the Mouth expresses skepticism that the League of Nations will be strong enough to exert any power in international affairs. The selling point of the Versailles Treaty is that it is “better than nothing.” Ratification Rapids paints Wilson in a more sympathetic light, as an embattled oarsman doing his best to negotiate competing demands and opinions. This cartoon is neutral on the content of the Versailles Treaty, but the rushing canoe implies that it will inevitably be ratified. Who has the more compelling argument regarding the League of Nations, Wilson or Lodge? (p. 620) Answer: Although both Lodge and Wilson make valid arguments about the role of the United States in international affairs, Wilson’s description of the French cemetery that holds the bodies of American soldiers makes his argument for joining the League of Nations and, with the other member nations, taking an advisory role in international conflicts. After the war, Americans wanted to feel that the sacrifices they had made were meaningful, and Wilson skillfully connects this sacrifice with the future “liberation and salvation of the world.” Why did Americans feel disillusioned at the end of World War I? (p. 621) Answer: After Wilson suffered a stroke and disappeared from public life, political opposition to the League of Nations grew, and the United States did not sign the Versailles Treaty or join the League. As a result, the greater meaning and purpose of World War I for America became unclear. When families received the remains of loved ones killed in the war, mourning overshadowed any sense of a greater good that resulted from the war.

299 .

Review Questions and Answers 1.

Was any one nation primarily responsible for starting World War I or did Europe share collective responsibility? Answer: World War I began as a result of the ambitions of many European nations to expand or secure their territorial holdings. Although Austria-Hungary was the first country to declare war (against Serbia), countries such as Russia, Germany, France, and Britain quickly joined in the conflict to protect their own interests or the interests of their allies. A few nations were responsible for starting a war, but it took the involvement of many European nations, all fighting to keep their territory and position as world powers, to escalate the conflict to World War I.

How well did the government balance the need to uncover German espionage with protecting civil liberties during the war? Answer: The government restricted the rights granted in the Bill of Rights during the war, ostensibly to protect against German espionage. Although espionage was a legitimate concern, the restriction of free speech harmed groups that had nothing to do with German espionage. Restrictions on civil liberties forbade all antiwar speech, meaning that groups like the Socialist Party and the IWW were unable to offer any sort of critique of America’s involvement in the war.

How did women and African Americans fare during the war? Which changes were temporary? Which were more permanent? Answer: Women and African Americans gained new opportunities and respect during the war. African Americans were able to work jobs that had previously been held by men who were in Europe fighting. Many African Americans migrated from the South to the North to work these high-paying industrial jobs. Women used their war efforts at home to push for suffrage. Although the incredible rise in the quality of life for African Americans during the war did not last, women did win the vote when the Nineteenth Amendment was passed in 1919.

What challenges did soldiers face in the trenches? How was fighting this war different from previous American wars such as the Civil War or SpanishAmerican War? Answer: Trench warfare, unlike traditional warfare, was not fought across open spaces, with territory gained or lost as a result of large battles. Troops lived in the trenches, under a constant barrage of artillery, sniping, and strafing from enemy aircraft. Death became impersonal and mechanical, because enemy forces rarely 300 .

confronted each other directly. In the trenches, soldiers faced wet, muddy conditions, enormous rats, crowding, and constant stress and fatigue. 5.

What concerns did Americans raise about the League of Nations? Answer: Opposition to the League of Nations, led by Senator Lodge, was based on the idea that the United States would lose some of its valued autonomy by joining such a group. Many Americans worried that involvement in the League of Nations would mean that U.S. foreign policy would be shaped, in part, by European interests. Additionally, the League could open the Western Hemisphere, which had been primarily under U.S. control as a result of the Roosevelt Corollary, to European activity.

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

How did the Lusitania crisis shape U.S. foreign policy? Answer: When it was sunk by a German U-boat, the Lusitania was carrying American passengers, many of whom died. As a result, President Wilson redefined neutrality, stating that neutral nations have the right to trade and travel wherever they liked. Because the waters around Britain were patrolled by German U-boats, this idea had little chance of success and put the United States on a course toward war with Germany.

Did the United States overreact to the Zimmermann Telegram? Answer: The Zimmermann Telegram alerted the United States that Germany intended to begin “submarine war unrestricted,” meaning that U.S. trade and travel could not proceed safely to Europe. Although it was not a direct declaration of war against the United States, the telegram makes plans for the war that will inevitably occur when more U.S. ships are attacked by U-boats. Because the telegram revealed that Germany would not allow the United States to remain neutral by allowing its ships safe passage, the U.S. reaction was appropriate.

What vision of peace did Wilson outline in the Fourteen Points? Answer: Wilson’s vision of peace was one in which nations would have the greatest possible freedom of self-determination and would settle their differences through diplomacy. The two most important themes of Wilson’s Fourteen Points are autonomous development for all the countries involved in the war, particularly those that had been taken over by the Central Powers, and safe travel and commerce among all nations.

301 .

What does this poster reveal about America’s reaction to the influenza epidemic? Answer: The poster reveals the fear and panic of the American people during the influenza epidemic. Widespread warnings like this, and the shutdown of public gathering places like schools, churches, and office buildings, demonstrate how frightening it was to live at a time when the entire population was threatened by a deadly virus.

What critique does this cartoon offer of the League of Nations? Answer: This cartoon depicts the League of Nations as an idealistic notion that will quickly be “burst.” Wilson’s idea, though appealing, was impractical and destined to fail.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 20 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 20 Watch the Video Video Lecture: The Outbreak of World War I View the Document Choices and Consequences: Defining Neutrality: America’s Path into World War I Watch the Video Video Lecture: American Entry into World War I Read the Document The Zimmerman Telegram Read the Document Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points View the Map Atlas Map: African American Migration Read the Document The Struggle for Woman Suffrage Read the Document Newton D. Baker, Treatment of German-Americans (1918) View the Closer Look Images as History: Propaganda Posters Hear the Audio “The Speech That Sent Debs to Jail” Hear the Audio Over There View the Image Soldiers Taking an IQ Test during WWI View the Closer Look Envisioning Evidence: Understanding the Battlefield View the Image Warning of Influenza Epidemic View the Image Blowing Bubbles (1919) View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Joining the League of Nations

302 .

CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE A TURBULENT DECADE: THE TWENTIES I. Cars and Planes: The Promise of the Twenties A. The Car Culture B. On the Road C. Welfare Capitalism and Consumer Culture D. The Age of Flight: Charles A. Lindbergh II. Cultural Unrest A. The Lost Generation B. Prohibition C. The First Red Scare and Immigration Restrictions D. Fundamentalism III. Racial Violence and Civil Rights A. Lynching, Racial Rioting, and the Ku Klux Klan B. Marcus Garvey C. The Harlem Renaissance IV. The New Woman A. Women in the Twenties B. Margaret Sanger and the Fight for Birth Control V. Ensuring Peace: Diplomacy in the Twenties A. Disarmament B. Wartime Debts With their short skirts, bobbed hair, and heel-kicking dance steps, flappers displayed a carefree lifestyle that defied the stricter morals embraced by their mothers’ generation. The flapper controversy was one of many cultural conflicts that turned political in the turbulent twenties. Flappers and the equally controversial birth control movement championed the right of women to take control of their bodies. Other Americans preferred using the government to control behavior. Prohibition of the manufacture and sale of alcoholic liquors became the law of the land, promising to rid the nation of poverty, crime, and disease. To prevent the communist-inspired Russian Revolution from spreading to the United States, the government arrested suspected political radicals and drastically reduced the flow of European immigration. Meanwhile, religious fundamentalists argued that the country was morally adrift and launched a well-publicized crusade against teaching evolution in public schools. African Americans, too, played an important role in changing America’s cultural landscape, creating new artistic centers and political movements that challenged the methods of established civil rights leaders. Putting the Progressive-era faith in trust-busting aside, the government allowed large industrial conglomerates to dominate key industrial sectors, such as steel and automobiles. Still staunchly antiunion, some factory owners nonetheless became more 303 .

responsive to workers’ grievances to reduce labor strife. Mass production, accompanied by mass consumption, spurred the decade’s economic prosperity. Cars, suburbs, and asphalt highways soon dotted the American horizon, changing the living habits of millions. Domestic cultural conflict dominated political discourse in the twenties, yet a distinct foreign policy also took shape during the decade. Despite its refusal to join the League of Nations, the country remained active in world affairs. By exerting rising international influence through diplomacy and foreign aid, Republican presidential administrations offered an alternative way to maintain world peace. How much of the old order would America jettison or protect as it entered the postwar age? Throughout the twenties, Americans held competing visions of what modernity had to offer. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 21, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

How did factory work and recreation change in the 1920s?

What cultural conflicts dominated the era?

How was the civil rights movement transformed?

What was “new” for women in the 1920s?

What ideals informed American foreign policy in the 1920s?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Prepare a lecture on the impact of the automobile industry on American life. Consider the economic impact on employment, wages, and profit; the impact of road construction on infrastructure and politics; the impact of improved transportation on national unity; and the social and moral impact on American youth who gained independence by escaping in the automobile.

Trace the early development of the American motion picture industry. Many early films are available on DVD for use in the classroom. By showing brief clips from a few significant films, students can see the rapid technological development in film production from the turn of the century until the Depression. Some films to examine might include The Great Train Robbery, Birth of a Nation, and The Jazz Singer. The inclusion of some films from the 1930s such as The Wizard of Oz or Gone with the Wind would illustrate how far film technique had come by that time. Another issue connected to this topic is racial and gender stereotyping in 304 .

early twentieth-century film. This issue could be examined in both Birth of a Nation and The Jazz Singer. 3.

Examine the Jazz Age within the larger context of the history of American music as well as African American history. Look at the regional aspects of the blues by focusing on its origins in rural America and its fruition in urban America. Examine the blues as an expression of African American despondency in the rural South. What happened to the blues and jazz emanating from cities? Supplement the lecture with recordings from blues and jazz artists.

Prepare a presentation on print advertising in the 1920s. Examine the images and text associated with advertising during the early twentieth century. What markets are being targeted? What kind of lifestyle is being promoted? Invite students to compare and contrast advertising of this era with modern-day print ads. What evidence do we see in the ads of the 1920s of “the New Morality”?

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

The Republican presidents of the 1920s often identified themselves with a return to laissez-faire economics. To what extent was this true? Review the literal meaning of laissez faire. Did the federal government of the 1920s refrain from interfering in the economy? Is government support of business any less an abandonment of laissez faire than government regulation or restriction of business?

Discuss Marcus Garvey as a black separatist. Have students begin to think about American efforts to resolve racial problems in the twentieth century. What is the difference between racial integration and racial segregation? How is racial separatism distinct from both? What solution to racial problems will Americans embrace as a result of the civil rights movement? Are there still divisions in the African American community over the merits of racial integration, racial segregation, and black separatism?

How does the decade of the 1920s reflect the continuation of the urban-rural conflict in America? Did the decade hold the same promise for rural Americans that it did for middle-class urban and suburban dwellers? Did the gap between urban and rural lifestyles narrow or widen during the 1920s?

Marcus Garvey lays out his reasons for urging black Americans to go “Back to Africa,” while W. E. B. Du Bois, one of the light-skinned elites Garvey attacked, criticizes Garvey’s vision. How does Garvey propose to stop “crimes against the race”? What portrait does Du Bois offer of Garvey?

How do ads both celebrate the new freedoms that women enjoyed in the twenties and perpetuate traditional stereotypes about women? 305 .

What value did the Kellogg-Briand Pact have?

Topics for Class Projects and Term Papers 1.

Research the Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s. Explore its organization under the leadership of William Simmons, Edward Clarke, and Elizabeth Tyler. How was the Klan modernized under their leadership? How does it still resemble the original Klan? What issues signaled its failure by the end of the 1920s?

Present a comparison and contrast of W. E. B. Du Bois (see also Chapter 21) and Marcus Garvey as philosophical and political leaders for African Americans in the twentieth century. Look at the differences between the Niagara movement and the United Negro Improvement Association as approaches to gaining social, economic, and political rights for African Americans.

Choose an author or a poet from the Harlem Renaissance and read a sample of his or her work. Then, place the author’s literature within its historical context. Point out universal themes in the work, but also look at it in terms of the times in which it was written, particularly within the context of the Great Migration. Does the author’s work make reference to southern rural African American poverty? Does it refer to African American urban poverty? Does it make statements about the status of African Americans during the early twentieth century? Does it offer hope or reflect hopelessness?

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s (1995). Paula S. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s (1977). Eleanor Flexner, Century of Struggle: The Women’s Rights Movement in the United States (1975). James J. Flink, The Car Culture (1975). Colin Grant, Negro with a Hat: The Rise and Fall of Marcus Garvey (2008). Nathan I. Huggins, Harlem Renaissance (1971). Nicholas Lamann, The Promised Land (1991). William E. Leuchtenburg, The Perils of Prosperity, 1914–1932 (1993). Nancy MacLean, Behind the Mask of Chivalry: The Making of the Second Ku Klux Klan (1994). Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream (1985). Lary May, Screening Out the Past: The Birth of Mass Culture and the Motion Picture Industry (1980). Andrew Sinclair, Prohibition: The Era of Excess (1962). Robert Sklar, Movie-Made America: A Cultural History of American Movies (1994).

306 .

Audio-Visual Resources Brewed in America, The History Channel, 50 minutes. This video examines the history of the brewing industry before and after Prohibition. In Search of History: The Monkey Trial, The History Channel, 50 minutes. This video examines the battle between Darwinism and Creationism that took place in 1920s Dayton, Tennessee. In Search of History: The True Story of Sacco and Vanzetti, The History Channel, 50 minutes. A new look at a trial that still inspires debate today. The Prohibition Era, A&E Video, 150 minutes. This series is an excellent treatment of the Prohibition era and contains illuminating footage from the times. Learning Objectives and Answers After a careful examination of Chapter 21, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

How did factory work and recreation change in the 1920s? Answer: Factory workers experienced lower wages, longer hours, and the deskilling of work due to mass production techniques. Yet owners also made concessions to win or maintain workers’ loyalty, such as offering medical insurance, pensions, paid vacations, and sick days. Listening to sports, music, comedy, and drama on the radio and taking car trips became popular leisure activities. Technological and economic factors combined to bring about the development of a national consumer culture.

What cultural conflicts dominated the era? Answer: Conflicts included those over women’s liberation, gender equality, racial equality, Garveyism, religious fundamentalism, birth control, the Red Scare, prohibition, and immigration. In large part, the conflicts reflected differences between urban and rural populations.

How was the civil rights movement transformed? Answer: Lynch mobs and a resurgent Ku Klux Klan used terrorism to maintain white supremacy, and white-led race riots hobbled African-American-owned businesses. Jamaican immigrant Marcus Garvey won both praise and criticism by 307 .

calling for black pride, economic self-sufficiency at home, and the creation of a homeland in Africa. The Harlem Renaissance, an outpouring of AfricanAmerican artistic expression in the 1920s and 1930s, questioned assimilation and celebrated black culture. 4.

What was “new” for women in the 1920s? Answer: Women acquired the right to vote in 1920. Progressives envisioned modern women active in politics, while popular culture reinforced ideas that women should be thin and pretty and should dedicate their lives to their husbands. The high school graduation rate for women increased, and many of these educated women entered the workforce. The availability of birth control greatly increased many women’s life options and improved women’s health.

What ideals informed American foreign policy in the 1920s? Answer: American diplomats pursued disarmament and nonaggression agreements at the Washington Conference and through the Kellogg-Briand Pact. To protect its international trade interests, the United States used its economic power to ease economic pressure on Germany. Yet Americans also pressed the former Allies for repayment of loans. Eventually, the United States canceled the Allied war debts in exchange for the Allies’ canceling German war reparations payments.

Crawl Questions and Answers How did cars transform urban and rural lifestyles? (p. 626) Answer: City streets were covered with asphalt instead of dirt and excrement. Trucking made fresh produce more available. Motorized tractors changed how farmers worked and increased their productivity. Americans took more vacations, and churchgoing decreased. What messages did the architecture of roadside gas stations convey? (p. 627) Answer: Miniature houses and cottages were intended to indicate safety and respectability. How did welfare capitalism promise to help industrialists run their factories more efficiently? (p. 628) Answer: Welfare capitalism mollified workers while allowing owners to remain free of union and government control. What kind of job could you have gotten in this factory? (p. 629) Answer: Unskilled or semi-skilled manual labor.

308 .

How did a mass popular culture emerge in the twenties? (p. 630) Answer: A consumer culture arose in response to dissatisfaction at work and increased buying power and access to credit. Radio enabled mass culture to spread across the nation and led to national brands and chain stores. Why did Americans celebrate Lindbergh’s solo flight to Paris? (p. 631) Answer: Lindbergh made the first-ever nonstop solo flight across the Atlantic. His success assured many Americans that adventurousness and individual initiative still mattered and that technological advancement benefited humankind. What critique did the Lost Generation offer of American society? (p. 632) Answer: They rejected Victorian restraint as repression and prudery and advocated living for the moment. Why did Americans eventually conclude that national prohibition was a failed experiment? (p. 633) Answer: A main argument supporting prohibition—that alcohol hindered worker productivity—was undermined by the Great Depression, while the loss of revenue from taxes on alcohol and the costs of enforcing prohibition became less tolerable. Why did the nation enact strict immigration restrictions in the twenties? (p. 634) Answer: Americans feared that the success of the communist revolution in Russia would encourage Communists to attempt revolutions elsewhere, and that immigrants would bring communist influence to the United States. What competing visions over radicalism emerged during the Sacco-Vanzetti trial? (p. 635) Answer: Some Americans believed Sacco and Vanzetti were an indication that many terrorists threatened the United States; others blamed Sacco and Vanzetti’s persecution on xenophobia. Why did Fundamentalists object to teaching evolution in public schools? (p. 636) Answer: They believed evolution contradicted their literal interpretation of the Bible and would undermine religious-based morality. What cultural and religious tensions were exposed during the Scopes trial? (p. 637) Answer: The case could be seen as a struggle between modern, urban America and the ignorant rural masses, few of whom shared in the general prosperity of the 1920s, and as one between the fundamental political values of majority rule and freedom of expression. What does this souvenir postcard reveal about the ritual of lynching? (p. 638) Answer: White people who attended these events did not find them disturbing, inhuman, or gruesome and were not concerned about their illegality or any threat of punishment.

309 .

Why did membership in the Ku Klux Klan surge in the twenties? (p. 639) Answer: People were anxious and afraid because of black migration to northern and midwestern industrial centers, the Red Scare, women’s suffrage, mass immigration, prohibition, and labor unrest. Why did Garvey elicit such strong emotions among both followers and critics? (p. 640) Answer: Garvey challenged racial discrimination and the stereotypes of black inferiority and subservience. Some feared his movement would lead to a violent black uprising or revolution. But Garvey helped his followers feel uplifted and dignified. How did Garvey and Du Bois link the U.S. civil rights movement to international politics? (p. 641) Answer: Garvey claimed that blacks all over the world would be treated equally if black African nations had strong governments to represent them in the international arena. In these poems, how do responses to racism vary? (p. 642) Answer: McKay’s “If We Must Die” calls for a fight against racism; Cullen’s “Incident” highlights the harsh emotional effects of racism. What competing views arose over the purpose of art during the Harlem Renaissance? (p. 643) Answer: Some, like Du Bois, thought art should be used to challenge racial discrimination by showing whites its horrific effects; other such as Hughes used their art purely as self-expression. What strategies did women develop to improve their lives in the twenties? (p. 644) Answer: Some tried to organize women voters to promote social causes. Some worked for a constitutional amendment to institute legal equality. How did the popular media define “the new woman”? (p. 645) Answer: The “new woman” was tall and slim, an efficient homemaker, a devoted mother, sophisticated, an engaging spouse, and socially active and popular. What arguments did Sanger make to support her campaign for legal contraception? (p. 646) Answer: Sanger argued that bearing too many children made women unhealthy and their families poor. She argued that contraception would not make women more promiscuous. She held that, freed from the constant strain of childbearing, women would develop their intellectual, political, and cultural interests. She argued that contraceptive prevention was safer than abortion. How did Harding’s foreign policy vision differ from Wilson’s? (p. 647) Answer: Wilson trusted in open diplomacy and the League of Nations. Harding and his secretary of state Charles Evans Hughes thought the League would limit U.S. 310 .

sovereignty. They opted for closed-door diplomacy and tried to negotiate disarmament treaties. What benefits and drawbacks did the Washington Conference agreements offer the United States? (p. 648) Answer: The treaties reduced expenditures on armaments and protected the United States from aggressive naval attack. They gave the United States shared military control of the Americas but recognized Britain’s control of the European seas and Japanese control of East Asia. Which nations received the greatest financial aid from the United States during and after World War I? (p. 649) Answer: Britain, France, and Italy. Did the Kellogg-Briand Pact represent a new path in American foreign policy? (p. 650) Answer: Coolidge’s leadership in negotiating the Kellogg-Briand Pact was consistent with Harding’s and Wilson’s leadership in trying to find ways to maintain world peace. The pact was consistent with U.S. noninterventionism and did not offend those who feared granting authority to governing bodies such as the League of Nations. How did lingering financial issues from World War I shape relations between the United States and Europe? (p. 651) Answer: Demanding repayment of Allied debts to the United States threatened to undermine Europe’s economic recovery, threatening American economic interests, but the Allies could only pay the debts if they continued to receive reparations payments that were crippling Germany’s recovery. Domestic issues complicated matters: the United States’ protective tariff was intended to speed postwar economic development, but it hindered European economic recovery by effectively preventing Europe from exporting goods to United States. Review Questions and Answers 1.

What features and controversies characterized America’s transformation into a car culture in the 1920s? How did lifestyles and labor relations also change during the decade? Answer: The construction industry expanded rapidly as roads were built and paved, and highways, tunnels, and roadside businesses were constructed; towns and cities became inhospitable to horse-drawn conveyances; people went into debt to buy personal cars; middle-class workers moved their families to the suburbs; and the Sunday drive partially replaced church attendance. At the same time as mass production brought decreased worker autonomy, businesses began to provide fringe benefits to pacify labor unrest. 311 .

Compare the various manifestations of cultural conflict in the twenties. What similar impulses motivated Americans to enact prohibition, immigration restrictions, and laws prohibiting the teaching of Darwin’s theory of evolution? How did these various reforms affect American society? Answer: Americans’ concerns about health, thrift, and “traditional morals” partially motivated the temperance, nativist, anti-evolutionist, and Christian Fundamentalist movements, but these movements were opposed by Americans more concerned about personal freedom and limited government. Anti-immigrant feelings were flamed by fear of communism and anarchism but also reflected an emotional response to economic uncertainty.

Why was the Harlem Renaissance and Marcus Garvey controversial? Answer: African Americans were divided on the degree of militancy with which to fight discrimination and oppression. Du Bois urged Harlem Renaissance artists and writers to extoll African American culture and to use their art to challenge the status quo, while many simply wanted to express or share their experience; meanwhile, white racists and supremacists found blacks’ artistic endeavors overly prideful and used violence to keep African Americans “in their place.” Marcus Garvey’s open accusation of white “crimes against the race” and his proposed separatism appealed to and aroused African Americans’ racial pride as well as entrepreneurship. Others criticized Garvey for arousing racial animosity and making racial integration, assimilation, and equality more difficult.

Were the 1920s a time of political, economic, and social liberation for women? What traditional concerns or ideas remained intact? Answer: The Nineteenth Amendment guaranteed women the right to vote, yet the Equal Rights Amendment failed to pass. While women’s education and employment increased, women remained socially bound by a feminine ideal focused on appearance and on subservience to husband and family. Changing attitudes about birth control were liberating, although there were few clinics, and women in poverty had less information and fewer choices.

How did the United States fashion a new role for itself in world affairs in the twenties? Answer: Calling and sponsoring the Washington Conference put the United States in a central role. U.S. leadership produced the Four Power and Five Power treaties, which, along with the Kellogg-Briand Pact, for a time protected the major powers from aggressive naval attacks and avoided an arms race. The United States gained or retained economic opportunities by winning the Open Door policy in China and U.S. prominence in the Americas. 312 .

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

What economic and cultural impact did the auto industry have? Answer: As the auto industry grew, so did the industries on which it depended— particularly steel, glass, rubber, oil and mining, and construction. Cities such as Detroit and Akron grew rapidly. So also grew enterprises that depended on an automobile culture, such as gas stations and the restaurants and way stations that evolved into motels. Professions such as farrier and wheelwright died out. Cars spurred the development of suburbs.

What did it mean to be part of the “Lost Generation”? Answer: The Lost Generation came of age during World War I; their youth was lost to the war years. The unavoidability of the war doused many people’s hopes for human progress. In response, the Lost Generation believed in living for the moment, rebelled against “repressive” Victorian values, and championed sexual liberation as one way to escape the sterile and deadly confines of modern life.

How did the Klan define “Americanism”? Answer: The KKK equated “Americanism” with white Protestant supremacy. The creed expressed belief in sexual equality, but they were intolerant of blacks, Jews, Catholics, immigrants, radicals, feminists, and bootleggers.

What attributes of the “new woman” are portrayed in this image? Answer: The woman shows bare skin on her legs, has spent a great deal of money on fashion, and is willing to break the law in order to use alcohol for her entertainment.

What disagreements arose over the compatibility of birth control and marriage? Answer: The very idea of birth control was deemed unfathomable by those who believed in the sanctity of marriage. Marriage was seen as a blessed union of two people who were bound together for the rest of their lives, and of course to start a family. The notion of birth control was seen as a threat to the institution of marriage because it meant a significant reduction in procreation. A reduction in procreation would threaten the fabric of American family life. Birth control was also seen as incompatible with marriage because it meant that many young Americans would begin having sex before marriage. Prior to birth control, a couple would likely wait until marriage to have intercourse because not waiting would result in birthing a child out of wedlock, which brought with it a strong societal stigma. With birth control, a couple would, of course, no longer have to 313 .

worry about sex resulting in the birth of a child, and so the urgency to get married before having sex would greatly decrease. MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 21 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 21 Watch the Video Lecture The Rise and Fall of the Automotive Industry View the Closer Look Envisioning Evidence: Scientific Management in Action Watch the Video Lecture 1920s Media View the Image Charles Lindbergh and Spirit of St. Louis Watch the Video Lecture Post-War Disillusionment in the 1920s Hear the Audio Prohibition Is a Failure Read the Document A Mitchell Palmer on the Menace of Communism View the Closer Look Immigration to the United States 1870–1915 View the Closer Look Immigration Quotas Read the Document The “Creed of Klanswomen” (1924) View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Debating Garveyism Hear the Audio “If We Must Die” Hear the Audio “I Too” View the Image Feminine Tippler’s Ankle Flask (1922) View the Closer Look Images as History: Advertising the New Woman View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Marriage and Birth Control

314 .

CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO A NEW DEAL FOR AMERICA: THE GREAT DEPRESSION, 1929–1940 I. The Early Days of the Depression A. Herbert Hoover B. Economic Weaknesses in a Time of Prosperity C. The Stock Market Crash of 1929 D. Hoover’s Response to the Depression II. A New President and a New Deal A. FDR: The Politician B. Managing Appearances C. The Temper of the Poor: Passivity and Anger III. Recovering from the Depression A. Revamping Banking and Financial Institutions B. Father Charles Coughlin C. Helping Industry and People D. Putting People to Work IV. A New Deal for Farmers A. Handling the Farm Crisis B. Hitting the Road C. Repatriating Mexican Immigrants V. Reforms to Ensure Social Justice A. The Challenge from Huey Long: “Share Our Wealth” B. Social Security C. Supporting Unions D. The Resurgence of Labor E. A New Deal for African Americans F. The Supreme Court Weighs In When Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) accepted the Democratic nomination for president in 1932, he promised to remember “the forgotten man at the bottom of the economic pyramid.” FDR won the election and took office in the throes of the Great Depression, the most devastating and longest economic crisis in American history. Four years later, the photographer Walker Evans traveled to Alabama to document the hardships of three struggling sharecropping families. While there, he photographed Floyd Burroughs, who spent his days toiling in the cotton fields alongside his wife and children. For seven years, through the worst of the Depression crisis, Burroughs had struggled to provide the minimal basic needs for his family without government help. To gain public support for new government programs designed to help sharecroppers, the Farm Security Administration had commissioned this and photos like 315 .

it to show Americans the faces of poverty-stricken farmers. Evans’s portrait of the “forgotten man” aroused more than sympathy, however. Americans had different visions of how the government should respond to the crisis, and throughout the 1930s, political debate centered on whether and how much the government should intervene. Presidents Herbert Hoover and Franklin D. Roosevelt both championed initiative, freedom, and opportunity. They disagreed, however, over what government action preserved or destroyed these values. In the early thirties, Hoover, who preferred minimal government intervention in the economy, took a few historic steps by lending money to banks and businesses and helping farmers. More attuned to the public mood, Roosevelt initiated a broad array of public works programs and social reforms to satisfy the demand for direct government intervention in the economy. Taken together, policy initiatives by Hoover and Roosevelt paved the way for a complete transformation of the federal government’s role in American society. The New Deal did not end the Depression; that honor belonged to World War II. It was, however, one of the most important periods of legislative activity in American history. Farmers, migrants, and industrial workers did not just passively wait for help during these hard times. They demanded a “new deal” from the federal government that alleviated the sufferings of common people. Organized labor and charismatic populist politicians on the left helped create a groundswell of support for active government intervention in the economy. The Great Depression, therefore, was not just the story of unrelenting hardship. The era also had moments of triumph for ordinary Americans, like Burroughs, who found their political voice. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 22, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

What caused the Great Depression?

Why did FDR arouse strong feelings among his supporters and critics?

What recovery measures did the New Deal undertake?

What were the challenges to ending rural poverty?

How did the aged, unions, and African Americans fare in the 1930s?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Introduce the “Dixie demagogues,” the cadre of Southern politicians who emerged during the 1930s. What kind of political style typified the Dixie demagogue? Comment on the special appeal the Dixie demagogues held for southerners in the 1930s. Was Huey Long a typical Dixie demagogue? If so, why? If not, how did he distinguish himself from the others? 316 .

Discuss the unique role of Eleanor Roosevelt during the New Deal era. How did Eleanor Roosevelt differ from the first ladies who preceded her? How did she impact the role of the first lady? How did she and FDR complement each other politically? To what extent did she contribute to defining the legacy of the era?

Present an examination of Franklin Roosevelt as a politician. Most historians agree the New Deal did little to significantly reduce the suffering associated with the Great Depression, yet Roosevelt was re-elected in 1936 and again in 1940. Why? What were Roosevelt’s strengths as a politician? Did he have greater leeway and freedom in his role as president because of the times? How did the press treat Roosevelt? Would this be the case today?

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

The New Deal years are often considered a defining era for the modern Democratic Party. There is no doubt that the Republican and Democratic parties of the 1930s were markedly different from those at the turn of the century. Have students compare and contrast the parties of the 1930s with the parties of the 1890s. Address such issues as membership, attitude toward the strength of the federal and state governments, financial and business agenda, and the degree of support for social reform.

Have students assess the impact of the New Deal on the American South. Consider the following questions: a. FDR referred to the American South in 1933 as “the nation’s number one economic problem.” Why? Was the South harder hit by the depression than other regions of the country, or was Roosevelt referring to deeper economic problems in the South? How long had these economic problems plagued the South? b. Which New Deal programs were most important in the South? c. How did the New Deal impact the traditional relationship between the southern states and the federal government? d. How did the New Deal impact race relations in the South? What effect did changing race relations have on southern politics? e. Was the New Deal the gateway to the Second Reconstruction? Why?

Compare and contrast the New Deal era with other reform movements such as the populist and progressive movements. What characteristics of these two earlier reform movements were inherited by the New Dealers? Also, does the New Deal predict future reform in the 1960s? What elements of 1960s reform have their roots in the New Deal era?

Why was Hoover’s choice to evict the bonus marchers significant?

317 .

What was the purpose and impact of Dorothea Lange’s migrant farmer photographs?

What competing images of the poor do Senator Huey Long and the Colorado woman offer?

Topics for Class Projects and Term Papers 1.

Have students examine the photographic legacy of the New Deal. Resources for such a project include the work of Margaret Bourke-White, Dorothea Lange, and James Agee. In assessing this work, have students consider the following: a. Is one region of the country the particular focus of most of this work? Why? b. What does this photography tell us about southern life in the 1930s? c. Was it important and/or necessary for the government to finance this work? What is its value? d. What does this work tell us about the South and its connection to the rest of the nation between 1877 and 1940?

Examine the role of technology in depression-era politics. Look at the use of radio by Roosevelt as well as by his enemies. How much impact did radio have in defining political allegiances in the 1930s? What did this predict for the future?

Have students examine the individuals who composed Roosevelt’s “brain trust.” Who were Roosevelt’s closest advisors? What were their educational backgrounds? What suited them for the job of creating the New Deal? Most importantly, what was the political background of these advisors? To what extent had they been exposed to socialism and radical political philosophy?

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Alan Brinkley, Voices of Protest: Huey Long, Father Coughlin and the Great Depression (1982). Blanche Wiesen Cook, Eleanor Roosevelt (1998–1999). Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Rendezvous with Destiny (1990). Gerald Gamm, The Making of New Deal Democrats (1989). Doris Kearns Goodwin, No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II (1994). David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 (1999). William E. Leuchtenberg, Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal (1963). James T. Patterson, Congressional Conservatism and the New Deal (1967). Harvard Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks (1978). George B. Tindall, The Emergence of the New South, 1913–1945 (1967). 318 .

Nancy J. Weiss, Farewell to the Party of Lincoln: Black Politics in the Age of FDR (1983). Audio-Visual Resources American Photography: A Century of Images, KTCA Twin Cities Public Television/ Middlemarch Films, Inc., 1999, 180 minutes. This three-part series examines the history of American photography. There are three episodes: one dealing with the period 1900–1934, the second focusing on 1934–1959, and the final episode looking at 1960–1999. Eleanor Roosevelt: The American Experience, Ambrica Productions, Inc., 1999, 150 minutes. This two-part series offers a new look at one of America’s most intriguing first ladies. The Great Depression, Blackside, Inc., 1993, 420 minutes. This seven-part series examines the causes and conditions of the Great Depression. Great Depression, A&E Video, 200 minutes. This A&E production, narrated by Mario Cuomo, examines the American economic crisis from 1929–1941. Huey Long, Ken Burns/Richard Kilberg, 1985, 90 minutes. An early biographical piece produced by Ken Burns and narrated by David McCullough. Scottsboro: An American Tragedy, The American Experience, PBS Video, 90 minutes. This video tells the story of the most significant racial legal challenge of the 1930s. Tennessee Valley Authority, A&E Video. This look at the Tennessee Valley Authority includes rare photographs, contemporary film, and first-hand accounts from those who were involved in the project. Learning Objectives and Answers After a careful examination of Chapter 22, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

What caused the Great Depression? Answer: There were a variety of factors leading to the Great Depression. Problems had been evident in the nation’s economy even during the boom years. Industries such as textiles and mining suffered throughout the twenties from overproduction and falling demand, and a dip in the demand for automobiles harmed related industries such as steel and rubber. 319 .

The unequal distribution of income in American society lowered the purchasing power of working-class Americans, which slowed economic growth. Additionally, overseas markets for U.S. companies were damaged when foreign countries imposed high tariffs against American goods as a response to taxes the federal government levied against imported products. This led to massive layoffs at American companies and investors likewise stopped supplying capital funds for these companies. Farmers also struggled prior to the Depression. When the war ended and demand fell, farmers were left with debts, larger farms, and falling crop prices. Mechanized farming and the ability to grow more crops with less effort hurt farmers when overproduction reduced prices even further. Speculation in the stock market led to the stock market crash of 1929, which was the official beginning of the Depression. Speculation had inflated share prices to such an extent that a stock’s price had no relation to the actual worth of the company. Also, many speculators had used short-term loans to buy stock but then could not repay these loans once stock prices began to fall. Finally, investors had speculated with other people’s money, which resulted in many people losing their life savings when the market crashed in October 1929. 2.

Why did FDR arouse strong feelings among his supporters and critics? Answer: FDR as a politician had a propensity for bold action, which resulted in both support and criticism. With his New Deal, FDR was lauded because he sought to give security to ordinary Americans and help out the underdog. He sought to make a country “in which no one is left out.” On the other hand, conservatives worried that too much government involvement in the economy might do more harm than good. FDR also used his political savvy to connect with the public. Through his weekly “fireside chats,” FDR would speak directly to the nation. FDR was often photographed smiling, and the public found his cheerfulness refreshing. FDR gave hope to people in a time of trouble and desperation caused by the Depression. But FDR also had his critics. People like Father Coughlin decried FDR’s reform measures to help the nation’s banks. Coughlin said that financiers and international bankers caused the Depression in that existing banking arrangements favored bankers but hurt the common people. Many people, while grateful for FDR’s help, also felt humiliated by the idea of having to apply for relief or a “dole.” Both conservatives and Progressives viewed relief with suspicion and felt that handouts might discourage workers from trying to support themselves. Conservatives were very much against FDR’s New Deal programs that provided millions of jobs for the unemployed. Critics of work relief would see WPA 320 .

construction crew workers standing around talking instead of working, which led to jokes that WPA stood for “We Piddle Around.” And farmers needing day laborers complained that federal work relief often paid more than working in the fields. 3.

What recovery measures did the New Deal undertake? Answer: The New Deal revamped banking and financial institutions. The GlassSteagall Act of 1933 created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), insuring the accounts of small depositors in member banks. The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) reformed the practices of buying and selling stock. Reforms in home mortgage lending practices refinanced one out of every ten home mortgages and offered insurance to private lenders who financed home mortgages for new homes. The New Deal also tried to help industry. The National Recovery Administration (NRA) suspended antitrust laws and brought competitors together to set prices, production quotas, and wages. The NRA was later declared unconstitutional in 1935. The New Deal created a variety of programs to provide millions of jobs during the Depression. The Civil Works Administration (CWA), Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), and Public Works Administration (PWA) were all founded in 1933. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) was a major public works program that from 1935 to 1943 employed more than eight million workers, one-fifth of the workforce. The New Deal likewise helped out the agricultural sector and rural areas of the nation. The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) of 1933 was designed to pay farmers to take land out of cultivation, which in theory should cause crop prices to rise. When this failed, FDR approved laws that established marketing quotas for each commodity. To encourage better farming practices, the government paid farmers in the Dust Bowl region to plant soil-improving crops like legumes instead of traditional cash crops such as wheat, cotton, and tobacco. To help the rural poor, Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was created. The TVA was a government-owned utility company that provided thousands of jobs as it built dams that generated power, provided flood relief, and created recreational lakes throughout the seven states serviced by the Tennessee River. The 1934 Indian Reorganization Act ended land allotment policies under the 1887 Dawes Act and returned some self-government to Indian reservations. The New Deal also made strides toward social justice for Americans. FDR created a comprehensive social-welfare system in 1935 called the Social Security Administration in order to provide relief for the aged, the unemployed, and those unable to care for themselves. The Social Security pension system was like 321 .

private insurance in that premiums were collected from individual subscribers in the form of payroll taxes, which were later returned to retired workers. With the National Industrial Recovery Act, federal government suddenly became labor’s friend. The NIRA gave workers the right to organize and bargain collectively. This was replaced by the Wagner Act, which created the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to supervise unions’ elections for their collective bargaining agents. And the Fair Labor Standards Act established a national minimum hourly wage, set maximum hours for the workweek, and outlawed labor by children under 16. 4.

What were the challenges to ending rural poverty? Answer: One of the challenges was the Dust Bowl, which caused severe soil erosion across the southern and plains states during the 1930s. As a result, modified farming practices were required to prevent further erosion. Another difficulty was the fact that only one in ten rural families had access to electricity. This is why the federal government created the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)—a government-owned utility company that built dams, generated power, provided flood relief, and provided thousands of jobs. Farmers also needed help maintaining an adequate income. Overproduction had caused crop prices to drop drastically before and during the Depression. Thus farmers had become trapped in a cycle of debt.

How did the aged, unions, and African Americans fare in the 1930s? Answer: These groups were all aided by the New Deal legislation of the 1930s. The aged received help through the new Social Security system. The Social Security pension system allowed retirees to recoup payroll taxes and avoid a steady decline into poverty that working-class Americans often faced in their final years. Unions were also helped by FDR’s New Deal programs. The National Industrial Recovery Act (later declared unconstitutional) contained a concept that was known as the “Magna Carta” of organized labor. It stipulated that workers had the right to organize and bargain collectively. The subsequent Wagner Act (1935) gave workers the power to negotiate for higher wages. With such government protection, union membership grew well into the millions. African Americans also benefited from New Deal legislation. New Deal programs offered African Americans more federal and state aid than they had received before. When black voters abandoned the Republicans for the Democratic New Deal coalition, the black vote became more important to the FDR administration. 322 .

During FDR’s second term, public works projects hired more black workers. FDR also appointed the first black federal judge and convened an unofficial Black Cabinet to investigate civil rights abuses and advise him on racial matters. Crawl Questions and Answers What qualities made Hoover a popular president when he was first elected? (p. 656) Answer: Herbert Hoover’s personal story was a classic rags-to-riches tale that reaffirmed faith in the American Dream. Having started out as a mine laborer working for $2.50 a day, Hoover was a respected engineer with millions in the bank by the age of 40. He became the country’s most famous humanitarian while serving as food administrator and organizing relief missions to help feed hungry Belgians under German occupation during World War I and starving Europeans after it. Hoover’s organizational talents and dedication to good works inspired such awe that the first time his name ever appeared on a ballot in 1928, he won by a landslide. Hoover was a success in business, he had helped starving people, he had been a dynamic secretary of commerce under presidents Harding and Coolidge, and he believed that people would do the right thing. Why did farmers not prosper in the 1920s? (p. 657) Answer: When the war ended and demand fell, farmers were left with debts, larger farms, and falling crop prices. The long-term trend toward mechanized farming also contributed to the country’s looming agricultural crisis. With tractors, farmers could plow and harvest more land on a daily basis. Paradoxically, the ability to grow larger crops more easily hurt farmers because overproduction drove prices down even further. What factors led to the stock market crash in 1929? (p. 658) Answer: 1. The influx of money into the stock market inflated share prices to such an extent that a stock’s price soon bore little relation to the actual worth of the company. 2. Many speculators used short-term loans used to purchase stock and planned to cover these loans by quickly reselling their shares at a higher price. When stock prices began to fall, too many investors could not pay these debts. 3. Many investors were speculating with other people’s money, funds from ordinary Americans’ savings accounts that banks used to finance speculative stock market purchases. As a result, the life savings of millions of Americans disappeared in October 1929. How did Hoover respond to the initial economic crisis? (p. 659) Answer: In keeping with his ideas of service-minded individualism, Hoover brought the leaders of banking, industry, and labor to the White House and urged them to do their bit to keep the economy afloat. Responding to Hoover’s plea, industry agreed not to lay off workers or cut wages, and labor leaders accepted a shorter workday to create more jobs. Hoover asked state governments to accelerate their road and public building projects to add jobs in their communities. He also stepped up hiring for long-planned federal construction projects, including the Hoover Dam in the West, and asked Congress to 323 .

extend the tariff on manufactured goods to cover agricultural imports. When it came to helping needy citizens directly, Hoover went no further than asking local governments and charities to assume their traditional role of distributing food and clothing to the poor, which surprised Hoover’s Progressive supporters. What innovative solutions did Hoover propose as the economic crisis continued? (p. 660) Answer: By providing loans to banks, insurance companies, farm mortgage associations, and railroads through the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) Act of 1932, Hoover helped institutions that were vital to the prosperity of any community. When critics pressured the president to provide direct help to those without work or food, Hoover responded with the Emergency Relief Act (1932), which lent money to the states for public works programs. Why was Hoover’s choice to evict the bonus marchers significant? (p. 661) Answer: Evicting the bonus marchers by force cost Hoover the election. Many workingand middle-class Americans saw their own destroyed lives in the smoldering ruins of the veterans’ shantytown and turned against Hoover for refusing to aid men who had served the nation loyally. How did the competing social philosophies of Hoover and FDR differ? (p. 662) Answer: If Roosevelt had a mandate for anything, it was for bold action. He met that expectation with the New Deal—an avalanche of legislation that occurred from 1933 to 1938 intended to promote economic recovery, reform American capitalism, and offer security to ordinary Americans. This was in contrast to Hoover, who did not do as much to directly aid the average American. FDR used the Brain Trust to revive the Progressiveera practice of using government regulation to solve economic problems and protect the common good. What role did Eleanor Roosevelt play during her husband’s administrations? (p. 663) Answer: She helped FDR to formulate his policies. She served as the president’s “eyes and ears” by traveling around the country and reporting to him on what she observed. She was also outspoken in advancing causes dear to her heart concerning racial injustice and poverty. She invited prominent African Americans to the White House to talk directly to the president about civil rights. In addition, her activism opened up political opportunities for other women. How and why did FDR manage his political image? (p. 664) Answer: Throughout his presidency FDR used weekly radio addresses that he called “fireside chats” to speak directly to the nation. FDR was often photographed smiling and smoking from an elegant-looking cigarette holder, and the public found his visible cheerfulness refreshing. He believed that visual images of his handicap would convey the impression that he was weak and physically unfit for his responsibilities. He therefore made the personal and political decision to conceal his paralysis. 324 .

What competing responses did the poor offer to the ongoing Depression? (p. 665) Answer: One response was based on fear and quiet desperation; the other was rooted in anger and protest. Countless government investigators detailed the plight of hardworking family men suddenly without jobs. “I find them all in the same shape—fear, fear driving them into a state of semi-collapse; cracking nerves; and an overpowering terror of the future,” reported one social worker. On the other hand, many worried that an angry social revolution was brewing. Grocery store robberies were common, while farmers demonstrated to demand higher prices for their crops. Across the Midwest, farmers disrupted food shipments by blocking highways with logs and pouring milk onto roads. When banks seized land, cattle, or farm machinery from farmers who defaulted on their loans, they needed help from the police to ensure that public sales of the confiscated property went smoothly. At some farm auctions, farmers devised an effective strategy to help their neighbors by offering only a penny for the property on sale. Nooses hung on barn doors at penny auctions warned prospective buyers that bidding on a farm family’s possessions would not be wise. Federal investigator Lorena Hickok stated: “I still feel that vast numbers of unemployed in Pennsylvania are ‘right on the edge,’ so to speak—that it wouldn’t take much to make Communists out of them.” The Communist Party hoped that she was right. Unlike Roosevelt and his conservative critics, Communists had no interest in saving capitalism. They hoped that the crisis would provoke a social revolt that abolished private property. How did FDR reform the nation’s banking and financial institutions? (p. 666) Answer: The Glass-Steagall Act of 1933 created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), insuring the accounts of small depositors in member banks. The same legislation protected the deposits of ordinary Americans by separating investment and commercial banking so that bank officials could no longer make speculative loans or stock purchases with depositors’ money. Laws established the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and reformed the practices of buying and selling stock. The SEC required companies to disclose financial details to potential investors, so they could make informed stock purchases. The SEC also regulated the practice of buying stocks on margin. Reforms in home mortgage lending practices had a more immediate impact on the lives of ordinary Americans than stock market reform. FDR created a program that refinanced one out of every ten home mortgages and spread the payments over 20 years instead of the usual five. Designed to encourage Americans to purchase homes (and thereby boost the construction industry), the Federal Housing Authority (FHA), founded in 1934, offered insurance to private lenders who financed mortgages for new homes. Why did New Deal banking reforms and relief programs generate criticism? (p. 667) Answer: Although many Americans were grateful for this help, applying for relief or a “dole” was humiliating for previously self-sufficient working people. Even at the height of the Depression, accepting relief carried the stigma of personal failure. Although they 325 .

envisioned the roots of poverty differently, both conservatives and Progressives viewed relief with suspicion. Conservatives felt that laziness, alcoholism, lack of ambition, and a poor work ethic created a class of indigent poor undeserving of help. Progressives thought that dismal living and working conditions caused the poor to turn to drink or succumb to apathy, but believed that handouts would further discourage workers from trying to support themselves. Who benefited from the wide range of New Deal work-relief programs? (p. 668) Answer: During its four-month existence, the CWA provided jobs that helped more than four million workers survive the winter of 1933–1934 and stemmed growing unrest among the unemployed. The CCC (which lasted until World War II) focused on giving economically disadvantaged young men a chance to gain work experience. It undertook major reforestation projects, constructed campgrounds, restored historic battlefields, and stocked rivers and lakes with fish. The PWA, run by Harold Ickes, funded public works projects, especially roads and buildings, to help revive the construction industry. The WPA, managed by Harry Hopkins, was a major public works program that from 1935 to 1943 employed more than eight million workers, one-fifth of the workforce. During its existence, the WPA constructed 200,000 buildings and bridges along with 600,000 miles of roads. It also funded the arts, subsidizing painters and writers. What competing visions arose over New Deal work-relief programs? (p. 669) Answer: Americans were divided on whether work relief was ruining or saving the country. For critics of work relief, the sight of WPA construction crew workers standing around talking instead of working led to jokes that WPA stood for “We Piddle Around.” Farmers looking for day laborers also complained bitterly that federal work relief often paid more than working in the fields. Many WPA employees, however, saw governmentprovided jobs as an earned right and an overwhelming majority of lower-middle class and working-class believed that the government should see to it that every man who wants to work has a job. How did FDR tackle the problems of rural America? (p. 670) Answer: Farmers received more direct aid than any other group during the Depression. The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) of 1933 tried to ensure that farmers earned an adequate income by paying them to take land out of cultivation—which the administration hoped would cause crop prices to rise. When reducing acreage failed to lower output to a sufficient degree, FDR approved laws that established marketing quotas for each commodity. To encourage better farming practices, the government began paying farmers in the Dust Bowl to plant soil-improving crops like legumes instead of traditional cash crops such as wheat, cotton, and tobacco that exhausted the soil. In one innovative program, the government planted 220 million trees in a 100-mile-wide swath from Childress, Texas, to the Canadian border. These trees stopped western dust from traveling east by cooling the air and reducing the wind velocity of dust storms. 326 .

Overall, New Deal subsidies improved farm owners’ lives. Farm income doubled from $2 billion in 1929 to $4.6 billion in 1939. Although farmers still made only 37.5 percent of what nonfarm workers earned, farming had become a much more profitable business. The Farm Security Administration helped a few tenants purchase land, offering sharecroppers a way to break out of the traditional cycle of debt that bound them to landowners. But millions of tenant farmers and farm laborers, white and black, had to find their own way out of the crisis. How did displaced farmers act to improve their own lives? (p. 671) Answer: Over 2.5 million farmers hit the road in search of work in the thirties. Besides families traveling together in cars, nearly 250,000 teenagers, usually young men, “rode the rails” by hopping into empty freight cars. Constantly on the move, these youths found companionship in “hobo jungles” (homeless encampments) as they looked for jobs, lived off handouts, and sometimes stole to get by. Nearly 400,000 Americans left farming areas in the middle of the country and headed to California. Most new California arrivals settled into the nomadic life of the migrant worker, traveling an average of 516 miles during the six-month harvest season. What happened to Mexican immigrants during the Depression? (p. 672) Answer: In 1929, the government effectively ended legal immigration from Mexico for the duration of the Depression to protect jobs for American citizens. Foreshadowing today’s debate over the benefits and drawbacks of immigration, California officials argued that alien workers held jobs that should go to native-born Americans. Thousands of Mexican workers accepted repatriation. Local and federal officials arrested and then deported others who had entered the country illegally. With the advent of the New Deal, immigrants’ interest in voluntary repatriation dwindled. New Deal regulations made legal aliens eligible for food relief, although most public works programs gave jobs only to citizens. Approximately 415,000 Mexicans left the United States during the 1930s, both voluntarily and involuntarily. What was the purpose and impact of Dorothea Lange’s migrant farmer photographs? (p. 673) Answer: When Lange’s photographs appeared in the San Francisco News, relief authorities immediately sent food to the entire camp of starving pea pickers. “Migrant Mother” and her family, however, had already left the camp. In later years, Florence Thompson, the subject of “Migrant Mother,” tried to suppress the diffusion of this photograph because she felt that it stigmatized her as poor. As she lay dying of cancer in 1983, however, her children used the image to raise funds for their mother’s medical expenses. How did critics from the left shape the social justice programs of FDR’s second administration? (p. 674) Answer: Roosevelt’s move to the left toward the end of his first administration was partially a response to the popularity of Father Coughlin and Senator Huey Long of Louisiana. Long supported the New Deal at first, but his dissatisfaction with the pace of 327 .

change and his own political ambitions caused a break with FDR. As an alternative to the New Deal, Long proposed his Share Our Wealth plan to redistribute money from the rich to the poor. Long wanted to limit every person to $1 million in income and $8 million in capital investments each year. The government would confiscate all other personal income and corporate profits and redistribute $2,000 annually to every American family. Besides offering Americans a guaranteed income, Long also championed old-age pensions, expanded veterans’ benefits, a shorter working day, and government support for education. He created a Share Our Wealth Society and claimed a membership of five million, promising to make “every man a King.” Long argued that under his plan, the rich would still enjoy a life of luxury, and even published a budget for a family of four on $1 million a year to show that they could easily afford $10,000 of jewelry each season and a new $100 suit a day. Dr. Francis Townsend, an unassuming sixty-six-year-old physician, organized a campaign for old-age pensions in 1933 for the elderly, which set in motion a powerful grassroots movement. Townsend clubs, formed to promote government pensions for the elderly, barraged Congress with petitions signed by ten million supporters, sending a clear message to the president and legislators in Washington, D.C. The combined activism of these three men and the popular support they garnered, convinced FDR in 1935 to create a comprehensive social-welfare system that protected the aged, the unemployed, and those unable to care for themselves. What competing images of the poor do Long and this Indiana woman offer? (p. 675) Answer: Long describes the poor as a “slimy specter of want, hunger, destitution, and pestilence” who are “going further into debt” because “our president has failed in his promise to have these necessities of life distributed into the hands of the people who have need of them.” Long creates an image of the poor as victim’s of the President’s policies. On the other hand, the Indiana woman blames the poor’s plight on their own laziness, describing them as a “shiftless, never-do-well class of people whose one and only aim in life is to live without work.” Who was considered part of the “deserving poor” in the new Social Security system? (p. 676) Answer: The “deserving poor” were described as needy Americans legitimately entitled to public support. Only industrial workers who were working for a salary or wage were eligible for the new pension program. The system did not cover agricultural and domestic workers until 1950—a concession to southern and agricultural business interests who claimed they could not afford the mandatory employers’ contribution to their employees’ Social Security accounts. The Social Security Act of 1935 set the following criteria for other categories of aid: being laid off (not fired for cause) from an industrial job, being physically disabled or a widow (not an unwed mother) with children to raise.

328 .

How did government support of unions change during the 1930s? (p. 677) Answer: The fact that Roosevelt faced political challenges from the left meant that he needed to solidify his voter base by building a new coalition that included unions. This encouraged Roosevelt to choose the side of labor in industrial disputes. Thanks to legislation passed during the New Deal, the policies of the federal government became friendly toward labor. The National Industrial Recovery Act (1933), the same law that created the NRA, provided the first hint of things to come by declaring that workers had the right to organize and bargain collectively. Labor officials often referred to this section of the law as the “Magna Carta” of organized labor because it recognized a right that many industrialists still refused to acknowledge. After the Supreme Court declared the National Industrial Recovery Act unconstitutional, FDR signed the Wagner Act (1935), a law sponsored by Senator Robert Wagner (D-NY) to increase the purchasing power of workers by giving them the power to negotiate for higher wages. The Wagner Act created the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to supervise unions’ elections for their collective bargaining agents. The law prevented employers from firing or blacklisting workers who joined a union or from infiltrating unions with spies. In 1938, FDR went even further with the Fair Labor Standards Act, which established a national minimum hourly wage (set initially at 25 cents, rising gradually to 40 cents), set maximum hours for the workweek (44 hours), and outlawed labor by children under 16 (with some exemptions, such as newspaper carriers). Aimed at industrial workers, the act did not apply to agricultural and domestic workers. Why were the CIO’s innovative organizing and strike tactics effective? (p. 678) Answer: The CIO was a new type of labor union that organized workers within an entire industry rather than by their trade orientation. The CIO devised new methods of collective action that bore results. Automobile workers seized the spotlight when they pioneered a new and effective tactic: the sit-down strike. During a sit-down strike, workers occupied a factory to paralyze production lines and prevent strikebreakers or management from entering the building. Because sit-down strikes caused the employer, as well as his striking employees, to lose money, this tactic brought employers to the negotiating table more quickly than traditional picket lines. Why did many African Americans switch from the Republican to the Democratic Party in the 1930s? (p. 679) Answer: New Deal programs offered African Americans more federal and state aid than they had ever received before. In the 1936 presidential election, Democrats emphasized the benefits that the New Deal had brought to the African-American community, proclaiming on billboards: “Do not bite the hand that feeds you.” Eleanor Roosevelt’s well-known interest in civil rights also helped draw black voters to FDR. As the black vote gained new importance to the Democratic Party, the administration became more responsive to African-American demands. During FDR’s second term, public works projects hired more black workers. FDR also appointed the first black federal judge and 329 .

convened an unofficial Black Cabinet to investigate civil rights abuses and advise him on racial matters. What role did the Supreme Court play during the New Deal? (p. 680) Answer: Four of the nine Supreme Court justices consistently opposed New Deal legislation, and two remained unpredictable. By 1937, the Court had declared two major pieces of early New Deal legislation—the NRA and AAA—unconstitutional. As Congress debated FDR’s proposal to add more justices, the Supreme Court surprised everyone by upholding the constitutionality of the Wagner Act and the Social Security Act. Over the next few years, death and retirement gave FDR the chance to appoint seven justices. How did economic insecurity shape political views during the Depression? (p. 681) Answer: Economic insecurity had a major impact on political views. Political attitudes during the Depression were determined not so much by abstract theories of government (strong federal government, states rights, communism) but by policies that directly impacted people’s ability to support themselves by employment or public assistance. Review Questions and Answers 1.

What groups of people did the New Deal help and why? Answer: The New Deal helped many groups to recover from the Depression. Farmers received much help because agriculture was considered to have strong mythic connections to the country’s beginnings as a “land of opportunity.” For example, the Agricultural Adjustment Act paid farmers to plant fewer crops in order to raise crop prices. When reducing acreage failed to sufficiently lower output, FDR approved laws that established marketing quotas. The unemployed were also helped by the New Deal. Hardworking family men suddenly found themselves without jobs and unable to provide for their families. As a result, people became depressed and agitated. Programs like the Civilian Conservation Corp and Public Works Administration employed young men in reforestation and construction projects. Social Justice was also a major focus of the New Deal. Older Americans, the disabled, and married women were aided by the Social Security Act, which provided a pension and unemployment benefits. Workers also received help through the Fair Labor Standards Act, which established federal minimum wage and maximum working hours per week. The Wagner Act gave government protection to unions so that workers could speak up for their rights against big corporations.

330 .

Why did images of breadlines and migrant farmers become enduring symbols of Depression-era suffering? Answer: These images revealed the true depth of poverty faced by many Americans who had lost their jobs and livelihoods because of the Depression. It was humiliating for previously self-sufficient working people to be receiving a “dole” in a long line of other similarly-poor folk. Images of the breadlines revealed people to be “isolated islands of desperation.” Dorothea Lange and others took photographs documenting the suffering of migrant workers and their families. These images were widely circulated and aroused the public’s sympathy and support for New Deal programs.

Why were there labor protests in the thirties, a time when one might expect workers simply to be grateful for any job on any terms? Answer: Daily life for workers in the automobile, steel, and textile industries was harsh with few material comforts as compared to laborers today. Workers often received poor wages and child labor was prevalent. Workers could no longer wait for help and increasingly found their political voice. As the government became more active intervening in the economy, organized labor gained more support from and influence with politicians on the left. In 1933, the National Industrial Recovery Act gave workers the right to organize and bargain collectively, which helped fuel growth in the union movement.

What conflicting visions prompted the right and left to criticize the New Deal? Answer: There were opposing views as to how income redistribution might affect American capitalism and democracy. People like Huey Long on the left wanted to transfer wealth from the rich to the poor to help those hardest hit by the Depression. He envisioned Share Our Wealth societies forming in every nook and corner of America. On the other hand, some on the right felt that governmentdistributed relief harmed the hardworking honest men in order to help “good-fornothing loafers.” They saw the New Deal as a way of forcing taxpayers to provide homes for people who never liked to work and had no intention of doing so as long as they could receive a handout.

What new roles did the New Deal establish for the federal government in American society? Answer: The many public works programs and social reforms enacted in response to the economic crises represented a completely new role for the federal government in American life. The goal of the New Deal was to promote economic recovery, reform American capitalism, and offer security to ordinary Americans. The government not only provided federal money for banks and business but also provided jobs and direct relief for average citizens. Other New Deal legislation 331 .

paid farmers to plant less to raise crop prices, provided government protection to unions, established federal minimum wage laws, guaranteed eligible workers a pension and unemployment insurance, and aid to disabled and married women with dependent children. MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

Why would the sentiments expressed in this political cartoon lead to dissatisfaction with Hoover? Answer: The cartoon depicts speculators, big business, Congress, and crooked politicians sitting at a table with a large pile of money in front of them, while more ordinary people like the worker, the farmer, and honest business are out of money and tossing in their cards as if they’ve been dealt a bad hand. After the stock market crash in 1929 and the beginning of the Great Depression, a political debate began as to government’s role in dealing with the economic crises. While Hoover encouraged Americans to work together to weather the economic downturn, he followed a more conservative approach which preferred nongovernmental solutions. Rather than providing direct assistance to those in need, he started by encouraging local governments and charities to provide support for the poor. As the crisis deepened, he then lent federal money to banks, businesses, and states. Although Hoover did go further than other presidents in similar circumstances, little of this relief made its way to the workers. As the depression worsened, Hoover was portrayed as out of touch with the common man and his popularity declined.

How did FDR reassure the public about his plan for alleviating their financial hardships? Answer: Shortly after being inaugurated, FDR worked with Congress to pass new banking and financial reforms to protect the deposits of ordinary Americans and to inspire public confidence in the nation’s banking system. He then took his message directly to the people by broadcasting his “fireside chats” over the radio. Between 1933 and 1945, Roosevelt delivered a total of thirty-one of these talks. They were delivered in an informal setting and used accessible language to instill a sense of commonality. As new reforms and initiatives were rolled out, he kept the public informed about what was happening and why the programs were needed. While some of his programs required the government to undertake more direct intervention in the workings of the economy, he spoke of a partnership between government, business, and all citizens to work together to emerge from these difficult times.

332 .

What values did post office murals celebrate? Answer: As part of FDR’s New Deal, the Section of Painting and Sculpture under the authority of the Treasury Department was established. Their goal was to provide work for artists while decorating public buildings and providing access to high quality art for all people. Much of these efforts took the form of murals that appeared in post offices throughout the country. Artists were chosen through competitions and were provided with themes and guidelines. Many of these themes celebrated scenes of local interest and historical events, and many depicted ordinary Americans hard at work. The murals generally highlighted positive themes and civic values, and they avoided the harsher realities of economic distress and social unrest.

Why did interpretations of “Migrant Mother” differ? Answer: The different interpretations of the images taken of migrant workers illustrated some of the competing visions of how poverty in America should be addressed. The iconic photo “Migrant Mother” shows a worried mother with her children leaning in on her for support. The Farm Security Administration (FSA) hired photographers like Dorothea Lange to take these pictures to arouse public sympathy and support for federal aid. However, sometimes the photos elicited resentment instead. Some people viewing “Migrant Mother” wondered whether the father had abandoned the family, why the woman had so many children if she couldn’t feed them, and why the teenage daughter was not out working to help support the family.

How did employers try to break strikes in the 1930s? Answer: The U.S. Senate, Committee on Education and Labor, Strikebreaking Services, 76th Congress, 1st Session Report No. 6 (1939) outlines some of the strategies used by employers to fight against unions and break strikes. Many businesses were adamantly opposed to unions and hired detective agencies and employers’ associations for the purposes of destroying unions and the collective bargaining process. They employed strikebreakers who posed as workmen but were really mercenaries engaged in espionage against unions, and they provoked violence and disorder. The business of providing strikebreaking services was closely related to underworld activities. Such services rarely produced an environment conducive to negotiation and were usually used to discredit strikers or break their morale through the use of physical force.

333 .

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 22 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 22 Watch the Video Prosperity of the 1920s and the Great Depression View the Image Children with “Hoover’s Poor Farm” Sign View the Image John Baer, “We Demand a New Deal!” (1931) Hear the Audio File FDR’s First Inaugural Address Read the Document Franklin D. Roosevelt—Radio Address (1933) Read the Document Father Charles E. Coughlin, “A Third Party” (1936) View the Image CCC Worker (1938) View the Closer Look Images as History: Post Office Murals View the Map Interactive Map: The Great Depression Read the Document Carey McWilliams, Okies in California (1939) Watch the Video Video Lecture: Dorothea Lange and Migrant Mother View the Closer Look Images as History: “Migrant Mother”—An American Icon View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Sharing the Wealth Read the Document Investigation of Strikebreaking (1939) Watch the Video Video Lecture: Responding to the Great Depression, Whose New Deal? Read the Document Mrs. Henry Weddington, Letter to President Roosevelt (1938) View the Closer Look Envisioning Evidence: Interpreting Public Opinion Polls

334 .

CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE FIGHTING THE GOOD WAR, 1939–1945 I. The Approaching War A. Fascism and Appeasement B. The Arsenal of Democracy C. War with Japan II. On the Home Front A. Images of the Enemy B. Internment Camps C. Prosperity, Scarcity and Opportunities for Women D. Racial Discord III. On the Front Lines A. Defeat, Then Victory B. The Final Push in Europe C. America’s Response to the Holocaust IV. Ending the Pacific War A. Edging Closer to Japan B. Dropping the Atomic Bomb C. The Final Surrender In early December, 1941, a Japanese naval convoy secretly traveled toward Hawaii, stopping within 250 miles of the Hawaiian island of Oahu. At 6:00 a.m. on December 7, Admiral Chuichi Nagumo launched two consecutive attacking waves of bombers, torpedo planes, and dive-bombers. As Japanese pilots approached Pearl Harbor, a naval station on Oahu, they saw a line of American battleships parked in a neat row. Moments later, these battleships were on fire. Before Pearl Harbor, debate raged over how to respond to the growing threat of war in the Pacific and Germany’s conquest of Europe. Non-interventionists and interventionists offered competing visions of how to protect America’s vital interests in a world torn apart by war. Now Americans needed no other explanation to understand why they were at war. Questions instead arose over why the United States had given the Japanese such an inviting target. Hoping to pressure Japan into withdrawing from China, President Franklin D. Roosevelt had sent the U.S. Pacific Fleet to Hawaii. There, he believed, the battleships were far enough away from Japan to escape attack but close enough to convince Japan to end its expansionist drive into East Asia. Roosevelt erred on both counts. Instead, Japan resolved to drive the Western powers out of East Asia. In their attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese sank or damaged 18 American ships and killed 2,405 Americans. Congress declared war on Japan the day after the attack. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States, and Romania, Bulgaria, and Hungary quickly followed suit. The United States now faced the challenge 335 .

of fighting in Europe and the Pacific against resolute and capable enemies, against whom victory was not certain. The attack on Pearl Harbor silenced all political debate about whether America needed to fight, but were all the war-generated changes in American society positive ones? World War II thrust the United States into a new position of global leadership. Mobilizing the nation’s resources to fight also created vast economic and social changes at home. The United States eventually prevailed against its enemies, but the cost of victory was high on the battlefield and on the home front. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 23, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

What major decisions set the stage for U.S. entry in the war?

How did different groups of Americans experience the war?

What challenges did the United States face in the Pacific and European theaters of war?

How was the war in the Pacific brought to a close?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Prepare a lecture on the impact of World War II on American women. In considering the issue of women and the war, focus on the significant movement of females into the workplace during World War II and the impact that experience had on American women in terms of their own sense of independence and competence. Look at the impact of the end of the war in terms of forcing women out of these jobs. An interesting approach to use in examining this issue is to draw on material published in women’s magazines during the late 1940s and 1950s and compare it to material published in women’s magazines during the war. Examine how articles as well as advertising directed at women encouraged them in the early 1940s to support the war by joining the workforce and then after the war to support home and hearth by leaving the workplace. How did the experience of American women during the early 1940s set the stage for the status of women during the 1950s?

Examine the impact of World War II on African Americans by focusing on the response of African Americans to the Holocaust. An excellent source for this issue is a videotape entitled The Liberators: Fighting on Two Fronts (1992), a PBS documentary that was broadcast as part of The American Experience series. The film centers on the story of the 761st Tank Battalion, an African American regiment that was involved in liberating the German concentration camp at 336 .

Dachau. The film provides a thorough examination of the treatment of African Americans in the U.S. Army as well as the conflicted feelings of these men who, while having lived with racism in their own lives, then witnessed the most horrific demonstration of racial hatred in modern history. Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Have students compare and contrast the American commitment to neutrality before World War I and before World II. In doing so, have them consider the following issues: a. Compare and contrast the American position on the two wars between 1914 and 1917 and between 1935 and 1941. How did the American public feel about U.S. intervention before World War I? Before World War II? How did federal policy reflect the public sentiment before World War I? Before World War II? b. Have students consider the gap between the presidents and the public regarding U.S. entry into both world wars. What roles did Wilson and Roosevelt play in the decision to enter the wars? Were their positions reflective of public opinion?

Compare and contrast the American internment of Japanese Americans with the Holocaust. To what extent are the two incidents similar? To what extent are they different? Consider some of the following issues in the comparison and contrast: a. The ideological background of each incident. Have students consider the history of social Darwinism, racism, nativism, and eugenics dating back to the late nineteenth century. b. The national justification for each incident. Have students consider how each government rationalized the propriety of targeting these populations for unique treatment. c. Living conditions within the camps. Have students look at the provisions made for food, shelter, and medical care. d. The final resolution of the incident. Have students examine the extent to which each nation controlled the target population as well as the ways in which Japanese American internment and the Holocaust ended. e. Finally, have students consider the lasting impact of these incidents on the populations targeted. How did the Japanese American internment impact the lives of those who were victimized, and what impact has the Holocaust had on western Judaism?

Have students debate the American decision to use the atomic bomb against Japan in August 1945. Have them consider the military, strategic, political, and moral issues that promoted use of the bomb as well as the military, strategic, political, and moral issues used to oppose the use of the bomb. Use this opportunity to point out the significance of the American attack on Japan as both the end of World War II and the beginning of the Cold War. 337 .

In Korematsu v. United States (1944), the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of relocating and interning Japanese Americans as a justifiable military measure. Which side made the stronger argument?

How do pictures of combat force viewers to think about the overall meaning and worthiness of the conflict?

Topics for Class Projects and Term Papers 1.

Research the issues surrounding the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. A research project could focus on the ongoing historical debate regarding the nature of the attack and the extent to which the American federal government might have anticipated or even invited the attack as a means of gaining American support for United States entry into the war.

Examine the early responses of the Allied powers to the Holocaust. How early did the Allies learn of the Nazi policy against the Jews? How did the Allies formulate policy on the issue?

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Michael C. C. Adams, The Best War Ever: America and World War II (1993). John Blum, V Was for Victory: Politics and American Culture during World War II (1976). Susan Hartmann, The Home Front and Beyond: American Women in the 1940s (1982). Greg Herken, The Winning Weapon: The Atomic Bomb in the Cold War, 1945–1950 (1980). John Hersey, Hiroshima (1946). Peter Irons, Justice at War (1983). David J. O’Brien and Stephen S. Fugita, The Japanese American Experience (1993). Martin J. Sherwin, A World Destroyed: The Atomic Bomb and the Grand Alliance (1975). Donald Watt, How War Came: The Immediate Origins of the Second World War, 1938– 1939 (1990). David S. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews (1984). Audio-Visual Resources America and the Holocaust: Deceit and Indifference: The American Experience, Marty Ostrow, 1994, 90 minutes. This video examines lingering questions about when Americans learned about the Holocaust and their response to it. America Goes to War: The Home Front, 1989, 300 minutes. This ten-part PBS series, narrated by Eric Sevareid, examines American domestic trends during the 1940s and 1950s. 338 .

D-Day: The American Experience, Charles Guggenheim, 1994, 60 minutes. An examination of the day in June 1944 that turned the tide of World War II. Free a Man to Fight, The History Channel, 50 minutes. This film examines the impact of World War II on working women in the United States. Learning Objectives and Answers After a careful examination of Chapter 23, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

What major decisions set the stage for U.S. entry into the war? Answer: British and French appeasement of Hitler’s aggression seemed only to have emboldened him. Once war broke out, the U.S. tried to support the Allies without joining the war. Although it was intended for defense, the U.S. military buildup at Pearl Harbor was a spur for Japan’s preemptive attack. Once the decision to declare war on Japan was made, the decision to declare war on Germany followed readily.

How did different groups of Americans experience the war? Answer: Women had opportunities to engage in new kinds of work, previously limited to men. Women married to soldiers, 16 million of whom already held jobs outside the home, were forced to care for their families alone. African Americans organized to obtain fair hiring, wages, and working conditions. In response, their neighborhoods were destroyed by race riots while President Roosevelt prohibited discrimination in hiring by government agencies and military suppliers. African-American men were allowed to enlist and to fight in segregated units, while members of other racial groups fought side by side. Persecution of Asian Americans increased but was primarily directed against Japanese, and non-Japanese Asians tried to distinguish themselves. Japanese Americans living in the West were imprisoned and their property confiscated. Later, Japanese-American men were recruited to fight in Europe.

What challenges did the United States face in the Pacific and European theaters of war? Answer: Germany and Italy were well-entrenched in Europe. The invasions of Normandy and Sicily were successful but cost many American lives. Toward the end of the war, the Americans raced eastward against the Soviets racing westward in competition for control of territory in post-war Europe. 339 .

Soon after Pearl Harbor, Japan had complete control of the Pacific. American planes and ships had to travel thousands of miles before even engaging the enemy. It was extremely difficult and costly to keep up supplies of food, armaments, and medical goods, and to transport soldiers from island to island. Japan was not defeated until the United States used nuclear weapons. 4.

How was the war in the Pacific brought to a close? Answer: Japan surrendered after the United States unleashed two atomic bombs and dropped its demand that the emperor resign.

Crawl Questions and Answers What does this map convey about the scope of World War II? (p. 686) Answer: Nearly every country on earth was involved in the war. What different lessons did America and other world powers draw from World War I? (p. 687) Answer: America learned that business interests played a key role in determining U.S. foreign policy and moved toward non-interventionism. Europe learned that seemingly minor events, such as the assassination of a minor prince, could trigger a world war and shied from challenging Germany’s violations of the Versailles Treaty, opting instead for appeasement. How did Hitler rapidly conquer Western and Eastern Europe? (p. 688) Answer: The non-aggression pact with the USSR allowed Germany to mobilize its forces without concern to defend on the east. He first invaded small and militarily weak countries, then launched the blitzkrieg on France. How did the competing visions of non-interventionists and interventionists influence FDR’s rhetoric and actions? (p. 689) Answer: FDR’s rhetoric expressed neutrality and non-interventionism, but he worked to assist the Allies through Lend-Lease. What competing visions did these two cartoons offer on the threat that Hitler posed to the United States? (p. 690) Answer: The cartoon on the left portrays the Nazis as posing immediate danger in several forms; the cartoon on the right portrays Hitler as completely incompetent and too far away to be worth notice. How did the United States respond to increasing Japanese aggression? (p. 691) Answer: FDR tried to contain Japan through warnings and economic sanctions and built up a Pacific fleet.

340 .

How significant was the attack on Pearl Harbor in the short run and the long run? (p. 692) Answer: The attack prevented the U.S. Navy from responding to attacks on American, British, and Dutch territories in the Pacific and from checking Japan’s conquest of Southeast Asian lands. But significant U.S. naval forces, fuel supplies, and facilities survived the attack. What distinctions did Americans now make between the Japanese and Chinese? (p. 693) Answer: Americans continued to disdain Chinese but now hated Japanese. They tried to identify distinguishing physiognomic features. What do these photos reveal about American fears of a Japanese attack? (p. 694) Answer: Americans camouflaged military facilities on the Pacific Coast in order to protect them from feared Japanese attacks. What competing responses did Japanese Americans have to internment? (p. 695) Answer: Most complied quietly with internment orders. Some filed legal challenges. Some enlisted in the military to demonstrate their patriotism. Did a legitimate military reason exist to place Japanese Americans in internment camps? (p. 696) Answer: No—there was no more reason to evacuate Americans of Japanese descent on the West Coast than there was to evacuate Americans of German, Italian, and Bulgarian descent on the East Coast. What competing visions of working women emerged during the war? (p. 697) Answer: One vision is embodied by “Rosie the Riveter”: strong, confident, and highly skilled, but also wearing makeup. Another is “Mrs. Stay-at-Home,” devoted to maintaining her home and family. How did World War II affect childhood? (p. 698) Answer: Children were enlisted to take on responsibilities to free their parents to help the war effort. Children also contributed to public efforts to collect money and materials. Why was World War II unique compared to other American wars? (p. 699) Answer: Because it coincided with a period of economic growth, it contributed to a labor shortage; massive government spending on the war pulled the country out of the Great Depression; the government took on large debts that would be paid by future generations. How did African Americans challenge racial discrimination during the war? (p. 700) Answer: African Americans organized protests and pickets. Nearly one million served in the military. 341 .

How did the wartime experiences of African Americans compare to those of Latinos? (p. 701) Answer: Both groups suffered discrimination and racial violence at home. Unlike Latinos, African Americans in the military were subjected to racial segregation. What does this map reveal about the military challenges facing the United States in the Pacific? (p. 702) Answer: The Pacific theater was huge, far distant from U.S. military bases, and totally controlled by Japan. Why did the Western Allies attack the Axis powers first in Italy, rather than France? (p. 703) Answer: They worried that an attack on France would lead to a trench stalemate, and they feared the skill of German troops. How did the tide gradually turn in favor of the Allies in Europe and the Pacific? (p. 704) Answer: In Europe, after the successful invasions of France and Italy, U.S. bombing caused great damage, and the USSR won a major victory at Stalingrad. In the Pacific, the Allies, again led by the United States, attacked the enemy’s “soft underbelly.” What do media images of the Japanese suggest about American wartime culture? (p. 705) Answer: Images such as “A Wartime Souvenir,” depicting a woman writing a thank-you letter to her fiancé for sending her a souvenir Japanese skull, represented a way for Americans to exorcise their own desire for revenge against the Japanese. How did the political and military situation influence the way Americans viewed these photographs? (p. 706) Answer: Americans viewed photographs showing blood and death. The War Department hoped that these images would prepare and encourage civilians to continue to make sacrifices for the sake of the war, which was not expected to end soon. Why did the Allies prevail on D-Day? (p. 707) Answer: The Allies deceived the Germans into expecting an invasion elsewhere. When the actual invasion came, the Germans thought it was a diversion and failed to respond as quickly and strongly as they might have. What significant decisions were reached at the 1945 Yalta Conference? (p. 708) Answer: Churchill, Stalin, and Roosevelt decided on post-war actions such as who would control certain countries and what powers they would have in the planned United Nations organization.

342 .

What insights do this data offer on the scope of the Holocaust and the American response? (p. 709) Answer: Americans reacted slowly and insufficiently to the Holocaust. The United States can be credited with saving over 200,000 European Jews, but the Nazis killed over 4,000,000. How did images instruct Americans about the meaning of the Holocaust and their role as liberators? (p. 710) Answer: Images showed Americans something of the incomprehensible horror of the Holocaust and the importance of U.S. action, including forcing Germans to face up to their nation’s deeds. What new tactics raised the death toll in the Pacific war? (p. 711) Answer: Americans used incendiary bombs to destroy entire cities and their populations. Japanese pilots conducted suicide kamikaze attacks on ships and soldiers used “cave and bunker” tactics. How did the war against Japan finally end? (p. 712) Answer: The United States compelled Japan to surrender by dropping atomic bombs and threatening to use more. Why does so much controversy surround the dropping the atomic bomb and not conventional weapons? (p. 713) Answer: It is agreed that a U.S. invasion of Tokyo would have killed hundreds of thousands of U.S. troops, and some say precluding the need for this invasion justifies the use of the atomic bomb. Critics have said that the second bomb was unnecessary and that Truman had options other than the bomb—either abandoning the demand for unconditional surrender or waiting for the full effects of traditional bombing, blockade, and the Soviet invasion of Mongolia. How might this distribution of wartime casualties have shaped the postwar world? (p. 714) Answer: The Soviet Union might have resented their high casualties when their allies suffered so much less, causing tension and distrust in foreign policy and diplomacy. Most of these countries had millions of returning veterans to reintegrate into their society. Why did this photo become an iconic image of World War II? (p. 715) Answer: Some see this kiss as an affirmation of life and hopefulness. Review Questions and Answers 1.

What conflicting visions did Americans offer in response to the expansionist drives of Germany and Japan? How did these visions influence the American path to war? 343 .

Answer: American interventionists wanted to use military force to restrain German and Japanese imperialism. American non-interventionists thought that the purpose of the U.S. military was national defense and that what one foreign country did to another is not a U.S. concern. American policy remained noninterventionist, but the U.S. tried to use a military buildup as a warning to Japan’s aggression. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor was a response to this buildup, and America’s entry into the war was a response to this attack. 2.

How did visual images shape Americans’ views of the war and their enemies? Answer: Photographs, manipulated photographs, and political cartoons showed Americans how soldiers and civilians suffered and showed the Allies’ enemies in a bad light.

How did the war affect racial, labor, and gender relations on the home front? What conflicting visions emerged? Answer: The war economy brought the United States out of the Great Depression. Labor relations remained tense because labor unions did not believe it was fair that labor should make sacrifices while big business made no sacrifices but made enormous profits and received government assistance. Hatred of Japan after the attack on Pearl Harbor led to indiscriminate imprisonment of Japanese Americans based solely on race. Women were more accepted in the labor force but were still expected to remain feminine and to give up their jobs to returning soldiers after the war.

What strategic challenges and battlefield conditions did the United States face in the Pacific and European theaters? How did the United States prevail against Japan and Germany? Answer: Germany and Italy were heavily armed and controlled nearly all of Europe, and invasion was perilous. The same was true for Japan’s control in the Pacific. In both places, the United States prevailed by attacks at weaknesses that exacted heavy sacrifices but resulted in a base for further attacks. In Europe, the Soviet Union, allied with the United States, helped force Germany to submit. Japan was not defeated until the United States used nuclear weapons.

Why did the United States drop the atomic bomb? Answer: Truman believed the Japanese would never surrender to conventional military force. He expected the conquest of Japan to take months if not years and to result in the deaths of perhaps a million U.S. soldiers. He hoped the effects of the atomic bombs would demoralize Japan.

344 .

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

What arguments did non-interventionists offer against entering World War II before Pearl Harbor? Answer: Lindbergh believed the war could not be won and that U.S. national security required ensuring against invasion by keeping a strong defense force in the Americas.

What values influenced this portrayal of female war workers? Answer: The principal value that influenced the portrayal of female war workers was patriotism. The message behind the image is that men are doing whatever they can to ensure American victory, and women are as well. The mythical value that influenced depictions of women war workers was equality in the workplace and in all other areas of life. We know equality was not what truly influenced images of women war workers because women were encouraged to go back into the home and resume their traditional feminine roles toward the end of the war.

How was childhood militarized during World War II? Answer: All Americans were urged to save and collect a variety of items such as rubber, scrap metal, grease, and paper. Cartoon characters that appealed to children were used to advertise these efforts and encourage children’s participation.

Why did U.S. generals and German civilians visit the liberated concentration camps? Answer: They needed to appreciate firsthand the appalling horror of the Nazi torture and genocide and to force the Germans to witness their country’s deeds.

What message does this film convey about the atomic bomb? Answer: The mission to drop the bomb was “gallant” and perhaps even magnificent. The bombs unleashed “terror” and “devastation” but were a triumph for U.S. ingenuity, courage, and resolve.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 23 • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 23 Watch the Video Lecture Hitler and Roosevelt Read the Document Charles Lindbergh, Radio Address (1941) Read the Document Franklin D. Roosevelt, “The Four Freedoms” (1941) 345 .

• • • • • • • • • • • • •

Read the Document Japanese Relocation Order, February 19, 1942 View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Civil Liberties and National Security Clash View the Closer Look Images As History: “We Can Do It!” View the Image “Get in the Scrap” Read the Document “Why Should We March” (1942) Read the Document Jim Crow in the Army Camps View the Interactive Map World War II, Pacific Theater View the Interactive Map World War II in Europe View the Image Operation Overlord, Normandy (1944) View the Closer Look Envisioning Evidence: Deciphering the Holocaust Watch the Video Nazi Murder Mills View the Closer Look Images as History: Combat Photography Watch the Video Atomic Bomb at Hiroshima

346 .

CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR A DIVIDED WORLD: THE EARLY COLD WAR, 1945–1963 I. Origins of the Cold War A. Differing Goals in the Postwar World B. The American Vision Takes Shape: Kennan’s Long Telegram C. The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan D. The Berlin Airlift and NATO II. Fighting Communism: Cold and Hot War A. Communism Rising: 1949 B. The Korean War C. Nuclear Fallout and Fear D. Fallout Shelters III. Spies in Our Midst A. The Second Red Scare B. HUAC Against Hollywood C. McCarthyism IV. Averting Nuclear War A. Sputnik B. The Berlin Wall C. Bay of Pigs and the Cuban Missile Crisis As World War II ended, Soviet and American troops, converging from different directions, met and shook hands on a bridge spanning the Elbe River in Germany. Each side was pleasantly surprised by this first encounter with their wartime ally. “They looked like ordinary people. We had imagined something different,” recalled one Soviet soldier of American troops. “I guess we didn’t know what to expect from the Russians,” an American soldier said after the meeting. “If you put an American uniform on them, they could have been American!” Within two years, the lost promise of this friendly encounter was obvious to all. A 1947 U.S. propaganda film replayed footage of this historic meeting and struck a lightning bolt across the frozen image of Soviet and American soldiers shaking hands. “Here two worlds actually met,” the narrator thundered, “but this coalition was to be torn asunder” by Soviet postwar incursions in Eastern Europe that the United States viewed as part of a Soviet plan for global conquest. In the decade after the Allies’ victory against Hitler, relations between the United States and the Soviet Union soured dramatically. As the contours of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union took shape, two competing ideological visions, an escalating nuclear arms race, and confrontations in Europe and Asia, including a war in Korea, heightened fears that another world war was in the making. From 1946 to 1965, most Americans viewed the world as sharply divided into free and totalitarian societies. American leaders proclaimed that the United States was engaged in an epic struggle with the Soviet Union over the future of humankind. 347 .

Protecting the world from the menace of Soviet-led communism became a key American foreign policy goal in this era. Americans fought the Cold War at home as well, where citizens expressed differing views on whether government tactics in rooting out Soviet spies undermined American democracy or saved it. On the other side of the ideological divide, Soviet leaders developed an abiding distrust of Western motives as they sought to counter the American nuclear advantage with territorial and technological gains. As each nation struggled to extend its world influence, Americans once again confronted the crucial question of defining their nation’s role in the world. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 24, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

Which key foreign policy decisions shaped the early Cold War?

What were the causes and outcome of the Korean War?

How did the anti-communist crusade affect American politics and culture?

How did the United States react to Soviet aggression in Berlin and Cuba?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Present a lecture examining Franklin Roosevelt’s and Harry Truman’s contributions to the emergence of the Cold War. Compare and contrast the social, political, and intellectual backgrounds of the two men. Discuss with students Roosevelt’s role at the Yalta Conference, especially regarding the endorsement of the Declaration of a Liberated Europe. Did the endorsement of this agreement by the Allies set the stage for the Cold War? Could the Allies have avoided granting Stalin leverage in Eastern Europe? Discuss the extent to which Truman was prepared by Roosevelt to take over the presidency. Finally, have students comment on the early Soviet policy of the Truman administration.

Discuss the emergence of the States’ Rights Party and the presidential campaign of J. Strom Thurmond in 1948. Focus on the party’s appearance as an indication of increased racial tension in the South after World War II and as an indication of the potential for the future civil rights movement. Address the significance of Thurmond’s political career, which involved an early switch to the Republican Party, an indication of southern political developments to come during the last half of the twentieth century.

Discuss the connection between Cold War policies and World War II. What parallels did the former Allies see between prewar Germany and the postwar Soviet Union? What mistakes made prior to World War II did the former Allies 348 .

fear making again? Use this opportunity to have students consider the issue of “learning from history.” Can people learn from history? Is it wise or useful to allow mistakes from the past to determine policy for the future? Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

In their book The Fifties: The Way We Really Were (1977), Douglas T. Miller and Marion Nowak assert that the 1950s was a decade of conservatism, consensus, and conformity. Have students review Chapter 27 and point out examples of these trends during the late 1940s and early 1950s. How did World War II moderate the liberal politics of the Depression era? Why were Americans eager to move to the middle, and why did they find security in conservatism, consensus, and conformity?

Have students compare and contrast the postwar decades of the 1920s and the 1950s. Guide discussion to address some of the following issues: a. World War I has been characterized as the war that ended “American innocence.” How so? Did the American experience in World War II have a similar impact? Were Americans less naive and more experienced and mature as a nation because of the role they played in World War I? b. Compare and contrast American foreign policy development during the decades following the two world wars. Specifically, focus on the issues of isolationism and active intervention as they apply to American foreign policy of the 1920s and the 1950s. c. Examine the social and cultural aspects of postwar American society in the 1920s and the 1950s. How do the social and cultural values of Americans reflect their reaction to world war? d. Explore developments in domestic politics in the postwar decades of the 1920s and the 1950s. Which party would come to dominate national politics after World War I? After World War II? What would come to be the American response to radicalism after World War I? After World War II?

Consider American Cold War foreign policy within the historical context of modern American foreign policy. Students have already considered the similarities and differences between the turn-of-the-century diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt and the moral diplomacy of Woodrow Wilson. How does Cold War policy compare to each of these phases of American foreign policy development? Consider specifically the content of NSC-68 (National Security Council Report 68). Are the guidelines proposed in this document reflective of the “big stick” diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt or are they more reflective of the morally based approach of Woodrow Wilson? Or, is post-World War II foreign policy completely different from both?

Do the images of surviving an atomic bomb offer competing or complimentary visions of the nuclear threat? 349 .

What different perspectives do Roosevelt and Kazan offer on protecting the right to freedom of expression?

What political and military considerations influenced Kennedy during the Cuban Missile Crisis?

Topics for Class Projects and Term Papers 1.

Research the American experience in fighting wars in Asia during the twentieth century. This project could focus on the Pacific War during World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. Among the topics that students might examine, consider the following: a. The cultural differences between the East and the West. What barriers existed that would complicate Asian and American understandings of each other’s cultures? How would these misunderstandings complicate diplomacy? b. The political and military goals of Asians and Americans in war. Especially in Korea and Vietnam, how did American global concerns complement or fail to complement the regional concerns of Koreans and the Vietnamese? How did regional civil wars turn into military manifestations of the Cold War? c. Racism and the American experience in Asia. Have students consider American stereotypes regarding Asians. How were these stereotypes manifested during the Pacific War, during the Korean War, and during the Vietnam War? Were Americans socially and culturally prepared to fight for the well-being of the Asian world?

Research the emergence of the Progressive Party in 1948. Was Henry Wallace’s liberal agenda in 1948 dated and archaic by the end of World War II, or did it predict and foresee the domestic reform agenda of the late 1950s and 1960s? Examine the role of the party as a link between the progressive agenda of the Depression era and the progressive agenda of the 1960s.

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Gal Alperovitz, Atomic Diplomacy (1994). William Chafe, The Unfinished Journey: America since World War II, 3rd ed. (1995). Frances Fitzgerald, Fire on the Lake (1972). John L. Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947 (1972). Joseph C. Goulden, The Best Years, 1945–1950 (1976). David Halberstam, The Fifties (1994). Alonzo Hamby, Beyond the New Deal: Harry S. Truman and American Liberalism (1973). Akira Iriye, The Cold War in Asia (1974). Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (1988). 350 .

Douglas T. Miller and Marion Nowak, The Fifties: The Way We Really Were (1977). William Stuek, Rethinking the Korean War: A New Diplomatic and Strategic History (2002). John Toland, The Rising Sun (1970). Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of Cold War (1990). Audio-Visual Resources The Twentieth Century with Mike Wallace: McCarthy Reconsidered, The History Channel, 50 minutes. Mike Wallace takes a fresh look at the man behind the second Red Scare. Truman: The American Experience, David Grubin, 1997, 270 minutes. This video is a four-part series examining the life and presidency of Harry Truman. Learning Objectives and Answers After a careful examination of Chapter 24, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

Which key foreign policy decisions shaped the early Cold War? Answer: Stationing the Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean to guard the Dardenelles, announcing the Truman Doctrine, the Marshall Plan, stationing troops in Germany, the Berlin airlift, and joining NATO shaped the early Cold War.

What were the causes and outcome of the Korean War? Answer: Korea was split by the peace agreement to end World War II. The Soviet Union imposed communism in the North and the United States imposed capitalism in the South. When the United States withdrew troops, South Korea was left to its own defenses with the aid of U.S. armaments; North Korea invaded, attempting to reunite the peninsula. The outcome was a return to the status quo ante, except that the North was occupied by Chinese communists instead of Soviet communists.

How did the anti-communist crusade affect American politics and culture? Answer: Police and other government agents conducted surveillance and investigations of anyone suspected of having communist sympathies, and accusing others of being communists became a way to gain power and fame. The Red Scare bred terrorism and paranoia. Writers and producers were blackballed and forced out of their careers. People whose careers depended on public opinion became afraid to delve into politics at all. 351 .

How did the United States react to Soviet aggression in Berlin and Cuba? Answer: In response to the blockade of Berlin, the United States launched the Berlin airlift. In response to the discovery of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba, the United States demanded they be removed, established a naval blockade, and threatened to attack with its own missiles. In both cases, the United States took action but only threatened aggressive military action.

Crawl Questions and Answers How does this photograph symbolize the Soviet victory over Germany? (p. 720) Answer: The Reichstag was the German parliament. Raising the Soviet flag showed that the Soviet Union now ruled Germany. How did differing memories of the recent past shape U.S. and Soviet goals in postwar Europe? (p. 721) Answer: Americans recalled their failure to contain Germany’s and Japan’s expansionism and were determined to punish aggression at its start. FDR also remembered how the Depression gave rise to Hitler, and he wanted to keep the world economy running smoothly. The Soviet Union remembered being betrayed by Germany and invaded; for protection, Stalin now installed puppet Communist governments throughout Eastern Europe to create a buffer zone and insisted on treating Germany harshly. What analysis did Kennan’s long telegram offer of Stalin’s beliefs and behavior? (p. 722) Answer: Kennan said that Stalin believed that he needed an outside enemy to keep himself in power and that capitalist societies would inevitably self-destruct; thus, Stalin would never negotiate productively with the West. What new role did the United States play in Western Europe after World War II? (p. 723) Answer: U.S. policy focused on containing the spread of communism by any means. The Truman Doctrine was a promise to fight the spread of communism anywhere in the world. The Marshall Plan sent money aid. As a leading member of NATO, the United States retained a permanent military presence in Europe. How did the Truman administration convince the public to accept a new direction in U.S. foreign policy? (p. 724) Answer: Truman scared Americans with the threat of communist totalitarianism. What conflicting views of the Marshall Plan do these two cartoons present? (p. 725) Answer: The American cartoon shows the Marshall Plan as a true lifeline; the Soviet cartoon shows the Marshall Plan as a bribe or extortion aimed at U.S. domination.

352 .

Which international disputes led to the 1948–1949 Soviet blockade of Berlin? (p. 726) Answer: (1) A revolution led to a communist takeover in Czechoslovakia, and (2) contrary to Soviet wishes and to the Yalta agreement, France, Britain, and the United States decided they wanted to rebuild Germany. What political impact did this photo have? (p. 727) Answer: It helped reconcile Americans to interventionism by showing that their help was needed and wanted. Why was NATO an important development in the Cold War? (p. 728) Answer: It was the United States’ first formal military alliance since the Revolutionary War. It established a permanent U.S. military presence in Europe, it helped keep peace among Western European nations, it helped keep Germany friendly, and it led to the creation of the Warsaw Pact. How did the USSR acquiring nuclear weapons and the rise of communist China change the contours of the Cold War? (p. 729) Answer: The USSR’s acquisition of nuclear weapons broke the United States’ monopoly and raised the threat of a nuclear war. Communist China allied with the USSR, extending the Cold War to a second front. Why did the United States decide to fight in Korea? (p. 730) Answer: Truman was convinced that the Soviets were behind the attack, that they were “bent on worldwide domination,” and that they had to be stopped because failure to act to stop them would encourage and embolden them. What accounted for America’s initial successes on the battlefield? (p. 731) Answer: A daring and successful surprise invasion by sea at Inchon gave the U.S. forces an inroad. How did the entry of the Chinese into the Korean War affect political and military debates within the United States? (p. 732) Answer: Truman gave up his goal of capturing all of the Korean Peninsula, but MacArthur wanted all-out war. MacArthur disobeyed orders, and Americans disagreed over which side to support. How did the Korean War compare to World War II? (p. 733) Answer: The Korean War ended with a stalemate, not victory. World War II was seen as a triumph of teamwork and democracy and American greatness; U.S. observers of the Korean War saw instead the sorrow and compassion that drew men together on the battlefield, and felt more ambivalent about war.

353 .

How did popular culture reflect Americans’ concerns about nuclear weapons? (p. 734) Answer: Movies and comic books played on fears of the unknown effects of nuclear fallout. Governmental propaganda aimed to combat both indifference and panic. What conflicting messages did these images send about surviving a nuclear blast? (p. 735) Answer: “Duck and cover” tells people how to hide safely from a nuclear blast, but the photographs of the nuclear test show that shelter provides no safety. What defensive measures did Americans take against a possible nuclear attack? (p. 736) Answer: Communities held evacuation drills to prepare to respond by flight. Some people installed fallout shelters in their yards or basements, and government built community shelters. The federal government also built secret centers throughout the nation to house officials in the event of a nuclear attack. What insights does Wellman’s story offer into the Second Red Scare? (p. 737) Answer: Constant surveillance bred paranoia and self-censorship while uncovering little if any useful information. What competing visions arose over the Hiss and Rosenbergs spy cases? (p. 738) Answer: Some believed that these cases “forcibly demonstrated to the American people that domestic communism was a real and present danger to the security of the nation,” while others saw the prosecutions as self-interested political persecution in violation of the letter and spirit of the First Amendment. What was the purpose and impact of HUAC’s Hollywood investigations? (p. 739) Answer: The putative purpose was to uncover alleged communist activities of screenwriters, producers, directors, and actors, reflected in supposedly subversive plotlines and imagery. The impact was a blacklist that prevented anyone suspected of communist sympathies from working in films. How do Roosevelt and Kazan differ on the best way to protect the right to freedom of expression? (p. 740) Answer: Roosevelt believes any censorship or repression is a violation of freedom of expression; Kazan believes that communists are attempting to take over, and that if they are successful there will be no more freedom of expression, and that communism must be vigorously fought by every means, including by restricting the speech of anyone sympathetic to communism. Is the term “McCarthyism” a useful or misleading way to characterize the Second Red Scare? (p. 741) Answer: “McCarthyism” can refer to McCarthy’s techniques or to his crusade. The end of McCarthy’s career as a red-baiting demagogue did not stop the government’s anti354 .

communist crusade, the Smith Act, loyalty oaths, Hollywood blacklists, or police surveillance of suspected radicals, and using the charge of communism to discredit political opponents became commonplace in American politics. Why did the nuclear arms race escalate in the late 1950s? (p. 742) Answer: On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union sent Sputnik into orbit around Earth, and the nuclear arms race bred a space race. How did the new Soviet Premier Khrushchev compare to Stalin? (p. 743) Answer: Khrushchev reveled in rhetorical excess. In 1956, Khrushchev denounced Stalin’s crimes against the Soviet people but crushed any popular rebellion. What did the Berlin Wall mean to Americans? (p. 744) Answer: The wall did not provoke a major confrontation but became a symbol of Soviet oppression. How did the Berlin Wall serve as the front line of the Cold War? (p. 745) Answer: The wall trapped people in the Communist bloc. Many tried to escape by climbing or tunneling underneath. On the western side, the wall was ravaged and covered with graffiti. What was the ultimate significance of the Cuban Missile Crisis? (p. 746) Answer: The United States and USSR made an agreement that the United States would dismantle its missiles in Turkey and respect Cuban independence, and both the United States and the Soviet Union made efforts to de-escalate tensions. What political and military considerations influenced Kennedy during the Cuban Missile Crisis? (p. 747) Answer: Kennedy was concerned about maintaining strategic advantages, maintaining his bargaining strength, improving the nation’s image, avoiding nuclear war, and avoiding missile strikes on major defense facilities and population centers in the United States. Review Questions and Answers 1.

What key contributions did Truman, Eisenhower, and Kennedy make to the strategy of containment? Answer: Truman negotiated the partition of Germany at Yalta, established the Truman Doctrine, instituted the Marshall Plan, joined NATO and stationed U.S. troops to Europe, broke the Soviet blockade with the Berlin Airlift, and committed the country to the Korean War. Eisenhower commissioned large quantities of nuclear-armed ICBMs (intercontinental missiles). Kennedy got nuclear missiles removed from Cuba.

355 .

How did international crises influence domestic politics from 1945 to 1963? Answer: Truman’s response to the blockade of Berlin helped win him the 1948 presidential election even though many people were dissatisfied with his domestic policies. The Cold War generated fears that encouraged the HUAC and McCarthyism and their threats to civil liberties.

How did images and popular culture shape Americans’ ideas about the Soviet Union and the atomic bomb? Answer: Some popular culture pieces reflected Americans’ concerns about the effects of nuclear fallout. Some images suggested that hiding under a desk or in a bomb shelter would enable one to survive a nuclear attack. Others were meant to frighten people so they would remain vigilant in preparing for a nuclear attack.

Why did Americans consider West Berlin so important? What key decisions and risks did Truman and Kennedy take in resolving Berlin-related crises? Answer: West Berlin was a symbol of freedom surrounded and oppressed by a hostile communist state. Truman decided not to go to war to prevent the partition of Berlin and of Germany, and Kennedy decided not to go to war over construction of the Berlin Wall; both risked losing Berlin to the Soviets.

What competing visions did policymakers offer on how the United States should contain the Soviet threat? Answer: George Kennan believed in strong and steady resistance to any attempt to expand beyond the Western-accepted Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe. George C. Marshall suggested offering massive financial aid to help European capitalistic economies and restore Europeans’ faith in capitalism. After the Soviet-backed coup in Czechoslovakia and the blockade of Berlin, the Truman administration gave up hope in safeguarding democracy and prosperity in Western Europe without using the military. John Foster Dulles advocated that the United States stockpile nuclear missiles so as to threaten devastating retaliation to any Soviet aggression, in hopes the threat would prevent the aggression.

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

What advice did Kennan give on dealing with the Soviet Union? Answer: Kennan advised threats, skepticism and distrust, and containment, including strengthening relations with all non-communist countries to deflect communist sympathies.

356 .

How did the Truman Doctrine speech set a new direction for U.S. foreign policy? Answer: The Monroe Doctrine had restricted American diplomatic interests to the Americas. With the Truman Doctrine, the United States committed to fight the spread of communism anywhere in the world.

Why did the Chicago Defender urge readers to “save this paper, it marks history”? Answer: The editors viewed the end of racial segregation in the military as a great achievement of the growing civil rights movement.

What advice did Americans receive on constructing their own fallout shelters? Answer: They were trained in using gas masks and instructed to learn evacuation routes, monitor the radio, and practice responding to air raid sirens. They were told to stock their shelters with a radio, batteries, and food and water.

How does this cartoon depict Kennedy’s actions during the Cuban Missile Crisis? Answer: Kennedy has started to push Khruschev over the cliff and will be dragged down with him. The cartoon suggests that Kennedy acted recklessly.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 24 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 24 Read the Document “The Long Telegram” (1946) Read the Document Winston Churchill, “Iron Curtain” Speech (March 5, 1946) Watch the Video President Truman and the Threat of Communism View the Image Truman Ends Military Jim Crow View the Image U.S. Hydrogen Bomb Test Over Uninhabited Pacific Island (1952) View the Interactive Map The Korean War, 1950–1953 Watch the Video Ike for President Watch the Video Duck and Cover View the Closer Look Images as History: Surviving an Atomic Bomb Blast View the Closer Look Images as History: Fallout Shelters Read the Document Wheeling, West Virginia Speech (1950) View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Naming Names in Hollywood Watch the Video Lecture McCarthyism and the Politics of Fear View the Image Sputnik I Read the Document Kennedy’s Address to the People of Berlin (June 28, 1963) View the Closer Look Envisioning Evidence: The Berlin Wall 357 .

• •

Watch the Video President John F. Kennedy and the Cuban Missile Crisis View the Image JFK and Khrushchev

358 .

CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE IN A LAND OF PLENTY: CONTENTMENT AND DISCORD, 1945–1960 I. Securing the New Deal Legacy A. The Labor Movement Curtailed B. Presidential Agendas: Truman and Eisenhower II. A Middle-Class America A. Postwar Prosperity B. The Move to the Suburbs III. Popular Culture in the Fifties A. The Television Age Arrives B. Teen Culture and Rock-and-Roll C. The Beats IV. Freedom Now: The Civil Rights Movement A. Separate and Unequal: Challenging Segregated Schools B. Emmett Till C. Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955 D. The Little Rock Nine, 1957 E. The Sit-ins On September 3, 1955, a young black teenager, Elizabeth Eckford, walked past an angry mob after state troopers refused to let her enter the all-white Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. This image challenges the traditional image of the fifties as a tranquil period of material contentment and ideological consensus. Americans did enjoy unprecedented prosperity during the decade. They also, however, experienced a fair amount of domestic discord along racial, generational, and political lines. New energy surged into the Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s. Acts of extraordinary bravery by Elizabeth Eckford and others like her took on new significance in an era of favorable Supreme Court rulings that pushed the federal government to take an active role in protecting the civil rights of African Americans. Leadership from black churches and black students infused the movement with an ethos of nonviolent direct action that forced America to see the injustice of Jim Crow, the southern legal structure that relegated African Americans to second-class citizenship. A different type of discord permeated American home-life throughout the 1950s. In many respects families were the focus of American society from 1945 to 1960. Lured to fast-growing suburbs by low cost loans and affordable housing prices, an exploding middle class filled their homes with an array of possessions previously out of reach for most Americans. The baby boom generation, those 76.4 million Americans born between 1946 and 1964, now coming into adolescence, embraced new standards in dress, music, and movies that distinguished the “teen” generation from their parents. Some teenagers rebelled against authority in more overtly political ways. High school and college 359 .

students, for instance, were the ground troops in many civil rights demonstrations. Others joined the counterculture Beat movement to express their rebellion against social norms through poetry, novels, and art. From 1945 to 1960, Americans debated the divergent political paths that the country could take domestically during the Cold War era. They pondered the effects of continuing New Deal programs, unions, suburbs, civil rights, and consumption on American society. Altogether the changing American way of life created a sense of both contentment and crisis for the nation. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 25, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

Why did Americans disagree about New Deal-era laws and programs?

How did postwar prosperity transform American society?

How did mass media create teen culture?

Why was the Civil Rights Movement successful in the fifties?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Prepare a lecture on the emergence of a youth culture during the 1950s. One option is to focus on trends in popular music, particularly rock-and-roll. Connect the origins of rock-and-roll to the southern musical traditions of rhythm and blues, country, and gospel. Examine why early rock-and-roll was referred to as “race music” and why the white community responded with white “cover records.” Supplement the lecture with recordings of early rock-and-roll performers such as Little Richard and Chuck Berry as well as examples of cover records by performers like Pat Boone. How does Elvis Presley fit into the picture? Presley recorded cover records, but was he distinct from Pat Boone? How so?

Examine the status of American women in the 1950s. How was the condition of middle-class American women in the 1950s significantly different from earlier decades in the twentieth century? To what extent was the status of women in the 1950s defined by World War II? How did television and journalism impact the American middle-class woman’s self-image? How does the status of women in the 1950s and 1960s lay the groundwork for a women’s liberation movement?

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

As mentioned in Chapter 25, some historians have characterized the 1950s as a decade of conservatism, consensus, and conformity. Yet, the 1950s preceded the 360 .

1960s, which is characterized as one of the most radical and turbulent decades in modern American history. Have students discuss the 1950s as the breeding ground for the sixties. Consider some of the following issues: a. The 1960s counterculture. Have students consider the baby boom and the emergence of the American teenager as predictors of this sixties phenomenon. Did the emergence of rock-and-roll, the Beat generation, and fifties affluence play a role in the emergence of a counterculture? Did the conservatism, consensus, and conformity of the fifties play a role? b. The Vietnam War. Connect the American involvement in Vietnam to postWorld War II foreign policy. Were there indications in the fifties that Americans might feel some ambivalence about military intervention in Vietnam? Why would the strongest protest come from youth? c. The Civil Rights Movement. Connect the Civil Rights Movement to the African American role in World War II. Remind students that some of the major events of the movement, including the Brown decision and the Montgomery bus boycott, occurred as early as the mid-fifties. 2.

The Civil Rights Movement is often referred to as the Second Reconstruction. Hold a discussion in which students consider the following: a. To what extent was the federal agenda in the Civil Rights Movement similar to the federal agenda in the Civil War? To what extent was the southern agenda during the Civil Rights Movement similar to the southern agenda in the Civil War? Consider the national attention to federal authority and racial justice in both cases and the southern commitment to states’ rights and racial control in both cases. b. Connect the Civil Rights Movement to other historical conflicts regarding states’ rights. Take students back not only to the Civil War but also to the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions and the Nullification Crisis. Review the meanings of nullification and interposition. What examples of these principles are seen in the events of the Civil Rights Movement? c. Have students consider the issue of civil disobedience. Review the recurring theme in American history of Americans’ willingness to break the law for a higher good. What similarities exist between the role of African Americans in the Civil Rights Movement and the earlier roles of patriots in the American Revolution or abolitionists who defied the Fugitive Slave Law? d. Compare and contrast the strides made in civil rights during Reconstruction and during the Civil Rights Movement. Why was the Civil Rights Movement needed when the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments were in the Constitution? Were the civil rights laws passed during the 1960s as vulnerable to violation as the Reconstruction laws?

What positive and negative changes do writers attribute to suburban life? What different futures do they envision for a suburban-based American culture? 361 .

Why are images important for understanding the history of race relations and the Civil Rights Movement?

Who was the real Rosa Parks?

Topics for Class Projects and Term Papers 1.

Have students write a review of a book written by one of the 1950s authors mentioned in the chapter. In addition to providing a brief summary and assessment of the book, have students place the work within its historical context. How accurate was the author in assessing his or her own times? How well did he or she predict future developments in American society?

Choose one of the lesser figures in the Civil Rights Movement and write a paper evaluating that person’s role and unique contribution to the movement. Some individuals to consider include Fannie Lou Hamer, Anne Moody, and Mose Wright.

Have students assess the impact of 1950s television situation comedies on contemporary American society. Divide the class into several groups and have each group choose one television program to study. The members of the group should watch three to five episodes of the program and consider the following questions: a. What does the American family look like in this program? Have students consider such issues as race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and level of education. b. How are women portrayed in the program? What is the message being sent to American women of the 1950s regarding their appropriate role in society? c. How are children portrayed in the program? What message does this send to American parents about childrearing and the expectations placed on children? d. Place the program in its historical context. Is there any indication in the program of the real issues facing Americans during the 1950s? e. Do the images in these programs (many of which still draw large audiences in syndication or in DVD sales and rentals) impact the selfimage of Americans today?

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Eric Barnouw, Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television (1982). Carl Belz, The History of Rock (1972). Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963 (1988). Wini Breines, Young, White, and Female: Growing Up Female in the 1950s (1992). Charlie Gillett, Sound of the City: The Rise of Rock and Roll (1983). 362 .

David Halberstam, The Fifties (1993). Michael Harrington, The Other America (1962). James S. Olson and Randy Roberts, Where the Domino Fell: America in Vietnam, 1945– 1990 (1991). Joanne Meyerowitz, Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945– 1960 (1994). Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality: 1954–1992 (1993). Ella Taylor, Prime-Time Families: Television Culture in Postwar America (1989). Audio-Visual Resources America’s War on Poverty, Blackside, Inc., 1995, 300 minutes. Henry Hampton examines the American government’s role in addressing poverty in this five-part series from the same people who produced Eyes on the Prize. The Bay of Pigs, Oregon Public Broadcasting, 1997, 60 minutes. This is a look at Kennedy’s fiasco in Cuba. David Halberstam’s The Fifties, A&E Video, 400 minutes. This is the A&E documentary based on David Halberstam’s 1993 volume on the decade. Eisenhower: The American Experience, Austin Hoyt and Adriana Bosch, 1993, 150 minutes. This video offers a two-part look at the life and presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Eyes on the Prize: Parts I & II, Blackside, Inc., 1987, 1990. This is the critically acclaimed 14-part documentary on the American Civil Rights Movement. George Wallace: Settin’ the Woods on Fire: The American Experience, PBS Video, 180 minutes. This video tells the life story of the man who made a political career out of supporting segregation. Martin Luther King, Jr.: Biography, A&E Video, 50 minutes. This A&E Biography episode examines the life of the Civil Rights Movement leader. That Rhythm, Those Blues: The American Experience, George T. Nierenberg, 1988, 60 minutes. This video examines the origins of rock-and-roll with a look at rhythm and blues. Thurgood Marshall: Portrait of an American Hero, Columbia Video Productions, 1985, 30 minutes. This video presents a brief look at the life of America’s first African American Supreme Court justice. 363 .

Learning Objectives and Answers After a careful examination of Chapter 25, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

Why did Americans disagree about New Deal-era laws and programs? Answer: Strikers had some support for their demands for better wages, benefits, and working conditions. However, strikes in important industries made some products unavailable and others expensive and generally hurt the economy.

How did postwar prosperity transform American society? Answer: People’s lives were changed by having the financial means to own a television, appliances, and a car, to go on vacation, send their children to college, and buy a home in the suburbs. Another consequence of postwar prosperity was conspicuous consumption.

How did mass media create teen culture? Answer: Mass media transmitted music and advertising directed specifically to teens. Dick Clark helped pioneer television programming exclusively for teenagers with a daily afternoon show showcasing the latest hits. The advent of pocket-sized transistor radios meant that teenagers could listen in the privacy of their bedrooms, away from critical adult ears. Hollywood also catered to teenage tastes and interests.

Why was the Civil Rights Movement successful in the fifties? Answer: Supreme Court decisions denied the constitutionality of segregated public schools and pressured the federal government to intervene on behalf of African Americans. Martin Luther King Jr. emerged as a major leader, alongside a generation of college students. Electronic media transmitted shocking images that made it impossible to ignore the demands of civil rights activists.

Crawl Questions and Answers What arguments do these signs make for labor’s demands? (p. 752) Answer: They assert that salaries are inadequate because they do not provide a decent life, give assurances that higher wages need not lead to higher prices, and suggest that veterans who made sacrifices are not being fairly compensated. What differing responses did postwar labor conflicts provoke? (p. 753) Answer: Popular support came initially but then faded as the supply of consumer goods and the economic base appeared threatened and prices rose. President Truman forced the 364 .

railroad strike to end. Steel and autoworkers won higher wages, improved benefits, and better working conditions. Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act to curtail the unions’ strength. How did foreign affairs influence domestic politics in the postwar era? (p. 754) Answer: Truman backed off on his liberal domestic agenda for fear of losing the support he needed to conduct the Korean War. Why was Eisenhower’s “victory of the moderates” significant? (p. 755) Answer: Eisenhower wanted to preserve popular New Deal programs but undid some of Truman’s Fair Deal and did not create any new social welfare programs. Why did standards of living improve for many Americans in the 1950s? (p. 756) Answer: American worker productivity increased greatly. Compare this family’s possessions and home life to those of previous generations. (p. 757) Answer: Previous generations would not have had a clothes washer, television, or automobile and were unlikely to have had a single-family home. Why did suburbs boom in the 1950s? (p. 758) Answer: Roads out of the cities had been built to enable evacuation in the event of a nuclear missile attack, but when more families were able to purchase their own homes and cars, the roads enabled people to live far from their place of employment. Cheaper building techniques were developed, particularly by William Levitt. Economic prosperity and the end of the war also led to a drastic increase in the birth rate. What competing visions emerged over suburban living and corporate jobs? (p. 759) Answer: Some viewed suburban life as breeding conformity, loneliness, and alienation, while others saw an erosion of ethnocentrism, xenophobia, and intolerance. What insights do 1950s television shows offer into American culture? (p. 760) Answer: The shows emphasized family life with well-defined roles and stereotypes and the importance of consumerism. How did politicians use television and photographs to shape their public image? (p. 761) Answer: Nixon first used television to defuse a political scandal. Politicians posed with their families in an effort to create or manipulate their public image. How did larger economic and technological changes make a mass teen culture possible? (p. 762) Answer: Teens could earn their own money. With their basic expenses paid for by their families, all their income was discretionary and disposable. National distribution of media, especially due to television and radio, enabled cultural phenomena to spread everywhere. 365 .

What competing visions of youth rebellion did rock-and-roll and the Beat movement embody? (p. 763) Answer: Rock-and-roll represented a rebellion against what were seen as repressive parental and societal restrictions, but without questioning basic values. The Beats rejected conformity, consumerism, home ownership, career, and marriage in favor of individual freedom, immediate pleasure (including drugs and casual sex), and a search for a meaningful life. How does Pollock’s painting compare to social realist paintings in the 1930s (see Chapter 22)? (p. 764) Answer: Social realists used their individual styles to portray realistic scenes, intending to communicate a message of social, political, or psychological significance. Pollock’s painting is not representational; it abstractly expresses the artist’s feelings and is hardly concerned with communicating. How did racial discrimination shape Southern children’s lives? (p. 765) Answer: Black and white children lived virtually isolated from each other. All children found segregation confusing, but for blacks it was also humiliating. Why did the Supreme Court rule that segregated schools were unconstitutional? (p. 766) Answer: Plessy v. Ferguson had ruled that racial segregation was legal as long as both sets of opportunities and accommodations were equal. The Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that racially segregated educational systems were not and could never be equal because segregation implies inferiority and causes psychological damage. How do these photos compare to postcards of lynchings (see Chapter 21)? (p. 767) Answer: As opposed to the postcards of lynchings, which show whites enjoying a festive night out with black lynching victims as decorations in the background, the photo of Emmett Till shows him as a gentle human being who was tortured horribly, and the photo of the defendants in the Till murder trial show everyone treating the matter seriously. Which individual choices mattered in the Till case? (p. 768) Answer: Important choices included Mamie Till-Bradley’s decision to report the crime and persist through a trial, and individual witnesses’ decisions to testify despite threats of retaliation. Because of the trial, the sight of ordinary black citizens standing up in court to accuse their white oppressors electrified a generation ready to strike back. What is the enduring legacy of Rosa Parks’s decision? (p. 769) Answer: Parks’s decision helped set off the Montgomery Bus Boycott and set an example of quiet civil disobedience.

366 .

Why was the Montgomery Bus Boycott a turning point in the Civil Rights Movement? (p. 770) Answer: The boycott brought to prominence Martin Luther King Jr. as a leader of the Civil Rights Movement and proved the effectiveness of nonviolent civil disobedience. What messages did this planned scene send to whites and blacks? (p. 771) Answer: The photograph of a racially integrated bus suggests that blacks and whites can ride together peacefully. Why did Eisenhower send troops to integrate Central High School in Little Rock? (p. 772) Answer: Eisenhower was enforcing a Supreme Court order to desegregate the school. In defiance of the order, the Arkansas governor had brought in state troops to stop the black students from entering the school. What do these statutes suggest about daily life for African Americans in the South? (p. 773) Answer: Daily life was filled with reminders of oppression and discrimination as all manner of activities were governed by racial distinctions, inconveniences, and other burdens. What principles lay at the heart of nonviolent direct action? (p. 774) Answer: Nonviolent protestors appealed to the majority’s conscience, believed that armed resistance was morally wrong, and recognized that a small minority could never overpower the U.S. Army with weapons. They refused to obey unjust laws, disrupted normal business to call attention to injustice, and aimed to attract press attention. What different strengths did students and churches bring to the Civil Rights Movement? (p. 775) Answer: Students were idealistic and enthusiastic and willing to take more risks than were many adult activists; churches had experienced organizers, meeting spaces, and funds. Review Questions and Answers 1.

How successful were efforts to undo the New Deal and curtail the Fair Deal from 1945 to 1960? Answer: Early efforts to undo the New Deal were unsuccessful, but unions lost popular support after labor strikes in important industries; subsequently, the TaftHartley Act undid significant aspects of the New Deal’s labor protections, leaving most of the New Deal programs intact. After Eisenhower’s election Republicans hoped to undo Truman’s Fair Deal. Eisenhower refused to cut back social security, labor protections, or farm programs, but did veto public housing and public works projects. 367 .

What debates arose over suburbanization and teen culture? Answer: Americans disagreed on whether suburbanization improved daily life or consisted of mindless conformity and superficial materialism. The specific character but also the mere existence of a teen culture raised the question of whether this culture was a harmless expression of adolescent rebellion or a sign of the disintegration of American society.

How did the media in the 1950s affect intergenerational conflicts? What role did the media play during the Civil Rights Movement? Answer: The media exacerbated intergenerational conflicts by encouraging and contributing the development of a distinct teen culture. Media representation of the evils of segregation, discrimination, and racial violence; the insensitivity of racists; and the dignity and sufferings of the oppressed helped build public sympathy for the Civil Rights Movement.

What key social conditions and events triggered the modern Civil Rights Movement? Answer: After a long legal battle, the U.S. Supreme Court declared racially segregated schools to be unconstitutional. The subsequent desegregation of schools led to violent conflicts, even after President Eisenhower used federal troops to decisively enforce court orders. The torture and murder of Emmett Till showcased white terrorism, and the trial of Till’s murderers showed ordinary black citizens standing up in court to accuse their white oppressors. After Rosa Parks was arrested for violating city bus segregation, Montgomery, Alabama, blacks held a bus boycott that gained national attention and brought Martin Luther King Jr. to the fore as a leader of the movement.

What roles did ordinary citizens play in the fight against Jim Crow? How important were Civil Rights Movement leaders? Answer: The participation of ordinary citizens in sit-ins and protest marches showed the movement’s popularity. Leaders were crucial for organizing group actions, teaching nonviolence strategies, and prosecuting legal remedies.

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

What image does this song conjure of suburban life? Answer: The song portrays the suburban life as one of uniformity, monotony, cheapness, meaninglessness, and either obliviousness or anomie. 368 .

What do sit-coms reveal about 1950s popular culture? Answer: The sit-com family was portrayed as an ideal in which human fulfillment was achieved by buying goods and filling a stereotypically defined role: children were well-meaning but could be mischievous, Mom handled domestic chores but was unable to cope with money matters, and Dad could solve all the problems that arose—but no serious or significant social problems ever manifested.

What key roles did women play in the Civil Rights Movement? Answer: Women formed organizations and led and participated in protests, including organizing the Montgomery Bus Boycott; they also participated in electoral politics after the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Women’s efforts for civil rights generally came out of their work for equal voting rights.

What challenges did the Little Rock Nine face as high school students? Answer: They were excluded from extracurricular activities. They were repeatedly physically assaulted and spit on. There was little support for white children who sympathized and wanted to make life easier for them.

How did SNCC define nonviolence? Answer: Nonviolence is an ideal—a motivating goal and a method of working towards goals. It is a means for achieving courage, love, peace, faith, acceptance, hope, mutual regard, and justice. And it “nurtures the atmosphere in which reconciliation and justice become actual possibilities.”

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 25 • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 25 Read the Document Farewell Address (1961) Hear the Audio Little Boxes View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Suburbs—American Dream or Nightmare? View the Closer Look Choices and Consequences: Does Father Know Best? Watch the Video Kennedy-Nixon Debate Read the Document The Teenage Consumer Read the Document Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954) View the Image Kenneth Clark Testing Children’s Choices of Dolls View the Closer Look Images as History: Inspiring a New Generation to Act Read the Document Bus Boycott Watch the Video Lecture African American Women and the Struggle for Civil Rights 369 .

• • • •

Watch the Video Lecture How Did the Civil Rights Movement Change American Schools? View the Image Opposition to Integration View the Closer Look Envisioning Evidence: A National Snapshot of Racial Discrimination Read the Document SNCC Statement of Purpose (1960)

370 .

CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX A NATION DIVIDED: THE VIETNAM WAR, 1945–1975 I. The Long Road to War A. The Escalating Importance of Vietnam B. Taking Over from the French C. Debates within the Kennedy Administration D. The Kennedy Assassination E. The Gulf of Tonkin II. Fighting in Vietnam A. The Bombing Campaign B. On the Ground C. The Tet Offensive III. Controversy on the Home Front A. The Antiwar Movement B. My Lai IV. The Long Road to Peace A. Seeking Peace with Honor B. Cambodia: Invasion and Outrage C. Withdrawal Vietnam was America’s longest war, a conflict that over time divided the nation to an extent not seen since the Civil War. For thirty years the United States invested money and then eventually soldiers in the struggle to prevent the establishment of communism in the small Southeast Asian country of Vietnam. From 1945 to 1964, the United States fought a proxy war by funneling supplies and aid to others willing to take up arms against the Vietnamese Communists. In 1965, the conflict became an American war when President Lyndon Johnson sent U.S. ground forces to fight in Southeast Asia. By 1967, the antiwar movement had taken to the streets to protest America’s involvement in Vietnam. On October 21, 1967, antiwar protesters gathered to hold a peace rally before the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., after which 30,000 demonstrators linked arms and marched to the Pentagon, the national headquarters for the Department of Defense. When they arrived, armed guards greeted them. As the soldiers advanced toward the crowd with their guns drawn, an 18-year-old actor from New York with a flair for the dramatic stepped forward holding a bouquet of pink carnations and carefully placed each one into soldiers’ rifles. Washington Star news photographer Bernie Boston captured this poetic gesture in his photograph “Flower Power,” an iconic photo of the civil strife that the war triggered. Competing interpretations of this image revealed key divisions of the era. For peace advocates, the photograph illustrated the stark contrast between government-sponsored violence in Vietnam and American citizens’ demand for peace. Critics of the peace movement, who accused activists of destroying respect for law 371 .

and order, viewed the gesture as a ploy meant to distract the soldiers moments before demonstrators stormed the steps of the Pentagon and armed guards beat them back. The Vietnam War originated as an anticolonial struggle to win independence from France, and then evolved into a civil war between North and South Vietnam. At first, the crucial debates about Vietnam took place behind closed doors in the White House. Over the course of the country’s 30-year engagement in Vietnam, despite being presented continuously with other viewpoints, five American presidents chose escalation when faced with the option of pulling back or pressing forward. Viewing the Vietnamese conflict through the prism of the global Cold War, each president feared that losing all of Vietnam to communism would set off a chain reaction of communist revolutions throughout Southeast Asia. World War II had united the nation. Vietnam fractured it. The guerilla war under way in South Vietnam, in which Communist soldiers intermingled with the civilian population to avoid detection, made it particularly difficult for Americans to separate enemy combatants from civilians. When the American military tried using overwhelming force to flush Communist guerillas out of South Vietnamese villages, the rising civilian death toll turned many Americans against the war. The conflict ultimately tore apart both Vietnam and America before the United States finally withdrew in 1973. The war ended with a Communist victory in 1975. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 26, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

How did the United States become involved in Vietnam?

What key factors shaped combat in Vietnam?

Why did the war become controversial at home?

How did the Vietnam War finally end?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Identify and explain the impact of the Tet Offensive.

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Revisit the course’s ongoing debate regarding American dissent against war. Have students compare and contrast the ways in which the federal government addressed issues of dissent during World War I and the Vietnam War. Invite students to respond to some of the following: a. Assess the public’s response to the American involvement in Vietnam. Which Americans were most active in their protests? What specific issues 372 .

associated with the war were the targets of protests? Did these issues change over time? Demonstrate how domestic protests escalated with the escalation of the war. Assess the factors that resulted in American involvement in these two wars. How were these factors similar? How were they different? Does the fact that the Vietnam conflict was never a declared war affect the propriety or impropriety of dissent against the war? Assess the extent to which there was, during both of these wars, a gap between the government and the American people regarding support for the wars from the very beginning. To what extent was the government effective in closing this gap during World War I? During the Vietnam War? Finally, address the issue of the propriety or impropriety of dissent against war. Was the government right to suppress dissent during World War I? Was it wrong? Was the public right to openly protest the Vietnam War? Was it wrong? Connect these debates to loyalty and dissent during the war in Iraq.

Should the United States have fought a major war in Vietnam?

What power did the press have in Vietnam?

Who was responsible for the My Lai Massacre?

Topics for Class Projects and Term Papers 1.

Have students address the issue of Hollywood and the Vietnam War. Allow students to choose one film that addresses the American involvement in Vietnam, and then discuss the following: a. How accurately does the film portray the American role in Vietnam? Is it historically accurate? b. How does the film reflect the American struggle with the war—not only the struggle with protest during the war, but also the lingering conflicts after the war ended? c. When was the film produced? Are there differences between films produced immediately after the war and those produced decades later? d. What is the background of the producer and/or director of the film? Does he or she have a clear political agenda? Was he or she actually involved in the war? This assignment would work well for a group project.

lived through these years, either as an active participant or as a passive observer, offers a perspective from which historians can learn. This can be an exciting way to expose students to the fact that history is living and happening around them. It also often proves to be a personally rewarding experience for the students as well as the subjects. Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Larry Berman, Planning a Tragedy: The Americanization of the War in Vietnam (1982). Alexander Bloom and Wini Breines, Takin’ It To the Streets: A Sixties Reader (1995). Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women’s Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (1980). Maurice Isserman and Michael Kazin, America Divided: The Civil War of the 1960s (2000). Stanley Karnow, Vietnam: A History (1991). Kim McQuaid, The Anxious Years: America in the Vietnam-Watergate Era (1989). William O’Neill, Coming Apart: An Informal History of America in the 1960s (1972). Audio-Visual Resources The Twentieth Century with Mike Wallace: Vietnam: How We Went to War, The History Channel, 50 minutes. Mike Wallace takes a look at the policies and events that carried America to Vietnam. Learning Objectives and Answers 1.

How did the United States become involved in Vietnam? Answer: During World War II, Japan took over the French colony of Indochina, including present-day Vietnam. The United States assisted an underground Vietnamese communist resistance movement against the Japanese occupiers. When the war ended, France regained control of Vietnam and sent in troops to crush the resistance. The United States supported France in Vietnam because U.S. leaders felt they needed French cooperation to defend Western Europe from the threat of Soviet invasion.

What key factors shaped combat in Vietnam? Answer: The country was almost entirely rural and poor. It was mountainous and swampy. The North was united against the South, but the South was home to many vigorous supporters of the North, especially because the government of the South was corrupt and incompetent and repressed Buddhism.

374 .

Why did the war become controversial at home? Answer: The self-immolation of Buddhist monks proved that the Diem government was not uniformly loved by the South Vietnamese people. The Tet Offensive convinced many Americans that the war was unwinnable and could be interminable. Television images of dead and wounded soldiers and napalm attacks confronted ordinary Americans with the horrors of war.

How did the Vietnam War finally end? Answer: After Nixon’s escalation of bombing proved futile, the remaining U.S. troops were gradually withdrawn. With the United States gone, North Vietnamese troops quickly overran the South. Eventually the country was reunited under communist rule.

Crawl Questions and Answers Who was Ho Chi Minh to his supporters and foes? (p. 780) Answer: Ho Chi Minh was the leader of an underground Vietnamese communist resistance movement. To his supporters, he was “Uncle Ho,” a patriot and liberator as well as the leader of the provisional government. To Americans, he was a puppet of the Soviets. What political and strategic importance did Vietnam assume in U.S. foreign policy by the mid-1950s? (p. 781) Answer: Many in the Truman and Eisenhower administrations feared that a communist Vietnam would begin a complete communist takeover of Southeast Asia. What key choices did Eisenhower make in 1954 that increased U.S. involvement in Vietnam? (p. 782) Answer: Eisenhower refused to sign the Geneva Accords, helped to install Diem to lead a puppet government in South Vietnam, and used the CIA to try to destabilize Ho’s government in the North. Why did the civil war in Vietnam reignite in the late 1950s and early 1960s? (p. 783) Answer: Diem’s government was weak, corrupt, anti-democratic, overly authoritarian, and insensitive to the needs of the people. What conflicting recommendations did Kennedy receive from his advisors about Vietnam? (p. 784) Answer: Some wanted him to send U.S. combat troops to fight the Communists; others wanted him to negotiate a settlement.

375 .

What insights does the story behind this 1963 photo offer into the Vietnam War? (p. 785) Answer: It shows that the Vietnamese were totally committed to getting rid of Diem and that the United States was backing a corrupt and cruel dictator. How did images both provoke and quell controversy surrounding the Kennedy assassination? (p. 786) Answer: The Zapruder film convinced the Warren Commission that Oswald acted alone, contrary to the claims of conspiracy theorists. The photograph of Johnson taking the oath of office helped legitimize the transfer of power. Why was the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident a turning point in the Vietnam War? (p. 787) Answer: Johnson lied about the incident to the American people, covering up the United States’ ongoing covert military operations that had incited the attack and using the attack as an excuse to Congress and the public for escalating the war. Why was Johnson’s decision to escalate U.S. troop levels in 1965 important? (p. 788) Answer: Instead of merely aiding South Vietnam, the United States became directly and heavily involved in war. What messages did North Vietnamese propaganda send? (p. 789) Answer: The North Vietnamese aimed to show that communist ingenuity could overcome the world’s greatest military power. What motivated American men to volunteer to fight in Vietnam? (p. 790) Answer: Motivations included the desire to escape suburbia, patriotism, and the dream of being a hero. What tactics did the military adopt to fight the Vietcong? (p. 791) Answer: They dropped defoliants to destroy the forests and expose Vietcong hideouts. They conducted search-and-destroy missions that destroyed villages. They fought a war of attrition, expecting the small Vietnamese nation to eventually run out of soldiers. Why was using enemy body counts to measure victory problematic? (p. 792) Answer: It was impossible to count the number of dead after a battle, and U.S. soldiers were motivated to overestimate. Why did the 1968 Tet Offensive have such tremendous political fallout? (p. 793) Answer: The Tet Offensive disproved the U.S. military’s claims that the United States was making progress toward winning the war. Why did this image become the defining one of the Tet Offensive? (p. 794) Answer: The image convinced people that the United States was supporting a barbaric dictatorship rather than the rule of law. 376 .

How does this image compare to combat photographs from World War II and the Korean War (see Chapters 23 and 24)? (p. 795) Answer: This photo shows the suffering of U.S. soldiers without glorifying war. What differing visions did peace activists offer on the war? (p. 796) Answer: In one vision, the war was wrong because it harmed the Vietnamese more than did Communist rule; in another, the war was a mistake because it was unwinnable; in a third, the war was a mistake because it was based on false beliefs about the unity of the communist world; others saw protesting the war as a means to call attention to all sorts of injustice in the United States. How did the peace movement publicize its cause? (p. 797) Answer: Peace advocates on college campuses held “teach-ins.” Other activists organized draft-card burning ceremonies. Why did the peace movement have trouble winning support from mainstream America? (p. 798) Answer: Some people felt the peace movement was disrespectful of the value of law and order, and many Americans had stronger feelings against communism than against war. Why did photos of the My Lai massacre provoke conflicting responses from Americans? (p. 799) Answer: People disagreed as to whether the atrocities were an isolated incident or whether such actions were representative of American military conduct. What was the ultimate historic significance of the My Lai massacre? (p. 800) Answer: Interpretations of and judgments about My Lai reflect an individual’s overall understanding of the Vietnam War: America remains divided. Why did Nixon implement Vietnamization? (p. 801) Answer: Vietnamization was Nixon’s strategy for leaving Vietnam without surrendering. How did Nixon try to win the war? (p. 802) Answer: He escalated bombing, even extending it to the neutral country of Cambodia, and tried to persuade the Chinese and the Soviets to lessen their support of North Vietnam. What do these data reveal about the stages of America’s involvement in Vietnam? (p. 803) Answer: At first, American involvement was relatively minimal; then troop commitments and bombing increased greatly; bombing was radically cut, and troop commitments cut gradually; American involvement ended with a massive bombing campaign as the last troops were brought home.

377 .

What competing visions emerged in response to the Kent State killings? (p. 804) Answer: The divide between war supporters, who saw the killings as legitimate, and peace advocates, who saw the killings as criminal, was sharpened. How did Nixon reshape the Cold War? (p. 805) Answer: He worked diplomatically to achieve détente with China and negotiated a nuclear disarmament treaty with the Soviet Union. How did the Vietnam War finally end for the United States and the Vietnamese? (p. 806) Answer: The United States signed a peace treaty, brought home its soldiers and diplomats, and abandoned its mission; the war continued for two months until South Vietnam was conquered and Vietnam became a unified communist country. Why does the Vietnam War continue to provoke controversy among Americans? (p. 807) Answer: The Vietnam War was a costly failure, and there remains disagreement regarding what should have been done differently. Review Questions and Answers 1.

How important were early decisions (1945–1954) in setting the course of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War? Answer: The U.S. decision to favor Diem was crucial in setting the future path of the conflict, since Diem could never earn sufficient support from his own people. On the other hand, during this period U.S. involvement remained minimal, and the United States could have changed course at any time. Likewise, the decision to not back Ho could have been reversed at any time.

How did the Cold War influence presidential decision making about Vietnam from 1945 to 1975? Answer: U.S. policies and actions in Vietnam were guided by fear that a Communist government there would enable communism to spread throughout Southeast Asia. In 1945, the fear was that the Vietnamese Communists would be puppets of the Soviet Union. After the construction of the Berlin Wall and the Bay of Pigs fiasco, Kennedy feared he needed to support South Vietnam to varnish his anti-communist credentials. Johnson also feared being perceived as weak if he were to “lose” Vietnam. Nixon’s goal was to end the Cold War with a new balance of power; thus, he courted both China and the USSR and tried to play them against each other.

378 .

What military challenges did American troops face while fighting in Vietnam? Answer: Living and fighting in the swamps and jungles was difficult. The Vietminh used guerilla warfare, blending into the civilian population or hiding in underground tunnels, setting booby traps, and conducting surprise attacks. The American military tried to defeat Vietnamese guerillas by bombing enemy bases and destroying their village refuges, but these tactics resulted in many civilian casualties and turned the population against them.

How did competing images of the war create turmoil at home? Answer: Images of the self-immolation of Thich Quang Duc and of dead and injured young American soldiers fueled the peace movement; images of SVA General Loan’s execution of a suspected guerrilla in a Saigon street, of the My Lai massacre victims, and of the Kent State killings contributed to distrust of U.S. leaders; images of Kennedy’s assassination and Johnson’s swearing in led the public to join in supporting the government; news coverage of antiwar demonstrations suggested that the activists were unpatriotic and wacky.

What do the debates surrounding the My Lai massacre and Kent State shootings reveal about Americans’ competing visions of the war? Answer: The premise of U.S. involvement was that allowing a communist takeover would subject the Vietnamese to ruthless oppression by a totalitarian government. The actions of U.S. officials in bringing about the My Lai massacre and Kent State shootings called into question U.S. claims to the moral superiority of its type of government.

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

What increasing role did Eisenhower envision for the United States in Vietnam? Answer: Eisenhower wanted U.S. involvement only as a member of a coalition, and he would not consider committing U.S. ground troops.

How did Johnson justify fighting in Vietnam? Answer: Johnson argued that American power was a vital shield in Asia, that an Asia threatened by communist domination would imperil the security of the United States itself, and that the United States must keep the promises of three U.S. presidents who had pledged continued support to South Vietnam.

379 .

What differing views do these two songs offer on the war in Vietnam? Answer: One song is clearly in support of the war while the other sees America’s involvement as morally unjust.

What message does this film send to middle America about the peace movement? Answer: The film suggests that the peace movement was strong and diverse but also kooky, dishonest, and unpatriotic.

What is the significance of My Lai? Answer: My Lai shows that “we have an evil in us, unfortunately, and it comes out every once in a while.” It made people question whether the United States could claim that it had a right to interfere with the choices of the Vietnamese people.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 26 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 26 Read the Document Declaration of Independence for Vietnam (1945) Read the Document Dien Bien Phu (1954) Read the Document George Ball’s Dissenting Opinion on Vietnam (1965) Read the Document Johnson’s Defense of the U.S. Presence in Vietnam (1965) View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Popular Music and the Vietnam War View the Interactive Map The Vietnam War View the Closer Look Images as History: The Power of the Press in Vietnam View the Image Vietnam—I Want Out Read the Document Conscience and the Vietnam War Watch the Video Protests Against the Vietnam War Watch the Video Lecture Atrocity and Cover Up: My Lai Massacre View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Who Was Responsible for the My Lai Massacre? Read the Document Vietnamization View the Image Kent State Demonstrations View the Closer Look Envisioning Evidence: Vietnam: The War By the Numbers Watch the Video Lecture Protest, Counterculture, and the Antiwar Movement during the Vietnam Era

380 .

CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN A DECADE OF DISCORD: THE CHALLENGE OF THE 1960s I. The Liberal Moment A. Kennedy and the New Frontier B. A Liberal Court C. The 1964 Election D. The Great Society II. Nonviolence Triumphant: The Civil Rights Movement, 1960–1965 A. Kennedy and the Freedom Riders B. Birmingham, 1963 C. March on Washington D. Freedom Summer E. Selma and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 III. The Fractured Left A. The New Left and the Counterculture B. Malcolm X: An Alternative to Nonviolence C. Watts and Chicago D. Black Power and the Black Panthers E. The Women’s Liberation Movement IV. The End of an Era A. The Faltering Civil Rights Movement B. The Great Society Unravels C. The Demise of the Counterculture D. Keeping Protest Alive: Mexican Americans and Native Americans In April 1968, civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. traveled to Memphis, Tennessee, to offer his support for a black garbage men’s strike. Around 6:00 p.m. on April 5, 1968, as King leaned over a balcony railing outside his second-story room at the Lorraine Motel to chat with two friends in the courtyard below, shots rang out. A wounded King collapsed on the floor of the balcony, and colleagues frantically tried to stem the bleeding with towels while waiting for the ambulance to arrive. Within an hour, hospital doctors pronounced the thirty-eight-year-old minister dead. As news of King’s assassination spread, rioting erupted in black communities throughout the nation, and images of violence saturated the television airwaves. The crushing disappointment of dashed dreams was a sentiment shared by many Americans in the 1960s, white and black, who failed to fully realize their goals of either reforming America or ending the cultural turmoil. America was rife with discord during the sixties. Much debate centered on liberalism and its willingness to use the government to protect civil rights and expand economic opportunity. Throughout the decade, social reformers working within the liberal tradition advanced competing visions of social justice and shared prosperity. Some 381 .

visions were bold; some, truly radical. King dreamed of using nonviolence to achieve racial equality; more militant activists advocated armed self-defense. Building on the reform legacies of the Progressive Era and the New Deal, Democratic presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson launched their own wars against poverty. Their legislative agendas were too timid for young radical activists who wanted to revolutionize American capitalism. Feminists, Chicano activists, and Native American protesters all mobilized as well to demand equal rights. These visions of reform, especially the more radical revolutionary ones, appeared like nightmares to conservative segments of the population that abhorred liberalism. Southern segregationists organized to prevent any government-mandated dismantling of Jim Crow, and white Northerners increasingly resented taxpayer-supported programs for unruly minorities. The rise of a hippie counterculture that emphasized love and pleasure convinced many working- and middle-class whites that liberalism meant the end of law and order and traditional values. If there was one point of agreement throughout the sixties, it was that the political and cultural battles that defined the decade, for good or ill, transformed the nation. By the end of the decade, frustration over unfulfilled dreams left Americans divided over whether the nation had changed too much or not enough. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 27, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

How did the Great Society transform American society?

Why were nonviolent civil rights protests successful in the 1960s?

Why did disagreements arise among liberals and radicals?

Why did conservative ideals gain strength as the decade progressed?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Discuss the issue of women involved with the New Left movement during the 1960s. Many students assume that because the New Left was a liberal political movement, gender equity was part of its agenda. Discuss with students how women were treated within the counterculture, the New Left, and the Civil Rights Movement. How did men involved with these movements feel about the status of women? How did women’s experiences in these leftist movements pave the way for the women’s liberation movement of the 1970s?

382 .

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Have students compare and contrast the three major leftist movements of the twentieth century: the Lyrical Left, the Old Left, and the New Left. Have students consider the following: a. Place each movement in its historical context. During which general period of American history did each movement emerge? b. Who was involved in each movement? Which sector of society was moved and inspired by the message of each movement? Why? c. What was each movement’s agenda? Did the New Left borrow anything in terms of issues or political style from the movements that preceded it? d. How effective was each movement? Did they have a lasting impact on American politics and/or society?

Compare and contrast the Southern and Northern civil rights movements. Who led the movements? How were these leaders similar? How were they different? What were the style and agenda of the movements? How were they similar? How were they different? How effective were the two movements? To what extent did they define American race relations for the future?

Does school prayer violate the First Amendment?

How did the images from Birmingham change Americans’ attitudes towards the Civil Rights Movement?

Discuss the competing visions of the Black Power movement.

Topics for Class Projects and Term Papers 1.

Have students create a dialogue between Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, and Huey Newton. How were these leaders similar? How were they different? What was each individual’s philosophy toward the issues of violence, integration, and success for the black community? What affiliations did they create or join? What sector of society was inspired by these leaders?

Have students prepare an oral history project based on interviews with individuals who lived during the 1960s and 1970s. They can talk to individuals who participated in or were exposed to the counterculture, the civil rights movement, the women’s movement, and the Vietnam War. Emphasize to students that the subject of an oral history does not have to be a renowned person. Anyone who lived through these years, either as an active participant or as a passive observer, offers a perspective from which historians can learn. This can be an exciting way to expose students to the fact that history is living and happening around them. It also often proves to be a personally rewarding experience for the students as well as the subjects. 383 .

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Alexander Bloom and Wini Breines, Takin’ It To the Streets: A Sixties Reader (1995). Elaine Brown, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman’s Story (1993). Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women’s Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (1980). Alex Haley, The Autobiography of Malcolm X as told to Alex Haley (1966). Walter Isaacson, Kissinger: A Biography (1992). Maurice Isserman and Michael Kazin, America Divided: The Civil War of the 1960s (2000). William O’Neill, Coming Apart: An Informal History of America in the 1960s (1972). Irwin Unger, The Movement: A History of the American New Left, 1959–1972 (1974). Audio-Visual Resources Chicago, 1968: The American Experience, Chana Gazit, 1995, 60 minutes. This video examines events surrounding the 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago. The Twentieth Century with Mike Wallace: Pioneers in Space, The History Channel, 50 minutes. Mike Wallace examines the early years of the NASA space program. Learning Objectives and Answers 1.

How did the Great Society transform American society? Answer: In conjunction with the actions of the Warren Court, the Great Society changed the lives of all Americans, especially the poor, and more especially, urban poor African Americans. The Great Society attacked air and water pollution, required nutrition labels on foods and gave food to the poor, improved education, constructed highways and landscaped them, constructed urban housing and made it affordable, and provided health care to senior citizens and the poor.

Why were nonviolent civil rights protests successful in the 1960s? Answer: People all over the country saw African Americans asserting their rights as human beings, acting peacefully and with dignity, brutally attacked by white racist mobs and would-be peace officers representing the government.

Why did disagreements arise among liberals and radicals? Answer: Liberals wanted to make gradual changes within existing political and social structures; disappointed or frustrated with slow progress, radicals wanted to overturn those structures and remake society. 384 .

Why did conservative ideals gain strength as the decade progressed? Answer: Social changes were difficult for many Americans to adjust to, but the radicals wanted more changes faster, and some were willing to use violence to achieve their ends. For those whose privileges were threatened, conservatism was a defense. Conservatism was also a defense for those who were confused or made uncomfortable by the irrelevance of their expectations and values. As well, conservatism was a reaction to the new problems brought about by social changes.

Crawl Questions and Answers What social problems associated with poverty became visible in the early 1960s? (p. 812) Answer: Extramarital sex, illegitimate children, broken families, deteriorating schools, substandard hospitals, and dead-end jobs combined to create a distinct culture of poverty that was passed from generation to generation. Why did many people find Kennedy inspiring? (p. 813) Answer: Kennedy was hopeful, idealistic, charismatic, and young. How did the Warren Court advance the liberal reform agenda? (p. 814) Answer: The Warren Court barred racial segregation in public schools and on interstate and city buses. They protected individual rights to speech and assembly, expanded voting rights and rights of persons accused of crimes, and declared rights to privacy, to use contraception, to publish and possess “obscenity,” to marry whom one chooses, and to a state-funded attorney. Why did so many Americans object to the Supreme Court’s ruling against school prayer? (p. 815) Answer: Some believe that banning school prayer violated their right to exercise free speech and destroyed the spiritual heritage of the nation. What competing views of government emerged during the 1964 presidential election? (p. 816) Answer: Johnson and other liberal reformers had faith in the power of government to improve the quality of life; Goldwater and the radical right believed generally that government did more harm than good and were more concerned about restrictions on freedom than about social welfare. Why was Johnson such an effective politician? (p. 817) Answer: He worked hard and knew how to lobby and persuade using his mixture of cajoling, bargaining, and intimidating.

385 .

What social problems did Great Society laws and programs address? (p. 818) Answer: Great Society laws and programs addressed poverty, including poverty and inadequate medical care in old age; pollution and loss of wilderness; inadequate and unequal education; and poor nutrition. What was the purpose of the Freedom Rides? (p. 819) Answer: The Freedom Riders expected racists to confront them and create a crisis that would compel the federal government to enforce federal desegregation laws. Who made key choices that affected the course and outcome of the Freedom Rides? (p. 820) Answer: Segregationists decided to attack a bus and to attack individuals leaving the bus. President Kennedy decided not to intervene. Individuals decided to join the rides so they could continue. Robert Kennedy sent federal marshals to protect the riders. A government official in Mississippi decided to have the riders arrested for violating state segregation laws. Why did the Birmingham campaign succeed? (p. 821) Answer: The campaign was carefully coordinated and had many supporters. SCLC chose a location with a volatile sheriff whose actions were likely to attract national attention, and they also included moderate white business owners in their plans. They recruited high school students to participate because their attendance would not jeopardize their families’ finances. Television enabled the entire nation to see the shocking treatment of the protesters, and people were outraged. Does knowing more about McKinstry and Moore alter this photograph’s meaning? (p. 822) Answer: SCLC leaders recruited high school students, such as Carolyn McKinstry, to join the Birmingham protests to help put pressure on the city while lessening the economic threat to families of having adults lose time working by protesting and possibly spending time in jail. Moore avoided taking photos that might send mixed messages and focused on portraying the police as responsible for escalating the violence. How did Life magazine and Moore differ over the meaning of this photo? (p. 823) Answer: Moore thought the picture showed the police were to blame for the violence and that police actions were “revolting”; Life also blamed both the protesters for welcoming the brutality as furthering their cause. What symbolism and rhetoric connected the 1963 March on Washington to the past and future? (p. 824) Answer: A leader of the march was A. Philip Randolph, who had planned and then canceled a similar march in 1941. The march was held at the Lincoln Memorial on the 100th anniversary of Lincoln’s signing the Emancipation Proclamation.

386 .

What interracial tensions within the Civil Rights Movement did Freedom Summer expose? (p. 825) Answer: SNCC thought that national media would only pay attention to protests involving whites. What pivotal role did college-age students play in Freedom Summer? (p. 826) Answer: College-age students from the North were sent to protest; because they were not their family’s primary means of support, they could be spared at home and stay longer. Freedom Summer was planned and led by SNCC, whose membership was primarily composed of black college students. How did the media, public, and government respond to events in Selma? (p. 827) Answer: White spectators cheered as county troopers physically attacked marchers. ABC interrupted their regular broadcasting to report on the events. The events spurred President Johnson to propose a federal voting rights act. How did the New Left affect university life? (p. 828) Answer: The New Left started the Free Speech Movement, which turned universities into a leading site of protest and led to the elimination of rigid codes of conduct and the liberalization of curricula. How did the New Left, Civil Rights Movement, and counterculture diverge? (p. 829) Answer: The New Left lost faith in America’s type of representative government; they sympathized with Marxist revolutionaries and were concerned with all manner of political issues. The counterculture was about a wholesale rejection of middle-class lifestyles, while most black civil rights activists were fighting for their fair share of the nation’s wealth and prosperity. Why did Northern blacks find Malcolm X’s vision appealing? (p. 830) Answer: Northern blacks already had many of the rights that Southern blacks were fighting for, but still suffered from racism—living in segregated ghetto housing and being routinely subjected to discrimination in hiring and police harassment. They could also relate to Malcolm’s Africanism by adopting superficialities such as African clothing, hairstyles, and music. Why did many Northern whites lose sympathy for the Civil Rights Movement? (p. 831) Answer: The Watts riots marked a change from nonviolence to terrorism. Northern whites feared black violent uprisings after seeing biased press coverage overlooking police brutality and harassment. Did the tactics used by the Black Panthers to publicize their militant vision help or hurt them? (p. 832) Answer: Press coverage of the Panthers focused on their uniforms and rifles to the exclusion of their community-based food and nutrition programs. 387 .

Why do all three writers emphasize racial pride and manhood? (p. 833) Answer: As the Brown decision recognized, the most basic harm of racism and racial segregation is to blacks’ dignity. What competing visions did Brown and Friedan offer on empowering women? (p. 834) Answer: Brown envisioned ways for women to take greater advantage of gender-based stereotypes; Friedan envisioned a world without gender-based stereotypes, in which women could each engage in the full range of meaningful activities available to men. How did activists’ competing visions and media coverage shape the women’s liberation movement? (p. 835) Answer: NOW worked for legislation to secure equal rights for women in employment, education, and politics. More radical feminists saw sexism as more fundamental and pervasive and worked to change people’s attitudes. Black women were to some extent forced to choose between supporting black rights or women’s rights. Why was King’s death a serious blow to the Civil Rights Movement? (p. 836) Answer: King’s leadership was already becoming weaker. After King was killed, blacks in cities across the nation rioted, leading many whites to call for law and order rather than an end to racism. How did presidential choices and public attitudes undermine Johnson’s Great Society agenda? (p. 837) Answer: Lessening public support for the Civil Rights Movement was attended by lessening support for Great Society programs that helped blacks in poverty. Whites began to resent federal spending that primarily helped non-whites. Johnson’s prosecution of the Vietnam War sucked up funds that were needed to keep the Great Society programs running. How did media exposure affect the counterculture? (p. 838) Answer: Media coverage commercialized and trivialized the counterculture, subjecting it to mockery by mainstream America. Partly to avoid such media coverage, more hippies chose to pursue their utopian visions in rural communes away from media attention. What problems did Chicanos and Native Americans face in the 1960s? (p. 839) Answer: Many Chicanos worked as migrant farmworkers, subject to unhealthful, difficult, and painful working conditions and suffering short life expectancies and high infant mortality rates. Urban Chicanos suffered from poor, segregated schools. Under the termination policy, Native Americans were abandoned by the government in hopes that they would assimilate to mainstream culture. Eventually the failure of termination was recognized and the policy was abandoned.

388 .

Review Questions and Answers 1.

Why were the Freedom Rides, the Birmingham campaign, and the March on Selma effective nonviolent civil rights protests? Answer: They were effective in bringing about change because they swayed popular opinion by showing the injustice of those who denied civil rights and the justice of the protestors’ cause.

How did the Great Society compare to the New Deal? What continuities or differences existed between them? Answer: Both were responses to crises—the New Deal to an economic crisis, the Great Society to social and ecological crises. Both used government to redistribute wealth and to restrict business practices that harmed or endangered the public.

Why did Black Nationalist sentiment increase among African Americans after 1965? Answer: In the later 1960s, black nationalism grew along with black militancy and black separatism in response to the stalling progress of the Civil Rights Movement.

How did media coverage affect protest movements in the 1960s? Answer: All the protest movements were made far more effective by media coverage, which helped them get their messages to wide audiences. Images of peaceful, dignified black protestors bullied and assaulted by vicious law enforcement officers and white racist mobs made whites sympathetic to the Civil Rights Movement. Media coverage of the counterculture drew large crowds to the “Summer of Love.” Because of international media coverage of the March on Washington, Americans concluded that domestic racial discrimination was a hindrance to effective foreign policy. Media coverage of the Watts riots changed many whites’ opinions of the movement from one of righteous indignation in support of the protests to fear and revulsion at lawlessness.

How did the 1960s transform American society? Answer: The Civil Rights Movement to a large extent brought African Americans into mainstream society but could not dismantle urban ghettos and whites-only suburbs. Frustrations gave rise to more hostile and violent African American liberation groups and a loss of white sympathies for the cause. The Great Society addressed problems that affected Americans of all races—poverty, unemployment, education, nutrition—but lost momentum and funding because of 389 .

Johnson’s obsession with Vietnam. The women’s movement began to open more careers and lifestyle options to women. MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

What different views did Johnson and Goldwater have on the role of the federal government in American society? Answer: Johnson wanted the federal government to rein in the wealthy, help economically disadvantaged Americans achieve a decent standard of living, control pollution, and fund the arts. Goldwater wanted to drastically shrink the government, including eliminating Social Security and federal civil rights laws.

How did this test prevent African Americans from voting? Answer: The excerpts are complicated and awkwardly worded. The applicant must sign a waiver of any right to review the test afterward, so there is no way to question or appeal a failing grade.

What impact did a politically active youth culture have? Answer: According to the Scranton Report, the politically-active youth culture forced all young people to make difficult personal decisions and led to confrontations with authorities representing and aiming to preserve the status quo.

Why did Malcolm X propose internationalizing the Civil Rights Movement? Answer: The idea was that internationalizing the Civil Rights Movement could bring assistance from oppressed dark-skinned people around the world as well as the United Nations, and international scrutiny would lessen the influence of entrenched power in the United States.

How did competing views about the pill mirror earlier debates over female sexuality? Answer: Like female sexuality, the pill did not meet the expectations or fears that either advocates or detractors associated with it, and also like female sexuality, it changed the lives of women in many ways that no one at the time expected.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 27 • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 27 View the Image New Frontier Legislation Read the Document Inaugural Address (1961) 390 .

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Read the Document Voting Rights in Mississippi (1964) Watch the Video Lyndon Johnson Presidential Campaign Ad: Little Girl vs. Mushroom Cloud View the Closer Look Competing Visions: The Federal Government, Friend or Foe? Read the Document Silent Spring (1962) Read the Document Letter from Birmingham City Jail (1963) Watch the Video Lecture Photographing the Civil Rights Movement, Birmingham, 1963 View the Closer Look Images as History: Birmingham, 1963 Watch the Video Martin Luther King, Jr.’s Speech at the March on Washington, August, 1963 Read the Document Letters from Mississippi Freedom Summer Read the Document Voting Literacy Test (1965) View the Interactive Map Impact of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 Watch the Video Malcolm X View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Defining Black Power Watch the Video Lecture The Birth Control Pill: The Solution to the World’s Problems or Sexual Chaos? Read the Document Cesar Chavez, He Showed Us the Way (1978) Read the Document The Report of the President’s Commission on Campus Unrest

391 .

CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT RIGHTING A NATION ADRIFT: AMERICA IN THE 1970s AND 1980s I. Downturn and Scandal A. An Ailing Economy B. Frustration at Home C. The Watergate Scandal II. A Crisis of Presidential Leadership A. A Weakened Presidency B. The Leadership Crisis Continues: Carter in the White House C. New Paths in Foreign Affairs III. The Rights Revolution A. The Equal Rights Amendment and Abortion Controversies B. Gay Rights C. Environmentalism IV. The Rise of the Right A. The New Conservative Coalition B. Setting a New Course: Reagan at Home C. Foreign Policy Triumphs and Scandals D. The Reagan Revolution The vision of the United States as a great and powerful nation suddenly seemed less assured in the 1970s. In 1973, a dispute between the United States and oil-producing Arab nations led to an oil embargo that severely restricted oil imports. Gas stations across the nation posted signs as they ran out of gas, dotting the American landscape with humiliating reminders that foreign nations had the power to wreak havoc on the U.S. economy. Gas shortages also threatened the vision of America as a prosperous car culture where it was the birthright of every citizen to work, live, and shop wherever they liked thanks to the freedom of movement that automobiles provided. To many Americans, images of closed gas stations (which reappeared in 1979) were just one sign of a nation adrift. Domestic political scandals, a troubled economy, and lost international prestige made the future look dim. Americans lost confidence in the federal government in the 1970s as the Watergate scandal and cover-up brought down President Richard Nixon and the postWorld War II boom times finally ended, leaving high inflation and unemployment. Ongoing economic woes and troubles abroad hampered the efforts of presidents Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter to restore respect for the presidency. Americans did not agree over how to move the nation back onto the path of glory. Women’s and gay rights groups fought to extend the social justice campaigns of the sixties, while the environmental movement focused Americans’ attention on conserving its natural heritage. A new and powerful conservative coalition, however, formed around a competing vision that focused on protecting traditional values, limiting the role of the government in the economy, and 392 .

flexing the nation’s power overseas. In the 1980s, after two decades of grassroots activism, the conservative ascendancy was complete. When Ronald Reagan, an ideologically committed conservative, became president in 1981, he rejected the notion that America had entered an age of limits. Reagan rejected the liberal vision and diagnosed government as part of the problem, not the solution to the nation’s economic woes. He also moved aggressively to restore America’s image as a powerful world power. An immensely popular president, Reagan restored the nation’s confidence in the economy and the presidency, despite suffering some political scandals of his own. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 28, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

Why did the nation face economic problems in the 1970s?

Why did presidents Ford and Carter lose public confidence?

What debates emerged over gender identity and the environment?

What constituencies united to form the New Right?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Discuss the role of Henry Kissinger in the foreign affairs of the Nixon administration. How did his European background define his approach to diplomacy? How did he respond to the American tradition of moral diplomacy? How significant was Kissinger’s role in defining American foreign policy during the 1970s?

Present a lecture on Jimmy Carter as a Southern president. How did his character, political style, and political agenda reflect his southern background? One historian has characterized Carter as the “Yankee from Georgia.” Why? How do Lyndon Johnson and Jimmy Carter compare as Southern presidents? How do they differ?

Address the emergence of the Sunbelt as the region of economic growth during the late twentieth century. What factors contributed to this regional shift in economic power? Aside from economic and/or financial issues, were there political, social, or cultural factors involved in the shift? What impact did World War II have on the modern transformation of the South? What impact did the Civil Rights Movement have on the modern transformation of the South?

Discuss the connection between the sexual revolution of the 1970s and the broader women’s liberation movement. Although the sexual revolution is often 393 .

considered part of the women’s liberation movement, sexuality has historically been a divisive issue even among the most progressive women, with some feminists arguing that sexual liberation demeans the status of women and others arguing that sexual liberation allows women to behave as equals with men. How did this conflict play out for men and women in the late twentieth century? How has sexuality and the changing status of women played out in the “culture wars” of recent years? Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Compare and contrast recent trends in American immigration with the New Immigration of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Consider the following: a. Compare the two statistically. How many immigrants came into the country during these two periods, and what percentage of American population growth was accounted for by the immigrant population during the two periods? b. Compare the impact of immigration on cities during these two periods. Which aspects of the impact are similar? Which are different? c. Compare the native-born American response to the influx of foreign population during both periods. Again, to what extent is the response similar? To what extent is it different?

In recent decades, historians have debated whether the modern South has been nationalized or the nation has been Southernized. Have students consider this question today. Have economic revitalization and the movement of people from other regions and countries into the South diminished its unique character and made it more comparable to the rest of the nation? Or, has the exposure of more Americans to Southern culture and to problems formerly identified primarily with the South, such as race problems, made the nation more Southern (i.e., more politically, socially, religiously, and racially conservative)?

Are political cartoons an effective way to comment seriously on heady political issues of the day or too superficial to truly aid the public in understanding difficult political questions?

How did domestic and foreign policy concerns influence Carter’s handling of the Iranian hostage crisis?

Do Steinem and Schlafly offer depictions of women’s lives that are realistic, overly idealized, or a combination of both?

394 .

Topics for Class Projects and Term Papers 1.

Have students write a paper researching the impact of one of the prominent evangelists of the modern era such as Pat Robertson, Jerry Falwell, Jim Bakker, or Jimmy Swaggart. In the paper, they can address the contribution of the person to the popularization of evangelical Protestantism as well as the extent to which each evangelist had a political agenda attached to his ministry.

Examine the image of the white male in American popular culture during the 1980s. Consider particularly the film industry and the popularity of Clint Eastwood, Sylvester Stallone, and Arnold Schwarzenegger. Is there a connection between the popularity of these leading men and the Reagan presidency? Is there a connection between the popularity of the characters these actors portrayed and the rising influence of women and minorities in American society?

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Kim McQuaid, The Anxious Years: America in the Vietnam-Watergate Era (1989). William Bennett, The De-Valuing of America: The Fight for Our Culture and Our Children (1992). Barry Bluestone and Bennett Harrison, The Deindustrialization of America (1982). Stephanie Coontz, The Way We Really Are (1990) and The Way We Never Were (1992). Lee Edwards, The Conservative Revolution (1999). Susan Faludi, Stiffed: The Betrayal of the American Man (1999). Frances Fitzgerald, Cities on a Hill (1986). Jo Freeman, The Politics of Women’s Liberation (1975). Jane Davis Hunter, Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America (1991). Rickie Solinger, ed. Abortion Wars: A Half Century of Struggle, 1950–2000 (1998). Garry Wills, Reagan’s America: Innocents at Home (1987). Audio-Visual Resources Citizen Carter, The Discovery Channel, 60 minutes. This video presents a look at Jimmy Carter’s life after the presidency. Nixon’s China Game: The American Experience, Brook Lapping Associates, 1999, 60 minutes. This PBS video examines Nixon’s policy on China. Century of Women, Turner Home Video, 1994. This three-part series examines the history of American women from the nineteenth century to the present. Episodes focus on sexuality, politics, economics, and popular culture.

395 .

Reagan: The American Experience, WGBH/Austin Hoyt and Adriana Bosch, 1998, 270 minutes. The American Experience examines the life and presidency of Ronald Reagan. The Twentieth Century with Mike Wallace: Ronald Reagan and the Rise of the Right, The History Channel, 50 minutes. This video examines Reagan’s rise to the presidency as a reflection of the emerging New Right. Learning Objectives and Answers 1.

Why did the nation face economic problems in the 1970s? Answer: Johnson had tried to pay for both the Vietnam War and the Great Society without raising taxes, creating both a growing federal deficit and inflation. Soldiers returning to the workforce in addition to drastic reductions in arms and other military manufacturing at end of the Vietnam War contributed to an unemployment problem. An OPEC oil embargo skyrocketed energy costs.

Why did presidents Ford and Carter lose public confidence? Answer: Ford pardoned Nixon to help the nation get past Watergate, but the public wanted Nixon tried. His foreign policy was perceived as insufficiently concerned with human rights. Critics found him too soft in countering the Soviets. Carter both lost and won supporters when he pardoned Vietnam War draft resisters. His oil policy reined in neither oil prices nor oil company profits, but it did contribute to oil shortages. His criticism of American self-indulgence and loss of values lost him more support. Finally, Carter appeared weak and totally ineffective in dealing with the Iranian hostage crisis.

What debates emerged over gender identity and the environment? Answer: Americans debated the extent to which gender identity was a personal choice, the rights of women and homosexuals, the appropriateness of mothers working outside the home, men’s and women’s duties as housekeepers and mothers, women’s rights to abortion, the proper constitution of the family. Americans also debated the appropriate extent of environmental regulation, whether environmental regulations were bad for business or violated freedom, whether nuclear power stations were safe enough to rely on.

What constituencies united to form the New Right? Answer: A wide variety of groups formed the New Right: foreign interventionists who believed in the United States’ role as the world’s leading protector of capitalist freedom; former working-class and Southern Democrats angry over 396 .

court-ordered integration and busing, affirmative action programs that reserved jobs or school slots for minorities, and rising crime; ethnic Northern whites in the Rust Belt who resented their declining economic clout and accepted Republican claims that “limousine liberal” elites were out of touch with working-class America; and the Religious Right, Protestant fundamentalists whose social conservatism reflected their religion-defined morality. Crawl Questions and Answers How did domestic energy needs affect U.S. foreign policy? (p. 844) Answer: In order to gain favor with petroleum-exporting Arab nations, President Nixon pressured Israel to give up territory. Why did Israel’s troubled relations with its neighbors concern the United States? (p. 845) Answer: Israel’s neighbors supplied the United States with oil. What economic problems plagued the United States in the 1970s? (p. 846) Answer: A major economic problem was unemployment, which was caused by declines in U.S. steel, auto, and other manufacturing, which were in turn caused by foreign competition. Another major problem was inflation due to an oversupply of money because of government borrowing. How did the “silent majority” shape politics in the 1970s? (p. 847) Answer: Nixon’s “silent majority” were disgruntled Southerners, Northern blue-collar workers, and suburbanite Democrats who had voted for him in 1968. They disliked Great Society programs that primarily aided minorities. They gave up their silence to protest school integration. How does this photograph compare to the images of racial violence in the South seen in earlier chapters? (p. 848) Answer: The white hatred and the protestors’ lack of retaliation to violence are similar. What competing views of presidential power emerged during the Watergate crisis? (p. 849) Answer: President Nixon claimed that the president was beyond the law; the Justice Department, Congress, and eventually the Supreme Court claimed that the president was bound by the Constitution. What insights do these cartoons offer into the Watergate scandal? (p. 850) Answer: They suggest Nixon lied when he said “I am not a crook” and that Nixon’s undoing was largely the tapes and his feelings that he was persecuted.

397 .

How did Congress and Ford respond to Nixon’s wrongdoing? (p. 851) Answer: Congress wrote new laws setting out limits on the president’s power. Ford imposed limits on subversive activities by U.S. agents abroad and generally remained moderate. What competing visions arose over Nixon’s efforts to reshape U.S.-Soviet relations? (p. 852) Answer: Ford upheld Nixon’s agreements and signed on to the Helsinki Accords. Some saw peace and disarmament treaties as appeasement and also doubted the Soviet Union was keeping to these agreements; in response, the U.S. built up its nuclear arsenal. Why did the 1976 presidential election fail to engage the country? (p. 853) Answer: Neither candidate generated enthusiasm, and since Watergate, the public were generally apathetic about government. What different opinions surfaced about the root of America’s energy problems? (p. 854) Answer: Carter believed the root was American overconsumption of oil; he wanted to raise taxes on oil and appealed to the public to decrease their energy usage. Others accused OPEC and the oil companies of creating artificial shortages and price-gouging. Did Carter’s dealings with the Soviet Union continue or undo initiatives undertaken by Nixon and Ford? (p. 855) Answer: He continued Nixon’s policy of pursuing détente and disarmament treaties with the USSR. But he sited nuclear missiles to defend Western Europe from a Soviet attack and took several hostile actions in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. How did Carter respond to old and new problems in the Middle East? (p. 856) Answer: He arranged and moderated peace talks between Egypt and Israel. When Iranian revolutionaries took over the U.S. Embassy in Teheran, Carter tried to negotiate. What larger significance did Carter’s advisors attach to the Iranian hostage crisis? (p. 857) Answer: They worried about alienating the rest of the Muslim world and jeopardizing the supply of oil. What were the consequences of shifting trends in the female workforce? (p. 858) Answer: Increasing numbers of women entered the labor force. Women who were parents suffered from expectations that they retain all the traditional domestic responsibilities, and all women noticed the discrepancies between how women and men were paid, promoted, and treated in the workplace.

398 .

How did the women participating in this protest march define female liberation? (p. 859) Answer: The women participating in this protest march saw female liberation as obtaining the following: legalized abortion, children’s day care centers, the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment, and more political representation. Do Steinem and Schlafly offer realistic or clichéd depictions of women’s lives, or a combination of both? (p. 860) Answer: Steinem mentions the stereotypes because she wants to eradicate them; Schlafly embraces the stereotypes as an ideal for women to embrace. What different visions separated the pro-life and pro-choice camps? (p. 861) Answer: The pro-life camp saw abortion as the killing of a human being for the sake of convenience; the pro-choice camp saw abortion as a personal medical decision, part of the right to control one’s body. How similar were the Gay Rights and Civil Rights Movements? (p. 862) Answer: There was little history of organized action for gay rights; other than that, the movements were similar in fighting against prejudice that viewed the oppressed as inherently inferior, in being divided between violent and nonviolent factions, and in working through both legislatures and courts and through public protests. What competing strategies did gay activists develop to publicize the AIDs crisis? (p. 863) Answer: Activists lobbied vigorously for increased federal funds to find a medical cure; some urged gay men to modify their sexual practices, while others resisted that strategy because they had worked long and hard to achieve what sexual freedom they had; some tried to publicize the personal pain and loss through individual stories of AIDS; some engaged in disruptive protests such as lie-ins and phone “zaps.” How did the nation respond to modern environmental disasters? (p. 864) Answer: Some built a natural and organic foods movement; some worked to decrease the toxicity of pollution by, for instance, barring lead in paints and gasoline; some worked to preserve wilderness from development. Congress created the Superfund to clean up environmental disasters. Which environmental visions prevailed in the 1970s and 1980s? (p. 865) Answer: Regulation protected Americans from a number of specific pollutants, but some viewed regulations as harmful to the U.S. economy. Who made up the New Right? (p. 866) Answer: Foreign interventionists; working-class whites who were angry over school integration and affirmative action, and who saw politicians as an out-of-touch elite; urban residents concerned about rising crime; and the socially conservative Religious Right all made up the New Right. 399 .

Why did the Religious Right thrive in the 1980s? (p. 867) Answer: Close-knit Fundamentalist churches offered members cohesive communities with shared values, in contrast to the diverse society that had been further opened up by the liberation movements of the 1960s and 1970s. Why was Reagan so popular? (p. 868) Answer: Reagan was cheerful and promised a return to America’s greatness. After he reacted to his shooting with humility and humor, his popularity rose further. How did Democrats and Republicans differ on the state of the economy in the 1980s? (p. 869) Answer: Democrats lamented the increased concentration of income resulting from Reagan’s tax and deregulation policies. Republicans saw prosperity, pointing to how the material conditions of the poor had increased since the 1960s. How did Reagan’s foreign policy initiatives break with policies set by Nixon and Carter? (p. 870) Answer: Reagan abandoned faith in MAD and pushed for an anti-ballistic missile “shield” referred to as SDI. He also tried to detach Soviet satellite countries by fomenting anti-communist revolutions. How does Reagan’s legacy compare to that left by Franklin D. Roosevelt? (p. 871) Answer: His administration left less of an impact than did FDR’s. Reagan’s main legacies are his anti-government, anti-tax, and foreign interventionist policies, which even he himself did not fully embrace. Reagan lowered taxes on the wealthy and cut social spending, but to a limited extent. Review Questions and Answers 1.

What were the differences and similarities between the Watergate and Iran-Contra scandals? Answer: In the Iran-Contra scandal, Reagan administration officials sold arms to Iran to secure the hostages’ release and then illegally used the proceeds to support the anti-communist Contras in Nicaragua. The initial act—the arms sales—was kept secret because it contradicted Reagan’s public pronouncements about refusing to negotiate with or give in to terrorism. Nixon tried to keep the Watergate break-in secret not only because it was embarrassing but also because it was itself illegal. Both the sales of arms to the Contras and the Watergate coverup were similar in autocratically using presidential authority to subvert the will and the proper authority of Congress. Yet Reagan’s abuses of power did not lead to impeachment.

400 .

How did concerns over human rights, communism, and the domestic economy influence foreign relations during the 1970s and 1980s? Answer: Concern over human rights influenced Jimmy Carter to rethink relations with Latin American nations, negotiating the Panama Canal treaty and courting Cuba’s and Nicaragua’s communist governments. Carter also appealed to human rights as a rationale for U.S. relations with China and involvement in Afghanistan. Concern over communism led Reagan to support the Contras and push for the Strategic Defense Initiative. Nixon adjusted his Middle East policies to gain favor with OPEC so they would end their embargo.

How did Ronald Reagan’s political vision differ from those embraced by his predecessors in the White House? Answer: Reagan adopted pro-business policies in the belief that letting entrepreneurs keep more of their profits would fuel economic growth. He rewrote the rules of the Cold War, achieved a new accommodation in U.S.-Soviet relations, and used the CIA to destabilize communist and leftist governments.

What competing visions animated debates over feminism, gay rights, and environmentalism? Answer: Feminism revealed competing visions of women’s roles in the workplace and in the family. The gay rights movement was torn by disagreement over whether gay men should be pressured to change their sexual practices to prevent AIDS and whether militancy was a good way to attract media attention to the cause. Environmentalists’ differing visions led to diverse approaches and interests: attacking pollution through regulation, buying and eating organic foods so as to avoid contributing to pollution, and preserving and protecting wilderness, while opponents saw environmental regulations as either economically harmful or violative of private property rights.

Why did the New Right become so influential? Answer: The New Right included a wide coalition that could muster majority support for its varied preferences, which were largely in harmony with the goals of President Reagan.

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

What role did the car industry play in the twentieth century economy? Answer: Throughout the twentieth century, the automobile industry drove economic development as automobiles changed from a toy or luxury to a household necessity. 401 .

How does this campaign ad speak to the concerns of the silent majority? Answer: It aims to associate Humphrey with rioting, the Vietnam War, and poverty.

How did the integration of Boston’s public schools compare to the experiences of the Little Rock Nine in 1975? Answer: The protest and violence that occurred between whites and blacks as a result of the integration of Boston’s public schools was very similar to what happened in Little Rock nearly two decades earlier. The violent incidents that occurred proved that racial prejudices were more than just a southern problem.

What different views did Carter and Reagan offer on the state of American society? Answer: The overall tone of Carter’s presidency was pessimistic. He believed the nation was suffering from a crisis of confidence and values that prevented it from rising to the challenges of the era. When Reagan took office, he offered the American people the complete opposite. He refuted the idea that America had become a “sick society,” and portrayed the country in a wholly positive light.

How does this speech encapsulate Reagan’s Cold War policy? Answer: Reagan claims that the United States needs military strength to force and to enforce agreements and so to move towards peace.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 28 • Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com • Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 28 • Watch the Video Lecture The Rise and Fall of the Automobile Economy • Watch the Video Richard Nixon Presidential Campaign Ad • Read the Document Boston Busing • Read the Document House Judiciary Committee’s Conclusions on Impeachment • View the Closer Look Images as History: Watergate Through Political Cartoons • Watch the Video Gerald Ford Presidential Campaign Ad • Watch the Video Crisis of Confidence (1979) • View the Image The Signing of the Camp David Accords (1978) • View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Defining the Ideal Woman • Read the Document Roe v. Wade (1973) • Read the Document Come Out (1970) • View the Image Sign at a Gay Pride March • Watch the Video Lecture Evangelical Religion and Politics, Then and Now • View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Two Presidential Views of America 402 .

• •

Watch the Video Ronald Reagan on the Wisdom of Tax Cuts Read the Document Speech at the Brandenburg Gate (1987)

403 .

CHAPTER TWENTY-NINE BUILDING A NEW WORLD ORDER: THE UNITED STATES, 1989–2011 I. “A Moment Rich with Promise” A. The Election of 1988 B. Popular Revolts against Communism C. Domestic Policy in the Bush Administration D. Panama and the Persian Gulf War II. Contested Visions of Government A. Clinton’s New Democrats B. The Disputed Election of 2000 C. Compassionate Conservatism III. Transforming Daily Life A. The Computer Age B. The Changing Face of Families C. A Wave of Immigration D. Climate Change IV. New Threats in the Post-Cold War World A. Ethnic Cleansing and Terrorism B. 9/11 C. The Iraq War D. The Election of 2008 E. Troubled Times On the morning of September 11, 2001, nineteen young Arab men boarded four planes on the East Coast. All belonged to the Islamic extremist organization known as al-Qaeda. Within a half an hour after takeoff, they stormed the cockpits of their respective planes with box cutters and mace, killed the American pilots, and installed their own pilots (who had each received flight instruction in private American aviation schools) to fly the planes into predetermined targets. At 8:46 A.M., the first plane plowed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City, an internationally recognized landmark that symbolized American dominance over the world economy. Seventeen minutes later, a second plane hit the South Tower. The nation now understood that what had first looked like an unfortunate and tragic accident was actually a coordinated attack against the United States. A third plane crashed into the Pentagon, headquarters of the U.S. Department of Defense, in Virginia, the building most closely associated with U.S. military might in the eyes of the world. Meanwhile, passengers in the fourth hijacked plane reached the cockpit and prevented the terrorists from flying the plane into the Capitol, a worldwide symbol of democratic government. This plane crashed into a Pennsylvania field. The blazing World Trade Center towers quickly crumbled, burying the office workers and firefighters still inside the buildings as onlookers ran for cover. The skeletal 404 .

ruins and mountains of debris became the burial site for thousands. One onlooker echoed this sense of disbelief: “This is America. How can it happen in America? How?” The 9/11 attacks, as they came to be known, reshaped the ongoing debate about America’s role in the world and the best way to protect American citizens. Only twenty years earlier Americans had savored their victory in the Cold War as communist governments in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union collapsed. When the Cold War ended, Americans believed that their nation should take the lead in creating a new world order even as they disputed how best to spread democracy, protect the U.S. economy, and flex the nation’s military muscle. Enjoying prosperous times for most of the 1990s, the country paid little attention to the new threat that loomed before the world’s sole remaining superpower—terrorist strikes by anti-American Islamist extremists, such as alQaeda. Political debate instead centered on whether the liberal or conservative vision of government would prevail at home. After 9/11, President George W. Bush moved with resolve to restore the image of America as a powerful and triumphant nation. He led the country into two wars: the first in Afghanistan; the second, far more controversial, in Iraq. In 2008, Americans provided a different sort of history-making moment by electing the first African-American president of the United States. By then, the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression posed an additional challenge for the nation. Learning Objectives After a careful examination of Chapter 29, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.

Why did the Cold War end?

Why were presidential politics so controversial?

How did technological and demographic changes transform American society?

How did the United States respond to 9/11?

Topics for Classroom Lecture 1.

Continue the assessment of modern Southern presidents with a look at Bill Clinton. How did his political style and agenda reflect his Southern roots? How does his presidency compare to Lyndon Johnson’s and Jimmy Carter’s, earlier Southern presidents of the post-World War II era? Considering issues discussed, is Clinton a reflection of the extent to which the South has been incorporated into the nation, or is he a reflection of the extent to which Southern politics have taken on a national appeal? Finally, consider whether George W. Bush could be considered a Southern president: he came to the presidency after serving as governor of Texas, but his family and educational roots are firmly planted in New 405 .

England. Whether Bush himself is or is not “Southern,” what does his presidency say about the continuing political evolution of the South? 2.

Discuss the intricacies of generational politics in modern America. A number of current authors have set forth the potential for conflict among the three major adult generations represented in American society today: the World War II generation, the baby boomers, and Generation X. Point out the distinctive historical contexts into which each of these generations was born. Demonstrate how these different historical contexts define each generation’s political, economic, social, and cultural agenda. Have students identify the potential for conflict among the generations as America moves forward in the twenty-first century.

Topics for Class Discussion and Essays 1.

Have students discuss the impact of the end of the Cold War on the future of American diplomacy. Review the major trends in modern American diplomatic history, including the imperialism of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the moral diplomacy of the world war eras, and the Cold War policy of the post-1945 era. What have been some of the challenges facing the United States as it attempts to develop a new foreign policy? Has the United States continued to organize its foreign policy around the issue of “good guys” and “bad guys”? Has it continued to define foreign policy morally, or has the United States embraced a more pragmatic approach to foreign policy? Has the war in Iraq shed new light on American foreign policy? Ask students what they see as the role of the United States in the global affairs of the twenty-first century.

Have students look at American foreign policy since the turn of the twentieth century. How has it changed over the last century? Guide students through an assessment that begins with turn-of-the-twentieth-century imperialism and moves on to moral diplomacy, Cold War diplomacy, and emerging American foreign policy since the end of the Cold War and the events of September 11, 2001. As we look at recent foreign policy, has the American approach to international relations changed? If so, how and why has it changed? Are Americans really, as some leaders claim, living in historically unprecedented times? What new challenges confront Americans and how do students think the United States should respond to these challenges?

During the study of modern American history, students have regularly evaluated the debate regarding individual versus social responsibility for the welfare of American citizens. Review the progress of this debate from the Progressive era through the Depression era, the 1960s, the Reagan era, and finally today. Have Americans made progress toward resolving this issue? Have students voice their opinions about whether they think the source of social stability lies more in the strength of each individual or in the responsibility assumed by the community. 406 .

Have students discuss the impeachment of Bill Clinton. You can revisit issues discussed earlier in the course regarding the personal sphere versus the political sphere. Why was Clinton impeached? How did his personal life figure into the events? Compare this impeachment to the impeachment of Andrew Johnson. Are there differences? Similarities? Have students consider the importance of partisanship in both cases of impeachment.

Have students compare and contrast the two major economic revolutions of modern American history. How does the modern transition from an industrial economy to a service, technology, and information economy compare to the late nineteenth-century transition from an agricultural to industrial economy? Consider the following issues: a. The challenges presented to those working in the old economic sector. How have people who were trained and positioned for success in declining economies brought into emerging economies? b. The impact on the size and location of major national urban centers. How did the changing economy define the regions that would prosper and the regions that would decline? c. The impact of the change on personal values and beliefs. How did economic revolution revolutionize social philosophy and religious faith? d. The impact on the position of the United States in the global economy. Did the economic revolution strengthen the economic position of the United States, weaken it, or simply redefine it? What competing views do this photograph and political cartoon offer Americans about the importance of the Berlin Wall falling? What counter-arguments could critics offer?

To this day, Americans continue to disagree about the economic costs associated with immigration. Harvard economist George J. Borjas paints a pessimistic economic portrait. Tamar Jacoby disputes Borjas’s claim that three decades of high immigration have hurt the U.S. economy. What different factors does each emphasize to make his case?

Was the Iraq war justified?

Topics for Class Projects and Term Papers 1.

Have students compare and contrast the riots of 1992 with the urban unrest of 1919 and the 1960s. What regions were affected during these events, and who particularly was targeted during the violence and chaos? What was the social climate of each era, and specifically how did racism incite or define these events? Did these events have a lasting impact on race relations and American politics?

Have students assess the power of the media in politics today. Are the roles, responsibilities, and power of “traditional” media different than those of “new” 407 .

media (Web sites, blogs, and other computer-based media)? To what extent has the media determined who was elected as the U.S. president over the last 30 years? A number of different approaches may be taken. Students may look at selected presidential campaigns of the last 30 years and determine the extent to which media coverage impacted the result. They may also choose selected political personalities and demonstrate how these individuals used the media to build political support for their agendas. This would work well as a group project. 3.

This and previous chapters have discussed “culture wars” and values conflicts within the United States. Have students investigate such conflicts globally rather than as a national issue. Describe the global culture wars that exist in the world today. Why did the events of September 11, 2001 happen? Why are there many nations in the world today that feel resentment and anger toward the United States? What are the most promising ways for the United States to respond to challenges to its global role and image?

Resources for Lectures and Research Projects Benjamin R. Barber, Jihad vs. McWorld: How the Planet Is Both Falling Apart and Coming Together and What This Means for Democracy (1995). David Maraniss, First in His Class: A Biography of Bill Clinton (1995). Richard A. Melanson, American Foreign Policy Since the Vietnam War: The Search for Consensus from Clinton to Nixon (2001). Richard Posner, Breaking the Deadlock: The 2000 Election, the Constitution, and the Courts (2001). Stanley Renshon, High Hopes: The Clinton Presidency and the Politics of Ambition (1996). Audio-Visual Resources The Twentieth Century with Mike Wallace: The Persian Gulf War, The History Channel, 50 minutes. This video examines the first George Bush’s efforts against Saddam Hussein. First Lady on the Front Line, A&E Video, 50 minutes. A&E examines the life and future of Hillary Rodham Clinton—one of the most provocative first ladies in American history. NOVA: Why the Towers Fell, PBS Video, 60 minutes. This NOVA special, investigating why the World Trade Center towers fell, includes interviews with survivors of the attack as well as with rescue personnel who were on the scene.

408 .

Learning Objectives and Answers 1.

Why did the Cold War end? Answer: Under Gorbachev’s perestroika, the USSR stopped exerting total control over Communist bloc countries, which were then overthrown by popular revolutions. The same happened to the Soviet Union itself, as the several republics seceded from the Soviet Union. The Soviet military attempted to overthrow Gorbachev, but were thwarted by a popular revolt.

Why was presidential politics so controversial? Answer: The Reagan years had redefined the American political landscape, shifting the political center away from New Deal and Great Society liberal assumptions that government could be a positive force in citizens’ lives. To succeed in this changed political climate, a new breed of Democratic politician was needed—socially liberal but fiscally conservative. The Reagan, Clinton, and George W. Bush administrations were buffeted by scandals. For Barack Obama, the first multiracial president, merely occupying the White House was a controversial act.

How did technological and demographic changes transform American society? Answer: Computers and the Internet made many technologies obsolete, changing how Americans worked and played; they also facilitated communication among people around the world and made responding to technological change a permanent condition. The decline of the two-married-parents-with-children family structure prompted debate between those who wanted to reverse demographic trends and those who were sympathetic to the desires of gays and non-marrieds to conduct their lives as they pleased. Disagreement arose regarding whether and how immigration affected the country economically.

How did the United States respond to 9/11? Answer: The United States invaded Afghanistan in order to hunt al-Qaeda, believed responsible for the attacks. The U.S. held suspected terrorists, terrorist sympathizers, and witnesses indefinitely in the military prison at Guantánamo Bay, with no regard for civil rights.

Crawl Questions and Answers How did George H. W. Bush prevail in the 1988 presidential election? (p. 876) Answer: He ridiculed Governor Dukakis as a big-spending, high-taxing liberal and repeatedly pointed to Willie Horton as an example that Dukakis was soft on crime. 409 .

What role did ordinary citizens play in ending communism in East Germany and the Soviet Union? (p. 877) Answer: East Germans defected en masse as soon as the border defenses were removed. In the Soviet Union, popular support of Gorbachev prevented an attempted military coup by hardline Communists who wanted to undo Gorbachev’s reforms. What symbolic importance did the fall of the Berlin Wall have? (p. 878) Answer: It symbolized both the end of the Iron Curtain and the ability of common people to make history. Why did popular uprisings against communism in Europe and China have different outcomes? (p. 879) Answer: Chinese leaders had protestors shot and prevented news coverage of rebellious events, so uprisings did not spread. Which gender and racial issues dominated the headlines in the early 1990s? (p. 880) Answer: The Senate hearings to confirm Clarence Thomas as a justice of the Supreme Court brought the issue of sexual harassment to the fore. Race riots in Los Angeles brought attention to police harassment of African Americans and a racially biased justice system. What problems did the United States face in the Middle East from 1980–2003? (p. 881) Answer: Because Iran’s fundamentalist Islamic government supported terrorism, the U.S. government supported Iraq in its war with Iran (1980–1988). After the war, Iraq aggressively invaded Kuwait (1990) and the United States prosecuted the Persian Gulf War (1991). Al-Qaeda terrorists attacked the USS Cole (2000). The U.S. invaded Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq and Pakistan in 2003. How did the Powell Doctrine influence Bush’s preparations for war against Iraq in 1991? (p. 882) Answer: To amass overwhelming military strength, Bush built an international coalition; to attempt to gather enthusiastic support from the American people, Bush likened Saddam Hussein to Hitler. What vision of American world leadership did neoconservatives promote? (p. 883) Answer: Neoconservatives in Bush’s administration asserted that the United States needed to dominate the world as a peacekeeper and to respond immediately, and preemptively, to any foreign nation that challenged American military superiority. How did Clinton’s centrist vision affect his policy decisions? (p. 884) Answer: Clinton was inclined to use market-based solutions to social problems and to reduce or end deficit spending. He proposed a comprehensive plan to provide all Americans with health care. He passed an economic stimulus package that offered tax 410 .

incentives for job creation and increased taxes for large corporations and the wealthy. He supported NAFTA. How did Clinton’s sex scandal compare to the Reagan-era Iran-Contra scandal (see Chapter 28)? (p. 885) Answer: Clinton committed a crime to cover up a personal embarrassment; Reagan and his aides committed crimes to cover up their illegal activities in violation of Congress. Why was the 2000 presidential election so controversial? (p. 886) Answer: Republicans were accused of fraud in counting ballots and of preventing people from voting. How did George W. Bush reshape the conservative vision of governing? (p. 887) Answer: Bush wanted private industry, charities, and religious institutions to provide community services, instead of the government. He radically cut taxes on the wealthy and deregulated the financial industry. What technological innovations of the twentieth century had the greatest impact on daily life? (p. 888) Answer: The personal computer and the Internet. What changes in family structure do these charts illustrate? (p. 889) Answer: The percentage of unmarried people without children doubled, while the percentage of married people with children dropped by 40 percent. What competing visions emerged over same-sex marriage? (p. 890) Answer: Some saw gay marriage as a basic civil right, but large numbers of liberals and conservatives were united in condemning same-sex marriage. “Civil union” was proposed as an alternative. Are contemporary concerns about immigration similar or different from objections made in the twentieth century? (p. 891) Answer: The New Right feared the nation would fragment into ethnic enclaves and tried to make English the country’s official language; in the twentieth century, immigrants were forced by their own interests and needs to learn English. As well, in the twentieth century, people began to question whether immigration contributed to economic growth. What core arguments support and question the theory of global warming? (p. 892) Answer: Environmental scientists blamed the rising levels of greenhouse gases, caused by the burning of fossil fuels, for global warming. Other scientists countered that fluctuations in the earth’s average temperature were a natural phenomenon. What accounts for the disparity in carbon dioxide emissions on this map? (p. 893) Answer: Carbon dioxide is emitted by energy plants, motorized vehicles, and factories. Less-industrialized nations produce less carbon dioxide emissions. 411 .

How did media coverage influence American views of Africa? (p. 894) Answer: Media images showed starvation and brutal civil war that outraged Americans. Why did foreign and domestic terrorists attack Americans? (p. 895) Answer: Islamic fundamentalist terrorists blamed the United States for dispossessing Arab Palestinians and believed the United States would react weakly to terrorism. Domestic terrorists attacked Americans as payback for the federal government’s actions against private paramilitary groups. How did the nation and government respond to the 9/11 attacks? (p. 896) Answer: Most Americans could do nothing but watch the horror on television. The government attacked Afghanistan, which had harbored al-Qaeda and its training camps, and denied civil rights to suspects and potential witnesses. How do governmental efforts to prevent internal enemy attacks after 9/11 compare to those during World Wars I and II? (p. 897) Answer: In all three cases, the government restricted civil rights and intruded on privacy in search of evidence. What debates occurred within the Bush administration over going to war against Iraq in 2003? (p. 898) Answer: Some advisors championed preemptive war, the doctrine that the United States should use force to remove hostile regimes before they could pose a serious threat; others urged restraint because the consequences of removing the Iraqi government were unpredictable. What justifications and criticisms did the doctrine of preventative war arouse? (p. 899) Answer: Some thought it was justified by the need to prevent future terrorist attacks, but conducting a preemptive war set a dangerous precedent that lowered the threshold for going to war to simply feeling threatened. What accomplishments and setbacks did the United States experience in the Iraq War? (p. 900) Answer: American troops reached Baghdad in three weeks, and Saddam Hussein was captured, tried, and sentenced to death. The Iraqi people were deeply divided on the future course of their government, leading to civil war. Looters and other criminals took advantage of the disorder, as did al-Qaeda, which expanded its influence. American soldiers were accused of brutality against prisoners of war. What factors led to the economic downturn in 2008? (p. 901) Answer: It is believed that banks and insurance companies failed because of risky practices that had been enabled by deregulation.

412 .

How did past civil rights activism help make Obama’s election possible? (p. 902) Answer: Obama’s support included African Americans and women, who for decades had been denied the vote. What challenges did Obama confront during his first two years in office? (p. 903) Answer: Obama faced vigorous opposition to his healthcare proposals, wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, an economic crisis, and a highly partisan political atmosphere. Review Questions and Answers 1.

What values and ideas shaped key American foreign policy decisions in this period? Answer: Bush attacked Panama to overthrow the government and ensure the Panama Canal would stay open. He worked to gain international support for military action to rescue Kuwait. Bush announced that the United States would build a “new world order,” which he defined as playing an active global peacekeeping role dedicated to spreading democracy and prosperity. Clinton signed the NAFTA treaty in an effort to support American business through free trade. The 9/11 attacks redirected U.S. foreign policy toward eliminating al-Qaeda and preventing terrorism. George W. Bush repudiated the Kyoto treaty because he thought compliance would harm U.S. businesses. American responses to humanitarian tragedies in Rwanda and Yugoslavia were hesitant because of worries about repeating past failures in Vietnam and Somalia. The U.S. retaliated against al-Qaeda in response to attacks on U.S. embassies.

What controversies emerged over illegal immigration and gay marriage? Answer: Whether illegal immigration was a positive or negative force for the health of the economy became a controversial question. Some saw gay marriage as a basic civil right, but large numbers of liberals and conservatives were united in condemning same-sex marriage.

How did liberals and conservatives modify their long-standing visions of the role government should play? Answer: George H. W. Bush resisted going to war against Iraq without first gaining the approval of the United Nations. Bill Clinton pursued free trade without protections for workers and the environment that had traditionally been imperatives for liberals. Instead of shrinking the government, George W. Bush ran up massive deficits because of tax cuts and increased domestic and military spending. Contrary to the conservative Powell Doctrine, Bush also adopted the new policy of preemptive war. Both Presidents Bush gave massive amounts of public money to private financial institutions. George W. Bush created programs to give federal money to private religious groups, greatly expanded the federal 413 .

government’s role in education, and claimed new, sweeping powers for the federal government to spy on, monitor, and detain American citizens, denying the principle of habeas corpus. 4.

How did the media shape American attitudes about world events? Answer: Media coverage of the 1988 presidential candidates supported the Bush campaign’s claims that Dukakis was foolish. Media images showing starvation and brutal civil war in Africa outraged Americans. Americans saw joyous East Germans celebrating the fall of the Berlin Wall and a single brave man defying Chinese tanks.

How did the United States reconcile its domestic values with its new internationalist ventures in the world from 1989–2009? Answer: The United States’ internationalist ventures since 1989 were justified in the name of national defense. American interests were portrayed as the altruistic pursuit of freedom and democracy, ideals to be shared by all. Enemies of the United States were portrayed as evil violators of a peaceful world order.

MyHistoryLab Connections Questions for Analysis 1.

Why does Wilson conclude that class matters more than race in explaining urban poverty? Answer: Wilson believes racial tension is caused by economic difficulties, and that talented and educated people of any race can succeed economically.

How did the president justify military action against Iraq in 1991? Answer: Diplomatic efforts had failed. “Iraq systematically raped, pillaged, and plundered a tiny nation,” maiming and murdering innocent children. Iraq was acquiring chemical weapons and nuclear weapons.

What are the competing views on global warming? Answer: Many scholars and public figures (i.e. Al Gore) believe global warming is a phenomenon that is underway and will, over time, pose a great threat to all of man kind. Others believe that global warming is nothing more than a myth or tool being manipulated for political and scientific gain.

414 .

What new vision of America’s role in the world followed 9/11? Answer: America’s role would be to promote a balance of power that favors freedom. Primary threats to peace were no longer from a Cold War or the Communist bloc but from small embittered groups.

What is the historical significance of electing the nation’s first African-American president? Answer: The election of a multiracial president shows that America could again claim to be on the path to fulfilling its ideals.

MyHistoryLab Assets for Chapter 29 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Hear the Audio File on myhistorylab.com Watch the Video Critical Visions, Chapter 29 Read the Document George H. W. Bush Inaugural Address (1989) View the Closer Look Images as History: The Fall of the Berlin Wall Read the Document The Urban Underclass Watch the Video President George Bush’s Early Response in the Persian Gulf War Read the Document Allied Military Action in the Persian Gulf (1991) Watch the Video Bill Clinton Sells Himself to America: Presidential Campaign Ad (1992) Read the Document Articles of Impeachment Against William Jefferson Clinton View the Image ENIAC computer View the Closer Look Competing Visions: The Economic Costs of Immigration View the Closer Look Competing Visions: Global Warming: Good Science or Media Hype? Read the Document Address to Congress (September 20, 2001) Read the Document National Security Strategy of the United States of America (2002) Watch the Video Lecture The Historical Significance of the 2008 Election Watch the Video Lecture The Connection Between Obama and Lincoln

415 .