Introduction to Geography People, Places & Environment, 6th edition Carl H Dahlman Solution Manual by Ace Test Banks

Introduction to Geography People, Places & Environment, 6th edition By Carl H. Dahlman

Email: Richard@qwconsultancy.com

Contents PREFACE

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TEACHING AND LEARNING PACKAGE

SAMPLE SYLLABUS

CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Geography

CHAPTER 2

Weather, Climate, and Climate Change

CHAPTER 3

Landforms

CHAPTER 4

Biosphere

CHAPTER 5

Earth’s Resources and Environmental Protection

CHAPTER 6

Population and Migration

CHAPTER 7

Cultural Geography

CHAPTER 8

Languages and Religions

CHAPTER 9

Food and Agriculture

CHAPTER 10

Cities and Urbanization

104

CHAPTER 11

A World of States

117

CHAPTER 12

Economy and Development

134

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Preface This Instructor Resource Manual is prepared for Introduction to Geography: People, Places, and Environment (6th Edition) by Carl T. Dahlman and William H. Renwick. All major aspects of contemporary geography are explained in Introduction to Geography. The text is suitable for a one-semester undergraduate course that covers both physical and human geography. The text is excellently written with clear explanations, relevant examples, current information, and helpful learning aids. This Instructor Resource Manual is designed to assist the instructor in making effective use of the text and to help students learn about geography. Each chapter in the Instructor Resource Manual contains the following parts: Opening Paragraph – A brief summary of the contents of the chapter, including the topics of Global and Local, and Rapid Change boxes. Learning Outcomes – Key concepts and ideas in geography. Chapter Review – A longer summary of the contents of the chapter. Chapter Outline – Summarizes in outline form and may be used as lecture outlines. Possible Questions and Topics for Discussions and Exams – Questions beyond what are found in the text. Answers for Checkpoints – Representative answers for questions interspersed in the chapter. Answers to Questions for Review and Discussion – Answers to the questions found at the end of each chapter. Based on the chapter’s content. Answers for Thinking Geographically – Possible answers to these thought provoking questions found at the end of the chapter.

Please examine the Teaching and Learning Package for helpful and useful materials for instructors and students.

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TEACHING AND LEARNING PACKAGE For Teachers and Students MasteringGeography™ with Pearson eText The Mastering platform is the most widely used and effective online homework, tutorial, and assessment system for the sciences. It delivers self-paced tutorials that provide individualized coaching, focus on your course objectives, and are responsive to each student’s progress. The Mastering system helps teachers maximize class time with customizable, easy-to-assign, and automatically graded assessments that motivate students to learn outside class and arrive prepared for lecture. MasteringGeography offers: • Assignable activities that include MapMaster™ Interactive Map activities, Encounter Google Earth Explorations, Video activities, Geoscience Animation activities, Map Projection activities, Thinking Spatially and Data Analysis activities on the toughest topics in geography, end-ofchapter questions and exercises, reading quizzes, and Test Bank questions. • Student Study Area with MapMaster™ interactive maps, videos, Geoscience Animations, web links, videos, glossary flashcards, “In the News” RSS feeds, chapter quizzes, an optional Pearson eText that includes versions for iPad and Android devices, and more. Pearson eText gives students access to the text whenever and wherever they can access the Internet. The eText pages look exactly like the printed text, and include powerful interactive and customization functions, and links to media.

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• Practicing Geography: Careers for Enhancing Society and the Environment by Association of American Geographers (0321811151) This book examines career opportunities for geographers and geospatial professionals in business, government, nonprofit, and educational sectors. A diverse group of academic and industry professionals share insights on career planning, networking, transitioning between employment sectors, and balancing work and home life. The book illustrates the value of geographic expertise and technologies through engaging profiles and case studies of geographers at work. • Teaching College Geography: A Practical Guide for Graduate Students and Early Career Faculty by Association of American Geographers (0136054471) This two-part resource provides a starting point for becoming an effective geography teacher from the very first day of class. Part One addresses “nuts-and-bolts” teaching issues. Part Two explores being an effective teacher in the field, supporting critical thinking with GIS and mapping technologies, engaging learners in large geography classes, and promoting awareness of international perspectives and geographic issues. • Aspiring Academics: A Resource Book for Graduate Students and Early Career Faculty by Association of American Geographers (0136048919) Drawing on several years of research, this set of essays is designed to help graduate students and early career faculty start their careers in geography and related social and environmental sciences. Aspiring Academics stresses the interdependence of teaching, research, and service—and the importance of achieving a healthy balance of professional and personal life—while doing faculty work. Each chapter provides accessible, forward-looking advice on topics that often cause the most stress in the first years of a teaching appointment.

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• Geoscience Animation Library 5th edition DVD-ROM (0321716841) This resource offers

over 100 animations covering the most difficult-to-visualize topics in physical geology, physical geography, oceanography, meteorology, and earth science. The animations are provided as Flash files and pre-loaded into PowerPoint(R) slides for both Windows and Mac. This library was created through a unique collaboration among Pearson’s leading geoscience authors—including Robert Christopherson, Darrel Hess, Frederick Lutgens, Aurora Pun, Gary Smith, Edward Tarbuck, and Alan Trujillo. • Television for the Environment Earth Report Geography Videos on DVD (0321662989) This three-DVD set helps students visualize how human decisions and behavior have affected the environment and how individuals are taking steps toward recovery. With topics ranging from the poor land management promoting the devastation of river systems in Central America, to the struggles for electricity in China and Africa, these 13 videos from Television for the Environment’s global Earth Report series recognize the efforts of individuals around the world to unite and protect the planet. • Television for the Environment Life World Regional Geography Videos on DVD (013159348X) From the Television for the Environment’s global Life series, this two-DVD set brings globalization and the developing world to the attention of any world regional geography course. These 10 full-length video programs highlight matters such as the growing number of homeless children in Russia, the lives of immigrants living in the United States trying to aid family still living in their native countries, and the European conflict between commercial interests and environmental concerns.

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• Television for the Environment Life Human Geography Videos on DVD (0132416565) This three-DVD set is designed to enhance any human geography course. These DVDs include

14 full-length video programs from Television for the Environment’s global Life series, covering a wide array of issues affecting people and places in the contemporary world, including the serious health risks of pregnant women in Bangladesh, the social inequalities of the “untouchables” in the Hindu caste system, and Ghana’s struggle to compete in a global market.

For Teachers Learning Catalytics Learning Catalytics™ is a “bring your own device” student engagement, assessment, and classroom intelligence system. This technology has grown out of 20 years of cutting-edge research, innovation, and implementation of interactive teaching and peer instruction. With Learning Catalytics you can: •

Asses students in real time, using open-ended tasks to probe student understanding.

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Understand immediately where students are and adjust your lecture accordingly.

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Improve students’ critical thinking skills.

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Access rich analytics to understand student performance.

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Add your own questions to make Learning Catalytics fit your course exactly.

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Manage student interactions with intelligent grouping and timing.

Available integrated with MasteringGeography. www.learningcatalytics.com

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• Instructor Resource Manual (download only) (0321935217) The Instructor Resource Manual written by Richard Walasek (University of WisconsinParkside) follows the new organization of the main text. Each chapter of the Instructor Resource Manual opens with a specific introduction highlighting core learning objectives presented in the specific chapter. The Instructor Resource Manual includes a chapter review summary, chapter outline, possible questions and topics for discussions and exams, and representative answers to all checkpoint, review and discussion, and thinking geographically questions. , • TestGen/Test Bank ( download only) (0321935039) TestGen is a computerized test generator that lets teachers view and edit Test Bank questions, transfer questions to tests, and print the test in a variety of customized formats. Authored by Amy D’Angelo (SUNY Oswego) this Test Bank includes approximately 1300 multiple-choice, true/false, and short-answer/essay questions. Questions are correlated against the revised U.S. National Geography Standards, chapter-specific learning outcomes, and Bloom’s Taxonomy to help teachers better map the assessments against both broad and specific teaching and learning objectives. The Test Bank is also available in Microsoft Word® and can be imported into Blackboard. • Instructor Resource DVD (0321935128) This DVD provides everything teachers need where they want it. The Instructor Resource DVD helps make teachers more effective by saving them time and effort. All digital resources can be found in one well-organized, easy-to-access place. This DVD includes: • All textbook images as JPEGs, PDFs, and PowerPoint™ presentations • Pre-authored Lecture Outline PowerPoint™ presentations, which outline the concepts of each chapter with embedded art and can be customized to fit teachers’ lecture requirements • CRS “Clicker” Questions in PowerPoint™ format, which correlate to the U.S. National viii ..

Geography Standards, chapter-specific learning outcomes, and Bloom’s Taxonomy • The TestGen software, Test Bank questions, and answers for both Macs and PCs • Electronic files of the Instructor Resource Manual and Test Bank This Instructor Resource Center content is also available completely online via the Instructor Resources section of MasteringGeography and www.pearsonhighered.com/irc.

For Students • Goode’s World Atlas, 22nd Edition (0321652002) Goode’s World Atlas has been the world’s premiere educational atlas since 1923—and for good reason. It features more than 250 pages of maps, from definitive physical and political maps to important thematic maps that illustrate the spatial aspects of many important topics. The 22nd edition includes 160 pages of new, digitally produced reference maps, as well as new thematic maps on global climate change, sea level rise, CO2 emissions, polar ice fluctuations, deforestation, extreme weather events, infectious diseases, water resources, and energy production. • Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming by Michael Mann and Lee R. Kump (0136044352) This text is for any science or social science course in need of a basic understanding of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports. Periodic reports from the IPCC evaluate the risk of climate change brought on by humans. But the sheer volume of scientific data remains inscrutable to the general public, particularly to those who may still question the validity of climate change. In just over 200 pages, this practical text presents and expands upon the essential findings in a visually stunning and undeniably powerful way to the lay reader. Scientific findings that provide validity to the implications of climate change are ix ..

presented in clearcut graphic elements, striking images, and understandable analogies. Pearson’s Encounter Series Pearson’s Encounter series provides rich, interactive explorations of geoscience concepts through Google Earth™ activities, exploring a range of topics in regional, human, and physical geography. For those who do not use MasteringGeography, all chapter explorations are available in print workbooks as well as in online quizzes, at www.mygeoscienceplace.com, accommodating different classroom needs. Each exploration consists of a worksheet, online quizzes, and a corresponding Google Earth™ KMZ file: Encounter Human Geography Workbook and Website by Jess C. Porter (0321682203) Encounter World Regional Geography Workbook and Website by Jess C. Porter (0321681754) Encounter Physical Geography Workbook and Website by Jess C. Porter and Stephen O’Connell (0321672526) Encounter Geosystems Workbook and Website by Charlie Thomsen (0321636996) Encounter Earth Workbook and Website by Steve Kluge (0321581296)

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Sample Syllabus Geography 100 (3 credits)(Fall 2013) Introduction to Geography Instructor: Email: Phone: Office: Office Hours: Classroom: Course Description: Introduction to Geography explains and describes the many conditions and relationships that exist in today’s complex world. Both physical and human geography are covered. The roles of the environment, culture, government, and technology are emphasized. The course will help students better understand the importance of geography and how spatial knowledge, methods, and thinking are often key contributors to understanding and solving local, national, and international problems. Geography 100 satisfies General Education requirements and counts towards the requirements of the geography major or minor. There are 3 exams, 3 writing assignments, and 3 exercises. Exams are fill in the blank and short answer. The writing assignments focus on important current issues from the perspectives of geography. The exercises require the finding and interpreting of data. Expected length of assignments and exercises is 2 to 3 pages.

(42 MWF classes)

Course Schedule:

DATES

TOPICS

READING

4 classes 3 classes 3 classes 3 classes 1 class

Introduction to Geography Weather and Climate Landforms and Natural Hazards Biosphere, Ecological Processes EXAM 1

Chap. 1 Chap. 2 Chap. 3 Chap. 4

3 classes 4 classes 3 classes 3 classes 1 class

Earth’s Resources and Environmental Protection Population and Migration Cultural Geography Languages and Religions EXAM 2

Chap. 5 Chap. 6 Chap. 7 Chap. 8

3 classes 4 classes 4 classes 3 classes

Food and Agriculture Cities and Urbanization A World of States, Political Geography Economy and Development

Chap. 9 Chap. 10 Chap. 11 Chap. 12

assigned date

FINAL EXAM xi ..

Textbook: Introduction to Geography: People, Places, and Environment, Dahlman and Renwick, Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2014, required Evaluation:

Final grades will be determined on a total point basis

Exam One Exam Two Final Exam Writing Assignments (3) Exercises (3)

50 points 50 50 50 50 250 points possible

Letter grade cutoffs

225 points A/B 200 points B/C 175 points C/D 150 points D/F

Expectations: Students are expected to attend class regularly and on time. Students are expected to pay attention and not cause distractions in class. Students are expected to ask and answer questions—to participate in class. Students are expected to contact the instructor within 24 hours concerning missed exams. Make-ups of exams after the graded papers have been returned will not be permitted. Otherwise, with instructor approval, make-ups can be arranged. Students are responsible to learn about the material that they may have missed. Extra Credit: No extra credit will be available.

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CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Geography Introduction to Geography begins by defining geography, listing its many subfields and tools, tracing geography’s development, and explaining why geography should be studied. The contemporary approaches of area analysis, spatial analysis, and geographic systems analysis of physical and human characteristics are described next. Location, region, distribution, movement, diffusion, Earth’s physical systems, culture, and human environmental interaction are emphasized. The chapter continues by explaining how latitude and longitude, maps, remote sensing, and geographic information systems (GISs) are used to describe Earth and its patterns. Methods and applications of geographic information technology are emphasized. Finally, how geographers can help solve the problems of the twenty-first century is explained. There is a Rapid Change box describing Monitoring Arctic Sea Ice Extent and a Global and Local box asking: Is Twitter a Global Network?

Learning Outcomes After carefully studying this chapter, students should be able to: · · · · · · ·

Define the field of geography, describe its scope, and identify the major subfields Describe the concepts of distance decay and diffusion, and how they apply to the study of geography Describe the importance of the human-environment tradition in the study of geography Explain the geographic grid system and its purpose Describe how maps communicate geographic information List three technologies that have contributed to the field of geography List three analytical methods used by geographers to analyze geographic information

Chapter Review •

What Is Geography? ·

Geography is the study of the interaction of all physical and human phenomena at individual places and of how interactions among places form patterns and organize space.

Physical and human geography are the two main branches; cartography, remote sensing, and geographic information systems are three important tools.

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Greek, Muslim, Chinese, Korean, and, eventually, additional European scholars contributed to the development of geography.

Geography is important in understanding the world and helping to solve problems.

Contemporary Approaches in Geography ·

Modern geographers use area analysis, spatial analysis, and geographic systems analysis to investigate geographic issues.

Area analysis includes site, situation, and regions. Regions are areas defined by one or more distinctive characteristics or features. Improvements in transportation and communication have led to increased globalization.

Spatial analysis examines patterns of human actions and environmental processes and interactions among and between places or regions. Density, concentration, and pattern describe the distribution of something. Movement includes the effect of distance and processes of diffusion.

Diffusion is the process of an item or feature spreading across space through time. Relocation, contiguous or contagious, and hierarchical diffusion are the main kinds.

Geographic systems analysis emphasizes Earth as a set of interrelated physical and human systems. A system is an interdependent group of items that interact in a regular way to form a unified whole.

Earth’s physical systems are the atmosphere (gases surrounding Earth), hydrosphere (water), lithosphere (the solid Earth), and biosphere (life on Earth). These systems interact with people and their cultures, creating cultural landscapes. Culture is defined as everything about the way people live.

Mapping Earth ·

Parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude make up the geographic grid.

Maps are representations of some portion of Earth’s surface. Small-scale maps show larger areas and less detail, whereas large-scale maps portray smaller areas and more detail.

Map projections are designed to transfer information from a spherical Earth to a flat map with minimal distortion. Conformal maps contain accurate shapes, but distort sizes; equal-area maps do the opposite by maintaining sizes, but distorting shapes. Cartography is the design and production of maps. Thematic maps can show patterns about many different topics.

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· Geographic information technologies include use of computers, satellites, automated cartography, remote sensing, global positioning systems, and geographic information systems (GIS). ·

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GIS are forms of database software in which spatial information is important. Raster and vector are two important types of data used in GIS. Going from paper to mostly digital maps is a major change. GIS are finding many social and environmental applications to help solve problems. The sophistication of mapping systems found on the Internet keeps growing.

The World in 2050 ·

Geography provides interdisciplinary approaches, global perspectives, and applied research abilities to confront and help resolve the many challenges of the twenty-first century.

Chapter Outline I. Geography A. Study of the interaction of physical and human phenomena at individual places B. Interaction 1. Forms patterns 2. Organizes larger spaces C. Subfields 1. Physical geography 2. Human geography D. Tools 1. Cartography 2. Remote sensing 3. Geographic information systems (GIS) E. Historical development 1. Eratosthenes was a Greek scholar a. Earth is round b. Accurate calculation of Earth’s circumference 2. Non-European a. Islamic advances b. Chinese writings c. Korean Kangnido world map 3. Revival of European geography a. Regional geography b. Topical or systematic geography 4. Human environment tradition a. Two-way interaction b. Began by Alexander von Humboldt F. Geography today 1. Used to understand the world 3 ..

2. Solve problems 3. Make informed decisions 4. Very diverse field

II. Contemporary approaches in geography A. To analyze geographic information B. Three analytical methods are used III. Area analysis A. Two kinds of location 1. Exact (site) a. Specific location and its characteristics b. Measured by latitude and longitude 2. Relative (situation) a. Changes as technology changes b. Influences accessibility c. Related to globalization B. Types of regions 1. Formal regions are based on some uniformity 2. Function regions are based on interaction 3. Vernacular regions are based on popular perceptions 4. Countries are grouped into various sets of regions IV. Spatial analysis A. Distribution 1. Position, placement, arrangement of phenomena throughout space 2. Measured by: a. Density b. Concentration c. Pattern B. Movement 1. Distance is measured by: a. Units of length (miles) b. Time c. Cost 2. Friction of distance 3. Distance decay 4. Diffusion a. How something spreads over space through time b. Relocation diffusion c. Contiguous or contagious diffusion d. Hierarchical diffusion e. Barriers to diffusion

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V. Geographic systems analysis A. System is an interdependent group of items that interact in a regular way to form a unified whole B. Shows interrelationships C. Earth’s physical systems 1. Atmosphere 2. Hydrosphere 3. Lithosphere 4. Biosphere 5. All four “spheres” interact with each other 6. Humans interact with each “sphere” 7. Ecosystems and ecology D. Human environmental interaction E. Resources and environment 1. Humans depend on the environment 2. Humans and their technologies modify the environment F. Human culture and cultural landscapes 1. Culture includes all the ways people live 2. Cultural landscape is the result of human modifications of the natural landscape VI. Mapping Earth A. The geographic grid 1. Latitude and longitude 2. Greenwich Mean Time and time zones 3. International Date Line B. Maps 1. Two-dimensional representation of a portion of Earth’s surface 2. Show only selected information C. Features of maps 1. Scale a. Small-scale shows a large area with less detail b. Large-scale shows a small area with more detail 2. Projections a. Distortion occurs when making a flat map b. Conformal maps distort size c. Equal-area maps distort shape d. Mercator e. Google uses an azimuthal projection 3. Insets and other map conventions 4. Thematic mapping D. Geographic information technology 1. Computers have impacted many aspects of human activity including geography and cartography 2. Remote sensing uses satellites and airplanes a. Collects large amounts of data b. Many uses 3. Global positioning systems (GPS) 5 ..

a. Accurately pinpoints locations b. Many applications E. Geographic information systems (GIS) 1. Special database software in which spatial information is important 2. Raster versus vector data 3. Paper to digital 4. Powerful tool with many applications a. General purpose digital maps b. Route finding c. Location-based technologies for GPS, smartphones, Facebook, etc. d. Spatial analysis 5. User-driven GIS 6. Explosion of data VII. The World in 2050 A. Issues for the next century 1. Global environmental change 2. Effects of population growth 3. Disparities in wealth leading to conflict 4. Food production and distribution B. Geography contributes important perspectives 1. Interdisciplinary 2. Global 3. Applied research

Possible Questions and Topics for Discussions and Exams 1. Locate and identify places that are at the same latitude or longitude as your college. How much of your college’s parallel and meridian are over land? 2. Determine the density of the county that contains your hometown. Explain any differences in density between your hometown county and the densities of surrounding counties. 3. Describe the site and situation of the town that contains your college. Why do you think the town and college are located where they are? 4. Ask every student in the class the farthest distance that they have traveled in the past week. Compare the results with what distance decay would suggest. 5. Investigate the life of Alexander von Humboldt. What was his educational background? What were his significant findings and achievements? 6. Discuss the extent and boundaries of the region that contains your college. Ask the class what they think the boundaries are. Decide if the college’s region is more of a formal, functional, or vernacular region. 6 ..

7. Discuss current arguments or debates over land, territory, space, or boundaries. How might geography contribute to resolving the issues? 8. How does geography compare and contrast with history? Which discipline is more important? 9. Examine the pros and cons of the cartography of a map of your college’s campus. 10. Identify possible applications of GIS. Classify the applications into physical or human geography. Which application is the most important? 11. Use the Internet to find the location of the headquarters of the Association of American Geographers (AAG). Use Internet mapping capability to find the best route to travel from your college to the headquarters of the AAG. 12. Speculate as to what might be the next advance in the development of geographic information technologies. 13. Describe the most important environmental problem in your local region. Explain how geographers might contribute to understanding the problem better and to finding possible solutions. Answers for Checkpoints Checkpoint: Careers in Geography The AAG suggests that geographers use tools such as GPS, remote sensing, and GIS to study issues in human and physical geography. Twenty areas from Geomorphology to Diversity Issues are listed. Geographers work in educational institutions, businesses, government agencies, and non-profit organizations. Seek a job and location that you will enjoy. Checkpoint: Regions The answers depend on where a person is from. If someone is from Atlanta, then the answers for the foreign person might be the United States, the South, or the southeastern part of the United States. The size and boundaries of the South would vary from person to person. The South is warmer, more humid than the rest of the United States. It used to have a lot of slavery. Now it has the best college football. Checkpoint: Where Are You? The answers depend on where a person is located. If someone is in Salt Lake City, then the latitude is 41 degrees north and the longitude is 112 degrees west. Salt Lake City’s longitude makes the city seven hours earlier than the time at Greenwich. Seven hours is the actual time difference too. 7 ..

Checkpoint: Scale in Online Maps Using Google Maps and my present location in Kenosha, WI, after zooming in to show local streets, the map has a graphic scale showing 1,000 feet and 200 meters and after zooming out so that the local streets are gone, then the graphic scale shows 2,000 feet and 500 meters. The smaller scale map left out the names of many streets and several churches. Both maps show the main streets and their names, parks, schools, and ponds. Scale of online maps is important. Checkpoint: Thematic Maps Figure 2-12 depicting the Palmer hydrological drought index uses areas and is quantitative. Figure 5-1 showing flows of oil transported by tanker is also quantitative, but emphasizes lines. Checkpoint: Satellite Imagery Satellite images of the United States from the U.S. Weather Service use National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) geostationary (GOES) satellites and infrared radiation. Checkpoint: GPS Most mobile phone technology uses GPS or multilateration to determine the location of the mobile phone. Multilateration uses the times signals take to go from the phone to nearby cell towers. Answers to Questions for Review and Discussion 1. Geography is the study of the interaction of all physical and human phenomena at individual places and of how interactions among places form patterns and organize space. Physical geography is a natural science that studies characteristics of the physical environment, whereas human geography is a social science that examines human groups and activities. Regional geography studies all the characteristics of an individual place. 2. Early geographers determined that Earth is round, drew maps of the known world, and described physical characteristics of regions. Regional geography, systematic geography, and the human environment tradition originated in medieval times. 3. Formal regions like the Corn Belt have internal uniformity. Functional regions like a commuting area or the circulation area of a newspaper are based on interaction. Vernacular regions like the “Sunbelt” are based on people’s perception of its existence. 4. If there are 200 people in a five square mile area, then the density is 40 persons per square mile. The density statistic does not indicate where the 200 people live within the five square mile area, but concentration would indicate if the people are all concentrated together or scattered. 8 ..

5. Spatial interaction is not specifically discussed in this chapter. Spatial interaction is the movement or flow of people, things, ideas, and so forth between places. 6.

Relocation diffusion is between distant points, whereas contiguous diffusion is between nearby points. Relocation diffusion usually involves migration and contiguous diffusion is neighbor to neighbor. Contiguous diffusion is also known as contagious diffusion.

7. The atmosphere refers to the layer of gases above Earth’s surface. The water realm is known as the hydrosphere. The lithosphere is the solid part of Earth and the biosphere encompasses all living organisms. 8. Map scales can be shown using a written statement (1 inch equals 25 miles), a graphic scale where a bar on the map is labeled with distances, or a representative fraction (1:62,500, where 1 unit on the map is equal to 62,500 units on the ground). 9. Size, distance, shape, and orientation are the distortions associated with map projections. Different projections have varying amounts of these kinds of distortions. 10. Meridians run north and south, come together at the poles, and measure the east-west location of a point. Parallels run east and west, are parallel to each other, and measure the north-south location of a point. 11. Using airplanes and satellites, remote sensing collects vast amounts of data on the atmosphere and Earth’s surface on a regular basis. These data show many patterns and how the patterns change over time. Geographic information systems use these and other data to create layers of information for each location. GIS can quickly extract, manipulate, transform, and display these data layers in various ways based on the needs of the problem at hand. Besides analyzing the distribution of ponds and small lakes as described in the chapter, GIS are being used in an increasing number of different applications. 12. Everyday use of GIS includes GPS displays, online map servers, smartphones, tablets, laptops, and social networks. Answers for Thinking Geographically 1. There are many stories in the news that illustrate geographic concepts. A recurring story is the travels of the U.S. President. Why did the President travel to that place? What route was taken? What are the characteristics of that place? What are the consequences of the visit? 2. A map of New Zealand would minimize size and shape distortion of New Zealand. The map would have New Zealand near the center of the paper. The borders of northern India and of Israel are disputed. Some of the maps show the disputed borders and areas; other maps do not show the disputes, making it look like there are clear, agreed upon borders. The disputes should be shown and the CIA World Factbook could be consulted.

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3. Natural hazards are unpredictable, but science is increasing human ability to predict hazards. Human activity often increases the risks and consequences. If a person builds a new house on a floodplain and then gets flooded, it is their fault. 4. The specific answers depend on what town is being considered. Buildings, streets, and sidewalks are going to be seen. Probably not much nature is evident; for example, there will be lawns and tended flower beds instead of natural vegetation. Google Maps shows the pattern or layout of the streets and buildings. 5. People might travel long distances for a special event like the Super Bowl or your son’s wedding. They might travel long distances to experience the culture of different places or to go someplace that they have always wanted to go. Long-distance travel might occur if the costs were discounted.

For additional review and test prep materials visit the Study Area in MasteringGeography™. Students can enhance their geographic literacy, spatial reasoning skills, and understanding of this chapter’s content by accessing a variety of resources including MapMaster interactive maps, videos, RSS feeds, flashcards, web links, self-study quizzes, and an e-Text version of the text. Introduction to Geography.

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CHAPTER 2 Weather, Climate, and Climate Change Weather, Climate, and Climate Change starts with the roles of solar radiation and movements of Earth in determining patterns of weather and climate. Following an explanation of heat storage, transfer, and exchange is a discussion of the causes of different types of precipitation. Circulation patterns related to atmospheric pressure variations emphasizing the four zones of global circulation, seasonal variations, effects on ocean currents, and regional storms are covered next. Then the role of temperature and precipitation in describing climate is explained. The classification and description of Earth’s many important climate regions precede a concluding section on climate change emphasizing causes and consequences of global warming. A Global and Local box discusses El Niño/La Niña, whereas a Rapid Change box examines Warming in West Antarctica. Learning Outcomes After carefully studying this chapter, students should be able to: · · · · · · · ·

Describe the difference between weather and climate List the ways that solar energy varies in time and space, and how it affects the weather Discuss convection and its relationship to weather Describe fronts, including the difference between a cold front and a warm front Describe the general circulation patterns of the atmosphere Describe oceanic circulation patterns Explain the purpose of classifying climates, and major climate types Describe three major causes of climate change

Chapter Review •

Weather is day-to-day conditions; climate is the summary of weather over time.

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Energy and Weather ·

Solar energy drives atmospheric processes creating patterns of weather and climate.

Earth’s orbit around the Sun, tilt, and rotation affect the insolation or amount of solar energy at a particular location. The angle at which the Sun’s rays strikes Earth’s surface is the angle of incidence. The more perpendicular the angle of incidence, the more solar energy received. The number of hours a day of sunlight depends on latitude and season. Places tilted toward the Sun have more hours of sunlight. There are always 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of night at the equator. Water stores more heat than land. Land temperatures are more changeable and extreme. 11 ..

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Solar energy is radiant energy. Radiant energy is energy transmitted by electromagnetic waves. Most insolation is shortwave radiation where successive waves are close together, whereas most of the energy reradiated back into space is longwave. The atmosphere contains greenhouse gases that allow shortwave to reach the surface, but block a portion of the outgoing longwave.

Latent heat is heat stored in the different states of water and is often responsible for large transfers of energy.

Convection occurs when part of a fluid is heated. Heated air will rise and cooled air will descend. Rising or descending air causes advection, the horizontal movement of air. Differences in insolation cause differences in heating and cooling, which in turn produce many of the basic patterns of the atmosphere.

Precipitation ·

Humans expect precipitation amounts to be normal. Droughts, floods, and other problems occur when precipitation is not what is expected.

Precipitation occurs when there is enough condensation around tiny particles in clouds. Condensation occurs when the pressure of moisture in the air exceeds saturation.

There are three ways precipitation develops. Convectional has humid air heated near the surface, rising, being cooled adiabatically, latent heat being released, more rising, more cooling, and ultimately precipitation often in a thunderstorm. Orographic is caused when air is pushed upward over mountains. Cooling leads to condensation and precipitation, especially on the windward side. The leeward side has a rain shadow. Frontal is when warm air rises over cool air when air masses meet. Again the warm air is cooled and precipitation results.

Circulation Patterns ·

Atmospheric pressure reflects the weight of the atmosphere’s air above a given point. Differences in pressure create wind.

The Coriolis effect is the deflection of air due to the rotation of Earth. Deflection to the right, or clockwise, exists in the Northern Hemisphere. The opposite is true for the Southern Hemisphere.

Global scale convection creates the intertropical convergence zone, trade winds, subtropical high-pressure zones, westerlies, midlatitude low-pressure zones, polar easterlies, and polar high-pressure zones. For example, in the polar regions, cold causes dense air, high pressure, and outward (toward the equator) moving winds that are deflected by the Coriolis effect. 12 ..

The tilt of Earth causes seasonal shifts in the previously mentioned zones and the winds. January and July can be compared. The monsoon circulation of South Asia has winter high pressure over Asia creating land to sea winds that allow little rain and summer low pressure over Asia yielding sea to land winds that produce much rain (the monsoon).

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Winds and differences in water temperature and in salinity produce ocean currents and ocean circulation patterns. For example, the Gulf Stream moves northward along the east coast of North America, bringing heat into the north Atlantic. When El Niño occurs, weather patterns change.

Tropical cyclones (hurricanes), midlatitude cyclones, and tornadoes are storms that start as low-pressure centers with rising air. Hurricane-induced storm surges are often very devastating.

Climate ·

Climate is the summary of weather conditions over many years. Climate affects the vegetation, natural resources, and human activities of an area. Climate changes over time due to natural processes and human actions.

Air temperature and precipitation are the two most important aspects of climate. Both vary over time and location in response to many factors such as insolation, elevation, and movements of air masses. Humans need to adapt to variations in temperature and precipitation.

Water availability in an area is also affected by transpiration by plants.

Classifying Climate ·

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Climates are classified using temperature, precipitation, and vegetation information. The Köppen scheme with five basic climates and letter codes is most commonly used.

Earth’s Climate Regions ·

Humid tropical, seasonally humid tropical, desert, semiarid, humid subtropical, marine west coast, Mediterranean, humid continental, subarctic, tundra, and ice-cap are the 11 principal climates that are described.

A climograph is provided for a representative location for each type of climate.

Climate Change ·

Climate changes in response to temperature change over geologic time. The Quaternary Period has had relatively many periods of warmer temperatures followed by colder ones. The last period of colder temperatures and glaciation peaked about 18,000 years ago. Currently, Earth is in a warmer period. 13 ..

Astronomy and geology offer possible natural reasons for climate change.

Humans contribute to climate change by adding to the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Burning of fossil fuels is a major contributor.

Based on climate models, consensus exists that Earth is warming, but there is much uncertainty concerning details and logical responses. Tipping points may be reached, leading to rapid or irreversible changes. Ice in the Arctic and Greenland is melting.

Responses to global warming include adapting to the warmer conditions, reducing carbon emissions to slow the process, and geoengineering the atmosphere to reduce the warming. Dealing with global warming will be expensive.

Chapter Outline I. Introduction A. Weather is the day-to-day changes B. Climate is the statistical summary of weather over time II. Energy and weather A. Solar energy 1. Drives atmospheric processes 2. Derived from thermonuclear reactions in the Sun B. Amount of incoming solar radiation varies 1. Earth’s orbit and tilt a. Time of day b. Latitude c. Season 2. Amount intercepted at a given location a. Angle of incidence b. Day length c. Distance from the Sun 3. Equinoxes (March and September) and solstices (June and December) C. Storage of heat 1. Water stores large amounts 2. Land stores small amounts 3. Land temperature changes faster than water temperature D. Heat transfer between the atmosphere and Earth 1. Radiation a. Radiant energy is transmitted by electromagnetic waves b. Most incoming solar radiation is shortwave c. Most outgoing energy is longwave d. Most shortwave passes through the atmosphere e. Some longwave is trapped by greenhouse gases 2. Latent heat 14 ..

a. Heat stored in water and water vapor b. Transfers large amounts of energy E. Heat exchange and atmospheric circulation 1. Convection a. Movement in any fluid when part of the fluid is heated b. Warm air (and water) rises 2. Advection a. Horizontal movement of air b. Moves large amounts of air and latent heat III. Precipitation A. Variations in precipitation affect human activities B. Condensation 1. Water from vapor to liquid 2. Relative humidity 3. Leads to precipitation a. When the pressure of moisture exceeds the saturation vapor pressure b. When clouds contain tiny particles (condensation nuclei) C. Rising air causes precipitation 1. Convection a. Rising air leading to adiabatic cooling b. Clouds form and condensation occurs c. Thunderstorms with gusty winds and intense rain develop d. Major cause of precipitation 2. Orographic precipitation a. Mountains force air upward b. Cooling, clouds, condensation, precipitation c. Windward side has precipitation d. Leeward side is rain shadow with less precipitation 3. Frontal uplift a. Cold air mass pushes under a warm air mass b. Warm air rises c. Cooling, clouds, condensation, precipitation d. Cold fronts and warm fronts IV. Circulation patterns A. Fundamental causes 1. Atmospheric pressure a. Weight of air above a location b. Varies with altitude 2. Wind 3. Coriolis effect B. Global atmospheric circulation 1. Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) a. Much solar radiation causes air to rise, creating low pressure and rain b. Pushes warm, dry air toward the midlatitudes 2. Trade winds 15 ..

3. Subtropical high-pressure zones a. Air descends, causing high pressure b. Creates arid climate 4. Westerlies 5. Midlatitude low-pressure zones a. Convergence of warm air and polar air b. Causes the westerlies 6. Polar easterlies 7. Polar high-pressure zones a. Cold causes high pressure b. Very little moisture C. Seasonal variations 1. January a. ITCZ is a few degrees south of the equator b. Pattern of the other zones is more consistent in the Southern Hemisphere 2. July a. ITCZ is north of the equator b. Low pressure over Asia causing the monsoon circulation D. Global ocean circulation 1. Winds are the main cause of currents 2. Currents form circular patterns (gyres) a. Warm water moved toward the poles b. Cold water moved toward the equator E. Storms 1. Vary from huge monsoons to local thunderstorms 2. Modified by El Niño/La Niña 3. Tropical cyclone (hurricane or typhoon or cyclone) a. Intense low pressure b. Strong winds, much rain, and storm surges c. Weakens over land 4. Midlatitude cyclone a. Low pressure along polar fronts b. Weaker than tropical cyclones c. Sometimes leads to tornadoes V. Climate A. Summary of weather conditions over many years B. Two main components 1. Temperature a. Varies over time and space b. Affected by elevation and topography 2. Precipitation a. Varies over time and space b. Transpiration and potential evapotranspiration VI. Classifying climate A. Uses patterns of temperature and precipitation as related to water availability for 16 ..

vegetation B. Köppen system a. Most recognized system b. Used distribution of vegetation to reflect temperature and precipitation c. Uses A, B, C, D, E to identify five main types VII. Earth’s climate regions A. Humid low-latitude tropical climates 1. Humid tropical (Af, Am) a. Beneath the ITCZ b. Warm, humid, rainy c. Little seasonal variation d. Tropical rainforests 2. Seasonally humid tropical (Aw) a. Has a distinct dry season b. Often caused by shifts in the ITCZ c. Sometimes caused by the monsoon circulation d. Less plant growth during dry season B. Dry climates 1. Desert (BWh, BWk) a. Beneath subtropical high-pressure zones b. Very dry, especially on western sides of continents, high temperatures c. Little vegetation 2. Semiarid (BSh, BSk) a. More rainfall b. Between deserts and humid regions c. Steppes or grasslands C. Warm midlatitude climates 1. Humid subtropical (Cfa, Cw) a. Beneath subtropical high-pressure zones, especially on eastern sides of continents b. More seasonal variations c. Mostly deciduous vegetation 2. Marine west coast (Cfb, Cfc) a. On west coasts b. Moderate temperatures c. Plentiful precipitation, drizzle d. Mostly evergreen vegetation 3. Mediterranean (Cs) a. Dry summers b. Cool, rainy winters c. Vegetation has to survive dry period D. Cold midlatitude climates 1. Humid continental (Dfa, Dwa, Dfb, Dwb) a. Only in Northern Hemisphere b. Warm summers c. Cold winters d. Deciduous and some evergreen vegetation 17 ..

2. Subarctic (Dfc, Dwc, Dfd, Dwd) a. Very cold winters b. Modest precipitation c. Conifers (boreal forest) E. Polar climates 1. Tundra (ET) a. Cold throughout the year b. Permafrost c. Treeless tundra vegetation 2. Ice-cap (EF) a. Very cold, quite dry b. No vegetation F. Climographs quantitatively describe different climates VIII. Climate change A. Long-run changes in the underlying determinants of climate cause climate change B. Over geologic time 1. Glacial periods during the Pleistocene Epoch a. Shifts in temperature back and forth b. Most recent colder episode was about 18,000 years ago 2. Little Ice Age from 1500 to 1750 C. Causes 1. Astronomical hypotheses 2. Geologic hypotheses 3. Human activities a. Burning fossil fuels b. Adding other pollutants D. Global warming 1. Consensus that it is truly occurring 2. Caused by increased carbon dioxide 3. Climate models are used 4. Uncertainties a. Limited understanding of the climate system b. Tipping points being reached, leading to rapid change c. Unknown future conditions 5. How to respond to global warming a. Adapt to climate change b. Reduce carbon emissions c. “Geoengineer” the global carbon cycle, the atmosphere d. Substantial costs involved Possible Questions and Topics for Discussions and Exams 1. Describe what climographs show and do not show. 2. Explain how the trade winds, westerlies, and polar easterlies are formed. 18 ..

3. What is the name and Köppen code for the climate where your college is located? What are its characteristics? Explain what causes those characteristics. 4. Compare and contrast the characteristics of hurricanes and tornadoes. 5. Look up the worst natural disasters in human history. How many were caused by weather extremes? Using a world map, locate these disasters. Explain reasons for any patterns. 6. Compare the patterns of average January temperatures in Australia and North America. 7. Looking at Figure 2-34, which of the 11 climates covers the most area? Which covers the least area? 8. Find climate data for your favorite foreign vacation destination. When would be the best and worst times of the year to visit? Why? 9. Using Weatherbase.com, look up Dhaka, Bangladesh. Describe Dhaka’s temperature and precipitation variations throughout the year. 10. Suggest reasons why weather forecasts are often inaccurate. 11. Describe the best weather for sailing, playing soccer, and sleeping. Do all students agree? 12. What are likely negative consequences of global warming? What are possible positive consequences? Do the negatives outweigh the positives or not? Answers for Checkpoints Checkpoint: Variations in Solar Energy For any given location, the angle of incidence for solar radiation is much more important than the distance to the Sun. Checkpoint: Heat Transfers In general, morning temperatures are lower after a cloudless night because less longwave radiation is trapped when there are less water vapor and fewer clouds in the atmosphere. Checkpoint: Convection and Clouds During a more humid day clouds would be lower since there would more water vapor available to condense into clouds. Checkpoint: Weather Patterns Looking at the national forecast high-resolution map for July 2, 2013, from weather.gov, there are six low-pressure and two high-pressure areas shown. There is a long mostly stationary front 19 ..

running from Maine to south Texas to Wyoming and a cold front beginning to move down from Canada. The link to the map legend should be used. Checkpoint: Circulation Patterns Looking at weather.com–Map Room–Satellite Map for July 2, 2013, for the Western Hemisphere there are three storm systems along 30 degrees south or near the subtropical highpressure zone. The pattern is also affected by the northward shift of the ITCZ in July. Checkpoint: Climate and Circulation Comparing Indianapolis and New Orleans, which are about 800 miles apart, Indianapolis has an average annual temperature of 53 degrees and New Orleans has 69 degrees. Average annual precipitation is 40 inches and 61 inches, respectively. These differences are not surprising and the data are from weatherbase.com. Checkpoint: Climate Answer depends on location. Using Seattle, the climate is marine west coast (Cfb). Seattle’s average annual temperature is 53 degrees, whereas its average annual precipitation equals 34 inches. These values are fairly typical for a marine west coast climate, although summers in Seattle would be a little colder. Checkpoint: Climate Change Examining Chicago’s historical record, the record high is 105 degrees in July 1934 and the record low is minus 27 degrees in January 1985. Looking at the 50-year periods of 1913 to 1962 and 1963 to 2012, there were 34 years with above-average temperatures in the first period and 30 years above average in the next. The decades before 1913 were cooler. Based on 100 years of temperatures in Chicago, there is little evidence of global warming. Data are from ClimateStation.com. Answers to Questions for Review and Discussion 1. Using Figure 2-6 and a latitude of 40 degrees, minimum solar radiation occurs at the winter solstice and maximum amounts at the summer solstice. As the angle of incidence becomes less perpendicular, the intensity of solar radiation also declines. More hours of daylight mean more solar radiation. The angle of incidence and day length do not vary by latitude at the time of the equinoxes. 2. Radiation, or the energy transmitted by electromagnetic waves; movement of water and water vapor containing latent heat; convection, or the movement in any fluid when part of the fluid is heated; and advection, or horizontal movement of air are the major processes. 3. Hurricanes occur mostly over oceans and during the late summer and fall because these storms depend on large amounts of warm, moist air. Oceans add moisture and ocean temperatures are the warmest in the late summer and into fall. 20 ..

4. In comparison to continental interiors, climatic conditions are usually more moderate in coastal areas. The nearby body of water slows the heating or cooling of the coastal lands. Similarly, the continental interiors are less moderate, meaning that annual temperature variations are greater. 5. Midlatitude cyclones occur in the midlatitudes and are centers of low pressure that develop along a polar front. Midlatitude cyclones are more common and weaker than most hurricanes. The passage of a front associated with a midlatitude cyclone normally causes changes in temperatures, precipitation, and winds. In some cases, these storms become tornadoes. 6. Related to the fact that warm air holds more moisture than cold air, higher temperatures mean more rainfall is needed for the place to be classified as having a humid climate. 7. Humid tropical—the ITCZ is there all the time. Seasonally humid tropical—the ITCZ shifts away during part of the year and for Asia the monsoon circulation applies. Desert—located in subtropical high-pressure zones, especially in western parts of continents where high-pressure zones over adjacent oceans make the land drier. Semiarid—subtropical high-pressure zones are not as strong, and, in some cases, mountains block air masses containing moisture. Humid subtropical—the subtropical high-pressure zone brings moisture to eastern sides of continents. Marine west coast—westerlies bring air masses to west coasts of some areas. Mediterranean—shifts in the subtropical high-pressure and midlatitude low-pressure zones cause dry summers and cool, wet winters. Humid continental—seasonal contrasts between the subtropical high-pressure and the midlatitude low-pressure zones. Subarctic—polar edge of midlatitude low-pressure zones draws in cold air. Tundra—polar high-pressure zone has little moisture and warmth. Ice-cap—polar high-pressure zone is strongest. 8. Over the last 1,000 years, global temperatures were warmer in about A.D. 900, cooler with the Little Ice Age (A.D. 1500 to A.D. 1750), and warming over the last 200 years. Warmer conditions and melting of glaciers was true between 15,000 to 5,000 years ago. Based on Figure 2-56, there were two glacial and three interglacial periods over the last 100,000 years. 9. Earth–Sun geometry, sunspots, continental drift, volcanic eruptions, burning fossil fuels, creation of methane, use of halocarbons, and removing vegetation are possible causes of global warming. Consequences include sea-level rises and changes in precipitation patterns affecting agriculture and other human activities.

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Answers for Thinking Geographically 1 There are too many varying aspects to answer this question specifically. It is likely that the daily weather journal will be generally consistent with the daily weather maps, but with more details and specifics. The daily weather journal is likely to be less quantitative. 2. Living near Kenosha, Wisconsin, the topography is flat, meaning that it is more windy and that orographic precipitation effects do not exist. Kenosha is on the shoreline of Lake Michigan,which causes summer temperatures to be cooler and winter temperatures to be warmer. Kenosha is an urban area with a population of about 125,000, so there are some modest urban heat island effects. 3. Answers will vary. 4. An annual average increase of 9 degrees (F) would be a huge increase in temperature. One way to think about this is that every day throughout the year would be 9 degrees warmer. People would wear more warm weather clothes, run their air conditioners more, water their lawns more often, avoid outdoor activities during the hottest times, not have to deal with winter driving conditions as often, celebrate a white Christmas less often, be more irritable, not sign up for skiing lessons, and so forth. 5. Warm midlatitude climates (Cfa, Cw, Cfb, Cfc, Cs) have the highest population densities. Humid low-latitude climates (Af, Am, Aw) are a close second. Dry climates (B), polar climates (E), and highland (H) have much lower densities. The climates with high densities have temperature and precipitation levels that are favorable for agriculture and settlement. For example, the hundreds of millions of people who live in East China are aided by the Cfa climate.

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CHAPTER 3 Landforms Landforms initially describes how plate tectonics has helped to shape Earth’s landforms. Earthquakes and volcanoes are associated with different types of plate boundaries. The next section explains the three types of rocks and how they are formed. Weathering, mass movement, and water erosion emphasizing stream drainage are followed by explanations of the effects of glaciation, wind, and waves. The chapter finishes with discussions of environmental hazards and human responses to these issues. There is a Rapid Change box discussing Soil Conservation and Stream Erosion and a Global and Local box focusing on issues Sea Level Rise and Coastline Change.

Learning Outcomes After carefully studying this chapter, students should be able to: · · · · · · · · ·

Define tectonic plates, and list the different kinds of plate boundaries with examples Describe the processes that cause vertical movements of Earth’s crust Describe the processes of weathering List the different types of mass movements and describe how they operate Describe the features of a meandering stream channel Describe the effects of changing sediment inputs on stream channels Describe the major features of glaciated landscapes Describe the ways in which wave action shapes coastlines List the major environmental hazards associated with geologic activity, and describe their spatial distributions

Chapter Review •

Introduction ·

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Geomorphology is the study of landforms and the processes that form them. Landforms are created by endogenic and exogenic processes. Mountain building is endogenic and erosion is exogenic.

Plate Tectonics ·

Plate tectonics states that pieces of Earth’s crust are moving as the mantle below moves in convection currents.

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Plate movements produce earthquakes and volcanic activity. Earthquakes, measured by seismographs, are sudden movements of the crust. Volcanoes develop when magma (molten rock) comes to the surface. Both earthquakes and volcanoes are clustered along plate boundaries.

Divergent boundaries are where plates are moving apart, whereas convergent boundaries are the opposite. Transform boundaries are where plates are moving past each other. There are vertical movements of Earth’s crust as well. These movements lead to the current location of the continents, and sometimes, mountain building. The crust is floating on the mantle.

Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic are the main types of rocks.

Minerals in rocks make some rocks valuable resources for humans. When stress on rocks becomes strong enough, a fault is created. Some rocks are more easily shaped into different landforms than others.

Slopes and Streams ·

Weathering is an exogenic process where rocks are broken down into smaller pieces. Chemical and mechanical weathering are the two main processes.

Weathered material is often moved by gravity. Gravity alone yields mass movement. Soil creep, rock slides, and mudslides are examples.

Surface erosion is where particles are picked up and carried by water moving downhill due to gravity.

Rainfall that does not seep into the ground and become additional groundwater runs off the land as overland flow. This flow becomes streams (rivers) as the water and the sediment carried in the water carve channels and eventually many other landforms. Drainage basin, discharge, drainage density, sediment transport, floodplain, meander, grade, delta, and alluvial fan are concepts that describe the characteristics of streams. Streams are constantly eroding and depositing sediment according to environmental conditions.

Characteristics of the lower Mississippi River valley made damage from Hurricane Katrina worse.

Clearing forests, farming new lands, using land intensively, building highways and cities, and many other human activities have increased erosion in general and soil erosion in particular.

Ice, Wind, and Waves ·

Glaciation can be a powerful erosional force. Alpine glaciers form on individual mountains, whereas continental glaciers cover large areas. Glaciers move as snow 24 ..

accumulates at the head of the glacier. Melting at the edge of the glacier drops material, creating terminal moraines and the outward-flowing meltwater produces outwash plains.

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In response to climate change, glaciers advanced during colder periods and retreated during warmer times. Most of North America, Europe, and northern Asia’s topography was strongly affected by the most recent glacial advance (about 20,000 years ago). Soils, water supplies, and transportation routes used by people today were impacted by these glaciers.

In areas with dry conditions and less vegetation, wind is a more important force of erosion and landform modification. Desert pavement is a hard, rocky surface found in deserts when the wind has blown away the fine particles. Loess is a thick layer of wind-blown silt that yields soil good for agriculture.

Coastal erosion results from wave action, longshore currents, and changes in sea level. A lot of energy can be concentrated on shorelines.

Waves are caused by winds, and, sometimes, by underwater earthquakes. As waves break, they grind back and forth on the materials found onshore. The finer particles settle back into deeper water, leaving the sand particles to make beaches. Underwater earthquakes cause tsunamis, which are very long waves that can travel rapidly.

A longshore current occurs because waves give a push to water and sediment in a direction parallel to the shore.

Sea level varies as a result of tides, storms, climate change, and crustal movements. The ebb and flow of past glaciation had significant effects on sea level.

Humans often choose to live on shorelines without fully understanding the risks. Steps like building groins (perpendicular structures) and sea walls to protect shorelines from the natural processes of coastal modification. These steps are usually temporary as time weakens them or events such as hurricanes overwhelm them.

The Dynamic Earth ·

Hazardous events like earthquakes or tornadoes are common over geologic time, but rare to humans. Much damage can result when people are surprised when a severe environmental hazard occurs. Climate change may make flooding worse.

Learning how to live more successfully in ever-changing environments is essential. Geographers have the knowledge and perspective to help people live more safely.

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Chapter Outline I. Introduction A. Geomorphology 1. Study of landforms 2. Study of processes a. Endogenic build landforms internally b. Exogenic erode II. Plate tectonics A. Moving crust 1. “Fixed Earth” idea was wrong 2. Tectonic plates move with the mantle 3. Driven by Earth’s interior heat 4. Consequences a. Location of the continents b. Mountain building c. Earthquakes and related concepts d. Volcanoes and related concepts B. Boundaries between plates 1. Divergent a. Very slow movement b. Usually with seafloor spreading 2. Convergent a. Seafloor crust goes beneath lighter continental crust b. Melted crust leads to volcanic activity 3. Transform a. Plates are sliding past each other b. San Andreas fault and earthquakes 4. Vertical a. Up or down b. Isostatic adjustment C. Rocks 1. Igneous 2. Sedimentary 3. Metamorphic 4. Minerals a. Substances that comprise rocks b. Sima are more dense than sial c. Continental shields usually have rich deposits d. Affect the kinds of soil that develop 5. Stress shapes landforms a. Along faults b. Resistance of rock material affects the impact of exogenic processes III. Slopes and streams A. Weathering 26 ..

1. Breaking rocks into pieces 2. Chemical methods a. Faster when warmer and wetter b. Acids attacking rocks c. Leaching d. Oxidation e. Decomposition of calcium carbonate 3. Mechanical methods a. Temperature changes b. Freezing water c. Plant roots B. Moving weathered material 1. Gravity 2. Mass movement a. Soil creep b. Landslides 3. Surface erosion a. Caused by runoff b. Rills, streams, and rivers 4. Streams, drainage, and erosion a. From groundwater b. From overland flow c. Drains a drainage basin d. Discharge is the volume of water carried per unit of time e. Drainage density is the total length of all streams divided by drainage basin area f. Erode and deposit material g. Floodplains h. Meanders i. Deltas 5. Erosion in dry areas a. Relatively rapid b. Alluvial fans 6. Human activities increase erosion a. Removing vegetation b. New agricultural lands c. Urban development IV. Ice, wind, and waves A. In some places, these forces are more powerful than running water B. Glaciers 1. Layers of moving ice 2. Types a. Alpine b. Continental 3. Slowly grinds and scrapes 4. Deposits 5. Melting 27 ..

a. Moraines b. Outwash plains C. Past glaciations 1. Variations in temperatures cause more or less glaciation 2. Much glaciation about 20,000 years ago 3. Many effects on today’s topography 4. Effects on human activities in North America a. Soils b. Agriculture D. Wind 1. Most important in dry areas 2. More impacts when vegetation is lacking 3. Features a. Sand dunes b. Desert pavement c. Loess E. Coastal erosion 1. Waves a. Powerful force b. Caused by winds c. Can travel long distances d. Tsunamis 2. Longshore current a. Caused by wave action b. Carries sediment 3. Sea-level changes a. Tides b. Storms c. Warmer climate trends cause rise d. Changes shorelines e. In some places land has risen relative to sea level 4. Human activities a. Many humans and much development along coasts b. Efforts to protect human development are often insufficient and temporary V. Dynamic Earth A. Environmental hazards 1. Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, landslides, tornadoes, hurricanes, etc. 2. Common over geologic time 3. Uncommon over human time frames; therefore, seem rapid 4. Damage a. Can be very substantial b. Humans deciding the risk is worth it c. In the long run, often made worse by protective measures 5. Humans adapting to the environment 6. Humans modify the environment to protect themselves, but sometimes destabilize landforms 28 ..

B. People need to live with landforms, not try to change them C. Geographers have relevant expertise Possible Questions and Topics for Discussions and Exams 1. Go to a nearby beach or stream and describe any coastal erosion processes that are occurring. Are there any human structures that affect these processes? 2. Which environmental hazards are most likely to occur in your area? What steps are being taken to prepare for such an event? Which are least likely to happen? 3. Measure the width of your classroom. If tectonic plates move at a rate of 2 centimeters per year, calculate how long it would take for the plates to move the width of your classroom. 4. List the principal landforms in your area. How do these features affect human activities? Which features have been the most modified by people? 5. Compare topographic maps of a coastal area and mountainous region. Are there any similarities? 6. Describe the processes that lead to volcanic activity and the two main types of volcanoes. What happened on Martinique in 1902? 7. Explain why construction sites should be concerned about erosion. Visit some local sites to see if anything is being done to reduce erosion. Ask the local building department if there are any regulations or ordinances that try to control erosion at construction projects. 8. Suggest possible reasons why the Himalayan Mountains are the highest on Earth. 9. Explain what happens when waves approach the shore. 10. Outline the events associated with alpine glaciation. How does alpine glaciation differ from continental glaciation? 11. What are alternate answers to the question: what is the largest lake in the world? 12. Explain the many ways that topography can make transportation harder or easier. 13. How were the Great Lakes formed? What have been and are the impacts of the Great Lakes on human activity?

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Answers for Checkpoints Checkpoint: Earthquakes The following earthquakes were examined. Mid-Atlantic Ridge at 11 degrees north and 46 degrees west on June 24, 2013, with a magnitude of 6.6 was between the African and South American plates on a transform boundary. Kuril Islands at 46 degrees north and 151 degrees east on April 19, 2013, with a magnitude of 7.2 was between the Eurasian and Pacific plates on a convergent boundary. Santa Cruz Islands at 11 degrees south and 165 degrees east on February 6, 2013, with a magnitude of 8.0 was between the Australian and Pacific plates on a convergent boundary. Checkpoint: Slopes Processes There are many possible sources of sediment that enters streams. Agriculture, mining, forestry, and construction are common anthropogenic sources. Urban runoff is another possibility. Natural processes contribute sediment to streams. Checkpoint: Floodplains Landsat images for a portion of the Mississippi River just south of Memphis, Tennessee, for August 14, 2011, and August 8, 2012, were examined from the NASA Earth Observatory website. The extent of the floodplain is seen by where the existence of fields, roads, and buildings stops. The images are about one year apart and can be compared. The 2011 image shows normal water levels and the 2012 image has low water levels. The river channel is narrower with many more sandbars exposed in the 2012 image. Checkpoint: Glaciers and Meltwater As glaciers melt because of global warming, there will be more discharge, erosive force, and sediment carried. Also, there will be more sediment to be deposited downstream. In the long run, there might be less discharge and erosion because the glaciers would be gone. Checkpoint: Coastlines Wisconsin Point is a spit on the south shore of Lake Superior just east of Superior, Wisconsin. The longshore current and drift that has formed this spit is moving west. Checkpoint: Humans and Erosion Cultivation of crops is common throughout the world and often exposes the soil to erosion. The eroded soil is a loss to the farmer’s ability to grow crops and add to the sediment load of nearby waters. 30 ..

Checkpoint: Environmental Hazards Near Kenosha, Wisconsin, there is a lack of environmental hazards like earthquakes or hurricanes. The greatest danger is from tornadoes. In a very unusual winter event, on January 7, 2008, the Kenosha area experienced a tornado that damaged about 150 homes, destroying 27 of them completely and injuring 15, but none seriously. Record high temperatures for January were an important cause of the tornado. Answers to Questions for Review and Discussion 1. Plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain building, seafloor spreading, and faults are all endogenic processes because these forces occur at or beneath Earth’s surface. Chemical weathering, mechanical weathering, mass movement, surface erosion, soil creep, deposition, glaciation, winds, waves, and sea-level changes are all exogenic. These forces attack Earth’s surface. 2. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a divergent plate boundary. The west coast of South America has a convergent plate boundary. A transform plate boundary is found along the San Andreas Fault in California. 3. Isostatic adjustments refer to crust moving up or down as it floats on the mantle. Crust might float higher if erosion makes it lighter. Crust sinks when it is heavier because of deposition or glaciation. 4. Mass movement will be rapid when slopes are steeper and when water makes the material heavier and more slippery. 5. Drainage basins are areas drained by a stream or river. Rivers are affected by the area of the drainage basin, amount of precipitation, and kinds of soils and rocks. Drainage density is the total length of all channels in the basin divided by the basin’s area. Densities are higher when the basin has less absorption of water. Densities are lower when a lot of the water is absorbed into the ground. Discharge is the volume of water that a stream or river carries per unit of time. 6. Drowned river mouths, larger bays, smaller islands, and submerged land suggest sea-level rise. Landforms associated with beaches (marine terraces) away from shores and new isthmuses indicate declines in sea level. 7. Soil erosion means more sediment being transported by streams leading to more deposits on the floodplain, more soils buried, worse flooding, and faster delta building. 8. Stream channels are carved along the path of least resistance. Terminal moraines reflect the shape of the melting glacier. Beach dunes are parallel to the wave action. The time it takes for the formation of river channels is measured in years to hundreds of years; terminal moraines take maybe hundreds of years ; beach dunes take days to hundreds of years.

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Answers for Thinking Geographically 1. Continental glaciers covered most of Wisconsin 20,000 years ago. In areas not covered by glaciers, but located near them, the climate would have been colder and the vegetation would reflect the colder temperatures. For example, there would have been taiga in Illinois. Also, the Bering land bridge would have existed, allowing human migration from Asia to North America. 2. Most of this question is beyond the scope of this IRM. The Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) has a Web Soil Survey link that asked for the area of interest and provided a soil map and soil data for the requested area. The NRCS also has archived soil surveys online. The 2008 Soil Survey for Story County, Iowa, was examined. Sharpsburg-Shelby soils cover 58 percent of the county. Parent material, glaciation, drainage, and climate in general affect the formation of soils in Iowa. There might be differences between the soil survey and a site visit because of changes since the survey was conducted or because the survey generalizes the soils of an area and might have inaccuracies for a specific location. 3. The Paw Paw quadrangle (7.5 minute series) showing the Potomac River in West Virginia and Maryland contains several clear meanders. The width of the Potomac is estimated to be 270 feet; the length of the river from one edge of the map to the other edge is estimated at 126,000 feet. There are 11 right-hand bends on this portion of the river. Dividing 126,000 by 11 equals 11,454 feet. This result is much greater than 10 or 15 times the river width. This is a major river with especially long meanders. 4. Mount St. Helens and Loma Prieta area are about 630 miles apart. The Mount St. Helens eruption did not cause the Loma Prieta earthquake nine years later, but the two events are connected in terms of tectonic plate movements. The pushing together associated with the convergent boundary between the North American plate and the Juan de Fuca plate has created a line of volcanoes in Washington and Oregon, including Mount St. Helens. Periodically, enough heat and magma build up to cause an eruption. The transform boundary movements of the North American plate and the Pacific plate along the San Andreas fault cause numerous earthquakes, including Loma Prieta.

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CHAPTER 4 Biosphere Biosphere opens by defining these crucial cycles. Then the hydrologic cycle, water budgets, and evapotranspiration are explained. The carbon and oxygen cycle, including the global carbon budget, is examined. Soils, including their formation, horizons, numerous types, connections to climate and vegetation, desertification, losses of fertility, and locations, follow. Characteristics of ecosystems, ecological concepts such as food chains, biomagnification, and biodiversity, and the geography of biological activity are next. Descriptions of the world’s major biomes and of human impacts on the biosphere conclude the chapter. Geography, Geographic Information Systems, and the Global Carbon Budget are explained in a Rapid Change box. Invasive Species are discussed in a Global and Local box. Learning Outcomes After carefully studying this chapter, students should be able to: · · · · · ·

Describe the hydrologic cycle and identify the major processes that move water among the earth, atmosphere, and oceans Describe the carbon cycle, identifying the major storages of carbon and the major processes that move carbon among the earth, atmosphere, and oceans List the common soil horizons and describe the dominant factors that create them Identify the fundamental elements of an ecosystem Describe food chains and identify their key trophic levels Describe biomes and list five types of biomes

Chapter Review •

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Introduction ·

Photosynthesis in plants uses solar energy to make food.

Biogeochemical cycles are recycling processes that supply needed substances for the biosphere.

The Biogeochemical Cycles ·

The laws of conservation of energy and of matter say that neither energy nor matter can be created or destroyed under ordinary circumstances. They can change form.

Water has several distinctive properties and is crucial to the biosphere.

Water in the hydrologic cycle is evaporated from the oceans and land surfaces, and is transpired by plants. This water in the atmosphere precipitates onto the oceans and 33 ..

land. The water that falls on the land becomes runoff or infiltrates into the soil. Part of this water is held in lakes, flows to the oceans, or becomes groundwater.

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A water budget accounts for all inflows and outflows of water in a given system over a given time period.

Evapotranspiration combines evaporation with transpiration from plants. Potential evapotranspiration is the amount of evapotranspiration that would occur if there were no limits to the available water. Actual evapotranspiration is the amount actually evaporated given existing conditions. Actual cannot exceed potential.

Soil stores water and makes it available for evapotranspiration. Vegetation plays an important role in the hydrologic cycle and in water budgets. Forests require large amounts of water; deforestation has significant consequences for water budgets

Carbon, Oxygen, and Nutrient Flows in the Biosphere ·

The carbon and oxygen cycles start with photosynthesis in plants in which solar energy, carbon dioxide, and water become carbohydrates and oxygen. The carbohydrates are used by plants and animals in respiration. Respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis where carbohydrates plus oxygen become carbon dioxide, water, and heat energy. Combustion of fossil fuels adds carbon to the system.

Ocean uptake of carbon is substantial. Large amounts of carbon are stored in biomass, so deforestation increases the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, whereas new forests take carbon out. Overall, carbon dioxide concentrations are increasing.

Soil ·

Soil is the interface between the lithosphere and the biosphere. Climate, parent material, biological activity, topography, and time determine the kind of soil in an area. Weathering of rock begins soil formation.

Rocks and rock particles, organic matter, dissolved substances, organisms, water, and air are the components of soil. These are often found in layers known as soil horizons.

Humid tropical and subtropical, midlatitude humid, arid region, and midlatitude subhumid are important groups of the thousands of different soils that exist. There are 11 soil orders.

Soil quality affects agriculture greatly. Erosion and desertification are the two most significant problems that humans face as they use and misuse soil. Use of inorganic fertilizers temporarily restores fertility, but, in the long run, soil quality declines. Future food supplies may be decreased. Farmers are increasing using methods like conservation tillage to maintain soils.

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Ecosystems ·

An interrelated set of plants, animals, and their physical environment is an ecosystem. Ecosystems have producers, consumers, decomposers, and abiotic materials, and they run on solar energy. A food chain describes what eats what.

Chemicals like those in pesticides often become more dangerous through biomagnification.

Plants and animals compete for resources in ecosystems. Species that are more efficient or have better adaptations will succeed and become more numerous. Humans are currently very successful. Biodiversity refers to the variation in ecosystems, species, and genetic characteristics.

High levels of biodiversity mean more options and stability for the ecosystem. Human actions leading to habitat loss and other problems are causing serious declines in biodiversity as the rate of extinction increases. Biosphere reserves and other protected areas are established to help preserve biodiversity.

Biomes: Global Patterns in the Biosphere ·

Biomes are groupings of ecosystems formed primarily on the basis of climate and vegetation. Terrestrial biomes include tropical forests, deserts, grasslands, savannas, shrublands, midlatitude forests, and tundra.

The biosphere includes many interactions between plants, animals, climate, soils, topography, water, air, and humans. These interactions are often disrupted by human activities. Less vegetation means less water transpired into the atmosphere. Less vegetation means less carbon is stored in plants. Desertification is an example of what the result might be. Biogeochemical cycles are altered and photosynthesis is affected.

Chapter Outline I. Introduction A. Interaction among all Earth’s systems B. Biogeochemical cycles 1. Recycle substances 2. Supply necessary substances to the biosphere II. Biogeochemical cycles A. Laws of conservation 1. Energy 2. Matter B. Pathways by which energy and matter are transformed and recycled C. Hydrologic cycle 1. Water a. Crucial to life 35 ..

b. Able to exist as a solid, liquid, and gas on Earth c. Lots of heat involved in changing water between its three states 2. Storage places a. Atmosphere b. Lithosphere c. Hydrosphere 3. Processes a. Evaporation b. Condensation c. Precipitation d. Runoff e. Infiltration D. Water budgets 1. Accounting of all the inflows and outflows of water in a given system over a given time period 2. Evapotranspiration a. Transpiration by plants plus evaporation b. Varies throughout the year c. Varies from place to place d. Potential is compared to actual evapotranspiration 3. Water budget diagrams for three locations 4. Soil a. Stores water b. Infiltration capacity c. Supports vegetation E. Vegetation and the hydrologic cycle 1. Forests illustrate the interaction of vegetation with water budgets 2. Plants often use and transpire lots of water 3. Deforestation affects precipitation patterns III. Carbon, oxygen, and nutrient flows A. Carbon with hydrogen are the most important elements for life B. Cycles 1. Very important in sustaining life 2. Parts a. Carbon dioxide b. Carbohydrates c. Water d. Oxygen e. Energy 3. Processes a. Photosynthesis by plants b. Respiration by plants, animals, and decomposers c. Amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere varies 4. Photosynthesis varies with the availability of solar energy C. Global carbon budget 1. Important exchanges between the atmosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere 36 ..

2. Combustion of fossil fuels adds 3. Deforestation adds 4. Ocean uptake subtracts 5. New forests subtract IV. Soil A. Interface between the lithosphere and the biosphere B. Formation 1. Climate is important 2. Weathering of parent material 3. Plant and animal activity 4. Topography and water movement 5. Slow process C. Components 1. Rocks and rock particles 2. Humus 3. Dissolved substances 4. Organisms 5. Water from rainfall 6. Air 7. Found in layers known as soil horizons D. Numbers 1. Eleven soil orders 2. Thousands of individual soils 3. Local variability E. Climate, vegetation, and soil regions 1. Humid tropical and subtropical soils 2. Midlatitude humid soils 3. Arid region soils 4. Midlatitude subhumid soils F. Soil quality 1. Agricultural productivity 2. Storing carbon 3. Storing nutrients 4. Storing water 5. Removing pollutants from water 6. Medium for insects and microbes 7. Human impacts a. Repeated plowing b. Erosion c. Desertification d. Need better management e. Commercial fertilizer replacing organic fertilizer (manure) f. Conservation tillage V. Ecosystems A. An interacting collection of plants and animals and their physical environment B. Elements 1. Producers 37 ..

2. Consumers 3. Decomposers 4. Abiotic materials and energy C. Processes 1. Solar energy drives 2. Food chains and trophic levels a. Food moves between levels b. Herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores c. Biomagnification 3. Plant and animal success a. Competition for available resources b. Adaptations to better compete c. Humans often dominate 4. Biodiversity a. Variation in ecosystems, species, and genetic characteristics b. Results from adaptation to different environments 4. Biosphere reserves 5. Promote within managed landscapes VI. Biomes A. Groups of ecosystems B. Strongly related to climate and vegetation patterns C. Tropical forests 1. Rainforests 2. Great biodiversity D. Deserts 1. Bare ground 2. Plants adapt to limited water E. Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands 1. Semiarid 2. Fire important F. Midlatitude forests 1. Colder climates 2. Broadleaf deciduous forest 3. Needleleaf, or boreal, forest G. Tundra H. Natural and human effects 1. Many links between plants, soils, climate, and humans a. Climate most important among the natural factors b. Plants regulate evapotranspiration c. Biosphere stores and regulates carbon 2. Desertification a. Humans settling in semiarid regions b. Results in land degradation 3. Changes to biogeochemical cycles 38 ..

VII. Human impact is substantial now and will continue Possible Questions and Topics for Discussions and Exams 1. Compare and contrast the tropical forest, savanna, and tundra biomes. 2. List all the ways that you have used water over the last week. Are water supplies plentiful in your area? 3. Examine the website of the local water utility or contact them directly to learn about its rates for water. Is water expensive or not? Are different groups of customers charged different amounts for water? 4. Compare and contrast deforestation and desertification. 5. Think about the food you have eaten today, describe the food chain and other steps that lead up to your consumption of the food. 6. Describe the likely consequences on the local water budget of constructing a large parking lot. 7. Explain how increased rainfall would affect potential and actual evapotranspiration. 8. What is your state’s (or area’s) official state soil? What are its characteristics? 9. Look up a list of endangered species. How many are plants, insects, and animals? What factors are causing these species to be endangered? Explain what is lost if these species become extinct. 10. Explain the various increasing and decreasing flows that affect the global carbon budget. 11. What is an algae bloom? What is the most common cause of these blooms? 12. Describe conditions or factors that would increase the rate and amount of soil erosion. Answers for Checkpoints Checkpoint: Hydrologic Cycle The major storages of water are the atmosphere, oceans, surface waters like lakes and streams, and groundwater. Water would also be found in glaciers, plants, animals, and soils. Water evaporates into the atmosphere from oceans, surface waters, and land and is transpired into the atmosphere by plants. Water leaves the atmosphere as precipitation onto the oceans, surface waters, and land. Some of the water that falls on land run offs into surface waters and oceans; some of the water infiltrates and percolates into the groundwater. Some groundwater flows into surface waters and the oceans. 39 ..

Checkpoint: Local Water Budget Average annual precipitation is easy to find, but average annual evapotranspiration (ET) is difficult to locate online. ET is measured in different ways and ET data is available for selected locations where an ET monitoring program is set up. Boise, Idaho, is one such location. The U.S. Department of Interior’s Bureau of Reclamation has an AgriMet program that has ET data from 1995 to 2010, which indicates average annual ET equal to 45.3 inches. Boise’s monthly data varies from December at 0.55 inches to July with 8.68 inches. During the summer, this program estimates ET with a ground cover of alfalfa that is irrigated. With a different type of vegetation the statistics would be different. Boise’s average annual precipitation is 11.8 inches. The large difference between 11.8 inches of precipitation and 45.3 inches of ET shows the importance of irrigation in Idaho’s agriculture. Checkpoint: Runoff In general, runoff can be captured by making surfaces more permeable, planting more vegetation, and constructing retention dams or other barriers to keep the water from flowing away. People can have rain barrels, rain gardens, and green roofs. Checkpoint: Carbon Dioxide Concentration Having less photosynthesis occurring during the months leading up toward April, the carbon dioxide levels are the highest. Conversely, during the months preceding November, photosynthesis is strong and large amounts of carbon dioxide are being used. Checkpoint: Vegetation and the Carbon Cycle With less vegetation there would be less photosynthesis and less carbon stored in the biosphere. There would be more carbon in the atmosphere and indirectly in the oceans. Checkpoint: Desertification As defined in the chapter, desertification is when semiarid vegetation and soil becomes more like a desert. As population growth and the need for food increase, humans move into semiarid areas and overuse them. Too many people as well as too much livestock and crops remove the natural vegetation and disrupt the water budget, creating more desertlike conditions. Desertification is also enhanced in places where climate change makes the environment drier. The process might be reversed if fewer people lived in semiarid areas and if people were more careful in their use of water, soils, and other resources. Population control would be a fundamental way to reduce or reverse desertification. Checkpoint: Food Web Looking at Figure 4-19: Producers: Ice-edge bloom (phytoplankton) Primary consumers: Gelatinous zooplankton, Pelagic crustaceans, Benthic zone fish Secondary consumers: Under ice fauna, Polar cod, Seal, Squid 40 ..

Tertiary consumers: Polar bear, Fulmar Checkpoint: Vegetation Southeastern Wisconsin’s original vegetation had a mix of prairie, oak savanna, southern oak forest, and sedge meadows. Very little of the original vegetation remains because it has been replaced by farm fields, buildings, roads, and so forth.

Answers to Questions for Review and Discussion 1. The answer to this question should be based on Figures 4-2 and 4-4. Unfortunately, drawing boxes that show the proportional amount of water stored is very difficult because if the box for the oceans is 97.3 millimeters tall, then the boxes for the atmosphere, soils, and surface waters would each need to be narrower than a line drawn by a sharp pencil. 2. The answer depends on where the student lives. Figure 4-7 diagrams water budgets for three locations around the world. Using Chicago as an example, during the period from October to May, precipitation exceeds potential evapotranspiration, creating a surplus. In October to December, the surplus yields soil moisture recharge. Between June and September, precipitation is less than potential evapotranspiration. This causes the use of soil moisture in June and July and then a deficit in August and September. 3. Photosynthesis in plants has carbon dioxide, water, and solar energy combining to produce carbohydrates and oxygen. Respiration is essentially the opposite where carbohydrates and oxygen yield carbon dioxide, water, and heat. Both plants and animals have respiration. Both reactions are critical in the carbon cycle. Photosynthesis increases when there are more plants, more solar energy, and more water. Respiration is less variable. For example, animals continue to respire during the winter when there is little or no photosynthesis occurring. A climate with plenty of solar radiation and water, such as humid tropical climate, will have much life and lots of both of these processes. 4. Soil texture refers to particle size. Gravel, sand, silt, and clay are common designations. Coarser soils have easier water movement and less storage, whereas finer soils have the opposite. Related to soil formation, increased water availability means more weathering and greater dissolving of soluble minerals. 5. Humid tropical climate: tropical rainforest Seasonally humid tropical climate: tropical seasonal forest and scrub, tropical savanna Desert climate: cold and warm deserts and semideserts Semiarid climate: tall and short grass midlatitude grasslands, tropical savanna Humid subtropical climate: midlatitude broadleaf deciduous forest Marine west coast climate: temperate rainforest, midlatitude broadleaf deciduous forest Mediterranean climate: Mediterranean shrub land or chaparral Humid continental climate: midlatitude broadleaf deciduous forest Subarctic climate: needleleaf or boreal forest Tundra climate: arctic tundra 41 ..

Ice-cap: no vegetation Answers for Thinking Geographically 1. An example for this question is the Green River of Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah. The Green River is an important tributary of the Colorado River. Monthly flows in cubic feet per second at Ouray, Utah, are: January February March April

2,360 2,400 3,060 5,520

May June July August

10,700 13,000 6,270 2,370

September October November December

2,240 2,370 2,290 2,150

The increase in flow beginning in April into May and June reflects snowmelt in Wyoming and Colorado and the release of much greater amounts of water through the Flaming Gorge Dam. The southern two-thirds of the Green River’s extent is in Utah and precipitation levels in eastern Utah are low with average annual precipitation levels being between 5 and 10 inches. Precipitation in Utah has little effect on flows in the Green River. Evapotranspiration would be high because of high temperatures except for the lack of water, or, in other words, potential evapotranspiration is high. 2. This question is beyond the scope of this IRM. See the answer to question 2 in the Thinking Geographically section of Chapter 3 for more information about soil surveys. Given the variability of soils and possible disturbances, it would be difficult to match an excavation site location with the correct soil survey. 3. When potential evapotranspiration is greater than precipitation, soil moisture will contribute to actual evapotranspiration. With more soil moisture, actual evapotranspiration will be greater and last longer. With vegetation that has greater rooting depth, more soil moisture can be reached and transpired. 4. Climate is the most important determinant of vegetation. If patterns of climate change, then vegetation patterns would change too. In an area where the climate becomes drier, plants that do not require as much water would become more prevalent. 5. See the answer for the last Checkpoint. With less vegetation and more impervious surfaces in southeastern Wisconsin, the local water budget has more runoff, less evapotranspiration, and less soil infiltration. With less evapotranspiration locally, there would be slightly less precipitation locally. Lake Michigan is a relatively large local source of water for human uses.

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CHAPTER 5 Earth’s Resources and Environmental Protection Earth’s Resources and Environmental Protection begins by defining a natural resource and outlining the characteristics of resources. Mineral and energy resources including properties, use, locations, consumption, depletion, substitution, disposal, and recycling are then explained. A section on fossil fuels, nuclear power, and different types of renewable energy follows. Issues related to air and water resources such as acid deposition, urban air pollution, biological oxygen demand, and toxic chemicals are presented next. After discussing pollution prevention, forest resources and their management conclude the chapter. The question of Peak Oil, or Indefinite Growth, is explained in a Rapid Change box. A Global or Local box describes how large-scale, commercial meat and dairy production affects water quality in Agricultural Specialization and Water Resources. Learning Outcomes After carefully studying this chapter, students should be able to:

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List the three factors that determine whether something created by natural processes is a natural resource Explain the difference between a renewable resource and a nonrenewable resource Explain the reasons for variability in demand for metals and mineral use List three types of renewable energy resources Explain how and where acid deposition occurs Explain how dissolved oxygen indicates the health of a stream or lake Describe how technology has changed our needs for wood resources

Chapter Review •

Introduction ·

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Humans extract resources, use them, and return them as wastes. Resource management is quite complicated.

What Is a Natural Resource? ·

A natural resource is anything from natural processes that humans need or want. At any given time and place, a society’s cultural values, level of technology, and economic system determine what is a resource and what is not.

Potential resources are materials that might become useful in the near future. Externalities are exchanges that occur outside the marketplace and have no price attached. 43 ..

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Often one resource can substitute for another resource. If a resource becomes scarce and the price increases, then another resource is likely to be used. In some cases, no substitute exists.

Sustainability is the ability to meet present needs without compromising the ability to meet the needs of the future. Natural resources are either nonrenewable or renewable. If a renewable resource is misused, it can also become depleted.

Geologic and Energy Resources ·

Geologic resources are from the lithosphere. Minerals are essential geologic resources that are valued for their strength, malleability, weight, and chemical properties. Minerals are essential for civilizations.

The geographic distribution of minerals is uneven. When valuable deposits are found, there can be a “rush” of activity to find more and to extract the ore.

The price of a resource, as fixed by supply and demand, is important in determining the use of that resource. High prices would lower demand, slow depletion, lead to substitutes, enhance exploration for new deposits, encourage recycling, and reduce wastes.

Discarded resources are solid wastes that may be buried in landfills or incinerated. Many argue that these approaches represent a loss of resources.

Found in many communities, recycling is a better approach in resource management, but faces several obstacles. Recycling is hindered by the need to separate wastes, the inconvenience of doing it, the lack of markets for recycled items, and added costs.

Landfill space is becoming limited and landfill wastes may contaminate groundwater, so improved operating methods and alternatives are being sought.

In spite of plentiful renewable energy, humans rely on fossil fuels to provide most of the needed energy for transportation, manufacturing, computers, and many other purposes. Coal, oil, and natural gas were formed over geologic time from decayed organic matter. Fossil fuels replaced wood as an energy source.

Rich countries have more than their share of coal and natural gas, but oil is concentrated in the Middle East and a few other places. Demand for oil and restrictions on its supply have resulted in higher prices and increased wealth for oil-exporting areas. Both rich and poor countries that have to import oil have been affected. OPEC encourages higher prices. Energy conservation lowered oil prices in the years leading up to 2003, but after 2003, various conditions such as tensions in Iraq and global recession have caused wide fluctuations in oil prices. 44 ..

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Advances in oil and natural gas extraction such as “fracking,” have increased production. Natural gas is becoming more important as a substitute for coal. ·

Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel with reserves lasting an estimated 400 years, but has the most environmental concerns. Continued burning of coal and other fossil fuels is a significant source of carbon dioxide emissions.

Nuclear energy is relatively abundant and an important source of electricity in some parts of the world, but is slowed by the potential for accidents, problems with radioactive waste, public opposition, and high costs.

Biomass, hydroelectric power, and solar energy are renewable forms that are useful in selected applications. There is increased development of these sources, but costs and other problems need to be overcome in order for these sources to become more significant. Wind-generated electricity is increasing.

Replacing declining supplies of oil and natural gas is the long-run issue. Higher prices for fossil fuels will be the principal reason for a transition to a greater mix of other energy sources and continued efforts in energy conservation.

Air and Water Resources ·

Clean air and water are crucial for life. Pollution refers to human-created impurities in the environment. All of the resources that are used have to end up somewhere.

Carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, particulates, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are major air pollutants.

Sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides become acids in the atmosphere and damage fish, plants, and soils. This is known as acid deposition.

Urban areas often have higher levels of air pollution including hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and sunlight, which create photochemical smog. Carbon monoxide and particulate levels are also higher. Temperature inversions, where cold air is under warm air, reduces atmospheric mixing and often concentrates air pollution.

Like air, water is abundant and crucial for life, but the availability of water varies around the world with some places being too dry and others too wet.

Water pollution occurs when more wastes than can be handled are discharged into bodies of water. There are point and nonpoint sources of pollution.

Biochemical oxygen demand measures one kind of water pollution. When the amount of organic wastes are high, then demand for oxygen in the water is greater. The chances for waterborne diseases are higher too. Toxic substances often pollute nearby bodies of water. Love Canal heightened American awareness of toxic wastes. 45 ..

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Pollution control uses devices to remove or keep pollutants from contaminating the environment. Integrated water resource management connects issues of water supply and water pollution together. Water reuse is becoming more common.

Forests ·

Forests are common examples of natural resources conflicts. How heavily should the forests be used? Or should they be preserved as wild areas?

Forests are important ecologically and economically. Wood is harvested for wood products and for use as fuel. Sustained yield for forests implies a balance between the amount harvested and the amount being grown. Forests are important for recreation, biodiversity, and carbon storage. Forest use depends on the marketplace and government decisions.

Conclusion ·

Resource scarcity and environmental impacts are the most important resource issues as population grows and consumption increases.

Chapter Outline I. Resources A. Earth provides resources and wastes are discharged back into the environment B. Anything from nature that people need or want C. Specific elements from the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere D. Determinants 1. Cultural values a. What people choose to use and value b. Swamps were viewed negatively and drained, but now are wetlands 2. Technological level a. Have to be able to use something b. Depending on technological developments, potential resources may become resources in the near future c. Human needs and desires drive the development of technology 3. Economics a. Supply and demand b. Externalities E. Substitutability 1. For many needs and desires, there are several resources that could be used 2. Economics determines choices 3. Sometimes there are no substitutes F. Sustainability 1. Keep current resource use from compromising future resource availability 2. Nonrenewable resources 46 ..

3. Renewable resources II. Geologic and energy resources A. Introductory ideas 1. Minerals and energy are essential to modern industrial societies 2. Derived from the lithosphere 3. Valuable properties a. Strength b. Malleability c. Weight d. Chemical properties e. Beauty 4. Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age 5. 92 naturally occurring elements, plus thousands of combinations 6. A given mineral’s importance changes over time and place a. Demand changes b. Economic conditions change B. Uneven distribution of deposits 1. Many important minerals concentrated in just a few countries 2. Leads to cartels C. Effects of high prices 1. Demand falls, depletion slows 2. New deposits are brought into production 3. Recycling is more feasible 4. Research for substitutes increases D. Solid waste 1. People in rich countries throw away a lot 2. Sanitary landfills a. Accumulation of very large volumes of waste b. Daily layer of soil c. Difficult to find sites for new ones d. Environmental dangers 3. Incineration a. Reduces the bulk of the waste b. Creates energy c. Release of toxic substances 4. Recycling a. Reduces pollution and resource depletion b. Expensive c. Inconvenient d. Lacks markets e. Despite obstacles, is increasing E. Energy resources 1. Renewable energy forms are abundant, but not used a lot 2. Much use of fossil fuels F. Fossil fuels 47 ..

1. Nonrenewable 2. Formed in swampy conditions over geologic time 3. Replaced wood 4. Represent stored sunlight 5. Distribution a. Uneven b. China and the United States lead in coal c. The Middle East, Mexico, and Venezuela have a great deal of oil d. Russia has large amounts of natural gas 6. Use is much higher in rich countries a. The United States consumes nearly 18 percent of the world’s commercial energy b. Substantial imports are needed 7. Oil prices a. Historically were low b. OPEC drove prices upward c. High prices were harder on poor countries d. Energy conservation decreased prices e. Prices have varied in recent years 8. New technologies a. Increased production b. Hydrofracturing (fracking) 9. Natural gas more popular because of lower carbon emissions 10. Coal a. Major energy source b. Reserves for approximately 400 years c. Important environmental concerns 11. Future for fossil fuels a. Finding new reserves continues b. Using unconventional sources such as oil shale c. Carbon emissions and climate change G. Nuclear power 1. Fission or fusion 2. Small amount of material yields a great deal of energy 3. Problems a. Possible accidents b. Disposal of radioactive waste c. Public opposition d. Expensive H. Renewable energy resources 1. Biomass a. Burning of wood or biomass wastes b. Fuels for vehicles c. Better when non-food plants are used d. Manure to methane 2. Hydroelectric power 48 ..

a. Important, clean source of electricity b. Land-use impacts 3. Solar energy a. Has the most long-term potential b. Collection of heat for buildings, etc. c. Photovoltaic cells 4. Wind energy a. Growing rapidly b. Renewable and clean c. Aesthetic concerns I. Transition to new energy sources 1. New options emerging 2. Fossil fuels are still more versatile, so will persist 3. Market driven 4. Conservation is crucial III. Air and water resources A. Crucial for life B. Pollution 1. Impurities in the environment 2. Caused by humans 3. Resource use leads to wastes and pollutants C. Air pollution 1. Natural and human sources 2. Many air pollutants 3. Acid deposition a. Sulfur and nitrogen oxides become acids in the atmosphere b. Damage to lakes, fish, and plants c. Associated with industrial regions 4. Urban air a. Concentrated mixture of pollutants b. Lack of dispersal c. Carbon monoxide d. Hydrocarbons and photochemical smog e. Particulates f. Weather factors 5. Improvements in rich countries, but sometimes worse in poor countries D. Water resources 1. Water is crucial 2. Rich countries use much water 3. Availability varies E. Water pollution 1. Water is a strong solvent 2. Point versus nonpoint sources 3. Concentration and dilution 4. Oxygen in water 49 ..

a. Crucial to aquatic plants and animals b. Biochemical oxygen demand 5. Wastewater a. Untreated wastewater is a problem b. Rich countries can afford treatment c. Contamination causes many diseases 6. Toxic substances a. Very harmful b. Love Canal c. Expensive to clean up F. Reducing air and water pollution 1. Removal of pollution before it reaches the environment is most common approach 2. Expensive for some areas G. Integrated water resource management a. Becoming increasingly needed b. Consider water supply and water pollution issues together c. Use water more efficiently d. Water reuse IV. Forests A. Illustrates typical natural resource conflicts B. Covers or did cover large amounts of Earth’s land C. Uses 1. Valuable resources a. Wood products b. Fuel c. Need sustained yield 2. Recreation a. Place for hiking, camping, and solitude b. Relief from urban life 3. Ecology a. Habitat for other organisms b. Biodiversity c. Carbon storage D. Management 1. Conflict over multiple uses 2. Marketplace forces 3. Government involvement V. Conclusion A. Increasing pressures on resources B. More competition for scarce resources C. More environmental damage D. Greatest concerns in the developing countries

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Possible Questions and Topics for Discussions and Exams 1. Identify any nearby state or national forests. Contact the appropriate agency and ask about multiple use of those forests. 2. Describe several examples of items or materials that were resources in the past, but are not resources anymore. What current resources might stop being resources in the future? 3. Determine how the local utility company generates their electricity and what steps are taken to protect the environment. 4. Find out where the wastewater from your home goes. How well is it purified before it enters the environment? 5. Research the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. Discuss environmental impacts and resource use in each time period. 6. Explain what is meant by an externality. 7. Describe the environmental concerns associated with the use of coal. 8. Describe typical pollution control approaches in more developed countries. What might be better or alternative ways to reduce pollution? 9. Does your local community have recycling? How are the materials collected? Does recycling seem to be worthwhile in your area? 10. Examine Table 5-2. Explain why Russia appears on all three lists. 11. Explain how you would change your habits and lifestyle if the price of gasoline tripled. 12. Compile a list of “green” products that have come into the market in the last few years. What are some common characteristics of these products? Are they likely to be profitable over time? Answers for Checkpoints Checkpoint: Culture and Resources Unused hilltops and ridgelines become valuable as wind-power sites as cultural values toward having more renewable energy sources become more popular. Development of malariaresistant mosquitoes through genetic modification that could substantially reduce the impact of malaria reflects cultural willingness for mosquitoes to be allies, not pests.

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Checkpoint: Valuing Minerals Gold is intrinsically valued because it has many uses and is relatively scarce. Gold is a tangible asset; stocks and bonds are less tangible. Gold has been valued for millennia. Checkpoint: Air Pollution In urban settings, emissions of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and particulates are substantially related to use of oil-fueled vehicles, so any reductions in the use of cars and trucks would improve air quality. The text suggests that hydrocarbons have been reduced by 95 percent; this suggests that hydrocarbons are the easiest to reduce. Checkpoint: Conserving Forests Lumber-replacing materials such as composite lumber (wood waste and plastic), recycled plastic lumber (90 percent or more from recycled plastic), and virgin plastic lumber (most of the plastic is derived from oil) are more durable and require less maintenance. These materials are likely to be less expensive in the long run. Brick, stucco, steel, and concrete may be suitable substitutes for wood in some applications. Checkpoint: Value of Wilderness If a wilderness is used for its natural resources of trees, minerals, or soils, it ceases to be a wilderness. Low-impact recreational use is best. Answers to Questions for Review and Discussion 1. A resource is anything that people use and value. Something is a resource in relation to a culture’s values, technological level, and economic system. Few Americans value caves as dwellings anymore. 2. Wind is a renewable resource because it is replaced continuously. Coal is nonrenewable because it takes millions of years for new coal to be formed. Once coal is burned, it is gone. Forests can fall in either category because forests will replace themselves unless they are all cut down and covered with corn fields. 3. Use of fossil fuels has grown substantially. Coal use started in the 1700s, but grew more in the next two centuries. Petroleum and natural gas grew in use during the 1900s. Petroleum and natural gas are currently expected to last between 50 and 100 years, but their use will decrease as their scarcity and prices increase. Coal is expected to last 400 years, so its use can continue to grow. In recent years, natural gas use has also increased. Alternatives to continued reliance on fossil fuels include more nuclear, biomass, solar, hydroelectric, wind, tidal, and geothermal power. Energy conservation is also very important. 4. Pollution is worse when levels of emissions are high and dispersal or dilution is weak. 52 ..

Calm air, persistent temperature inversions, and ample sunlight are weather conditions that make air pollution more severe. 5. Laws, standards, and use of wastewater treatment plants have improved water quality in the United States, but problems remain. Also, increased public awareness of unsafe water has increased the pressure for better control of water pollution. Poor countries produce proportionally less wastewater, but the lack of funds means less treatment and makes problems of unsafe drinking water and waterborne diseases greater. Answers for Thinking Geographically 1. Answers to this question depend on the location. The source of water for Kenosha, Wisconsin, is Lake Michigan. Untreated sewage from cities, toxic metals from industry, and pesticide and nutrient runoff from farms and lawns are important sources of pollution for Lake Michigan. Kenosha’s air comes mostly from the west and is relatively clean, but too often air from the Chicago and Milwaukee urban areas covers the Kenosha area, causing reduced air quality. 2. If Diana Drivesalot drives 46,000 miles per year in a vehicle that averages 28 miles per gallon, she would use 1,643 gallons of gasoline annually. Those gallons would equate to 3,286 kilograms of carbon and would require 4.38 hectares of growing forest to store the released carbon. 3. The best answer might be that population control should be implemented throughout the world. Population control for developing countries would be more important because the people of developing countries have growing resource demands and because population growth in many developed, industrialized countries is already low. 4. Answers will vary from place to place. For southeastern Wisconsin, ozone levels being too high and the loss of open space due to development are two major issues. Ozone from northern Illinois makes air quality in Wisconsin worse. Population growth and economic development, especially between Milwaukee and Chicago and from Milwaukee to Madison continue to reduce the amount of farmland and open space. Comparing air quality data of today to data from 30 years ago shows better air quality, but over the last 15 to 20 years there has not been much change. Air pollution from additional population and industry has been offset by better control technology.

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CHAPTER 6 Population and Migration Population and Migration starts by describing the distribution and density of human settlement across the world. Environmental conditions are the principal determinants. Population growth is examined by explaining numerous demographic variables and concepts including population pyramids and the demographic transition. The next section examines new developments that affect population growth, such as government policies, better contraceptives, and new diseases. The question of Earth being overpopulated is investigated. Then sex ratios and aging populations are discussed. The final portion of the chapter focuses on migration, including push-and-pull factors, illegal immigrants, major migrations of the past, refugees, current migration flows, forced migration, and controversies surrounding migration. The chapter has a Rapid Change box called Demographic Collapse that describes trends in Russia, whereas a Global and Local box examines the East-West Exchange of Disease. Learning Outcomes After carefully studying this chapter, students should be able to: · · · · · · · ·

Locate Earth’s major population clusters on a map Explain the main reasons humans are unevenly distributed on Earth Differentiate the factors of population growth in Europe and Africa Summarize the relationship between birth rate, death rate, and population growth for each stage of the demographic transition List possible causes for differences in national sex ratios Identify the main push-and-pull factors for each major type of migration Describe the typical origins and destinations of international labor migrants Compare the effect of migration on populations in Europe, North America, and Asia

Chapter Review •

The Distribution and Density of Human Settlement ·

The 7.2 billion people on Earth are very unevenly distributed. Large numbers are found in parts of East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe, but many areas are essentially uninhabited.

Arithmetic density is the number of people per unit of area, whereas physiological density is the number of people per unit of cropland or arable land. Carrying capacity is the maximum number of people that an area can sustain given the area’s physical characteristics and the area’s social, technological, and economic system.

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Climate is the main influence on the distribution of people. Areas with climates, soils, and topography well suited to agriculture have high populations.

People and their cultures have used their creativity to learn how to cope with increased population in a variety of environments.

World Population Dynamics ·

World population is increasing by about 80 million, or 1.1 percent, per year. The rate for the world has slowed in recent years.

Crude birth rate, crude death rate, net migration rate, total fertility rate, and replacement rate are five basic demographic variables. Population projections are useful predictions, but are often difficult to make with a high degree of accuracy.

Population change varies spatially with rich countries growing slowly or declining and poor countries growing more rapidly.

Population pyramids show the age and gender composition of a population. A poor country with rapid population growth has a pyramid with a broad base showing many young. Dependency ratio compares the number of dependents (young and old) to the number of workers. The age and gender composition of a population affects many aspects of a society.

The demographic transition is a model with five stages that describes changes in birth and death rates. In stage one, there is little population increase because both birth and death rates are high. Medical advances and improved food supplies are the main reasons for lower death rates in stage two. Birth rates remain relatively high in the second stage, so populations grow rapidly. Stage three has declining birth rates and low death rates, so growth is slowing. Stage four has low birth and death rates and little or no growth. The last stage has birth rates less than death rates, meaning that populations decline. Economic growth and urbanization are reasons why birth rates decline.

The demographic transition model suggests that economic development is the way to lower birth rates, but recent evidence indicates that the transition model does not apply very well to many of today’s poor countries. Some countries with falling birth rates remain poor.

Government-related family planning programs, new methods of contraception, greater status for women, and changing attitudes from education and the media are causing lower birth rates throughout the world.

China, India, Mexico, and South Korea are examples of countries with success in reducing birth rates.

The global decline of death rates is the epidemiological transition and reflects the 55 ..

change in the causes of death from mostly infectious diseases to mostly degenerative ones.

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Death rates may vary because of wars, natural disasters, development of new diseases such as SARS, drug-resistant strains of pathogens, continuation of old diseases such as tuberculosis, poor diets, being overweight, smoking, and the quality of health care.

Pneumonia, diarrheal diseases, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria are responsible for about 6.2, 3.1, 3.5, 1.8, and 1.3 percent, respectively, for all deaths in the world today.

Malthus argued that Earth would be overpopulated because population would grow geometrically and food would increase only arithmetically. Malthus thought the positive checks of war, famine, and disease would bring misery, but also keep populations down. The ideas of Malthus contrast with the more optimistic views of Condorcet, who had faith in continued advances in technology.

Other Significant Demographic Patterns ·

Sex ratios around the world vary considerably depending on various economic and cultural conditions. Male children are preferred in places such as China, India, and South Korea.

The average age of the population is increasing in many rich and poor countries. An older population will create many social and economic challenges, especially for poor countries. Some countries such as France and Italy are encouraging people to have more children.

Migration ·

Migration has been and continues to be a very significant activity for many people that has helped to shape the population geography of the world. People respond to push-and-pull forces. Sometimes, migration is forced by slavery, persecution, or other reasons. Some migrants are welcomed as replacement migration; others are known as undocumented immigrants and usually not wanted.

Migration is a human choice. A migration field refers to the link between origins and destinations. The amount of migration declines as distance and other barriers increase.

Internal migration is migration within a person’s own country and is divided between interregional and intraregional. International migration is mostly caused by looking for jobs. Often those who find work send workers’ remittances back to homelands.

Forced migration, where the alternative may be death, is caused by persecution, conflict, catastrophes, and other factors. Some forced migrants gain asylum while others remain as internally displaced persons. 56 ..

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Amenity migration results from the pull of attractive features such as warm climate, natural beauty, and plentiful leisure opportunities.

Migration in Context ·

Migration of both rich and poor continues at a high level today. The reception that new immigrants receive varies from country to country.

In the past, large numbers of Europeans migrated to other parts of the world, but in recent decades non-European people often from former colonies are migrating to Europe. These new arrivals are seeking economic opportunities, but often there is friction between them and native Europeans. Government responses include trying to further limit legal immigration and making the new immigrants into citizens.

Migration patterns for Asia are complicated, but more Asians leave their homes than come into the continent. The main exception is the influx of foreigners into the oil-rich countries.

European migration to the Americas had massive impacts on indigenous peoples.

The United States has a long history of immigration. In recent years, Hispanics within the U.S. population have significantly increased because of immigration and higher fertility. Immigration in the United States is controversial, with opponents concerned about the cost of public services, security, job losses, growing multiculturalism, poor border control, and what to do about the many illegal immigrants already in the United States. Those in favor of immigration cite the economic benefits of the added workers and consumers. Immigration reform is difficult to achieve.

Canada is more welcoming to immigrants.

Chapter Outline I. Introduction A. Population geography examines the distribution of population 1. Differences in births and deaths 2. Variations in emigration and immigration B. Demography II. Distribution and density of human settlement A. Statistics 1. 7.2 billion total 2. Major concentrations a. East Asia with about 1.6 billion b. South Asia with about 1.6 billion c. Europe with about 742 million 57 ..

3. 90 percent of the people on less than 20 percent of the land 4. More than half of Earth’s land has less than one person per square kilometer B. Population density 1. Measures a. Arithmetic density b. Physiological density c. Carrying capacity 2. Determinants a. Temperature b. Precipitation c. Topography d. Soils e. History f. Politics III. World population dynamics A. Statistics 1. Population in 1930 was 2 billion 2. About 80 million added each year 3. Growth is slowing a. Average growth between 1965 and 1970 was 2.06 percent b. 1.11 percent since 2010 B. Basic demographic concepts 1. Crude birth rate 2. Crude death rate 3. Natural increase or decrease 4. Net migration rate 5. Total fertility rate 6. Replacement rate C. Population projections 1. Prediction based on trends and assumptions 2. Difficult to do D. Population growth varies 1. Poor countries are faster than rich countries 2. Doubling time E. Population pyramids 1. Age and gender 2. Young at the bottom; elderly on top; females on one side, males on the other 3. Indications a. Future population growth b. Dependency ratio c. Changes to society F. Demographic transition 1. Historical pattern of growth by rich countries 2. Stage one a. High birth and death rates b. Little population growth 58 ..

3. Stage two a. Death rates and infant mortality rates decline because of higher incomes and better medical care b. Birth rates stay high because of a continuing desire to have children (as workers, care-givers) c. Growth is high 4. Stage three a. Birth rates decline because of urbanization, industrialization b. Death rates level off at low levels c. Growth changes from high to low 5. Stage four a. Birth and death rates are low b. Little or no growth 6. Stage five or the end of the transition a. Birth rates are below death rates b. Population declines 7. Suggests economic development as a means of slowing population growth 8. Is the demographic transition still relevant? G. Fertility rates today 1. Fertility is decreasing throughout the world 2. Decreases found in countries that are not experiencing economic development 3. Total Fertility Rates nearly everywhere expected to be at or below replacement by 2100 4. Reasons for decreased fertility a. Government programs and policies b. Modern contraceptive technology c. Greater status for women d. Changing attitudes about fertility 5. Selected government programs a. China’s is successful, restrictive, controversial b. India’s is fairly successful, relies on advertising and sterilization c. Mexico’s family planning clinics have reduced fertility d. South Korea’s is successful with strong government support 6. Empowering women is key 7. The media helps to change attitudes towards wanting fewer children H. Death rates today 1. Decreasing overall 2. Epidemiology is the study of the incidence, distribution, and control of diseases 3. Epidemiological transition 4. Leading communicable causes of death a. Pneumonia b. Diarrheal diseases c. HIV/AIDS d. Tuberculosis e. Malaria 5. New and reemergent diseases a. Drug-resistant bacteria 59 ..

b. New viruses such as SARS, H1N1, and H5N1 6. Degenerative diseases a. Effects of aging b. Diet c. Smoking 7. Death rates could rise I. Is Earth overpopulated 1. Some say yes; others say no 2. Malthus and Malthusian theory a. Population will grow faster than food b. Positive and preventive checks c. Incorrect so far, but the future is not known 3. Condorcet disagreed with Malthus IV. Other significant demographic patterns A. Sex ratios 1. More males than females are born naturally 2. Vary widelyfrom area to area 3. Reasons for variations a. Preference for male children b. Use of medical methods to determine the sex of the fetus before birth c. Abortion of unborn females; female infanticide d. Hepatitis B e. Women tend to live longer f. Wealth g. Medical care h. Status of women is very important B. Aging 1. Earth’s population is becoming older for the first time in history 2. Globally, median age grew from 23.5 years in 1950 to 29.1 years in 2010 3. Changes to society 4. Programs to care for the elderly are needed 5. Some poor countries are aging 6. Some countries are trying to increase the birth rate V. Migration A. Basic ideas 1. A common human action 2. Causes a. Push factors b. Pull factors c. Adoption of replacement migration policies 3. Voluntary or forced B. Voluntary migration 1. People can choose 2. Migration fields develop 3. Barriers to migration 60 ..

4. Internal migration a. Largest flows b. Interregional c. Intraregional 5. International labor migration a. Seeking jobs b. Send remittances home 6. Amenity migration C. Forced migration 1. Migrate or be harmed 2. Slavery 3. Refugees 4. Internally displaced persons VI. Migration in context A. Large numbers of international migrations B. Reception of immigrants varies 1. Some countries have multicultural policies 2. Many countries attempt to control immigration a. Economic concerns b. Nativists c. Xenophobia C. Migration and Europe 1. Much out-migration in the past 2. More recent in-migration a. From former colonies b. Attracted by economic opportunity c. Creates friction d. New rules to become a citizen e. jus soli f. jus sanguinis D. Migration and Asia 1. Complex patterns 2. Net migration is negative 3. Brain drain 4. Migration to oil-producing countries of the Middle East E. Migration and North America 1. Large migration flows in the past a. Harmful to indigenous peoples b. British, French, Spanish colonies established 2. Continued in-migration a. United States receives more than Canada and Mexico b. United States allows about 1.1 million legal immigrants per year c. An estimated 11.5 million illegal immigrant in the United States d. 12.9 percent of U.S. population was foreign born in 2010 e. More immigrants from Asia and Latin America f. Hispanic share of U.S. population has increased substantially g. Canada is friendly towards increased immigration 61 ..

h. Emmigration from Mexico 3. Arguments over immigration to the United States a. Recurring issue in U.S. history b. Controversial c. Pros d. Cons e. How to deal with illegal/undocumented persons f. How to control borders g. Effects on American culture and society h. Current immigration reform proposals Possible Questions and Topics for Discussions and Exams 1. Using information on gender and age, construct a population pyramid for your class. Compare it to the pyramids contained in the textbook. 2. Survey the students in your class to determine their migration histories. Has anyone migrated 10 or more times? How many students are still living in the same home as the one they were brought to from the hospital (therefore, have never migrated)? How far did students migrate? Does the information follow distance decay? What push-and-pull forces caused students to migrate? 3. For the world, look up the 10 most populous countries and the 10 countries with the highest density. The Population Reference Bureau’s World Population Data Sheet is a good source for these statistics. Suggest why the two lists are not the same. 4. Compare and contrast the arithmetic and physiological densities for selected countries. Can the physiological density ever be lower than the arithmetic density for a given country? Explain. 5. What are the implications of a country having a high dependency ratio? 6. Explain the epidemiological transition. What are the consequences for population growth? How does it compare and contrast with the demographic transition? 7. Discuss the ramifications of a male-dominated sex ratio and of a female-dominated sex ratio. How would the town where you live be affected? 8. Compare and contrast the 1950 and 1990 patterns of migrations and distributions of African Americans. 9. Outline the likely push forces that encouraged Europeans to migrate to the Americas. 10. Is Earth overpopulated? What are arguments that could be used to support answers to this question? 11. Outline the conditions that make a region densely populated. 62 ..

12. Starting with 100 women in a hypothetical place and assuming half of all children are girls and that there are no deaths, compare the results of having a constant total fertility rate of 3.0 versus 4.0. (Answer: The 100 women with TFR of 3.0 would have 300 children; the 150 girls would have 450 children; the 225 girls would have 675 children. The corresponding result for TFR of 4.0 would be 1,600 children.) 13. Examine the questions asked in the 2010 Census. If you could add 10 additional questions to the census form, what would you ask? 14. Describe how border security for the United States could be improved. How might the cost of better border security be covered? Answers for Checkpoints Checkpoint: Climate’s Legacy for Population Af, Aw, Cfa, Cfb, and Dfb are five climate types with large populations. Temperatures and precipitation in these areas are suitable for agriculture and settlement. Technological advances in transportation, engineering, construction, heating, reuse of resources, clothing, and others have made it easier to live in harsh climates. Checkpoint: Birth Rates Are Cultural The answer here will vary a lot from person to person. My paternal grandfather had six children; my father had three children; I have two children. My grandfather wanted a large family because it was expected and because he was a farmer and wanted additional workers to help with the farm. My father wanted to have more children, but his first wife did not and his second wife was too old. I did not want to have more than two children because of the added time involved, the financial aspects, and the environmental consequences of each additional person. Culture is the largest influence on the desire to have children and fertility. Checkpoint: Who Pays for Old Age? The dependency ratio may not increase if the increase in elderly persons is offset by a decrease in the number of young. The aging of a society is a significant change with many consequences. Policies should be adopted that encourage the elderly to save more for retirement and to work longer. Working age people cannot afford to fund programs for the elderly at the same levels as before. Policies that make health care more affordable for everyone are needed. Few of these policies are easy to implement. Some countries are doing better than others when caring for the elderly. Checkpoint: On the Move I have moved 13 times so far in my life. I would expect to move one or two more times after I retire. 63 ..

Checkpoint: Immigration Families This will vary greatly from person to person. I do not know of anyone within my group of friends who is foreign born. I would estimate about 5 to 10 percent of the students in my classes are foreign born. The United States is, of course, known for diversity.

Answers to Questions for Review and Discussion 1. Human populations are concentrated near coasts and rivers and on plains, and, conversely, few people live where conditions are too dry or cold. The world’s principal population concentrations are found in East Asia, South Asia, and Europe. Smaller centers are the Nile River Valley, southern Brazil, West Africa, the island of Java, and the northeast parts of the United States and Canada. Very few people live in Siberia, Greenland, northern Canada, the Sahara Desert, the Himalayas, and the Outback of Australia. More and more people live in urban areas. 2. Stage one of the demographic transition has high birth and death rates; stage two has declining and then low death rates with birth rates remaining high with eventually some decrease; stage three has low birth and death rates. Population growth is greatest by far in stage two. An important conclusion of this model is that economic development will lead to declines in fertility, but current patterns show countries with more rapid than expected declines in fertility without much economic development. In addition, because this model is based on Europe’s demographic history, it may not be applicable to other areasof the world. 3. Death rates might increase because of natural disasters, wars, hunger, chaotic economic and political conditions, smoking, and environmental concerns. Also, old and new diseases are continuing, and in some cases, growing causes of death. More new pathogens could diffuse rapidly around the world. An aging population can also increase the death rate. 4. Malthus argued that population grows geometrically and food supplies grow arithmetically. Therefore, population will outgrow food. Malthus believed that positive checks such as death from famine and disease and preventive checks of delaying marriage and childbearing could keep population and food in balance. Malthus concluded that people would not be able to restrain themselves, so the positive checks would occur and endless misery would result. 5. Economic consequences of an older population include more spending on elderly housing, nursing homes, medical care, senior centers, pensions, degenerative disease research, and many others. People may have to work more years. The elderly become a greater burden on the middle aged and young. 6. In voluntary migration, a person can choose to respond to push-and-pull forces; very strong push forces may force a person to migration involuntarily. Usually internal migration is voluntary, but not always. A natural disaster or government use of eminent domain may force a person to migrate within their own country. Amenity migration is clearly 64 ..

voluntary. War or persecution is the cause of many forced migrations. 7. Refugees, internally displaced persons, and environmental refugees are labels given to persons who are forced to migrate. A refugee is fleeing persecution, whereas an environmental refugee is fleeing a natural disaster or other severe environmental conditions. Refugees have some international standing and some provisions for their treatment, but internally displaced persons do not because they remain within their own country. 8. Brain drain for the country suffering the loss of highly trained people means that economic development is slowed, problems are not solved, and quality of life does not improve as much. 9. Replacement migration into Europe includes many people who are culturally different in terms of language, religion, customs, and so forth. This migration adds to the cultural diversity of Europe which can be a positive development in some ways, but in other circumstances this migration creates friction and conflict between native Europeans and the newcomers. 10. Europeans came to North America to leave land shortages and persecution for the promise of economic opportunity. Most Africans were forced to migrate as slaves. Asians left China and other places because of land shortages and lack of jobs to find work in the United States and Canada. Later in time, people from Europe, Africa, and especially Asia migrate to North America to obtain higher education and then stay, filling positions requiring technical and other advanced skills. Answers for Thinking Geographically 1. Extremes in physical geography such as too dry, too wet, too cold, too hot, too rugged, too swampy, too hazardous mean less population in an area. 2. Family planning in Brazil has contributed to the country’s TFR now being below replacement. Increased education and information especially for women and greater availability of contraceptives are important factors in the decrease in fertility. Two issues for those in favor of lower fertility are the Roman Catholic church’s opposition to family planning and a lack of sex education for Brazil’s youth. 3. My father-in-law receives a pension. He worked in a factory in Kenosha, Wisconsin, for many years, but has retired to central Wisconsin to be closer to better hunting and fishing areas. 4. Answers will vary widely depending on the family. On one side of my family, ancestors were in New Jersey during colonial times. Most migrations are due to economic push-andpull factors. 5. Most local communities are going to experience net migration in one direction or the other. Most migrations would be from or to nearby areas. Typical push forces are lost job, plant 65 ..

closed, crime is getting worse, taxes are too high, housing is too expensive, family is too far away, schools are deteriorating, etc. Pull forces would be the opposite. 6. The two cartograms have many obvious differences. India and Japan are two good examples. Choosing from population, economic output, or land area, population would be the best determinant of how much time a student or the evening news should spend on a country. Other measures of a country’s importance could be military strength, historical significance, number of tweets, or membership in the United Nations Security Council. 7. In order for a refugee flow to be reported in the news at any time, it usually would have to be a new and dramatic flow. People fleeing a hurricane or the outbreak of a civil war will make the news. An ongoing trickle of refugees is not going to receive much attention.

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CHAPTER 7 Cultural Geography Cultural Geography introduces the distinction between cultural evolution and cultural diffusion and then discusses folk and popular cultures as well as the grouping of people by culture, ethnicity, race, and gender. Behavioral geography is explained. Culture regions or areas, along with the problems in defining such areas, are explained next. Conditions that change and maintain cultural realms are outlined. Discussion of how trade and diffusion affect culture is followed by examples from the global diffusion of European culture, including cultural imperialism. The chapter continues by examining the impacts of changing technology on cultural diffusion. The importance of U.S. popular culture in the contemporary world along with mostly non-Western efforts of cultural preservation and hybridity finish the chapter. A Rapid Change box explains Who Killed the Record Store. Two Global and Local boxes describe the Sworn Virgins of the Balkans and changes in the Diffusion of “News” to include more non-Western media. Learning Outcomes After carefully studying this chapter, students should be able to: · · · · · · ·

Contrast cultural evolution with cultural diffusion Differentiate between folk culture and popular culture List characteristics that might define different identities Diagram the distribution of traits within a cultural region Explain the causes of cultural inertia Summarize the effects of European empires on local cultures Explain how modern media diffuse culture

Chapter Review •

Introduction ·

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Culture is everything about how a people live. Geographers study the origin, diffusion, and extent of cultures, as well as the places, regions, and landscapes that cultures create and occupy.

How Cultures Change ·

Cultural evolution (evolutionism) is the idea that cultures evolve their various characteristics and adaptations mostly from within. In contrast, cultural diffusion (diffusionism) emphasizes how cultures change through contact with other cultures. Acculturation refers to the process of adopting some aspect of another culture. 67 ..

Cultural evolution includes stages, like hunting and gathering, as well as the idea of historical materialism. Historical materialism stresses the dominant role of technology in giving humans greater control over the natural environment.

Environmental determinism states that human activities are determined by the nature of the physical environment. In contrast, cultural ecology emphasizes adapting to natural conditions, and possibilism examines how the physical environment creates limits on what people can reasonably do.

Advances in transportation and communication and the mobility of people greatly enhance the diffusion of many ideas and things. It is difficult for a cultural group to be isolated in today’s world. Diffusion is stronger than cultural evolution.

Folk cultures attempt to preserve their traditions. Being at least somewhat isolated helps. The Amish are an example. There is renewed interest in preserving folk culture. African Americans are an example.

· Popular culture embraces the diffusion of new ideas, styles, attitudes, and so on. Popular culture includes mass manufacturing and marketing with adoption by many people. Popular culture often overwhelms many aspects of folk culture. · •

Geographers study the origins and diffusion paths of elements of both folk and popular culture.

Identity and Behavioral Geography ·

There is individual identity and group identity. Groups are often given ethnic, racial, political, or other kinds of labels. Spatial identity refers to a group being attached to a particular place.

Cultural groups may have many or just a few characteristics in common.

Subcultures exist within larger, more complex cultures. A subculture shares some, but not all, traits of the larger culture.

People are labeled by their culture, ethnicity, race, and gender, but do not always agree with their labels. Race is a biological concept, whereas ethnicity is based on mostly cultural factors. Ethnocentrism is using your own culture as the standard for comparison and judging other cultures as being inferior. Racism is the belief that one race is inherently superior to another.

Behaviors and tasks that vary with being a man or a woman are referred to as gender roles. Gender roles vary spatially and are changing as well.

Behavioral geography examines human perception of the world and how behavior is influenced. Mental maps, proxemics, and territoriality are related concepts. 68 ..

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Culture Regions ·

Culture regions are where there is a relatively continuous presence of one or more cultural characteristics across an area. Culture regions change over time and are often hard to define because different criteria can be justified.

Cultural geographers study signs, clothing, goods, building materials, architecture, monuments, settlement patterns, and other visible factors in order to understand the nature and extent of a given culture region.

Culture regions contain stabilizing factors of inertia, infrastructure, and historical consciousness (sense of history). There is continual tension in culture regions between forces for change and forces for stability.

Trade and Cultural Diffusion ·

Cultural isolation breaks down as self-sufficiency gives way to trade and exchange. Trade leads to specialization, new products, multinational corporations, and the spread of popular culture. An example of three initially isolated villages illustrates these changes. Some people and places like the new ideas and things; others resist the changes.

Technological advances make cultural exchange much faster and more frequent. The Internet is the prime example. Space-time compression occurs and changes in cultural patterns accelerate.

European or Western culture is widespread throughout the world today because of past, present, and continuing diffusion. Europe’s voyages of discovery led to colonialism and the creation of a more connected world. Almost all regions in the world at one time were colonized by the Europeans.

Cultural imperialism is the substitution of one set of cultural traditions by another. Europeans engaged in cultural imperialism all over the world. They believed European ways were the best, so through the use of force and by degrading native cultures they spread European ideas to their colonies.

Europeans spread their own ideas as well as the ideas of other cultures. Migration became greater. Crops and other goods were shifted to other parts of the world. As seen in the example of Coca-Cola, non-Western and Western ideas are combined.

Media and Culture ·

Technological advances have made transportation and communication faster, making cultural diffusion faster and more widespread. Railroads are faster than horses. Email is much quicker than sending a letter. Distance becomes less important and space is annihilated. 69 ..

Mass media develops. Electronic networks are created and expanded. Virtual reality is invented and used. Films, music, news, and other aspects can be diffused rapidly and widely.

In contrast to the increased use of technology is the digital divide, which refers to some groups of people and some regions lagging behind others in access to information technologies.

For better or worse, American popular culture is widely diffused throughout the world via TV programs, films, videos, music, clothing, advertising, and marketing of other American products. American culture is viewed favorably for democracy, economic success, and various freedoms such as freedom of expression.

In some places and among some people American popular culture is viewed as cultural imperialism. This leads to bans on American products and censorship of American entertainment and of media in general.

Cultural preservation refers to efforts to save and rebuild traditional cultures. Hybridity is the positive approach to combining cultures, or, in other words, keeping better aspects of each culture. Japan has had some success with hybridity. It is hard to achieve the proper balance between traditional values and modern ideas and technology.

Chapter Outline I. How cultures change A. Culture is everything about the way a people live B. Cultural evolution or evolutionism 1. Cultures evolve from within 2. Varro’s stages of cultural evolution a. Hunter-gatherers b. Pastoral nomadism c. Settled agriculture d. Urbanization and industry 3. Historical materialism a. Technology advances in stages, allowing greater control over the environment b. Technology is the important part of cultural evolution c. Cornucopian, not Malthusian 4. Environmental determinism 5. Cultural ecology 6. Possibilism C. Cultural diffusion or diffusionism 1. Cultures evolve through contact with other cultures 2. Reasons why diffusionism is very strong today a. Improved transportation and communication b. More trade of goods and ideas 70 ..

3. Cultural hearths 4. Some ideas develop independently at two or more places 5. Folk culture a. Preserves traditions b. Resists modern change c. Amish d. African Americans e. Heritage sites 6. Popular culture a. Welcomes new innovations b. Mass appeal and mass consumption c. United States has a large, relatively homogeneous popular culture d. Marketing of popular culture damages folk culture e. Geography study the origins and diffusion paths D. Identity and behavioral geography 1. Individual identity 2. Group identity a. Many labels used, like ones based on ethnicity, race, gender, or others b. Important and significant to understanding c. Often used by the media and others d. Difficult to be accurate 3. Cultural or ethnic groups and subculture groups a. Based one or many cultural attributes b. Culturally similar people may not see themselves as being grouped together c. Culturally different people may see themselves as being grouped together d. Subculture is a group that possesses a smaller set of cultural traits e. Ethnonationalism f. Ethnocentrism 4. Racial groups a. Based more on biological characteristics b. Human Genome Project found very little difference between races c. Racism 5. Gender roles 6. Sexuality 7. There is not necessarily any “right” or “wrong” cultural characteristics 8. Behavioral geography a. How the world is perceived b. Mental maps c. Cognitive behavioralism says that people react to their environment as they perceive it d. Cultural differences in perception e. Proxemics f. Territoriality II. Culture regions A. Area with a relatively common culture trait or traits B. Definition problems 71 ..

1. Lack of agreement 2. Cultural characteristics change, culture regions change 3. Large culture regions contain more variability C. Visual characteristics 1. Posted signs 2. Clothing 3. Goods in stores 4. Building materials 5. Architecture a. Impacts of climate b. Preferred styles 6. Monuments 7. Settlement patterns (rural) a. Clustered in villages b. Scattered individual farmsteads D. Forces that stabilize patterns of cultural realms 1. Fixed material landscape including infrastructure 2. Inertia 3. Historical geography 4. Historical consciousness a. People’s sense of history b. Preserve the past E. Tension between change and stability III. Trade and cultural diffusion A. Cultural isolation is becoming rare B. Trade 1. Increases as self-sufficiency decreases 2. Important force for diffusion a. Exports of one culture are imports of another b. People interact and make choices 3. Increases economic possibilities a. Draw on the larger world and its resources b. Specialize on your best products 4. Traditional products replaced by export products 5. Example of three hypothetical villages 6. Friction of distance has become less C. Empire, trade, and culture 1. Two waves of European expansion 2. Cultural imperialism a. Substitution or subordination of one set of cultural traditions for another b. European ways were superior c. European powers could be ruthless d. Weaker cultures were damaged or replaced 3. Global changes a. More migration of people from one colony to another b. Crops grown and sold in new places 72 ..

c. New products diffused within empires 4. Sometimes non-Western ideas were important IV. Media and culture A. Technology 1. Communication is much faster a. Time-space compression b. Annihilation of space 2. Communication is possible to more places and people 3. Information and data a. Much more is accessible b. More is created 4. Early inventions a. Printing press b. Telegraph c. Telephone B. Applications 1. Books 2. Movies 3. Music 4. Information in general as in mass media C. Electronic networks 1. Internet a. Instantaneous transfer of information globally b. Allows email, Facebook, and others 2. Private networks are more secure D. Other aspects 1. Virtual reality 2. Cyberspace 3. Digital divide a. Lack of access to electronic networks and information devices b. Limits diffusion E. Diffusion of U.S. popular culture 1. More important after World War II 2. Reasons a. World leader b. Admired for democracy c. Admired for economic success d. Admired for freedoms including freedom of speech and media e. Technological advances f. Growth of a large media industry 3. Consequences a. Massive diffusion of American values and ideas throughout the world b. American products sold everywhere c. Marketplace of ideas 4. Concerns a. There are many 73 ..

b. Cultural imperialism c. Deliberate destruction of other cultural values d. Traditional products replaced by American products e. Promotes violence and sex f. Poor depictions of women g. Poor and inaccurate depictions of foreign people and places 5. Responses to concerns a. Censorship b. Bans c. Example of Iran d. Restrictions on the amount of American content that can be shown 6. Some aspects that are diffused by American companies did not originate in the United States F. Cultural preservation and hybridity 1. Cultural preservation a. Efforts to document, re-popularize, and rejuvenate traditional culture b. Difficult, if not impossible c. Cannot reject completely the modern Westernized world 2. Hybridity a. Combining two cultures b. Difficult to do 3. Challenge of preserving traditions, but at the same time embracing the positive aspects of the modern, connected world largely created by the Europeans and Americans

Possible Questions and Topics for Discussions and Exams 1. Outline examples of popular culture that are the most pervasive in your area. Which examples are positive influences? Which are negative? 2. Think about how often each day you uses texting or email to communicate. If these methods did not exist, how would your life be different? What would you do instead? 3. Explain historical consciousness. What does your community do to keep awareness of local history alive? Is there much interest in local history? 4. Using maps of your country, ask each student to draw the boundaries of the country’s cultural subregions. Discuss differences in the students’ maps. What are reasons for the differences? 5. What is ethnocentrism? Outline examples of ethnocentrism that are found in your culture. How strong is ethnocentrism in your culture? 6. Looking at Figure 7-13, which building materials are used over the most area? Thinking about the global distribution of population, which building materials are used by the most people? 74 ..

7. Consider the possibility of having too much information or access to too much information. Discuss possible concerns or problems of having too much information. 8. Consider what it would mean for an American household to not engage in trade and exchange. How possible would this be? 9. What is meant by inertia in a geographic context? What are some local examples of inertia? 10. Describe how information diffuses at your college. How could diffusion of information be improved? 11. Choose a less-developed country and examine its history for examples of westernization within its current culture. 12. Explain the digital divide. Give several examples. 13. Using the Internet, investigate the culture of the Australian Aborigines. Using some of the concepts of geography, describe the main characteristics of their traditional culture.

Answers for Checkpoints Checkpoint: The Role of Change The chief’s view of the new road would vary. If the chief could control access to the road to the village, then his/her power and wealth might be enhanced. If the new road means more access to new ideas and products, then the chief might be scared of the changes and might lose some of his/her power. The chief might dislike possible changes to village traditions and customs. A different chief might welcome the road as a way to improve the quality of life in the village. The trader might like the road because more products and more markets could develop or the trader could be concerned that the road would lead to more competition. Checkpoint: Identity versus Personality This will vary greatly depending on the person. Someone might be a conservative farmer from South Dakota who likes to read science fiction novels and support the Minnesota Vikings. The group identities for this person would include being a member of the Tea Party, a farmer, a South Dakotan, a science fiction reader, and a Vikings fan. Individual identity might be where the farm is located, how much money is contributed to Tea Party causes, the person’s favorite author, and so forth. It is often not easy to separate characteristics into the two kinds of identities. Checkpoint: Your Culture Region 75 ..

In Wisconsin, most historical monuments are related to Native Americans, early settlers and leaders, and the Civil War. There is a reasonable representation of women and other groups. The monuments are usually the result of special interest groups or government efforts. Monuments are built to help maintain historical consciousness. Checkpoint: Is Your Cereal Imperial? Looking at oatmeal and brown sugar, oats were from the Fertile Crescent and/or Egypt; sugarcane originated in tropical South and Southeast Asia. Molasses is needed to make brown sugar and its origins are the same as sugarcane because it is a byproduct of sugarcane processing. Checkpoint: At Home in a Global Network? Answers for this Checkpoint would be quite variable. I have no friends who were born and live in another country or speak other languages. A couple of my friends are not local, but could be reached in a day’s drive. My global network presence in terms of friends suggests that I participate in a local culture. Someone else could have strongly contrasting answers. My son works in Southeast Asia and often travels internationally. He has many international friends that he communicates with using social media. Answers to Questions for Review and Discussion 1. Varro’s theory was that all human societies have to progress through a series of stages. Alexander von Humboldt disagreed because he found human groups in South America who never went through the pastoral nomadism stage. 2. To diminish the influence of popular culture, folk cultures might establish strict rules, ban cell phones and use of the Internet, keep outsiders away, and teach their children about the evils of the broader popular culture. They could also pursue hybridity. 3. Historical consciousness refers to people’s awareness of past events and how current actions are affected. A historic building or landmark is preserved against the assault of popular culture, such as a movie theater with 15 screens. 4. When three formerly isolated villages with different cultures and products are connected, four results are likely. New cultural possibilities (access to new things, ideas) and new cultural combinations (an item or idea of one place combined with an item or idea of another place to create something new) are two results. A third is more trade as the villages specialize in producing products for export to pay for imports. Lastly, the village with the best location for trade will become larger. 5. The substitution of one set of cultural traditions for another, either by force or by degrading the weaker culture and rewarding the superior culture, is known as cultural imperialism. There are many examples of Europeans killing natives, burning villages, destroying temples, spreading Christianity, teaching European ways, and making natives feel ashamed of their own culture. 76 ..

6. Historical materialism argues that technological advances are at the forefront of all cultural change. Therefore, everything else, including improved economic production and higher standards of living, follows in the wake of technological change. 7. Individual identity is important because an individual’s characteristics determine how they behave, including their spatial behavior. A person who likes to travel, if they can afford to, will travel more. Usually, both individual and group identities will be affected substantially by where the person(s) were born, grew up, are located now, and so on. 8. Diffusion creates cultural domains. An aspect diffuses from a cultural hearth or culture core area to form a cultural domain in which the aspect is common, but not ubiquitous. 9. The discovery and use of electricity is most fundamental in the technology that enables modern media. There are numerous inventions like electronic computers, devices that use radio waves to send and receive information without wires, the World Wide Web, and cell phones that contribute to the growth of modern media. New York City, London, and Tokyo are global media centers. Walt Disney Company is often identified as the world’s largest media company and its headquarters is Burbank, California.

Answers for Thinking Geographically 1. Answers are for Wisconsin. A few Wisconsin traditions are Friday night fish fries at many restaurants, Door Country fish boils, polka is the official state dance, and cheesehead hats worn by fans of the Green Bay Packers. Some traditions that have persisted, such as the fish fries, stem from the 1920s. Some traditions have diffused, such as variations of the cheesehead that fans of other teams wear. Some traditions, such as polka, did not originate in Wisconsin. Wisconsin is also known for street fairs, festivals, and fairs. These events will vary by theme like the Cranberry Festival or the Thirsty Troll Brewfest. They will also vary by location where the Cranberry Festival is in Warren and the Thirsty Troll Brewfest is in Mt. Horeb. Local traditions and products will determine what festivals develop and become popular. 2. Uncontacted tribes are concentrated in the tropical rainforest regions of the Amazon Basin and the western half of New Guinea. These tribes are threatened by companies wanting resources from their lands, diseases to which they lack resistance, and curious outsiders wanting to see or study them. If uncontacted tribes truly lack contact, then their culture changes through cultural evolution only. 3. Globalization is the best answer. Increased flows of workers, tourists, students, data, ideas, information, goods, services, money, diseases, and other aspects because of advances in communication and transportation are leading toward one global culture.

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4. A given set of photos may or may not contain enough clues to suggest the location. 5. This may be difficult to determine depending on the airport. The website for Milwaukee’s General Mitchell International Airport shows that 36 cities are served by nonstop flights. 6. These two instances are similar in that they are both affecting religious practice and are causing cultural damage. For the Tibet instance it is described as being brutal, deliberate, and extirpative, whereas for Nepal the implication is that these companies are not being evil; instead they want to sell their goods and services to earn greater profits. 7. Culture has a variety of meanings that might be found in a large newspaper. Meanings of culture include: Culture as defined in this chapter—everything about how a people live Culture as how a group thinks as in business culture Culture as how an educated person might be thought to have culture Culture as in having knowledge of the fine arts Culture as in beauty culture—the pleasure of seeing beauty Culture as in agriculture or aquaculture 8. Walt Disney Company, with global revenues of about $45 billion is often considered to be the world’s largest media company. Disney’s cultural products are wide ranging since the company owns ABC, ESPN, the Disney Channel, Walt Disney Studios, Disney Interactive, and many others. Overall, Disney conveys more family-oriented messages and images. There are exceptions, but Disney presents a more benign view of American culture than some of its competitors.

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CHAPTER 8 Languages and Religions Languages and Religions opens by defining language, explaining language terms, then outlining all of the world’s major languages and language families. Orthography is then briefly explained. A discussion of the continuing diffusion and differentiation of languages and the role of national languages including American language issues follows. The second half of the chapter covers religion, starting with definitions of terms and a discussion of diffusion of religion. There are descriptions of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, other Eastern religions, animism, and shamanism. The chapter closes by discussing the many impacts of religion on morality, politics, landscapes, women’s rights, and various other aspects of life. Switching Languages in New Countries is the topic of a Rapid Change box. The one Global and Local box examines Religious Fundamentalism and Political Terrorism. Learning Outcomes After carefully studying this chapter, students should be able to: · · · · · ·

Distinguish among language families, language, dialect, and accent Sketch a map of the world’s major language regions Explain why national languages are important in modern societies Locate the origins of the world’s major religions on a map Explain the significance of the different sects within Christianity and Islam Identify the influence of religion on other aspects of society

Chapter Review •

Introduction ·

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Language and religion are each very important aspects of culture. The different languages and religions have hearths where they initially developed and from which many eventually diffused to many parts of the world.

Defining Languages and Language Regions ·

Different languages have major linguistic differences, whereas dialects have minor differences within a language. Disagreement exists over what constitutes a major or minor difference.

Standard language is the formal ways that the language is spoken and written. An official language is established and used by the government. A lingua franca such as English is a second language used for international communication.

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Linguistic geography is the study of dialects across space. Speech communities refer to local ways that a dialect is spoken. An isogloss is a line around an area with a common linguistic feature.

There are between 6,000 and 7,000 languages in the world. Mandarin Chinese is spoken by the most people. Some isolated languages may have only a few hundred speakers.

The Development and Diffusion of Languages ·

Languages are grouped into language families. Languages in a given family have a core of similar words that derive from that family’s root language, or protolanguage.

Indo-European is the largest and most diffused language family. English, Spanish, Hindi, Persian, Russian, and German are Indo-European languages. Its protolanguage probably originated in today’s Turkey.

Etymology is the study of word origins and history.

Orthography refers to a system of writing where symbols represent sounds in a language. Different alphabets and symbols are used. Roman and Cyrillic are two important alphabets in use today. Chinese written language uses symbols instead of an alphabet.

The Importance of Language Today ·

Languages continuously change as new words are needed. As diffusion occurs, some languages expand and others shrink. In some cases, speakers of different dialects of the same language are becoming less able to understand each other.

English is a global lingua franca with large numbers of people speaking it as a second or third language.

Languages seldom correspond exactly with the boundaries of countries, but language plays a major role in fostering nationalism and building nations. Subgroups attempt to keep their minority language alive within the larger national language.

Languages of colonial rulers were forced on native people. Today, former colonies often still use the colonial language because it had become so important, especially among the elite class. Sometimes the adoption of the colonial language was a compromise choice. Use of the colonial language is also helpful for international trade and foreign relations.

In some countries, the official language is not spoken by the majority of the population. Polyglot states, like India and Canada, have more than one official language. Bolivia now has 37 official languages. 80 ..

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Northern, midland, and southern are the three original dialects for American English. Native American words were added to American English as needed.

Other languages are important in the United States. American English is not the official language, but some argue that it should be. Twenty-eight states have declared that English is their official language. The issue is whether or not everyone should use English or should a variety of languages and dialects be tolerated. Bilingual programs and ballots are part of this debate. Primarily because of immigration, the number of non-English speakers as their first language is growing. Many Native American languages have been lost and more are in danger of becoming extinct.

The Origins and Diffusion of the World’s Major Religions ·

Religion is defined as a system of beliefs that guide conduct. Fundamentalism refers to strict adherence to religious beliefs, whereas secularism means that religion is not important and excluded. Religion has many significant cultural impacts.

Religions have original hearths and often diffuse to other places. When people proselytize, it means they are trying to convert others to their religion.

Judaism believes in one God (monotheism), predates Christianity, started in the Middle East, and diffused widely in Europe, Russia, and the United States. Israel is a disputed Jewish homeland based on Zionism.

Christianity evolved in part from Judaism. Based on the teachings of Jesus, it began in Judea, grew within the Roman Empire, and ultimately spread globally along with European colonialism. Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, and Orthodox are the three main groups of Christians. Evangelical Protestantism, especially in Latin America, is growing at the expense of Catholicism. An estimated 466 million people in Africa are Christian. Christian missionary activity is increasing, but can be controversial. Substantial cultural diversity within Christianity leads to differences in interpretations of core beliefs. Estimates suggest that Christianity is the largest religion in the world with about 2.3 billion followers.

Islam, or submission to God’s will, was founded by Muhammad in 622 in Mecca. Monotheistic with the five pillars as duties, Islam builds on some Christian beliefs. The Islamic world was more powerful than Christian Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. Islam diffused rapidly and widely. Today, it stretches from Morocco to Indonesia and competes with Christianity in several areas. The Sunni and the Shia are the two principal sects of Islam. Islam is growing in importance in Europe. Most Muslims are not Arabs. About 1.5 billion people across the globe are Muslim, making Islam the second largest religion. Recently, Muslim groups are at the core of political upheaval (Arab Spring) in the Middle East.

Hinduism is a very old religious tradition centered in India. It is polytheistic, includes reincarnation, and puts people into different castes or social classes. 81 ..

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Sikhism is a combination of Hinduism and Islam. Many Sikhs today want an independent state in Punjab.

Buddhism is based on the Four Noble Truths and diffused out of India to Southeast and East Asia. Buddhism encompasses many variations in beliefs and practices.

Confucianism, Taoism, and Shinto are other religions concentrated in Asia. Animism believes in spiritual forces, especially in nature, and often includes shamanism.

Religion’s Wider Impact ·

For many people, religion teaches them how to live in general, differences between right and wrong, how to treat others, and many other things.

Religions have significant influence on politics and government because laws and policies have to take into account religious beliefs. The nature of these influences depend on what religion is involved. In Israel, the government supports Orthodox Judaism at the expense of other forms.

Religion affects cultural landscapes, architecture, pilgrimages, holidays, calendars, burial practices, attitudes towards nature, drinking, diet, and many other aspects.

The role of women in relation to religious belief and practice varies widely, but often limit women’s participation. Women cannot be priests in the Roman Catholic Church; women have many restrictions in some areas that are Muslim.

The United States grants religious freedom and is a relatively religious country even though it stresses the separation of church and state. Immigration to the United States is adding to cultural diversity of the country. Churches frequently provide needed social services, especially in urban areas.

Chapter Outline I. Defining languages and language regions A. Kinds 1. Language a. Most important cultural index b. Set of words and how they are pronounced and combined c. For communication 2. Dialect 3. Standard language 4. Official language 5. Pidgin language into Creole language 6. Lingua franca B. Linguistic geography 1. Study of dialects across space 82 ..

2. Speech community 3. Isoglosses C. World’s major languages 1. Between 6,000 and 7,000 2. Difficult to differentiate between languages and dialects 3. Some are widely spoken 4. Chinese is the most spoken 5. Some are quite local with few speakers II. Development and diffusion of languages A. Any isolated group develops a language B. Language family 1. Several related languages 2. Descended from a root language or protolanguage 3. Common core of words C. Indo-European language family 1. Sir William Jones a. Many languages from all around the world have similarities b. From proto–Indo-European 2. Probable hearth in modern Turkey 3. Cognates 4. Etymology 5. Contains many major languages D. Other language families 1. About 20 2. Each has its own origin and protolanguage E. Orthography 1. Systems of writing 2. Represent sounds in the spoken language 3. Invention of writing a. Sumerians in Mesopotamia b. Olmecs in Mexico 4. Alphabets a. Aramaic b. Roman c. Cyrillic 5. Political motives for changing orthography 6. Nonalphabetic systems III. The importance of language today A. Change is common 1. New official languages 2. New vocabulary 3. New pronunciations 4. Growth of English throughout the world B. National languages 1. Few languages that correspond with country boundaries 2. Nation building 83 ..

a. Philological nationalism b. Political decisions concerning language 3. Minority languages a. Minority groups often try to keep their language b. Basques C. Postcolonial societies 1. Colonial languages were imposed 2. Often kept and made official 3. Useful for international relations 4. Often not spoken by most of the people 5. Used as a compromise between different groups and their languages 6. Polyglot states a. Two or more languages given equal status b. India, Belgium, Canada, Bolivia D. The United States 1. Many different languages are found 2. American English is distinct 3. Three original dialects 4. Native American words added 5. Should English be declared the official language a. Pros and cons b. 28 states have declared 6. Effects of immigration 7. Spanish second most common 8. Chinese third most common 9. Loss of many Native American languages IV. Origins and diffusion of the world’s major religions A. Basic concepts 1. A system of beliefs that guide behavior a. Usually belief and worship in one or more gods b. Begun by a teacher c. Found in sacred writings 2. Orthopraxy 3. Orthodoxy 4. Theocracy 5. Fundamentalism 6. Secularism 7. Diffuse from a hearth 8. Universalizing religions 9. Ethnic religions 10. To proselytize B. Judaism 1. Small numbers 2. First to be monotheistic 3. God’s law in the Pentateuch 4. Began in the Middle East 84 ..

5. Persecuted 6. Israel a. Zionism b. Many refugees created c. Contains many non-Jews d. Religious sentiment is weak for many people e. Source of continuing and recent conflict C. Christianity 1. Teachings of Jesus 2. Began in Judea 3. Diffused by followers of Jesus 4. Association with the Roman Empire 5. Byzantine Empire 6. Protestant Reformation 7. Widely diffused by missionaries as part of colonialism 8. Sects a. Roman Catholic b. Protestant c. Orthodox d. Other small ones 9. Growth of Evangelical Protestantism a. Strong movement b. Often replaces Roman Catholicism 10. Continues to diffuse to regions such as Eastern Europe, Africa, and South Korea 11. Many cultures within Christianity a. Maintaining Christian beliefs b. Allowing for cultural differences 12. Concern about syncretic religious development D. Islam 1. Monotheistic 2. Teachings of Muhammad a. Submission to God’s will b. Five pillars 3. Began in Arabia 4. Spread rapidly and widely 5. More influential and powerful than the Christian world for several centuries 6. Ignores pre-Islamic cultures and history 7. Sects a. Sunni b. Shia (Shiites) 8. Proselytizing efforts 9. Many Muslims in South and Southeast Asia 10. Circumstances for Muslims in Europe a. Face some discrimination b. Issues in the Balkans 11. Arab Spring E. Hinduism 85 ..

1. Old 2. Polytheistic 3. Belief in one Supreme Consciousness 4. Castes 5. Untouchables 6. Reincarnation 7. Not widely diffused; in India and Nepal F. Sikhism 1. Combination of Hinduism and Islam 2. Desire for a homeland G. Buddhism 1. Teachings of Buddha 2. Four Noble Truths 3. Diffused within Asia H. Other Eastern religions 1. Confucianism 2. Taoism 3. Shinto I. Animism and Shamanism 1. Belief in sacred beings in nature and spiritual forces 2. Being replaced by Christianity and Islam V. Religion’s wider impact A. Many substantial impacts 1. Personal identity 2. How to relate to others 3. Birth and death 4. Basic codes of morality 5. Basic codes of the ethical behavior 6. Right from wrong 7. Government and laws 8. Dealing with rapid change 9. Cultural landscapes 10. Architecture 11. Travel (pilgrimages) 12. Holidays 13. Calendars 14. Burial practices 15. Attitudes towards nature 16. Drinking 17. Diet B. Religion and women’s rights 1. Varies a. Some religious groups allow many rights b. Some religious groups are quite limiting c. Differences in opinion and practice within the same religion 2. Examples of limitations 86 ..

a. Not allowed to be ordained b. Have to be veiled c. Only husband can initiate divorce d. Less access to education C. In the United States 1. Federal government cannot designate a national religion 2. Religious freedom 3. Separation of church and state 4. Religious practice is strong 5. Immigration adds religious diversity 6. Churches provide social services 7. Regional patterns Possible Questions and Topics for Discussions and Exams 1. Compare and contrast the global distribution of language families and major religions (Figures 8-4 and 8-14). 2. Compile a list of Spanish and English (both are Indo-European languages) words that are similar in spelling and pronunciation. 3. Compile a list of words that are seldom used anymore. Why do you think they are not used anymore? What words have replaced them? 4. Ask your friends about possible foreign languages that they know. How well can they speak them? Where did they learn them? 5. Does your college have a foreign language requirement? What is it? Are there any groups of students who are exempt from the requirements? Do you think these requirements are a good idea? 6. Discuss how the Internet and other information technologies affect the diffusion of language. 7. Toponyms, or place names, are language referring to places. Examine a map of your area. What kinds of place names are used? Are some of them descriptive? 8. Discuss the likely economic impact of churches in your town or area. In what ways do churches affect the local economy? 9. Discuss the various ways that languages and religions can help to unify an area. Also, how they can divide or separate? 10. Completely compare and contrast Islam and Christianity. 11. Research and describe the history of Buddhism in Tibet and the role of the Dalai Lama. 87 ..

12. Choose a current or recent conflict in the Middle East. Describe how religion(s) affects the source, nature, and outcome of this conflict. 13. Discuss education and religion. In what ways does religion affect the education of young people? What are the positive and negative aspects of connections between religion and education? Answers for Checkpoints Checkpoint: Discovering Dialects’ Geographies Different people will use different words for the same thing and they will pronounce the same word or similar words differently. In my experience, the geographic patterns are rather jumbled today because American students (and people in general) are exposed to many different words and pronunciation because of their mobility and use of the Internet and social media. Checkpoint: Languages in Conflict In September 2013, the civil war in Syria is the most significant conflict. Ethnologue shows Syria to be dominated by several dialects of Arabic with two small areas of Kurdish and two small areas of Armenian. Comparing the language map with maps of Syrian rebel activity shows no correspondence between language and areas of greater conflict. Checkpoint: Religious Diffusion Kenosha, Wisconsin, has about 95 places of worship. Many are rather small, but actual membership statistics are not available. There are relatively many Baptist, Catholic, and Lutheran congregations, which reflects the migration of people from the South, many German and Italian settlers, and many people from Scandinavia. Based on the places of worship, Kenosha has a great diversity within Christianity, two Jewish synagogues, and one Muslim place of worship. Checkpoint: Religion and Food Most large grocery stores will have many kosher foods either in a particular section of the store or scattered throughout. There are several symbols that are used to indicate kosher food. Halal implies lawful within Muslim life, so it does not only apply to food. Occasionally, large grocery stores will carry designated Halal foods. Forbidden meats in both religions have much to do whether the animal is unclean or not and how the animals are slaughtered. Pork is forbidden in both religions. In Islam, animals not slaughtered in the name of Allah are disallowed. Consumption of blood is also not permitted in both.

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Answers to Questions for Review and Discussion 1. Keeping their colonial language is done because the language had become quite important in government, law, trade, and education. Also, using a major European language is helpful for international trade, cultural exchanges, foreign affairs, and so on. Sometimes, the colonial language is a compromise between groups wanting their own language to be the main one.One problem is that oftentimes the colonial language is not spoken by most of the people. 2. Adding more official languages recognizes the existence of additional ethnic and linguistic groups. This increases unity and feelings of nationalism. It may solve a political problem. 3. English is expanding because it is the language of science and business. In addition, the Internet was developed in the English-speaking United States. Cornish and Welsh are languages being overwhelmed by English in the United Kingdom. 4. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam can be considered one tradition because of their common ancient beginnings in the Middle East and their monotheism. 5. A language might be outlawed to increase the use of another language. It could be banned damage the power and influence of its speaker, and accordingly, enhance the power and influence of group of speakers. 6. Religion offers an ethical and moral framework in which economic, financial, legal, and political affairs should be conducted. Countries and their cultures may be more secular or more fundamental. Therefore, the role of religion varies and is often controversial. 7. A lingua franca is a second language held in common for international discourse. English is the best current example. Latin and Swahili are other examples of lingua franca. 8. Some Slavic languages use national variations of the Cyrillic alphabet. For example, Russian, Serbian, and Ukrainian have Cyrillic sets of letter, but with small differences. Other Slavic languages, such as Czech and Slovak, use the Roman alphabet. 9. Indo-European is the most spoken and widely diffused language family. Probably beginning in today’s Turkey, proto–Indo-European with a common core vocabulary spread as people migrated and came in contact with other groups. Indo-European languages are concentrated in Europe, the Americas, Australia, Iran, Pakistan, India, South Africa, and Russia. Sir William Jones first suggested the existence of the Indo-European family. 10. From 622 to 751, Islam spread from Mecca and Medina throughout the Middle East, to Spain in the west, and to the western border of China in the East. 11. Sikhism reconciles some of the differences between Hinduism and Islam. It began about 1500 and is concentrated in northern India in the Punjab area.

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12. Beginning in Judea, in the early centuries Christianity diffused to Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Armenia, India, and generally throughout the eastern Mediterranean area.

Answers for Thinking Geographically 1. An American community is likely to have many other languages besides English and Spanish. There might be just one family in town that speaks Urdu, but that adds one more language that is spoken within the community. Most school systems have programs for those students who lack English as their first language. Non-English speakers could come from anywhere in the world where English is not the mother tongue. 2. Reasons for the Dutch using English at the college level include wanting to be more international, to attract more English-speaking students, and to publish in English language journals. This movement towards English is controversial, but some Dutch feel that English is increasingly the language of the sciences and the Internet. 3. This cannot be answered by someone who does not speak two languages. Normally, there are some meanings or nuances of one language that cannot be truly translated into another language. 4. This question is similar to one of the Checkpoint questions and detailed information is difficult to obtain. In the United States, places of worship reflect the faiths of the early settlers as well as the needs of the community. Parochial schools exist when a leader or group or church decided one was needed. Catholic schools are found in many places. It is more likely that a place of worship will anchor a neighborhood in poorer urban areas and in small towns. 5. Arabic numerals, which originated as Hindu numerals from India, are much more widely diffused because of their usefulness within the decimal system and their adoption within mathematics and science. European colonization spread the use of Arabic numerals to many additional places. 6. There are about 250 million Muslims and 500 million Christians in Africa, and the numbers are growing as both religions proselytize. Circumstances vary with peaceful competition contrasting with violent attacks on Christians by Muslim fanatics. There are examples of thriving churches that blend Christianity, Islam, and tradition together. 7. Travel in the 1300s from Morocco to China would not be easy. Today’s transportation would make the journey much easier. On the other hand, in today’s world, national boundaries are often more tightly controlled and there are areas like Libya, Syria, and Afghanistan where it is currently unsafe to travel. Visas and passports would be needed. Depending on the person and his or her religion and the area being visited, she or she might be welcomed or not.

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8. Religious holidays play a modest role in the public life of a community such as Kenosha, Wisconsin. Easter and Christmas are the principal holidays in this largely Christian community. Churches hold special services, there is a greater effort to help the needy through things like clothing drives, and children are off from school.

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CHAPTER 9 Food and Agriculture Food and Agriculture begins by explaining how the food supply has been able to increase faster than population over the last 200 years. Additional cropland in the New World, the Green Revolution, and biotechnology are three reasons. The next section presents information on the various types of subsistence and commercial agriculture (crops and livestock) used in today’s world. Then aquatic food supplies (mainly fishing) are discussed. The factors that influence food security, including how much food can be produced in the future, land ownership issues, and the problem of the world distribution of food supplies, follow. New technologies to increase food supplies are emphasized. The chapter ends with a discussion of sustainable agriculture. A Global and Local box discusses New Uses for Old Crops like wheat and rice and a Rapid Change box is titled Good-bye to the Banana.

Learning Outcomes After carefully studying this chapter, students should be able to: · · · · · · ·

Describe the ways that food production has kept up with population growth Contrast the benefits and risks of biotechnology Classify agricultural regions as subsistence or commercial Explain how raising livestock can result in fewer crops for human consumption List the different types of fishing and fisheries that produce the world’s aquatic food Locate the areas with the largest numbers of undernourished people today Explain the importance of land reform in the developing world

Chapter Review •

Feeding a Growing Population ·

Prediction of mass starvation by Malthus has been wrong so far for many reasons. Farmers have been able produce enough food to more than keep up with population growth.

Reasons for increased food production include many new lands being brought into production as forests have been cleared and irrigation extended. Other reasons are crops being transplanted into new regions have often done well in their new areas and genetic engineering has increased yields.

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New farming techniques are developed as part of the scientific revolution in agriculture.

Transportation improvements encourage regional specialization, which increases agricultural productivity. Better storage also helps.

Scientific advances in agriculture have developed improved methods and better crops and livestock, increasing yields. The Green Revolution and more recent genetic engineering have greatly increased food supplies in many regions of the world. Sometimes, though, small farmers like in the Philippines are displaced and suffer.

Biotechnology advances in agriculture continue. Gene splicing and cloning are methods that continue to develop. Genetically modified crops increase yields and production as well as improve resistance to pests and plant diseases. Concerns with biotechnology focus on the safety of the food and the expense for poorer farmers.

Agriculture Systems ·

Subsistence agriculture is growing crops and livestock to feed one’s family. It contrasts with commercial agriculture, which is growing products for sale. Polyculture is growing several crops simultaneously; monoculture is specializing in one crop. Monocultures are replacing polycultures.

Subsistence farming is usually labor intensive; commercial is capital intensive. Commercial farmers try to achieve economies of scale.

Crops use 10 percent and livestock uses 23 percent of Earth’s land area excluding Antarctica. The majority of land is too hot, cold, or dry.

Nomadic herding, low-technology subsistence, intensive rice, and Asian mixed cereals and pulses are primarily subsistence agriculture. Low-technology subsistence is mostly shifting cultivation using slash and burn methods. Intensive rice produces enough rice to support hundreds of millions of people. Environmental conditions allow double cropping in many places. Peas and beans are examples of pulses.

Mixed farming with livestock, prairie cereal farming, and ranching has a commercial orientation. Mixed farming emphasizes corn and soybeans with a large portion of the corn being fed to animals. The prairie farms grow large amounts of wheat for sale and ranching uses large areas of land to graze livestock.

Mediterranean agriculture and plantation farming are two final types of commercial farming. Grapes (wine), olives, fruits, and other crops are grown in areas with Mediterranean climate. Plantations are large farms usually found in tropical areas and owned by foreign interests. They specialize in one or two crops to be sold as exports.

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Livestock Around the World ·

Livestock is estimated to total about 27 billion animals. Livestock is an important source of protein and other nutrients, but increasing consumption means additional amounts of grain are fed to animals instead of being used by humans directly. About one-third of all grain is fed to livestock.

Meat consumption is increasing globally except where religious prohibitions limit use. Chickens are the most efficient at converting grain into meat.

Other problems associated with livestock include pollution from feedlots, release of greenhouse gases, and damage to land from overgrazing.

Conversion of milk into cheese in dairying is an example of value added.

Aquatic Food Supplies ·

Fish and other aquatic life are important sources of protein, but increasing the supplies is difficult. Traditional fishing is locally important, but is being replaced by modern fishing. Traditional fishing is usually a low-income and dangerous occupation.

Modern, large-scale methods frequently exploit fish at a rate beyond what is sustainable. Wetland destruction, pollutants such as mercury, and ozone depletion are additional problems for fish populations.

Exclusive economic zones designated by coastal countries are used to claim fishing grounds, but disputes over fishing rights continue. Aquaculture is growing to help satisfy the growing demand for fish.

Hunger and Food Security ·

Hunger is not being able to obtain enough calories and/or nutrients to meet human needs. An estimated 868 million people are hungry in the world. Food security means people have access to a proper diet all the time.

Hunger or food security is determined by a wide range of economic, political, social, and environmental factors.

Increasing food production and feeding people better is hampered by the use of farmland to grow cash crops for export, a lack of financial incentives for farmers to produce more, as well as land ownership and distribution problems.

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In many areas, agricultural land ownership is a legacy of colonial times with relatively few wealthy people holding much of the land. Brazil is an example. In former Communist countries, large state-owned, cooperative farms are being privatized.

Tariffs and subsidies are implemented by rich countries in order to protect domestic farming and to increase self-sufficiency. These policies make food more expensive for consumers and cause farmers in rich areas to produce surpluses, which in turn lowers prices in world markets. Low prices discourage farming in poor countries.

Sustainable Food Production ·

Sustainability refers to using Earth’s limited resources in ways that will allow use to continue indefinitely. More farmers and governments have begun to realize that sustainable agriculture needs to replace modern commercial agriculture.

Problems such as diminishing returns to the use of fertilizers and pesticides and environmental consequences such as eutrophication are reasons for greater interest in sustainable agriculture.

Consumer demand for more healthy and ethical foods is growing and some companies are responding.

Chapter Outline I. Introduction A. Obtaining food is a fundamental activity throughout human history B. Scientific knowledge adds greatly to food supplies C. Economics and politics affect the distribution of food II. Feeding a growing population A. Malthus was wrong B. Reasons for increased supplies 1. Added croplands 2. Successful introduction of new crops to new areas a. Potato b. Maize 3. Genetic engineering 4. Scientific revolution in agriculture a. New fertilizers, pesticides b. More output per animal c. New farm machinery 5. Transportation improvements a. Refrigerated vehicles b. Larger, faster equipment 95 ..

c. Allows movement to hungry areas d. Allows areas to be more productive because they can specialize 6. Better storage 7. Green Revolution a. Better varieties b. Higher yields c. Problems of higher costs C. Biotechnology 1. New methods for modifying organisms and their physiological processes a. Gene splicing or recombinant DNA creates genetic modifications b. Cloning c. Great current usefulness and future potential d. Genetically Modified crops and animals yield more e. GM crops and animals resist disease f. Biofarming, or pharming 2. Concerns a. Resistance to new technologies b. Creates unsafe foods c. Long-run effects are not known d. Cartagena Protocol on Biological Diversity e. It is too expensive for poor farmers III. Agriculture systems A. The success of agriculture varies geographically B. Subsistence agriculture 1. Food for oneself and family 2. Polyculture gives way to monoculture 3. Few farmers who are entirely subsistence 4. Characteristics a. Much labor b. Little technology C. Commercial agriculture 1. Food for sale 2. Most subsistence farmers sell or trade at least a little of their production 3. Characteristics a. Little labor b. Much capital investment in machinery, fertilizers, and so on c. Larger and larger farms to take advantage of economies of scale d. Products sold to large food-processing companies D. Types of agricultural systems 1. Agricultural land (crops and livestock) is about 33 percent of all land excluding Antarctica 2. Cereals and potatoes are often staple crops a. High yielding b. Relatively nutritious 3. Nonagricultural land is usually too hot, cold, or dry 96 ..

4. Types a. Nomadic herding b. Low-technology subsistence farming c. Intensive rice farming d. Asian mixed cereals and pulses e. Mixed farming with livestock f. Prairie cereal farming g. Ranching h. Mediterranean agriculture i. Plantation farming IV. Livestock around the world A. Domesticated along with plants B. About 27 billion with about 75 percent being chickens C. Uses 1. High-quality protein in meats and dairy products 2. Hides, wool, and other materials 3. Draft animals to pull plows, andn so on D. Consumption of grains 1. Indirect a. More than one-third of all grain is fed to livestock b. Economic development leads to more meat consumption c. Meat consumption, and, therefore, grain consumption, is increasing d. More people could be fed if less was fed to livestock e. Chickens are the most efficient f. Some religions restrict the consumption of meat 2. Direct by humans E. Problems in animal production 1. Pollution from feedlots 2. Desertification 3. Greenhouse gases produced 4. Overgrazing 5. Huge facilities F. Dairy farming and value added 1. In both developed and developing regions 2. Perishable, so expensive to transport 3. Value added by manufacturing milk into cheese or milk chocolate V. Aquatic food supplies A. Fish, crustaceans, mollusks, plants, and other aquatic life B. Important source of protein C. How produced 1. Two-thirds captured in the wild 2. One-third from aquaculture 97 ..

D. Traditional fishing 1. Supports about 30 million people 2. Less use of technology 3. Hard and dangerous 4. Being replaced by modern fishing D. Modern fishing 1. Commercial activity 2. Large-scale operations (boats and nets) 3. Demand a. Increasing b. Direct consumption, but also fishmeal and oils 3. A few countries’ fleets catch most of the fish 4. Problems a. Overfishing b. Most important species threatened c. Coastal modification and pollution d. Ozone depletion 5. International agreements a. Attempts to control fishing, but many arguments b. Exclusive economic zones of coastal countries 6. Aquaculture a. Domestication of fish b. Mostly in cages in open waters c. Technological advances d. Promising VI. Hunger and food security A. About 868 million are hungry B. Terms 1. Hungry 2. Malnourished 3. Undernourished 4. Famine 5. Food security a. Sufficient calories and nutrients b. All the time c. Meets needs for active, healthy lives C. Enough is produced, so poverty and inequality cause hunger D. Problems in increasing food production 1. Many economic, political, and environmental issues 2. Commercial crops in poor countries a. Farmers grow cash crops for sale instead of food crops b. Value of export crops not greater than cost of import crops C. Farmers might not be better off 3. Lack of financial incentives a. Government controlled prices for food are low b. Heavy taxes discourage farming 98 ..

c. When incentives are created, production rises 4. Land ownership a. Legacy from colonial times b. Farmers do not own their land so there is little reason to improve it c. Land ownership is concentrated in the hands of a few elites d. Communal ownership reduces incentive e. Collective farming in former Communist regions f. Brazil g. Mexico’s experience with the ejido system h. Indonesia i. China E. Rich countries subsidize production and exports 1. Subsidies to farmers as well as agribusiness 2. Tariffs on imports 3. Price supports 4. Reasons a. Protect domestic farming b. Increase national security c. Preserve traditional agricultural communities d. Farmers have political clout 4. Consequences a. Low prices in world markets b. Farmers in poor countries cannot compete c. Urban consumers pay more d. Distort the patterns of agricultural production and trade 5. Calls to reduce tariffs and subsidies F. Sustainable agriculture 1. Continued indefinitely 2. Maintain productive agricultural land 3. Minimizes environmental damage 4. Realization that modern agriculture is often unsustainable a. Overused soils b. Overuse of pesticides and herbicides c. Diminishing returns for fertilizers d. Eutrophication e. Past example of the Dust Bowl f. Worries about GM crops and animals 5. Consumers wanting better foods a. Healthier b. Produced ethically 6. Sustaining agriculture is crucial now and into the future

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Possible Questions and Topics for Discussions and Exams 1. Discuss local issues with an official from a nearby food pantry. How severe is hunger in your area? What can be done about the problem? 2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of polyculture and monoculture? 3. Explain why American agriculture is so productive. Why do farmers make up such a small percentage of the workforce? 4. Examine Table 9-1. Discuss the principal conclusions that can be drawn from these data. 5. Discuss the ability of the scientific revolution in agriculture to overcome the various problems facing farmers and ranchers around the world. 6. Create a list of new foods or food products that have become available in your area over the last few years. How popular are they? 7. Examine the contents of your kitchen cabinets. Which items are produced locally? Discuss why items are imported and find their way into your kitchen. 8. Compare Figures 9-6 and 9-9. Explain how the patterns are consistent with each other. 9. Discuss how global warming is likely to affect future food supplies. 10. Describe the characteristics of organic farming and products. What are the advantages and disadvantages of organic farming? 11. In what ways is much of modern farming not sustainable? 12. The vast majority of corn and soybeans grown in the United States is genetically modified. Discuss the pros and cons of this fact.

Answers for Checkpoints Checkpoint: Food Origins A large variety of whole foods are found in large grocery stores in the United States. Fresh vegetables and fruits are more difficult to store and transport than nuts. For example, cashew nuts come long distances from India, Nigeria, and Vietnam, whereas oranges and grapefruit come shorter distances from places like California and Florida. Careful packaging and handling, plus temperature controlled environments are needed for transportation of whole foods.

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Checkpoint: Field Patterns Different patterns of fields and pastures can be seen, but it is difficult to determine what is being grown or herded. Calipatria and Suds Al Umara are both irrigated areas. The Calipatria area is known for alfalfa and fresh fruits and vegetables. The farms around Suds Al Umara are small. The only agricultural input seen near Merna is water as indicated by the pivot irrigation circles.

Food and Agriculture

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Checkpoint: Feedlots Situations Grand View is in Idaho, not Utah. Excess runoff from the feedlots near Grand View would go into the Snake River. From the Kersey feedlots the overflow would flow into the South Platte River. Checkpoint: Know Your Fishmonger Most grocery stores will have a variety of fresh and frozen fish for sale. About 86 percent of the seafood consumed in the United States is imported from places such as Canada, Chile, China, Ecuador, Indonesia, and Vietnam. Half of the imports are wild caught. Prices vary widely depending on the species. Lobster obviously costs more than tilapia. Overfishing and bycatch make many fisheries unsustainable. NOAA’s FishWatch contains a lot of useful information. Checkpoint: Obstacles to Production Land reform in Brazil is similar to what is described in the chapter. The principal group pushing for land reform is the Landless Rural Workers Movement. This organization attempts to use squatting, protests, and legal actions to cause the redistribution of land from wealthy landowning families and agribusinesses to landless farmers. They have had some success, but at the same time thousands of small farms have been taken over by large corporations. In Japan and after World War II, landowners with larger holdings were forced to sell part of their land and that land was sold to people, who for the most part had been tenant farmers. Japan’s land reform boosted agricultural production in a relative sense, namely, slowing the overall decline in Japanese production. If inequalities in land ownership reduce food production, then a country may have to import food.

Answers to Questions for Review and Discussion 1. Increased food production has been accomplished by adding new cropland, using new crops, increasing yields, developing better methods, and improving transportation and storage. Biotechnology is responsible for past and continuing advances in disease resistance, higher yields, and other aspects that add to the food supply. 101 ..

2. Subsistence agriculture includes nomadic herding found throughout the Middle East and North Africa and in central Asia. Low-technology subsistence agriculture (shifting cultivation) is located in Central America, central Africa, and in parts of Southeast Asia. Japan, China, Bangladesh, and India contain most of the world’s intensive rice agriculture. Lastly, Asian mixed cereals and pulses farming is located in northern China and in portions of India and Southeast Asia. 3. Besides problems like desertification and AIDS, farmers in Africa may lack incentives to produce more because they receive low prices for their crops. Also, communal or state ownership of land discourages investments to improve the land. Overworked women cannot farm effectively and civil wars disrupt agriculture. 4. National security, preservation of agricultural ways of life and farm landscapes, and the political power of farmers are the main reasons why rich countries subsidize agriculture. These subsidies inflate the cost of food for the people of rich countries and contribute to surpluses in world markets that lower prices, which makes it unprofitable for farmers in poor countries to compete and invest. 5. Arguments concerning fishing are caused by competition for a declining resource and by the lack of clear ownership of fishing grounds. Also, demand for fish and fish products is growing and the technology to catch fish is improving. Overfishing is a significant issue. 6. Hunger occurs when food is insufficient for human needs in terms of calories and/or nutrients. Hunger may be short-lived or chronic. Food security is the opposite. It is when all people at all times have access to enough safe, nutritious food to meet their dietary needs in order to live active, healthy lives. Unfavorable environmental conditions, but more often, poor economic, political, and social conditions lead to hunger. Drought, poverty, misguided government policies, or discrimination can cause hunger. Favorable circumstances in all of these intertwined aspects creates food security.

Answers for Thinking Geographically 1. If people do not need to be farmers, then they need to be trained and employed in the commercial and industrial sectors. Rather than work processing corn, a person can work processing data. Broadly and fundamentally, technology has been replacing labor for centuries and this leads to more leisure time. 2. Domesticating animals was easier than domesticating fish. Putting a fence around land is easier than around water. Herding animals is a simpler task than herding fish. Protecting livestock from predators is less difficult than protecting fish. Little was known about fish reproduction. Also, fish may have seemed to be plentiful, so little need to domesticate them. 3. A person who eats a lot of meat consumes a lot more grain indirectly than directly. Estimates vary, but it takes 8 to 12 pounds of grain to produce 1 pound of beef. 102 ..

4. Current American diets compared to the past contain less beef, fewer potatoes, more vegetables, more fruits, more sugar, and more artificial ingredients. Other major changes are the much greater variety of foods and their availability throughout the year. There are many imported foods now. Grapes, for example, are available throughout the year. Making a cake from scratch is cheaper than buying an already made cake, but the time and hassle of making a cake at home would be greater. 5. Wisconsin is the dairy state. Dairy products such as milk and cheese are produced in nearby farms and cheese-processing plants. Dairy farmers use a variety of inputs including workers who come from local populations, fuel that may come from oil that was produced thousands of miles away, and machinery from manufacturers in Illinois or Ohio.

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CHAPTER 10 Cities and Urbanization Cities and Urbanization opens with an explanation of cities, urbanization, and urban geography. Then it continues with urban functions like cities being centers of knowledge and production. The economic bases of cities and central place theory are explained next. The next portion outlines the history of world urbanization, emphasizing reasons for the growth of cities as well as the characteristics of informal settlements. This long chapter continues by describing models of the internal geography of cities and the role of urban and regional planning. After examining urban forms found outside of North America, several mostly American urban patterns and issues such as suburbanization and sprawl, government policy related to suburbs, housing and financial crises, changing commuting patterns plus telecommuting, central city decline, immigration, urbanization of African Americans, and efforts to reduce spatial mismatch are presented. The chapter ends with a discussion of urban government. Urbanizing China is the subject of a Rapid Change box. The Global and Local box focuses on Detroit, the Shrinking City. Learning Outcomes After carefully studying this chapter, students should be able to: · · · · · ·

Differentiate basic and nonbasic activities in the urban economy Give examples of advantageous locations for cities Explain how an urban hierarchy diffuses goods and services Compare urbanization in the 19th century with rapidly growing cities of today Outline the basic features of urban functions in different world regions Identify the social and economic factors that have driven suburbanization in the U.S.

Chapter Review •

Introduction ·

A city is a concentrated nonagricultural settlement. Hinterland, incorporation, urbanization, conurbations, and primate city are basic ideas in urban geography. Throughout the world, more people live in cities than in rural areas and cities continue to grow at a faster pace.

Urban geography examines urban functions, urbanization processes, and internal patterns within cities.

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Urban Functions ·

Early cities developed for religious, political, and defensive reasons. As time passed, cities grew as centers of economic activity.

Agglomeration refers to the concentrating of people and activities in one place. This clustering fosters a division of labor where people can focus on the things that they do best.

Goods and services that are exported from a city are from the basic sector; goods for local consumption are from the nonbasic sector. Basic sector jobs create nonbasic sector jobs. Economic changes have a multiplier effect within the local economy.

The Locations of Cities ·

The location of cities is determined by site and situation, but, over time, situation has become more important. Many places with unfavorable sites have become large centers because of situation advantages related to aspects like trade. Venice, Italy, is an example.

Central place theory emphasizes cities as being market centers to obtain goods and services. Hexagon market areas develop with a market center (town or city) in the center of each hexagon. Based on the hexagons, an urban hierarchy develops with a few large cities and more small towns. The regular pattern created by central place theory is altered by many real-world factors, but regular spacing of settlements is used by the Dutch and Brazilians.

World Urbanization ·

Urbanization between 1600 and 1900 increased as agriculture improved. Efficient agriculture led to food for urban populations and released labor from the rural areas. Britain’s history of urbanization illustrates the processes.

A lack of opportunities and other problems in rural areas, greater safety in cities, and the overall pull of the city contribute to rapid rates of urbanization today.

Cities, especially in the poor countries, are often overwhelmed by growth, and huge slums with many problems are created. There are not enough employment, housing, schools, water, and so forth for all the people.

Informal or squatter settlements develop on the edge of many cities in developing countries. For the most part, these settlements are unauthorized and on marginal land. Lack of services and crime are common problems. City governments usually try to discourage, and even bulldoze, these informal settlements.

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On the other hand, the urban poor do generate considerable economic activity. Their resourcefulness and tenacity lead to new ideas, jobs, and production. Granting property rights or titles to landless squatters is an effective way to make things better. The Internal Geography of Cities ·

Overall, economic, social, and governmental forces largely determine urban form.

Concentric zone, sector, multiple nuclei, and peripheral are the principal models of urban form for North America. Patterns in Latin America, Asia, and the Islamic world are different. Western forms were often built over native forms during colonialism.

Congregation is voluntarily living with similar people, whereas segregation implies being forced to live with people with similar characteristics because of discrimination.

Governmental use of zoning and other planning methods affect patterns within urban areas. Sometimes eminent domain is used or misused to further impact patterns. Planners search for the “ideal” city design. Two examples are Howard’s garden city and Le Corbusier’s Radiant City.

Latin American cities are different because the poorest neighborhoods are on the edge of the urban area in contrast to the poor being next to the central business district and wealthy suburbs being on the outskirts in North American urban areas.

Islamic cities are often organized following religious dictates, and therefore illustrate the role of culture. Fez, Morocco, illustrates Islamic thought concerning cities.

Cities and Suburbs in the United States ·

Urbanization in the United States includes much suburbanization. Dirty industry in the central city, ethnic differences, preferences for country living, affluence, rail lines, streetcars, autos, and government policies making home ownership easier contributed to the growth of suburbs.

In recent years, relatively many home buyers taking advantage of favorable terms on mortgages found themselves overextended and defaulted on the their loans. This housing crisis contributed to the recent economic recession, but, as of 2012, housing is slowly recovering.

The Census Bureau established and uses the concepts of metropolitan statistical area, consolidated metropolitan statistical area, and micropolitan area.

Suburbanization increases infrastructure costs, uses more energy, includes sprawl and Leap frogging, and reduces farmland. Eventually, considerable residential segregation develops, many jobs move to the suburbs, commuting patterns change, and overall auto use grows. 106 © 2014 Pearson Education Inc.

Suburbanization has had major impacts on the central city. The central city lost population and jobs. Frequently, a spatial mismatch develops when unskilled jobs move to the suburbs, but unskilled workers are stuck in the central city. Housing in the central city deteriorates.

Sometimes, white collar jobs in the service economy grow in parts of the central city and those employees move into older neighborhoods, starting gentrification. Yuppies, empty nesters, historic preservation efforts, and tourism have helped central cities, but central cities still suffer job loss.

Large numbers of immigrants of varying ethnic backgrounds have made matters worse in some places, but sometimes the new immigrants bring needed effort and vitality that lead to improved conditions in central cities.

Two other concerns for central cities are having too many jobs that are low-paying service jobs and being targets for terrorism.

Large numbers of African Americans migrated from the South to northern cities between 1910 and 1970 seeking better economic opportunities.

Residential segregation based on race continues. Inner-city neighborhoods often face crime, high unemployment, and a host of other problems. Afro Americans face the worst problems. The network hypothesis argues that the urban poor do not get jobs because they lack the social links to learn about jobs and to receive job references (networking).

Urban enterprise zones are designed to help central cities. There are many brownfield sites that can be developed. Finding low-cost housing in the suburbs or providing transportation to suburban jobs are other ways to help central city residents.

Recent developments that affect urban patterns are efforts to reduce congestion, New Urbanism, new suburban airports, electronic commerce, and telecommuting.

Urban issues are made more complicated by the limited ability for additional annexation of land and by the many units of local government that most metropolitan areas possess. Local governments attempt to cooperate through councils of government, but many conflicts remain.

Chapter Outline I. Cities and urban geography A. Introductory concepts 1. City a. Concentration of people and activities b. Provides a variety of services 2. Hinterland 3. Incorporation 107 © 2014 Pearson Education Inc.

4. Conurbation 5. Primate city 6. Urbanization a. More and more people clustering in cities b. Over one half of the world’s population lives in urban areas B. Urban geography 1. Study of functions and roles 2. Study of variations in urbanization 3. Study of internal patterns II. Urban functions A. Early functions 1. Centers of worship 2. Home for women and children 3. Centers of government 4. Protection or defense 5. Agglomeration a. Advantages to clustering b. Causes division of labor B. Economic bases 1. Basic sector 2. Nonbasic sector 3. Multiplier effect III. Locations of cities A. Site 1. Characteristics of the location 2. Becoming less important B. Situation 1. Relative location a. Other cities b. Contrasting regions c. Transportation routes d. Break-of-bulk points 2. Causes a large city even though site may be poor a. Venice b. Asia’s coastal cities c. Mexico City C. Central place theory 1. Isotropic plain 2. Market towns surrounded by hinterlands 3. Urban hierarchies a. Threshold of demand b. Different sizes of places c. Different sizes of hinterlands d. Fewer large places and hinterlands e. More small places and hinterlands 108 © 2014 Pearson Education Inc.

f. Nested pattern of hexagonal market areas 4. Disruptions of the pattern 5. Use in the Netherlands and Brazil IV. World urbanization A. Early urbanization in Europe 1. Britain a. Improvements in agriculture released workers b. Labor-intensive industries in cities c. Many hardships 2. Migration to colonies relieved some of the problems 3. British experience repeated around the world B. Urbanization today 1. Occurring without economic development 2. Rapid increase a. Problems in rural areas b. City images suggest opportunity c. Urban areas are safer from civil wars and insurgencies d. More difficult to emigrate somewhere else 3. Problems a. Not enough jobs b. Infrastructure overwhelmed c. Poor living conditions d. Stresses placed on family life e. Cultural tensions 4. Informal or squatter settlements a. On open land at the edge of the city b. Often on marginal land c. Illegal, unauthorized, un-owned land d. Lack public services e. Crime f. Governments try to discourage g. Governments destroy them with bulldozers h. Source of jobs, production, and income i. Source of creativity j. Substantial informal or underground sector of the economy k. Could be encouraged by granting land titles V. Internal patterns A. Basic models and patterns of urban form 1. Concentric zone 2. Sector 3. Multiple-nuclei 4. Peripheral 5. Social factors a. Congregation b. Segregation 109 © 2014 Pearson Education Inc.

c. Religion B. Government’s role 1. Effects on land use 2. Zoning a. Restrictive b. Prescriptive 3. Eminent domain 4. Planning a. Uses many concepts of urban geography b. Seek the ideal city c. Howard and garden cities d. Le Corbusier and skyscrapers surrounded by open space e. Too much open space means more need to drive C. Urban form in diverse cultures 1. Latin America a. Commercial spine extending outward b. High income in the central city c. Poor on the outskirts 2. Western forms superimposed on traditional forms 3. Islamic a. Importance of religion and the central mosque b. Houses face inward toward courtyards for privacy c. Winding streets d. Organized into quarters e. Example of Fez, Morocco VI. American cities and suburbs A. Suburbanization 1. Important feature of American urban areas 2. Reasons a. Dirty and noisy industries in the central city b. New immigrants are different c. Lure of the countryside d. Affluence e. Transportation advances f. Cars and trucks g. Federal Housing Administration programs h. Veterans Administration housing programs i. Income-tax advantages with home ownership 3. Recent housing and financial crisis a. Favorable mortgage terms b. People overspent on housing c. Some could not make payments d. Some defaulted on their loans e. Increase in foreclosures 4. Census Bureau terms a. Metropolitan statistical area 110 © 2014 Pearson Education Inc.

b. Consolidated metropolitan statistical area c. Micropolitan area 5. Consequences a. Many suburbs b. Much home ownership c. Sprawl d. High infrastructure costs e. High energy costs f. Leapfrogging g. Loss of farmland h. Higher taxes i. Social homogeneity and marketing j. Restrictive covenants k. Jobs created l. Edge cities m. New commuting patterns n. Congestion o. Telecommuting helps B. Central cities 1. Conditions and issues a. Loss of economic activity b. Population decline c. Abandoned infrastructure and buildings d. Loss of many entry-level jobs e. Influx of additional unskilled migrants f. Worsening housing and neighborhoods g. Some increases in white-collar jobs h. Gentrification i. Historic preservation movements j. Immigrants of varying ethnicities have helped k. Service jobs are low paying l. Concerns over terrorism m. African American successes and problems n. Continuing segregation o. Lingering poverty 2. Explanations a. Spatial mismatch hypothesis b. Network hypothesis C. Governing urban areas 1. Annexation issues 2. Central cities surrounded 3. Confusing multiplicity of governments 4. Numerous special purpose districts 5. Metropolitan area governments a. Councils of governments b. Promote cooperation c. Some successful outcomes 111 © 2014 Pearson Education Inc.

6. Fighting sprawl 7. Strong regional metropolitan governments in other parts of the world Possible Questions and Topics for Discussions and Exams 1. Look up the populations of cities in Western Europe and Southeast Asia. Which region has more primate cities? Suggest reasons for differences. 2. Study a map of your state. Describe any patterns of towns and cities that seem to follow central place theory. Explain why central place theory might not be followed very closely in your state. 3. Explain the differences in the spatial mismatch hypothesis and the network hypothesis. Which hypothesis seems the most valid? 4. After studying the concentric zone, sector, multiple-nuclei, and Latin American models of internal geography of cities, ask the students to describe what their ideal urban area would look like. What patterns would they prefer? 5. Explain and give local examples of the multiplier effect. 6. Discuss whether it is advantageous for most of the population to live in urban areas or rural areas. 7. Is the town or city that contains your college a “garden” city? Locate all of the parks and other open spaces found in the local area. 8. Discuss disadvantages of living in cities. Are the disadvantages greater than the advantages? 9. Describe the characteristics of a hypothetical urban area that did not have any autos. Would this be possible? What are the advantages and disadvantages of a city without cars? 10. Does a nearby urban area have a council of governments or a similar organization? If yes, how does the council function? If no, should there be one? Why or why not? 11. Research one of India’s large urban areas. Describe its characteristics, including contrasts and comparisons with where you live. 12. For your state, describe the laws that govern the ability of an area to incorporate into a city. What are possible advantages of incorporation? 13. Examine and describe the history and circumstances for today’s Istanbul. How did, and still does, site and situation affect the city’s development and importance?

Answers for Checkpoints Checkpoint: Multiplier Effects A typical American in a typical week would pay for gasoline, groceries, snacks, toiletries, a restaurant meal, and so forth. During a typical month, things such as rent or a mortgage payment, utilities, new clothes, doctor’s bill, and so on, would be added. Most of the money would be paid to clerks and cashiers whose job it is to collect the payments. Most directly, spending supports many low-paying service sector jobs, but more fundamentally, consumer spending supports the entire economy. Consumer spending in the United States is about 70 percent of total GDP. Checkpoint: Real Central Places In areas such as East Anglia and the Midwest of the United States, where the landscape is more isotropic, an urban hierarchy of many small, central places and few large, central places with somewhat even spacing develops. It is difficult to see these patterns on Google Earth and no hexagons are apparent. Checkpoint: Informal Settlements Informal settlements are relatively rare in the United States. There is some squatting in foreclosed or abandoned property. Homeless or other people just move in until someone makes them leave. Some people who have lost their home because of the inability to pay the mortgage and property taxes may no longer own the house, but stay in the house anyway. These people may support themselves through welfare, unemployment payments, charity, and low-paying jobs. Checkpoint: Modeling Your Town Most American cities have land-use patterns that are much more complex than the models of internal structure suggest. In the opinion of some urban geographers, the multiple-nuclei model seems the most accurate and the concentric zone model the least applicable. Kenosha, Wisconsin, was part of Homer Hoyt’s original study for the sector model. Checkpoint: Sprawl This is difficult to determine because most urban areas are not close to being circular. Looking at Denver, Kolkata, and Madrid, the estimated radius of the urban area is 21.5, 10.5, and 17.25 kilometers, respectively. Denver has the lowest population to radius ratio equaling 130,233 (2.8 million divided by 21.5 kilometers). Denver has the most sprawl. The ratio for Kolkata is 1,342,857 (14.1 million/10.5 km) and for Madrid it is 371,014 (6.4 million/17.25 km). Kolkata is a very densely populated urban area with very little sprawl.

Answers to Questions for Review and Discussion 1. There are many ancient cities that remain important. Beijing, Istanbul, Jerusalem, Lisbon, Luxor, Rome, and Xi’an are some examples. 2. The part of the economy that produces for export out of the area is known as the basic sector, whereas production for local consumption is from the nonbasic sector. 3. The distribution of cities depends on site and situation. Defendable landforms, deposits of minerals, water availability, and arable lands are site aspects. Proximity of other cities and transportation routes relate to situation. In addition, history, inertia, extent of markets, and locations of seats of government affect the pattern of cities. Sometimes cities are clustered along coasts or near rivers; other times they are more dispersed as central place theory would suggest. 4. World urbanization today differs from Britain’s experience in many ways. Today, there are greater cultural differences between rural and urban, displacement of rural people is faster, media spreads an exciting image of the city, medical care lowers urban death rates making populations higher, rural people lack the skills needed in the urban economy, less migration is possible, global decisions affect local companies, and governments favor urban areas. 5. Fundamentally, urbanization will be slowed if rural areas are made more attractive and urban areas appear less desirable. Rural areas could be helped by building hospitals, clinics, housing, schools, roads, and other infrastructure. Cities might limit housing and economic opportunities. Regulations could require permission in order to migrate. Force could be used to keep people from moving to cities. 6. American homeowners benefit from deductions of mortgage interest and property taxes as well as protection of home-selling profits from capital gains taxes. Sometimes special tax credits are passed to encourage home buying. Energy tax credits would be a recent example. 7. Western urban areas contrast with traditional Islamic cities in many ways. Western cities have grid patterns and high-rise structures; Islamic cities have many winding streets, and except for the mosque and kasbat (fortified palace), lower buildings. The mosque is the main focus with Islam, but centers of commercial activity are the usual focus in Western urban areas. Unlike Western houses, Moslem houses tend to face inward with courtyards. Open spaces seem to be more important in Western cities and urban planning. Both have segregation of people based on ethnicity, religion, or economic status.

Answers for Thinking Geographically 1. The site of Kenosha, Wisconsin, has gently rolling topography with a small river entering a large lake and a Dfa climate. The Pike River entering Lake Michigan is the main reason for initial settlement. 2. Kenosha is located between Milwaukee and Chicago on the shore of Lake Michigan in the midst of a large productive agricultural and industrial region. There are numerous social and economic benefits to the proximity of these large urban areas, but at the same time they also represent completion for Kenosha. Kenosha has rail and water connections with the rest of the world. Interstate 94 is the most important highway. The people of Kenosha can choose between three major airports for convenient flights. These are Chicago’s O’Hare and Midway as well as Milwaukee’s Mitchell. 3. Kenosha has the full range of nonbasic activities that would be normal for an American city. 4. Uline, a manufacturer of shipping and packaging products, and Kenosha Unified School District are the two largest employers in the Kenosha area. Relatively many Kenosha residents work at facilities of Abbott Laboratories in neighboring Illinois. Data on revenue is not available. Employment and revenue do not necessarily equate with each other. Kenosha’s basic activities include goods like shipping and packaging products, beverages (Ocean Spray), and clothing (Jockey International). Kenosha also has basic activities that export services in health care and higher education. The city has two colleges (Carthage College and the University of Wisconsin–Parkside) that provide education to students from outside the area. 5. Although the recent recession in the United States halted most housing development in many places including Kenosha, over the long run the urban area of Kenosha has expanded as new subdivisions have been developed. The city bus system generally does not serve these new areas, so people have to rely on their personal vehicles. 6. In general, in the United States there is municipal, township, county, and state government. A wide variety of special purpose governments (for example, for schools, pollution control, public transportation, airports, and irrigation) usually exist. The jurisdictions of these various governments often overlap and can be confusing to the average citizen. Leaders of special purpose governments may be appointed or elected. Most regions have a regional planning agency. The Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Commission covers seven counties, including Kenosha. 7. There are many advantages and disadvantages to living in either cities or suburbs. Central cities are likely to have more crime, worse schools, more crowding, less green space, better mass transit, easier journeys to work, more diversity, more cultural amenities, more colleges, more pollution, higher taxes, and more excitement than suburbs. 8. To slow rural to urban migration in developing countries it would be important to stress the development of economic opportunities and population control in rural areas. Barriers 115 © 2014 Pearson Education Inc.

to entering cities could also be enacted. For example, everyone living in the city could be required to have a permit to live there. 9. There are many efforts to quantitatively evaluate and rank quality of life levels for cities, Bloomberg Businessweek recently determined the top 50 cities in the United States. The factors used were leisure attributes, educational performance, economic factors, crime, and air pollution with leisure being given the most weight and air pollution the least. Bloomberg Businessweek found that San Francisco was the top city and Los Angeles was fiftieth. Weather was not part of their analysis. Other studies would use somewhat different factors and weights, and, accordingly, would have different results.

CHAPTER 11 A World of States A World of States initially outlines the development of the idea of nation-states, the subsequent formation of European nation-states, and the development and decline of empires. Sovereignty, political culture, national self-determination, superimposed boundaries, centrifugal and centripetal forces, civil wars, forging national identities, iconography, subnationalism, and ethnic cleansing are some of the many ideas presented. Discussions of the types of government, how nation-states define and organize their territories, including shapes of states, international borders, territorial subdivisions, and the unitary and federal types of governments, are next. The chapter continues with information on relations among states, emphasizing topics of conflict, geopolitics, cooperation, peace, polar regions, territorial waters, being landlocked, the European Union, and North American Free Trade Agreement. An explanation of issues in electoral geography ends the chapter. This chapter has a Global and Local box that discusses U.S. Border Security and a Rapid Change box that examines the recent events known as Arab Spring. Learning Outcomes After carefully studying this chapter, students should be able to: · · · · · · ·

Relate the importance of culture to the formation of the modern state Identify the challenges that territorial shapes, boundaries, and subdivisions present to governments Classify the governments of different regions as democratic or autocratic Describe some of the factors that help to unify a country and those factors that can break it apart Summarize the location and types of conflict in the world today Contrast how states rule their territory with how they cooperate on nonstate territories Explain the importance of electoral districts to democratic government

Chapter Review •

Introduction ·

Political geography studies the creating and governing of territories as well as relations between the people and governments of different territories.

A state refers to a political unit that is independent and claims a specific territory and everything found in it. Many states are relatively new.

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The Development of the Nation-State Idea ·

Sovereignty is the exclusive right to control everything within a given area. A nation is a group of people who share a culture and want to be ruled by their own government. These people are said to be showing nationalism. A nation-state is when the specific territory and all the people of a nation match geographically.

Political communities and political cultures vary in their view of government and in the enforcement of laws.

Nationalism grew in Europe, leading to many nation-states, but agreements concerning territory and boundaries were clouded by issues of national selfdetermination and the existence of irredentas.

The European powers ruled their colonies for their own benefit. Denial of national self-determination, belief in social Darwinism, superimposed boundaries, and indirect rule were all part of colonialism.

The British Empire was the world’s largest. The French lost areas to the British in the 1700s, but then gained new colonies in Africa. Turkey and many boundary disputes are the legacies of the Ottoman Empire.

Geography of Modern States ·

A resident population, defined territory, government, and diplomatic relations with states are the requirements to be a state.

The physical shape of a state’s territory affects the state’s development. Geographers identify different types of states based on their shape. Types include compact, prorupted, elongated, fragmented, archipelago, perforated, and enclave. Compact is considered to be favorable.

International borders may be physical boundaries that follow topographic features such as rivers or they may be geometric boundaries that utilize parallels or meridians. A third type of boundary is a cultural boundary, which quite logically is based on cultural patterns.

Some borders may be heavily defended, subjects of long-running disputes, or not marked at all. Some states, such as China and Iran, try to block the flow of information, but usually information can cross borders easily and rapidly.

Democratic or autocratic are the two main types of government in the world today. A large majority of states claim to be democratic, and some are truly democratic, but others are not actually very democratic.

Democracy is characterized by government by the people and a constitution and laws that assure that idea. There are individual rights, regular competitive elections, and 118 ..

public institutions to administer the laws. ·

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An autocratic government is where the power is in the hands of the ruler or the ruling elite. Intimidation including violence, manipulation of elections, and secrecy are used to enforce the government’s dictates and to stifle any ideas of democracy. Corruption is common. Autocrats justify their power by arguing that the people are not ready for democracy.

Internal Organization of Territory ·

Unitary government means that most of the power and control is with the central government. In contrast, a federal governmental structure gives more influence to the governments of the country’s subunits. In some instances, such as Russia, federalism reflects ethnic patterns.

Many countries have essentially unitary governments, but steps to increase local autonomy are found in some places like Italy and the United Kingdom.

Most federal states have federal territories within their borders. Capital districts are examples of federal territories.

Capital cities may or may not have their own district; may or may not also be the capital of a subdivision of the state. Several capitals, such as Abuja in Nigeria and Astana in Kazakhstan, have been moved to disassociate the capital from a colonial past or a different ethnicity.

Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces ·

The world’s states vary widely in terms of their persistence and stability versus change.

Centripetal forces are conditions and circumstances that are unifying; centrifugal forces are dividing.

Centripetal forces are essential to forging a national identity or creating nationalism within an existing territory. This is often difficult to achieve. National unity is enhanced by undermining traditional loyalties, investing in regions to gain their loyalty, promoting a strong religious heritage, having a national education system and curricula, controlling language use and the media, using iconography, serving in the military, and other approaches.

Unity within a nation-state is weakened by subnationalism. Subnationalism is an important centrifugal force that can be strong enough to create separatist movements. Subnationalism has or is causing civil wars in Columbia, many parts of Africa, and other places. It can be strong enough to cause failed states.

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Ethnic cleansing and genocide are ways to reduce subnationalism, but even though these methods are generally inhuman and unacceptable, there are many recent and past examples.

Relations among States ·

States can cooperate, ignore, or conflict with other states. Geopolitics is how geographic features influence international relations and politics.

Most conflicts today are civil wars between the government and other groups wanting more rights or to separate to form their own state. As of 2011, there are 37 ongoing conflicts around the world.

It is frequently desirable for countries to cooperate with each other. Recognition, diplomacy, and treaties are aspects involved with cooperation.

Treaties are formal agreements between states. Bilateral treaties are between two states; multilateral treaties are between many states. The land mine treaty signed by 156 countries is an interesting example of a multilateral treaty.

Peaceful relations in general is the principal goal of most treaties. Collective security is an objective for many. These ideas led to the creation of the League of Nations, and then, more importantly, the United Nations. The U.N., with 193 members, has many significant international roles ranging from peacekeeping to helping refugees. The General Assembly, Security Council, and International Court of Justice are three of the many important U.N. institutions.

Earth’s Open Spaces ·

The Arctic, Antarctica, and the oceans are portions of Earth’s surface over which political jurisdiction is unclear. There are conflicting claims to the world’s polar areas. There are conflicting claims to the Arctic regions because of possible oil and gas reserves. Some suggest that Antarctica be exploited for its resources and others want it protected. The Arctic Council and Antarctic Treaty attempt to resolve some of the issues.

The idea of the oceans being open and not under the jurisdiction of any country is declining as coastal countries extend claims of territorial waters. A 200-mile exclusive economic zone to protect mining and fishing rights is recognized by most countries as are territorial waters extending 12 miles from the coast. These distances are found in the many provisions of the Law of the Sea, but disputes continue.

Jurisdiction over airspace and outer space are additional issues. For example, there is no agreement on how far upward a country’s airspace extends.

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Regional Cooperation ·

Regional groups of states may form organizations to foster cooperation, improve economic conditions, and reduce problems. The European Union (EU) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) are examples.

The EU has helped to change an often divided Europe into a much more unified region. Currently possessing 28 member states, the EU strives to have a single market for goods, services, capital, and labor, a single currency, and cohesive economic, social, and environmental policies.

NAFTA is much more limited in scope when compared to the EU with it having only three members and focusing on just trade and investment. On the other hand, the GDP of NAFTA countries is about $18 trillion, whereas for the EU it is about $16 trillion.

Trade, investment, and economic activity have grown in Canada, Mexico, and the United States, but it is difficult to determine how much is due to NAFTA. The Agreement is controversial with critics arguing that Canada and Mexico have benefitted at the expense of the United States and that pollution has been increased. NAFTA has encouraged corporations to think in terms of North America instead of nationally and enhanced the integration of infrastructure.

There are numerous organizations devoted to regional cooperation around the world. The Caribbean Union and Common Market, MERCOSUR, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, African Union, Arab League, and Commonwealth of Independent States are examples.

Electoral Geography ·

Fairly conducted elections are a crucial part of democracy.

Electoral geography is the study of voting districts and voting patterns. When elections are based on districts, the boundaries of those districts can determine the outcome of the election.

Apportionment is determining how many representatives an area should have. This is usually done on the basis of population.

Gerrymandering is drawing the districts to give someone an advantage. This is done to help one political party or ethnic group at the expense of another. Efforts to gerrymander continue, but the results are often disputed.

The one person/one vote rule causes more frequent redistricting in the United States. But representation in the House of Representatives, the Senate, and, as a result, the electoral college is inherently unequal. Federal spending is also unequal.

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The Federal Voting Rights Act of 1965 is meant to protect the civil rights of minority groups in redistricting and elections in general. In practice, the creating of districts to help minorities has been problematic with some suggesting reverse discrimination.

Chapter Outline I. Introduction A. Political geography a. Dividing Earth into territories b. How territories are ruled c. Relations between the people of different territories B. State 1. Independent political units 2. Sovereignty or exclusive jurisdiction a. Over territory b. Over people and resources 3. Relatively new idea 4. European idea II. Development of the nation-state idea A. Nation 1. Group of people a. Share cultural characteristics b. Want to govern themselves 2. Ethnic nations 3. Civic nations 4. Political community B. Nation-state 1. State (territory) and nation (shared culture) match 2. The best pattern 3. Iceland C. Political culture 1. Unwritten rules and ways 2. Variations D. Nationalism in Europe 1. Spread by Napoleon 2. National self-determination 3. Map redrawn after World War I and II 4. Irredenta a. Territorial claims on a neighbor country b. Many around the world E. Empires 1. European colonialism over nationalism a. Natives were inferior b. Social Darwinism c. Superimposed boundaries d. Indirect rule 122 ..

2. British Empire a. Largest b. Most widespread 3. French Empire 4. Ottoman Empire 5. Collapse of empires a. Desire for independence by natives b. European could not hold on c. A few colonies remain today d. Turmoil in former colonies III. Geography of modern states A. Criteria to be a state 1. Resident population 2. Defined territory 3. Government 4. Diplomatic relations B. Government has responsibility 1. Its people 2. Its territory C. Shapes of states 1. Beneficial effects a. Consolidate territory b. Control population c. Transportation and communication systems 2. Forms a. Compact b. Prorupted c. Elongated d. Fragmented e. Archipelago f. Perforated g. Enclave D. International boundaries 1. Types a. Physical features, such as rivers b. Geometric (parallels and meridians) c. Cultural 2. Disputed 3. Sometimes unmarked 4. Sometimes boundary does not matter much until resources are found 5. Not disputed 6. Information flow a. Try to control, but hard to do b. Free flow helps economic development E. Types of governments 1. Monarchies in the past 123 ..

2. Democracy a. Widespread today b. Rule by the people c. Basic rights protected by a constitution or laws d. Freedom of beliefs and expression e. Able to benefit from one’s labor and property f. Fair elections g. Public institutions that administer the laws h. Trial by an impartial court system i. Free press and media j. Begun by the Greeks 3. Concerns for democracy a. False democracies claim to be democratic b. People not ready for democracy 4. Autocracy a. Ruler or ruling class govern as they wish b. Dictatorships c. Use of violence and intimidation d. Any democratic institutions overridden e. Unfair elections f. Secrecy g. Restrictions on the press and media h. Corruption i. Common around the world j. Justified by saying people are not ready for democracy F. Internal organization of territory 1. States have subunits 2. States determine the balance of power between the national government and the subunit governments 3. Unitary government a. Most power with the central government b. Common around the world 4. Federal government a. Subdivisions have more local power b. Subdivisions help accommodate ethnic patterns c. Amount of power sharing varies and changes 5. Federal territories a. Owned and governed directly by the central government b. Not part of any subunit c. Often lands owned by the central government 6. Capital cities a. Own district b. Changing its location to avoid colonial implications c. Place of national pride

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IV. Centripetal and centrifugal forces A. Forces 1. Centripetal unify 2. Centrifugal divide B. Other ideas 1. Rebellious minority groups cause problems 2. Changes in borders a. Continues to occur b. Difficult to achieve c. Needed in Africa C. Centripetal forces for states 1. Fostering national identity a. State first, then nation, not nation state ideal b. Change cultural identities c. Change economic activities 2. Methods a. Promote common religion b. Promote common language c. Promote effective political communities d. Foster economic fairness and success a. Weaken traditional loyalties b. Reduce the power of traditional groups and leaders c. Invest in minority regions to gain support d. Not invest in minority regions to weaken them e. Use the police and armed forces f. Promote a common religion g. Use the educational system h. Promote a common language; ban minority languages i. Use iconography j. Join the military k. Have effective public institutions l. Accommodate minority group demands D. Centrifugal forces for states 1. Opposite of many centripetal conditions and actions 2. Subnationalism a. Allegiance to own group and not the state b. Regionalism c. Separatist movements d. Unification of wider area e. Cause of conflict and civil wars E. Civil wars 1. Common today 2. Want greater rights 3. Want independence 4. Many in Africa 5. Failed or collapsed states a. Government cannot provide security for its people 125 ..

b. Somalia F. Extreme efforts to make a nation fit into a state territory 1. Ethnic cleansing a. Force group to leave b. Often use violence, including murder c. Bosnia 2. Genocide a. Intentional killing of the group b. Armenians in Turkey c. Jews in Germany during World War II V. Relations among states A. Cooperation or conflict B. Conflict 1. Lack of agreement 2. Over borders, territory, resources, and other issues 3. May lead to war a. Many civil wars between groups within the same country b. 37 ongoing conflicts in 2011 4. Geopolitics a. Influence of geographic features b. Ratzel and states as living things c. Military strategy C. Cooperation 1. Often needed 2. Methods a. Recognition b. Diplomacy c. Treaties 3. May be difficult to achieve as in the land mine treaty D. International peace 1. Many treaties designed to achieve peace 2. Collective security 3. League of Nations a. Early attempt b. Little power 4. United Nations a. More enduring and successful b. Attempts to increase peace and security c. Tackles many international issues d. International interests versus national interests e. 193 members f. United Nations Charter g. General Assembly h. Security Council i. International Court of Justice E. Earth’s open spaces 126 ..

1. Not all of Earth’s surface is part of a country 2. How to balance competing interests 3. Who has jurisdiction 4. The Arctic a. Arctic Council b. Ice cap melting c. Possible resources 5. Antarctica a. Competing claims b. Develop or preserve c. Antarctic Treaty 6. Oceans a. Extent of jurisdiction b. Historically a 3-mile limit c. Now territorial waters of 12 miles d. Exclusive economic zone of 200 miles e. Jurisdiction over fishing and mining f. Law of the Sea agreements attempt to regulate g. Innocent passage 7. Landlocked states a. No direct access to the oceans b. Use navigable river c. Obtain corridor of land to the coast d. Negotiate to use a port and transportation to that port e. A significant disadvantage 8. Airspace and outer space rights a. Extent of jurisdiction b. More arguments F. Regional cooperation 1. States within the same region often have similar concerns 2. European Union a. Much division and contention in Europe’s history b. Considerable unification has occurred c. 28 members d. Single market for goods, services, capital, and labor e. Common currency, the Euro f. Joint economic policy g. Joint social policy h. Common environmental concerns i. Problems with recession and the Euro 3. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) a. Canada, Mexico, United States b. Focus on trade and investment c. More GDP than the EU d. Trade has increased, but hard to determine if due to NAFTA e. More North America scale planning f. More connected infrastructure 127 ..

g. Controversial h. Canada and Mexico helped, United States hurt i. More pollution 4. Other regional organizations a. Many around the world b. Mostly aimed at trade and other economic improvement c. Andean Pact d. Caribbean Union and Common Market e. MERCOSUR f. ASEAN g. Southern African Development Coordination Conference h. African Union i. Arab League j. British Commonwealth k. Commonwealth of Independent States VI. Electoral geography A. Studies elections B. Studies voting patterns C. Districts 1. Important part of democracy 2. Affects the outcomes of elections 3. Apportionment 4. May not have equal populations 5. Gerrymandering is manipulating the boundaries to gain an advantage 6. Usually adjusted after a census is taken 7. United States’s issues a. One person/one vote objective b. House of Representatives c. Senate d. Electoral College e. Federal funding 8. Redistricting and civil rights a. Protect the rights of minority groups b. Federal Voting Rights Act of 1965 c. Majority-minority districts d. Difficult to do e. Texas case Possible Questions and Topics for Discussions and Exams 1. Explain possible advantages for the United States being divided into fewer than 50 states. 2. Find the “blue book” for your state. How many districts does your state have for Congress and the legislature? What are the political affiliations of the representatives serving in these governmental bodies? 128 ..

3. What are some specific examples of sovereignty? Does the amount of control by the central government vary? Explain. 4. Describe centrifugal and centripetal forces for your country. How strong are these forces? 5. Discuss the kinds and importance of local, national, and international boundaries. Are there any boundaries that have no importance? 6. What are local examples of iconography? Which ones are the most prominent or powerful? Discuss whether or not more iconography should be created. 7. Explain the differences and give examples of ethnic cleansing and genocide. What are possible alternatives to these approaches? 8. Where are the world’s smallest states found (see Figure 11-1 and other maps in the chapter)? What are the likely reasons for these newest states being independent? 9. Examine one of the world’s current civil wars. What issues are causing the conflict? Does a peaceful solution seem likely? 10. Describe the geographic patterns of voting in a recent election. Did the winning candidate receive most of his/her support from only selected areas or was the support distributed evenly throughout the region? 11. Explain the differences between a unitary government and a federal government. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of both forms. 12. Relative to where you go to school, locate the nearest landlocked state. Discuss possible difficulties for that landlocked state. 13. Examine peacekeeping by the United Nations. Where are U.N. peacekeeping operations found? Describe likely challenges facing U.N. peacekeepers.

Answers for Checkpoints Checkpoint: Territorial Histories The history of Jakarta, Indonesia, shows a series of ruling states and different names. Chronologically, there is the Tarumanagara, Kingdom of Sunda, Sultanate of Banten, Dutch East Indies, and today’s Indonesia. None of the first four remain as states. Banten is the current name of an Indonesian province, and, of course, the Netherlands is a state in Europe. The University of Texas library seemed to have only one map related to Jakarta (Batavia).

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Checkpoint: Exploring Proruptions The Wakhan Corridor is a proruption of Afghanistan that extends eastward to border China. This corridor was a trade route of moderate importance, but has been closed to through traffic for many decades. The area is very mountainous in the Pamirs and Hindu Kush, quite isolated, very undeveloped with no modern roads or other infrastructure, and sparsely populated with only 10,000 to 12,000 people. Afghanistan could try to develop and better connect the area by building a road through the area. Afghanistan has unsuccessfully asked China to open the border. This prorupt does not seem worth investing in to keep or fighting over. The Caprivi Strip of Namibia is more valuable to retain. This proruption extends eastward to reach the Zambezi River and contains the wettest area of Namibia. Reaching the Zambezi River was originally thought to be important, but in reality the Zambezi in its middle and upper courses is not very navigable. Caprivi contains a few towns and roads with a mostly rural population engaging in agriculture. Katimi Mulilo is the largest town with a population of about 28,000, and it has an airport. Caprivi is also ethnically diverse and contains centrifugal tendencies. In 1999, an armed revolt by people seeking independence for Caprivi was put down by the Namibian army. Stress remains, and unifying Caprivi with the rest of Namibia will be difficult. Checkpoint: Separatist Propaganda Finding suitable videos for this checkpoint is difficult. For example, during 2013, the Syrian civil war was much in the news, but finding videos that presented the rebel’s side or the government’s side proved to be impossible. There were numerous videos related to violent events in the civil war. In another effort, a few videos were found discussing both sides of the 2014 referendum on Scottish independence from the United Kingdom. A presentation favoring independence for Scotland stated that being independent would give Scotland a greater voice in international affairs. It continued by arguing that being a small country like Switzerland would be an advantage and that being part of the United Kingdom was not much of an advantage. One of the arguments against independence is that Scotland will struggle economically. Checkpoint: Treaty Geography In 2006, the Tripoli Agreement was reached to try to end conflict between Sudan and Chad. The agreement describes the two countries as “fraternal countries bound by ties of geography, history, and social relations.” Mediated by Libya and the African Union, the agreement was to end hostilities and to stop interfering with the internal affairs of the other country. The agreement has no maps and mentions no groups of people. It refers to the “common border” several times. The agreement negotiations did not include one of the major players, the United Front for Democratic Change, which argued that the agreement was worthless. Unfortunately, conflict between Sudan and Chad did not end with this agreement. A well-designed treaty should include all significant parties, who need to agree with the final provisions. It should be clear and complete so as to reduce the possibility of misinterpretation. If the treaty involves boundaries and territory, maps would be needed.

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Checkpoint: Election Patterns Italy held a general election in February 2013 for the national legislature. There are many political parties in Italy, but the three main parties with a combined vote of about 84 percent are Italy, Common Good; People of Freedom; and Five Star Movement. The Italy, Common Good party won in Rome and Milan as well as throughout north central Italy. Much of northern Italy and parts of southern Italy, including Naples, went to People of Freedom. The Five Star Movement’s areas of support in the more rural areas of Italy. These patterns suggest regional agreement or disagreement on political issues. Answers to Questions for Review and Discussion 1. A state is an independent political unit that claims jurisdiction. A nation refers to a group of people who want to have their own government and rule themselves. The basis of their nation may be ethnicity or religion, but may be just nationalism. A nation-state is when all the people of a nation are ruled in the same territory. The Chinese, Hmong, and Irish are three nations not found in just one country. There are many countries like Sri Lanka, Somalia, Nigeria, Canada, and Russia that are not nation-states. 2. The basic purposes of the League of Nations and the United Nations were to foster international cooperation, prevent conflict and war, improve quality of life throughout the world, and solve global problems. 3. There are many factors that help make nations. Subnational loyalties need to be reduced. This may be done forcibly or by persuasion. A national religion, the armed forces, and national education systems all can assist in creating nationalism. The curriculum in the schools can be a powerful force in promoting a national culture and identity. Iconography and the media can spread the idea. Political parties and labor unions can be allowed to have reasons for supporting the nation and its political process. 4. A more irregular and fragmented state might have a more unitary, strong central government that would maintain better control of the less connected area. Or, conversely, a federal government might allow less connected areas to have considerable autonomy to encourage them to remain part of the state. Having physical or geometric or cultural boundaries would not matter much for the government unless the boundary made centrifugal forces worse. 5. Most of the provisions of the Law of the Sea pertain to territorial waters and exclusive economic zones, the High Seas. One provision says that all states shall enjoy the traditional freedoms of navigation, over flight, scientific research, and fishing on the high seas. The Antarctic Treaty System, signed by 50 countries, attempts to preserve Antarctica for scientific research and for peaceful purposes. 6. One way gerrymandering is done is by concentrating the opponent in one or a few districts, conceding those districts, and winning the rest. The other way is to disperse the opponent over many districts, thereby giving the opponent little chance to win any districts. 131 ..

Answers for Thinking Geographically 1. The Public Land Survey System was used in Wisconsin starting in 1832. Municipalities were incorporated out of existing townships. Responsibilities of local government include streets, sewers, water supply, police and fire protection, parks, social services, libraries, tax collection, planning, public records, waste collection, and many others. For the most part, the City of Kenosha and Kenosha County have similar functions and departments. The two governments conduct their activities in their respective jurisdictions. The principal improvement that could be made in Kenosha and many places in the United States is the consolidation of services. 2. Reading the constitutions of several countries is beyond the scope of this Instructor’s Resource Manual. It is likely that the constitution for totalitarian ruled country would be written to keep the current leader or ruling party in power and to make it difficult for any opposition to succeed or make changes. The U.S. Constitution addresses states’ rights in several articles and amendments, but the issue remains contentious. 3. Wisconsin has 1,988,000 acres of federal land. The Chequamegon-Nicolet National Forest with 1,523,000 acres represents a large majority of this federal land. 4. Having two senators and eight representatives, Wisconsin has 10 electoral votes. The number of seats in the House of Representatives depends on population. Wisconsin is quite close to being properly represented because the 2010 census shows Wisconsin has 712,278 persons per seat in the House and the national figure is 710,767 per seat. Those figures are rather close. 5. A region should be able to secede, but it should be relatively hard to do so. A referendum for independence should be only in the region wanting to secede. For example, in order to secede, a region would need two-thirds support in each of three consecutive elections. Of course, a violent revolt is a different situation. 6. The Alps between Italy and Switzerland, the Pyrenees between France and Spain, and the Caucasus Mountains between Russia and Georgia and Azerbaijan are mountain ranges that correspond with national boundaries. National boundaries along rivers include the Amur River between China and Russia, the Uruguay River between Uruguay and Argentina, and the Danube River lies along the boundaries of several sets of countries. Mountain ranges and rivers are barriers to some extent, but with modern transportation, travel across these features is not overly difficult. Crossing a mountain range or river might be difficult because it is heavily guarded, but not because of the mountains or river themselves. 7. The symbolism on national flags varies, but many, such as the Southern Cross on Australia’s flag or the four stars on the flag of Comoros that represent the country’s islands, contain natural features. The history of the country is also symbolized on flags. The seven stars on Venezuela’s flag represent the seven provinces when Venezuela became independent. Another common type of symbolism is a desirable characteristic. The white stripes on Liberia’s flag represent moral excellence and the red stripes are for courage. 132 ..

8. Japan is a nation state, so a unitary government should work well. The United States has much more diversity and a strong legacy of states’ rights, so a federal system is better. 9. During 2013 there are no large wars occurring, but there are hundreds of groups around the world using violence to try to overthrow their national government or to change their national government’s policies or to separate into their own country. One example of a group trying to break away is the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) in the Philippines. The MNLF is in conflict with the government and is seeking independence for Mindanao and several other islands in the southern Philippines.

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CHAPTER 12 Economy and Development Economy and Development emphasizes the many difficulties in comparing the wealth, level of economic development, quality of life, and well-being of the countries of the world. Income inequality and the Human Development Index are discussed. The idea that countries’ economies evolve through the primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors is discussed next. The chapter continues by explaining why some countries are richer than others. A long section covering manufacturing patterns, industrial location factors, manufacturing in the United States and Japan, and technological change follows. Next is a discussion of policies that affect the economic system (such as political economy and laissez-faire capitalism) and how many governments try to distribute wealth more evenly. Then transportation and communication infrastructures are explained. Lastly, national trade policies and the formation of the global economy including the roles of multinational corporations, international finance, and regulation of the global economy are examined. A Global and Local box describes Water Privatization around the world and in Bolivia. The Global Financial Crisis starting in 2007 is the topic of a Rapid Change box. Learning Outcomes After carefully studying this chapter, students should be able to: · · · · · · ·

Distinguish gross domestic product from gross national income Identify the factors used to measure human development Describe the major factors that determine where an industry locates Summarize the recent changes in U.S. manufacturing Discuss the role of government in a country’s economic geography Explain why export-oriented trade policies are common today List economic activities that form part of the global economy

Chapter Review •

Introduction ·

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An economy is a system that organizes production and distribution of goods and services in a given area. Governments should promote economic welfare for its people. Economic geography is the study of how people make a living and how the products of their labor are traded.

Analyzing and Comparing Countries’ Economies ·

Countries have many economic labels, such as rich and poor or developed and developing. 134 ..

Gross domestic product (GDP) and gross national income (GNI) are often used to measure wealth. GDP is the total value of all goods and services produced in a country; GNI is GDP plus income from foreign investments minus money paid to foreign investors. Because foreign investing can be substantial, these two measures can be quite different.

These measures undercount subsistence, illegal, and informal economic activity. It is difficult to calculate these statistics in a consistent manner.

Income inequality is another issue. All countries have some people who wealthier than others, but the amount of inequality varies. For example, South Africa’s lowest 60 percent of the population has just 27 percent of the income.

Levels of human development are difficult to assess. The issue is whether human development should just focus on basic economic needs or also include the hard-tomeasure things such as human contentedness and happiness.

The World Bank and the United Nations both provide development statistics, but it is the Human Development Index (HDI) from the U.N. that is most cited. HDI is based on life expectancy at birth, adult literacy rate, years of schooling, and GNI per capita. Norway had the highest HDI and Niger the lowest in the 2012 analysis.

The Gender-Related Development Index focuses on the status of women with most countries having similar rankings for both HDI and GDI. Not surprising, countries in the Middle East have GDI results that are lower than their HDI values.

Much development continues to be derived from the use of natural resources from the environment. Because resource depletion and environmental damage remain important concerns, sustainable development is more and more needed.

Economies and societies have evolved over time. Preindustrial societies had many people in the primary sector, which is extracting resources directly from Earth. Agriculture, fishing, forestry, and mining are main parts of the primary sector. Industrial societies employ many people in the secondary sector, or, in other words, manufacturing. Postindustrial societies develop as many people work in the tertiary, or service, sector.

Sectoral evolution refers to the shift in employment and economic activity from primary to secondary to tertiary that many countries have gone through.

The so-called new economy emphasizes the development of software and the production of computer hardware and other technology that is so important in today’s global economy.

The amount each sector contributes to GDP depends on the country, but usually the primary sector contributes the least and the tertiary sector the most. 135 ..

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Some countries are wealthy even though they lack natural resources because the most important activity is adding value to raw materials and semi-finished products. Most of the world’s poor countries are unable to add much value to their outputs. Decisions on spending, investment, and economic development in general as well as the size of debt burdens affect levels of wealth.

Cartels such as OPEC and the Association of Coffee-Producing Countries (ACPC) have been formed to keep prices of their export commodities high. OPEC has been quite successful, but ACPC not so much.

The Geography of Manufacturing ·

Manufacturing is a common way of adding value. Weber’s ideas emphasize the role of transportation costs and distinguish between material-oriented and market-oriented manufacturing. Other factors in the location of industry include capital, technology, government regulations, political stability, and inertia. Overall, material and labor costs are becoming less relative to the total value of today’s often more complex products.

Manufacturing for developing countries suffers from economic colonialism, small markets, competition from developed countries, and political instability, but has the advantages of natural resources, low-cost labor, and friendly regulations.

Outsourcing is becoming more common as companies seek to lower their overall costs.

When patterns of location factors change, industry will respond as needed. For example, a firm that located somewhere because of low-cost labor will often relocate to somewhere else if relative labor costs change.

Manufacturing in the United States is becoming less important as plants are built overseas and as Americans import more manufactured goods. The recent financial crisis damaged the U.S. auto industry. Japan’s economy has been successful for cultural reasons related to education and cooperation, not because of plentiful natural resources.

Research leading to continued technological advances affects the geography of manufacturing. Technological advances equal high-value manufacturing equals wealth.

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National Economic Policies ·

Political economy refers to the principles that organize the economic system and includes how much the government is involved in the economy. Industries that are owned by the government are said to be nationalized. A capitalist system emphasizes private ownership and management. Laissez-faire capitalism has little government involvement, but when the government plans and regulates the economy, it is called state-directed capitalism.

The more liberal view favors a larger government role; the more conservative view prefers less government and more private enterprise. Crony capitalism occurs when insiders manipulate the economy and government for their own benefit. Corporate executives who enrich themselves at the expense of the company is an example of crony capitalism.

Economic growth within states is aided by nationalism, education, and mobility of the population.

Besides international variations in wealth, wealth will vary within countries. Many countries have developed core areas as well as internal frontier areas. Internal frontiers are areas within states that are undeveloped and contain few people. Northern Canada is an example.

Sometimes, government will favor one region over another, but, in other instances, government tries to equalize wealth by helping poorer areas. Government-owned activities may be located in the lagging region to create jobs.

Development of transportation and communication infrastructures is very important for economic development and is affected by political issues, economic needs, and government regulation. Fast and efficient transportation allows just-in-time manufacturing and has the effect of releasing capital for productive investments.

India and especially China are examples of countries investing in improving their transportation systems.

Countries need well-developed communication infrastructures, especially when access to information quickly is often so essential.

Tourism is growing internationally, and, according to some, is the world’s largest industry. It helps to create jobs and generate economic activity in areas that are popular, but can cause cultural and environmental damage.

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National Trade Policies ·

Countries vary in their level of participation in international trade. Two approaches are the import-substitution method and the export-led method of economic growth. The first approach protects infant and other industries from foreign competition, whereas the second approach encourages foreign investment.

China is a useful example of how trade policies contribute to differences in economic development within the same country. The establishment of special economic zones in coastal regions caused rapid economic growth. Interior regions lag behind, but overall China’s economy has grown rapidly. It is now the leading exporter in the world and its imports are increasingly as well in response in rising incomes.

The United States and other countries hope to increase their sales to China’s 500 million lower-middle-income people.

The Formation of the Global Economy ·

International trade is a significant example of economic globalization. International trade leads to regional specialization, increased productivity, and cultural enrichment. Advances in transportation and communication have fueled a rapid rise in trade.

Foreign direct investment occurs when a foreign enterprise invests and operates in another country. Large multinational or transnational corporations are the result of much foreign direct investment. They are often as big and powerful as countries.

Governments often find multinational corporations difficult to regulate and tax. Offshore profit shifting is one way that corporations operate to avoid paying taxes.

Besides trading of goods, there are substantial international flows of services (tertiary sector), including consulting, financial instruments, medical care, legal services, and security. Just like manufacturing jobs, service jobs are increasingly moved to developing countries. The United States is the leading exporter of services. Movies and TV programs are examples of American exports from the tertiary sector.

Levels of foreign direct investment (FDI) have grown rapidly. FDI is an important way for developing countries to achieve economic growth. Investors seek attractive, profitable places, such as Singapore and South Korea.

Developing countries engage in FDI too, although the United States is the world leader in both sending and receiving FDI. Sometimes FDI leads to exploitation of workers in poorer countries.

Regulation of economic activities, including trade and finances, is challenging.

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GATT, WTO, and other groups regulate trade and other international economic policies, but their policies are often controversial and the cause of disputes. The financial crisis beginning in 2007 is an example of the need for careful regulation of financial activity. With greater economic globalization, the economic problems of one country will spread to other countries.

Developing a fair, equitable, and prosperous global economy is the key objective.

Geography is crucial to understanding all the different environmental and cultural aspects and patterns for humans on this Earth.

Chapter Outline I. Introduction A. An economy 1. Organizes production 2. Organizes distribution 3. Government promotes economic welfare of its people B. Economic geography 1. How people make a living in different places 2. How products are traded II. Analyzing and comparing countries’ economies A. Labels 1. Rich and poor 2. Developed or industrialized, and underdeveloped or developing B. Measures of output and standard of living 1. Gross domestic product a. Total value of all goods and services produced b. Global total was $70 trillion in 2011 2. Gross national income a. GDP and flows of foreign investment income b. Can be larger or smaller than GDP 3. Per capita data are useful 4. Problems a. Subsistence amounts are under-reported or estimated b. Amounts are underestimated when goods are not bought or sold c. Illegal activities are missed C. Income inequality 1. Per capita GNI varies from country to country 2. Income inequality a. Can be large b. United States, Bolivia, Haiti, Angola, South Africa c. Can improve D. Human development 1. Broad issue a. Basic needs 139 ..

b. Include happiness? 2. World Bank statistics 3. Human Development Index a. Important United Nations measure b. Uses life expectancy at birth c. Uses adult literacy rate d. Uses years of schooling e. Uses per capita GNI f. Norway is the highest g. Niger is the lowest 4. Gender Development Index a. Considers the status of women b. Uses the same variables as HDI c. Results for GDI and HDI are often similar d. Middle Eastern countries are an exception with lower GDI values 5. Sustainable development a. Wealth from the natural environment b. Overuse of the natural environment, especially in developing countries c. Sustainability is needed d. Millennium Development Goals E. Sectors and Societies 1. Sectors a. Primary b. Secondary c. Teritary 2. Sectoral evolution a. Preindustrial societies b. Industrial societies c. Postindustrial societies d. Gender differences 3. New economy a. Software and hardware b. Internet 4. Contributions to GDP vary a. Primary and secondary decreasing in many countries b. Tertiary increasing in many countries F. Reasons for differences in wealth 1. Large resource endowment a. Helpful b. Not essential c. Environmental determinists would be surprised 2. Adding value to raw materials a. Key factor b. Manufacturing adds value, but some kinds more than others c. Just selling raw materials does not build much wealth d. Essential to economic development 3. Cartels 140 ..

a. Increase and maintain price b. OPEC successful c. Association of Coffee-Producing Countries less successful 4. Production of commodities like oil employs relatively few workers 5. Debt burdens III. Geography of manufacturing (industrial location) A. Countries want industry to gain value added B. Weber’s ideas 1. Transportation costs a. Material-oriented manufacturing b. Market-oriented manufacturing 2. Labor force 3. Still relevant C. Additional location determinants 1. Transportation is relatively less expensive 2. Value added becoming greater 3. Capital availability 4. Technology 5. Government regulations 6. Political stability 7. Inertia D. Industrial Revolution developed in Europe 1. Gave Europe the lead in manufacturing 2. Gave Europe the lead in technology 3. Encouraged colonialism E. Advantages for rich countries today 1. Technology 2. Educated, skilled workers 3. Stable governments 4. Economic colonialism or imperialism F. Poor countries 1. Problems a. Small markets b. Competing with rich countries’ industries c. Political instability d. Lack of capital e. Low levels of education 2. Advantages a. Raw materials b. Cheap labor c. Friendly government regulations d. Leads to outsourcing G. Location determinants migrate 1. Determinants change their patterns 2. Manufacturing changes in response H. United States 141 ..

1. Remains world’s manufacturing leader 2. Importance of manufacturing declining a. American companies building factories in other countries b. Americans buying more imported goods 3. Deflation because of imports 4. Uncertain future 5. Auto industry illustrates many of the concerns I. Japan 1. Lack of natural resources 2. Much value adding a. Hard-working, cooperative people b. Helpful government 3. Successful in international trade 4. Challenges posed by China and others J. Technology and the future of manufacturing 1. Patterns change 2. Technology becoming even more important 3. Capital flows are key aspects 4. Investment in research is crucial IV. National economic policies A. Political economies 1. Set of principles that organizes economic life 2. Want favorable economic outcomes 3. Different approaches a. Communist system b. Nationalized industries c. Capitalist system d. Private enterprise e. Laissez-faire capitalism f. Liberal political philosophy g. Conservative political philosophy h. State-directed capitalism i. Privatization and its impacts j. Crony capitalism B. Economic patterns within states 1. Want to achieve economic growth a. Nationalism b. Education and training c. Peace d. Single market 2. Internal mobility of workers leads to growth 3. Internal frontier areas a. Undeveloped regions that lag behind b. Parts of the Amazon Basin, Indonesia, Siberia, and others C. Government economic policies 1. Want at least moderate equality within country 142 ..

2. Lack of inequality a. Common b. Centrifugal force 3. Example of Italy 4. Patterns of inequality change 5. Programs to help lagging region a. Enterprise zones b. Establishment of regional agencies c. Locate government facilities d. Subsidies to business e. Tax breaks D. National infrastructures 1. Transportation a. Promote economic development b. Encourages regional specialization c. Opportunity cost d. Allows just-in-time manufacturing e. Releases funds for other useful purposes f. Just-in-time manufacturing g. Lagging maintenance and repairs because of costs h. Expansion in India and China 2. Communication a. As important as transportation b. Information flows c. Remote places becoming connected E. Tourism 1. Maybe the world’s largest industry 2. Advantages a. Often, leading source of foreign exchange b. Jobs 3. Disadvantages a. Cultural damage b. Inflation c. Environmental impacts V. National trade policies A. Variations in the amounts of international trade B. Reasons to be cautious about trade 1. Develop own economy 2. National security 3. Protection of national culture C. Two methods of using trade for economic growth 1. Import-substitution a. Protect domestic infant industries b. Eventually domestic industries grow and can compete c. Economies of scale help d. Keep money within the country 143 ..

e. Inefficient production persists f. Consumers pay more 2. Export-led a. Encourages foreign investment b. Facilitated by global financial markets c. Sell to the international markets d. Free trade e. Laissez-faire approaches f. More successful method 3. United States has large trade deficits 4. China’s policies a. Reduce regional imbalances? b. Special economic zones c. Not very Communist anymore d. Rising incomes e. World’s leading exporter f. Starting to import more g. Overall very successful VI. Formation of the global economy A. Increased international trade 1. More regional specialization 2. Greater productivity 3. Caused by easier transportation and communication 4. Economic globalization a. Development of world markets for some commodities b. Increase international investment flows B. Foreign direct investment 1. Major part of economic globalization 2. Creates multinational or transnational corporations a. Four development stages b. Numerous c. Huge and powerful d. Hard to regulate e. Offshore profit shifting 3. Sought by many developing countries C. International tertiary activities 1. International trade of services 2. Substantial and growing amounts of money 3. United States is the world leader 4. White collar jobs being moved to places with lower costs D. Geography of foreign direct investment 1. FDI much more important than foreign aid 2. Very large international flows of money 3. Many countries including developing countries are involved a. Receiving investments b. Making investments 144 ..

c. United States is the leader 4. FDI in developing countries a. Still more between rich countries b. Countries using the export-led method are more attractive c. Development of economic satellites d. Can hurt local populations E. International regulation of the global economy 1. GATT 2. WTO 3. 2007 financial crisis a. Spread globally b. Demonstrated the need for better international regulation 4. International Labor Organization (ILO) 5. International Standards Organization (ISO) 6. Failures and disagreements F. Geography is crucial 1. Understanding cultures and environments, and their interactions 2. Patterns and flows 3. How people live 4. Making the world a better place for everyone Possible Questions and Topics for Discussions and Exams 1. Explain the difference between foreign direct investment and foreign aid. Which is more important for developing countries? 2. Explain and give several examples of opportunity cost. 3. Describe the characteristics of postindustrial societies. Give some specific examples from your local region. 4. Find and map the locations of manufacturing facilities in your area. Suggest possible reasons for the location pattern. 5. Examine Figures 12-8 and 12-11 and outline the principal highlights and conclusions that can be drawn from this information. 6. Compare and contrast the import-substitution and export-led methods of achieving economic growth. 7. How well is the town or city that contains your college connected to the rest of the world in terms of transportation? What modes are available? If you could authorize one transportation improvement, what would it be and why? 8. Using outside sources as well as the text, compare and contrast the economies of China, India, and Japan. 145 ..

9. Identify the local organization that promotes economic development in your area. What activities are undertaken by the organization? 10. Use the CIA World Factbook to look up the debt burdens of Australia, Canada, and the countries of South America. What conclusions can be drawn from this information? Describe any patterns. 11. What are the factors that determine the tourist potential of a place? What are some of the places that you would most like to visit. What attracts about these places? 12. Compare and contrast international trade statistics for Brazil, Ethiopia, Germany, Indonesia, and Nigeria. Describe the patterns and suggest factors that affect the amounts of imports and exports. Answers for Checkpoints Checkpoint: Is Oil a Blessing or a Curse? HDI results for 2012 for Norway, Russia, Venezuela, Iraq, and Angola show rankings of 1st, 58th, 71st, 131st, and 148th, respectively. Norway’s HDI score is 0.955, whereas Angola’s is 0.508. Norway has a highly educated population, high level of technology, and stable government that helps the country take advantage of its oil wealth. The other countries lack Norway’s conditions. Ethnic tensions, corruption, crony capitalism, and other issues also prevent the other countries from having higher HDI scores despite having oil to export. Checkpoint: Local Industry Ocean Spray Cranberries, Inc., manufactures cranberry juice and other beverage products in Kenosha, Wisconsin. Ocean Spray’s location in Kenosha reflects both material and market orientation because Wisconsin is the leading producer of cranberries in the United States and because Kenosha is centered within a large market region including Chicago and Milwaukee. The plant is close to Interstate 94 to facilitate truck transportation to and from the manufacturing site. Checkpoint: Life Before Highways Google Maps shows a driving time of 13 hours, 56 minutes using Interstate highways. The time increases to 20 hours, 40 minutes when not using any Interstates. Some perishable foods might spoil with the longer time for transportation, some foods might be less fresh too, but many foods would be all right even with the added seven hours. The longer time would not affect computer delivery except for when someone has an immediate need for a computer or computer component. They would not receive the item as fast as they would want. The costs of transportation for food and computers would be greater with the slower route. These costs would be passed on to the consumer.

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Checkpoint: Trading Places Answers to this Checkpoint would vary from household to household. A typical American household will have many items made in China with a few things made in other lessindustrialized places such as India, Thailand, Pakistan, Turkey, Chile, and others. There would a few European products too. My household had some scissors made in Finland. One comparison indicated that an imported t-shirt would retail for about $6 and a comparable American t-shirt would be $18. The variety of origins of products indicates the importance of international trade and reinforces the ideas that companies have to compete globally. Checkpoint: Consumer Activism Most people will make consumer decisions mostly based on quality and cost. Some of those people would consider aspects of fair trade, labor practices, boycotts, and so forth, but they do not because they are not aware or educated about those factors. “Buy American” is easily understood and widely known, so that idea enters into the consumer decisions. A recent national survey by Consumer Reports National Research Center found that 78 percent would buy American if the products were identical and over 60 percent indicated that they pay 10 percent more for an American-made product. Answers to Questions for Review and Discussion 1. The primary sector extracts resources from Earth. The secondary sector transforms raw materials into finished manufactured goods. Everything else (mostly services) is the tertiary sector. Sectoral evolution refers to economies developing from primary to secondary to tertiary. In other terms, this is evolution from preindustrial to industrial to postindustrial. 2. Weber’s industrial location factors were the cost of transporting raw materials, the cost of transporting finished products to the market, and the availability of labor. Additional factors are availability of capital, technology, government regulations, political stability, and inertia. Over time, the importance of transportation has decreased and the amount of value added has increased. 3. Laissez-faire capitalism has minimal government interference in economic activities, whereas state-directed capitalism has the government planning and regulating much of the economy even though private ownership is typical. 4. Developed transportation networks allow regions to specialize in what they produce best and trade for other needed products. A division of labor, lower costs, more efficiency, higher profits, and more development occur when the friction of distance is reduced. 5. Health, education, and income are the three parameters that go into determining the HDI for each country. 6. Both GDP and GNI include the total value of all goods and services produced. GNI adds foreign investment income and subtracts money paid out to foreign investors. If the foreign 147 ..

flows are substantial and unbalanced, then GDP and GNI for the same country will have significant differences. Answers for Thinking Geographically 1. The advantages of selling the national parks to Disney would include a onetime influx of revenue from the sale and reduced ongoing expenses for the federal government. The parks might be operated more efficiently with greater access to capital to make needed improvements. The two major disadvantages are the danger that natural values of the parks would not be preserved and the possibility that the parks would become more expensive to visit. Disney’s resort/theme parks are not very natural. 2. Abundant natural resources, extensive arable land, well-developed communication and transportation systems, advanced technology, stable government, and having a favorable situation for trade are some factors that contribute to success in economic development. Additional factors include having a population that is educated, creative, hardworking, and unified. 3. The most important reason industries leave American towns for lower labor costs. 4. Social, political, and economic conditions in Latin America have stymied progress because these conditions have limited incentives, opportunities, and freedoms for many people. The wealthy have the power and they do not want to share with the lower classes. Too often, corrupt and authoritarian governments have held back progress. 5. Often known as the Gilded Age, economic growth during 1870 to 1910 was the most rapid in all of U.S. history. This period was fueled by opening the Western lands, tapping more resources such as coal, new inventions such as the telephone and electric light, railroad expansion, and many others. This growth was not sustainable development and could not continue. Today, the American economy grows slowly and is more sustainable, but with continued resource depletion and environmental damage, current growth is not sustainable. 6. Foreign ownership of businesses in a developing country suggests that it would be easier to close or move the business, exploit the workers, corrupt the government, and take the profits outside the developing country. On the other hand, many developing countries need investment. 7. Many countries have internal frontiers. These areas contain few people and little economic activity usually because of unfavorable environmental conditions. There is not much that can be done about the cold of the Canadian North or the dryness of noncoastal Algeria and Libya. The government could improve communication and transportation connections to the frontier regions and make other investments, but whether it is worth it or not is a major question. 8. The Human Development Index for each country is based on the four indicators of life expectancy at birth, mean of years of schooling, expected years of schooling, and gross 148 ..

national income. These indicators and the methods used to calculate the HDI are clearly acceptable. The World Bank claims its databases possess information on 2,000 different indicators. If an analyst wanted to add indicators to what the HDI uses, then infant mortality rate and indicators related to finance and the environment would be most logical.

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