INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE MANUAL Peter Papadogiannis University of Guelph—Humber
An Introduction to Psychological Science Third Canadian Edition Mark Krause Daniel Corts Stephen Smith
TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface ........................................................................................................................................... iii Chapter 1
Introducing Psychological Science ..................................................................... 1
Chapter 2
Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research ................................................... 31
Chapter 3
Biological Psychology ..................................................................................... 87
Chapter 4
Sensation and Perception ............................................................................... 148
Chapter 5
Consciousness ................................................................................................ 223
Chapter 6
Learning ......................................................................................................... 282
Chapter 7
Memory .......................................................................................................... 352
Chapter 8
Thought and Language ................................................................................... 408
Chapter 9
Intelligence Testing ........................................................................................ 456
Chapter 10
Lifespan Development ................................................................................... 498
Chapter 11
Motivation and Emotion ................................................................................ 567
Chapter 12
Personality ...................................................................................................... 623
Chapter 13
Social Psychology .......................................................................................... 677
Chapter 14
Health, Stress, and Coping ............................................................................. 732
Chapter 15
Psychological Disorders ................................................................................. 790
Chapter 16
Therapies ........................................................................................................ 852
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INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE MANUAL PREFACE Why this format for the Instructor’s Resource Manual? The Krause/Corts/Smith Instructor’s Resource Manual is delivered in a format created with direct feedback from teachers. We spoke with a range of instructors—from those who have been teaching only a couple of semesters, to those who have been teaching for many years. Overwhelming the response we received around potential changes to an instructor’s manual involved accessibility and ease of use. Many instructors lamented the “telephone books” they have received from various publishers and how these large volumes make it difficult to know what exactly rests inside. Concerns arose around paper usage— printing thousands of these manuals which end up sitting on shelves seems a waste when we are all trying to conserve resources. With these concerns in mind we asked a number of instructors what the ideal instructor’s manual would be like. Here is what they said: Integration of resources—what goes where? We created Lecture Guides for each chapter—using the chapter outlines to integrate the suggested lecture discussions, activities, and other resources directly into the appropriate sections. In addition, we included notes synthesizing the key information for that section. Instructors can easily see the key points of each section of the text, as well as the resources they have available. Click and view—seeing the resources The advantage to reviewing the Instructor’s Resource Manual on your computer is the ability to link to specific sections/documents. Lecture discussions, activities, and other resources are integrated in the Lecture Guide. By clicking on the hyperlinks, you can easily jump to the section/page you want to review (note with the Word document, press CTRL + click). Hotlinks are provided at the send of each section, ► Return to Lecture Guide so you can easily jump back to where you were, or back to the start of the chapter ▲Return to Table of Contents.
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1/ INTRODUCING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲Return to Table of Contents
MODULE 1.1: The Science of Psychology ➢ Lecture Guide: The Science of Psychology (p. 2) ➢ Resources Available (p. 7) MODULE 1.2: How Psychology Became a Science ➢ Lecture Guide: How Psychology Became a Science (p. 8) ➢ Resources Available (p. 18) FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES ➢ Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 18) ➢ Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 25) ➢ APS: Readings from the Association of Psychological Science (p. 27) ➢ Forty Studies that Changed Psychology (p. 28) ➢ Web Resources (p. 28)
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LECTURE GUIDE
I. MODULE 1.1: THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY (Text p. 2) ▲Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology of the scientific method module. o See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand the steps of the scientific method. o The basic model is in Figure 1.1. Basically, scientific theories generate hypotheses. If a hypothesis is confirmed, new hypotheses may stem from in, and the original theory receives added support. If a hypothesis is rejected, the original hypothesis may be modified and retested, or the original theory may be modified or rejected. ✓ Understand the concept of scientific literacy. o Scientific literacy refers to the process of how we think about and understand scientific information (Figure 1.3). Working the model involves answering a set of questions: ▪ What do we know about the phenomenon? ▪ How can science explain it? ▪ Can we critically evaluate the evidence? ▪ Why is this relevant? ✓ Apply the biopsychosocial model to behaviour. o Psychologists examine behaviour through three main perspectives: biological (e.g., brain and genetics), psychological (e.g., thinking, learning, and emotion), and sociocultural (e.g., family, gender, and social context). ✓ Apply the steps in critical thinking. o It is important learn how to use and apply these steps, versus just memorizing them. Remember, critical thinking involves (1) being curious, (2) examining evidence, (3) examining assumptions and biases, (4) avoiding emotional thinking, (5) tolerating ambiguity, and (6) considering alternative viewpoints. ✓ Analyze the use of the term scientific theory. o The term theory is often used interchangeably with opinion in casual talk, but not in science. A scientific theory is an explanation for a broad range of observations, integrating numerous findings into a coherent whole. Over-arching goals of psychology: o Understanding how brain structures and function work to produce different behaviours. o Understanding the nature vs. nurture interaction and its effect on personality and behaviour. o Understanding how past experiences can influence our thoughts and behaviour. o Understanding how group environment and interactions can affect the individual. o Understanding how feelings of control can influence happiness and health. o Understanding that each factor listed can influence both well-being and/or contribute to disorders. 1) Many of students’ assumptions will be challenged in this course. i) Many people envision psychologists in lab coats watching rats run through mazes. ii) Other assumptions are based on “pop” psychology (e.g., self-help gurus on TV, books, etc.).
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2) Psychology is a collection of disciplines, composed of many overlapping fields of study. Two qualities allow us to group these fields into one category: i) Psychology involves the study of behaviour, including perceptions, thoughts, and emotions. ii) Psychologists use the scientific method in their work. 3) Each topic in psychology can be viewed from a biological, cognitive or sociocultural perspective. i) Psychology helps view the world in a different way and helps to understand why other people behave the way they do. 4) Psychology is not just a series of opinions i) Each topic is based upon the hard work of scientists who test their theories in lab settings using the scientific method. Psychology (p. 2) is the scientific study of behaviour, thought, and experience and how they can be affected by physical, mental, social and environmental factors.
The Scientific Method 1) A field of study is considered a science based on the use of the scientific method. i) This involves a dynamic interaction between hypothesis testing and the construction of theories (Figure 1.1). Scientific Method (p. 3) is a way of learning about the world through collecting observations, developing theories to explain them, and using the theories to make predictions. Hypotheses: Making Predictions 1) Scientific thinking and procedures revolve around the concepts of hypothesis and theory. Hypothesis (p. 3) (plural: hypotheses) is a testable prediction about processes that can be observed and measured. 2) A scientific hypothesis must be testable. i) It is either confirmed or rejected; we do not prove hypotheses. ii) For a hypothesis to be testable, it must be falsifiable Falsifiable (p. 3) meaning that the hypothesis is precise enough that it could be proven false. iii) A good scientific hypothesis is stated in precise, and publicly relevant, terms. a) For example, “People become less likely to help a stranger if there are others around,” or “Exercise improves memory ability.” b) Each of those hypotheses can be confirmed or rejected through scientific testing. 3) These rules are often broken by those claiming to be scientific, such as astrologers and psychics. i) Their “hypothesis” or prediction might be something like, “It’s a good time for you to keep quiet or defer important calls or emails.” a) This cannot be tested scientifically. Instead, this is a very general prediction that people can find some truth in by the end of the day. Pseudoscience (p. 4) refers to ideas that are presented as science but do not actually utilize basic principles of scientific thinking or procedure.
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Theories: Explaining Phenomena 1) Hypotheses are a major component of scientific theories. Hypothesis testing eventually leads back to the theory from which it was based (Figure 1.1). Theory (p. 4) is an explanation for a broad range of observations that also generates new hypotheses and integrates numerous findings into a coherent whole. 2) Theories are built from hypotheses that are repeatedly tested and confirmed. i) Good theories eventually become accepted explanations of behaviour. 3) Similar to hypotheses, scientific theories must also be able to be proven false with new evidence. i) Any scientific theory must be falsifiable. a) “All swans are white” is a falsifiable statement. A swan that is not coloured white will falsify it. ii) Theories can be updated with new information, which helps to ensure that science is selfcorrecting and that bad ideas do not last long in science (Figure 1.1). 4) The term theory is often used one way in casual talk and another in science. To be clear: i) Theories are not the same thing as opinions or beliefs. a) “That’s just your theory” is something you might say to a friend, but it’s not something scientists say. ii) All theories are not equally plausible. a) For example, there are a number of theories to explain why people become depressed; some are good theories and others are not-so-good. iii) A measure of a good theory is not the number of people who believe it to be true. a) Only 68% of Canadians believe in the theory of evolution by natural selection, despite the fact that it is the most rigorously tested theory of biological change and diversity. 5) Testing hypotheses and constructing theories are both part of all sciences. i) However, each science has its own approach to subject matter. a) Psychology examines the individual as a product of multiple influences, including biological, psychological, and social factors. The Biopsychosocial Model 1) Thinking and behaving are complex subjects with complex explanations, which is why psychologists use multiple perspectives to study “Why do we behave the way we do?” Biopsychosocial Model (p. 5) is a means of explaining behaviour as a product of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors. 2) The biopsychosocial model is comprised of three main perspectives that psychologist take into account (Figure 1.2). i) Biological influences on our behaviour involve brain structures, chemicals, hormones, and drug effects. a) For example, how do drugs affect behaviour? ii) Psychological influences include how a person’s thoughts, experiences, emotions, and personality constitute his/her psychological makeup. a) For example, how is one’s thoughts affected by language? iii) Sociocultural factors include family, peers, and the social context one is in as well as one’s ethnicity and gender. a) For example, what social situations lead to conformity?
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Building Scientific Literacy 1) A major goal of this textbook is to help students develop the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are central to the field of psychology. Scientific Literacy (p. 6) is the ability to understand, analyze, and apply scientific information. 2) Scientific Literacy has several key components (Figure 1.3). i) Knowledge gathering: asks us what do we know about the concept(s)? a) This starts with our ability to learn new information, such as key terminology. ii) Scientific explanation: asks how can science explain it? a) This includes using the terminology and research to give possible reasons the concept occurred. iii) Critical thinking: asks can we critically evaluate the evidence? a) This includes assessing the accuracy of claims and information. iv) Application: asks why is this relevant? a) There isn’t much use is doing research that doesn’t have any applicability to real-world situations. 3) To help hone these skills, the textbook has sections in each chapter called “Working the Scientific Literacy Model” with a focus on a particular topic (depending on the module) that breaks down the information into each key component. Working the Scientific Literacy Model: How We Learn and Remember 1) The focus of this section is to uncover the four components of the scientific literacy model using the example of students planning for different classes 2) What do we know about effective studying techniques? i) In the first stage of Scientific Literacy Model we gather knowledge about the topic a) Students often use flashcards to remember factual information (e.g., dates, definitions, etc). There are two commonly used study techniques with flashcards (Figure 1.4). b) ‘Massing’ is when students break a large pile of cards into smaller groups and go through each pile separately. Many students prefer this method because it seems easier and less overwhelming. However, spacing is more effective. c) ‘Spacing’ is when students go through the entire pile at once. This leaves a greater space of time between seeing the same card again. 3) How can science explain this difference? i) In the second stage of the Scientific Literacy Model we determine whether the topic has been examined using the scientific method a) Nate Kornell (2009) conducted a study examining both study methods using 20 student volunteers (Figure 1.4). b) For the massing study session, the students studied 20 vocabulary terms in 4 sets of 5 cards each. c) For the spacing study session, they studied another set of 20 terms in one set of 20. d) Regardless of the study method, each word was studied four times. e) A memory test administered after the study session showed that students remembered significantly more words using spacing, even though they reported a preference for the massing technique. 4) Can we critically evaluate alternative explanations? i) In the third stage of the Scientific Literacy Model we examine the limitations of the studies mentioned earlier. a) Spacing seems counterintuitive, so students will most likely continue to use the less effective method of massing. .. 5
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b) This study does not provide evident that spacing works for all kinds of material. This study only used vocab words. Additional studies should apply this research to studying specific topics in sciences and humanities. c) It is not clear how to apply these results to other types of learning, such as problem solving or critical thinking. 5) Why is this finding relevant? i) In the fourth stage of the Scientific Literacy Model we attempt to apply the results to situations outside of the laboratory a) Students should consider the results from studies of mass versus distributed practice when studying b) Evidence suggests that online flashcards may be a helpful learning tool Critical Thinking, Curiosity, and a Dose of Healthy Skepticism 1) Critical thinking is important in research (and scientific literacy), but also in our everyday lives where there are products pushed on us that are 100% organic, to find our soul mates, and “guaranteed” to deliver whatever the claim is. Critical Thinking (p. 6) involves exercising curiosity and skepticism when evaluating the claims of others, and with our own assumptions and beliefs. 2) There is a core set of habits that promote critical thinking i) Be curious. a) Don’t assume the simple answer is correct; for example, researchers have found that allowing the brain to ‘rest’ after a stroke results in worse long-term outcomes. ii) Examine the nature and the source of evidence a) For example, subtle methods will produce better measures of prejudice than obvious ones. iii) Examine assumptions and biases. a) Could the researcher be biased by the source of their funding? iv) Avoid overly emotional thinking a) No matter how you feel results should look, you should draw conclusions from evidence, not from what you want or expect to see. v) Tolerate ambiguity. a) Sometimes the most accurate answer is ‘we don’t know.’ b) It is better to honestly say that you cannot know for sure than to eliminate a possible explanation in order to claim that something is ‘certain.’ vi) Consider alternative viewpoints a) New perspectives and interpretations of evidence can facilitate learning and new findings. 3) Critical thinking is not a philosophy or a faith, and it will not cause everyone to come to the same conclusion. 4) Critical thinkers need to know that sometimes answers can be deemed incorrect. i) It is okay to say a theory is wrong if critical thinking drew you to that conclusion.
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Myths in Mind: Abducted by Aliens! 1) Occasionally we hear claims of alien abductions, ghost sightings, and other paranormal activity. i) However, physical evidence to support such claims is always lacking. ii) How should we evaluate these stories? 2) Scientific and critical thinking involves the use of the principle of parsimony, which means that the simplest of all completing explanations of a phenomenon should be the one we accept. i) Critical thinking means not always assuming the simplest answer is correct; all information should be weighed first. 3) In the case of alien abductions, research suggests there is a simpler answer. i) For example, alien abduction claims usually go up after an alien movie comes out and claims are often similar to what happened in the movie. ii) Those who have claimed to be abducted are usually prone to fantasizing and having false memories (vivid recollection and belief in something that didn’t happen). iii) Abductees are also likely to experience sleep paralysis (waking up and becoming aware of being unable to move—a temporary state that is not unusual) and hallucinations while in the paralyzed state.
RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 1.1 Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ How Do We Know What We Know? ➢ Psychology and Common Sense ➢ Correlations and Causal Relationships Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Psychology’s Goals Applied to Matchmaking ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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II. MODULE 1.2: HOW PSYCHOLOGY BECAME A SCIENCE (Text p. 11) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know key terminology of psychology’s history. o See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand how various philosophical and scientific fields became major influences on psychology. o Determinism, empiricism, and materialism laid the groundwork for the study of human behaviour. Many of the first psychologists were trained in the physical scientists. For example, Fechner designed experiments to demonstrate how the physical and mental worlds interact, which he termed psychophysics. ✓ Apply your knowledge to distinguish among the different specializations in psychology. o If given a description of what a psychologist studies, students should be able to identify the psychologist’s field of study. ✓ Analyze how the philosophical ideas of empiricism and determinism are applied to human behaviour. o Psychology is based on the belief that all knowledge is acquired through the senses (empiricism). All sciences, including psychology, operate on the belief that all events in the world have a physical cause (determinism).
Psychology’s Philosophical and Scientific Origins 1) Science is more than just a body of facts; it’s a philosophy of knowledge that stems from two fundamental beliefs: empiricism and determinism. Empiricism (p. 12) is a philosophical tenet that knowledge comes through experience. Determinism (p. 12) is the belief that all events are governed by lawful, cause-and-effect relationships. 2) You might have heard, “Seeing is believing”; but in science, empiricism means that knowledge about the world is based on careful observation, not common sense or speculation. i) Whatever we see or measure should be observable to anyone else who follows the same methods. ii) Scientific theories must also be rational explanations of how the observations fit together. 3) Determinism is easy to grasp when we think of gravity. If we drop something on earth, it will fall. But do behaviours also follow certain laws of nature or do we control our own actions? i) This debate is often referred to as free will vs. determinism. a) Most people like to think they are in control, but there are some compelling reasons to think our behaviours are determined (discussed later in text). 4) Psychology is both empirical and deterministic, but the field did not become scientific until the late 1800s (in comparison the physics, astronomy, physiology, biology, and chemistry, which took hold around 1600). i) Before that, it was more philosophical in nature. ii) Hippocrates (460–370 BCE) developed a personality classification system based on the body’s humours. a) Different personalities developed from different combinations of the four humours: 1. Sanguine (Blood) o Impulsive, pleasure seeking and charismatic.
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2. Choleric (Yellow bile) o Ambitious, energetic and aggressive. 3. Melancholic (Black bile) o Independent, introverted and perfectionist. 4. Phlegmatic (Phlegm) o Quiet, relaxed and content with life. iii) Galen (127-217) suggested the four humours actually created temperaments (sanguine, choleric, melancholic, and phlegmatic; most people were a combination of more than one temperament) iv) Later Romans thought that foods influenced humours, which then influenced temperaments. a) At the end of the 4th century the Roman Empire collapsed and the Dark Ages began. b) The zeitgeist of the Dark Ages prevented further advances in knowledge about the source of human behaviour. Zeitgeist (p. 13) refers to a general set of beliefs of a particular culture at a specific time in history. v) This helps to explain why certain ideas take off immediately and others go unnoticed for years. 5) The power of zeitgeist can be very strong and there are several ways it prevented psychological science from emerging in the 1600s with the other sciences. i) Mainly, people of that time were not ready to accept a science that could be applied to minds. a) They did not want to believe that human behaviours were the result of predictable laws. Doing so would imply materialism. Materialism (p. 13) is the belief that humans, and other living beings, are composed exclusively of physical matter. ii) Accepting this idea would mean that humans lacked a self-conscious or a self-controlling soul. 6) While most thinking about the mind and behaviour remained philosophical in nature, scientific methods were generating great discoveries for the other sciences (e.g., physics, biology, and physiology). i) This means that the early influences on psychology came from the natural and physical sciences. ii) Figure 1.5 provides a timeline summarizing some major events in the history of psychology. Influences from Physics: Experimenting with the Mind 1) The early experiments in scientific psychology were conducted by physicist and physiologists. i) One of the earliest explorations was made by Gustav Fechner (1801–1887), who worked on sensation and perception. a) His training was in the natural world of moving objects and energy, but he turned to psychology to ask how the physical and mental worlds interact, a term he coined psychophysics. Psychophysics (p. 13) is the study of the relationship between the physical world and the mental representation of that world. 2) Fechner designed experiments to demonstrate how the physical and mental worlds interact (Figure 1.6). i) For example, he would have people hold a 1-pound (.45 kg) weight in one hand and a 5-pound (2.27 kg) weight in the other. Obviously, one would be perceived as heavier than the other. That was not the focus. a) Next, he would add a quarter-pound weight (113 g) to each hand. Oddly enough, the weight in the 1-pound hand was perceived as heavier even though it was the same. .. 9
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ii) Fechner developed an equation to calculate the perceived change in weight and then applied it to changes in brightness, loudness, and other perceptual experiences (see Figure 1.6). Dualism (p. 13) The opposing belief that there are properties of humans that are not material (e.g., a mind; a soul separate from the body). Influences from Evolutionary Theory: The Adaptive Functions of Behaviour 1) Around the same time Fechner was doing his experiments, Charles Darwin (1809–1882) was studying the variety of plants and animals around the world. i) He noticed minor physical differences between animals isolated from each other. a) These differences seemed to fine-tune the animals according to their particular environment, making them better equipped for survival and reproduction. b) Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection was based on these observations, which explains why there is such diversity on Earth. 2) What is the connection between evolution and psychology? i) Darwin recognized that behaviour is shaped by natural selection. a) Many species, including humans, were able to survive and reproduce based on their ability to recognize some expressions as threats and others as submission. b) It also appeared to Darwin that emotional expressions and behaviours were influenced by natural selection. For example, animals were bred for certain characteristics (e.g., sheepdogs for herding). 3) Darwin’s recognition that behaviours, like physical traits, are subject to hereditary and natural selection was a major contribution to psychology and can still be found today in the modern field of evolutionary psychology. Influences from Medicine: Diagnoses and Treatments 1) Medicine contributed greatly to the biological perspective in psychology, as well as the clinical field. Clinical Psychology (p. 15) is the field of psychology that concentrates on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders. 2) One contribution from medical studies was brain localization, which is the idea that certain parts of the brain control specific mental abilities and personality characteristics. There were two competing views of localization in the mid-1800s. i) Phrenology remained popular for more than 100 years thanks to physicians Franz Gall (1758-1828) and Johann Spurzheim (1776-1832). a) They believed the brain consisted of 27 “organs” corresponding to mental traits and dispositions that could be detected by feeling the surface of the skull (Figure 1.7). ii) The second approach to localization was much more grounded in science and entailed the study of brain injuries and how they affect behaviour. a) For example, physician Paul Broca studied a patient named Tan. He was named Tan because that was the only word he could speak even though he could hear and understand perfectly well. Broca found an area in the left side of Tan’s brain that was damaged and claimed to have found where speech was localized in the brain (now called Broca’s area). b) In 1874, Karl Wernicke identified Wernicke’s area. Damage to this area of the brain resulted in patients speaking with unusual or made-up words. Patients who recover later report being able to hear, but that language (even their own) did not make sense.
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3) Additional medical influences worthy of note include that of Franz Mesmer, an 18th-century Austrian physician practising in Paris. i) He believed magnets could redirect the flow of metallic fluids in the body and cure disease and insanity. ii) His claim was rejected by the scientific community, but many of his patients claimed to be cured after being lulled into a trance. a) Modern science attributes these “cures” to the patient’s belief in the treatment, now called psychosomatic medicine. b) However, the medical community was interested in these trances Mesmer used with his patients and named the phenomenon hypnosis. 4) Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was particularly interested in hypnosis and began using it to treat his patients. i) He found hypnosis to cure patients with hysterical paralysis—a condition in which an individual loses feeling and control in a specific body part, despite the lack of any known neurological damage or disease. ii) These experiences lead Freud to develop his famous perspective and technique, psychoanalysis. 5) Freud acknowledged our conscious experiences, however he believed we have an unconscious mind that contained forgotten episodes from early childhood and urges to fulfill sexual and aggressive impulses. i) He suggested that these unconscious urges could exert influence in strange ways, such as restricting the use of a body part (psychosomatic or hysterical paralysis). ii) He believed hypnotizing a person or medicating into a trancelike state (often using cocaine) allowed access into the patient’s unconscious mind where he could determine and correct any urges, he believed were causing problems. 6) Although Freud’s approach lacked in scientific experiments, his work has had a profound impact on the psychological field. Psychoanalysis (p. 16): is a psychological approach that attempts to explain how behaviour and personality are influenced by unconscious processes i) Modern psychologists still make inferences about unconscious mental activity. ii) Freud influenced the use of medical ideas to treat disorders of emotions, thought, and behaviour, an approach known as the medical model. iii) Freud incorporating evolutionary thinking into his work by emphasizing how physiological needs and urges (related to survival and reproduction) can influence our behaviours. 7) Freud placed great emphasis on how early childhood behaviours affect our behaviours as adults—a perspective that comes up many times in this textbook. The Influence of Social Sciences: Measuring and Comparing Humans 1) Another influence in psychology came from the social sciences of economics, sociology, and anthropology. i) These disciplines developed statistical methods for measuring human traits. 2) An early pioneer in measuring perception and behaviour was Sir Francis Galton. i) He was inspired by the work of his cousin, Charles Darwin, on evolution by natural selection. ii) Galton believed that heredity (genetics) explained psychological differences among people. a) For example, Darwin’s cousin was a great naturalist, his uncle was a celebrated physician and writer, and he was reading at the age of 2.
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iii) To Galton, it seemed people did better in business, wealth, etc. because they were better (genetically speaking). a) Galton termed this belief eminence—a combination of ability, morality, and achievement. b) One observation supporting his claim for heredity for eminence was that the closer a relative, the more similar the traits. iv) Galton was one of the first investigators to scientifically examine the question of nature and nurture relationships. Nature and Nurture Relationships (p. 17) is the inquiry into how heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) influence behaviour and mental processes. v) However, Galton often ignored perspectives that didn’t support his claims and beliefs supporting the nature side. a) For example, Galton ignored environmental factors such as family traditions and inheritances left to family or that great people can come from humble beginnings. vi) Galton’s beliefs and biases led him to pursue scientific justification for eugenics. a) Galton promoted social programs that encouraged intelligent, talented individuals to have children, whereas criminals, those with physical or mental disability, and non-White races should be kept out of the English gene pool. 3) However, not all of Galton’s contributions to psychology were negative. i) His greatest contribution is the use of statistical methods to measure and study behaviour and mental processes applied in modern practices. a) For example, biological psychology seeks to explain the underlying genetic, physiological, and brain basis for behaviour. b) Cognitive neuroscience examines relationships between thought and brain function.
The Beginnings of Contemporary Psychology 1) Although Darwin, Fechner and Freud had not created the field of psychology, the field was well on its way to being formed in the late 1800s thanks to their contributions. 2) In the late 1800s the zeitgeist changed so that the study of human behaviour was deemed acceptable; ideas flourished. Structuralism and Functionalism: The Beginnings of Psychology 1) Most agree that German scientist Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) had the first laboratory dedicated to studying human behaviour and was responsible for establishing psychology its own field of science. i) He conducted a number of studies looking at how people sense and perceive. ii) Wundt’s primary research method was introspection, meaning “to look within.” a) Trained volunteers were exposed to a stimulus (e.g., touch a wet dog) and then asked to report in each individual sensation s/he could identify through introspection. b) For example, a person holding a snow ball would likely report sensations of cold, hard, and wet. Wundt believed these basic sensations were the mental “atoms” that combined to form the molecules of experience. iii) Wundt also developed reaction time methods to assess mental effort. a) For example, Wundt had participants watch to mental balls swing into each other to make a clicking sound and measure how long it took them to react to the sound (about 1/8 of a second). b) Wundt concluded that mental activity was not instantaneous, but rather requires a small amount of effort and time to process. .. 12
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2) Wundt’s ideas made their way to the United States through his students, such as Edward Titchener. i) He adopted Wundt’s method of introspection but expanded on his view by organizing a map of the structure of human consciousness. Structuralism (p. 18) was an attempt to analyze conscious experience by breaking it down into basic elements, and to understand how these elements work together. 3) Titchener deliberately chose the word “elements” because he believed our mental experiences were made up of a limited number of sensations, much like the periodic table consists of a limited number of elements in the physical sciences. i) Also similar to the chemical elements, Titchener believed different sensations could form and create complex compounds or experiences. 4) Around the same time Wundt set up his laboratory, an American physician named William James (1842-1910) set out to write the first textbook in psychology, The Principles of Psychology. i) James was influenced by Darwin’s evolutionary principles and sought to explain how our thoughts and actions help us adapt to our environment. a) This is in contrast to structuralism, which looks for permanent, unchanging elements of thought. ii) Functionalism can be found today in the field of evolutionary psychology. Functionalism (p. 18) is the study of the purpose and function of behaviour and conscious experience. The Rise of Behaviourism 1) In the early 20th century, biologists became interested in how organisms learn to anticipate their bodily functions. 2) An American psychologist, Edwin Twitmyer (1873–1943), took on this work in studying reflexes. i) He had a machine that would tap volunteers’ patellar tendon just below the kneecap, causing a kicking reflex. ii) To make sure the volunteers weren’t kicking because they were startled by the machine, he would ring a bell just before the machine went off so they knew it was coming. iii) Then one day, the machine broke and only the bell rang, but the volunteer’s leg kicked anyway! a) Because the bell predicted the hammer, the ringing soon had the same effect, a process now called classical conditioning. 3) However, it would take some time before fellow psychologists recognized this finding and so credit for discovering classical conditioning usually goes to a Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). i) His Nobel Prize-winning research showed that dogs could learn when food was paired with the sound of a tone. ii) The study of conditioning soon became the focus of behaviourism. Behaviourism (p. 19) An approach that dominated the first half of the 20th century of North American psychology and had a singular focus on studying only observable behaviour, with little to no reference to mental events or instincts as possible influences on behaviour. 4) John B. Watson (1878–1958) is credited for the rise of behaviourism in North America. i) He believed that only observable changes in the environment and behaviour were appropriate for scientific study. a) He believed internal events (e.g., thoughts) were much too subjective.
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ii) He believed that all behaviour could ultimately be explained through conditioning, regardless of genetics. a) He believed he could use conditioning to create any kind of personality if given enough control over the environment. iii) After being dismissed from his university job for an indiscretion involving a female graduate student, he went into advertising, applying behaviourist principles. a) At the time, advertisements only educated the consumer about the product. b) Watson’s company developed ads to form associations between a product’s brand image and positive emotions, much like Pavlov got the dogs to salivate. c) Modern advertisers still use these same principles. Radical Behaviourism (p. 20) As early as 1905, Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) showed that the frequency of behaviour could be changed based on if the consequences were positive or “satisfactory”. 5) B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) was another behaviourist who had considerable influence over American psychology for decades. i) Similar to Watson, Skinner believed only observable behaviours should be studied. ii) Skinner worked mainly with animals in chambers examining behaviours associated with rewards and punishments. Animals would get a reward (usually food) for pressing a lever. a) Skinner could vary when the reward was given, and animals would learn the pattern. iii) Skinner believed this work related to human behaviours that were also influenced by our drives for rewards and our motivations to avoid punishment. 6) Watson’s and Skinner’s concept of behaviourism was met with resistance by some psychologists due to free will. i) If our behaviour is controlled by external rewards, then this leaves little room for free will. ii) Those who disagree with this view believe humans can rise about their instinctive, reward-based motivations. Social and Cultural Influences 1) Behaviourist and cognitive psychology focused on responses to stimuli. i) These approaches ignore the fact that we sometimes have to respond to stimuli in front of people. a) This notion had been studied in the 1800s by Norman Triplett (1861–1931) who conducted one of the first formal experiments on social influences. ii) Triplett observed that cyclists ride faster in the presence of other people than when riding alone. iii) Triplett published the first social psychology research in 1898 and a few social psychology textbooks in 1908. Social psychology (p. 21) is the study of the influence of other people on our behaviour. 2) However, this field did not really take off until the 1940s, with the events in Nazi-controlled Germany. i) German psychologists fled to the United States, many having a gestalt perspective, and mixed with the mostly behaviourist psychologists. ii) Research on social influences was also the result of collaboration with sociologists (study of populations of humans) and psychologists (who were studying individuals at the time). a) They worked together to understand how normal individuals could be transformed into brutal prison camp guards, how propaganda affects people, and how society might address issues of prejudice.
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iii) However, it was noted that not everyone responded to social situations in the same way, which gave rise to personality psychology (p. 21), the study of how different personality characteristics can influence how we think and act. 3) Kurt Lewin (1890–1947) is often credited with founding modern social psychology and argued that social and personality factors interact with each other i) Lewin was originally trained in Gestalt psychology ii) Lewin found that behaviour is a function of the individual and the environment or B = f{I,E}. a) In other words, all behaviours could be predicted and explained through understanding how an individual (with specific set of traits) would respond in a context that involved a specific set of conditions. b) For example, let’s say one person is very quiet and reserved and other person is very talkative and outgoing. Now put them in a social situation, such as a wedding and funeral. How can we expect them to act? iii) Given the differences between individuals and situations, we can expect different behaviours, which was essentially how Lewin viewed social psychology. 4) On a related note, but broader scale, cross-cultural psychology, is the field that draws comparisons about individual and group behaviour among cultures. i) Many studies compare North Americans to individuals in non-Western countries such as China or Japan a) They also study what happens when people from other cultures immigrate to North America. b) How do people respond from being pulled in different directions by history and current country of residence? c) Most recently, brain imaging techniques have been used to see how cultural experience are embedded in our brain tissue. 5) Trends that emerged during the formative years of psychology laid the foundation for the modern perspectives and theories we see today. The Cognitive Revolution 1) While behaviourism dominated the first half of the 20th century in North America, Europeans focused on thought and studies of the mind. i) Therefore, Europeans are credited with forming cognitive psychology, with early studies focusing on memory. 2) The German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) focused his research on remembering and forgetting. i) His results produced “forgetting curves”, which showed that most of what a person learns is forgotten rapidly, but then forgetting slows to a crawl. a) This forgetting curve is still used in psychology today as well as some of his research methods. 3) British psychologist Frederick Bartlett (1886–1969) illustrated that memory is an interpretive process that involves cultural knowledge. i) For example, the work showed that after viewing a movie we are more likely to remember the general storyline that what exact words in the script or what the characters were wearing. a) In addition, what we deem important enough to remember is shaped by our cultural knowledge. 4) Another precursor to cognitive psychology, Gestalt psychology, emerged in the early to mid-1900s. Gestalt Psychology (p. 22) is an approach emphasizing that psychologists need to focus on the whole of perception and experience, rather than its parts (Figure 1.8).
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5) Gestalt psychology contrasted the goal of structuralists to break experiences down into smaller parts. 6) Gestalt psychologists argued that much of our thinking and experiences occur at a higher, more organized, level than Wundt (structuralism) emphasized. i) For example, Gestaltists argued that looking at experience as individual pieces made as much sense as studying water by looking at hydrogen and oxygen atoms. 7) Around the time humanistic psychology was gaining interests, the scientific study of cognition was becoming an accepted practice (1950s). i) The invention of the computer gave scientist something to liken them mind to, “The software of the brain). ii) Linguists also argued that grammar and vocabulary were much too complex to be explained by the behaviourist perspective. iii) However, it wasn’t until 1968 that these areas of research were given the name “cognitive psychology” by Ulrich Neisser (born 1928). Cognitive psychology (p. 22) is a modern perspective that focuses on mental processes, such as memory, thinking, and language. Humanistic Psychology Emerges 1) In the 1950s, psychologists began to break away from perspectives that claimed humans did not have free will (e.g., behaviourism and psychoanalysis), which spurred the creation of humanistic psychology. i) This perspective sought to understand the meaning of personal experience. ii) In contrast to behaviourism, this perspective believed humans had free will. iii) Psychoanalysis focused on illnesses of the body, whereas humanism focused on people attaining the best self they could be. Humanistic Psychology (p. 23) focuses on the unique aspects of each individual human, each person’s freedom to act, his or her rational thought, and the belief that humans are fundamentally different from animals. 2) Two of the major founders of this perspective were Carl Rogers (1902–1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908–1970). i) Both focused on the positive aspects of humanity and the factors that lead to a productive and fulfilling life instead of labeling problems and disorders. ii) They believed humans are motivated to develop a sense of self and to personally grow and fulfill their potential, and this was the focus of their treatments. The Brain and Behaviour 1) Human abilities were also being studied by neurologists, surgeons and brain scientists. 2) Canadian Donald Hebb studied how brain cells changed during learning. i) He observed that when one brain cell consistently stimulates another physical changes occur to strengthen that relationship (Hebb’s Law). a) Showed that activities that occur at the cellular level can be studied (in this case memory) b) Showed that behaviour can be studied on multiple levels, ranging from the neuron to the entire brain.
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3) Wilder Penfield (1891–1976) worked at the Montreal Neurological Institute and worked with Herbert Jasper to develop a surgical procedure to help people with epilepsy. i) The procedure involved first mapping out the patient’s brain tissue to avoid damaging areas involved with important functions like language a) Penfield would electrically stimulate areas and ask for the sensation experienced after each burst of electricity. ii) When he combined the results from research on several patients, Penfield was able to produce precise maps of sensory and motor cortices. iii) Penfield showed that subjective experiences were represented in the brain, which implied that a simple stimulus-response model put forth by behaviourists was not a complete representation of our mental world. Emerging Themes in Psychology The field of psychology is always expanding with new topics, and new research tools. 1) The Psychology of Woman i) Not all of the early year pioneers were old white bearded men. Female psychologists did exist in the early history of the field. ii) Anna Freud (1895–1982) & Karen Horney (1885–1952) made groundbreaking contributions to understanding personality. iii) Researchers like Sandra Bem examined how gender power differences were due to sexism in politics, business, academia, and home life. They also looked at how these stereotypes affect women’s belief in their own abilities. iv) Shelly Taylor researched gender differences in response to stress. 2) Comparing Cultures i) Researchers have studied how human behaviour differs across different cultures. ii) Cross-cultural psychology draws comparisons about individual and group behaviour among cultures. iii) Typically, studies compare responses of North American participants to those of non-Western countries (e.g., China or Japan), or, in some cases, 1st or 2nd generation Canadians or Americans. iv) Similar groups are also being studied using brain imaging. 3) The Neuroimaging Explosion i) Detecting brain activity has been possible since the late 1920s; however, the use of brain imaging to study behaviour only became more common in the early 1990s with the development of the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). ii) This field combined the different elements of cognitive psychology and biopsychology, known now as Cognitive Neuroscicence. iii) fMRIs are now being used widely by researchers to incorporate brain imaging into their studies (e.g., Social psychologists using imaging to study behaviours such as racism to relationships are known as social neuroscience.) 4) The Search for the Positive i) Positive psychology is a field that promotes human strengths and potentials to help individuals see good in their lives through self-acceptance and improved social relationships. ii) Positivity has been linked to improvements in cognitive abilities and changes in neural pathways. iii) Positive psychology can be found in many areas of psychology study from motivation to applied techniques for coping with stress and psychological disorders.
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5) Psychology in the Real World i) Not all psychology is limited to the laboratory. ii) Applied Psychology has been known to take place in schools, workplace, military, etc. iii) Many aspects of our society and life are affected by psychological science.
RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 1.2 Lecture Launchers ➢ Women in the History of Psychology in America ➢ Biographical Profiles ➢ Scandal in Psychology—John Watson’s Fall from the Throne ➢ There Are Other Psychologies in the World ➢ Psychologists and Prescription Privileges ▲ Return to Table of Contents
▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSIONS TOPICS ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
How Do We Know What We Know? Psychology and Common Sense Correlations and Causal Relationships Women in the History of Psychology in America Biographical Profiles Scandal in Psychology—John Watson’s Fall from the Throne There Are Other Psychologies in the World Psychologists and Prescription Privileges
▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: How Do We Know What We Know? How do you know that: John A. MacDonald was the first Prime Minister of Canada? You really have a stomach? Dependence on observation is one of the hallmarks of science, but it is not the only way humans acquire knowledge. There are, in fact, many questions that cannot be answered by scientific methods and for which other means of acquiring knowledge are more appropriate. Begin by asking the following questions. • • • • • •
How do you know that John A. MacDonald was the first prime minister of Canada? How do you know that you really have a stomach? What makes you so sure the sun will rise tomorrow? How do you know the color of the shirt I’m wearing? How can you be sure that there aren’t little creatures inside computers that are responsible for the things computers do? Are you sure you don’t have a big hole in the back of your pants or skirt? .. 18
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Authority is one source of knowledge. We know, or believe, that MacDonald was the first Prime Minister because we trust the authority of historians and history books. During the centuries that Western civilization was dominated by the Church, the authority of holy writings was believed to be the only dependable way of knowing. Reason was considered by Renaissance scholars to be the most reliable source of knowledge. If you say, “All humans have stomachs; I am human; therefore, I have a stomach,” you have used deductive reasoning. If you say, “The sun rose today, yesterday, the day before yesterday, and for as long as I or anyone can remember; therefore, it will rise tomorrow,” you are using inductive reasoning. Observation is still another way of acquiring knowledge. You know the color of my shirt because you can see the shirt. You assume that you do not have a hole in the posterior of your clothing because you have not observed stares and giggles. One might use any of these ways of knowing to deny the existence of little creatures in computers. People you perceive to be authorities about computer innards may have told you how they work. You may have reasoned that creatures need nourishment and there is no food supply inside microprocessors. Or you may have looked inside a computer and failed to see little creatures waiting to solve your problems. But there is no way one can absolutely refute the computer-creature hypothesis; so if you want to keep your computer running, maybe you should find out what the little creatures eat. All these ways of knowing—authority, reason, and observation—are used by scientists, but observation must be the basis for knowledge that is scientific. Science puts greater emphasis on evidence provided by the senses than on authority of others or reasoning. Science relies on empirical evidence. An extension of this activity might involve a discussion of some of the following contradictory beliefs: Birds of a feather flock together ...................................................Opposites attract Absence makes the heart grow fonder .............................. Out of sight, out of mind You can’t teach an old dog new tricks .................................. Never too old to learn Often students will have anecdotal stories about each belief. Ask students to think about their beliefs from an empirical point of view. You may want to facilitate discussion by providing students with the following questions: Can you rely on one person’s account to believe in a phenomenon? How might each set of beliefs be tested empirically? When will you “believe” in a certain phenomenon? ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture Launcher: Psychology and Common Sense A common refrain voiced by laypeople and scientists is that most, if not all, of behavioural science “is just common sense.” Introductory psychology students are particularly apt to make this claim, given that much of their prior exposure to psychology is likely to have been very common-sensical (though perhaps not well-established) claims by a variety of “professionals” on the talk-show circuit. In a nutshell, it’s difficult to counter the “common-sense” stigma when so much of behaviour seems to be explainable at an intuitive surface level. .. 19
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Mark Leary shares some suggestions for discussing this issue with your students. It is true that the subject matter of psychology is much more familiar to most people than is the subject matter of subatomic physics or gastroendocrinological biology; we see behaviour all around us, but rarely stumble over a gluon. Psychology would be an odd science of thought and behaviour if it only considered thoughts and behaviours completely foreign to people’s experiences, or if its findings always ran counter to most people’s beliefs. But neither greater visibility of subject matter nor popular consensus guarantees greater understanding. Many people believed whole-heartedly in flat earths and cheese moons, only to find their common-sense views dismantled in the face of scientific evidence. So, too, with psychology. Although most people would like to believe that large rewards produce greater liking for a boring task, that the behaviour of men and women is determined by their biology, or that absence makes the heart grow fonder, researchers studying cognitive dissonance, sex-role stereotypes, and close relationships would be happy to share their findings to the contrary. In short, the popularity of a common-sense belief may not always support the weight of scientific evidence. More importantly, psychologists (like all scientists) are primarily engaged in the task of explaining behaviour, rather than merely cataloging it. The difference between theory and description—”why” versus “what”—echoes the difference between science and common sense. Common sense certainly helps describe what takes place in behaviour, but it doesn’t compel us to understand why it takes place. The development of theory in understanding behaviour sets science apart from everyday, common sense accounts. Reference: Leary, M. (1995). Behavioural Research Methods (2nd ed., pp. 24–25). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: Correlations and Causal Relationships There seems to be a general human tendency to attribute causality to correlated events. The lay person, like the psychologist, often imposes patterns of (apparently) lawful regularity on observed events. Given what is perceived as an “effect,” we search for causes. Events are more likely to be singled out for attention and analysis when they are unusual, anomalous, and discontinuous with our prior experience. When such events are natural phenomena, they are typically relegated to the status of “cause” and then the search is directed toward their after-effects. One of the most persistent instances in which pseudo-correlations of behaviour consequences are reported to flow from salient natural and human events is the “baby boom” syndrome. For example, the allegation of increased births nine months after a major power blackout in New York is well known. So too, is the baby boom in Israel nine months after their war with Egypt. Invariably, when base rate data are used to compare the assumed “increase in births,” the effect vanishes. That is, when seasonal fluctuations in births are taken into account, there is no unusual effect left to relate to the nine-months-earlier unusual event. But that does not deter the correlation seekers. Three University of North Carolina sociologists attributed a 1955 drop in Southern birth rates to the Supreme Court’s 1954 school desegregation decision (Rindfuss, Reed, & St. John, 1978). They theorized that uncertain prospects for the future “demoralize” prospective parents (both whites and, to a lesser extent, blacks), causing them to postpone any children they might otherwise have conceived in the three- or four-month period immediately following the decision. The subsequent recovery in the birth rate is attributed to the realization that desegregation would in fact proceed slowly. .. 20
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And on it goes. Less than a week after Chicago’s “Blizzard of ’79,” at least one newspaper columnist was speculating on the possibility of a baby boom in the coming autumn (Kup’s column, Chicago SunTimes, January 17, 1979, p. 52). Another example of the temptation to confuse correlation with a causal connection is in the area of extramarital sexual affairs. Biracree (1984) found that for men there was an almost perfect positive correlation between annual income and the percentage of men who had been unfaithful to their wives. This relationship was not true for married women. If this finding is valid, what are the possible explanations for these relationships? Is there any strong evidence to support any of these explanations, or are they, at the moment, speculations? References: Biracree, T. (1984). How you rate: Men and How you rate: Women. New York: Dell. Rindfuss, R. R., Reed, J. S., & St. John, C. A. (1978). A fertility reaction to a historical event: Southern white birthrates and the 1954 desegregation ruling. Science, 201, 178-180. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: Women in the History of Psychology in America Psychology recently has renewed its appreciation of diversity in human behaviour. Part of that diversity includes celebrating the accomplishments and contributions of women to the field of psychology. Share with your students the stories of some key figures from psychology’s history: Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) attended Harvard University and worked with William James, but because Harvard did not officially admit women into graduate programs, Calkins never received a Ph.D. from Harvard. At best, Harvard offered her the degree from its sister school Radcliffe. She refused, stating that she ought to be given the degree from the institution where she earned it. Calkins collaborated with Edmund Sanford from neighboring Clark University on a variety of research projects. At that time, women with advanced degrees or training primarily received faculty positions at female colleges, such as Wellesley and Vassar Colleges. Calkins received a position at Wellesley College in 1887, and established a prolific laboratory in 1891 producing short-term memory research (Madigan & O’Hara, 1992). In 1906, Calkins was the first woman elected President of the American Psychological Association (APA). Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939) was the first person, male or female, to receive a Ph.D. from Edward B. Titchener in 1884, the leading structuralist in American experimental psychology at that time (Goodwin, 1999). She was also the first female to receive a Ph.D. in the United States. Interestingly, Washburn never believed Titchener taught her much, as she became a leading comparative psychologist at Vassar College. She produced her most influential work in The Animal Mind in 1908, and in 1921, she was elected the second woman president of APA. She suffered a cerebral hemorrhage in 1937, and died from its complications in 1939 (Scarborough & Furumoto, 1987). Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847–1930) was a mathematician who developed an interest in visual perception and made great contributions to theories of color vision (Furumoto, 1992). She married a math professor from Columbia University, and she occasionally taught adjunct courses there. However, she was rarely paid. Like Calkins, she did not receive her Ph.D. although she had completed all of the required work. Johns Hopkins University finally granted her the degree shortly before her death. She accepted the degree in person.
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At the turn of the 20th century, one popular belief held that there was more variability in intelligence in men than in women. One implication of this belief was that even the brightest of women would never be as bright or even “outshine” the brightest of men. African American psychologist Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886–1939) challenged these beliefs with her research, which showed no evidence that the distribution of intelligence test scores differed between men and women (Hollingworth, 1914). She also challenged the popular belief that women’s intellectual abilities were affected by their menstrual cycles, again finding no statistical evidence to support such claims (Silverman, 1992). Hollingworth’s contributions are often seen as the seedlings for the formal study of the psychology of women. African American psychologist Mamie Phipps Clark (1917–1983) received her bachelor’s and master’s degrees from Howard University, and her Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1944. She is well known for her studies of racial differences in racial identity and self-concept (Clark & Clark, 1950). In the 1940s and 1950s racial segregation was becoming institutionalized, and Clark became interested in the effects of segregation on African American children. She conducted a series of studies in which African American and white children were shown black and white dolls. The children were first asked to pick the doll they most looked like, establishing a measure of racial identity. Then, children were asked which doll they would most like to play with. Both white and African American children preferred the white doll, suggesting for both races of children a preference and perhaps more value on being white. Clark’s work was considered and noted in the Supreme Court’s 1954 ruling in Brown v. Board of Education desegregation case, which ruled that public school segregation was unconstitutional. References: Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. P. (1950). Emotional factors in racial identification and preference in Negro children. Journal of Negro Education, 19, 341–350. Furumoto, L. (1992). Joining separate spheres: Christine Ladd-Franklin, woman-scientist. American Psychologist, 47, 175–182. Furumoto, L., & Scarborough, E. (1992). Placing women in the history of psychology: The first American women psychologists. In J. S. Bohan (Ed.) Seldom Seen, Rarely Heard (pp. 337–353). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Goodwin, C. J. (1999). A History of Modern Psychology. New York: Wiley. Hollingworth, L. S. (1914). Variability as related to sex differences in achievement. American Journal of Sociology, 19, 510–530. Madigan, S., & O’Hara, R. (1992). Short-term memory at the turn of the century. American Psychologist, 47, 107–174. Scarborough, E., & Furumoto, L. (1987). Untold Lives: The First Generation of American Women Psychologists. New York: Columbia University Press. Silverman, L. K. (1992). Leta Stetter Hollingworth: Champion of the psychology of women and gifted children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 20–27. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: Biographical Profiles Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) Born in Neckarau, Germany, Wilhelm Wundt was the fourth child of a Lutheran minister. Despite coming from a family that boasted numerous scholars, scientists, and physicians, Wundt initially was not a good student. After he dropped out of one high school, a teacher suggested that a reasonable goal for Wundt would be a career in the postal service. Wundt’s scholastic abilities improved, however, and in 1855 he graduated at the top of his class in medical school. Wundt then went to Berlin to study .. 22
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physiology with Johannes Müller, and he subsequently decided to become an experimental physiologist himself. Wundt then returned to the University of Heidelberg, where he worked as an assistant for Herman von Helmholtz. It was at Heidelberg that Wundt taught his first course in psychology. The year was 1862. In 1879, at the University of Leipzig, where he held a chair in philosophy, Wundt established the Institute for Experimental Psychology, the first laboratory whose formal purpose was the scientific investigation of the human mind. Wundt is one of the most prolific contributors to the field of psychology. It is estimated that between the years of 1853 and 1920, Wundt wrote 53,735 pages of text. Wundt was not only a voracious writer; he was also responsible for training numerous researchers, some of whom, such as Edward Titchener, brought versions of Wundt’s psychology to America. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) Sigmund Freud was born in Pribor, Czechoslovakia, in 1856. Although Freud was a gifted student, it took him eight years to finish his medical degree at the University of Vienna, partly because he was interested in so many topics. Freud first pursued a career as a neurologist, but financial concerns forced him into general medical practice. In cooperation with his friend Joseph Breuer, Freud began to treat hysterical women. This is unusual, because at the time there was no known cure for hysteria, which is now known as a conversion disorder. Through trial and error and feedback from their clients, Breuer and Freud developed the technique known as psychoanalysis. Its fundamental rule is honesty; clients must relay all thoughts and feelings uncensored to the analyst. Clients then follow their stream of thought wherever it may lead, a process known as free association. In the course of free association, clients often uncover traumatic events in the past, and, upon reliving these events, often experience relief from their symptoms. Freud’s first major work, The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), detailed the process of dream interpretation, which he felt was the “royal road to the unconscious.” Although it took six years to sell the first 600 copies printed, this work was reprinted eight times during Freud’s lifetime. Although the technique of psychoanalysis is perhaps Freud’s most important legacy, he made many other substantial contributions to psychology. These include the recognition of the importance of sexuality and unconscious processes, a fully developed system of personality, and an appreciation for the conflict between individual desires and the constraints of society. His work has influenced so many aspects of our thinking that he is often not given full credit for the development of his ideas. Freud’s many detractors are quick to point out that his theories are not based on empirical research. While this is true, just because they lack empirical evidence does not mean that they are wrong, only that they are less likely to be right. Because of the breadth of his intellectual contributions, he remains the most cited psychologist in Psychology and Life, 16th Edition, and most comparable texts. William James (1842–1910) William James, often considered the father of American psychology, was born in New York City, but spent much of his childhood traveling between the United States and Europe, where he attended several private schools. James’ interest in such varied fields as philosophy, religion, and science were cultivated at home in an enriched environment shared with his brother Henry James, the famous author. William James struggled to find a vocation that mated his various interests, trying his hand at art (his paintings have appeared on the cover of recent editions of American Psychologist), chemistry, and, finally, medicine. He received his M.D. from Harvard in 1868. In 1872, James began teaching physiology at Harvard but was preoccupied by his ongoing and deep interest in such philosophical issues as free will and determinism. Though James considered himself a temporary dabbler in the discipline of psychology, his two-volume textbook, Principles of Psychology (1890), stood as the field’s definitive textbook through the first half of this century. It is still
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considered one of the best-written texts on psychology and a source of many original ideas. James’ contributions to psychology include the notion of a stream of consciousness, the importance of habit and instinct, a complex theory of the self, a theory of emotion, and opening the boundaries of psychology to include topics such as religious beliefs. B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born and raised in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania and received a bachelor’s degree in English from Hamilton College in New York. Skinner enrolled in the experimental psychology program at Harvard and studied under E.G. Boring, earning his masters degree in 1930 and Ph.D. in 1931. In 1936, he began his academic career at the University of Minnesota; then, in 1945, he took a position as chairman of the psychology department at Indiana University. In 1948, however, Harvard offered him a position, which he accepted, and he remained there for the rest of his life. Skinner died of leukemia in 1990. While Skinner was at Harvard, he was heavily influenced by the work of John B. Watson. From this influence, Skinner dedicated his life’s work to studying the relationship between reinforcement and observable behaviour. Throughout his career, he insisted that psychology be a scientific, empirically driven discipline. He is considered by many to be one of the most important figures in twentieth century psychology, and his contribution to both clinical and experimental psychology is evident in the work of psychologists who followed his lead, and to this day, extend his work in associative learning research. The principles of reinforcement that he outlined were built on by clinical psychologists and applied to the conceptualization and treatment of mental disorders. The application of behaviourism to clinical psychology was not short-lived, as empirically supported treatments for anxiety disorders (e.g., panic disorder, simple phobia) and child conduct problems are based upon behavioural principles. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: Scandal in Psychology—John Watson’s Fall from the Throne John B. Watson was a very famous man in his day—something many students never realize, as he usually gets only a few short paragraphs in introductory psychology texts. In fact, at the end of his career in psychology he was an esteemed professor at the world-renowned Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. At one time, he was recognized as an authority on caring for babies, much as Dr. Spock and Dr. Brazelton would later become household words. He was married, a father, and respected in his field. All of that ended when he was fired over his affair with a beautiful and intelligent graduate student, Rosalie Rayner. Mary Watson, the wronged wife, insisted that the affair stop, as did Watson’s employers. But neither Watson nor Rayner wanted the affair to end, and finally Johns Hopkins insisted that he resign. The subsequent divorce from Mary was front page news at the time. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: There Are Other Psychologies in the World While introductory psychology books have enough to cover without taking on the whole world, it is important to remember that Western Psychology is not the only game in town. All cultures have implicit .. 24
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or explicit psychological theories, theories of how the mind works, that have been developing for thousands of years. Some, like Mayan theories, were almost completely lost after their cultures were all but wiped out by European invaders. Others, like Tibetan Abhidharma, are written down, have continued to develop, and have found overlap with Western psychological traditions. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: Psychologists and Prescription Privileges During discussions about the various mental health professions, I usually mention the great debate regarding prescription privileges for psychologists. Students are fascinated by the political and public dissention caused by this movement. They tend to understand the desire of the psychiatrists to “protect their turf,” yet they also understand how prescription privileges could improve psychological services to clients. ▲ Return to Table of Contents ▼ CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES ➢ Psychology’s Goals Applied to Matchmaking ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Activity: Psychology’s Goals Applied to Matchmaking (This class exercise was adapted from an “Experience Break,” originally included in Psychology and Life, 15th edition, by Philip Zimbardo and Richard Gerrig.) Based only on the descriptions provided in the grid below, ask your class to guess which pairs of the people listed below belong together. There is no right or wrong answer. Tell them to go with their instincts. Now lead your class in a discussion of their matchmaking decisions with respect to the goals of psychology: •
•
•
How would they describe the behaviours they engaged in while trying to settle on appropriate matches? Did they read all the descriptions before they began? Did they find the decisions easy to make? Did they change their mind several times? How would they explain their behaviour? What rules do they believe they used to match up the couples? Were they most concerned about age? About occupations? About leisure activities? Did they use some combination of all three descriptions? What inferences did they make in their decisions, such as perceived gender? What does the factor(s) that they used most say about them personally and their selection of a partner? How might their explanation allow them to predict which real-world relationships would succeed?
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•
•
• •
Suppose that based on their day-to-day observations of relationships, they focused on occupations while doing their matchmaking. Are they willing to generalize from the predictions they made on this task to predictions in the real world? Can they begin to imagine the types of research they might carry out to test those predictions? Does their explanation allow them to control or improve their own relationship-seeking behaviour or to give better advice to others? Have they learned from this exercise what matters most to them in a relationship? What more would they like to learn from research? Could they learn something that would allow them to improve the quality of their own or other people’s lives? If their research reveals the factors that help determine which relationships, in general, will endure, they should be able to improve the quality of people’s lives.
David Age: 21 Job: Car mechanic Enjoys: Gourmet food
Dana Age: 23 Job: Advertising executive Enjoys: Movies
Chris Age: 29 Job: Dog groomer Enjoys: Gardening
Anita Age: 35 Job: Lawyer Enjoys: Roller coasters
Sandy Age: 54 Job: Flight attendant Enjoys: Hang gliding
Karen Age: 18 Job: Sales clerk Enjoys: Art museums
Jamie Age: 20 Job: Secretary Enjoys: Football
Pat Age: 56 Job: Pediatrician Enjoys: Opera
Tony Age: 37 Job: College professor Enjoys: Comic books
Rahul Age: 22 Job: Store manager Enjoys: Scuba diving
◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▲ Return to Table of Contents ▼ APS: READINGS FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Current Directions in Introductory Psychology, Second Edition (0-13-714350-8) Edited by Abigail A. Baird, with Michele M. Tugade and Heather B. Veague This new and exciting American Psychological Reader includes timely, cutting-edge articles, giving readers a real-world perspective from a reliable source: Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. This reader includes over 20 articles that have been carefully selected and taken from the very accessible Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. Articles discuss today’s most current and pressing issues in introductory psychology and are broken down into these main sections: Scientific Thinking; Nature/Nurture; Consciousness; Individual Differences; and Applications. Morton Ann Gernsbacher, Michelle Dawson, H. Hill Goldsmith Three Reasons Not to Believe in an Autism Epidemic. (Vol. 14, No. 2, 2005, pp. 55–58) p. 136 in the APS reader According to some lay groups, the nation is experiencing an autism epidemic—a rapid escalation in the prevalence of autism for unknown reasons. However, no sound scientific evidence indicates that the increasing number of diagnosed cases of autism arises from anything other than purposely broadened diagnostic criteria, coupled with deliberately greater public awareness and intentionally improved case finding. Why is the public perception so disconnected from the scientific evidence? In this article we review three primary sources of misunderstanding: lack of awareness about the changing diagnostic criteria, uncritical acceptance of a conclusion illogically drawn in a California- based study, and inattention to a crucial feature of the “child count” data reported annually by the U.S. Department of Education. Suniya S. Luthar, Shawn J. Latendresse Children of the Affluent. Challenges to Well-Being. (Vol. 14, No. 1, 2005, pp. 49–53) p. 21 in the APS reader Growing up in the culture of affluence can connote various psychosocial risks. Studies have shown that upper-class children can manifest elevated disturbance in several areas-such as substance use, anxiety, and depression-and that two sets of factors seem to be implicated, that is, excessive pressures to achieve and isolation from parents (both literal and emotional). Whereas stereotypically, affluent youth and poor youth are respectively thought of as being at “low risk” and “high risk,” comparative studies have revealed more similarities than differences in their adjustment patterns and socialization processes. In the years ahead, psychologists must correct the long-standing neglect of a group of youngsters treated, thus far, as not needing their attention. Family wealth does not automatically confer either wisdom in parenting or equanimity of spirit; whereas children rendered atypical by virtue of their parents’ wealth are undoubtedly privileged in many respects, there is also, clearly, the potential for some nontrivial threats to their psychological well-being.
Kate Sweeny, Patrick J. Carroll, James A. Shepperd Is Optimism Always Best? Future Outlooks and Preparedness. (Vol. 15, No. 6, 2006, pp. 302–306) p. 169 in the APS reader
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Although people generally appear optimistic about the future, they shift from optimism under certain circumstances. Drawing from a recent review of the literature, we describe how both optimism and shifts from optimism serve the common goal of preparedness, which includes a readiness to deal with setbacks and a readiness to take advantage of opportunities. Shifts from optimism occur in response to available information and to the possibility that things may not turn out as hoped. People tend to shift from optimism when feedback is anticipated in the near future, when the outcome is important, when negative outcomes are easily imagined, and when the outcomes are uncontrollable. In addition, people with low self-esteem shift from optimism more readily than do people with high self-esteem. Finally, both optimism and shifts from optimism have unique benefits in terms of preparedness. ▲ Return to Table of Contents ▼ FORTY STUDIES THAT CHANGED PSYCHOLOGY Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research, 6/e (013603599X) By Roger Hock This unique book closes the gap between psychology textbooks and the research that made them possible by offering a first-hand glimpse into 40 of the most famous studies in the history of the field, and subsequent studies that expanded upon each study’s influence. Readers are able to grasp the process and excitement of scientific discovery as they experience an insider’s look at the studies that continue today to be cited most frequently, stirred up the most controversy when they were first published, sparked the most subsequent related research, opened new fields of psychological exploration, and changed most dramatically our knowledge of human behaviour. Watch Out for the Visual Cliff! Gibson, E. J., & Walk, R. D. (1960). The “visual cliff.” Scientific American, 202(4), 67–71. ▲ Return to Table of Contents ▼ WEB RESOURCES General/Comprehensive Centre for Psychology Resources: http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/aupr/psycres.shtml A site maintained by Athabasca University in Canada. Provides comprehensive information on a variety of psychology topics. Psych Web: www.psychwww.com A cornucopia of psychology-related links maintained by the Psychology Department at Georgia Southern University. Psychology Central: www.psychcentral.com/ Web links and online resources for psychology students and faculty.
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Social Psychology Network: www.socialpsychology.org/ Well-organized links related to topics in social psychology. Major Professional Organizations APA—American Psychological Association: www.apa.org Information about the APA and links to other sites. APS—Association for Psychological Science: www.psychologicalscience.org Information about the APS and links to other sites. Experimental Psychology Society: www.eps.ac.uk The Experimental Psychology Society is for the furtherance of scientific inquiry within the field of Psychology and cognate subjects. It holds periodical meetings at which papers are read and discussions held. The Society also disseminates information and educational material made available as a consequence of psychological research, including the publication of the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (Section A: Human Experimental Psychology, and Section B: Comparative and Physiological Psychology). Jean Piaget Society: www.piaget.org This site was created as an information resource for members of the Jean Piaget Society. The Jean Piaget Society, established in 1970, has an international, interdisciplinary membership of scholars, teachers and researchers interested in exploring the nature of the developmental construction of human knowledge. Philosophy of Science Association: www.philsci.org The Philosophy of Science Association aims to further studies and free discussion from diverse standpoints in the field of philosophy of science. To this end, the PSA engages in activities such as: the publishing of periodicals, essays and monographs in this field; sponsoring conventions and meetings; and the awarding of prizes for distinguished work in the field. Psychonomic Society: www.psychonomic.org One of the premier organizations of modern experimental psychology. The Psychonomic Society promotes the communication of scientific research in psychology and allied sciences. Society of Clinical Psychology: www.div12.org This site is sponsored by Division 12 of APA and addresses a variety of research, theory, and practice issues associated with clinical psychology. Society of Counseling Psychology: www.div17.org Division 17—Counseling Psychology was founded in 1946 to promote personal, educational, vocational, and group adjustment in a variety of settings. Presently, Division 17 brings together psychologists, students, and international and professional affiliates who are dedicated to promoting education and training, scientific investigation, practice, and diversity and public interest in professional psychology. Society of Experimental Social Psychology (SESP): www.sesp.org SESP is a scientific organization dedicated to the advancement of social psychology.
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Society for Personality and Social Psychology: www.spsp.org With over 4,000 members, the Society is the largest organization of social and personality psychologists in the world. The goals of the Society are to further the generation and dissemination of research in personality and social psychology. Society for Psychological Study of Social Issues: www.spssi.org SPSSI is an international group of over 3500 psychologists, allied scientists, students, and others who share a common interest in research on the psychological aspects of important social issues. In various ways, the Society seeks to bring theory and practice into focus on human problems of the group, the community, and nations, as well as the increasingly important problems that have no national boundaries. Society for Research in Child Development: www.srcd.org The Society is a multidisciplinary, not-for-profit, professional association with a membership of approximately 5,500 researchers, practitioners, and human development professionals from over 50 countries. The purposes of the Society are to promote multidisciplinary research in the field of human development, to foster the exchange of information among scientists and other professionals of various disciplines, and to encourage applications of research findings. Psychological Theories About Psychoanalysis: www.apsa.org An article on this topic from the American Psychoanalytic Association. B.F. Skinner Foundation: www.bfskinner.org Read a biography of the famous behaviourist, complete a training course on his theories, and visit a media archive replete with audio and video clips. The B.F. Skinner Foundation was established in 1987 to educate the public about B. F. Skinner’s work, and to promote an understanding of the role of contingencies in human behaviour. ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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2/ READING AND EVALUATING SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲Return to Table of Contents
MODULE 2.1: Principles of Scientific Research ➢ Lecture Guide: Principles of Scientific Research (p. 32) ➢ Resources Available (p. 40) MODULE 2.2: Scientific Research Designs ➢ Lecture Guide: Scientific Research Designs (p. 41) ➢ Resources Available (p. 47) MODULE 2.3: Ethics in Psychological Research ➢ Lecture Guide: Ethics in Psychological Research (p. 48) ➢ Resources Available (p. 52) MODULE 2.4: A Statistical Primer ➢ Lecture Guide: A Statistical Primer (p. 53) ➢ Resources Available (p. 57) FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES ➢ Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 58) ➢ Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 69) ➢ Handout Masters (p. 78) ➢ Web Resources (p. 85)
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LECTURE GUIDE I. MODULE 2.1: PRINCIPLS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH (Text p. 30) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology of the scientific method module. o See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand the five characteristics of quality scientific research. o These characteristics include: (1) that measurements are objective, valid, and reliable; (2) the research can be generalized; (3) it uses techniques that reduce bias; (4) the findings are made public; and (5) the results can be replicated. ✓ Understand how biases might influence the outcome of a study. o Demand characteristics affect how participants respond in research studies. They might try to guess what the study is about or paint themselves in a favourable light. o Researchers can also unintentionally introduce bias. ✓ Apply the concepts of reliability and validity of examples. o Students should be able to read scenarios involving research methods and determine whether there are issues with reliability or validity. ✓ Analyze whether anecdotes, authority figures, and common sense are reliably truthful sources of information. o It is important to critically evaluate the source of information. Is one person telling his/her success story? Such anecdotal evidence is usually not generalizable. Is the claim endorsed by an authority figure or expert? It’s important that it’s not just opinion but also backed up by data. Common sense is also important, but good scientific research should come first. 1) The most important aspect of scientific research is that it strives for objectivity. i) Objectivity assumes that certain facts about the world can be observed and tested independently from the individual (e.g., scientist) who describes them. ii) However, the problem is that interpretations of events are subjective, meaning individuals’ knowledge of the event is shaped by prior beliefs, expectations, experiences, as well as mood.
Five Characteristics of Quality Scientific Research 1) Quality scientific research meets the following criteria: i) It is based on measurements that are objective, valid, and reliable. ii) It can be generalized. iii) It uses techniques that reduce bias. iv) It is made public. v) It can be replicated.
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Scientific Measurement: Objectivity, Reliability, and Validity 1) The foundation of scientific methodology is the use of objective measurements. Objective measurements (p. 31) are the measure of an entity or behaviour that, within an allowed margin of error, is consistent across instruments and observers. i)
For example, weight is something that can be measured objectively. a) Holding everything constant, a single object should weigh the same using multiple, functioning scales. ii) The same goes for measuring behaviour in psychology. a) However, in psychology, the objectivity of the measure often comes from the person doing the measuring. 2) In psychology, we measure variables. Variable (p. 31) is the object, concept, or event being controlled, manipulated, or measured by a scientist. i) All variables can be described and measured. 3) There are a number of instruments used to measure variables. i) Psychologists used to rely on observation and self-report to measure psychological variables. ii) In recent decades, contributions from neuroscience have allowed psychologists to increase the number of variables they can examine. a) For example, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) allows researchers to view the brain. b) Researcher might also gather blood or saliva to be analyzed for enzymes, hormones, and other biological variables that relate to behaviour and mental functioning. 4) It’s also important that all methods and variables used by researchers are carefully defined (Figure 2.1). i) This is important when conducting a study (for replications) as well as when sharing results. Operational definitions (p. 32) are statements that describe the procedures (or operations) and specific measures that are used to record observations. 5) The behavioural measures that psychologists use must also be valid and reliable.
i)
Validity (p. 32) is the degree to which an instrument or procedure actually measures what it claims to measure. For example, a psychologist could claim to measure intelligence based on shoe size. a) S/He could give a clear operational definition of how to measure shoe size. b) His/her measure of shoe size could be reliable (a tape measure should give the same size every time). c) However, shoe size is not a valid measure of intelligence. d) A valid measure would assess things like problem solving and logical thinking.
6) Closely related to validity is the concept of reliability, where multiple psychologists have to be able to observe individuals and record the same behaviour for it to be reliable. Reliability (p. 32) is when a measure provides consistent and stable answers across multiple observations and points in time.
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i)
There are a number of different types of reliability that affect psychological research (Figure 2.2) a) Test-retest reliability examines whether scores on a given measure of behaviour are consistent across test sessions. b) Alternate-forms reliability examines whether different forms of the same test produce the same results. c) Inter-rater reliability is when more than one person measures a variable the same way. Good operational definitions for variables improve inter-rater reliability.
7) Reliability and validity are essential components of scientific research.
Generalizability of Results 1) It is also important that the results of studies can be applied outside the laboratory to the real world in other contexts, with other people, etc. Generalizability (p. 33) refers to the degree to which one set of results can be applied to other situations, individuals, or events. 2) Studying a large group of people is one way to increase the likelihood that the results will be generalizable. i) This way, psychologists can report on the average effect for the group and get a better sense of how individuals are likely to behave. ii) In the perfect world, psychologists would study an entire population of people; however, due to time, money, other costs, this is not practical or possible. a) Instead, researchers study a sample of a population and then generalize the findings from the sample to the entire population. Population (p. 33) is the group that researchers want to generalize about. Sample (p. 33) is a select group of population members. 3) It is also important that the psychologist get a random sample of people from the population so that their sample best reflects the population. Random sample (p. 33) is a sampling technique in which every individual of a population has an equal chance of being included. i)
For example, if you wanted to study the population of students at your school, it would most likely be impossible to track them all down, convince them to participate, and then actually have them participate. Therefore, you would take a random sample. a) If you approached students, this wouldn’t be random because you’re more likely to run into students who are in your major, live in your dorm, etc. b) Instead, you would have a computer randomly select names of students. c) However, obtaining a truly random sample is very difficult and so psychologists are more likely to settle for convenience samples (e.g., Intro Psych students). Convenience samples (p. 33) are samples of individuals who are the most readily available.
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4) Although laboratory research is convenient because researchers have complete control over the environment, it can limit generalizability because the laboratory does not always reflect the real world. i) For example, the effects of a cognivitve improvement CD were studied by bringing volunteers into the laboratory and measuring their ability to problem solve, might not generalize to a classroom where students are taking real tests for real grades. Ecological validity (p. 33) means that the results of a laboratory study can be applied to or repeated in the natural environment. ii) It is important not to over-generalize. a) Do not attempt to apply the results from a university convenience sample to the elderly population. b) Do not assume that an effect observed on adults will generalize to children.
Sources of Bias in Psychological Research 1) In order to have sound research, it is also important to keep bias out of the research. i) Various types of bias can be introduced by the researchers (researcher bias) doing the measuring, as well as by the people or animals being observed (subject bias). Hawthorne effect (p. 35) is a term used to describe situations in which behaviour changes as a result of being observed. 2) In the 1920s, a study was done to examine the relationship between productivity and working conditions at Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne Works. i) Researchers found that changing the lighting increased productivity. ii) They also found giving fewer but longer breaks increased productivity. iii) In fact, any change the researchers made results in productivity increases. iv) This is because after each change, the factory supervisors paid close attention to the workers. a) In this case, the research results were biased by the expectations of those observing, as well as by those being observed.
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Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Demand Characteristics and Participant Behaviour 1) What do we know about how bias affects research participants? i) Participants often try to guess what the study is about instead of answering questions honestly and/or answer in a way that makes them look good. Demand characteristics (p. 36) are inadvertent cues given off by the experimenter or the experimental context, that provide information about how participants are expected to behave. a) For example, a researcher asks a volunteer to wear a heavy backpack and then asks him/her to guess how steep a ramp is. Social desirability/socially desirable responding (p. 35) means that research participants respond in ways that increase the changes that they will be viewed favourably. a) For example, many participants will not openly admit to being biased toward a certain social group (e.g., ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation) because that is not acceptable in our society. 2) How can science test the effects of demand characteristics on behaviour? i) Using the same backpack scenario, a study was done to examine how demand characteristics affect people’s judgement. ii) Participants were placed into 1 of 3 groups: a) One group was simply asked to judge the steepness of the ramp. b) One group was asked to wear a 15 kg backpack and judge the steepness of the ramp. c) The third group was given a 15 kg backpack and told that it was full of electrical equipment to measure muscle activity in their ankles. To increase believability, they attached electrodes to the participants’ ankles. Then they were asked to judge the steepness of the ramp. iii) All participants were taken to a room with the same ramp and asked how steep they thought it was before and after stepping on it. iv) After this, participants sat at a computer and answered a survey, including questions in which they guessed the purpose of the study. v) Students who wore the backpack with no explanation judged the ramp to be steeper before and after stepping on it, compared to the other two groups. a) This same group also guessed that the study was about the effects of wearing a heavy backpack on perception of steepness. (The other two groups did not guess this.) 3) How can we critically evaluate the issue of bias in research? i) Researchers are another source of bias in research. ii) For example, Rosenthal and colleagues conducted a study in which they told teachers in 18 different classrooms that a certain group of children had “unusual” potential for learning (when, in reality, they were just a random selection of students). a) After 8 months, the children singled out as promising showed significant gains in grades and intelligence test scores (which were believed to be relatively stable). iii) Similar results have also been found with animal research. a) When research assistants were told they were handling “bright” rats, it appeared the animals learned faster than when handling “dull” rats. b) Given that the rats were not influenced by these terms, it is likely that the assistants made subtle changes in how they observed and recorded behaviour. 4) Why is this relevant? i) Demand characteristics and other sources of bias can compromise research studies, so researchers must be vigilant to eliminate or control for such factors.
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Psych @ The Hospital: The Placebo Effect Placebo effect (p. 35) is a measurable and experienced improvement in health or behaviour that cannot be attributable to a medication or treatment. 1) To control for demand characteristics, researchers often have a placebo group. i) One group gets the real pill and another group gets a sugar pill (and no one is told who has which pill). ii) Those in the placebo group, who took the sugar pill, report feeling better. 2) The reason people feel better after taking a placebo is up for debate. i) Some argue the effect is “all in their head,” whereas others believe there is an actual physiological response that leads to improvement, and still others say both are true. ii) Those given a placebo have shown physiological evidence of pain and nauseas relief. iii) For many (not all) there are changes in brain activity in regions involved in human pain when hospital patients take a pill, even if it is a placebo. a) This suggests that it’s not just a matter of believing that a pill works, but the actual act of taking the pill that makes it contribute to improvement. Techniques that Reduce Bias 1) The best technique to reduce subject bias is to provide anonymity and confidentiality to volunteers. i) Anonymity means that each individual’s responses are recorded without any name or other personal information that could link a particular individual to specific results. ii) Confidentiality means that the results will be seen only by the researcher. 2) Also informing participants about how data will be used can help reduce their anxiety about participating. i) They are less likely to be concerned with their performance if they know their data is not going to be used to diagnose psychiatric problems, affect their grades, or harm them. 3) Participant bias can also be reduced by using blind procedures. Single-blind study (p. 37) is a study in which the participants do not know the true purpose of the study, or else do not know which type of treatment they are receiving (for example, a placebo or a drug). 4) Researchers can also introduce bias, so an even more effective technique is a double-blind study. Double-blind study (p. 37) is a study in which neither the participant nor the experimenter knows the exact treatment for any individual. i)
In this case, the researcher has an assistant conduct the observation or, at the very least, the researcher is not told which volunteer got which treatments. 5) Double-blind procedures are the best techniques for removing researcher and participant bias. i) Even the most ethical researcher might be influenced if s/he stands to make money from a test. ii) As we’ve seen, the Hawthorne Effect can also influence participants’ performance.
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Sharing the Results 1) One of the most important aspects of scientific research is making the results public. i) Sharing results is what allows researchers to test hypotheses and build theories. ii) It’s also an important aspect of replication, which allows other researchers to confirm or reject the original researcher’s observations and findings. 2) Academic journals are the primary method of sharing results in psychology. i) These are softbound books that contain a number of articles by different researchers on a single topic. ii) These books or journals are usually only found in libraries (including online libraries). 3) However, before research findings are published in academic journals, they go through a peer review process, which consists of two main tasks: i) First, an editor receives the manuscript from the researcher and determines whether it fits in with the topics covered by that journal. a) For example, an article on 17th century Italian sculpture wouldn’t belong in the Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. ii) Next, the editor sends copies of the manuscript to a select group of peer reviewers. a) Peers in this case means other professionals working in the same field of study. b) These reviewers critique the methods and results of the research and make recommendations to the editor regarding the merits of the research. iii) This process helps to ensure that only the best research is made public. Peer review (p. 37) is a process in which papers submitted for publication in scholarly journals are read and critiqued by experts in the specific field of study. Replication Replication (p. 38) is the process of repeating a study and finding a similar outcome each time. 1) Once findings have been published, it is possible for researchers to check whether the results occurred by chance. i) Science is self-correcting. ii) However, not all results are replicated. 2) Psychology, like many other scientific fields, is experiencing what the media calls a “replication crisis.” i) Results are not always replicated in subsequent investigations. ii) The 2015 Science journal published a paper aiming to replicate 100 studies in hopes that the majority of the findings would be replicated. However, only 36-47% were successfully replicated. iii) It is important to question, if a single replication is unsuccessful, which result do we believe: the original? Or the failed replication? iv) The solution involves performing the same study a number of times to see if it produces similar results.
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Five Characteristics of Poor Research 1) There are a lot of scientific-sounding claims being made on TV, the Internet, etc. It is important to know how to differentiate between weak and strong evidence. 2) Poor evidence comes most often in one of five varieties: untestable hypotheses, anecdotes, a biased selection of available data, appeals to authority, and common sense. 3) The most important characteristic of science is that the hypothesis is testable and falsifiable. Falsifiable (p. 38) means the hypothesis is precise enough that it could be proven false. i)
If a hypothesis is not falsifiable, then there is no way to prove the view is wrong, and there is always a way to change the hypothesis to fit the data. a) Modern psychology has few hypotheses that are not falsifiable. 4) Anecdotal evidence is also not good science; for example, you might have seen a weight loss commercial with a person who lost 200 pounds. However, that is just anecdotal evidence. Anecdotal evidence (p. 38) is an individual’s story or testimony about an observation or event that is used to make a claim as evidence. i)
There is no way of knowing if this evidence is true. a) For example, results of weight loss could have been due to a thyroid problem that was fixed, or changes in physical activity that were not part of the diet plan. 5) Biased data selection is also a problem. i) For example, a climate change denier could select only data that suggests that the climate is not changing (see Figure 2.3). 6) Another type of poor evidence is the appeal to authority. Appeal to authority (p. 39) is the belief in an “expert’s” claim, even when no supporting data or scientific evidence is present. i)
It is important to note that expertise in an area or topic does not mean it is evidence. a) The expert could be mistaken, dishonest, overpaid, or misquoted. ii) One should also check to see if there is corresponding data to support the claim. iii) It is also important to consider whether the expert has something to gain, or a hidden agenda. 7) Finally, poor evidence consists of an appeal to common sense. Appeal to common sense (p. 39) is a claim that appears to be sound but lacks supporting scientific evidence. i)
For example, many people once assumed that the world was the stationary centre of the universe. a) The idea of the Earth orbiting the sun at blinding speeds seemed like nonsense. b) That kind of force would fling us all into outer space! 8) There are commonly used methods to pass poor evidence: i) Appeals to tradition: We have always done it this way! ii) Appeals to novelty: It is the latest thing!
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 2.1 Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ The Tragedy of Dr. Semmelweis and Childbed Fever Web Resources ➢ Simeon’s Cave of Magic and the Confirmation Bias: www.caveofmagic.com/ ➢ Discovering Psychology Episode on Decision Making: www.learner.org/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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II. MODULE 2.2: SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH DESIGNS (Text p. 41) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know key terminology related to research designs. o See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand what it means when variables are positively or negatively correlated. o When two variables are positively correlated, they happen together (increase or decrease). For example, income and education are positively correlated. When two variables are negatively correlated, as one increases, the other decreases. For example, more sleep is associated with less irritability. ✓ Understand how experiments help demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships. o Experiments rely on random assignment and the manipulation of an independent variable to show cause and effect. Two or more groups are randomly assigned to a group to ensure the groups are roughly equally. Then researchers manipulate an independent variable and measure the dependent variable. If one group turns out to be different, that difference is most likely due to the independent variable. ✓ Apply the terms and concepts of experimental methods to research examples. o Students should be able to read research scenarios and identify which experimental methods are being used. ✓ Analyze the pros and cons of descriptive, correlational, and experimental research designs. o Descriptive methods allow researchers to observe and give rich details about naturally occurring behaviours. Correlational designs build on this design by showing how those observed variables relate. However, correlation does not equal causation. Experiments are needed to determine cause-and-effect relationships. However, experiments done in laboratories may lack generalizabilty to real-world situations. 1) Psychologists always begin their research with a research question. i) For example, “How does attitude affect health?” a) They also make a hypothesis, or prediction, about the outcome. 2) To test the hypothesis, psychologists use a variety of methods, called research designs, to help guide investigators in: i) Organizing the study ii) Making observations iii) Evaluating the results Research design (p. 41) a set of methods that allows a hypothesis to be tested. 3) Because there are so many designs available, psychologists must choose the design that best fits the research question and is best suited to the subject of the research. However, all research designs have certain common characteristics: i) All designs include variables (from Module 2.1) a) Sense of humour is a variable. People have varying levels of it. ii) Operational definitions are needed to describe the variables and methods used. a) Humour might be measured using the Coping Humour Scale. iii) All designs result in collected data. These are the observations about the variables of interest. a) Data might consist of the scores on the Coping Humour Scale from each individual in the sample. 4) Table 2.1 lists the strengths and limitations of different research designs.
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Descriptive Research 1) The beginning of any new line of research must involve descriptive data. i) This type of data is only from observations. ii) There is no attempt to explain why a behaviour happened. iii) For example, researchers might observe a 2-year-old and count how many words are spoken or see how many hours per week a typical university student spends on homework. 2) These descriptions can be performed in different ways. i) Qualitative research (p. 42) involves examining an issue or behaviour without performing numerical measurements of the variables. ii) Quantitative research (p. 42) involves examining an issue or behaviour using numerical measurements and/or statistics. iii) The majority of psychological studies are quantitative in nature. 3) To gather this type of data, psychologists use case studies, naturalistic observation, or surveys and questionnaires. Case Studies 1) Case studies are useful when a researcher has very specific about an individual, such as symptoms of psychological disorders and detailed descriptions of successes or failures in treatment. Case study (p. 42) is an in-depth report about the details of a specific case. 2) This design allows researchers to gain an extensive amount of details regarding the effects of a treatment on an individual. i) For example, one study followed an individual for 16 weeks to examine a specific type of anxiety disorder. ii) Researchers documented how and when changes happened, and the effects of the treatment on the individual and the individual’s life. 3) The main disadvantage of this design is that there is no guarantee that the findings can be generalized to other individuals and situations.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Case Studies as a Form of Scientific Research 1) Case studies allow the clinician or researcher to present more details about an individual. i) Detail comes at a price; sometimes it can become anecdotal evidence. 2) What do we know about using case studies as a form of scientific research? i) Case studies have been used for over 100 years and have described many unique neurological patients. ii) Case studies are also useful for describing psychological disorders and the outcomes of treatments. 3) How can science test the usefulness of case studies? i) Case studies can be used to test existing hypotheses. a) For example, emotions are thought to be centralized in the amygdala. b) A case study showing the emotional capability of someone with damage to the amygdala could support or refute this hypothesis. ii) Case studies can also be used to find similarities between different concepts. a) For example, case studies of post-traumatic stress disorder have revealed a great deal about the development of fears in all people; emotion and attention, when brought together can produce fear.
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4) How can we critically evaluate the role of case studies in research? i) Case studies can help guide understanding of existing theories. ii) Case studies can spawn new research. a) The case of Phineas Gage has led to extensive research in the role of the frontal lobes in shaping personality. 5) Why is this relevant? i) Case studies are not simply anecdotes; they can serve as inspiration for many future studies and test existing hypotheses. ii) Without case studies, our understanding of many rare issues in psychology would be limited. iii) It should be noted that case studies cannot be used for all research questions. a) For example, studies of groups of people in their nature settings cannot be studied with case studies.
Naturalistic Observation 1) Another approach is to observe people and animals in their natural settings. Naturalistic observation (p. 44) is when psychologists unobtrusively observe and record behaviour as it occurs in the subject’s natural environment. 2) Naturalistic observation can happen anywhere that behaviour occurs. i) For example, researchers might observe chimpanzees in forests, or even human behaviours after drinking at a bar. ii) The key is that the researchers are making systematic observations of specific variables according to operational definitions. a) This is in contrast to those of us who like to people-watch. iii) Researchers must also be unobtrusive when they observe. iv) Naturalistic observation can be used for animals or humans. a) For example, one researcher used naturalistic observation to see how comments by sport spectators varied by gender, who they were speaking to, and by type of sports competition. 3) However, when researchers want more specific types of data, sometimes they need to develop specific questions for participants to answer.
Surveys and Questionnaires 1) Surveys and questionnaires are still a method of observation, except now the participant is making the observation regarding his/her beliefs, attitudes, opinions, etc. Self-reporting (p. 45) is a method in which responses are provided directly by the people who are being studied, typically through face-to-face interviews, phone surveys, paper and pencil tests, and web-based questionnaires. 2) The creation of object survey items is challenging. i) Must be unbiased. ii) Sometimes have to ask about questions that people don’t want to discuss, such as depressive symptoms. iii) Researchers can sometimes determine if their survey questions are valid by comparing the results to clinical diagnoses. iv) Researchers also spend a great deal of time pretesting the items on a questionnaire to determine norms.
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Correlational Research 1) Psychologists almost always observe more than one behaviour or variable in descriptive research and they often want to know how these variables relate. Correlational research (p. 45) involves measuring the degree of association between two or more variables. 2) Correlational research may involve any of the descriptive methods discussed earlier, but now the data are evaluated in order to see if there are relationships between the variables. i) For example, do countries with higher graduation rates also tend to have higher income levels? a) How the variables relate or correlate can be visualized by using scatter plots (Figure 2.3). 3) Correlations have two main characteristics. i) They have direction (Figure 2.4). a) They can be positive, meaning that both variables occur together (e.g., as one increases, so too does the other) (Figure 2.4a). b) They can be negative, meaning that more of one variable results in less of the other (e.g., more sleep, less irritability) (Figure 2.4b). ii) Correlations also have magnitude or strength. a) This magnitude (like direction) is described in terms of a measure called the correlation coefficient. b) The correlation coefficient ranges from –1.0 to +1.0, but the closer to the absolute of 1.0, the stronger the relation. c) In a scatter plot, the dots are very close together when there is a strong correlation and all over the place when there is a weak correlation. 4) It is important to keep in mind that correlations only show how variables are related. A correlation does not equal causation! i) For example, a good sense of humour is related to positive health. a) Does humour cause one to have good health? b) Does good health lead to a good sense of humour? c) Or maybe a third variable causes both a good sense of humour and health. ii) For example, ice cream sales and homicide rates are positively correlated. a) Does ice cream consumption drive people to murder? b) Does murder lead to ice cream cravings? c) Most likely a third variable, such as hot summers, explains both. iii) We cannot establish cause with correlations because of the third variable problem, which refers to the possibility that a third, unmeasured variable is actually responsible for a well-established correlation between the two variables
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Myths in Mind: Beware of Illusory Correlations 1) Many common beliefs ingrained in our culture consist of perceived correlations that actually do not exist. i) For example, there are beliefs that crime increases when there is a full moon, opposites attract, and that gamblers can get on a “hot streak.” ii) These are illusory correlations, which are relationships that really exist only in the mind, rather than in reality. a) Sound research studies have failed to show that full moons are related to bizarre or violent behaviour. b) People who are attracted to each other are usually very similar. c) And there is no such thing as a hot streak in competitive sports or gambling. iii) Stereotypes are often based on illusory correlations. 2) However, these perceptions of correlations exist because they easily come to mind. i) Normal events don’t stand out as much, so we are less likely to take note of them, and in turn are slower to recall them vs. events or pairings that are not normal. 3) Correlations give the impression that one variable causes another. i) The Third Variable Problem (p. 46), the possibility that a third, unmeasured variable is actually responsible for a well-established correlation between two variables.
Experimental Research 1) Experimental designs are the only designs that can provide strong evidence for cause-and-effect relationships. 2) Like correlational research, experiments have at least two variables. However, there are two main differences between the two designs: i) The random assignment of participants ii) The experimenter’s control over the variables being studied
The Experimental Method 1) The first unique element of experiments is random assignment. Random assignment (p. 48) is a technique for dividing samples into two or more groups, in which participants are equally likely to be placed in any condition of the experiment. i)
Similar to random samples, this gives each participant an equal chance of being place into any one of the experimental groups. a) This helps to ensure that the groups are roughly equal. ii) Allowing the participants to pick the group might lead to unequal groups. a) After all, there are individual reasons why we might choose to group ourselves with others. 2) When groups are not randomly assigned, all sorts of confounding variables could enter the picture. Confounding variables (p. 48) are variables outside of the researcher’s control that might affect or provide an alternative explanation for the results. i) Confounding variables differ, depending on the variables and design of the study. ii) However, researchers typically cannot control the moods that participants are in, or an individual’s personality.
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3) There are also specific types of variables used in experiments: independent and dependent variables. Independent variable (p. 48) is the variable that the experimenter manipulates to distinguish between two or more groups. Dependent variable (p. 48) is the observation or measurement that is recorded during the experiment and subsequently compared across all groups. i)
In regard to our experiment on how nature images affect stress, the visual material would be the IV and one’s stress score would be the DV. a) The experimental group would view the nature images and the control group would view the neutral images. b) This is a between-subjects design, where the experimental group receives the treatment and the control group does not. c) If the experimental group showed a reduction is stress, we could conclude that exposure to nature images is responsible for the difference (as long as it was a well-designed experiment and confounds were accounted for). Between-subjects design (p. 48) is an experimental design in which we compare the performance of participants who are in different groups. Experimental group (p. 48) is the group in the experiment that receives a treatment or the stimuli targeting a specific behaviour. Control group (p. 48) is the group that does not receive the treatment or stimuli targeting a specific behaviour; this group, therefore, serves as a baseline to which the experimental group is compared.
ii) Between-subjects designed can be problematic because it is hard to know if the two groups differed before the experiment, to solve this problem an experimenter can use a within-subjects design. a) In the example just discussed, a within-subjects design would involve showing participants all images from one condition (e.g., nature images) before being tested, and then showing the images from the other condition (e.g., neutral images) before being tested again. The order of the conditions would have to be random for each participant. Within-subjects design (p. 48) is an experimental design in which the same participants respond to all types of stimuli or experience all experimental conditions. The Quasi-Experimental Method 1) Random assignment and manipulation of a variable are needed to determine cause-and-effect relationships. However, in some cases, random assignment is not possible. Quasi-experimental research (p. 49) is a research technique in which the two or more groups that are compared are selected based on predetermined characteristics, rather than random assignment.
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2) For example, many studies compare men and women. i) We can’t randomly assign people to one group or the other. ii) Men and women are also bound to differ in terms of genetics, gender roles, family history, and so on. iii) Because of this, quasi-experiments can point out relationships, but cannot determine what causes the differences between groups (like correlations can).
Converging Operations 1) Most interesting topics are studied using a variety of different designs, measures, and samples. i) Converging operations is a perspective taken when a hypothesis or theory holds up to dozens of different investigation designs methods.
RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 2.2 Lecture Launchers ➢ Case Studies of Vietnam War Experiences ➢ The Case of Joseph Goldberger and Pellagra ➢ Correlations and Causal Relationships ➢ Independent and Dependent Variables ➢ The Placebo Effect ➢ The Road from Hypothesis to Conclusion ➢ An Experimental Example ➢ Applied Experimental Psychology in the Real World Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Experimental Design ➢ Equating Groups on Multiple Variables Using Randomization ➢ Identifying the Parts of an Experiment ➢ Can Science Answer This Question? ➢ Observational Research in the Dining Hall ➢ Naturalistic Observation ➢ Understanding Correlations ➢ Correlational and Experimental Research ➢ Testing Random Assignment ➢ Small Samples ➢ Which Method Would You Use? ➢ Name That Research Method ➢ Using Memory to Demonstrate Methodology ➢ Softens Hands While You Do Dishes Web Resources ➢ Correlation Is Not Causation: www.msnbc.msn.com/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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III. MODULE 2.3: ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH (Text p. 51) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know key terminology related to research ethics. o See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand the importance of reporting and storing data. o Making data public allows other scientists, as well as the general public, to have access to the details of the research. This is important for replications, so that scientists know the characteristics of participants, methods used, and results obtained. Similarly, storage of the data is important in the event that other scientists wish to reanalyze the data or check for misconduct. ✓ Understand why animals are often used in scientific research. o Scientists can administer treatments to animals that could never be applied to humans. o Genetic research requires species with much shorter lifespans, so that successive generations can be observed. Scientists can also control genetic and environmental variables with animals that cannot be controlled with humans. ✓ Apply the ethical principles of scientific research to examples. o Students should be able to read research scenarios and identify why they may fail to meet ethical standards. ✓ Analyze the role of using deception in psychological research. o Sometimes deception must be used as a means of reducing participant bias. For example, if participants were told, “We are going to test how a recent stressor you experienced has affected your behaviour” they would probably answer how they thought they should answer. However, participants are still given a description of potential risks.
Promoting the Welfare of Research Participants 1) In order to protect the welfare of the participants, most research with human subjects involves shortterm, low-risk methods, and there are ethical guidelines and procedures that must be followed. i) In Canada, all institutions that engage in human or animal research are required to have a Research Ethics Board (REB). Research Ethics Board (REB) (p. 52) is a committee of researchers and officials at an institution that is charged with the protection of human research participants. ii) The REB protects individuals in two main ways: a) The committee weighs the risks to the volunteers against the benefits of the research. b) It requires that volunteers agree to participate in the research.
Weighing the Risks and Benefits of Research 1) The majority of psychological research involves minimal exposure to physical or mental stress. Nevertheless, great care is taken to protect participants. i) Some studies cause stress by submerging a participant’s hand in freezing water or having them exercise for short periods of time. ii) Some studies expose humans to the cold virus or make small cuts to the skin to study factors that affect healing.
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2) However, most measures that involve stress are those that cause cognitive and emotional stress, such as: i) Mortality salience: Humans are made aware of death. a) For example, by reading a passage of what happens to a decomposing body. ii) Writing about upsetting or traumatic experiences: People who have suffered a trauma (e.g., death of loved one, personal attack, etc) might be asked to write about the experience in great detail, sometimes repeatedly. 3) Another source of risk involves social situations. i) Some psychological research involves topics that could be damaging if made public (e.g., opinions of teachers, drug abuse, prejudices, etc). 4) The researcher, REB, and volunteer must weigh the potential risks of the study with the possible outcomes. i) For example, mortality salience tends to be a short-term stressor. From such studies, psychologists have learned how the loss of a loved one influences decisions about things such as donating or going to war. ii) Writing about upsetting experiences is also stressful, but psychologists have learned that those who write about stress tend to be healthier (emotionally and physically) in comparison to those who just write about everyday topics.
Obtaining Informed Consent 1) Nowadays, volunteers must be informed of what they are volunteering to do. Informed consent (p. 53): A potential volunteer must be informed (know the purpose, tasks, and risks involved in the study) and give consent (agree to participate on the information provided) without pressure. 2) To be truly informed about the study, participants must be told at least the following details (see also Figure 2.6): i) The topic of the study ii) The nature of any stimuli (e.g., images, sounds, smells) to which they will be exposed iii) The nature of any tasks (e.g., tests, puzzles) they will complete iv) The approximate duration of the study v) Any potential physical, psychological, or social risks involved vi) The steps that the researchers have taken to minimize those risks 3) However, this comes into conflict with best designs (from Module 2.1) in which the participants are “blind” to avoid introducing participant bias. i) For example, if participants were told, “We are going to test how a recent stressor you experienced has affected your behaviour”, they would probably answer how they thought they should answer. ii) In such cases, researchers use deception, or little “white lies.” Deception (p. 53) is misleading or only partially informing participants of the true topic or hypothesis under investigation. iii) This is much more serious with medical research, in which participants are given a placebo instead of the actual treatment. iv) In both cases, participants are given enough information to weigh the risks of participating.
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4) In addition, participants must give full consent, which means they have the freedom to choose not to participate, and to not have to worry about any loss, harm, or damage. i) Participants must be given equal opportunities. a) For example, Introductory Psychology students participating for credit must be offered alternative credit opportunities if they choose not to participate in the study. ii) Volunteers have the right to withdraw from a study at any time without penalty. iii) Participants also have the right to withhold responses. a) For example, they do not have to answer survey questions that make them uncomfortable. 5) Researchers who wish to study people who cannot give full consent (e.g., children, those with certain mental or neurological disorders) must obtain consent from a parent or next-of-kin. 6) After participation, volunteers are fully debriefed about the study. Debriefing (p. 54) means that the researchers should explain the true nature of the study, and especially the nature of and reason for any deception. The Right to Anonymity and Confidentiality 1) A final measure of protection involves anonymity and confidentiality. i) Anonymity means the data collected during a research study cannot be connected to individual participants. a) This helps reduce socially desirable responding, and social risks to participants. b) If pure anonymity isn’t possible (e.g., the researcher has to watch the participant) then confidentiality is a reasonable substitute. ii) Confidentiality includes at least two parts: a) Researchers cannot share specific data or observations that can be connected back to the participant. b) All records must be kept secure (e.g., locked file or password protected database).
The Welfare of Animals in Research 1) Many think of psychology as the study of human behaviour, but many psychologists study the behaviour of animals for important reasons. i) Scientists can administer treatments to animals that could never be applied to humans. ii) Genetic research requires species with much shorter lifespans so that successive generations can be observed. iii) Scientists can manipulate the breeding of laboratory animals to meet the needs of their experimental procedures. a) Selective breeding helps scientists control for individual differences based on genetic factors. 2) Ethical standards for animal research were developed at the same time that standards were put in place for human research. i) There are committees that oversee the ethical treatment of animals, much like REBs oversee the treatment of human participants. ii) These committees focus on three main areas of ethical treatment: a) The animals must be provided appropriate housing, feeding, and sanitation for the species. b) They make sure that risk and discomfort are managed in a humane way. c) They also make sure any harm or discomfort experienced by the animal is justified by the potential scientific value of the research.
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Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Animal Models of Disease 1) Researchers accidentally discovered a compound called MPTP that produced Parkinson’s-like symptoms in people. i) Could inject in animals to test possible treatments for the disorder. ii) Are animal models useful? Are they ethical? 2) What do we know about animal models of disease? i) There are animal models for all sorts of different disorders related to psychology. ii) There are at least four methods for creating an animal model: a) If a disease is related to a brain region, the region can be damaged with surgery or a substance like MPTP. b) Neurotransmitter function can be altered to mimic a disease. c) The animal’s environment can be altered (e.g., stress can be introduced). d) The genetic makeup of the animal can be manipulated. 3) How can science test animal models of disease? i) Primary goal of animal models is to simulate the characteristics of disease so that researchers can test possible treatments without harming humans. a) Sounds a little unethical, until you understand the alternative. b) For many disorders, there aren’t enough people for a human model to be possible. ii) Animal models must have three characteristics. a) Must have the same physiological characteristics as the disease in humans. iii) Animal models must have three characteristics: a) Must have the same physiological characteristics as the disease in humans. b) Animal model and human form of the disease must affect similar areas of the brain. (To measure the extent of depressive symptoms in rats, the researcher needs to find behaviours in animals that are consistent with depression in humans, such as not seeking rewards.) c) The subjects of the animal models must respond to treatments like humans do. (If studying depression, then the study should alleviate depressive symptoms such as lack of motivation.) 4) How can we critically evaluate these models? i) One common criticism is that “animal brains aren’t human brains.” ii) We don’t always know what brain areas are involved with different disorders, so how can we be sure we are using the right animal model? iii) Researchers must infer the experiences of animals because animals can’t speak. iv) If an animal has limited cognitive abilities, some disorders that involve complex cognitive impairments cannot be studied using an animal model. v) However, despite these reservations, animal models are the only option in many cases, and help to greatly reduce the suffering for millions of people around the world. vi) By having an effective REB to make sure that the animals are treated well, animal models can be an ethical way of helping improve life for many people.
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Ethical Collection, Storage, and Reporting of Data 1) Researchers continue their commitments to maintain anonymity, confidentiality, and security of the data. 2) Once data are reported in a journal or at a conference, researchers typically keep the data for 3-5 years. i) Keeping the data relates to the public nature of research. a) Sometimes other researchers will ask for the data so that they can analyze it themselves to replicate findings. 3) Scientists are also obligated to be honest with their data. i) Sometimes researchers are under pressure to get funding or tenure based on research results. ii) Cases of scientific misconduct sometimes arise when individuals fabricate or manipulate their data to fit their desired results. iii) To reduce this pressure, researchers are required to acknowledge any potential conflicts of interests, which include personal financial gain. a) This is often seen as a footnote in a journal article. iv) If research results cannot be replicated, the data that has been kept can be examined to see if it was manipulated. a) In some cases, researchers have a financial gain from certain results. Andrew Wakefield, who claimed vaccines caused autism, not only became “famous” for this finding, but stood to gain financially from “stomach tests” that he planned to market to test for autism related toxins. b) Fortunately, the fact that Wakefield’s study could not be replicated led science to self-correct and for the person committing the misconduct to be caught and the truth to be known. v) Authors are required to publish any conflicts of interest in their papers, which is thought to reduce the likelihood of misconduct.
RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 2.3 Lecture Launchers ➢ Animals in Psychological Research ➢ An Historical Perspective on Research Ethics ➢ Is There Privacy in a Public Restroom? ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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IV. MODULE 2.4: STATISTICAL PRIMER (Text p. 59) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know key terminology of statistics. o See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand how and why psychologists use significance tests. o Significance tests are statistics that tell us whether differences between groups are meaningful. For example, the mean scores of two groups could be very different; however, the variability of scores within each group will determine the likelihood the means of the two groups significantly differ. ✓ Apply your knowledge to interpret the most frequently used types of graphs. o Students should be able to look at a histogram and be able to answer questions regarding its shape, measures of central tendency, and frequency of scores. ✓ Analyze the choice of central tendency statistics based on the shape of the distribution. o It is important to consider they type of data and the shape of the distribution. For example, the mean and median usually give us more information about the central tendency. The mode is usually used for categorical data. For example, a mode can represent a candidate with the most votes. 1) Once data has been collected, the next step is data analysis. i) Initially, this involves organizing numbers into ways that can be summarized and visualized to get an overall picture of trends and possible outcomes of the research. ii) Data analysis is also important in confirming or rejecting a hypothesis.
Descriptive Studies 1) The first step in getting an overall picture of the data is describing the data. Descriptive statistics (p. 60) are a set of techniques used to organize, summarize, and interpret data. i)
The most commonly used descriptive statistics are: frequency, central tendency, and variability.
Frequency 1) Graphing the data is a logical first step in getting an overall picture of how the data looks. i) This allows researchers to see the distribution, or the location of where the scores cluster on a number line and to what degree they are spread out. 2) Psychologist often graph data using a type of bar graph called a histogram. i) This allows researchers to see the same data, but with a line called a curve. ii) Like most bar graphs, the vertical axis shows the frequency. Frequency (p. 60) is the number of observations that fall within a certain category of range of scores. iii) These graphs are easily interpreted; the higher the bar, the more scores that fall into the specific range (Figure 2.7). iv) The horizontal axis basically describes the heights of the bars.
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3) Graphing gives a visual image from which psychologists can describe the data and make general estimates. i) For example, it shows where scores cluster together and how spread out they are. a) There are mathematical equations to determine this, but this is just a first step. 4) When scores are clustered in the middle and the right side of the curve mirrors the left side, we can describe this as symmetrical curve. i) Many variables fall into a normal distribution. a) For example, the scores on most standardized tests. Normal distribution (p. 60) (sometimes called the bell curve) is a symmetrical distribution with values clustered around a central, mean value. 5) Sometimes the data clusters at one end and trails off at the other. In this case, we have a skewed distribution (Figure 2.8). Negatively skewed distribution (p. 60) is a distribution in which the curve has an extended tail to the left of the cluster. Positively skewed distribution (p. 60) is a distribution in which the curve has an extended tail to the right of the cluster. i)
Most of the time, skews occur because there is an upper or lower limit to the data. a) For example, a person cannot take less than 0 minutes to complete a test. b) Instead, most students might finish a quiz in 6 minutes, but a few took much longer. c) Conversely, most scores would cluster around 90% on an easy quiz with a couple tailing off into the lower grades.
Central Tendency 1) When we identify the portion of the graph where the scores seem to cluster together, we are estimating central tendency. i) This is a single number that represents an entire data set. ii) The measure of central tendency we use depends on the distribution of data. Central tendency (p. 60) is a measure of the central point of a distribution. 2) Psychologists use one of three measures to describe the central tendency of the data: mean, median, and mode (Figure 2.8). Mean (p. 60) is the arithmetic average of a set of numbers. Median (p. 60) is the 50th percentile—the point on the horizontal axis at which 50% of the observations are lower and 50% of all observations are higher. Mode (p. 60) is the category with the most frequent observations. i)
However, the mean and median usually give us more information about the central tendency (where scores cluster). ii) The mode is usually used for categorical data. a) For example, a mode can represent a candidate with the most votes.
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3) In a histogram of a normal distribution, the mean, median, and mode are the same value (Figure 2.9). 4) When distributions are skewed, the median is the best measure of central tendency (Figure 2.10). i) This is because the mean gets pulled toward the extreme scores, or tail. ii) The median is a relatively stable score.
Variability 1) Measures of central tendency tell us where scores cluster. However, sometimes scores are more spread out than clustered (Figure 2.11). Variability (p. 62) is the degree to which scores are dispersed in a distribution. 2) Because data can be clustered or spread out, researchers report both the mean and variability to help give a better picture of the data. Standard deviation (p. 62) is a measure of variability around the mean. 3) Standard deviation is one commonly used measure of variability. i) It can be thought of as the average distance from the mean. ii) For example, a standard intelligence test has a standard deviation of 15 points around the mean. a) About 67% of all data falls within one standard deviation of the mean. b) 68% of people would have an intelligence score between 85 and 115. c) 7% of all data falls between the first and second standard deviation, so 13.5% of people have an IQ between 70 and 85, and 13.5% have an IQ between 115 and 130. d) 5% of data falls beyond the standard deviation; thus, only a small percentage of people have IQs over 130.
Hypothesis Testing: Evaluating the Outcome of the Study 1) After researchers have described their data, the next step is to see whether the data support their hypothesis. Hypothesis test (p. 63) is a statistical method of evaluating whether differences among groups are meaningful, or could have been arrived at by chance alone. i)
The results of a hypothesis test will tell us if the two groups are significantly different (due to the IV) with a certain degree of probability.
2) For example, let’s say we wanted to know whether text messaging reduces feelings of loneliness in first-year university students (Figure 2.13). i) Students who regularly text are randomly selected and put into one of two groups: a) Those who can text (control group). b) Those who cannot text (experimental group). ii) In this example, the IV is the two groups (texting and no texting) and the DV is the score on the loneliness measure (higher score = more loneliness). iii) After 3 days, the students are asked to fill out a survey measuring loneliness. iv) We find that those who were able to text scored 3 points below the mean of the group who could not text. a) Can we conclude texting decreases loneliness? b) We need to also know the variability in the scores. .. 55
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v) The means of the two groups can differ by three points and still be very similar, or differ by three points and be very different (Figure 2.14). a) The groups are likely to be similar if the scores are very spread out and different if there is little variability in each group. 3) Next, researchers need to determine if the difference in scores between the two groups is significant or has statistical significance.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Statistical Significance 1) Statistical significance occurs when two scores are farther apart then you would expect by chance alone. Statistical significance (p. 64) implies that the mean of the groups are farther apart than you would expect them to be by random chance alone. 2) What do we know about statistical significance? i) Statistical significance is based on the researcher making two hypotheses: The null hypothesis (p. 64) assumes that any differences between conditions are due to chance. The experimental hypothesis (p. 64) assumes that the differences are controlled by the experimenter. a) The goal of research is to create differences so large that they could not be due to chance. b) The size of the difference is measured by the p value; lower p values indicate a lower likelihood that the difference is due to chance. ii) Specific formulas are used to calculate the p-values. 3) What can science tell us about statistical significance? i) p values must be less than 0.05 in order to be considered significant; this means there is a less than 5% chance that the results are due to chance. a) This standard is used in many sciences, including psychology. b) However, in some cases, a false positive could have dire consequences (e.g., relying on a drug to cure a deadly disease). c) In these cases, a p value of less than 0.01 is often used. ii) When a sample is small it is difficult to get a significant p value a) This can be problematic when studying rare diseases where there are few people in the study; in these cases other methods can be used to assess the results. 4) Can we critically evaluate the use of statistical significance testing in research? i) There are two concerns related to significance testing a) The problem of multiple comparisons: i. If there is a 5% chance of a “fluke”, the more tests you perform the greater the likelihood of a “fluke” outcome. ii. To combat this, there are tighter p value restrictions as the number of comparisons increases. b) An increased study size means an increased probability of getting a significant result i. Sometimes we may see big medical studies showing lifestyle choices as affecting health outcomes that may actually reflect the size of the sample, not the true effect of the lifestyle choice.
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ii) Power analysis is an alternative to significance testing a) Instead of accepting and rejecting hypotheses, the researcher can adjust how much they believe a hypothesis to be true. 5) Why is this relevant? i) Statistical significance is a powerful standard for psychologists. ii) Statistical significance puts all researchers “on the same page.” iii) There are alternatives for cases where significance is not the ideal approach.
RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 2.4 Lecture Launchers ➢ Pseudopsychology and the Mozart Effect ➢ Oscar the Deathcat: A Case of Illusory Correlation? Web Resources ➢ Rice Virtual Lab in Statistics: www.onlinestatbook.com/ ➢ Oscar the “Deathcat”: http://www.youtube.com/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSIONS TOPICS ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
The Tragedy of Dr. Semmelweis and Childbed Fever Case Studies of Vietnam War Experiences The Case of Joseph Goldberger and Pellagra Correlations and Causal Relationships Independent and Dependent Variables The Placebo Effect The Road from Hypothesis to Conclusion An Experimental Example Applied Experimental Psychology in the Real World Animals in Psychological Research An Historical Perspective on Research Ethics Is There Privacy in a Public Restroom? Pseudopsychology and the Mozart Effect Oscar the Deathcat: A Case of Illusory Correlation?
▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Tragedy of Dr. Semmelweis and Childbed Fever The case of Dr. Ignac Semmelweis and childbed fever complements the debacle surrounding the technique of facilitated communication and powerfully illustrates the tragedies that ensue when scientific information is ignored or rejected. It is an extraordinary story that is as much psychological as it is medical. In 1847, Semmelweis attempted to persuade his fellow physicians that they were contaminating women during childbirth with some substance acquired from the cadavers of women who had died from this illness. When his own students washed their hands in an antiseptic, the death toll plummeted, but his fellow physicians disbelieved this clear and objective evidence. Describe the case and ask students why the medical community was so reluctant to accept Semmelweiss’s findings. A brief presentation on cognitive dissonance theory may be helpful. That is, after watching women perish from this gruesome infection, the physicians’ knowledge that they had caused these deaths may have been too discrepant with their selfconcepts as healers to resolve the dissonance. They disparaged Semmelweis and his evidence. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture Launcher: Case Studies of Vietnam War Experiences An excellent example of how the case study works in psychological research is the work of Lambright (2003), who studied the responses of six Vietnamese volunteers (varying in age from 24 to 68) to the disruption in their daily lives, occupations, and the cultural adjustments brought about by the war in Vietnam. She conducted the interviews individually, in different locations throughout Vietnam during June and July of 2002. The six volunteers, from whom she obtained written consent, answered seven questions. While the standard seven questions might suggest that this face-to-face interview was a highly structured one, Lambright was in fact free to follow up any interesting answers with more questions as the need arose, making the interview an unstructured one. Here are two brief excerpts from those interviews, answers to the question “What about your culture explains its resilience during sustained disruption (such as war, famine, social and political crises)?”
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(Nguyen Ban, 24) “A happy stable family takes care of each other…we all overcome together. We have a solid base to stand on… The Vietnamese are very flexible, adaptable to the situation. They are resilient; in the hard times they are unified and come together in a community to fight against the enemy…” (Le Minh Viet, 68): Resilience, without the ability to adapt under circumstances, we wouldn’t have survived the Chinese domination, the French, and all the wars over the centuries. Circumstances shape the attitudes, the emotions, and the behaviours. All of us are used to war situation and became acclimated so it minimizes trauma.” Notice that while both interviewees stress the adaptability of the Vietnamese, the younger Nguyen seems focused on how Vietnamese people might react in some future conflict—Nguyen did not live through wartime. The older Minh did experience the war, and talks more about how the past affects his culture now. This kind of detailed information is only possible in a case study style of research. Mere observation would not provide the answers to Lambright’s questions. Interview Questions: 1. What about your culture explains its resilience during sustained disruption (such as war, famine, social and political crises)? 2. What lessons have been learned as a result? 3. How have these lessons been integrated into the current society? 4. Can you share some examples of adjustment to the turmoil, examples known within your area of expertise or with which you are personally familiar? 5. Can you give examples of maladjustment known within your area of expertise or with which you are personally familiar? 6. In thinking about your answers, what do you see as being particular to the Vietnamese culture that explains your response to the above questions? 7. Is there anything else you would like to add to this interview? Reference: Lambright, L.L. (2003) Paper presented at International Conference, Midwest Institute for International/Intercultural Education, Cleveland, Ohio, April. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Case of Joseph Goldberger and Pellagra The case of Joseph Goldberger and pellagra is another powerful, true-life story from the history of medicine that shows how the correlation between this disease and poverty obscured the true causal mechanism: Poor diet. Early in the twentieth century, diets deficient in niacin killed many poor Southerners. Dr. Joseph Goldberger discovered the cause of the disease, and generated controversy by demonstrating that it was not caused by germs. Because cases of pellagra were often higher among those with poor sanitation (e.g., no indoor plumbing), contamination by means of germs was the favored theory, a clear case of mistaking correlation for causation. In his attempt to discover the true cause, Goldberger experimented on himself, his colleagues, his wife, and prisoners. The case also raises important ethical questions; that is, to what extent did prisoners feel coerced into participating? It is worth mentioning that Goldberger exchanged pardons for participation in his medical research. Goldberger’s ideas were not universally well received and some were reluctant to accept his findings. For example, Goldberger accurately predicted that the drop in cotton prices in 1920 would lead to increased poverty and cases of
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pellagra. In anticipation of this outcome, he argued for social programs to improve nutrition in the U.S. South. In response, he was accused of impeding tourism and discouraging economic investment in the region by some Southerners, memorably led by then-congressman Jimmy Byrnes. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Correlations and Causal Relationships There seems to be a general human tendency to attribute causality to correlated events. The layperson, like the psychologist, often imposes patterns of (apparently) lawful regularity on observed events. Given what is perceived as an “effect,” we search for causes. Events are more likely to be singled out for attention and analysis when they are unusual, anomalous, and discontinuous with our prior experience. When such events are natural phenomena, they are typically relegated to the status of “cause” and then the search is directed toward their aftereffects. One of the most persistent instances in which pseudo-correlations of behaviour consequences are reported to flow from salient natural and human events is the “baby boom” syndrome. For example, the allegation of increased births nine months after a major power blackout in New York is well known. So too, is the baby boom in Israel nine months after their war with Egypt. Invariably, when base rate data are used to compare the assumed “increase in births,” the effect vanishes. That is, when seasonal fluctuations in births are taken into account, there is no unusual effect left to relate to the nine-months-earlier unusual event. But that does not deter the correlation seekers. Three University of North Carolina sociologists attributed a 1955 drop in Southern birth rates to the Supreme Court’s 1954 school desegregation decision (Rindfuss, Reed, & St. John, 1978). They theorized that uncertain prospects for the future “demoralize” prospective parents (both whites and, to a lesser extent, blacks), causing them to postpone any children they might otherwise have conceived in the three- or four-month period immediately following the decision. The subsequent recovery in the birth rate is attributed to the realization that desegregation would, in fact, proceed slowly. And on it goes. Less than a week after Chicago’s “Blizzard of ’79,” at least one newspaper columnist was speculating on the possibility of a baby boom in the coming autumn (Kup’s column, Chicago SunTimes, January 17, 1979, p. 52). Another example of the temptation to confuse correlation with a causal connection is in the area of extramarital sexual affairs. Biracree (1984) found that for men there was an almost perfect positive correlation between annual income and the percentage of men who had been unfaithful to their wives. This relationship was not true for married women. If this finding is valid, what are the possible explanations for these relationships? Is there any strong evidence to support any of these explanations, or are they, at the moment, speculations? References: Biracree, T. (1984). How you rate: Men and How you rate: Women. New York: Dell. Rindfuss, R. R., Reed, J. S., & St. John, C. A. (1978). A fertility reaction to a historical event: Southern white birthrates and the 1954 desegregation ruling. Science, 201, 178–180.
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◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Independent and Dependent Variables In the cereal and fruit example, the cereal and the fruit are independent variables and the rash is the dependent variable. One useful way of thinking about and identifying independent and dependent variables is to remember that the basic hypothesis underlying any experiment is “X causes Y” (colouring a movie [X] changes the way people respond to it [Y]; a cereal [X] caused a rash [Y]; a fruit [X] caused a rash [Y]). To test such hypotheses, X is manipulated in order to determine its effect on Y. Thus, X is the independent variable and Y is the dependent variable. Advise students that, when trying to identify independent and dependent variables (as might happen in the context of an exam question), they should put the variables in the scenario into an “X causes Y” statement. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: The Placebo Effect The power of suggestion is powerful indeed. Consider the example of the placebo effect. During the 1950s, surgeons routinely performed a simple operation to relieve chest pain suffered by patients with angina pectoris. An amazing number of the patients—nearly 90%—reported relief from pain. An experimental study divided angina patients into two groups and informed them that they were going to have an operation that had a very high success rate in relieving angina pain. The actual surgery was performed on only half the patients. What was done with the other half would no longer be allowed according to ethical medical standards. The surgeons took the remaining half of the patients, put them under anesthesia, made the surgical incision in their chests, and then simply sewed them up again. When the patients awakened in the recovery room, they were told that the operation had been performed (Cherry, 1981). The patients who had the sham surgery did even better than the patients who had undergone the actual operation! Their pain had been relieved simply by the power of suggestion. Remind students of the aspirin study and ask why the researcher included a placebo. Reference: Cherry, L. (1981, September). Power of the empty pill. Science Digest, 116, 60–67. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Road from Hypothesis to Conclusion How do we know that cigarette smoking is dangerous to your health? Cigarette smoking became common in Europe after French and British soldiers picked up the habit from Turkish soldiers in the Crimean War of 1854 to 1856. The habit was adopted by a few Americans in the next 30 or 40 years. The tobacco was strong and they rolled their own. More American males began to smoke after the automatic cigarette-making machine was perfected in North Carolina in the 1880s. Very few women smoked, at least in public, until after World War I when U.S. tobacco companies began to target women with their advertising.
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People must have suspected that cigarettes are dangerous to health long before any research was done. The slang term for cigarettes, “coffin nails,” was used during the first half of the century. The conjecture became a hypothesis when doctors noticed that many people who died of lung cancer had been heavy smokers, and it was also suspected that nicotine affects the circulatory system. Early studies produced high negative correlations between cigarette smoking and age at death: the more people smoked, the younger they were when they died. This correlational data resulted in the first warning labels on cigarettes in the 1960s: “Caution: The Surgeon General has determined that cigarette smoking may be hazardous to your health.” Notice that the warning reads “may be hazardous,” rather than “is hazardous.” The conservative warning is all that is justified by correlational data. A relationship between variables does not imply that the variables are causally related. The earlier death of smokers could be for reasons other than cigarette smoking. Perhaps smokers live more stressful lives, and both the smoking and their illness are the result of stress. Also, it is possible that smokers are not as careful of their health in other ways as nonsmokers; maybe they don’t exercise or have nutritious diets. Or perhaps both the smoking and the mortality have a genetic basis. To do a definitive experiment on the effects of smoking, one would need to get a sample of 100 or so young people who have never smoked and assign them randomly to a smoking group and nonsmoking group. The smokers would smoke at least one package of cigarettes a day for life, beginning at age 16 or 18, and the nonsmokers would not smoke at all. The dependent variable is age at death, and the successors of the original researchers could not analyze the data until all the subjects died. If the nonsmokers lived significantly longer, the researchers would be justified in concluding that cigarette smoking is hazardous to health. An experiment like this has not been done, and probably never will be done. In the 1970s the label on cigarette packages was changed to read, “Cigarette smoking is dangerous to your health.” The evidence that prompted this change came from several sources. One source was studies that tried to match smokers and nonsmokers on various alternative causes, such as stress, and thus to control for its effects on health. Another source of evidence came from animal studies. The conclusions that cigarettes are truly “coffin nails” is based on large amounts of data and a multitude of studies. Many studies were required to get from a hypothesis to a firm conclusion in the establishment of a causal link between smoking and disease and death. The reason is that there are humane and ethical constraints that rule out certain types of research. Because humans are the primary focus in psychology, it is often difficult for us to get answers to important questions. As just one example of this, we would like to know if child abuse has permanent effects on personality, and if so, what these effects are. But we cannot assign infants at birth to be abused or not abused, so to study this question we must try to tease out these effects from the mass of environmental variables that affect the development of human personality. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: An Experimental Example Can vitamins increase IQ? Suppose you hear about an intellectually challenged boy who did better schoolwork after being given a dose of a vitamin-mineral supplement, and you decide to conduct an experiment to see if intellectual functioning of intellectually challenged children can really be improved by such a diet supplement. You .. 62
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start with the hypothesis, “A vitamin- mineral supplement (independent variable) added to the diet of intellectually challenged children will improve their intellectual functioning (dependent variable).” Your first task is to define your variables more precisely. What vitamins and minerals will you use, and at what strength? How many times a day and for how many months? You may decide to use an IQ test score as a numerical measure of your dependent variable; you may also decide that you will require a minimum increase in the number of points as acceptable evidence of improvement, because many chance factors can influence test scores. You draw your subjects from a group of children who have all been tested and diagnosed as intellectually challenged, and you randomly assign them to either the experimental group, who will get the supplement, or the control group, who will be given a placebo (some inert substance) instead of the supplement. There are several precautions you will need to take to avoid bias in your results. Besides controlling for similarity of your two groups at the start, you will want to be sure that the subjects in both groups are exposed to all the same conditions during the experiment except for the exposure to the independent variable, the nutritional supplement. Temperature, timing, instructions, conditions of testing, and other events during the time of the experiment should be as similar as possible for the two groups. Your own desires to prove or disprove the idea that vitamins may increase school performance may be a possible source of bias. To reduce this bias, would you conduct a single-blind or double-blind experiment? For a fixed period of time, say four months, the children in the experimental group receive the supplements in tablets at each meal. The control-group children also receive tablets, but they contain nothing of biological value (a placebo). Neither the children nor those working with them or testing them know which child is getting which kind of tablet. At the end of the four months, intelligence tests are given again to see if the groups now differ. You may find that both groups have higher scores than originally, perhaps from all the extra attention they have been receiving or from some natural development over this period. So you use the control group’s scores as a baseline and compare the experimental group’s scores with that baseline. If you find no difference, the study may end there, or you may try variations, perhaps a stronger supplement or a longer time period or subjects who are less intellectually challenged. If you do find a difference in your original study, you will evaluate the probability that your obtained difference could have occurred by chance alone, even without the independent variable. If it is unlikely that it is a chance finding, your confidence in the hypothesis is increased. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Applied Experimental Psychology in the Real World Students often have difficulty understanding how general research results can be applied to the real world. In other words, “How does this relate to me?” The following example provides connections between basic research in sensation and perception and possible military or medical errors.
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A number of devices use sound (beeps, clicks, etc.) to provide feedback regarding bodies, structures or machines. These sounds are designed to provide people with information about changes in the current situation. For example, in medicine, drops in heart rate or blood pressure are signalled with beeps. Jet pilots receive information regarding positioning in the form of sounds as well. The purpose of these devices is to provide immediate auditory feedback that signals potential problems. The auditory nature allows the surgeon or pilot to be visually focused on something else at the time. Unfortunately, results of recent research (Neuhoff, Kramer, and Wayand, 2002) suggest that people often misperceive how sounds change when both their pitch and loudness change. Rather than noticing the changes immediately and accurately noting the meaning of the changes, individuals may miss the changes entirely or misinterpret them. Because of this misperception, people can’t accurately judge the intended meanings of the sounds. Real-world complications that could arise from this problem range from medical mistakes to serious pilot errors. For example, if a pilot does not accurately identify the sounds of the flight system that are designed to alert him/her of possible mechanical issues, the chances of mechanical failure or crashes may be increased. This result is contrary to the purposes of those feedback systems that are designed to enhance safety. It appears that the initial assumptions of inventors/creators of these systems regarding the accuracy of human interpretations of the sounds may have been incorrect. References: www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2002/03/auditory.aspx Neuhoff, J. G., Kramer, G., & Wayand, J. (2002). Pitch and Loudness Interact in Auditory Displays: Can the Data Get Lost in the Map? Journal of Experimental Psychology—Applied, Vol. 8. No.1 ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Animals in Psychological Research Should animals be used in psychological research? A controversial issue in psychology, and in many other fields of study, involves the use of animals in research. Is it ethical to subject animals to unnatural and/or painful situations in the pursuit of knowledge about the human condition? You might present students with some additional information about the use of animals in psychological research and the nature of the debate. Psychologists who study animals are sometimes interested in comparing different species or hope to learn more about a particular species. Their work generally falls into the area of basic science, but often it produces practical benefits. For example, using behavioural principles, farmers have been able to reduce crop destruction by birds and deer without resorting to their traditional method—shooting the animals. Other psychologists are primarily interested in principles that apply to both animals and people. Because many animals have biological systems or behavioural patterns similar to those of human beings, using animals often allows more control over variables than would otherwise be possible. In some cases, practical or ethical considerations prevent the use of human beings as subjects. By studying animals, we can also clarify important theoretical issues. For example, we might not attribute the greater life expectancy of women solely to “lifestyle” factors and health practices if we find that a male-female difference exists in other mammals as well.
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As the text points out, those who support the use of animals in research argue that animal studies have led to many improvements in human health and well-being. In recent years, however, animal research has provoked angry disputes over the welfare of animals and even over whether to do any animal research at all. Much of the criticism has centred on the medical and commercial use of animals, but psychologists have also come under fire. Critics of animal research have pointed to studies that produce no benefits for human beings but involve substantial harm to the animals being studied. A few years ago, for instance, a Maryland psychologist studying the nervous system was convicted of cruelty to animals after he cut the nerve fibers controlling limb sensation in 17 monkeys. The purpose of his research was to find ways to restore the use of crippled limbs in stroke victims. The charges alleged abusive treatment of the animals. The psychologist’s conviction was eventually reversed on appeal, but by then the government had withdrawn its funding of the project. People have staked out extreme positions on both sides of this debate. The controversy has often degenerated into vicious name-calling by extremists on both sides. Some animal rights activists have vandalized laboratories, and threatened and harassed researchers and their families; some scientists have unfairly branded all animal welfare activists as terrorists (Blum, 1994). A more positive result of the debate has been the close examination of the American Psychological Association ethical code for the humane treatment of animals and the passage of stricter federal animal welfare regulations governing the housing and care of research animals. Most psychological organizations, however, oppose proposals to ban or greatly reduce animal research. The APA and other organizations feel that protective legislation for animals is desirable but must not jeopardize productive research that increases scientific understanding and improves human welfare. Reference: www.the-aps.org/publications/tphys/legacy/1983/issue5/271.pdf ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: An Historical Perspective on Research Ethics When discussing the ethical treatment of human research participants, several “classic” studies, which would be ethically questionable by today’s standards, serve as examples. For instance, many instructors discuss Stanley Milgram’s studies of obedience, Philip Zimbardo’s prison simulation, or Stanley Schachter’s studies of autonomic arousal and attribution. Students often have mixed reactions to these examples. Some find them relatively innocuous, whereas others have strong reactions to the treatments participants were asked to endure. The fact that such studies took place within relatively recent times compounds the issue. Some students see these 1960s experiments as “long ago and of a different time,” whereas others see them as examples of the “unethical treatment psychologists still foist on people to this day.” To provide a context for these types of issues, your students might be interested in hearing about older examples of ethically questionable research. For example, Carney Landis, a noted psychologist of the 1920s and 1930s, conducted a series of studies dealing with the experience and expression of emotion. In one set of studies he was particularly interested in capturing facial expressions of emotion, and used strong elicitors of emotion to produce them. For example, one situation involved dropping a lit firecracker underneath an unsuspecting subject’s chair, whereas another involved showing participants pornographic (for their day) photographs and photos of horribly disfiguring skin diseases.
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Although these manipulations may seem harsh, Landis used stronger ones as well. For example, participants were instructed in one situation to plunge their hand into a pail of shallow water that, unbeknownst to them, contained 3 live frogs. (This manipulation was presumably used to evoke disgust.) To quote Landis, however...”After the subject had reacted to the frogs the experimenter said, ‘Yes, but you have not felt everything yet, feel around again.’ While the subject was doing so he received a strong...shock from an induction coil, attached to the pail by concealed wiring.” And for the coup de grâce: “The table in front of the subject was covered with a cloth. A flat tray and a butcher’s knife were placed on the cloth. A live white rat was given to the subject. He (sic) was instructed, ‘Hold this rat with your left hand and then cut off its head with the knife.’...In five cases where the subjects could not be persuaded to follow directions the experimenter cut off the head while the subject looked on.” Mention is also made of a final experiment involving shock which “...varied from a just noticeable intensity to a strength which caused the subject to jump from the chair,” as well as other studies. Landis’ participants, in passing, included graduate students, a stenographer, a schoolteacher, and a 13-year-old boy with high blood pressure Although Landis has been singled out for examination here, there certainly is no lack of experiments from the 1920s through the 1960s work mentioned above that can provide examples of ethically dubious research. Discussing such studies, especially in light of current APA standards, should produce spirited discussion among your students. Reference: Landis, C. (1924). Studies of emotional reactions II: General behaviour and facial expression. Comparative Psychology, 4, 447-509. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Is There Privacy in a Public Restroom? In an infamous study of the correlates and consequences of invasion of personal space, Middlemist and colleagues measured latency to urinate and urination duration among men in public restrooms. In a pilot study, men designated as “subjects” were covertly observed urinating in a public restroom. Results indicated that onset of urination correlated negatively (r =.315) with the distance between the subject and another male using a nearby urinal. When only 1 urinal separated the men, mean latency of the subjects to urinate was 7.9 seconds; when 3 or more urinals separated the men, the latency was 5.7 seconds. Subsequently, an experimental study was carried out. Using a bucket and mop as props, urinals in a college restroom were blocked. Subjects were forced either to urinate at a urinal adjacent to a confederate or at a urinal separated by an “out-of-order” urinal between the two men. In a third control condition, no confederate was present. The subjects were observed and timed covertly by means of a “periscope” hidden within and monitored from a stall. Results revealed mean latencies to onset of urination of 4.9, 6.2, and 8.4 seconds within the control, moderate, and close distance groups. No subjects were ever informed that they had participated in a study. Clearly then, there was no attempt to obtain informed consent and no debriefing provided. Students may want to consider what possible harm could have resulted from such a study. Did subjects have a reasonable expectation of privacy in such a public setting? Could such a study have been done without the deception of the “secret recording”? Could such a study be carried out today?
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A complete version of the article may be located from the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1976) at www.psychologytoday.com/. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Pseudopsychology and the Mozart Effect Before discussing pseudoscience, ask students about their impression of the so-called Mozart effect. Most students have heard of the general phenomenon and have seen advertisements and CDs of music “designed to increase your children’s IQ.” Bring in a magazine advertisement and read from it, touting the merits of the product. Ask students if they believe it, and if they would buy the product. Probe them by asking what “proof” they would need that the product actually works. Usually, students will begin to question the merits of the product, at which point you can discuss the actual psychological findings of this moneymaking gimmick by summarizing the work of Steele, Bass, and Crook (1999). Pseudoscience quite literally means “false science.” Its “claims [are] presented so that they appear scientific even though they lack the supporting evidence and plausibility” (Shermer, 1997, p. 33). Furthermore, pseudoscience appears to use scientific methods and tries to give that “science-y” impression. Some characteristics of Pseudoscience include the following: 1. Associates itself with true science 2. Relies on and accepts anecdotal evidence 3. Sidesteps disproof • any possible outcome is explained away • a theory is not a good theory if it can explain everything because it can never make specific predictions 4. Dangerously reduces complexity to simplicity (to a consumer society) Ask students why the Mozart effect would be considered pseudoscience based on the 4 aforementioned characteristics. Have students give other examples of possible pseudoscience such as graphology, palmistry, aromatherapy, and quite arguably Eye-Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR). References: Steele, K.M., & Bass, K. E., & Crook, M. D. (1999). The mystery of the Mozart effect: Failure to replicate. Psychological Science, 10, 366–369. Shermer, M. (1997). Why people believe weird things: Pseudoscience, superstition, and other confusions of our time. New York: W. H. Freeman & Co. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Oscar the Deathcat: A Case of Illusory Correlation? Historically, a number of superstitions have been associated with cats. (For a brief summary, see the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal.) During the summer of 2007, the story of “Oscar the Deathcat” hit the Internet. The story originated in an article written for the New England Journal of Medicine (and also in Slate Magazine). It is possible that Oscar can predict the deaths of the elderly and infirm, but extraordinary claims such as this require extraordinary evidence. Students should consider one additional causal mechanism: That Oscar the Deathcat is another superstitious belief due to an illusory correlation. The issue of Oscar may be .. 67
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addressed with reference to the “Great Fourfold Table of Life” presented in the text. Note that although the article on Oscar was published in the NEJM, it was NOT a peer-reviewed article! Students may want to consider the degree to which the Journal’s prestige and the author’s professional status conferred credibility to the story of Oscar. The original NEJM and Slate articles links are listed here; a link to a video presentation on Oscar is listed in the Media Resources section. References: New England Journal of Medicine: http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/357/4/328?ijkey=PVKerq1VfkJKc&keytype=ref&siteid=nejm Slate Magazine: www.slate.com/id/2171469/ ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Experimental Design Equating Groups on Multiple Variables Using Randomization Identifying the Parts of an Experiment Can Science Answer This Question? Observational Research in the Dining Hall Naturalistic Observation Understanding Correlations Correlational and Experimental Research Testing Random Assignment Small Samples Which Method Would You Use? Name That Research Method Using Memory to Demonstrate Methodology Give the Doctor Some Advice What Do Journals Look Like? Wonder Horse Dials 911 to Save Boy’s Life Softens Hands While You Do Dishes
▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Experimental Design The overarching goals of the following exercise are to demonstrate how psychology and the scientific method can be used to address issues that interest your students, to teach them how the concepts they are learning influence experimental design, and to impress on them an appreciation for the challenges faced by experimental psychologists. Lead your class through the process of designing an experiment. Start with a hypothesis generated through brainstorming by the class. Allowing your students to provide the hypothesis ensures that it will interest them and that they will stay engaged. Students may start with topics such as alien abduction, crop circles, and the Loch Ness monster. Welcome this, as it gives you a terrific opportunity to talk about alternative explanations, existence proofs, and the fact that some topics, such as the proof of the existence of God, remain firmly outside the boundaries of science. The scientific method is not a panacea; it is a highly structured method for testing measurable factors and relationships. After your class has agreed on an issue to test, lead them toward a consensus and a testable hypothesis about the issue. Once your class has clearly defined a hypothesis, lead them through a discussion of possible alternative explanations. Challenge their hypothesis and their beliefs. Are there other possible explanations that are simpler and more likely? What assumptions and possible biases underlie their hypothesis? How would the hypothesis (and their assumptions and biases) generated by your class be different than explanations put forward by people from different cultures and different times? You might want to mention that spirit possession was a widely held explanation for mental illness until relatively recently. After listing a number of possible alternative explanations, allow your class to suggest a very basic methodology for testing the hypothesis and eliminating the alternative explanations. You might want to give them a head start by suggesting the kind of data that they would need to collect to measure the variables of interest. Depending on the hypothesis chosen and the sophistication of your class, outlining a reasonable experiment may be a difficult process. If the class begins to show signs of overload, you can quickly switch gears and use the exercise to demonstrate the difficulty in designing and executing well-controlled experiments.
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◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Demonstration: Equating Groups on Multiple Variables Using Randomization An interesting demonstration of randomization is described in an article by Enders, Laurenceau, and Stuetzle, titled “Teaching Random Assignment: A Classroom Demonstration Using a Deck of Playing Cards.” The authors describe a simple strategy in which students “randomly assign” cards to two groups. The two groups of card/subjects are then compared with respect to the frequency of specific characteristics such as the number of face cards, red cards, etc. This will help students see how random assignment helps equate groups on characteristics beyond those the experimenter has in mind. Two packs of cards may also be used. Reference: Enders, Laurenceau, and Stuetzle. (2006). Teaching Random Assignment: A Classroom Demonstration Using a Deck of Playing Cards. Teaching of Psychology, 33(4), 239–242. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Identifying the Parts of an Experiment To help students learn to identify the components of an experiment, Handout Master 2.1 presents the abstract from a recent article from the Journal of the American Medical Association on an issue of some interest to many: Smoking cessation. The abstract is dense, but the independent and dependent variables are clear, along with the treatment and placebo. It is interesting to note that side effects are also reported within the placebo group. Students may suggest possible explanations for this “nocebo” effect. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Can Science Answer This Question? Students are asked to identify whether specific questions can be addressed using the methods of science. The student handout is included as Handout Master 2.2. Suggested answers and explanations are listed below. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
No. The question as stated is vague and the terms are not defined. What does “bad” mean? (Good and bad are value judgments.) Who or what is “society”? Bad for whom? However, specific correlates and consequences of abortion can be studied. Yes. The independent variable would be “before or after eating” and the dependent variable would be talkativeness, which could be operationally defined (e.g., as the length of replies to questions). Yes, so long as the variables are operationally defined. The independent variable would be jogging versus not jogging (or perhaps the frequency or duration of jogging); the dependent variable would be some measure of mental attitude, such as scores on a psychological test. Yes. This question requires only the computation of a correlation between doctors’ GPAs in medical school and their subsequent incomes. Such variables as “years in practice” would have to be controlled and a representative sample would have to be selected. No, probably not; it would be a little like comparing apples and oranges. Physiological measures of emotional strength would not be useful because there is not always a relationship between .. 70
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6.
7.
8.
physiological arousal and subjective experience, and because love tends to be a more enduring emotion than anger. Yes. The independent variable would be “bottle-fed versus breast-fed.” The dependent variable would be alertness, which would have to be operationally defined in behavioural terms. If babies were randomly assigned to the two groups, the study would be an experiment. If the researcher used babies whose mothers had already made the decision about feeding method, the study would be correlational, and inferences about cause and effect could not be made. No. “Moral” is a broad, vague term that means different things to different people. Moreover, many unanticipated economic, political, and social developments could affect the outcome. Even if “moral” could be defined adequately, and projections from current trends and conditions could be made, the results might turn out to be meaningless, because definitions of morality change over time. What is “moral” in the 1990s might not be moral in 2020, and vice versa. No. The subjects would be very uncooperative!
◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Assignment: Observational Research in the Dining Hall Koschmann and Wesp (2001) provide several research activities for observational research, correlational research, and experimental research. One way to introduce students to research methods is to allow them to become more cognizant of their everyday surroundings and fellow classmates’ behaviours. Koschmann and Wesp suggest that the college or university dining hall is an excellent “laboratory” to observe human behaviour. Merely ask students to observe others during meals in the cafeteria, such as seat selection or food choices. You might encourage student research teams to decide which behaviours they wish to observe. Ask students to record their observations, maintain confidentiality, and “debrief” anyone who asked them what they were doing. During the next scheduled class, ask students to share their findings and to generate discussion about potential hypotheses that may provide a better understanding of the behaviours they observed. Reference: Koschmann, N. & Wesp, R. (2001). Using a dining facility as an introductory psychology research laboratory. Teaching of Psychology, 28, 105–108. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Assignment: Naturalistic Observation Objective: To collect data on spatial relationships Materials: None Procedure: Assign students to small groups of four or five individuals. Ask each to collect data on personal space in two distinct social situations, perhaps the student union building or other public areas on campus and a situation such as a party, a bar, or another area where individuals are talking. Ask the students to estimate the distance that individuals stand apart when they talk in this public area, noting any differences between same sex and opposite sex individuals. Encourage students to be creative in their data collection; for example, they could approach the participants with a yardstick, or they could count the number of tiles on the floor. Students will come up with their own ideas on the best methods of data collection. When students bring their data to class, summarize each group’s findings in terms of the mean .. 71
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distances individuals stand apart while talking and put the results on the overhead or chalkboard. Break out the data by sex and situation. Discuss any problems the students encountered with this type of data collection. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Understanding Correlations This exercise on correlations can be used as a classroom demonstration or as a take-home assignment following a lecture on the nature and uses of correlations. The student handout for this exercise is included as Handout Master 2.3. Suggested answers are provided below; however, there are other reasonable explanations. 1. 2. 3.
4. 5. 6.
Positive. Mutual influence. Similar life experiences. Negative. Orphanage environment has an adverse effect on cognitive development. Intelligent children are more likely to be adopted. Positive. Violent pornography stimulates violent behaviour. Both the violent crime and the number of stores are related to the size of cities. Violent criminals are attracted to violent pornography. Negative. Absent students miss pearls of wisdom from the mouth of the instructor. Students with jobs or other responsibilities find it difficult both to get to class and to find time to study. Positive. The money appropriated to control crime was poorly spent. The city grew during the eight years, resulting in more crime and more tax revenues. Positive. Both variables are related to socioeconomic factors; children from affluent homes have both intellectual and physical advantages over children from substandard home environments. Age is the third variable that accounts for scores on both variables; older children have bigger vocabularies and are also stronger and better coordinated.
◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Correlational and Experimental Research Many students have difficulty understanding the difference between correlational research and experimental research. It might be useful to walk the class through an example where both kinds of research are illustrated with the same variables. Two examples that could be used this way are the relationship between violent television viewing and aggression, and the relationship between similarity and liking. In both examples either variable could plausibly be caused by the other (or by some third factor); so, the step up from correlational to experimental research, where causality can be determined, can be seen as useful. Spend some time discussing how psychologists must be ingenious to turn concepts such as “liking” into measurable variables (this will help students appreciate the scientific process). As examples, you can present actual studies that have been done in these two areas. Byrne (1971) discusses extensive research on the influence of similarity on attraction, and Liebert and Sprafkin (1988) discuss the effects of television on children. References: Byrne, D. (1971). The Attraction Paradigm. New York: Academic Press. Liebert, R., & Sprafkin, J. (1988). The Early Window: Effects of Television on Children and Youth. New York: Pergamon Press.
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◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Testing Random Assignment (Group activity) Students are often distrustful of random assignment, thinking that the people with the best memory or the worst sense of smell will all end up in the same group and make the results of research undependable. This demonstration is designed to show that random assignment does produce equivalent groups. Provide students with small cards and have them record their height in inches on the card. If the class is small, ask them to record the height of their best friend on a second card. Collect the cards and then randomly assign them to several groups of 20. Have students calculate means for the groups. The means should be quite close, illustrating that random assignment has produced equivalent groups. You might also explain that random assignment is not infallible and can be a source of experimental error. This activity can be extended by using groups of different sizes, such as 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50, to show that the probability of getting groups that are not equivalent decreases as group size increases. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Small Samples Objective: To discover if small samples can really be representative Materials: A coin, copies of the chart in Handout Master 2.4. Procedure: Sometimes students have a hard time believing that 1,000 people or so can represent the entire population of Canada. This activity will help them see that small samples can be representative. Divide students into small groups and instruct them as follows: Point out to students that, as n gets bigger, the more balanced the percentage of heads and tails becomes. However, they should notice too that n=20 isn’t much better than n=15. And it took a lot longer to collect 5 samples of 20 coin tosses each. In other words, there wasn’t much gain in representativeness for the extra cost in time and energy. So, small samples can be representative, and increasing the size of a sample doesn’t always pay off when costs are balanced against benefits. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Which Method Would You Use? The following examples can be used to generate a class discussion on the research methods used by psychologists. Write the methods on the board: case histories, naturalistic observation, laboratory observation, surveys, tests, correlational studies, and experiments. Then, for each situation, ask students to decide which method is appropriate and briefly describe why.
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1.
Determining the favourite food of adolescents. Method: Survey Explanation: Adolescents constitute a large population and the information sought should be accessible through questionnaires or interviews. Care will be needed to construct a sample that is representative of the population under consideration.
2. Determining whether a person is introverted or extroverted. Method: Psychological test Explanation: The goal is to measure psychological qualities within an individual. Other methods (e.g., case history, naturalistic observation) might be employed, but they are more timeconsuming and do not offer the degree of standardization, reliability, and validity found in a well-constructed test. 3. Determining if frustration causes aggression. Method: Experiment Explanation: Cause-and-effect information is being sought. In science this information is obtained through experimentation in which the proposed causal variable is manipulated under controlled conditions. 4. Determining if level of education is associated with crime. Method: Correlation Explanation: This technique is used to determine if and how strongly two variables are related. Establishing that a correlation exists, however, does not address the problem of why two things are related. 5. Determining how teenagers behave on their first date. Method: Naturalistic observation Explanation: A description of behaviour as it occurs in a real-life situation is being sought. Making the observations without arousing suspicion in subjects could be problematic, and the investigator will need to be careful to prevent “guinea-pig” reaction. 6. Determining the behaviour of subjects who are anxious about participating in research. Method: Laboratory observation Explanation: The goal here can be readily achieved within an environment artificially set up by the experimenter. The advantage of this approach is that the investigator has greater control over the situation being studied. 7. Determining why a housewife gave up a flourishing career. Method: Case history Explanation: Making this determination requires in-depth information about the way a variety of psychological factors, expectations, values, motives, past experiences, and so forth, blend together within the person. This kind of information is unique to the person and could not be assessed through standardized tests.
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◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Name That Research Method In this exercise, students are asked to match brief descriptions of research with the name of the method being used. Copy Handout Master 2.5 and distribute to students as a basis for this exercise. Answers: 1-c, 2-a, 3-e, 4-f, 5-d, 6-b. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Using Memory to Demonstrate Methodology This demonstration introduces the concept of the experimental method; however, it is equally applicable to the material in the memory chapter. Students are given the question “Can we improve memory by using a mnemonic technique?” and are asked to design an experiment to test the hypothesis. The experiment is then conducted using procedures summarized below. Through this procedure, students are guided through a typical psychological experiment and are introduced to the concepts of independent variable, dependent variable, experimental and control groups, and control procedures. Prepare a mnemonic technique and write it on small slips of paper to hand to some of the students (half of the class). Construct a list of common words to use in conjunction with the mnemonic. Here is one of many mnemonic techniques: PRESIDENTIAL Word List: Pet, Road, Eagle, Screen, Ink, Dog, Envelope, Number, Target, Income, Alley, Library Begin a discussion of the experimental method by asking for definitions of a hypothesis. After discussing the students’ definitions tell them that they are going to conduct an experiment in class and provide themwith the question above as the hypothesis. After defining mnemonic techniques, inform the class that you have a mnemonic technique but need to know how to proceed from this point. Students are asked for input as to how to test the hypothesis. Usually someone proposes that the class be divided into two groups: one that receives the mnemonic and one that does not. Ask how the students should be assigned to each group. This leads us to a discussion of random assignment. The experiment begins by passing out the slips of paper with the mnemonic to the “experimental” group. All students are then given the following instructions: “I am going to read a list of words; when I’m finished I want you to recall as many words as you can IN THE SAME ORDER AS THEY WERE READ.” Tell the experimental group how to use the mnemonic: “The letters of the word correspond to the first letter of each word in the list, so you can use the word to help you remember the order of the words in the list.” Read the list of words, pausing about 4 seconds between words. Then tell the students to write down as many words as they can remember in the same sequence as they were read. Allow about three minutes of recall time, then ask the students to correct their own paper and tabulate the results on the board. This demonstration typically yields a large difference between the two groups. If desired, you can initiate a discussion of statistical inference and perhaps conduct some preliminary analyses. Discuss how the results pertain to the original hypothesis. .. 75
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Reference: Davis, S. F., & Palladino, J. J. (1994) Interactions: A newsletter to accompany Psychology, 1(Win), 1. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Give the Doctor Some Advice This exercise describes research on the effects of drinking and driving. However, this study is flawed and students are asked to suggest ways to correct the errors. Copy Handout Master 2.6 and distribute to students as a basis for this exercise. Suggested answers: 1. e 2. Possible confounding variables: The vodka and the placebo should be mixed in equal amounts of orange juice. Subjects should be chosen randomly and also assigned randomly to the different groups. (The same amount of alcohol affects males and females differently.) The researcher should not select friends, colleagues, or his own students as the subjects for this research, or any research, because of possible experimenter expectancy and demand characteristics. The subjects should participate at the same time of day since their last meal can determine how potent the effects of alcohol can be. Informed consent should be obtained before the research, not after. Given these many possible confounding variables, Dr. Moesteller should be more cautious in his conclusions. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: What Do Journals Look Like? Scientific journals and peer review are essential to the field, but even after they are fully described, may seem remote and abstract to students (especially when they have just entered college). Bring relatively recent journal issues to the class, pass them around and ask students to examine the tables of contents for articles that address issues that seem personally interesting to them; ask them to read the titles out loud to the class. Journals from the Association for Psychological Science are excellent for this exercise because they address diverse issues in psychology. The exercise is useful for demonstrating that psychological journals present findings that are of wide relevance and interest.
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◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Wonder Horse Dials 911 to Save Boy’s Life Jane Halonen suggests a fun class exercise that tests students’ understanding of experimental methodology principles. Once you have covered the basics of correlation, experimentation, and causal inference, challenge your students to apply these principles by examining the outrageous claims made in tabloid headlines, many of which imply a causal relationship (e.g., dreaming in black-and-white improves your sex life; garlic diet improves memory...but not breath; large gopher presence precedes volcano eruptions). For this exercise, bring in a variety of headlines from the Star, National Enquirer, Weekly World News, Globe, etc. that are psychology-related and causal-sounding (or ask students to bring in examples). Challenge students to design simple studies that will accurately test whether or not the relationship claimed in the headline is a valid one. Halonen reports that students enjoy the opportunity to “think like scientists” in response to humourous and outrageous claims and that this exercise helps stimulate them to scrutinize causal claims from all sources and to design experiments more carefully and creatively (and, if that isn’t enough, they can practice their newfound skills in line at the grocery store)! Reference: Halonen, J. S. (1986). Teaching critical thinking in psychology. Milwaukee: Alverno Productions. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Softens Hands While You Do Dishes A variation of the tabloid exercise suggested above encourages students to apply experimental principles to claims they are bombarded with on a daily basis—television and magazine advertising. For this exercise, bring in (or have your students bring in) samples of advertising and have students critique the product claims of success according to principles of experimental methodology. Ads can be critiqued on several grounds, including the problem of personal testimony as unreliable, the absence of a control or comparison group, the presence of extraneous variables, the presence of plausible alternative explanations, unclear or undefined variables, and a lack of supporting statistics. Jane Halonen reports that students become enthusiastic about the usually dreaded topic of experimental methodology when they realize it has the potential to make them smarter consumers. Reference: Halonen, J. S. (1986). Teaching critical thinking in psychology. Milwaukee: Alverno Productions.
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◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents HANDOUT MASTERS ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Handout Master 2.1 Identifying the Parts of an Experiment Handout Master 2.2 Can Science Answer This Question? Handout Master 2.3 Critical Thinking Exercise: Understanding Correlations Handout Master 2.4 Small Samples Handout Master 2.5 Name That Research Method Handout Master 2.6 Give the Doctor Some Advice
▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 2.1 Identifying the Parts of an Experiment Please read the following abstract (i.e., summary) of a recent article by Jorenby and colleagues that appeared in the Journal of the American Medical Association (July 2006). Identify the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Independent variable; describe the treatment in some detail. Dependent variable; describe this outcome variable in detail. Method of selecting participants. Method of assigning participants to groups. Hypothesis/Research question. Outcome (i.e., results) of the study.
You may also want to consider the following question: Why would members of the control group also experience “side effects”? Efficacy of varenicline, an alpha4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist vs. placebo or sustained-release bupropion for smoking cessation: a randomized controlled trial. CONTEXT: Varenicline, a partial agonist at the alpha4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, has the potential to aid smoking cessation by relieving nicotine withdrawal symptoms and reducing the rewarding properties of nicotine. OBJECTIVE: To determine the efficacy and safety of varenicline for smoking cessation compared with placebo or sustained-release bupropion (bupropion SR). DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial conducted between June 2003 and March 2005 at 14 research centres with a 12-week treatment period and follow-up of smoking status to week 52. Of 1413 adult smokers who volunteered for the study, 1027 were enrolled; 65% of randomized participants completed the study. INTERVENTION: Varenicline titrated to 1 mg twice daily (n = 344) or bupropion SR titrated to 150 mg twice daily (n = 342) or placebo (n = 341) for 12 weeks, plus weekly brief smoking cessation counseling.
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MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Continuous abstinence from smoking during the last 4 weeks of treatment (weeks 9–12; primary end point) and through the follow-up period (weeks 9–24 and 9–52). RESULTS: During the last 4 weeks of treatment (weeks 9–12), 43.9% of participants in the varenicline group were continuously abstinent from smoking compared with 17.6% in the placebo group (odds ratio [OR], 3.85; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.69–5.50; P<.001) and 29.8% in the bupropion SR group (OR, 1.90; 95% CI, 1.38–2.62; P<.001). For weeks 9 through 24, 29.7% of participants in the varenicline group were continuously abstinent compared with 13.2% in the placebo group (OR, 2.83; 95% CI, 1.91-4.19; P<.001) and 20.2% in the bupropion group (OR, 1.69; 95% CI, 1.19–2.42; P = .003). For weeks 9 through 52, 23% of participants in the varenicline group were continuously abstinent compared with 10.3% in the placebo group (OR, 2.66; 95% CI, 1.72–4.11; P<.001) and 14.6% in the bupropion SR group (OR, 1.77; 95% CI, 1.19–2.63; P = .004).
Treatment was discontinued due to adverse events by 10.5% of participants in the varenicline group, 12.6% in the bupropion SR group, and 7.3% in the placebo group. The most common adverse event with varenicline was nausea, which occurred in 101 participants (29.4%) CONCLUSIONS: Varenicline is an efficacious, safe, and well-tolerated smoking cessation pharmacotherapy. Varenicline's short-term and long-term efficacy exceeded that of both placebo and bupropion. ◄Return to Activity: Identifying the Parts of an Experiment ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents Handout Master 2.2 Can Science Answer This Question? Psychology is an empirical science; that is, its knowledge is obtained through observation, experimentation, and measurement. Some questions cannot be answered empirically and are, therefore, outside the realm of science. Decide whether scientific research can answer the questions below and respond “yes” or “no” to each question. Do not try to answer the question itself. Just say whether or not scientific research can, in principle, address the question. Briefly explain why each question is, or is not, a good candidate for scientific inquiry. For the questions that can be studied scientifically, identify what the independent and dependent variables would be in the experiment. 1. Is abortion on demand bad for society? 2. Do people talk more after they have eaten than they do when they are hungry? 3. Does jogging lead to a positive mental attitude?
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4. Are the incomes of doctors related to the grades they make in medical school? 5. Which emotion is stronger, love or anger? 6. Are breast-fed babies more alert than bottle-fed babies? 7. Will people be more moral in the year 2020 than they are now? 8. Are people who commit suicide sorry after they have done it? ◄Return to Activity: Can Science Answer This Question? ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents Handout Master 2.3 Critical Thinking Exercise: Understanding Correlations Correlational studies show relationships between variables. If high scores on one variable predict high scores on the other variable, the correlation is positive. If high scores on one variable predict low scores on the other variable, the correlation is negative.
Showing that two variables are related does not justify claiming that a causal relationship exists. There may be a causal relationship, but other explanations usually exist. For example, the variables may be related because both have a causal relationship with a third variable.
For each of the correlational studies described below, decide whether the correlation is positive or negative and give two alternative explanations for each finding. 1.
A study of married couples showed that the longer they had been married, the more similar their opinions on social and political issues were. Positive or negative? Explanation 1: Explanation 2:
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2.
An intelligence test was given to all the children in an orphanage. The results showed that the longer children had lived in the orphanage, the lower their IQ scores. Positive or negative? Explanation 1: Explanation 2:
3.
In a study of American cities, a relationship was found between the number of violent crimes and the number of stores selling violence-depicting pornography. Positive or negative? Explanation 1:
4.
Explanation 2: A college professor found that the more class absences students have, the lower their grade in the course tends to be. Positive or negative? Explanation 1: Explanation 2:
5.
A politician running against a candidate who had been in office for eight years pointed out that violent crime had increased steadily during those eight years even though the administration appropriated more and more money to fight crime. Positive or negative? Explanation 1: Explanation 2:
6.
It was found that elementary-school children who made high scores on a vocabulary test also tended to make high scores on a test of physical strength and muscular coordination. Positive or negative? Explanation 1: Explanation 2:
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◄Return to Activity: Understanding Correlations ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents Handout Master 2.4 Small Samples You probably know that when you flip a coin, the chance of getting a head or a tail is 50%. But this probability is based on an infinite number of coin tosses. But how well does tossing the coin twice represent the whole population of tosses, or the infinite number of tosses? If a sample of 2 tosses, or n=2 as a statistician would express it, doesn’t represent the population, what about a sample of 5 or 10 or 15 or 20? To answer these questions, you have to take repeated samples of the same size. Toss a coin twice (n=2), and then write the number of heads and tails in the column labeled #1. Repeat the process four more times, recording your results the second time under #2, the third time under #3 and so on until you have a total of five samples, each of which consists of two coin tosses. When the n=2 row is completely filled in, calculate the overall percentage of heads and tails. Now use the same process to collect data on samples of n=5, n=10, n=15, and n=20. Sample size n=2 n=5 n=10 n=15 n=20
Toss #1 H T
Toss #2 H T
Toss #3 H T
Toss #4 H T
Toss #5 H T
Overall % H T
► Return to Activity: Small Samples ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents Handout Master 2.5 Name That Research Method Here are the major research methods used by psychologists. Match each with one of the following examples of research. a. case history b. naturalistic observation c. laboratory observation d. survey e. psychological tests f. experiment
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1.
Frank is a full professor who is interested in the factors that affect the performance of rats who are learning to find their way through a complex maze. Every afternoon he gives each of his 50 rats ten trials in the maze, counting the number of wrong turns each rat makes on its way through the maze.
2.
Ben is counselling with Fennimore Jones in a small room in the neuropsychiatric hospital. Ben is a graduate student in clinical psychology and Fennimore is his client. Fennimore was admitted to the neuropsychiatric hospital when he came to the student health clinic complaining that he hears voices shouting obscenities at him, and confiding that he thinks he is going through a spontaneous sex change. After each session with Fennimore, Ben writes a report describing Fennimore’s verbal and nonverbal behaviour and his interpretations of the behaviour.
3.
Carl is a graduate student who plans to become a psychometrician. He, like Ben, is working at the neuropsychiatric hospital. His job is to administer a battery of tests to new patients. He will send the test results, along with his summary and interpretation of them, to the patient’s clinical psychologist or psychiatrist.
4.
Ada is testing the hypothesis that colour preference can be influenced by associating a colour with a pleasant experience, such as eating. This afternoon she is delivering a supply of red, yellow, blue, green, and white nursing bottles to the mothers of newborns who have consented to let their infants be subjects in her research.
5.
Dee is an assistant professor who will teach introductory psychology for the first time next term. She has chosen some films to show to her class of more than 200 students, and is now preparing a questionnaire to administer to her students after each film. She thinks getting student reactions to the films will be helpful next time she teaches the class.
6.
Ed is an undergraduate psychology major. For his senior thesis he is investigating the nature of the audience for pornography. This afternoon he is sitting in his car across the street from one of the pornographic bookstores in the area. He is taking notes on the sex, approximate age, and ethnicity of the patrons as they enter and leave the store.
◄Return to Activity: Name That Research Method ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents Handout Master 2.6 Give the Doctor Some Advice Dr. Moesteller has long been interested in the effects of alcohol on human behaviour. His latest experiment involved giving college students one of three kinds of drinks: o 3 oz. of 100-proof vodka mixed with a standard size glass of orange juice, o 2 oz. of 100-proof vodka mixed with a small glass of orange juice, or o 3 oz. of a nonalcoholic but vodka-flavoured substance mixed with a standard size glass of orange juice.
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Dr. Moesteller recruited some of his subjects from the school’s track team, which was easy because he is the assistant coach. He recruited the rest of his subjects from his introductory psychology class. Dr. Moesteller assigned the women on the track team to the 2 oz. vodka group, the men from his class to the 3 oz. vodka group, and the women from his class to the nonalcoholic group. The women on the track team participated right after they finished practicing, and students from his class participated at various times during the day. After each group had a chance to drink the beverage, he had them sit in an automobile simulator where their task was to step on the brake every time they saw a red light. Much to his surprise, the 2 oz. group showed slower reaction times to the red light than the 3 oz. group. The nonalcoholic group was the quickest to react. As soon as the experiment was over, he explained to the subjects the true purpose of the experiment and had them sign an informed consent form. From his analysis of the results, Dr. Moesteller concluded that drinking alcoholic beverages can slow reaction time for braking in college students who drive after drinking. 1.
Based on his experiment, was Dr. Moesteller’s conclusion correct? a. No, because he did not randomly select his subjects. b. No, because he knew some of his subjects better than others. c. Yes, because subjects in both experimental groups had slower reaction times than the control group. d. Yes, because his results agree with what we all know from our experience with those who drink and drive. e. No, because there were too many confounding variables in his experiment, including both a and b.
2.
On the other side of this page, give Dr. Moesteller some advice on how he might improve his research on drinking.
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▼ WEB RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents Simeon’s Cave of Magic and the Confirmation Bias: www.caveofmagic.com/ Discovering Psychology Episode on Decision Making: www.learner.org/ Correlation Is Not Causation: www.msnbc.msn.com/ APA Code of Ethics: www.apa.org/ Ethics and Animal Experimentation: www.apa.org/ Rice Virtual Lab in Statistics: www.onlinestatbook.com/ VassarStats: http://faculty.vassar.edu/ Illusion and Statistical Analysis: www.npr.org/ Oscar the “Deathcat”: www.youtube.com/ Research Design Simeon’s Cave of Magic and the Confirmation Bias: www.caveofmagic.com/ This site presents an amusing and effective example of the confirmation bias, briefly mentioned again in this chapter. In this magic trick, participants pick a card from six, are asked to memorize it and then are shown a second array with their card magically “deleted.” The trick works because of confirmation bias; in fact, all of the cards are different, but participants notice only that the card they selected has been deleted. Ask students to figure out how the trick is done. Discovering Psychology Episode on Decision Making: www.learner.org/ The first 10 minutes of this video features an interview Nobel Prize winner Daniel Kahneman and the late Amos Tversky as they discuss the availability and representativeness heuristics. Correlation Is Not Causation: www.msnbc.msn.com/ Recently, researchers reported that drinking pop, even diet pop, is related to heart disease and diabetes; some possibilities are suggested in the news story from MSNBC. Students may write a brief paper generating additional possible causal mechanisms underlying this surprising correlation and describing how this association could be investigated experimentally, including the independent and dependent variables, and what difficulties they might encounter creating a double-blind study and ensuring that the experiment is consistent with ethical guidelines. Ethics APA Code of Ethics: www.apa.org/ American Psychological Association’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Your students may be required to participate in experiments as part of their introductory course. Introduce them to this website either at the start of the semester (to allay their fears about participating in studies) or at the end (as a “wrap-up” paper comparing their research experiences with the ethical guidelines stated by APA). Ethics and Animal Experimentation: www.apa.org/ Read arguments for the importance of animal research for promoting the understanding and welfare of human beings. The Committee on Animal Research and Ethics (CARE) has produced two videos on the importance of animal research. The first describes research in sensation and perception; the second describes research on pharmacology. Descriptions of the videos may be found at www.apa.org/research/responsible/care-video.aspx. They may be ordered through the APA order department: order@apa.org. .. 85
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Research/Statistics Rice Virtual Lab in Statistics: www.onlinestatbook.com/ Includes links to an online statistics textbook, simulations and demonstrations, case studies, and basic statistical analysis tools. VassarStats: http://vassarstats.net/ Richard Lowry from Vassar College maintains this excellent site for statistical calculations. Illusion and Statistical Analysis: www.npr.org/ Psychological scientist Thomas Gilovich is interviewed during the first 10 minutes of this NPR show. The topic is the illusory “hot hand” in basketball, that is, the much-held belief in “streak shooting.” This illusion illustrates well the importance of statistical analyses. Oscar the “Deathcat” http://www.youtube.com/ The story was also covered in the news; a brief video clip is available. ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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3/ BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲ Return to Table of Contents
MODULE 3.1: GENETIC AND EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVES ON BEHAVIOUR ➢ Lecture Guide: Genetic and Evolutionary Perspectives on Behaviour (p. 88) ➢ Resources Available (p. 93) MODULE 3.2: HOW THE NERVOUS SYSTEM WORKS: CELLS AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS ➢ Lecture Guide: Nerve Cells: Communication Portals (p. 94) ➢ Resources Available (p. 101 MODULE 3.3: STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ➢ Lecture Guide: Structure and Organization of the Nervous System (p. 102) ➢ Resources Available (p. 108) MODULE 3.4: WINDOWS TO THE BRAIN: MEASURING AND OBSERVING BRAIN ACTIVITY ➢ Lecture Guide: Windows to the Brain: Measuring and Observing Brain Activity (p. 109) ➢ Resources Available (p. 112) FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES ➢ Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 113) ➢ Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 121) ➢ Handout Masters (p. 135) ➢ APS: Readings from the Association of Psychological Science (p. 143) ➢ Forty Studies that Changed Psychology (p. 144) ➢ Web Resources (p. 145)
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LECTURE GUIDE I. MODULE 3.1: GENETIC AND EVOLTIONARY PERSPECTIVES ON BEHAVIOUR (Text p. 68) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives: ✓ Know key terminology related to genes, heredity, and evolutionary psychology. o See bold, italicized terms in notes below. ✓ Understand how twin and adoption studies reveal relationships between genes and behaviour. o Because we cannot breed humans as we do with other animals (e.g., dogs), behavioural geneticists use twin and adoption studies to examine the relation between genes and behaviour, or heritability. o Heritability is measured as a number between 0 and 1, with 1 meaning genes contributed to 100% of the characteristic. However, most characteristics (e.g., intelligence) have a heritability ranging between .40 and .70, suggesting that the environment also plays a role. o Twin studies compare monozygotic and dizygotic twins and adoptive studies compare adopted children to their biological and adoptive parents to examine heritability. ✓ Apply your knowledge of genes and behaviour to hypothesize why a trait might be adaptive. o Students should be able to put themselves in the shoes of an evolutionary psychologist to answer such questions as, Why are symmetrical features important in mate selection? and Which gender is more likely to be jealous of sexual infidelity and why? ✓ Analyze claims that scientists have located a specific gene that controls a single trait or behaviour. o There are many myths surrounding genes and behaviour. Often headlines read: “Scientists found gene for…”, which is misleading because there is no single gene contributing to characteristics, disorders, etc. Similarly, a single gene is not limited to affected only one trait. ✓ Analyze explanations for cognitive gender differences that are rooted in genetics. o Cross-cultural studies have found that men with higher levels of testosterone perform better in mental rotation tasks.
Heredity and Behaviour The Genetic Code 1) Research shows that genes influence physical characteristics as well as behavioural characteristics. i) These genes are found in the billions of human cells with a nucleus. 2) The nucleus is where we find the genes, which is where we find the chromosomes. Genes (p. 69) are the basic units of heredity; genes are responsible for guiding the process of creating the proteins that make up our physical structures and regulate development and physiological processes throughout the lifespan. 3) Genes are made up of DNA, which are made up of four types of amino acids: A, C, G, and T. i) Each gene is a unique combination of these four amino acids. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) (p. 69) is a molecule formed in a double-helix shape that contains four amino acids: (A)denine, (C)ytosine, (G)uanine, and (T)hymine. (Figure 3.1)
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4) A sequence of genes on a nucleotide might be ACGGGTCA (and so on), this is the individual’s genotype. The result of the instructions on the gene is the person’s phenotype. Genotype (p. 70) the genetic makeup of an organism – the unique set of genes that comprise that individual’s genetic code. Phenotype (p. 70) the physical traits or behavioural characteristics that show genetic variation, such as eye colour, the shape and size of facial features, intelligence, and even personality. 5) Genes are organized in chromosomes. Chromosomes (p. 70) are structures in the cellular nucleus that are lined with all of the genes an individual inherits. i)
Humans have about 20 000 to 30 000 genes lined up on 23 chromosomes, with half coming from the mother and half from the father (Figure 3.2). ii) In some cases, there is an extra chromosome called a trisomy. a) The most common is a trisomy on the 21st chromosome which produces Down Syndrome. b) Two genes on a pair of chromosomes are the same they are homozygous, if they differ they are heterozygous. c) Whether a trait is expressed depends on which combination is inherited. d) For example, the ability to taste a very bitter substance (PTC) is based on which combination of genes we inherit from either parent (Figure 3.3). e) Those who can taste the bitter substance have at least one copy of the dominant gene for tasting (show as capital ‘T’ in Figure 3.3). f) people can also inherit a recessive gene for tasting shown as ‘t’ in Figure 3.3. The recessive gene alone will not make a person a ‘taster’. g) tasters all have either TT or Tt or tT combinations of genes from their parents. 6) Genes have been linked to many disorders and sometimes many genes are linked to the same disorder. i) Must be cautious, having the gene does not mean a person will develop the disorder. Behavioural Genomics: The Molecular Approach 1) Twin and adoption studies provide estimates of heritability, but they do not tell us how traits are inherited. i) To determine the “how”, researchers use behavioural genomics. Behavioural genomics (p. 71) is the study of DNA and the ways in which specific genes are related to behaviour. 2) The Human Genome Project identified approximately 30,000 genes and all the sequences of the A, C, G, and T amino acids making up the genes. Human Genome Project (p. 71) is a massive effort to identify the components of the entire human genome. 3) This has opened the door to a new era of behavioural genetics. Researchers have identified genes shared by those with certain disorders. i) However, possession of that gene does not guarantee the disorder. a) For example, a single gene has been identified as a risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease, but not everyone who inherits this gene develops the disease.
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Myths in Mind: Single Genes and Behaviour 1) There are many myths surrounding genes and behaviour. Often, headlines read, “Scientists found gene for…”, which is misleading, because there is no single gene contributing to characteristics, disorders, etc. i) Combinations of genes work together to influence behaviour. ii) Similarly, a single gene is not limited to affected only one trait. a) For example, genes that are present in people who abuse alcohol are also more likely to be found in individuals who have a history of other problems (e.g., drug dependence and antisocial behaviour). iii) Also, as stated earlier, inheritance of a gene does not guarantee that characteristic or disease. iv) Environmental factors can also play a role.
Behavioural Genetics: Twin and Adoption Studies 1) For centuries, animal breeding has been used to produce dogs that are good for hunting, herding, or companionship. However, these same methods cannot be used on humans to study their behaviours. Behavioural genetics (p. 72) is the study of how genes and environment influence behaviour. 2) Behavioural genetic methods applied to humans typically involve comparing people of different levels of relatedness (e.g., siblings vs. strangers) and measuring resemblances for a specific trait of interest. 3) One common method is to compare identical and fraternal twins. Monozygotic twins (p. 72) come from a single ovum (egg), which makes them genetically identical (almost 100% genetic similarity). Dizygotic twins (p. 72) (fraternal twins) come from two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm cells that share the same womb; these twins have approximately 50% of their genetics in common. i)
Researchers compare monozygotic twins, dizogotic twins, siblings and unrelated individuals to see if an increase in relatedness predicts greater similarity for a trait. a. Sometimes must conduct longitudinal studies over time in order to see the role of genes.
Longitudinal studies (p. 72) studies that follow the same individuals for many years, often decades. 4) Behavioural Geneticists use twin and adoption studies to calculate heritability. Heritability (p. 72) is a statistic, expressed as a number between zero and one that represents the degree to which genetic differences between individuals contribute to individual differences in a behaviour or trait found in a population. i)
A heritability of 0 means that genes do no contribute to individual differences in a trait, whereas a 1.0 indicates that genes account for all differences. ii) For example, in studying anxiety and depression, research has shown it is much more likely for both monozygotic twins to show anxiety and depression than it is for both dizygotic twins to do so. iii) One study found there a heritability of .76 for a pair of 3-year-old identical twins. This tells us 76% of individual differences in depression and anxiety at age 3 can be attributed to genetic factors in the population that was studied.
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a) However, it is important to note that the environment also plays a factor. Experiences change and accumulate over time, which can affect the heritability. In that same study, heritability changed from .76 at age 3 to .48 at age 12 for those same twins. iv) Behavioural geneticists also study adopted children to see the role of environment. v) Heritability studies are limited to the population being studied. a) Cannot generalize data from Canada to Egypt b) Heritability is affected by genetic variability in the population being studied c) Heritability is affected by the similarity of environments of populations being studied d) Could be very different in Canada and Egypt Gene Expression and Behaviour 1) Scientists agree that the environment influences behaviour but there has always been a debate on how these changes occur. Research on the Human Genome is starting to explain the interaction. i) We have about 25 000 genes but only 6000 to 7000 are expressed. Research suggests that environment can influence whether a gene is expressed. a) If some genes fail to be expressed then problems can develop. Children with autism have less gene expression in several parts of their brain. Epigenetics (p. 75): changes in gene expression that occurs as a result of experience but do not alter the genetic code. ii) Long-term studies also suggest a relationship between genes, stress, and depression (Figure 3.4). The brain chemical known as serotonin is related to mood, and imbalances of it are associated with depression. a) There are two versions of the gene that is responsible for the absorption of serotonin: short and long. The combinations of inheritance include: short/short, long/long, and short/long. b) Inheriting two short copies puts someone at a greater risk of developing depression, versus those who inherit two long copies. c) However, the levels of stress one is exposed to also plays a factor.
Evolutionary Insights into Human Behaviour 1) Charles Darwin, the 19th century British naturalist, is credited at arriving at an explanation for why the anatomical and behavioural traits of animals often seem so fitted to their respective environments. i) He also applied many of his theories to human behaviour. 2) Evolutionary psychology uses evolutionary theories to explain human behaviour. Natural selection (p. 76) is the process by which favorable traits become increasingly common in a population of interbreeding individuals, while traits that are unfavorable become less common. Evolution (p. 77) is the change in frequency of genes occurring in an interbreeding population over generations. 3) Evolutionary psychology (as covered in Module 1.2) views modern human behaviour as an outcome of the processes of survival and reproduction among our early human ancestors. 4) Physical and behavioural traits are passed from one generation to the next through sexual reproduction. i) Some of these traits are called adaptations and contribute to survival, health, and sexual attraction. ii) Those with these advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, creating populations with similar genes. .. 91
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Evolutionary Psychology 1) Charles Darwin described the process of certain genes becoming more frequent and others less so as natural selection (Figure 3.5). i) However, this process is gradual, taking numerous generations. 2) The human brain contains special adaptations, which allow certain cognitive and behavioural functions leading to longer survival. i) Throughout our history these have included larger pre-frontal cortexes, and brains with more folds, allowing for more cells squeezed into the skull. ii) This gives the cognitive advantage of planning, problem solving/decision making, and attention and behaviour control. 3) Darwin’s theory was not accepted because it opposed the church; however, it is now widely accepted by most scientific circles as a branch of psychology. Evolutionary Psychology (p. 78) attempts to explain human behaviours based on the beneficial function(s) they may have served in our species’ development. Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Hunters and Gatherers: Men, Women and Spatial Memory 1) Evolutionary psychologist link useful skills and behaviours of our ancestors to our own modern cognitive abilities. i) Consider differences in male and female cognitive abilities. 2) What do we know about the sex differences in spatial memory? i) Males and females have had different problems to solve in order to survive. ii) E.g., Males traditionally were responsible for hunting and killing animals for food, which requires size, strength, and the ability to travel and not become lost. iii) Females traditionally had children to care for, so remained close to home. They collected berries and plants. iv) Men developed strong spatial skills, whereas women developed better memory recall for objects and locations. Hunter-Gatherer Theory (p. 78) links performance on specific tasks to the different roles performed by males and females over the course of our evolutionary history. 3) How can science test sex differences and spatial memory? i) The mental rotation task research (Figure 3.6) shows that males generally perform this task quicker and with more accuracy than females. ii) Some research suggests that higher levels of testosterone are responsible, suggesting that there is a biological (or possibly evolutionary) influence over the male advantage. iii) Females also outscore males on spatial tasks involving memory of location of objects. 4) Can we critically evaluate this evidence? i) Not all males are better with mental rotation and vice versa. They merely possess overlapping curves with average scores that differ slightly. ii) Other issues include cross-cultural differences; however, overall it is more likely that these are only one of many factors influencing behaviour. 5) Why is this relevant? i) The hunter-gatherer hypothesis suggests how the behaviours of our ancestors may have had an effect on modern-day human behaviour.
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 3.1 Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Crossword Puzzle ➢ Fill-in-the-Blanks ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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II. MODULE 3.2: HOW THE NERVOUS SYSTEM WORKS: CELLS AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS (Text p. 81) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives: ✓ Know the key terminology associated with nerve cells, hormones, and their functioning. o See bold, italicized terms in notes below. ✓ Understand how nerve cells communicate. o Once stimulated, an action potential causes a nerve cell to release neurotransmitters into the synapse. These neurotransmitters bind to an adjacent neuron, which either causes that cell to fire (excitatory) or to stop the action potential (inhibitory). ✓ Understand the ways that drugs and other substances affect the brain. o Drugs can be agonists or antagonists. Agonists enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter, whereas antagonists block the effects of a neurotransmitter. ✓ Understand the roles that hormones play in our behaviour. o The nervous system, mainly the hypothalamus, interacts with the endocrine system in controlling the release of hormones. Hormones influence, not cause, behaviour. They are involved in reactions to stress, sexual arousal, and aggression. ✓ Apply your knowledge of neurotransmitters to form hypotheses about drug actions. o Students should be able to use their knowledge of SSRIs, classes of neurotransmitters, and the reuptake process to consider the effects of similar drugs, such monoamine oxidase inhibitor. ✓ Analyze the claim that we are born with all the nerve cells we will ever have. o This was thought to be true, but advances in science in the past 15 years have allowed researchers to observe the formation of new neurons (i.e., neurogenesis) in certain regions of the brain associated with learning and memory.
Neural Communication 1) The body is composed of many different types of cells. Psychologists are most interested in neurons. Neurons (p. 82) one of the major types of cells found in the nervous system that are responsible for sending and receiving messages throughout the body. The Neuron 1) The primary purpose of the neuron is to receive input from one group of neurons and to transmit information to other neurons. i) Neurons works in groups of thousands or millions. 2) Neurons come in many different lengths, but most have the same key structures: cell body, dendrites, and axons (Figure 3.9). Cell Body (p. 82) (soma) is the part of the neuron that contains the nucleus that houses the cell’s genetic material. Dendrites (p. 83) are the small branches radiating from the cell body, receive messages from other cells and transmit the message toward the cell body. Axon (p. 83) the structure that transports information from the neuron to other neurons in the form of electrochemical reactions.
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3) At the end of the axon are axon terminals. Located within those terminals are neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are released across synapses. Neurotransmitters (p. 83) are the chemicals that function as messengers allowing neurons to communicate with each other. 4) Neurons can differ in form and function. i) For example, motor neurons carry messages away from the brain and spinal cord and toward muscles that control their flexion and extension (Figure 3.10). Myths in Mind: We Are Born with All the Brain Cells We Will Ever Have 1) Scientists used to believe that we were born with all the brain cells we will ever had and that they cannot regenerate. 2) Research over the last 15 years has challenged this assumption. i) Researchers have observed neurogenesis, the formation of new neurons, in brain regions related to memory. ii) Growth starts with a stem cell that turns into a neuron. 3) In the future, it may be possible to trigger neural growth in other part of the nervous system. i) Repair spinal cord injuries. ii) Repair areas damaged by Parkinson’s disease. Glial Cells 1) The activity of neurons is highly dependent on interactions with glial cells. Glial cells (p. 84) are specialized cells of the nervous system that are involved in mounting immune responses in the brain, removing wastes, and synchronizing activity of the billions of neurons that constitute the nervous system. 2) A specific job of glial cells is to make myelin. i) Multiple sclerosis is a disease in which the immune system attacks the myelin. Myelin (p. 84) a fatty sheath that insulates axons from one another, resulting in increased speed and efficiency of neural communication. 3) When myelin degenerates disorders can occur. i) Multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease are all related to myelin.
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The Neuron’s Electrical System: Resting and Action Potentials 1) At its resting potential, the outside of the neuron has a high concentration of positively charged ions (sodium and potassium), whereas the inside of the axon has higher levels of negatively charge ions (chloride). i) At this state, the neuron is polarized, but springs into action when stimulated, called neural firing (Figure 3.11). a) Neurons rest with a charge of about -70 millivolts. b) There is tension between the extrostatic gradient and the concentration gradient during the resting period. c) The electrostatic gradient means that the inside and outside of the cell have different charges (positive and negative). d) The concentration gradient means that ions are more densely packed on one side of the neuron than the other (see Figure 3.11). Resting Potential (p. 84): a relatively stable state during which the cell is not transmitting messages. 2) When a neuron is stimulated to fire, the pores of its membrane surface open up and positively charged ions rush in. If enough rush in to meet the threshold of that neuron, it will fire or create an action potential. During this time, the net charge of the cell goes from negative to positive (Figure 3.12). Action Potential (p. 85) a wave of electrical activity that originates at the base of the axon and rapidly travels down its length. 3) The action potential moves down the axon, and as positive ions come rushing in, the pores of the membrane slam shut and the sodium ions are pumped back out, returning the cell to its resting state. 4) When the action potential reaches the end of the axon (axon terminals), neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft and bind to the receptors on the dendrites of neighbouring neurons. 5) After a neuron fires, it is followed by a refractory period, which lasts a couple of milliseconds and then it can fire again if stimulated. Refractory Period (p. 85) A brief period in which a neuron cannot fire. 6) A given neuron always fires at the same intensity and speed. i) The strength of nerve stimulation is determined by the rate at which the cells fire as well as by the number of cells that fire. Synapses (p. 86) the microscopically small space that separates individual nerve cells. All-or-None Principle (p. 86) Individual nerve cells fire at the same strength every time an action potential is reached.
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The Chemical Messengers: Neurotransmitters and Hormones 1) Presynaptic neurons release neurotransmitters into the synapse; a fraction will bind to receptors on the post synaptic neuron. i) Two effects of binding: a) If the binding caused the neuron to become less negative you have an excitatory potential which increases the likelihood that that neuron will fire. b) If the binding caused the neuron to become more negative you have an inhibitory potential which means the neuron is less likely to fire. 2) Numerous types of neurotransmitters have been identified, each with its own unique shape. However, neurons tend to only send and receive a limited number of neurotransmitters. 3) When neurotransmitters are released at the axon terminal of a neuron, they float across the synapse and fit into a particular receptor of the dendrite of an adjacent neuron. i) This is often referred to as a lock and key pairing (Figure 3.13). Synaptic cleft (p. 86) the minute space between the terminal button and the dendrite. 4) After the neurotransmitters have bound to the receptor sites, they are released back into the synapse where they are either broken down by enzymes or reabsorbed in the reuptake process (Figure 3.17). Reuptake (p. 86) is a process whereby neurotransmitter molecules that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed into the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron. 5) Reuptake is sort of a natural recycling system for neurotransmitters. Many commonly used drugs also use this process. i) For example, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of antidepressants (e.g., Prozac) that inhibit the reuptake of serotonin, increasing the amount of serotonin available in the synapse for use.
Types of Neurotransmitters 1) Neurotransmitters vary in terms of the nerve cells they bind and their effects on behaviour (Table 3.1). 2) The most common neurotransmitter are glutamate and GABA. Glutamate (p. 87) is an excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system that is critical to the processes of learning and memory. Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA) (p. 87) is a primary inhibitory neurotransmitter of the nervous system, meaning that it prevents neurons from generating an action potential. i) Abnormal glutamate releasing neurons has been linked to problems including seizures ii) GABA’s role is to inhibit neurons: a) Facilitates sleep and reduces arousal in the nervous system b) Low levels of GABA are linked to epilepsy 3) Acetylcholine is one of the most widespread neurotransmitters within the body, found at the junctions between nerve cells and skeletal muscles. i) Some animals release venom that influences acetylcholine including the black widow spider ii) Also associated with attention and memory a) Shows that where a neurotransmitter has its effect determine what that effect is
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Acetylcholine (p. 87) is very important for voluntary movement and acetylcholine in the brain is associated with arousal and attention. 4) Monoamines are one class of neurotransmitters, with each having its own unique functioning as well as some overlap. Dopamine (p. 88) is a monoamine neurotransmitter involved in such varied functions as mood, control of voluntary movement, and processing of rewarding experiences. Norepinephrine (p. 88) is a monoamine synthesized from dopamine molecules that is involved in regulating stress responses, including increasing arousal, attention, and heart rate. Serotonin (p. 88) is a monoamine involved in regulating mood, sleep, aggression, and appetite.
Drug Effects on Neurotransmission 1) Drugs (e.g., prescription and recreational) affect the chemical signaling that takes place between nerve cells (Figure 3.15). Agonists (p. 88) are drugs that enhance or mimic the effects of a neurotransmitter’s action. Antagonists (p. 88) inhibit neurotransmitter activity by blocking receptors or preventing synthesis of the neurotransmitter. 2) Drugs can behave as agonists either directly or indirectly. Direct agonists are drugs that can bind to receptor sites. Indirect agonists facilitate neurotransmitters by increasing the release and availability of neurotransmitters. i) For example, SSRIs block the reuptake of serotonin making it an indirect agonist. 3) Nicotine is an acetylcholine agonist, meaning it stimulates the receptor sites for this neurotransmitter. i) The antianxiety drug Xanax is a GABA agonist, meaning it causes relaxation by increasing the activity of this inhibitory neurotransmitter. 4) Conversely, Botox injections block the action of acetylcholine (see Figure 3.15) and are considered antagonists. i) Blocking acetylcholine could lead to paralysis of the heart and lungs, but in very small amounts injected around the eyes, the antagonist paralyzes the muscles that lead to wrinkles.
Hormones and the Endocrine System 1) The body has two chemical messenger systems: neurotransmitters and hormones. Hormones (p. 89) are chemicals secreted by the glands of the endocrine system. 2) Neurotransmitters work almost immediately within the tiny space of the synapse, whereas hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and travel throughout the body. 3) With help from the nervous system, the endocrine system contributes to homeostasis, which is the balance of energy, metabolism, body temperature, and other basic functions that keep the body working properly (figure 3.16). i) For example, located in the brain is the hypothalamus, which stimulates the master gland of the endocrine system, the pituitary gland.
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Hypothalamus (p. 89) is a brain structure that regulates basic biological needs and motivational systems. Pituitary gland (p. 89) is the master gland of the endocrine system that produces hormones and sends commands about hormone production to the other glands of the endocrine system. 4) How we respond to stress is a great example of how the nervous and endocrine systems work together. When we encounter a stressful event, the hypothalamus sets chemical events in motion that physically prepare the body for stress. i) It signals the pituitary gland to release a hormone that stimulates the adrenal glands, which in turn release cortisol and epinephrine to help mobilize the body during stress (e.g., fight or flight). Adrenal glands (p. 90) are a pair of endocrine glands located adjacent to the kidneys that release stress hormones, such as cortisol and epinephrine. 5) Other important hormones include endorphin and testosterone. Endorphin (p. 90) is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus that functions to reduce pain and induce feelings of pleasure. 6) Endorphin is released into the bloodstream during events such as strenuous exercise, sexual activity, or injury. It acts on parts of the brain that are associated with pleasure, inhibiting the perception of pain and increasing feelings of euphoria. i) Morphine is an agonist that binds to the same receptors sites as endorphin and produces the same effects. 7) Testosterone is a hormone involved with multiple functions, such as sexual development and response to threats. i) This hormone is often cited as the cause for a behaviour, such as males’ physical aggression; however, it is more likely that it facilitates behaviour. Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Testosterone and Aggression 1) Testosterone is one of the main sex hormones produced by the body. i) In men, it is produced in the testes and in women, it is produced in the ovaries. ii) It was traditionally believed that since testosterone is related to male development, which explained why males tend to possess more physical aggression than females. 2) What do we know about testosterone and aggression? i) Research does link testosterone and aggression. a) In a study using castrated mice, researchers found that the mice demonstrated almost no aggressive behaviour when faced with a typically aggressive situation. b) Researchers then injected the same castrated mice with testosterone and aggressive behaviour was observed. c) A human study was conducted on prison inmates and found that higher levels of testosterone were linked to more violent crimes (e.g., murder, armed robbery), whereas both male and female inmates who had committed nonviolent crimes had lower levels of testosterone. d) These findings do suggest some link between testosterone and aggression.
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3) How can science explain the relationship between testosterone and aggression? i) Testosterone has been found in scientific studies to be involved in social aggression and dominance. a) Some species demonstrate aggression to gain access to food or a mate. b) Dominance has been seen in some primate species to be non-violent (e.g., stares, shouts and threatening body language) rather than physical aggressiveness. c) Studies have found that testosterone levels will rise during or in anticipation of competition. d) Higher levels have been observed in winners than in losers in human studies of competition, supporting the link between testosterone and social dominance. 4) Can we critically evaluate this research? i) The body of research that exists for aggression and testosterone is correlational and cannot be used to show that one causes the other. a) For example, one cannot state whether winning led to increased testosterone, or if those competitors with higher levels of testosterone were more likely to win. ii) What does testosterone actually do to affect our behaviour and make people or animals more socially dominant? a) Studies have suggested that testosterone alters the behaviours that promote social bonding. 5) Why is this relevant? i) These studies provide strong evidence that testosterone is correlated not just with aggression, but also with social aggression. The evolutionary science behind it shows how aggression and dominant behaviour has had a purpose as a desired trait. a) Dominant and aggressive (both physically and socially) are more likely to survive, eat and mate and carry on their gene.
Neurons in Context 1) Genes can influence how the neurotransmitters are formed as well as processes such as reuptake. i) Genes can influence how neurons communicate with one another. ii) The behaviour of brain cells may seem very removed from psychology but in reality, brain cell activity is what makes you ‘you’.
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 3.2 Lecture Launchers ➢ Leading Off the Chapter ➢ Neurotransmitters: Chemical Communicators of the Nervous System ➢ Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Using Reaction Time to Show the Speed of Neurons ➢ The Five Dollar Bill Drop ➢ Using Dominoes to Understand the Action Potential ➢ Demonstrating Neural Conduction: The Class as a Neural Network ➢ Human Neuronal Chain Web Resources ➢ Biological and Physiological Resources: http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/aupr/biological.shtml ➢ Neuroguide.com—Neurosciences on the Internet: www.neuroguide.com/ ➢ Neuropsychology Central: www.neuropsychologycentral.com/ ➢ Neuroscience for Kids: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html ➢ Basic Neural Processes Tutorials: http://psych.hanover.edu/Krantz/neurotut.html ➢ Making Connections—The Synapse: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/synapse.html ➢ Neural Processes Tutorial: http://psych.hanover.edu/Krantz/neurotut.html ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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III. MODULE 3.3: STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (Text p. 94) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology associated with the structure and organization of the nervous system. o See bold, italicized terms in notes below. ✓ Understand how studies of split-brain patients reveal the workings of the brain. o Split-brain studies revealed that the two hemispheres of the brain are specialized for certain cognitive tasks (e.g., left hemisphere is specialized for language). ✓ Apply your knowledge of brain regions to predict which abilities might be affected when a specific area is injured or diseased. o After reading this module, and with the help of Table 3.2, students should be able to answer questions regarding the results of damage to certain parts of the brain. Similarly, given a description of injury symptoms, students should know which areas of the brain were damaged. ✓ Analyze whether neuroplasticity will help people with brain damage. o After reading this module students should understand how the potential as well as the limitation of neuroplasticity as a remedy for brain damage.”
Divisions of the Nervous System 1) This section of the module discusses the basic divisions of the nervous system: the central and peripheral nervous systems (Figure 3.18). The Central Nervous System Central nervous system (CNS) (p. 95) consists of the brain and the spinal cord. 1) The spinal cord connects the brain with the PNS, forming a network that spans the body (Figure 3.19). i) Messages are sent from the brain out to glands, muscles, and organs. ii) Pathways also relay sensory information back to the brain.
The Peripheral Nervous System Peripheral nervous system (PNS) (p. 95) transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body and is divided into two subcomponents, the somatic system and the autonomic system. 1) Any voluntary behaviours (e.g., reaching for an object) are governed by the somatic nervous system, whereas the autonomic nervous system plays a key role in essential body functions and emotions. Somatic nervous system (p. 95) consists of nerves that control skeletal muscles, which are responsible for voluntary and reflexive movement. Autonomic nervous system (p. 96) is the portion of the peripheral nervous system responsible for controlling organs and glands.
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Sympathetic nervous system (p. 96) is responsible for the fight-or-flight response of an increased heart rate, dilated pupils, and decreased salivary flow—responses that prepare the body for action. Parasympathetic nervous system (p. 96) helps maintain homeostasis balance in the presence of change; following sympathetic arousal, it works to return the body to a baseline, nonemergency state. 2) The autonomic nervous system is further broken down into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system (Figure 3.19). 3) The sympathetic nervous system prepares our body for fight or flight. i) Blood is directed to the muscle. ii) Heart rate and perspiration increase, iii) Digestive processes slow. 4) The parasympathetic nervous system generally does the opposite of the sympathetic nervous system.
The Brain and Its Structures 1) The brain is divided into two cerebral hemispheres, which are nearly symmetrical halves of the brain that contain the same structures. 2) The structures of the brain are subdivided into three main regions: the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain (Table 3.3).
The Hindbrain: Sustaining the Body 1) The hindbrain controls the basic, life-sustaining processes (Figure 3.20). i) The brain stem is located at the top of the spinal cord. Brainstem (p. 97): the “stem” or bottom of the brain and consists of two structures: the medulla and the pons. a) Nerve cells in the medulla connect with the body to perform basic functions, such as breathing and heart rate. b) The pons contributes to general levels of wakefulness and play a role in dreaming. ii) The reticular formation sends signals to the cortex to influence attention and alertness and also communicates with cells in the spinal cord involved with motor control. iii) The cerebellum is specialized in the coordination and timing of movements. Cerebellum (p. 98) is the lobe-like structure at the base of the brain that is involved in the monitoring of movement, maintaining balance, attention, and emotional responses.
The Midbrain: Sensation and Action Midbrain (p. 98) resides just above the hindbrain and primarily functions as a relay station between the sensory and motor areas.
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1) The midbrain is involved with the reflexive ability to orient to the location of sounds and to notice images in the corner of your eye. i) This is achieved by the superior colliculi. 2) The midbrain also regulates attention, shifting our attention to new stimuli in the environment. i) Orienting of attention is achieved by the inferior colliculi, 3) The midbrain is also connected to the forebrain through the substantia nigra, which influences movements by releasing dopamine. The Forebrain: Emotion, Memory, and Thought Forebrain (p. 98) the most visibly obvious region of the brain, consists of all of the neural structures that are located above the midbrain, including all of the folds and grooves on the outer surface of the brain; the multiple interconnected structures in the forebrain are critical to such complex processes as emotion, memory, thinking, and reasoning. 1) The forebrain contain space called ventricles that are filled with cerebrospinal fluid (Figure 3.21). 2) Major structures in the forebrain include the basal ganglia, limbic system, hypothalamus (Module 3.2), and the thalamus (Figure 3.22 & Figure 3.23). Basal Ganglia (p. 99) group of three structures that are involved in facilitating planned movements, skill learning, and integrating sensory and movement information with the brain’s reward system. 3) The basal ganglia are involved with planned movement, skill learning, and pleasurable emotions. i) Those who are good at a given motor skill (e.g., playing the piano) have modified their basal ganglia through practice to better coordinate engaging in the activity. ii) The nucleus accumbens is a part of the basal ganglia that accompanies all sorts of pleasurable experiences, such as sexual excitement, thrills (from gambling), and satisfying a food craving. a) Addicting drugs, such as cocaine, target dopamine transmission in the nucleus accumbens. 4) Another major set of forebrain structures comprises the limbic system. Limbic System (p. 99) is an integrated network involved in emotion and memory. i)
One key structure in the limbic system is the almond-shaped amygdala. Amygdala (p. 99) facilitates memory formation for emotional events, mediates fear responses, and appears to play a role in recognizing and interpreting emotional stimuli, including facial expressions.
ii) The amygdala connects with structures in the nervous system responsible for adaptive fear responses, such as freezing in position when a threat is detected. iii) Below the amygdala is another limbic region called the hippocampus. Hippocampus (p. 100) is critical for learning and memory, particularly the formation of new memories. 5) The hypothalamus (covered in Module 3.2) serves as a sort of thermostat, maintaining body temperature and it also affects drives (e.g., aggression and sex) by interacting with the endocrine system.
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6) Most incoming sensory information is routed through the thalamus and proceeds to more specialized regions of the brain for further processing. Thalamus (p. 100) a set of nuclei involved in relaying sensory information to different regions of the brain. The Cerebral Cortex Cerebral cortex (p. 100) is the convoluted, wrinkled outer layer of the brain that is involved in multiple higher functions, such as thought, language, and personality. 1) This complex structure has increased dramatically in size as the primate brain has evolved. i) However, brain size is limited by the size of the skull and its need to fit through the birth canal. ii) To overcome this constraint, the brain formed a wrinkled surface, which increases its surface area. 2) The cerebral cortex is made up of grey matter and white matter (Figure 3.24). i) Grey matter is composed of cell bodies and dendrites. ii) White matter is composed of myelinated axons that interconnect with different structures of the brain. 3) The cerebral hemispheres consist of four major areas, known as lobes: the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes (Figure 3.25). i) Each lobe has a particular set of functions, but are also connected by nerve cells to each other and other regions of the midbrain and hindbrain. 4) The occipital lobes received information from the thalamus. Occipital Lobes (p. 101) are located at the rear of the brain, where visual information is processed. 5) The parietal lobes are involved with such things as touch sensation and performing mathematical and visuospatial tasks. Parietal Lobes (p. 101) are located behind the frontal lobes, and are involved in our experiences of touch as well as bodily awareness. i) Within the parietal lobes, next to the primary motor cortex, is the somatosensory cortex. ii) The somatosensory cortex is responsible for touch sensations for certain regions of the body, which have also been mapped (Figure 3.26). a) Sensitive regions of the body (e.g., hands) have more nerve cells in the somatosensory cortex versus less sensitive body areas (e.g., legs). 6) The temporal lobes perform a variety of functioning related to memory and semantic knowledge, auditory processing, and language processing and interacts heavily with the frontal lobes. Temporal lobes (p. 102) are located at the sides of the brain near the ears and are involved in hearing, language, and some higher-level aspects of vision such as object and face recognition. i)
The superior (top) part of the temporal cortex is known as the auditory cortex which is essential for our ability to hear. Damage to this area leads to cortical deafness.
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7) The frontal lobes allow you to deliberately guide and reflect on your own thought processes. Frontal lobes (p. 102) are portions of the brain important in numerous higher cognitive functions, such as planning, inhibition of impulses and emotion, language production, and voluntary movement. i) Toward the rear of the frontal lobes is a thick band of neurons that form the primary motor cortex, which is involved in the control of voluntary movement (Figure 3.26). a) The regions of the body the primary motor cortex controls have been mapped onto this brain region (Figure 3.26). b) These regions are active when moving the corresponding body part as well as when planning a movement. c) This area of the brain is heavily researched by scientists working with quadriplegics in developing thought-controlled devices by implanting microchips into the motor cortex. 8) The brain is divided into two hemispheres, which are connected by the corpus callosum (Figure 3.28). Corpus callosum (p. 104) is a collection of neural fibres connecting the two hemispheres. PSYCH @: The Gym 1) Exercise affects cognitive activities, such as learning and memory. 2) Studies in humans have shown that those who regularly exercise: i) Have improved functioning of the prefrontal cortex. ii) Perform better on tasks involving planning, scheduling, and multitasking. 3) Animal studies and studies with the elderly have shown exercise to: i) Increase the number of cells in the hippocampus, which is critical for memory. ii) Increase the quantity of brain chemicals that are responsible for promoting cell growth and functioning. Left Brain, Right Brain: Hemispheric Specialization 1) The two hemispheres of the brain may look the same, but perform different functions, a phenomenon called hemispheric specialization. i) Basically, the right side specializes in cognitive tasks that involve visual and spatial skills, recognition of visual stimuli, and musical processing. ii) The left hemisphere is more specialized for language and math. 2) Split-brain patients have greatly added to our understanding of hemispheric specialization. i) In the 1960s, physicians used to treat severe epilepsy by severing the corpus callosum, leaving the patient with two separate hemispheres. ii) Patients were rather normal after this procedure, but there are some differences in how information is processed (Figure 3.29). a) Keep in mind that the right side of the brain processes the left visual field, and vice versa. b) A split-brain patient can match two objects to her right, and can verbalize the match, because the left side of her visual system perceives the objects and language is processed in the left hemisphere. c) When objects are to the left of the patient, s/he can only point to the two that match. The patient can use the right hemisphere to process the information, but cannot verbalize it. 3) There are few split-brain patients today, because epilepsy can now be effectively treated with medications.
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4) Differences between the hemispheres are not clear cut; they are more a matter of degree than one hemisphere or the other cognitive functions are spread throughout the brain, but sometimes one hemisphere is more involved than the other. i) Examples of hemisphere differences can be seen in Table 3.4. 5) Although there are many people who believe that a person can be “right brained” or “left brained” there is little evidence to suggest that there are actual personality differences due to differences in hemispheric dominance. The Changing Brain: Neuroplasticity 1) Brain cells don’t regrow, but they have neuroplasticity. Neuroplasticity (p. 105): the capacity of the brain to change and rewire itself based on individual experience. i) Visual systems in blind people are used for other purposes. ii) Musicians develop more grey matter in the frontal lobe, motor cortex, and auditory areas of the brain. iii) Neuroplasticity is evidence that genetics do not determine a brain’s whole structure, experience plays a crucial role as well. Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Neuroplasticity and Recovery from Brain Injury 1) It would seem that specific brain structures, like Broca’s area, are clearly defined parts that are easy to point out. However, this is not the case. The brain is genetically programmed to have specialized areas, but it also has neuroplasticity. 2) What do we know about neuroplasticity? i) Some animals such as fish and amphibians have a lifelong ability to grow new nerve cells; humans can do this to a limited extent in our peripheral nervous system. ii) Brain damage is often permanent, but certain areas can accommodate with the damage through neuroplasticity. iii) Brain damage is made worse by the presence of chemicals that inhibit the growth of new cells 3) How can science show that neuroplasticity contributes to stroke recovery? i) Stroke patients often suffer damage to Broca’ area and are unable to speak (i.e., Broca’s aphasia). ii) However, they are able to sing using the corresponding area of the right hemisphere. iii) Many patients get most of their language function back after undergoing 80 or more intense sessions of Melodic Intonation Therapy (MIT), where patients learn to speak by singing long strings of word using two pitches (Figure 3.31). 4) Can we critically evaluate this research? i) Stroke patients suffer damage to motor cortex areas that affect movement, but never gain it back. ii) This is because the motor cortex resides in both hemispheres, with each hemisphere controlling the opposite side of the body. One side of the motor cortex cannot control both sides of the body. iii) Broca’s area is only in the left hemisphere, however language function is not limited to the left hemisphere. The right side is involved in signing and understanding metaphors and other figurative language. This may be why that language can move from the left to the right hemisphere after intense therapy. 5) Why is this relevant? i) Although research findings are promising for patients using MIT, this therapy is rarely used. Instead, much less effective therapies are common practice.
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 3.3 Lecture Launchers ➢ The Brain ➢ Brain’s Bilingual Broca ➢ The Phineas Gage Story ➢ Berger’s Wave ➢ Freak Accidents and Brain Injuries ➢ Neural Effects of a Concussion ➢ Workplace Problems: Left Handedness ➢ Understanding Hemispheric Function ➢ The Results of a Hemispherectomy Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Mapping the Brain ➢ The Importance of a Wrinkled Cortex ➢ Probing the Cerebral Cortex ➢ Trip to the Hospital ➢ Lateralization Activities ➢ Localization of Function Exercise ➢ The Brain Diagram ➢ Psychology in Literature: The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat Web Resources ➢ Brain and Behaviour: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/ ➢ Brain Connection: The Brain and Learning: http://brainconnection.positscience.com/ ➢ Brain Model Tutorial: http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/ ➢ Whole Brain Atlas: www.med.harvard.edu:80/ ➢ Autonomic Nervous System: http://faculty.washington.edu/ ➢ Self-Quiz for Chapter on the Human Nervous System: www.psychwww.com/ ➢ Phineas Gage Information Page: www.deakin.edu.au/ ➢ Brain: Right Down the Middle: http://faculty.washington.edu/ ➢ Conversations with Neil’s Brain (1994): www.williamcalvin.com/ ➢ Drugs, Brains, and Behaviour: www.rci.rutgers.edu/ ➢ Brain Function and Pathology: www.waiting.com/ ➢ Lobes of the Brain: http://faculty.washington.edu/ ➢ One Brain…or Two? http://faculty.washington.edu/ ➢ What Does Handedness Have to Do with Brain Lateralization (and Who Cares?): www.indiana.edu/ ➢ He Brains/She Brains http://faculty.washington.edu/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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IV. MODULE 3.4: WINDOWS TO THE BRAIN: MEASURING AND OBSERVING BRAIN ACTIVITY (Text p. 109) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives: ✓ Know the key terminology associated with measuring and observing brain activity. o See bold, italicized terms in notes below. ✓ Understand how studies of animals with brain lesions can inform us about the workings of the brain. o Lesioning can provide information about brain damage that cannot be obtained any other way. ✓ Apply your knowledge of neuroimaging. o Complete the activity on p. 128 and determine the correct neuroimaging technique for each situation. ✓ Analyze whether neuroimaging can be used to diagnose brain injuries. o There are some cases where neuroimaging can help better understand brain injuries, depending on the type of brain injury, a different brain imaging technique may be indicated.
Windows to the Brain: Measuring and Observing Brain Activity Insights from Brain Damage 1) Early studies of the brain often involved case studies of individuals with unique characteristics. i) When the individual died their brain would be examined to try to correlate their symptoms to specific regions in the brain. ii) All patients suffered some sort of injury, there was no way to study healthy patients. iii) In the last forty years researchers have developed brain imaging technique and other methods of inquiring to teach about brain functioning. Lesioning and Brain Stimulation 1) One way of studying the brain is to examine the effects of areas that are shut down or stimulated. Lesioning (p. 110) is a technique in which researchers intentionally damage an area in the brain. 2) Lesioning studies are now limited to animal research, but similar human research is done on participants after stroke, injury, or brain surgery. 3) Less drastic techniques impair brain activity only temporarily. i) Wada testing involves injecting a sedative into an artery on one side of the body that travels up to the brain and sedates only one half of the cortex. ii) Researchers also use transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to temporarily disrupt brain activity, which is analogous to the permanent disruption caused by injury (Figure 3.33). Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) (p. 111) is a procedure in which researchers send an electromagnetic pulse to a targeted region of the brain.
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a) TMS can also be used to stimulate, rather than temporarily impair, a brain region. b) TMS has also been used to stimulate under-active areas of the brain associated with depression. c) TMS has also been used to stimulating nerve cells that were impaired by stroke related damage.
Structural and Functional Neuroimaging Structural Neuroimaging Structural neuroimaging (p. 112) a type of brain scanning that produces images of the different structures of the brain. 1) There are three common types of structural neuroimaging: computerized tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) (Figure 3.34) Computerized tomography (CT scan) (p. 112) is a structural neuroimaging technique in which xrays are sent through the brain by a tube that rotates around the head. 2) With a CT scan a computer calculates difference in each x-ray image of the brain and combines the information into a three-dimensional image. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) (p. 112): is a structural imaging technique in which clear images of the brain are created based on how different neural regions absorb and release energy while in a magnetic field. 3) There are three steps with an MRI i) A brain or other body part if placed in a strong magnetic field. ii) A pulse of radio waves is sent through the body moving the atoms out of their original position. iii) The radio wave is turned off and the atoms realign with the magnetic field, releasing energy as they do so. a) Different types of matter release different amounts of energy. b) Computers calculate the differences and produce a three-dimensional image of the brain. c) MRIs produce a clearer picture than CT scans • CT scans are needed whenever there is a chance of metal in the brain • CT scans are also less expensive 4) The newest form of structural neuroimaging is diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) (p. 112) a form of structural neuroimaging that allows researchers or medical personnel to measure white-matter pathways in the brain. i)
White matter injuries are associated with a number of disorders, such as in concussions.
Functional Neuroimaging 1) Structural neuroimaging shows brain anatomy but nothing about the brain’s function. Functional neuroimaging (p. 113) is a type of brain scanning that provides information about which areas of the brain are active when a person performs a particular behaviour. .. 110
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2) Different functional neuroimaging techniques give different temporal resolution and spatial resolution. i) Different tools are used depending on the research question being asked. 3) The electroencephalogram has excellent temporal resolution. Electroencephalogram (EEG) (p. 113) measures patterns of brain activity with the use of multiple electrodes attached to the scalp. i)
An EEG can tell us a lot about general brain activity during sleep or wakefulness as well as when research participants are engaged in a cognitive activity (Figure 3.35). ii) This method is also convenient and inexpensive, but it does not allow researchers to probe directly inside the brain. iii) The main way that a researcher learns about the brain using an EEG is to examine event-related potentials (ERPS), which are brief peaks in activity following the presentation of stimuli. iv) EEGs can be used to identify areas of the brain that are not functioning normally. v) Does not have good spatial resolution, cannot tell what part of the brain is producing the output. 4) Another imaging technique is magnetoencephalography (MEG). Magnetoencephalography (MEG) (p. 114) a neuroimaging technique that measures the tiny magnetic fields created by the electrical activity of nerve cells in the brain. i)
Highly sensitive devices surround the skull measure the tiny magnetic fields created by the electrical activity of nerve cells in the brain. ii) MEG records the electrical activity of nerve cells milliseconds after it occurs, giving almost instant brain activity imaging and researchers an advantage over using PET and fMRI (which measure blood flow and take several seconds to record activity). 5) Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans allow researchers to obtain images of the brain. Positron emission tomography (PET) (p. 114) is a type of scan in which a low level of radioactive isotope is injected into the blood, and its movement to regions of the brain engaged in a particular task is measured. i)
A low level of radioactive glucose is injected into the blood and its movement to regions of the brain engaged in a particular task is measured. a) Active nerve cells use up the glucose at a faster rate than those at rest. ii) This method allows researchers to monitor brain activity while a person is reading or looking at emotionally charge stimuli, but the scans take a long time to acquire (do not get moment-bymoment views). Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Functional MRI and Behaviour 1) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) (p. 115) measures brain activity by detecting the influx of oxygen-rich blood into neural areas that were just active. i) fMRI can produce accurate images of the functioning brain with ease and low radioactivity. It is one of the most influential research tool in modern psychology.
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2) What do we know about fMRI and behaviour? i) Researchers have used fMRI to study almost every topic in the textbook. a) Sensory processing, social behaviour, cognition, memory, and psychological disorders are all studied with fMRI. b) fMRI shows what part of the brain is using oxygen at a given moment. ii) It also can be used in neurological patients to see what parts of the brain are active. 3) How can science explain how fMRI is used to examine behaviour? i) The fMRI can help us understand what brain regions are used for different tasks by showing where the body is sending oxygenated blood. ii) fMRI can confirm theories about the role of different parts of the brain in cognitive processing and behaviour. a) fMRI does not have good temporal resolution. 4) Can we critically evaluate this research? i) We need to be cautious when interpreting fMRI data. a) The data is correlational in nature, not causal. b) The brain area may be active during a task but that doesn’t mean it enabled the task to be performed. c) Some researchers exploit the fact that some area of the brain is always active and claim that specific areas doing very specific things (like cause us to vote a certain way). 5) Why is this relevant? i) The fMRI is very influential in psychology today so it is important to understand the capabilities and limitations of fMRI imaging. ii) New areas of psychology are emerging related to fMRI, including ways to image the spinal cord in action. RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 3.4 Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Review of Brain-Imaging Techniques ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Leading Off the Chapter Neurotransmitters: Chemical Communicators of the Nervous System Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters The Brain Brain’s Bilingual Broca The Phineas Gage Story Too Much or Too Little: Hormone Imbalances Berger’s Wave Freak Accidents and Brain Injuries Neural Effects of a Concussion Workplace Problems: Left Handedness Understanding Hemispheric Function The Results of a Hemispherectomy
▲ Return to Table of Contents ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Leading Off the Chapter Your students may find the presence of a chapter on “biology” puzzling in a psychology textbook. An effective lead off for the chapter is to point out our tendency to take for granted the integrity and normal functioning of the nervous system. Only when there is damage through stroke, disease, or brain trauma do we realize its importance. If there is an example from your personal life that is apropos here, such as a family member with a neurological disease, consider sharing it with your students. Students may add their own stories as well to highlight the importance of studying “biology” in a psychology class. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Neurotransmitters: Chemical Communicators of the Nervous System In 1921, a scientist in Austria put two living, beating hearts in a fluid bath that kept them beating. He stimulated the vagus nerve of one of the hearts. This is a bundle of neurons that serves the parasympathetic nervous system and causes a reduction in the heart’s rate of beating. A substance was released by the nerve of the first heart and was transported through the fluid to the second heart. The second heart reduced its rate of beating. The substance released from the vagus nerve of the first heart was later identified as acetylcholine, one of the first neurotransmitters to be identified. Although many other neurotransmitters have now been identified, we continue to think of acetylcholine as one of the most important neurotransmitters. Curare is a poison that was discovered by South American Indians. They put it on tips of the darts they shoot from their blowguns. Curare blocks acetylcholine receptors; paralysis of internal organs results. The victim is unable to breathe, and dies. A substance in the venom of black widow spiders stimulates release of acetylcholine at the synapses. Botulism toxin, found in improperly canned foods, blocks release of acetylcholine at the synapses and has a deadly effect. It takes less that one millionth of a gram of this toxin to kill a person. A deficit of acetylcholine is associated with Alzheimer’s disease, which afflicts a high percentage of older adults.
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Many neurotransmitters have been identified in the years since 1921, and there is increasing evidence of their importance in human behaviour. Psychoactive drugs affect consciousness because of their effects on synaptic transmission. For example, cocaine and the amphetamines prolong the action of certain neurotransmitters and opiates imitate the action of natural neuromodulators called the endorphins. It appears that the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin are associated with some of the most severe forms of mental illness. There are probably only a few ounces of these substances in the body, but they may have a profound effect on mood, memory, perception, and behaviour. Could intelligence be primarily a matter of having plenty of the right neurotransmitter at the right synapses? ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters Point out to students that neurons do not touch each other. Instead, two neurons are connected through a small space called a synapse, into which flow substances called neurotransmitters that either enhance or impede impulses moving from one neuron to the next. During the first half of the 1900s, there was controversy over whether synaptic transmission was primarily chemical or electric. By the 1950s, it was apparent that the communication between the neurons was chemical. During this period, some synapses showed what was termed gap junction or electrical transmission between neurons at the synapse. Recent research has shown that electrical synaptic transmission may be more frequent than neuroscientists once believed (Bennett, 2000). Even though the transmission of information between neurons at the synapses is primarily chemical, some electrical synapses are known to exist in the retina, the olfactory bulb, and the cerebral cortex (Bennett, 2000). Use “The Wave,” an activity at sports arenas, as an analogy for the action potential. Like “The Wave,” the action potential travels the length of the neuron; the neuron doesn’t experience the action potential all at once. To extend the analogy, mention that right after people stand up in “The Wave,” they are somewhat tired and must recover (i.e., refractory period) to be prepared for the next go-round (i.e., action potential). ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Brain To set the mood for your discussion of the brain, try the following: (1) talk about the relatively small size of the brain; (2) discuss its role in humankind’s most amazing accomplishments; (3) discuss its role in humankind’s most destructive actions; and (4) note that, to our knowledge, the brain is probably the only thing in the universe that can ponder its own existence (by asking your students to think about it, the statement is supported).
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Brain’s Bilingual Broca Se potete parlare Italiano, allore potete capire questa sentenza. Of course, if you only speak English, you probably only understand this sentence. If you speak both languages, then by this point in the paragraph you should be really bored. Bilingual speakers who come to their bilingualism in different ways show different patterns of brain activity. Joy Hirsch of Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York and her colleagues monitored the activity in Broca’s area in the brains of bilingual speakers who acquired their second language starting in infancy, and compared it to the activity of bilingual speakers who adopted a second language in their teens. Participants were asked to silently recite brief descriptions of an event from the previous day, first in one language and then in the other. A functional magnetic resonance image (fMRI) was taken during this task. All of the 12 adult speakers were equally fluent in both languages, used both languages equally often, and represented speakers of English, French, and Turkish, among other tongues. Hirsch and her colleagues found that among the infancy-trained speakers, the same region of Broca’s area was active, regardless of the language they used. Among the teenage-trained speakers, however, a different region of Broca’s area was activated when using the acquired language. Similar results were found in Wernicke’s area in both groups. Although the full meaning of these results is a matter of some debate (do they reflect sensitivity in Broca’s area to language exposure, or pronounced differences in adult versus childhood language learning?), they nonetheless reveal an intriguing link between la testa e le parole. Reference: Bower, B. (1997, July 12). Brains show signs of two bilingual roads. Science News, 152, 23. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Phineas Gage Story Recently, the journal History of Psychiatry reprinted the original presentation of the case study of Phineas P. Gage, noteworthy in psychology for surviving having an iron tamping rod driven through his skull and brain. The case notes, by physician John M. Harlow, reveal aspects of the event that provide greater detail about Gage and his unfortunate accident. Phineas Gage stood 5 feet 6 inches tall, weighed 150 pounds, and was 25 years old at the time of the incident. By all accounts this muscular foreman of the Rutland and Burlington Railroad excavating crew was well-liked and respected by his workers, due in part to “an iron will” that matched “his iron frame.” He had scarcely known illness until his accident on September 13, 1848, in Cavendish, Vermont. Here is an account of the incident, in Harlow’s own words: “He was engaged in charging a hold (sic) drilled in the rock, for the purpose of blasting, sitting at the time upon a shelf of rock above the hole. His men were engaged in the pit, a few feet behind him ... The powder and fuse had been adjusted in the hole, and he was in the act of ‘tamping it in,’ as it is called ...While doing this, his attention was attracted by his men in the pit behind him. Averting his head and looking over his right shoulder, at the same instant dropping the iron upon the charge, it struck fire upon the rock, and the explosion followed, which projected the iron obliquely upwards...passing completely .. 115
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through his head, and high into the air, falling to the ground several rods behind him, where it was afterwards picked up by his men, smeared with blood and brain.” The tamping rod itself was three feet seven inches in length, with a diameter of 1¼ inches at its base and a weight of 13¼ pounds. The bar was round and smooth from continued use, and it tapered to a point 12 inches from the end; the point itself was approximately ¼ inch in diameter. The accounts of Phineas’ frontal lobe damage and personality change are well-known, and are corroborated by Harlow’s presentation. Details of Phineas’ subsequent life (he lived 12 years after the accident) are less known. Phineas apparently tried to regain his job as a railroad foreman, but his erratic behaviour and altered personality made it impossible to do so. He took to traveling, visiting Boston and most major New England cities, and New York, where he did a brief stint at Barnum’s sideshow. He eventually returned to work in a livery stable in New Hampshire, but in August, 1852, he turned his back on New England forever. Gage lived in Chile until June of 1860, then left to join his mother and sister in San Francisco. In February, 1861, he suffered a series of epileptic seizures, leading to a rather severe convulsion at 5 a.m. on February 20. The family physician unfortunately chose bloodletting as the course of treatment. At 10 p.m., May 21, 1861, Phineas eventually died, having suffered several more seizures. Although an autopsy was not performed, Phineas’ relatives agreed to donate his skull and the iron rod (which Phineas carried with him almost daily after the accident) to the Museum of the Medical Department of Harvard University. Miller (1993) also briefly notes that John Martyn Harlow himself had a rather pedestrian career, save for his association with the Gage case. Born in 1819, qualifying for medical practice in 1844, and dying in 1907, he practiced medicine in Vermont and later in Woburn, Massachusetts, where he engaged in civic affairs and apparently amassed a respectable fortune as an investor. Like Gage himself, Harlow was an unremarkable person brought into the annals of psychology by one remarkable event. References: Harlow, J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39, 389–393. Harlow, J. M. (1868). Recovery from the passage of an iron bar through the head. Paper read before the Massachusetts Medical Society. Miller, E. (1993). Recovery from the passage of an iron bar through the head. History of Psychiatry, 4, 271–281. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Too Much or Too Little: Hormone Imbalances Students may find it interesting to hear more about the various problems caused by problems within the endocrine system. The following disorders/medical problems are associated with abnormal levels within the pituitary, thyroid and adrenal glands. Pituitary malfunctions Hypopituitary Dwarfism If the pituitary secretes too little of its growth hormone during childhood, the person will be very small, although normally proportioned.
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Giantism If the pituitary gland over-secretes the growth hormone while a child is still in the growth period, the long bones of the body in the legs and other areas grow very, very long—a height of 9 feet is not unheard of. The organs of the body also increase in size, and the person may have health problems associated with both the extreme height and the organ size. Acromegaly If the over-secretion of the growth hormone happens after the major growth period is ended, the person’s long bones will not get longer, but the bones in the face, hands, and feet will increase in size, producing abnormally large hands, feet, and facial bone structure. The famous wrestler/actor, Andre the Giant (Andre Rousimoff), had this condition. Thyroid malfunctions Hypothyroidism In hypothyroidism, the thyroid does not secrete enough thyroxin, resulting in a slower than normal metabolism. The person with this condition will feel sluggish and lethargic, have little energy, and tend to be obese. Hyperthyroidism In hyperthyroidism, the thyroid secretes too much thyroxin, resulting in an overly active metabolism. This person will be thin, nervous, tense, and excitable. He or she will also be able to eat large quantities of food without gaining weight (and I hate them for that—oh, if only we came equipped with thyroid control knobs!). Adrenal Gland Malfunctions Among the disorders that can result from malfunctioning of the adrenal glands are Addison’s Disease. In the former, fatigue, low blood pressure, weight loss, nausea, diarrhea, and muscle weakness are some of the symptoms, while for the latter, obesity, high blood pressure, a “moon” face, and poor healing of skin wounds is common. If there is a problem with over-secretion of the sex hormones in the adrenals, virilism and premature puberty are possible problems. Virilism results in women with beards on their faces and men with exceptionally low, deep voices. Premature puberty, or full sexual development while still a child, is a result of too many sex hormones during childhood. There is a documented case of a 5-year-old Peruvian girl who actually gave birth to a son (Strange, 1965). Puberty is considered premature if it occurs before the age of 8 in girls and 9 in boys. Treatment is possible using hormones to control the appearance of symptoms, but must begin early in the disorder.
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Berger’s Wave Ask if anyone knows what is meant by the term, Berger’s wave. Explain that the study of electrical activity in the brain was once limited to studies in which different kinds of measuring devices were attached to the exposed brains of animals. Studies involving humans were rare because researchers could only measure the electrical activity of the living human brain in individuals who had genetic defects of their skull bones that cause the skin of their scalps to be in direct contact with the surfaces of their brains. All this changed when a German physicist named Hans Berger, after several years of painstaking research, discovered that it was possible to amplify and measure the electrical activity of the brain by attaching special electrodes to the scalp which, in turn, sent impulses to a machine that graphed them. In his research, Berger discovered several types of waves, one of which he called the “alpha” wave for no other reason than its having been the first one he discovered (“alpha” is the first letter of the Greek alphabet). He kept his research a secret until he published an article about it in 1929. Obviously, Berger achieved one of the most important discoveries in the history of neuroscience. However, his life was not a happy one. Shortly after his article was published, the Nazis rose to power in Germany, which greatly distressed him. In addition, his work wasn’t valued in Germany; he was far better known in the United States. As a result, Berger fell into a deep depression in 1941 and hanged himself. The alpha wave is also sometimes called Berger’s wave in honor of Berger’s discovery. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Freak Accidents and Brain Injuries Students may be interested in the unusual cases of individuals who experience bizarre brain injuries due to freak accidents with nail guns. The most fascinating example involved Isidro Mejias, a construction worker in Southern California, who had six nails driven into his head when he fell from a roof onto his coworker who was using a nail gun. Incredibly, none of the nails caused serious damage to Mejia’s brain. One nail lodged near his spinal cord, while another came very close to his brain stem. Immediate surgery and treatment with antibiotics prevented deadly infections that could have been caused by the nails. In a similar accident, a construction worker in Colorado ended up with a nail lodged in his head due to a nail gun mishap. Unlike Mejia, Patrick Lawler, didn’t realize he had a nail in his head for six days. The nail was discovered when he visited a dentist due to a “toothache.” It appears that Lawler fired a nail into the roof of his mouth. The nail barely missed his brain and the back of his eye. References: Nail Gun Victim Lives. Current Science, A Weekly Reader publication, Sept. 10, 2004, v90 (1), p. 14. www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2004-05-05-nail-head_x.htm www.summitdaily.com/article/20050119/NEWS/50119002/0/FRONTPAGE
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Neural Effects of a Concussion During the fall term, when college football is in season, it is especially appropriate to stress the discussion of the neuronal and behavioural effects of concussion. Chances are good that in any given class, you will have several students who will report having had a concussion in the past, usually as a result of participation in football or other sports activities, or as a result of an automobile accident. You can ask the students to discuss their experiences with the class, asking what kind of physiological and cognitive effects occurred. The most common effects include loss of vision (“black out”), blurred vision, ringing in the ears, nausea/vomiting, and not being able to think clearly. However, the physiological and cognitive effects vary between individuals; some may not have experienced nausea at all, whereas others only experienced blurred vision. It is important to point out the variability between individuals, because it can be inferred that concussions vary greatly in terms of the severity of brain damage and the brain areas affected. The brain sits in the cranium surrounded by cerebral fluid. When a severe blow to the head occurs, the brain may collide with the cranium, then “bounce back” and collide with the opposite side of the cranium. For example, if a football player falls and hits the back of his or her head, the brain may hit the back of the cranium, then the front. At this point, you might ask students what brain areas would be affected in this example (“occipital and frontal lobes” are a pretty decent answer). Therefore, both vision and some cognitive functioning may be affected. At the neuronal level, a concussive blow to the head results in a twisting or stretching of the axons, which in turn creates swelling. Eventually, the swelling may subside and the neuron may return to its normal functioning. However, if the swelling of the axon is severe enough, the axon may disintegrate. A more severe blow to the head may even sever axons, rendering those neurons permanently damaged. Either way, neuronal signaling is disrupted, either temporarily or permanently. Depending on the brain areas where the damaged axons are located, different physiological symptoms may occur. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Workplace Problems: Left Handedness Between Canada and the United States, there are approximately 33 million people who are left-handed. This presents a severe detriment to the work place. It has been shown that left handed individuals are more likely to have accidents at work than are right handed individuals, in fact 25% more likely and if they are working with tools and machinery, 51% more likely. Accommodations such as being able to rearrange the work area and having tools available that are either left or right hand adapted would make the workplace a safer place to be. Have students suggest ways that the work place could be made safer or even what could be done in the classroom that would make it easier for students who are left handed to take notes or tests. What about the mouse on computers? The mouse is actually made for people who are right handed. How adaptable must a left-handed person become in order not to be frustrated by using a right handed mouse? Reference: Gunsch, D. For Your Information: Left-handed workers struggle in a right-handed work world. Personnel Journal, 93, 23–24. .. 119
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Understanding Hemispheric Function A variation on the rather dubious statement that “we only use one-tenth of our brain” is that “we only use one-half (hemisphere) of our brain.” Research suggests that each cerebral hemisphere is specialized to perform certain tasks (e.g., left hemisphere/language; right hemisphere/ visuospatial relationships), with the abilities of one hemisphere complementary to the other. From this came numerous distortions, oversimplifications, and unwarranted extensions, many of which are discussed in two interesting reviews of this trend toward “dichotomania” (Corballis, 1980; Levy, 1985). For example, the left hemisphere has been described variously as logical, intellectual, deductive, convergent, and “Western,” while the right hemisphere has been described as intuitive or creative, sensuous, imaginative, divergent, and “Eastern.” Even complex tasks are described as right- or left-hemispheric because of their language component. In every individual one hemisphere supposedly dominates, affecting that person’s mode of thought, skills, and approach to life. One commonly cited, but questionable test for dominance is to note the direction of gaze when a person is asked a question (left gaze signaling right hemisphere activity; right gaze showing left hemisphere activity). Advertisements have claimed that artistic abilities can be improved if the right hemisphere is freed, and the public schools have been blamed for stifling creativity by emphasizing lefthemisphere skills and by neglecting to teach the children’s right hemisphere. Corballis and Levy explode these myths and trace their development. In reality, the two hemispheres are quite similar and can function remarkably well even if separated by split-brain surgery. Each hemisphere does have specialized abilities, but the two hemispheres work together in all complex tasks. For example, writing a story involves left-hemispheric input concerning syntax, but right-hemispheric input for developing an integrated structure and for using humor or metaphor. The left hemisphere is not the sole determinant of logic, nor is the right hemisphere essential for creativity. Disturbances of logic are more prevalent with right-hemisphere damage, and creativity is not necessarily affected. Although one hemisphere can be somewhat more active than the other, no individual is purely “right brained” or “left brained.” Also, eye movement and hemispheric activity patterns poorly correlate with cognitive style or occupation. Finally, because of the coordinated, interactive manner of functioning of both hemispheres, educating or using only the right or left hemisphere is impossible (without split-brain surgery). (Note: Suggestions for a student activity on this topic are given in the following Demonstrations and Activities section of this manual.) References: Corballis, M.C. (1980). Laterality and myth. American Psychologist, 35, 284–295. Levy, J. (1985). Right brain, left brain: Fact or fiction? Psychology Today, 19, 38–45. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Results of a Hemispherectomy Matthew is 8 years old now. Two years ago surgeons removed half of his brain. His first three years of life were completely normal. Just before he turned four, however, Matthew began to experience seizures, which did not respond to drug treatment. The seizures were severe (life threatening) and frequent (as often as every three minutes). The eventual diagnosis was Rasmussen’s encephalitis, a rare and incurable condition of unknown origin. .. 120
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The surgery, a hemispherectomy, was performed at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore. A few dozen such operations are performed each year in the United States, usually as a treatment for Rasmussen’s and for forms of epilepsy that destroy the cortex but do not cross the corpus callosum. After surgeons removed Matthew’s left hemisphere, the empty space quickly filled with cerebrospinal fluid. The surgery left a scar that runs along one ear and disappears under his hair; however, his face has no lopsidedness. The only other visible effects of the operation are a slight limp and limited use of his right arm and hand. Matthew has no right peripheral vision in either eye. He undergoes weekly speech and language therapy sessions. For example, a therapist displays cards that might say “fast things” and Matt must name as many fast things as he can in 20 seconds. He does not offer as many examples as other children his age. However, he is making progress in the use of language perhaps as a result of fostering and accelerating the growth of dendrites. The case of Matthew indicates the brain’s remarkable plasticity. It is interesting to note that Matt’s personality never changed through the seizures and surgery. References: Boyle, M. (1997, August 1). Surgery to remove half of brain reduces seizures. Austin AmericanStatesman, A18. Swerdlow, J. L. (1995, June). Quiet miracles of the brain. National Geographic, 87, 2-41. Davis, S. F., & Palladino, J. J. (1996) Interactions: A newsletter to accompany Psychology, 1(Spr), 4. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents ▼ CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Using Reaction Time to Show the Speed of Neurons The Five Dollar Bill Drop Using Dominoes to Understand the Action Potential Demonstrating Neural Conduction: The Class as a Neural Network Human Neuronal Chain Mapping the Brain The Importance of a Wrinkled Cortex Probing the Cerebral Cortex Twenty Questions Trip to the Hospital Lateralization Activities Localization of Function Exercise The Brain Diagram Psychology in Literature: The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat Crossword Puzzle Fill-in-the-Blanks Review of Brain-Imaging Techniques
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Using Reaction Time to Show the Speed of Neurons I always begin this demonstration by asking students if they believe that there is a difference in reaction time if the impulse has to travel farther. Most frequently students answer in the affirmative. Here is a simple demonstration of the time required to process information along sensory neurons in the arm and can be done by asking students to form a line by holding hands. Ask a student to start and stop a stopwatch. Then begin by asking for volunteers. The number of students who volunteer is irrelevant. Instruct the students to close their eyes and to squeeze the hand of the person next to them when they feel the person on the opposite side squeeze their hand. The last person in line should signal the timekeeper that his or her hand has been squeezed by raising a free hand. Have the student stop the watch and record the elapsed time. Repeat the process until the reaction times appear to be stable. Take the final reaction time and divide by the number of students in the line to obtain the average reaction time. Next, ask the students to squeeze the next person’s shoulder instead of hand. The average reaction time should now decrease since the sensory information has a shorter distance to travel. The difference in average reaction time obtained from the two procedures represents—roughly—the average conduction time for sensory information between the hand and shoulder. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: The Five Dollar Bill Drop After engaging in the neural network exercise, try following it up with the “five dollar bill drop” (Fisher, 1979), which not only delights students but also clearly illustrates the speed of neural transmission. Ask students to get into pairs and to come up with one crisp, flat, five-dollar bill (or something bigger, if they trust their fellow classmates!) between them. First, each member of the pair should take turns trying to catch the bill with their nondominant (for most people, the left) hand as they drop it from their dominant (typically right) hand. To do this, they should hold the bill vertically so that the top, centre of the bill is held by the thumb and middle finger of their dominant hand. Next, they should place the thumb and middle finger of their nondominant hand around the dead centre of the bill, as close as they can get without touching it. When students drop the note from one hand, they should be able to easily catch it with the other before it falls to the ground. Now that students are thoroughly unimpressed, ask them to replicate the drop, only this time one person should try to catch the bill (i.e., with the thumb and middle finger of the nondominant hand) while the other person drops it (i.e., from the top centre of the bill). Student “droppers” are instructed to release the bill without warning, and “catchers” are warned not to grab before the bill is dropped. (Students should take turns playing dropper and catcher.) There will be stunned looks all around as bills whiz to the ground. Ask students to explain why it is so much harder to catch it from someone other than themselves. Most will instantly understand that when catching from ourselves, the brain can simultaneously signal us to release and catch the bill, but when trying to catch it from someone else, the signal to catch the bill can’t be sent until the eyes (which see the drop) signal the brain to do so, which is unfortunately a little too late.
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Reference: Fisher, J. (1979). Body Magic. Briarcliff Manor, NY: Stein and Day. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Using Dominoes to Understand the Action Potential Walter Wagor suggests using real dominoes to demonstrate the so-called “domino effect” of the action potential as it travels along the axon. For this demonstration, you’ll need a smooth table-top surface (at least 5 feet long) and one or two sets of dominoes. Set up the dominoes beforehand, on their ends and about an inch apart, so that you can push the first one over and cause the rest to fall in sequence. Proceed to knock down the first domino in the row and students should clearly see how the “action potential” is passed along the entire length of the axon. You can then point out the concept of refractory period by showing that, no matter how hard you push on the first domino, you will not be able to repeat the domino effect until you take the time to set the dominoes back up (i.e., the resetting time for the dominoes is analogous to the refractory period for neurons). You can then demonstrate the all-or-none characteristic of the axon by resetting the dominoes and by pushing so lightly on the first domino that it does not fall. Just as the force on the first domino has to be strong enough to knock it down before the rest of the dominoes will fall, the action potential must be there in order to perpetuate itself along the entire axon. Finally, you can demonstrate the advantage of the myelin sheath in axonal transmission. For this demonstration, you’ll need to set up two rows of dominoes (approximately 3 or 4 feet long) next to each other. The second row of dominoes should have foot-long sticks (e.g., plastic rulers) placed end-to-end in sequence on top of the dominoes. By placing the all-domino row and the stick-domino row parallel to each other and pushing the first domino in each, you can demonstrate how much faster the action potential can travel if it can jump from node to node rather than having to be passed on sequentially, single domino by single domino. Ask your students to discuss how this effect relates to myelinization. Reference: Wagor, W. F. (1990). Using dominoes to help explain the action potential. In V. P. Makosky, C. C. Sileo, L. G. Whittemore, C. P. Landry, & M. L. Skutley (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology: Vol. 3 (pp. 72-73). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Demonstrating Neural Conduction: The Class as a Neural Network In this engaging exercise (suggested by Paul Rozin and John Jonides), students in the class simulate a neural network and get a valuable lesson in the speed of neural transmission. Depending on your class size, arrange 15 to 40 students so that each person can place his or her right hand on the right shoulder of the person in front of them. Note that students in every other row will have to face backwards in order to form a snaking chain so that all students (playing the role of individual neurons) are connected to each other. Explain to students that their task as a neural network is to send a neural impulse from one end of the room to the other. The first student in the chain will squeeze the shoulder of the next person, who, upon receiving this “message”, will deliver (i.e., “fire”) a squeeze to the next person’s shoulder and so on, until the last person receives the message. Before starting the neural impulse, ask students (as “neurons”) to label their parts; they typically have no trouble stating that their arms are axons, their fingers are axon terminals, and their shoulders are dendrites. .. 123
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To start the conduction, the instructor should start the timer on a stopwatch while simultaneously squeezing the shoulder of the first student. The instructor should then keep time as the neural impulse travels around the room, stopping the timer when the last student/neuron yells out “stop.” This process should be repeated once or twice until the time required to send the message stabilizes (i.e., students will be much slower the first time around as they adjust to the task). Next, explain to students that you want them to again send a neural impulse, but this time you want them to use their ankles as dendrites. That is, each student will “fire” by squeezing the ankle of the person in front of them. While students are busy shifting themselves into position for this exercise, ask them if they expect transmission by anklesqueezing to be faster or slower than transmission by shoulder-squeezing. Most students will immediately recognize that the ankle-squeezing will take longer because of the greater distance the message (from the ankle as opposed to the shoulder) has to travel to reach the brain. Repeat this transmission once or twice and verify that it indeed takes longer than the shoulder squeeze. This exercise—a student favorite—is highly recommended because it is a great ice-breaker during the first few weeks of the semester and it also makes the somewhat dry subject of neural processing come alive. Reference: Rozin, P., & Jonides, J. (1977). Mass reaction time measurement of the speed of the nerve impulse and the duration of mental processes in class. Teaching of Psychology, 4, 91-94. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Human Neuronal Chain Objective: To illustrate that the transmission of messages in the nervous system is not instantaneous Materials: 20 students standing, facing forward, in a line; a stopwatch Procedure: Ask the last student to tap either shoulder of the next person and each subsequent person to continue the process through the entire line, always using the same shoulder and never crossing the body (i.e., left hand to right shoulder). Use the stopwatch to time how long it takes for the last person to receive the stimulus. Reference: Harcum, E. R. (1988). Reaction time as a behavioural demonstration of neural mechanisms for a large introductory psychology class. Teaching of Psychology, 15, 208–209. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Mapping the Brain Many students, especially those with little background in the sciences, will find it a challenge to keep track of the location of all the parts of the brain outlined in the text. One simple way to reinforce their learning of brain structure is to have students locate the various parts on a photocopied diagram of the brain. The brain diagram and the student instructions for this exercise are included as Handout Master 3.1. The day before you present this activity, ask students to bring colored pencils or markers to class. On the day of the activity, divide students into small groups and distribute copies of the diagram of the brain and the accompanying questions in the student handouts. Within their groups they can help each other locate each part of the brain and then color code them using their .. 124
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pencils or markers. They can also indicate the function of each part on the diagram. This exercise is very useful for helping students to memorize brain anatomy, and the color-coded diagram serves as a helpful study guide. For your convenience, a completed diagram and suggested answers to the questions are furnished below.
1. This is a diagram of the left side of the brain. Left side functions: The left hemisphere controls touch and movement of the right side of the body, vision in the right half of the visual field, comprehension and production of speech, reading ability, mathematical reasoning, and a host of other abilities. Right side functions: The right hemisphere controls touch and movement of the left side of the body, vision in the left half of the visual field, visual-spatial ability, map-reading, art and music appreciation, analysis of nonverbal sounds, and a host of other abilities. 2. The front of the brain is on the left side of the diagram; the back of the brain is on the right. 3. The cerebrum is the sum of the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. The cerebellum is labelled on the diagram above. The cerebrum is responsible for higher forms of thinking, including a variety of specific abilities described under motor cortex, visual cortex, somatosensory cortex, and auditory cortex. The cerebral cortex also contains vast association areas, whose specific functions are poorly defined but may include reasoning and decision making, planning appropriate behaviour sequences, and knowing when to stop. The limbic system, which appears to be strongly involved in regulating emotions, is also part of the cerebrum. The cerebellum aids in the sense of balance and motor coordination. 4. The frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes are labelled on the diagram above. 5. The motor cortex is labelled on the diagram above. The motor cortex in each hemisphere controls movements on the opposite side of the body. .. 125
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6. The visual cortex is labelled on the diagram above. The visual cortex in each hemisphere receives information from the visual field on the opposite side. 7. The auditory cortex is labelled on the diagram above. The auditory cortex is responsible for processing sounds. 8. The somatosensory cortex is labelled on the diagram above. The somatosensory cortex on each side receives information about touch, joint position, pressure, pain, and temperature from the opposite side of the body. 9. Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas are labelled on the diagram above. Broca’s area is often referred to as the motor speech area. It is responsible for our ability to carry out the movements necessary to produce speech. Wernicke’s area is often referred to a sensory speech area. It is mainly involved in comprehension and planning of speech. 10. Neurons would be found all over the drawing. (The brain is made up of billions of neurons.) Each neuron is very tiny compared to the size of the brain, so no single neuron would be visible to the naked eye in a drawing at this scale. The cell bodies of the largest neurons in the brain are about 1/20 of a millimeter in diameter! 11. The brain stem is labeled on the diagram above. Different parts of the brain stem are involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness, dreaming, breathing, heart rate, and attentional processes. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: The Importance of a Wrinkled Cortex At the beginning of your lecture on the structure and function of the brain, ask students to explain why the cerebral cortex is wrinkled. There are always a few students who correctly answer that the wrinkled appearance of the cerebral cortex allows it to have a greater surface area while fitting in a relatively small space (i.e., the head). To demonstrate this point to your class, hold a plain, white sheet of paper in your hand and then crumple it into a small, wrinkled ball. Note that the paper retains the same surface area, yet is now much smaller and is able to fit into a much smaller space, such as your hand. You can then mention that the brain’s actual surface area, if flattened out, would be roughly the size of a newspaper page (Myers, 1995). Laughs usually erupt when the class imagines what our heads would look like if we had to accommodate an unwrinkled, newspaper-sized cerebral cortex! Reference: Myers, D. G. (1995). Psychology (4th ed.). New York: Worth.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Probing the Cerebral Cortex Use: Pearson Introductory Psychology Teaching Films Synopsis: This clip contains commentary by Wilder Penfield, a pioneer in mapping the areas of the cerebral cortex. Penfield discusses the work that led to electrode-stimulation of the cortex. He also interviews a brain surgery patient about her experiences during surgery: Stimulation of various areas of her cortex produced memories of past events and the perception of music playing. Form a Hypothesis Q What happens when Penfield stimulates a small area of the temporal lobe, called the auditory cortex? A The patient “hears” sounds. Test Your Understanding Q What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex? A The four lobes of cerebral cortex are occipital, parietal, temporal, and frontal. Q A
What are the functions of the somatosensory cortex, motor cortex, and association cortex areas? Somatosensory cortex interprets sensations and coordinates the motor behaviour of skeletal muscles.
Association areas, located on all four cortical lobes, are involved in the integration of various brain functions, such as sensation, thought, memory, planning, etc. Q A
What two areas of the association cortex specialize in language? Wernicke’s area, located toward the back of the temporal lobe, is important in understanding the speech of others. Broca’s area is essential to sequencing and producing language.
Thinking Critically Q What four types of research methods are commonly used in the study of behavioural neuroscience? A Microelectrode techniques are used to study the functions of individual neurons. Macroelectrode techniques, such as an EEG, record activities of brain areas. Structural imaging, such as computerized axial tomography or CAT scans, is useful for mapping brain structures. Functional imaging, in which specific brain activity can be recorded in response to tasks or stimulation, offers the potential to identify specific brain areas and functions.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Twenty Questions Objective: To review information about hormones Materials: None Procedures: Play a round of the Twenty Questions game. Tell students that you are thinking of a certain hormone. The students are to determine which hormone by asking you questions to which you can respond only “yes” or “no.” ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Review of Brain-Imaging Techniques Objectives: To review information on brain-imaging techniques Materials: None Procedures: Ask students to tell which brain-imaging technique could answer each of the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
How do the brains of children and adults differ with regard to energy consumption? (PET) In what ways do brain waves change as a person falls asleep? (EEG) In which part of the brain has a stroke patient experienced a disruption of blood flow? (CT, MRI) What is the precise location of a suspected brain tumor? (CT, MRI) How can brain structures be examined without exposing a patient to radiation? (MRI) How can scientists view structures and their functions at the same time? (fMRI) What techniques allow scientists to view changes in the magnetic characteristics of neurons as they fire? (MEG)
▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Trip to the Hospital Objective: To demonstrate brain imaging techniques Materials: Local or regional hospital Procedure: Arrange a trip to the local or regional hospital to see their CAT, PET, MRI and fMRI facilities. Being able to see and hear about this equipment firsthand far exceeds what students can gain from the text. Such a trip can be undertaken only if you have a small class, recitation, or laboratory section. A voluntary sign-up list also can be used. You will have to make your plans well in advance and at the convenience of the hospital staff. If the size of your class precludes this field trip, you could invite a local physician or one of the technicians to discuss these procedures. It will be helpful if he or she can arrange to bring examples of the records or scans that are produced for evaluation of neurological disorders. You should plan to ask your guest speaker to compare modern procedures to earlier evaluations of neurological disorders.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Lateralization Activities Procedure: There are several demonstrations that illustrate the lateralization of the brain. Several have been described by Filipi, and Gravlin (1985). A variant by Morton Gernsbacher requires students to move their right hand and right foot simultaneously in a clockwise direction for a few seconds. Next ask that the right hand and left foot be moved in a clockwise direction. Then, have students make circular movements in opposite directions with right the hand and the left foot. Finally, have students attempt to move the right hand and right foot in opposite directions. This generally produces laughter as students discover that this procedure is most difficult to do even though they are sure—before they try it—that it would be no problem to perform. A simple alternative activity is to ask students to pat their head and to rub their stomach clockwise and then switch to a counterclockwise motion. The pat will show slight signs of rotation as well. The brain is lateralized to some extent, and this makes some activities difficult to perform. Challenge your students to explain why activities of these types are difficult to execute. This will generally lead to interesting discussions and the assertion by some students that this type of behaviour is no problem. Generally, students who have been trained in martial arts, dance and/or gymnastics have less difficulty completing these activities due to rigorous physical training. References: Kemble, E. D. (1987). Cerebral lateralization. In V. P. Makosky, L. G. Whittemore, & A. M. Rogers (Eds.). Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 2) (pp. 33–36). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Kemble, E. D., Filipi, T., & Gravlin, L. (1985). Some simple classroom experiments on cerebral lateralization. Teaching of Psychology, 12, 81–83. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Localization of Function Exercise This exercise has several functions. It is designed to get students to review the methods which are used to study the brain and where particular functions are localized. It is also intended to make students think critically about how we know what we know about functional localization. The examples included are based on real life examples of situations which have provided information about localization of functions in the brain. Some of the situations described may be difficult for students to conceptualize. Be prepared to assist students in conceptualizing each situation. Students can do this exercise individually or in small groups. Group work is probably preferable because students can learn by bouncing ideas off of each other. The student handout for this activity is included as Handout Master 3.2. Suggested answers are included below. 1. The lesion method is being used to study brain function. Students may be puzzled by this, thinking that the lesion method always involves intentionally damaging part of the brain to study its function. This is not the case; much of the information we have about functional localization comes from fairly old studies of veterans who received gunshot wounds to their brains. This part of the brain controls movement on the opposite side of the body. It is the motor area of the .. 129
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cerebral cortex. By looking at the drawing we can see that damage high up on the brain results in paralysis which is lower down on the body and vice versa. It is as if the body is “mapped” upside down and backwards on the motor cortex. (If you have a drawing of the “motor homunculus” it would be helpful to share this with the students after they have completed this exercise.) 2. The lesion method is being used to study brain function. Based on the information provided, the part of the brain labeled J is responsible for the ability to speak. The area marked J controls the ability to speak; it is on the left side of the brain. The equivalent area on the right side of the brain must be doing something else, since damage to this area does not produce any affect on speech. 3. The function of this part of the brain is being studied with the electrical stimulation method. Students may be surprised, and horrified, to find out that people are often awake during surgery on their brains. This is necessary because in real life the brain is not color coded, nor does it come with nice little labels saying what its different parts do. During surgery, surgeons have a general idea where they are, but one part looks pretty much the same as the next. When the surgeon is planning to remove a part of the brain, for example, an area where a tumour is located or an area where a patient’s epileptic seizures tend to start, he/she does not want to remove a part which would result in a marked decrement in the patient’s quality of life (for example, a speech area). Therefore, it is fairly routine to stimulate an awake patient’s brain during surgery, to verify the function of the areas the surgeon is working near. During surgery, the scalp, bone, and membranes covering the brain must be anaesthetized, so that the patient does not feel pain. The brain itself does not have pain receptors, so that working on the brain is not physically painful. This part of the brain appears to process visual information; in fact, it is the visual cortex. When this part of the brain is stimulated electrically, neurons are activated in much the same way that they would be by natural visual stimulation. Therefore, the patient reports seeing a visual stimulus that is not actually there. The information provided suggests that there is an upside-down and backwards map of the visual world on the visual cortex (note the similarity to the upside-down and backwards map of the body on the motor cortex in the first example). Note that the left side of the brain is being stimulated. Yet, when the patient fixates on the cross in the middle of the screen, all of the points of light that he reports are to the right of the fixation point. Therefore, the information from the right side of the visual field is relayed to the left side of the brain. Note also, that when points which are higher up on the cortex are stimulated, the patient reports seeing flashing lights in the lower part of the visual field; conversely, when points lower down on the visual cortex are stimulated, the patient reports flashing lights in the upper part of the visual field. Hence, the notion of an upside-down and backwards map of the visual world in the visual cortex. 4. The function of this part of the brain is being studied through the electrical stimulation method. This part of the brain is responsible for the sense of touch (among other things) on the opposite side of the body. The area being stimulated is the somatosensory cortex. By looking at the drawing we can see that stimulation high up on the brain results in a tingling sensation which is lower down on the body and vice versa. It is as if the body is “mapped” upside down and backwards on the somatosensory cortex. (If you have a drawing of the “sensory homunculus” it would be helpful to share this with the students after they have completed this exercise.) The notion of the world being mapped upside down and backwards on the brain should be starting to sound like a recurring theme by now!
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5. The method being used is positron emission tomography (PET scanning). This area is responsible for processing information concerning sounds; it is the auditory cortex. 6. A needle electrode is being used to record the electrical activity of this part of the brain. The evidence suggests that this part of the brain may be responsible for triggering eating behaviour; alternately, it may be responsible for the sensation of hunger. 7. The lesion method is being used to study brain function, but this time, in contrast to examples 1 and 2, the damage to the brain was created intentionally. The corpus callosum relays information from one side of the brain to the other when it is intact. In this example, because the corpus callosum is cut, information cannot be relayed from one side of the brain to the other. This explains the two specific deficits noted in this example. The patient is unable to name an object placed in her left hand because the sensory information from that hand is relayed to the right side of her brain, which has little or no language or speech ability. The patient is unable to pick out an object with her right hand that she has already felt with her left hand because that would require comparison of sensory information relayed to the two sides of the brain, which is no longer possible with the corpus callosum cut. Students may wonder why it is important that the patient kept her eyes closed in these two examples. This was done because each eye, when open, sends information to both sides of the brain. If the patient had had her eyes open in these examples, information would have been sent to both sides of the brain, and the patient would not have had difficulty with these tasks. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Assignment: The Brain Diagram Students often have trouble encoding the location and function of the different parts of the brain, both because (a) they glance too quickly over the colourful textbook illustrations and (b) their eyes tend to glaze over during class discussion of the brain’s structure and function. As an easy remedy to this problem, try asking students to draw their own colorful rendition of the human brain, an active learning strategy that ensures that they encode and think about the parts of the brain rather than passively glossing over them in the text. Prior to the class period in which you will be discussing the brain, ask students to read Chapter 3 and to hand-draw a diagram of the brain (in a cross-section) on a clean white sheet of unlined paper. For each of the following sections of the brain, students should color and label the appropriate structure, and also list at least one or two of its major functions: (a) the cerebral cortex, including the four lobes, (b) the thalamus, (c) the hypothalamus, (d) the hippocampus, (e) the amygdala, (f) the cerebellum, (g) the pons, and (h) medulla. Added benefits of this assignment are that it is easy to grade, students enjoy doing it (and it is an easy and fun way for them to get points), and it can be used by students as a study aid for the exam.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Psychology in Literature The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat Oliver Sacks’ national bestseller chronicles over 20 case histories of patients with a variety of neurological disorders. His compassionate retelling of bizarre and fascinating tales include patients plagued with memory loss, useless limbs, violent tics and jerky mannerisms, the inability to recognize people or objects, and unique artistic or mathematical talents despite severe mental deficits. A reading of this absorbing book will surely increase your students’ understanding of the connection between the brain and the mind, and will also give them invaluable insights into the lives of disordered individuals. Ask your students to write a book report focusing on a few of the cases that most interest them, and to apply principles from the text and lecture to the stories. As a more elaborate project, you might consider assigning this book at the end of the semester, as many of the cases are ripe with psychological principles that may be encountered later in the course (e.g., perception, memory, mental retardation). References: Sacks, O. (1985). The man who mistook his wife for a hat. New York: Harper Collins. Staff (1995, May/June). PT interview: Oliver Sacks; the man who mistook his wife for a ... what? Psychology Today, 28–33. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Crossword Puzzle Answers Frequently instructors want an activity that is interactive for their students as well as a reinforcer of the material just covered in the lecture. An activity such as a crossword puzzle can fulfill both criteria. Copy and distribute Handout Master 3.3 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment. The answers for the crossword puzzle are: Across 1. neurotransmitter that causes the receiving cell to stop firing. Inhibitory 3. the cell body of the neuron, responsible for maintaining the life of the cell. soma 4. endocrine gland located near the base of the cerebrum which secretes melatonin. pineal 7. glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream. Endocrine long tube-like structure that carries the neural message to other cells. axon 10. chemical found in the synaptic vesicles which, when released, has an effect on the next cell. neurotransmitter 13. bundles of axons coated in myelin that travels together through the body. nerves 14. branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons. dendrites 15. endocrine gland found in the neck that regulates metabolism. thyroid 17. thick band of neurons that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres. Corpus Callosum 19. part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord. Central
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Down 2. part of the limbic system located in the centre of the brain, it acts as a relay from the lower part of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex. thalamus 4. endocrine gland that controls the levels of sugar in the blood. pancreas 5. fatty substances produced by certain glial cells that coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse. myelin 6. the basic cell that makes up the nervous system and which receives and sends messages within that system. Neuron 8. chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell. Agonists 9. part of the lower brain that controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement. cerebellum 11. process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles. reuptake 12. a group of several brain structures located under the cortex and involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation. Limbic 16. chemicals released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands. Hormones 18. brain structure located near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and memory of fear. Amygdala
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Fill-in-the-Blanks Copy and distribute Handout Master 3.4 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment. Answers to Fill-in-the-Blanks: Biological Psychology 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39.
40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75.
Nervous system Neuron Axon Dendrites Soma Myelin Nerves Ions Resting potential All or none Synaptic Vesicles Neurotransmitters Excitatory Agonists Spinal Cord Sensory Peripheral Nervous Somatic Nervous Autonomic Nervous Sympathetic Division Nervous system Neuron Axon Dendrites Soma Myelin Nerves Ions Resting potential All or none Synaptic Vesicles Neurotransmitters Excitatory Agonists Spinal Cord Sensory Peripheral Nervous Somatic Nervous Autonomic Nervous
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Sympathetic Division Nervous system Neuron Axon Dendrites Soma Myelin Nerves Ions Resting potential All or none Synaptic Vesicles Neurotransmitters Excitatory Agonists Spinal Cord Sensory Peripheral Nervous Somatic Nervous Autonomic Nervous Sympathetic Division Electroencephalograph Cerebellum Thalamus Pons Reticular formation Hippocampus Amygdala Cortex Corpus Callosum Occipital cortex Parietal Cortex Temporal Lobes Frontal Lobes Endocrine Adrenal glands
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents ▼ HANDOUT MASTERS a. b. c. d.
Handout Master 3.1 Mapping the Brain Handout Master 3.2 Localization of Function Exercise Handout Master 3.3 Crossword Puzzle Handout Master 3.4 Fill-in-the-Blanks
▲ Return to Table of Contents Handout Master 3.1 Mapping the Brain—Instructions Label the diagram of the brain to show or answer the following questions. 1.
Is this a drawing of the left side or the right side of the brain? What are the particular functions of that side of the brain as compared to the other hemisphere? Left side functions:
Right side functions:
2.
Where is the front of the brain? Where is the back?
3.
Label the cerebrum and cerebellum and describe their functions. Cerebral functions:
Cerebellar functions:
4.
Label the four lobes of the cerebral cortex.
5.
Label the motor cortex and describe its function.
6.
Label the visual cortex and describe its function.
7.
Label the auditory cortex and describe its function.
8.
Label the somatosensory cortex and describe its function.
9.
Label Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas and describe their functions.
10.
Where would you expect to find neurons in this drawing and how big would they be if they were drawn?
11.
Label the brain stem. What is its function?
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◄ Return to Activity: Mapping the Brain ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents Handout Master 3.2 Localization of Function Exercise Case 1. Dr. Holmes sees a series of patients with gunshot injuries to parts of their frontal lobes. The location of the damage to each person’s brain is indicated in the drawing. Patient 1 has some paralysis of his right hip and thigh muscles. Patient 2 has paralyzed trunk muscles on his right side. Patient 3’s right arm is paralyzed. Patient 4 shows paralysis of the muscles on the right side of her face.
Case 1: a.
What method is being used to study brain function?
b.
What does this part of the brain do?
c.
What can you say about the representation of this function in the brain based on this information (what are the rules of organization)?
Case 2. Dr. Broca’s patient (J) has suddenly lost his ability to speak, apparently due to a stroke. After J dies, Dr. Broca studies the brain and discovers an area of damage in the location marked with J in the drawing below. Later another patient (K) dies and Dr. Broca is amazed to discover that this patient has damage to the comparable area of the brain on the right side, with NO effect on speech.
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Case 2: a. What method is being used to study brain function? b. What does the area of the brain marked J do? c. What can we say about the lateralization of this function based on the information provided?
Case 3. Dr. Brightman is doing surgery on a patient to remove a rapidly growing tumor in the patient’s brain. The patient is awake during the surgery. To check out where he is, Dr. Brightman applies a brief pulse of electricity to various areas of the brain and asks the patient to describe the sensation. The patient is looking up at a screen with a cross in the middle of it; he is fixating on the cross. After each point on the brain is touched, the patient reports seeing flashing lights and points to the area on the screen where he sees the lights.
Case 3: a. What method is being used to study brain function? b. What does this area of the brain do? c. What can we say about how this function is mapped on the brain based on the information provided? Case 4. Dr. Penfield is operating on the brain of a young woman with intractable epilepsy. He is going to remove the part of the brain where the seizure starts. He does not want to remove the wrong part, so the patient is awake during surgery, and Dr. Penfield identifies where he is in the brain by applying brief pulses of electricity to various parts of her brain. As Dr. Penfield touches each part of her brain, the patient reports feeling a tingling sensation on various parts of her body. At point 1 she feels tingling on her right thigh. At point 2 she feels tingling on the right part of her rib cage. At point 3 she reports a tingling on her right hand. At point 4 she feels a sensation on the right side of her face.
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Case 4: a. What method is being used to study brain function? b. What function is localized in this part of the brain? c. How is this function mapped on the brain (how is it organized)? Case 5.
Dr. Lashley is doing experiments on brain function. He persuades a Doe College student to participate in his experiment. The student is injected with radioactive glucose and then asked to listen to recordings of various sounds for half an hour in a darkened room. Then the student’s head is scanned to determine where in the brain the radioactivity has collected. The most intensely radioactive area is indicated on the drawing below.
Case 5: a. b. Case 6.
What method is being used to study brain function? What does this area do? Dr. Gross places an electrode in part of the hypothalamus of a rat and measures the electrical activity in the hypothalamus during various activities. She finds that the part of the hypothalamus where the electrode is located is most active just before the rat eats.
Case 6: a. What method is being used to study brain function? b. What does this part of the hypothalamus do?
Case 7.
Dr. Sperry cuts the corpus callosum of a young woman to stop the spread of intractable epilepsy from one side of the brain to the other. After the woman has had time to recover from the surgery, Dr. Sperry tests her on various tasks. Dr. Sperry finds no impairment on most tasks. There are two exceptions. When the patient is asked to close her eyes and name an object placed in her hand, she can do so correctly for things placed in her right hand, but not for things placed in her left hand. (She has no problems with paralysis or lack of sensation, however.) When she is given a task where she is asked to close her eyes and feel something with her left hand, then pick it out of a group of objects using her right hand, she is also unable to do so.
Case 7: a. What method is being used to study function? b. What does the corpus callosum do? c. What accounts for the two specific impairments described here?
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◄ Return to Activity: Localization of Function ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents Handout Master 3.3 Crossword Puzzle Activity Chapter 3: Biological Psychology
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Across 1. neurotransmitter that causes the receiving cell to stop firing. 3. the cell body of the neuron, responsible for maintaining the life of the cell. 4. endocrine gland located near the base of the cerebrum which secretes melatonin. 7. glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream. 8. long tube-like structure that carries the neural message to other cells. 10. chemical found in the synaptic vesicles which, when released, has an effect on the next cell. 13. bundles of axons coated in myelin that travel together through the body. 14. branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons. 15. endocrine gland found in the neck that regulates metabolism. 17. thick band of neurons that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres. 19. part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.
Down 2. part of the limbic system located in the centre of the brain, it acts as a relay from the lower part of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex. 4. endocrine gland that controls the levels of sugar in the blood. 5. fatty substances produced by certain glial cells that coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse. 6. the basic cell that makes up the nervous system and which receives and sends messages within that system. 8. chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell. 9. part of the lower brain that controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement. 11. process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles. 12. a group of several brain structures located under the cortex and involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation. 16. chemicals released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands. 18. brain structure located near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and memory of fear. ► Return to Activity: Crossword Puzzle Answers ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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Handout Master 3.4 Fill-in-the-Blanks Chapter 3 Chapter 3: Biological Psychology 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
16. 17. 18. 19.
20. 21. 22.
An extensive network of specialized cells that carry information to and from all parts of the body is called the . The basic cell that makes up the nervous system and which receives and sends messages within that system is called a . The long tube-like structure that carries the neural message to other cells on the neuron is the . On a neuron, the branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons are the ______________. The cell body of the neuron, responsible for maintaining the life of the cell and containing the mitochondria, is the . The fatty substances produced by certain glial cells that coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse are the_______________. The bundles of axons in the body that travel together through the body are known as the _________________. The charged particles located inside and outside of the neuron are called . The state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse is known as the __________________. refers to the fact that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all. The are sack-like structures found inside the synaptic knob containing chemicals. are chemicals found in the synaptic vesicles which, when released, have an effect on the next cell. The neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to fire. The mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell. The is a long bundle of neurons that carries messages to and from the body to the brain that are responsible for very fast, lifesaving reflexes. A neuron that carries information from the senses to the central nervous system and is also known as the afferent is called a . All nerves and neurons that are not contained in the brain and spinal cord but that run through the body itself are in the system. The division of the PNS consisting of nerves that carry information from the senses to the CNS and from the CNS to the voluntary muscles of the body is the ___________system. The system division of the PNS consisting of nerves that control all of the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands sensory pathway nerves coming from the sensory organs to the CNS consisting of sensory neurons. The part of the ANS that is responsible for reacting to stressful events and bodily arousal is called the of the nervous system. A machine designed to record the brain wave patterns produced by electrical activity of the surface of the brain is called an________________. The part of the lower brain located behind the pons that controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement is called the .
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23.
24.
25. 26.
27. 28.
29. 30. 31. 32. 33.
34. 35.
The part of the limbic system located in the centre of the brain, this structure relays sensory information from the lower part of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex and processes some sensory information before sending it to its proper area and is called the____________. The larger swelling above the medulla that connects the top of the brain to the bottom and that plays a part in sleep, dreaming, left–right body coordination, and arousal is called the ____________________. The is an area of neurons running through the middle of the medulla and the pons and slightly beyond that is responsible for selective attention. The is a curved structure located within each temporal lobe, responsible for the formation of long-term memories and the storage of memory for location of objects. The is a brain structure located near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and memory of fear. The is the outermost covering of the brain, consisting of densely packed neurons, responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input. The thick band of neurons that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres is called the _____________________. The section of the brain located at the rear and bottom of each cerebral hemisphere containing the visual centres of the brain is called the . The sections of the brain located at the top and back of each cerebral hemisphere containing the centres for touch, taste, and temperature sensations is called the . The is the area of the cortex located just behind the temples containing the neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech. The are areas of the cortex located in the front and top of the brain, responsible for higher mental processes and decision making as well as the production of fluent speech. The glands secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream. The endocrine glands located on top of each kidney that secrete over 30 different hormones to deal with stress, regulate salt intake, and provide a secondary source of sex hormones affecting the sexual changes that occur during adolescence are called the____________ ________________.
Words for Fill-in-the-Blanks Endocrine Adrenal glands Excitatory Agonists Frontal Lobes All or none Hippocampus Amygdala Ions Autonomic Nervous Myelin Axon Nerves Cerebellum Nervous system Corpus Callosum Neuron Neurotransmitters Cortex Occipital cortex Dendrites Parietal Cortex Peripheral Electroencephalograph ► Return to Activity: Fill-in-the-Blanks ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents .. 142
Nervous Pons Resting potential Reticular formation Sensory Soma Somatic Nervous Spinal Cord Sympathetic Division Synaptic Vesicles Temporal Lobes Thalamus
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▼ APS: READINGS FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE ▲ Return to Table of Contents Current Directions in Introductory Psychology, Second Edition (0-13-714350-8) Edited by Abigail A. Baird, with Michele M. Tugade and Heather B. Veague This American Psychological Reader includes timely, cutting-edge articles, giving readers a real-world perspective from a reliable source Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. This reader includes over 20 articles that have been carefully selected and taken from the very accessible Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. Articles discuss today’s most current and pressing issues in introductory psychology and are broken down into these main sections: Scientific Thinking; Nature/Nurture; Consciousness; Individual Differences; and Applications. Amir Amedi, Lotfi B. Merabet, Felix Bermpohl, Alvaro Pascual-Leone The Occipital Cortex in the Blind: Lessons About Plasticity and Vision. (Vol. 14, No. 16, 2005, pp. 306–311) p. 47 of the APS reader Studying the brains of blind individuals provides a unique opportunity to investigate how the brain changes and adapts in response to afferent (input) and efferent (output) demands. We discuss evidence suggesting that regions of the brain normally associated with the processing of visual information undergo remarkable dynamic change in response to blindness. These neuroplastic changes implicate not only processing carried out by the remaining senses but also higher cognitive functions such as language and memory. A strong emphasis is placed on evidence obtained from advanced neuroimaging techniques that allow researchers to identify areas of human brain activity, as well as from lesion approaches (both reversible and irreversible) to address the functional relevance and role of these activated areas. A possible mechanism and conceptual framework for these physiological and behavioural changes is proposed. Kevin S. LaBar Beyond Fear: Emotional Memory Mechanisms in the Human Brain. (Vol. 16, No. 4, 2007, pp. 173– 177) 64 of the APS reader Neurobiological accounts of emotional memory have been derived largely from animal models investigating the encoding and retention of memories for events that signal threat. This literature has implicated the amygdala, a structure in the brain’s temporal lobe, in the learning and consolidation of fear memories. Its role in fear conditioning has been confirmed, but the human amygdala also interacts with cortical regions to mediate other aspects of emotional memory. These include the encoding and consolidation of pleasant and unpleasant arousing events into long-term memory, the narrowing of focus on central emotional information, the retrieval of prior emotional events and contexts, and the subjective experience of recollection and emotional intensity during retrieval. Along with other mechanisms that do not involve the amygdala, these functions ensure that significant life events leave a lasting impression in memory.
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▼ FORTY STUDIES THAT CHANGED PSYCHOLOGY ▲ Return to Table of Contents Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research, 6/e (013603599X) By Roger Hock This unique book closes the gap between psychology textbooks and the research that made them possible by offering a first hand glimpse into 40 of the most famous studies in the history of the field, and subsequent studies that expanded upon each study’s influence. Readers are able to grasp the process and excitement of scientific discovery as they experience an insider’s look at the studies that continue today to be cited most frequently, stirred up the most controversy when they were first published, sparked the most subsequent related research, opened new fields of psychological exploration, and changed most dramatically our knowledge of human behaviour. Studies examined in Biology and Human Behaviour: One Brain or Two? Gazzaniga, M. S. (1967). The split brain in man. Scientific American, 217(2), 24–29. More Experience = Bigger Brain Rosenzweig, M. R., Bennett, E. L., & Diamond, M. C. (1972). Brain changes in response to experience. Scientific American, 226(2), 22–29.
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▼ WEB RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents General/Comprehensive Biological and Physiological Resources: http://psych.athabascau.ca/ Links to several sites and interesting topical articles relevant to biological and physiological psychology. A good starting point for a number of assignments, such as writing short papers or assembling study guide terms. Maintained by the Centre for Psychology Resources at Athabasca University, Alberta, Canada. Neuroguide.com—Neurosciences on the Internet: www.neuroguide.com/ A resource for all things related to neuroscience: databases, diseases, research centres, software, biology, psychology, journals, tutorials, and so much more. Neuropsychology Central: www.neuropsychologycentral.com/ Links to resources related to neuropsychology, including brain images, and extensive, well-organized, links to other sites. Neuroscience for Kids: http://faculty.washington.edu/ Don’t be put off by the name! This site can be enjoyed by people of all ages who want to learn about the brain. Fun, superbly organized site providing information and links to other neuroscience sites. Includes informative pages regarding Brain Basics, Higher Functions, Spinal Cord, Peripheral Nervous System, The Neuron, Sensory Systems, Methods and Techniques, Drug Effects, and Neurological and Mental Disorders. Even includes a nice answer to the perennial question “Is it true that we only use 10% of our brain?” http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/tenper.html Whole Brain Atlas: www.med.harvard.edu:80/ Prepared by Keith Johnson, M.D. and J. Alex Becker at Harvard University. Site includes brain images, information about imaging techniques, and information about specific brain disorders. Neurons/Neural Processes Basic Neural Processes Tutorials: http://psych.hanover.edu/ A good site for your students to help them learn about basic brain functioning. Making Connections—The Synapse: http://faculty.washington.edu/ Clear, comprehensible, explanation of how synapses work, with nice illustrations, prepared by Eric Chudler. Neural Processes Tutorial: http://psych.hanover.edu/ An excellent interactive animated tutorial. Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System: http://faculty.washington.edu/ Succinct summary of information about the structure and function of the autonomic nervous system, prepared by Eric Chudler.
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Self-Quiz for Chapter on the Human Nervous System: www.psychwww.com/ Self-quiz prepared by Russ Dewey at Georgia Southern University. Covers material typically found in an introductory psychology textbook chapter with a title like “Brain and Behaviour” or “Neuropsychology.” The Brain Brain and Behaviour: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/ This mega-site contains lots of links to information about the brain, behaviour, and the bond between the two. Students can complete several interactive exercises to learn more about brain functions. Brain Connection: The Brain and Learning: http://brainconnection.positscience.com/ A newspaper-style web page that contains interesting articles, news reports, activities, and commentary on brain-related issues. Brain Function and Pathology: www.waiting.com/ Concise table of diagrams of brain structures, descriptions of brain functions, and descriptions of signs and symptoms associated with brain structures and functions. Brain Model Tutorial: http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/ This tutorial teaches students about the various parts of the human brain and allows them to test their knowledge of brain structures. Brain: Right Down the Middle: http://faculty.washington.edu/ Useful drawing and succinct information about the location and functions of brain structures that can be seen on the midsagittal plane, presented by Eric Chudler. Conversations with Neil’s Brain (1994): www.williamcalvin.com/ An Online Book by William H. Calvin & George A. Ojemann of University of Washington. Teachers are allowed to print and photocopy chapters for educational use. Drugs, Brains, and Behaviour: www.rci.rutgers.edu/ An online textbook detailing the effects of various substances on the brain, authored by C. Robin Timmons & Leonard W. Hamilton. Lobes of the Brain: http://faculty.washington.edu/ Succinct information about the location and functions of the four lobes of the cerebrum, presented by Eric Chudler. Includes link to “Lobes of the Brain Review,” a very brief quiz on functions associated with major lobes of the brain. Answers provided online: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/revlobe.html One Brain…or Two?: http://faculty.washington.edu/ Information on lateralization of function and how the functions of the hemispheres may be studied, presented by Eric Chudler. He Brains / She Brains: http://faculty.washington.edu/ Nice summary of evidence for sex-related differences in brain structure, prepared by Eric Chudler. What Does Handedness Have to Do with Brain Lateralization (and Who Cares?): www.indiana.edu/~primate/brain.html Very nice page on lateralization of function in the brain.
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Phineas Gage Phineas Gage Information Page: www.deakin.edu.au/ Everything you ever wanted to know about Phineas Gage is on this page prepared by Malcolm Macmillan at Deakin University, Victoria, Australia. ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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4/ SENSATION AND PERCEPTION TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲ Return to Table of Contents MODULE 4.1: Sensation and Perception at a Glance ➢ Lecture Guide: Sensation and Perception at a Glance (p. 149) ➢ Resources Available (p. 154) MODULE 4.2: The Visual System ➢ Lecture Guide: The Visual System (p. 156) ➢ Resources Available (p. 161) MODULE 4.3: The Auditory System ➢ Lecture Guide: The Auditory System (p. 162) ➢ Resources Available (p. 166) MODULE 4.4: Touch and the Chemical Senses ➢ Lecture Guide: Touch and the Chemical Senses (p. 167) ➢ Resources Available (p. 172) FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES ➢ Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 173) ➢ Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 194) ➢ Handout Masters (p. 212) ➢ Web Resources (p. 221)
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LECTURE GUIDE I. MODULE 4.1: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION AT A GLANCE (Text p. 119) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology of sensation and perception. o See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand what stimulus thresholds are. o Stimulus thresholds involve the minimum amount of energy needed to notice a stimulus (absolute threshold) or the minimum modification in stimuli required to notice a change (difference threshold). ✓ Understand the principles of Gestalt psychology. o The key principle is that although the individual parts of a stimulus may have little meaning on their own, these parts can be grouped together in ways that are perceived as distinct patterns or objects. o There are five Gestalt principles that form perception: i) Figure and ground ii) Proximity iii) Similarity iv) Continuity v) Closure ✓ Apply your knowledge of signal detection theory to identify hits, misses, and correct responses in examples. o Signal detection theory examines the sensory process as well as the decision process. There are four possible sensory judgment outcomes: vi) Hit: correctly hear a sound. vii) Correct rejection: correct in not hearing a sound. viii) False alarm: thought you heard a sound, but nothing was there. ix) Miss: failed to hear something that was there. o Students should be able to read a scenario and use their knowledge of signal detection theory to identify hits, misses, false alarms, and correct rejections. ✓ Analyze claims that subliminal advertising and backward messages can influence your behaviour. o We can perceive stimuli below our conscious awareness, and this perception can influence our behaviours in some ways, as discussed in the Myths in Mind section. However, subliminal messages cannot make us do or buy something we normally would not. 1) Sensation and perception are two different processes that work together. i) To illustrate this point, students can look at the Necker cube in Figure 4.1. a) The cube changes perspective after staring at it for a few seconds.
Sensing the World Around Us 1) The body has an array of specialized processes that allows us to take in the world around us through light, sound vibrations, touch, and chemical senses. Sensation (p. 120) is the process of detecting external events by sense organs and turning those events into neural signals.
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2) Sensation is the beginning of perception when specialized sensory receptors—structures that respond to external stimuli—are stimulated. i) These receptors are spread out over the surface of the skin, inside the eye, over the tongue and nasal cavity, and packed within a structure of the ear (Table 4.1). ii) At the sensory level, sound is simply noise and sight is simply colour and motion. a) That information is relayed to the brain where perception occurs. Perception (p. 120) involves attending to, organizing, and interpreting stimuli that we sense. A process called transduction helps to relay the information to the brain (Figure 4.2). Transduction (p. 120): when specialized receptors transform the physical energy of the outside world into neural impulses. iii) For example, the transduction of sound takes place in a certain part of the ear called the cochlea. a) What we hear is converted into messages that travel to the hearing centres of the brain. 3) Our sensory receptors are most responsive to the initial exposure of a stimulus. i) For example, after leaving a dark movie theater, the light outside seems very intense. ii) However, the sensation eventually becomes less intense even though the stimuli remain the same. Doctrine of specific nerve energies (p. 120) the idea that the different senses are separated in the brain. Sensory adaptation (p. 121) is the reduction of activity in sensory receptors with repeated exposure to a stimulus. iii) This process allows us to shift our attention and focus to other events. Stimulus Thresholds 1) Early researchers in sensation and perception were interested in the smallest amount of a stimulus needed for detection, and the degree to which a stimulus must change in strength for the change to be perceptible. i) Early researcher, physicist, and philosopher William Gustav Fechner (1801-1887) coined the term psychophysics. Psychophysics (p. 122) is the field of study that explores how physical energy such as light and sound and their intensity relate to psychological experience. 2) For example, if you were standing atop a mountain on a dark, clear night, how far away do you think you could detect the flame from a candle? i) Research has found a flame can be detected at 30 miles away. ii) This example demonstrates absolute threshold (Figure 4.3). Absolute threshold (p. 122) is the minimum amount of energy or quantity of a stimulus required for it to be reliably detected at least 50% of the time it is presented. 3) Absolute thresholds differ by person, age, and even animal. i) For example, cats can detect changes in shadows that are imperceptible to humans.
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4) Another measure of perception refers to how well an individual can detect whether a stimulus has changed. Difference threshold (p. 122) is the smallest detectable difference between stimuli. i)
For example, when you add hot sauce to your food you are trying to cross a difference threshold that your taste receptors can register. ii) Whether you actually detect a difference, known as a just noticeable difference, depends on how intense the original stimulus was. Weber’s law (p. 122) states that the just noticeable difference between two stimuli changes as a proportion of those stimuli. i) Developed by German physician, Ernst Weber, a founder of psychophysics. ii) For example, if your food was already very spicy, it will take more hot sauce for you to perceive it as spicier than had the original mean been rather bland. iii) Limitations may involve self-reports, either subject did or did not detect a stimulus. Signal Detection 1) The study of stimulus thresholds has its limitations. i) Mainly, it relies on self-report—that is someone reporting that s/he did or did not detect a stimulus. a) This is open to participant bias in that someone may think s/he saw a light because s/he expected to see the light. ii) Signal detection theory takes this into account. Signal Detection Theory (p. 123) states that whether a stimulus is perceived depends on both the sensory experience and the judgment made by the subject. 2) In other words, signal detection theory examines the sensory process as well as the decision process (Figure 4.4). i) There are four possible sensory judgment outcomes: a) Hit: correctly hear a sound. b) Correct rejection: correct in not hearing a sound. c) False alarm: thought you heard a sound, but nothing was there. d) Miss: failed to hear something that was there. 3) Whether you are able to detect a weak stimulus depends on your expectations, arousal level, and motivation. i) For example, if you are lost in the woods, you are more likely to notice the sound of someone’s voice or the far-off growl of a bear in comparison to when you’re hiking with friends on a wellknown trail. a) This isn’t due to the fact that your hearing improved (the sensory process), it’s because your motivation to hear changed (the decision process).
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Myths in Mind: Setting the Record Straight on Subliminal Messaging 1) There have been attempts by advertisers to flash images on television and other media to try and influence us to buy their product. i) But does subliminal perception—meaning perception below conscious thresholds—really exist and does it work? 2) We can detect subliminal stimuli. i) Cognitive researchers have found that when people are flashed a picture of an angry face for a fraction of a second and then shown a coloured square (“masking stimulus” so as to keep the face out of conscious awareness), the emotional centres in their brain respond to the anger unlike when they are flashed a neutral face. 3) However, its effects are limited. i) Subliminal ads can influence a behaviour, but not make you do or buy something you normally wouldn’t. ii) Researchers found that flashing the word “thirst” during a drink advertisement resulted in thirsty participants rating the ad as more persuasive than did non-thirsty participants.
Priming and Subliminal Perception 1. Subliminal perception has been observed under strict laboratory conditions using a technique called priming. i) Exposure to a previous stimulus can influence an individual’s future response. ii) Studies present a word or image for a split second followed by second image known as a mask, which is shown longer. iii) The mask interferes with conscious perception of the subliminal stimulus.
Perceiving the World Around Us 1) To perceive figures, our perceptual systems make sense of ambiguity and fill in information where it seems to be missing. i) For example, figure 4.5 illustrates how we are compelled to see contours where there are none. a) Our brain fills in the nonexistent shape. b) The contours are called subjective contours because they only exist in our brain. Gestalt Principles of Perception 1) Gestalt psychology is an approach to perception that emphasizes the “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts (see also Module 1.2). i) In other words, the individual parts of an image might have little meaning on their own, but when put together take on a significant, perceived form. 2) There are a number of principles that describe how we organize perceived features from our environment (Figure 4.5). i) Figure and Ground: Objects or figures in our environment tend to stand out against a background. a) Perceptual illusions exist where the figure and ground are ambiguous (Figure 4.5a). b) Figure and ground also applies to hearing such as when holding a conversation with someone (voice = figure) in a crowed party (background noise = ground). ii) Proximity: We tend to treat two or more objects that are in close proximity to each other as a group. a) For example, a carton of eggs looks like two rows of six eggs vs. six rows of two eggs. iii) Similarity: We also tend to group based on similarity in colouration, shape, orientation, etc. a) For example, if you attend a sporting event, you can usually see groups of people supporting each team based on what they are wearing. .. 152
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iv) Continuity: We tend view items as whole figures even if the image is broken into multiple segments. v) Closure: Similarly, we fill in gaps to complete a whole object. Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Backwards Messages in Music 1) Many bands have been accused of implanting ‘backward messages’ in music, are they real? i) For example, infamous court case Judas Priest was accused on implanting messages that ‘caused’ two teens to commit murder. ii) The best explanation of backward messages in music comes from an understanding of top down and bottom. 2) With top-down processing, how we perceive a stimulus is influenced by what we already know (Figure 4.6). i) For example, looking for your friend in a crowded room is a top-down process because you have a face in mind and that is how you know what to look for. Top-down processing (p. 128) occurs when prior knowledge and expectations guide what is perceived. 3) Other times, we use bottom-up processing when we first perceive the details of the stimulus and then build a recognizable whole. i) For example, driving a car in foreign country requires you to learn the signs and signals as you go. Bottom-up processing (p. 128) is constructing a whole stimulus or concept from bits of raw sensory information. 4) How we perceive the world is usually a combination of both processes (Figure. 4.7). i) If we see something for the first time, and there is nothing around to influence our perception, we are likely to use bottom-up processing. ii) However, if we are surrounded by certain cues, this could influence what we expect to see, resulting in top-down processing. iii) In regards to backward messages in music expecting to hear something (top down processing) influences what is perceived; it overshadows the bottom up processing. iv) Most cases of backward messages in music can be explained using top down processing. 5) How can we critically evaluate this research? i) In experiments that have demonstrated the perception of ‘backwards messages’ music participants have been given instructions to listen for messages; these instructions engaged topdown processing. 6) Why is this relevant? i) The results suggest that we interpret the world based on expectations and by focusing on our expectations we may be missing out on important information.
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Attention and Perception 1) We can either focus our attention on one task or multiple tasks. Divided attention (p. 126) involves paying attention to several stimuli or tasks at once. a) This includes driving while listening to music and talking to a passenger. Selective attention (p. 126) involves focusing on one particular event or task. b) This includes focused studying or driving without distraction. 2) When we are focused on just one particular aspect of our environment, we can completely miss something right in front of us. Inattentional blindness (p. 129) is a failure to notice clearly visible events or objects because attention is directed elsewhere. 3) In one experiment, students were asked to watch a video of a group of people wearing white T-shirts pass a ball around and count how many times it’s passed. i) To make it more challenging, there was another group passing a ball around wearing black T-shirts. a) However, most students are able to accurately count how many times the ball was passed. ii) The unique part of the study is that a student dressed in a gorilla suit walked through the video, stopped, pounded her chest, and walked off the screen. a) Surprisingly, about half of the participants failed to notice the gorilla! RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 4.1 Lecture Launchers ➢ Sensation and Perception: The Role of Change ➢ The Sensory System ➢ A Few Animal Facts ➢ The Perception of Pain ➢ Early Development of Perceptual Abilities ➢ Unattended Information and the “Cocktail Party Phenomenon” ➢ The (Dis)embodiment of Fear ➢ Visual Agnosia: The Case of P.T. ➢ Auditory Agnosia: The Case of C.N. ➢ Sense, Nonsense, and Extra-sense ➢ Questioning ESP Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Pressure Phosphene ➢ Sensation ➢ Sensory Adaptation ➢ Expectancy and Perception ➢ Beware of What You Wish For ➢ Using Escher to Illustrate Perceptual Principles ➢ In Search of Perceptual Illusions ➢ ESP .. 154
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Web Resources ➢ Sensation and Perception Tutorials: http://psych.hanover.edu/ ➢ Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World—Howard Hughes Medical Institute: www.hhmi.org/senses/ ➢ Subliminal Perception—Encyclopedia of Psychology: www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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II. MODULE 4.2: THE VISUAL SYSTEM (Text p. 131) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology relating to the eye and vision. o See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand how visual information travels from the eye through the brain to give us the experience of sight. o Light is transformed into a neural signal by photoreceptors in the retina. This information is relayed via the optic nerve through the thalamus and on to the occipital lobe of the cortex. From here, neural circuits travel to other specialized regions of the brain, such as the temporal lobe where object recognition occurs. ✓ Understand the theories of colour vision. o The trichromatic theory states that the retina contains three different types of lightsensitive cones and that colour is experiences as a combination of stimulation of these receptors. However, this theory does not explain phenomena such as the negative afterimage. Opponent-process theory, which explains this phenomenon, emphasizes how colour perception is based on excitation and inhibition of opposing colours (e.g., red-green, blue-yellow, and white-black). ✓ Apply your knowledge to explain how we perceive depth in our visual field. o Student should be able to look at a photo or painting and identify the monocular depth cues present or used. ✓ Analyze how we perceive objects and faces. o We perceive objects and faces using specialized perceptual regions of the temporal lobe. Perceptual constancies allow us to recognize objects even though their shape, size, and colour may appear to change due to their orientation, distance, and lightness. Facial recognition is a distinct perceptual process supported by evidence from people with facial blindness who are still able to recognize other objects.
The Human Eye How the Eye Gathers Light 1) The term “light” actually refers to radiation that occupies a relatively narrow band of the electromagnetic spectrum (Figure 4.8). i) Light travels in waves that vary in length and amplitude. ii) Wavelength refers to the distance between peaks of a wave. a) Differences in wavelength correspond to different colours on the electromagnetic spectrum. b) Long wavelengths correspond to the reddish colours and short wavelengths correspond to the bluish colours. iii) The amplitude (or height) is another aspect of light (Figure 4.8b). a) Low-amp waves correspond with dim colours and high-amp waves correspond with bright colours. iv) We typically do not see pure colouration; we see a mixture of wavelengths that vary by (Figure 4.9). a) Hue: colours of the spectrum b) Intensity: brightness c) Saturation: colourfulness or density
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The Structure of the Eye 1) The eye consists of specialized structures that regulate the amount of light that enters the eye and then organize the light into a pattern that the brain can interpret (Figure 4.10). Sclera (p. 133) is the white, outer surface of the eye. Cornea (p. 133) is the clear layer that covers the front portion of the eye and also contributes to the eye’s ability to focus. 2) Light enters the eye through the cornea and passes through an opening called the pupil. Pupil (p. 133) regulates the amount of light that enters by changing its size; it dilates to allow more light to enter and constricts to allow less light into the eye. Iris (p. 133) is actually a round muscle that adjusts the size of the pupil; it also gives the eyes their characteristic colour. 3) Behind the pupil is the lens. Lens (p. 133) is a clear structure that focuses light onto the back of the eye. 4) The rear portion of the eye consists of a layer of specialized receptors that convert light into a message the brain can interpret. Retina (p. 133) lines the inner surface of the back of the eye and consists of specialized receptors that absorb light and send signals related to the properties of light to the brain. 5) Light stimulates chemical reactions in the rods and cones, and these reactions initiate neural signals that pass through a network of cells in the retina, which then send impulses to the brain (figure 4.13). Optic Nerve (p. 133) is a cluster of neurons that gather sensory information, exit at the back of the eye, and connect with the brain. 6) This nerve travels through the back of the eye and creates an area on the retina with no rods or cones, called the optic disc. i) This results in a blind spot—a space in the retina that lacks photoreceptors. a) However, we don’t normally notice this blind spot because the visual regions in our brain “fill in” the missing information. The Retina: From Light to Nerve Impulse 1) The specialized receptors of the retina are called photoreceptors. i) Two general types of photoreceptors like the retina: rods and cones. Rods (p. 134) are photoreceptors that occupy peripheral regions on the retina; they are highly sensitive under low light levels. Cones (p. 134) are photoreceptors that are sensitive to the different wavelengths of light that we perceive as colour. Fovea (p. 134) is the central region of the retina that contains the highest concentration of cones.
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2) The fovea’s functioning explains why objects in our direct line of vision are the clearest and most colourful in comparison to objects in the periphery. 3) As we move away from the fovea, the concentration of cones decreases and the concentration of rods increases (Figure 4.13). 4) In daylight or artificial light, the cones in the retina are more active than rods. i) They help detect differences in the colour of objects and discriminate the fine details of them. ii) If the light suddenly goes out, you see next to nothing. a) Then you gradually begin to see your surroundings more clearly. Dark adaptation (p. 135) is the process by which the rods and cones become increasingly sensitive to light under low levels of illumination. 5) You do not detect colour at night because rods are more active in low levels of light and they do not detect colour. The Retina and the Perception of Colours 1) How we experience colour is all based on how our visual system interprets different wavelengths on the electromagnetic spectrum. 2) Two different theories exist to try to explain how our eyes produce a colourful experience. i) One theory suggests that we have three different cones, each sensitive to different wavelengths. This theory originally developed by Thomas Young and then rediscovered by Herman von Helmholtz. Trichromatic theory (or Young-Helmholtz theory) (p. 136) maintains that colour vision is determined by three different cone types that are sensitive to short, medium, and long wavelengths of light. ii) Ewald Hering proposed a different theory of colour perception consistent with the activity patterns of retinal ganglion cells. Opponent-process theory (p. 136) states that we perceive colour in terms of opposing pairs: red to green, yellow to blue and white to black. Common Vision Disorders 1) Most common conditions affect the ability to focus—a task performed by the cornea and lens, which are responsible for focusing images on the retina. i) Nearsightedness occurs when the eyeball is slightly elongated, causing the image that the cornea and les focus on to fall short of the retina (Figure 4.16). a) People who are nearsighted can see relatively close objects, but have difficulty focusing on distant objects. ii) Farsightedness occurs when the length of the eye is shorter than normal from front to back. a) The image is focused behind the retina (Figure 4.16). b) Farsighted people can see distant objects, but not those close by.
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Visual Perception and the Brain 1) The information contained in the cells of the optic nerve travels to numerous areas of the brain. i) The first major stop is the optic chiasm. a) This is the point at which the optic nerves cross at the midline of the brain (Figure 4.17) b) Half of the nerve fibres travel to the same side of the brain and half travel to the opposite side. 2) Fibres from the optic nerve first connect with the visual area of the thalamus at a region called the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN). i) The LGN then sends messages to the visual cortex, located on the occipital lobe (Figure 4.17). 3) The visual cortex makes sense of this information with a division of labour among specialized cells. i) One set of cells are called the feature detection cells. ii) They respond selectively to simple and specific aspects of a stimulus (e.g., angles and edges). iii) Researchers have been able to map which feature detection cells respond to specific aspects of an image by examining the visual cortex in lab animals (Figure 4.18). 4) From the visual cortex, information about shapes and contours is sent to other cortical areas. The Ventral Stream 1) The ventral stream is a pathway extending from the visual cortex to the temporal lobe. i) This is where object recognition occurs. 2) Our ability to identify objects in any viewing conditions is called perceptual constancy. i) includes colour constancy; we recognize a bright red car as bright red even at night. 3) Constancy is aided by experience and prior knowledge. Perceptual constancy (p. 139) is the ability to perceive objects as having constant shape, size, and colour despite changes in perspective.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Are Faces Special? 1) What do we know about face perception? i) Faces appear to stand out in comparison to other objects in our visual world (Figure 4.20). ii) Brain imaging studies have found a ‘face area’ in the brain (the fusiform face area). iii) Face recognition is related to experience. iv) We cannot perceive errors in faces presented upside but we can detect similar errors in objects presented upside, suggesting faces are processed differently. 2) Can we critically evaluate this evidence? i) Is the fusiform face area processing faces? a) Possible that it is active when we are recognizing faces because it is an area related to expertise and not face recognition per se. b) Researchers have found that when recognizing highly familiar objects of all types, the fusiform face area is more active. 3) Why is this relevant? i) To know a specific area is responsible for face recognition is helpful for identifying the location of brain damage.
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The Dorsal Stream 1) The dorsal stream extends from the visual cortex to the parietal lobe of the cortex (see Figure 4.24). i) This is where depth and motion are perceived. 2) Someone with damage to the dorsal stream cannot reach for objects with accuracy. 3) The dorsal stream is the ‘what’ pathway, the ventral stream is the ‘where’ pathway. Depth Perception 1) Monocular and binocular depth cues combine to give us depth perception. i) Each eye can adjust so that depth can be perceived, but the eyes working together give a greater sense of depth. Binocular Depth Cues (p. 143) are distance cues that are based on the differing perspectives of both eyes. 2) One type of binocular depth cue is convergence. Convergence (p. 143) occurs when the eye muscles contract so that both eye focus on a single object. i)
Convergence typically occurs for objects that are relatively close to you. a) For example, as you track your fingertip moving toward our nose, your eyes move forward. 3) The way our eyes are set on our heads gives us the ability to see in three dimensions. i) They both face forward. ii) We perceive objects from slightly different angles. a) For example, hold a finger out and look at it with one eye with the other closed. Now switch eye. It will like the finger moved. Retinal disparity (p. 143) (also called binocular disparity) is the difference in relative position of an object as seen by both eyes, which provides information to the brain about depth. iii) We rely on information from each individual eye as well as the eyes working together, or in stereo. iv) Most primates (including humans) have stereoscopic vision, which results from overlapping visual fields. Monocular cues (p. 144) are depth cues that we can perceive with only one eye. 4) One monocular cue, called accommodation, takes place when the lens of your eye curves to allow you to focus on nearby objects (Figure 4.25a). i) For example, close one eye and focus on an object. Now switch your focus to an object that is farther away. a) The lens changes shape again so the next object comes into focus. 5) Motion parallax is another monocular depth cure used when you and your surroundings are in motion (Figure 4.25b). i) For example, as you sit in a moving car and look out the window, you will notice objects closer to you (e.g., road, cars, etc.) appear to move rapidly in the opposite directions. a) In comparison, objects far away (e.g., mountains) appear to move slowly and in the same direction as the car.
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Psych @ The Artist’s Studio 1) Painters are able to create a sense of depth using monocular depth cues called pictorial depth cues (Figure 4.26). Linear perspective (p. 144): Linear lines stretching to the horizon appear to move closer together as they travel farther away. a) For example, streets appear to narrow in the distance. Interposition: Nearby objects block our view of far-off objects. a) For example, umbrellas blocking the view of the buildings behind them. ii) Light and shadow: The shadow cast by an object allows us to detect both the size and the object and the relative locations of objects. a) Closer objects reflect more light. iii) Texture gradient: Objects that are course and distinct at close range become fine and grainy at greater distances. a) For example, the texture of a brick street becomes blurred as distance increases. iv) Height in plane: Objects that are higher in our visual field are perceived as farther away than objects low in our visual field. v) Relative size: If two objects in an image are known to be of the same actual size, the larger of the two must be closer. 2) Animals can also identify depth cues. i) Baboons can detect the corridor illusion (Figure 4.27). a) This includes depth cues of linear perspective and height in plane. i)
RESOURCES AVAILABLE MODULE 4.2 ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture Launchers ➢ Colour Mixture ➢ Eyes and Camera Lenses ➢ The Eye Exam ➢ The Visual System Converts 2-D to 3-D ➢ Kinetic Depth Effect Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Illusions Can Tell Us How the Visual System Works ➢ Dark Adaptation ➢ Mapping the Blind Spot ➢ Rods and Cones ➢ Seeing Your Retina ➢ “... More than the Sum of Its Parts ...” Web Resources ➢ 3D Vision: www.vision3d.com ➢ Blind Spots: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/ ➢ Cow’s Eye Dissection—The Exploratorium: www.exploratorium.edu/ ➢ The Exploratorium—Online Exhibits: www.exploratorium.edu/ ➢ Grand Illusions: www.grand-illusions.com/ ➢ How We See: www.accessexcellence.org/ ➢ Vischeck Colour Blindness Simulator: www.vischeck.com/ ➢ Visual Illusions Gallery: http://dragon.uml.edu/ ➢ The World of M. C. Escher: www.worldofescher.com/
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III. MODULE 4.3: THE AUDITORY AND VESTIBULAR SYSTEM (Text p. 147) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology relating to the ear, hearing, and the vestibular system. o See bold, italicized items below. ✓ Understand different characteristics of sound and how they correspond to perception. o Sound can be analyzed based on its frequency (the number of cycles a sound wave travels per second) as well as amplitude (the height of a sound wave). Our experience of pitch is based on the frequency of sound waves. Amplitude corresponds to loudness: the higher the amp, the louder the sound. ✓ Understand how the vestibular system affects our sense of balance. o The vestibular system contains two components: vestibular sacs and semicircular canals. o Both structures send information to brain regions that integrate vestibular information with input from other senses; this process allows us to maintain balance. ✓ Apply your knowledge of sound localization. o Students should be able to apply the principles of sound localization to make predictions about a localization study. ✓ Analyze how musical beats are related to movement. o Basal ganglia are not necessary for beat perception, however, studies of patients with damage to their basal ganglia show that these structures are likely necessary for us to be able to follow a musical beat.
Sound and the Structures of the Ear Sound 1) The function of the ear is to detect sound waves, which are changes in mechanical pressure transmitted through solids, liquids, or gases. 2) Sound waves have two important characteristics: frequency and amplitude (Figure 4.28). i) Frequency refers to wavelength and is measured in hertz (HZ). a) This is the number of cycles a sound wave travels per second. Pitch (p. 148) is the perceptual experience of sound wave frequencies. b) High frequency sounds (e.g., tires squealing) have short wavelengths and a high pitch. c) Low frequency sounds (e.g., bass guitar) have long wavelengths and a low pitch. ii) The amplitude of a sound wave determines its loudness. a) High-amp sound waves are louder than low-amp waves. 3) Humans are able to detect sounds in the frequency range from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz (Figure 4.29) 4) Loudness—a function of sound wave amplitude—is typically expressed in decibels (dB) (Table 4.2). The Human Ear 1) The human ear is divided into outer, middle, and inner regions (Figure 4.30). i) The outer region, called the pinna, helps channel sound waves to the ear and allows you to determine the source or location of a sound. a) The auditory canal extends from the pinna to the eardrum, which vibrates if reached by sound waves. ii) The middle ear consists of three tiny moveable bones called ossicles (known individually as the hammer, anvil, and stirrup). a) The eardrum is attached to these bones, meaning they vibrate when the eardrum vibrates. .. 162
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iii) The ossicles attach to an inner ear structure call the cochlea. Cochlea (p. 148) is a fluid-filled membrane that is coiled in a snail-like shape that contains the structures that convert sound into neural impulses. iv) Hair-like projections line the basilar membrane of the cochlea, which are responsible for converting sound vibrations to neural impulses. a) The pressing and pulling action of the ossicles causes fluid within the cochlea to move, displacing these tiny hair cells. b) When these hairs move, it stimulates the cells of the auditory nerves. v) The auditory nerves fire as a result, which sends signals to the auditory cortex, located within the temporal lobe.
The Perception of Sound Sound Localization: Finding the Source 1) Identifying where a sound originates is handled by a midbrain structure called the inferior colliculus. Sound localization (p. 151) the process of identifying where sound comes from. 2) There are two ways that we locate sound. i) First, we use the slight time difference between a sound hitting both ears to estimate the direction of the source. a) For example, if someone to your left says your name, sound hits your left ear a fraction of a second before the right. ii) Second, we localize sound by using differences in the intensity in which sound is heard by both ears—a phenomenon known as a sound shadow (Figure 4.32). a) If the sound is to your left, the left ear will experience the sound more intensely and the right ear will be in the sound shadow. b) The inferior colliculi (plural) detect differences in the times when sound reaches one ear over the other as well as the intensity of the sound between one side and the other allowing us to identify where it is coming from. Theories of Pitch Perception 1) To explain how we perceive pitch, we begin with the cochlea and work toward brain centres specialized for hearing. 2) One theory has to do with how hair cells are arranged along the basilar membrane. i) Not all hairs are equally responsive to sounds within the 20 to 20,000 Hz range of human hearing. ii) High-frequency sounds stimulate hair cells closest to the ossicles, whereas lower-frequency sounds stimulate hair cells toward the end of the cochlea (Figure 4.33). a) To visualize this, think of snapping a rope. Place Theory of Hearing (p. 151) states that how we perceive pitch is based on the location (place) along the basilar membrane that sound stimulates. iii) This theory has been confirmed with early experiments on guinea pigs and human cadavers, but it only explains hearing at higher frequencies. 3) A second theory has to do with the rate at which the ossicles press into the cochlea, sending a wave of activity down the basilar membrane.
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Frequency theory (p. 151) states the perception of pitch is related to the frequency at which the basilar membrane vibrates. i)
For example, A 70 Hz sound (70 cycles per second) stimulates the hair cells 70 times per second. a) This results in 70 nerve impulses per second traveling from the auditory nerves to the brain, which interprets the sound frequency in terms of pitch (Figure 4.33). ii) However, there is an upper limit on the capacity of the auditory nerve to send signals to the brain. a) Neurons cannot fire more than 1000 times per second. 4) The volley principle explains how we overcome this limit. i) A single neuron cannot fire more than 1000 times per second, but a group of neurons can by firing in an alternating (volley) fashion. a) Therefore, we can hear a sound measuring 5000 Hz because groups of neurons fire in rapid succession. 5) Currently, the place, frequency, and volley concepts are all needed to explain our experience of hearing. i) Place theory best explains our hearing of high-pitched noises and frequency theory, with the volley principle, better explain how we hear low-pitched noises. 6) When we hear complex stimuli (e.g., music and voices), it is likely that place, frequency, and volley principles are functioning at the sensory level. i) Perceiving these complex stimuli occurs in specialized regions of the brain. Auditory Perception and the Brain Primary auditory cortex (p. 152) is a major perceptual centre of the brain involved in perceiving what we hear. 1) The auditory cortex is organized similarly to the cochlea. i) Cells within different areas across the auditory cortex respond to specific notes. a) For example, high musical notes are processed at one end of the auditory cortex and lower notes are heard as you move to the opposite end. ii) primary auditory cortex is the major perceptual centre that determines what we hear. iii) the secondary auditory cortex helps identify complex sounds such as speech. 2) Auditory cortex not fully developed at birth, we must learn how to analyze complex sounds i) This is why we have trouble hearing fine distinctions in languages we are exposed to later in life. The Perception of Music 1) Aspects of the brain that help us perceive speech help us perceive music. 2) Some aspects of music perception are also linked to areas involved in coordinating movements.
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Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The Perception of Musical Beats For the past decade psychologists have been investigating physical musical responses and the neural and perceptual processes that allow us to do so. 1) What do we know about the perception of musical beats? i) Our brains are pattern-recognition machines. a) Studies have shown that even babies demonstrate the capability to detect beats in music and produce a physical response (a bounce usually). 2) How can science explain the perception of musical beats? i) Studies involving brain imaging have discovered that when perceiving musical stimuli there is activity detected in brain areas that are involved with coordination and movement. ii) Activity in the basil ganglia, specifically in the putamen was much higher while participants were hearing familiar beats. 3) Can we critically evaluate this information? i) Studies conducted using brain scans reveal areas of the brain that are active which is not a guarantee that they are necessary for the behavioural function to occur. ii) A number of separate studies, including one conducted on monkeys, also supported the activation of the basil ganglia and putamen. iii) Other research on individuals suffering from Parkinson’s disease, who have damaged basal ganglia regions, tend to have difficulty picking out musical beats. 4) Why is this Relevant? i) Physical responses to music is very natural and, in most cases, inevitable. This ability is also influence by our culture, which is why we tend to see different movements to rhythms across different cultures.
The Vestibular System 1) The ability to complete complex physical tasks like athletics and specifically maintaining balance throughout, relies on our perceptual abilities and two structures in the inner ear. Sensation and the Vestibular System The vestibular system (p. 154) a sensory system in the ear that provides information about spatial orientation of the head as well as head motion. Vestibular sacs (p. 154) are structures that influence your ability to detect when your head is no longer in an upright position. a. Made up of two parts, the utricle (little pouch) and saccule (little sac). Semicircular canals (p. 155) three fluid-filled canals found in the inner ear, that respond when your head moves in a different direction. 2. The vestibular system provides the brain with a continuous flow of information about the head’s position and movement, which allows us to keep our head up right and maintain our balance at all times (Figure 4.34).
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The Vestibular System and the Brain 1. The information from the vestibular system is sent along the vestibular ganglion to nuclei in the brainstem which evokes a behaviour through vestibular nuclei. RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 4.3 ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture Launchers ➢ If a Tree Fell in the Forest ➢ Auditory Localization ➢ Perfect Pitch Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ How High Can You Hear? ➢ Auditory Localization Web Resources ➢ Auditory Illusions—The Exploratorium: www.exploratorium.edu/ ➢ Virtual Tour of the Ear: http://ctl.augie.edu/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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IV. MODULE 4.4: TOUCH AND CHEMICAL SENSES (Text p. 157) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology of touch and chemical senses. o See bold, italicized items below. ✓ Understand how pain messages travel to the brain. o According to gate-control theory, small nerve fibres carry pain messages from their sources to the spinal cord, and then up to the hypothalamus and somatosensory cortex. Large nerve fibres register other touch sensations (e.g., tickling) and can inhibit the signals sent by the short fibres. ✓ Understand the relationship between smell, taste, and food flavour experience. o Both senses combine to give us flavour experiences. About 80% of our information about food comes from our sense of smell. Contact with food activates patterns of neural activity among nerve cells in the papillae of the taste buds, and foods’ odours activate patterns of nerve activity in the olfactory epithelium. The primary and secondary gustatory cortex as well as the olfactory bulb are involved in the perceptual experience of flavour. ✓ Apply your knowledge about touch to describe the acuity of different areas of skin. o Students should be able to fashion their own two-point threshold device (Figure 4.35) and perform experiments to test the acuity of different areas of skin. ✓ Apply your knowledge to determine whether you or someone you know is a “supertaster.” o Students should be able to perform an informal experiment to determine whether they are supertasters by using a piece of paper with a hole punched out and food dye. ✓ Analyze how different senses are combined together. Human senses often operate together and interact to form more vivid experiences. The flavour of food is enhanced by smell. We also develop expectancies about what a visual stimuli ‘should’ sound like.
The Sense of Touch 1) There are three main types of stimulation to which the surface of our skin responds. i) Pressure: a) Objects that just graze our skin or cause bruises. b) Stretching of the skin (e.g., backrub). c) Running your hand over something to feel its texture. ii) Temperature: a) Freezing cold to boiling hot. iii) Pain 2) Touch receptors are located beneath the surface of the skin and also in the muscles, joints, and tendons. 3) Sensitivity to touch varies across different regions of the body. i) For example, the fingertips, palms, and lips are highly sensitive compared to the calves and lower back. ii) The two-point threshold test is one way of testing sensitivity, or acuity (Figure 4.35). a) High acuity regions (e.g., fingertips) can detect two separate, but closely spaced, pressure points of the device. b) Less sensitive regions perceive the same stimuli as only one pressure point.
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4) Exploring objects by touch is an active process. i) We do not just put our hand on something; we move our fingers around to feel the object. Haptics (p. 158) is the active, exploratory aspect of touch sensation and perception. ii) For example, you use your fingers to handle a piece of fruit to check for abnormalities, bruises, etc. iii) People with tactile agnosia are unable to recognize objects by haptics because certain areas of their somatosensory cortex have been damaged. a) They struggle to identify common objects (e.g., wooden blocks of common shapes). 5) Haptics also allows us to avoid damaging or dropping objects. i) Haptics works in conjunction with kinesthesis to coordinate movements. a) This way you can hold an object with enough resistance to avoid dropping it and also keep your hands and fingers in a certain way to avoid letting it roll out of your hands. Kinesthesis (p. 159) is the sense of the bodily motion and position. ii) Receptors for kinesthesis reside in the muscles, joints, and tendons. a) These receptors transmit information about movement and the position of your muscles, limbs, and joints to the brain (Figure 4.37). Feeling Pain 1) Although pain might be felt anywhere in the body, it is perceived by the brain. Nociception (p. 159) is the activity of the nerve pathways that respond to uncomfortable stimulation. 2) Nerve endings called nociceptors initiate pain messages that travel to the central nervous system (Figure 4.38). i) They reside in our skin, teeth, cornea, and internal organs. ii) There are different types of these receptors for responding to various types of stimuli (e.g., pin prick or extreme heat or cold). 3) Two types of nerve fibres transmit pain messages. i) Fast fibres register sharp, immediate pain (e.g., the pain of cutting yourself). ii) Slow fibres register chronic, dull pain (e.g., the lingering feelings after stubbing your toe). 4) Pain messages first travel to cells in the spinal cord and then move upward to a point where sensory messages branch off to two regions of the brain. i) The hypothalamus (from Module 3.3) regulates arousal and emotional responses associated with pain. ii) The somatosensory cortex registers the pain sensations occurring over the entire surface of the body. 5) Pain varies from mild to severe and from acute (brief) to chronic. i) How we experience pain is explained by the gate-control theory. Gate-control theory (p. 159) explains our experience of pain as an interaction between nerves that transmit pain messages and those that inhibit these messages.
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6) The gate-control theory suggests that cells in the spinal cord regulate how much pain signalling reaches the brain. i) The spinal cord contains small nerve fibres that conduct pain messages and larger nerve fibres that conduct other sensory signals (e.g., rubbing, pinching, tickling, etc). a) Stimulation of the small fibres results in the experience of pain, whereas the larger fibres inhibit pain signals. b) In other words, the large fibres close the gate that is opened by the small fibres. ii) According to this theory, you can reduce the pain of stubbing your toe by rubbing it because the stimulation of the larger fibres inhibits the short pain fibres from firing.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Empathy and Pain 1) What do we know about empathy and pain? i) we have different responses to witnessing pain based on whether we care about the person who is in pain. a) May feel negative emotion and some pain ourselves if it is a friend who is hurt. b) May have no response if it is someone we do not know who is hurt. ii) Feeling pain when our friends are hurt is related to empathy. 2) How does science explain the influence of empathy on pain perception? i) In one study participants immersed their hand in cold water while watching either a video that had negative emotional content or neutral content and then rated the unpleasantness of the experience. a) Pain ratings were higher when negative emotional videos were shown, particularly those related to disasters. ii) in another study participants rated empathy towards and actor and then were subjected to painful stimuli while watching the actor experience pain. a) Participants who reported feeling empathy for the actor reported more pain. iii) The results of both studies suggest that having an emotional connection with a person or situation can influence how we experience pain. 3) How can we critically evaluate the research? i) Is it possible that participants are reporting what they think the experimenter wants to hear? a) Although this may be true there is evidence that the insula in the brain, which is related to bodily sensations, is more active when people are completing tasks related to empathy. ii) Mice subjected to pain showed more pain response when with cagemates than when alone or with mice they were not familiar with. a) Supports the idea that knowing someone in pain affects the perception of pain. 4) Why is this relevant? i) This research gives insight on how to reduce suffering, if negative emotions can enhance pain perhaps positive emotions can reduce pain.
Phantom Limb Pain 1) Sensations in limbs that have been amputated are commonly reported. i) Sensations in absent limbs are felt in those born without the limb as well as those who lose the limb through injury. ii) Sensations include itching, muscle contractions, and pain. Phantom limb sensations (p. 162) are frequently experienced by amputees, who report pain and other sensations coming from the absent limb.
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2) One explanation suggests that the brain rewires itself after the loss of a limb. i) When someone loses a limb, the corresponding region of the somatosensory cortex no longer has any input from this limb. a) Healthy nerve cells become hypersensitive when they lose connections. b) The phantom sensations could be the result of these cells. ii) One treatment for phantom pain involves a mirror box (Figure 4.40). a) The box shows the reflection of the amputee’s existing limb (e.g. arm or hand) to create the visual appearance of having both limbs. b) Being able to watch the phantom limb move and stretch has been shown to reduce pain and discomfort. iii) Researchers are still unclear as to why the mirror box works. a) However, the short-term benefits are clear. b) In the long-term, the somatosensory cortex may reorganize itself.
The Chemical Senses: Taste and Smell The Gustatory System: Taste 1) Taste is indulgent and adaptive. i) Rarely do we eat something we don’t find pleasurable. ii) Taste helps us to avoid eating harmful substances (e.g., rancid meat). Gustatory system (p. 163) functions in the sensation and perception of taste. 2) The receptors involved in taste sensations are chemical compounds that are water soluble (dissolvable). i) Food and drink are the most common taste stimuli. 3) Taste is registered primarily on the tongue, where roughly 9000 taste buds reside. i) There are about 1000 taste buds throughout the sides and roof of the mouth. 4) Sensory neurons that transmit signals from the taste buds respond to a variety of stimuli, but most tend to respond best to a particular taste. i) However, taste comes from stimulation of the entire tongue rather than just specific, localized regions. ii) The middle of the tongue has very few taste receptor, resulting in somewhat of a blind spot similar to the eye (Module 4.2). a) However, we do not sense this blind spot because the sensory information is filled in, just as it is with the eye. iii) Taste receptors replenish themselves every 10 days, and are the only sensory receptor to do so. 5) Receptors for taste are located in the visible, small bumps (papillae) that cover the surface of the tongue (figure 4.42). i) The papillae are lined with taste buds. ii) The bundles of nerves that register taste at the taste buds send the signal through the thalamus and on to higher-level regions of the brain. a) This includes the gustatory cortex, which is a deep-seated structure located in the interior of the cortex. b) The secondary gustatory cortex processes the pleasurable experiences associated with food.
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6) There are approximately 2500 chemical compounds in the food we eat that combine to give us diverse taste sensations. i) The primary tastes include: salty, sweet, bitter, and sour. ii) A fifth taste, umami, has also been identified. a) Umami, also referred to as “savouriness”, is a Japanese word that refers to tastes associated with seaweed, MSG, and protein rich foods (e.g., milk and aged cheese). 7) Average humans have about 10 000 taste buds in their mouths, whereas supertasters can have many times that number (Figure 4.43). i) About 25% of the population are supertasters. ii) They are especially sensitive to bitter tastes (e.g., broccoli and black coffee). iii) They are less likely to prefer fatty and sweet foods. a) This might account for their lower rates of obesity. The Olfactory System: Smell 1) Smell works with taste to give us the experience of flavour. i) It also helps us identify harmful substances, recognize individuals, and warn us of danger. ii) About 80% of our information about food comes from our sense of smell. a) This is why we lose the ability to taste when we have a cold. Olfactory system (p. 164) is involved in smell—the detection of airborne particles with specialized receptors located in the nose. 2) Our sensation of smell begins with nasal air flow bringing in molecules that bind with receptors at the top of the nasal cavity. i) Within the nasal cavity is the olfactory epithelium. a) These are tiny hair-like projections that contain specialized proteins that bind with the airborne molecules that enter the nasal cavity (Figure 4.44). Olfactory epithelium (p. 165) is a thin layer of cells that are lined by sensory receptors called cilia. 3) The cilia transmit messages to neurons that converge on the olfactory bulb. i) This serves as the brain’s central region for processing smell. ii) The olfactory bulb connects with several regions of the brain through the olfactory tract. a) This includes the limbic system (emotion) as well as the regions of the cortex where subjective experience of pleasure (or disgust) occurs. Olfactory bulb (p. 165) serves as the brain’s central region for processing smells. 4) Our perceptual experiences of smell begin with the encoding of sensory information by cells that comprise the olfactory epithelium. i) Cilia contain specialized proteins that bind to inhaled compounds (Figure 4.44b). ii) Although we only have 1,000 different types of odour receptors, we can detect about 10 000 different odours because odour molecules can stimulate several receptors simultaneously.
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Multimodal integration 1) Many sensory experiences are actually a combination of experiences from multiple sense. i) Flavour combines taste and smell. Multimodal integration (p. 165): the ability to combine sensation from different modalities such as vision and hearing into a single integrated perception. 2) Our brain makes complex decisions as to whether to integrate input from different senses. i) Decision sometimes based on location. ii) Decision sometimes based on timing. 3) The McGurk Effect is an excellent example of how multimodal perception affects perceptual experience. i) Seeing a mouth make a sound and hearing a different sound leads to our perception of a sound that is in between the two. RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 4.4 Lecture Launchers ➢ Smell Myths ➢ Noses, Aisle 12 ➢ Pheromones and the President of the United States Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ The Role of Smell in Determining Flavour ➢ Odour Identification Test ➢ Want a Cookie? ➢ Jellybeans ➢ Saliva and Taste Web Resources ➢ Smell: http://sun.science.wayne.edu/ ➢ Taste: http://sun.science.wayne.edu/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Sensation and Perception: The Role of Change The Sensory System A Few Animal Facts Early Development of Perceptual Abilities Unattended Information and the “Cocktail Party Phenomenon” The (Dis)embodiment of Fear Visual Agnosia: The Case of P.T. Auditory Agnosia: The Case of C.N. Sense, Nonsense, and Extra-sense Questioning ESP Colour Mixture Eyes and Camera Lenses The Eye Exam The Visual System Converts 2-D to 3-D Kinetic Depth Effect If a Tree Fell in the Forest Auditory Localization Perfect Pitch Smell Myths Noses, Aisle 12 Pheromones and the President of the United States Facts about Skin The Perception of Pain The Perception of Phantom Limb Pain New Hope for the Paralyzed
▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Sensation and Perception: The Role of Change Most people have had the experience, when sitting still in a cozy chair, or perhaps relaxing while taking a warm bath, of feeling as though their arms and/or legs momentarily “aren’t there,” only to reacquire sensation after moving them. This phenomenon illustrates an important factor in sensation and hence, perception: change. Something similar to the preceding example occurs for vision. If one views Figure 1 (either on a sheet of paper or on a PowerPoint slide), carefully fixating the black dot, the “fuzzy” gray surround will slowly disappear! The smallest eye movement will refresh the image. What is happening here is that, at the sensory receptor level, stimuli that aren’t changing (via stabilization on the retina in this case) do not initiate new action potentials, and the receptors stop “firing” (or return to some baseline firing rate). Interestingly, higher up the pathway in visual processing (cortex), the brain “makes sense” of the image, and fills in the gaps with the most appropriate information available, which happens to be the white surround. So, visual perception is largely a function of the visual areas in cortex making sense of the incoming sensory signals from the photoreceptors. Because our eyes are almost always moving a least a little, we rarely encounter such a situation as described in our everyday experience. Additionally, the eyes are always moving—they actually wiggle very slightly—which is called physiological nystagmus. It is normal and is so slight that it cannot be detected with the naked eye. Some people are born without this autonomic function, and (as you might guess) when they carefully fixate on anything, the world disappears!
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A discussion based on this concept should help students to grasp the difference between sensation and perception. Potential issues: (1) Students may wonder why the black dot never disappears. The explanation is that physiological nystagmus is more effective at keeping an image “refreshed” for images that are in the central visual field (this area contains very densely packed photoreceptors, so small changes serve to keep the image changing slightly). (2) Another question that may come up involves a lack of disappearance of the grayish area surrounding the black dot. Some students may not be able to fixate the black dot well enough, and so may not be able to get the surrounding shady portion to disappear. What may work for these students is to cover one eye while viewing the image.
Figure 1 ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Sensory System You can expand on a lecture and discuss the three different types of sensory systems, each of which performs different functions. Exteroceptors. These sensory receptors take data from the external world. Types of exteroceptors include distal and proximal receptors. Distal receptors include those associated with vision.
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Objects rarely make direct contact with the eye; rather they are discerned at a distance, with no need for contact in order to experience the sensation. Proximal receptors are associated with touch, taste, and possibly olfaction. Thermal radiation does not always require proximity; you can tell that the sun is warm via your distal receptors—you do not have to touch it. In most instances, proximal systems require direct contact with the stimulus. Interoceptors. These are internal system monitors; they work to keep you aware of the internal working of your body, such as letting you know when you are hungry, thirsty, in pain, nauseated, fatigued, and so on. Proprioceptors. These receptors monitor the position of the body or limbs relative to some reference point. They let you know where you are physically located in space. Proprioceptors are found in the vestibular system, where they permit maintenance of your physical position, in the pressure receptors of the skin, in the muscle stretch receptors of your muscles, and in the joint movement receptors of your limbs.
▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: A Few Animal Facts Do animals see the same way we do? Do some animals have better vision than humans? You can spice up a discussion of the anatomy of the eye by comparing the visual abilities of animals and humans. The senses of animals have evolved to give members of the species an optimum chance for survival. Here are a few examples: Some animals, such as cats, have a reflective surface on the back of the eye behind the sensory receptors. When light first enters the eye, some light is detected by the sensory receptors. The light not detected by the sensory receptors continues onto the reflective surface at the back of the eye. This light is then reflected outward toward the sensory receptors, providing a second opportunity for detection. This feature produces two results. First, the outward reflection results in the shining of the cat’s eye when a light beam is shined into it. The second result is that the cat’s night vision efficiency is doubled over that of animals with a nonreflective rear surface, such as humans. Diurnal animals, such as fish and birds, have all or mostly cones on their retinas. Their superior colour vision is a strong advantage during daylight, but they are nearly blind at night. Nocturnal animals, like rats and bats, have all or mostly rods on their retinas, therefore they have no colour vision, but they can see at night. The retinas of humans contain both rods and cones; therefore, humans can see things at night and with colour during the day. Most herbivores and prey animals have their eyes placed far to the side of the head to give them a wide range of vision while carnivores, including humans, have their eyes closer together so the overlapping visual fields can provide good depth perception.
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Early Development of Perceptual Abilities What does the world look like to a newborn baby? Does it look pretty much the same as it does to you, or do babies have a vastly different visual experience? If it is different, how is it different? These questions lie at the heart of the nativist empiricist controversy: Do things appear as they do because we learn to see them that way through experience or because we are simply born with the right kind of neural structure? One way to approach the nativism/empiricism question is to study people who were blind from birth and then had their vision suddenly restored. It was hoped that they would be able to describe what they experienced so that psychologists could discover what perceptual abilities they had in their first visual experiences, that thus must be innate, and what ones they didn’t, that thus had to have been learned. Cataract Patients Some people are born with such severe cataracts (cloudy or opaque lenses) in both eyes that they are essentially blind; at best, they see only a haze of diffuse light. When surgery to correct this condition was perfected, adults who had been blind all their lives could suddenly see! Right after the bandages were removed, almost all patients reported that their first visual experience was a bewildering array of colours with little if any structure. Testing with simple stimuli revealed, however, that their vision was not completely chaotic. They seemed to be able to segregate regions by colour, distinguish figure from ground, locate and scan figures in space, and follow moving figures with their eyes. Other perceptual abilities were strikingly absent. The patients were totally unable to recognize objects visually, even objects they knew quite well by touch. They could not even tell a square from a triangle, for instance, without feeling it at the same time or counting its corners visually. Most of these people eventually learned to identify shapes visually but only with great difficulty and only in specific situations. Seemingly irrelevant changes in things such as colour, orientation, or position of a simple figure would often keep the patients from identifying it correctly. (Note that this was not the case for S. B., the lead case in Chapter 5 of the text. This difference in abilities may be explained by the age of blindness; S.B. had vision until he was 10 months old compared to these patients who were blind from birth.) These reports have often been interpreted sweepingly as evidence for empiricism and against nativism. There are two problems with this conclusion, however. First, it ignores the fact that several perceptual abilities were present immediately, including many of the most basic ones, such as region segregation and figure-ground organization. These must have been either innate or learned through whatever minimal, diffuse, cloudy vision was experienced before the cataracts were removed. It is hard to know which of these explanations is correct because the amount of vision the patients had before their operations was seldom well documented. The second problem in interpreting the results from these patients is that the many years with cataracts could actually have destroyed some visual abilities that were present at birth; lack of normal stimulation could have caused degeneration of the visual nervous system. Indeed, the fact that many of these cataract patients never learned to identify shapes well, even with practice, suggests that some deterioration of perceptual abilities must have taken place. After all, newborn babies cannot identify squares and triangles, but they do manage to learn to do so later. .. 176
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Effects of Visual Deprivation Controlled studies have been carried out with animals to find out whether visual deprivation from birth does cause perceptual deterioration. These studies have shown conclusively that deprivation dramatically impairs visual abilities, sometimes permanently, and that the severity of the impairment depends on the length of deprivation. If monkeys spend their first week or two in complete darkness, their perceptual development is about the same as that of newborn monkeys. But if the first year is spent in darkness, the deprived monkeys are much worse at identifying objects visually. Much like the cataract patients, they never acquire normal depth perception. Further studies have identified parts of the visual nervous system that degenerate after prolonged deprivation. For instance, in the visual cortex of light-deprived monkeys, researchers found far fewer neurons that responded to visual stimulation than in normal newborn monkeys. Such results suggest that the visual system requires appropriate stimulation to develop normally. In this restricted sense, the empiricist position is correct: organisms need environmental stimulation to develop normal perceptual abilities. This does not necessarily mean that nativism is wrong, however; infants may still have important perceptual abilities at birth. The deprivation results mean only that whatever innate abilities are present require use to ensure retention or further development of those skills. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Unattended Information and the “Cocktail Party Phenomenon” It has happened to all of us. You are at an office party, a holiday party, or a gathering of friends at the home of a neighbor and you are engaged in conversation with a friend about the merits of Golden Retrievers compared to German Shepherds. More people are talking behind you, but you are not paying attention to their conversation. Suddenly, you hear your name mentioned by one of the individuals engaged in the conversation behind you. You become unable to concentrate on the puppy discussion, because you are too busy trying to hear what the other people are saying about you. You know you were not deliberately eavesdropping on this conversation, but you know that you heard your name. Is it possible that you were unconsciously eavesdropping? You have just experienced what Broadbent and Cherry referred to as the “Cocktail Party Phenomenon.” Part of consciousness is attention. We must attend to incoming stimuli in order to process it and act on it in an appropriate manner. Does that imply that in the case presented above, the listener was attending to the conversation behind her? Possibly, although the attention being paid to that conversation was not intentional. The listener in this conversation was engaged in what is known as dichotic listening, which refers to hearing two channels of sound, one in each ear, at the same time. In dichotic listening, we listen, or shadow, the message to which we are attending, and tune out the second, unattended message. Nonetheless, some characteristics of that unshadowed message still get through. The individual above was shadowing the message in which she was engaged and, until hearing her name, could not have told us the content or characteristics of the unshadowed (unattended) message of conversation. How then, did she manage to hear her name, if she was not attending to the message?
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Triesman offers as an explanation the fact that in dichotic listening, attention acts as an attenuator, in that it turns down the volume on unattended channels but does not completely block them out. Moray took this notion a bit further, observing that it is very difficult to ignore the sounds of our own names, even if that sound comes in on an unattended channel. Deutsch and Deutsch, followed by Norman, proposed that all channels that reach the system get some degree of attention and analysis. Specifically, the channels get attended to enough to be represented in long-term memory. While none of these models completely explains the attentional aspect of consciousness, they do at least give us some insights as to why we suddenly find ourselves “eavesdropping” on the conversations of others, once we have heard them mention our names. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The (Dis)embodiment of Fear Summaries of research on sensation and perception traditionally have focused on vision and hearing as the two “main” human senses, often to the exclusion of an extended discussion of the chemical and motion senses. Although the present chapter provides good examples of the workings and importance of the “other” senses, your students might gain a better appreciation of their significance through a case study. Oliver Sacks reported the case of the “disembodied lady,” a woman suffering from a total disruption of her proprioceptive system. A day before gallbladder surgery, a young woman of 27 suddenly experienced bizarre symptoms unrelated to her medical condition. She was unable to hold anything in her hands, was unsteady on her feet, and found that her arms flailed about whenever her attention was directed elsewhere. She lay motionless and expressionless in the hospital bed, complaining of experiencing a strange sense of disembodiment. After initial psychiatric opinions of preoperative anxiety and hysterical conversion, it was determined that the woman was suffering from acute polyneuritis. An extremely rare condition, it is characterized by a shutting down of the proprioceptive receptors; in short, a lack of muscle, tendon, and joint sense. As a consequence, the young woman lacked position sense, leaving her literally with one hand not knowing what the other was doing. In fact, she didn’t know where her hands were, or legs, or arms, for that matter. In absence of feedback from the proprioceptive system her parietal lobes, though functioning quite normally, had no data to function on, leaving her in a truly “disembodied” state. Many senses contribute to the experience of one’s body: Vision, vestibular senses, proprioception. With the disruption of one of these the others became more vital. In order to “know” the location and arrangement of her own body parts, the woman had to have them in direct sight. Thus, seeing her hands in front of her face supplied the only information about where her hands were. Similarly, walking, eating, talking, expressing emotion, or performing any of the other simple bodily actions we take for granted required the utmost diligence and concentration. Her sense of disembodiment was just that; she was left feeling much like a lump of clay. Although this case is rare, and certainly bizarre, it provides food for thought. While we can close our eyes to simulate blindness, or wear plugs to provide hearing or olfactory impairment, it is difficult to imagine how not to experience one’s body. But in imagining how this might feel (or, not feel, as the case might be), we can better appreciate the importance of these “hidden” senses. Reference: Sacks, O. (1985). The man who mistook his wife for a hat. New York: HarperCollins.
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Visual Agnosia: The Case of P.T. Like the disembodied lady, P.T. presents a case of someone with disrupted sensory and perceptual processes. While in his 30s patient P.T. had experienced a severe stroke that affected his left hemisphere, then when in the hospital, he experienced another stroke that affected his right hemisphere. While P.T. seemed to recover from some of the physical effects of the second stroke (e.g., dizziness, muscular weakness on right side of body), he still dragged his left leg slightly, but he was completely unaware of it. Upon returning to his small family farm, his home for the past 66 years, he had difficulties readjusting to daily routines. Specifically, he had difficulty recognizing objects and places. He would work on his farm, then look across the landscape and not be able to recognize it. He could not discriminate among cows, which is necessary for choosing cows to milk. Most noticeable was his inability to recognize faces, even that of his wife’s. Furthermore, he knew that another’s arms, legs, head, and body went together as a person, however he could not recognize who that person was. He could recognize that his wife moving across the room was still his wife, thus maintaining some perceptual constancies. Interestingly, only his visual perception was impaired; he could readily recognize the sound of his wife’s voice, and he could identify objects by touch or smell. For example, when presented with a candle, he reported that is was a “long object.” When he was allowed to hold the candle, he labeled it a crayon, and when he smelled it, he correctly recognized it as a candle. Reference: Gazzaniga, M. S., Ivry, R. B., & Mangun, G. R. (1998). Cognitive neuroscience: The biology of the mind. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Auditory Agnosia: The Case of C.N. A final counterpart to P.T. and the disembodied lady is C.N. Here’s her story: Over a 3-month period, a 35-year-old nurse, C.N., suffered two aneurysms, one in the left middle cerebral artery and another in the right middle cerebral artery. After surgery to drain the “ballooning” of the arteries, she complained that her perception of music was impaired, despite her ability to comprehend and produce speech and detect tones. She could not recognize melodies from her own music collection, nor could she recognize familiar, popular songs, including the Canadian national anthem “O Canada.” Further tests confirmed her amusia, or impairment of music abilities with no impairments of long-term memory. Interestingly, she could identify the song title if given the written lyrics, and could name the artist when told the song title. C.N. was able to recognize environmental sounds, such as human voices, transportation sounds, and animal cries. Furthermore, it appears that C.N.’s amusia is limited to recognizing melodies; she performed as well as normal subjects when asked to judge if two tones were of the same rhythm. And, despite her inability to recognize melodies, she still loved to dance.
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Reference: Gazzaniga, M. S., Ivry, R. B., & Mangun, G. R. (1998). Cognitive neuroscience: The biology of the mind. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Sense, Nonsense, and Extra-sense Daryl Bem and Ray Hyman started a lively debate regarding the demonstrability of ESP. Although both scholars are critical of ESP research, Bem endorsed the work of the late Charles Honorton examining the autoganzfeld procedure for measuring psi ability. Hyman found problems with the procedures and, at present, like most other aspects of psychic ability, the issue remains unresolved. But the debate over the demonstration of psychic powers under controlled conditions raged long before the Bem-Honorton/Hyman articles found their way onto the pages of Psychological Bulletin. For example, the work of J. B. Rhine, who pioneered the study of parapsychology at Duke University, came under repeated scrutiny throughout his career. The most celebrated debate on this issue, however, arose between self-proclaimed Israeli psychic Uri Geller and James Randi, a long-time professional conjurer and semi-professional debunker (also known by his stage name The Amazing Randi, or his given name James Zwingli). Randi took Geller and parapsychology to task in a series of books, articles, personal appearances, professional demonstrations, and goading challenges over a period of several years. For example, Geller claimed that his ability to bend spoons or start watches that had stopped running was the result of supernatural psychic abilities that even he himself did not fully understand. Randi was able to demonstrate conclusively that such claims were highly unlikely. Using common conjurer’s tricks, Randi duplicated each of Geller’s feats, without recourse to any claims of psychic power. As an example, the case of starting a stopped watch can be performed by just about anyone. Provided the watch has not been damaged (but has merely stopped running), a simple vigorous shake will get the hands moving in almost all cases. When this action is surreptitiously performed, with preselected watches, in a context of expectancy on the part of observers, and with enough psychic terminology and flash—all conditions that Geller used masterfully, and that Randi exposed—the result does indeed seem impressive. Geller’s theatrical tricks weren’t the true source of Randi’s complaints. Rather, the claim by scientists that Geller had demonstrated psychic abilities under controlled conditions is what set Randi to his task. Physicists Russell Targ and Harold Puthoff tested Geller in their laboratory in the early 1970s, and published their results in the prestigious journal Nature. They enthusiastically concluded that Geller had shown psychic ability under a number of conditions and across repeated tests. What they failed to mention, however, were details of the experimental procedures or, as Randi discovered, the presence of Geller’s chief henchman, one Shippi Strang. In most instances during the “controlled” laboratory tests, Strang either had access to the testing materials ahead of time (and sometimes during the testing) or could visibly signal Geller as the tests were carried out. A close analysis of the procedures, equipment, and outcomes revealed that Geller was much more successful in demonstrating polished stagecraft than in demonstrating psychic abilities.
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References: Bem, D. J., & Honorton, C. (1994). Does psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of information transfer. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 4–18. Gordon, H. (1987). Extrasensory deception: ESP, psychics, Shirley MacLaine, ghosts, UFOs.... New York: Prometheus Books. Hyman, R. (1994). Anomaly or artifact? Comments on Bem and Honorton. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 19–24. Kurtz, P. (Ed.) (1985). A skeptic’s handbook of parapsychology. New York: Prometheus Books. Randi, J. (1975). The truth about Uri Geller. New York: Prometheus Books. Randi, J. (1982). Flim-flam! Psychics, ESP, unicorns, and other delusions. New York: Prometheus Books. Rhine, J. B. (1937). New frontiers of the mind. New York: Farrar and Rinehart. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Questioning ESP Perform a simple mentalist trick for your class. Challenge students to develop hypotheses to account for these apparent paranormal abilities. Discuss why skepticism is a healthy trait for scientists to have, especially when they deal with paranormal abilities. According to an entry on Skeptikwiki.org, there is no scientifically validated and accepted demonstration of ESP (in any form) that has taken place to date. James Randi is offering one million dollars to anyone who can scientifically demonstrate it. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Colour Mixture How do we see colour in lights? Most colours, including white, gray, and all the desaturated pastels, as well as the nonspectral colours, can be seen only when two or more different wavelengths are mixed. This raises the important question of how colours combine. The answer varies, depending on whether you mix lights or paints; here we will discuss light mixture. The result of mixing lights of two colours in colour space will fall somewhere along a line drawn between them in the colour spindle. If they are mixed in equal amounts, the result will be a colour midway between them; if the mixture contains more of one than the other, the resulting colour is correspondingly closer to the heavier contributor but still along the line connecting them. One very important fact about light mixture is that any hue can be produced by some combination of three other appropriately chosen lights. As amazing as it seems, the colours you see on your TV screen are actually made by adding together just three lights—usually varying amounts of red, green, and blue. On large-projection TVs you can see the three separate lights that combine on the screen to produce all the colours you see in the picture. Other TVs work the same way, but the three coloured beams are inside the picture tube so that you can’t see them directly, only their mixtures on the screen. Thus, when you adjust the colour control knobs on your TV, you are actually changing colours by mixing different amounts of these three lights.
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Eyes and Camera Lenses For years it was believed that the eye works like a camera. And there are some similarities in the functioning of the eye and a camera. For instance, both the pupil of the eye and the aperture of a camera contract and expand in response to a respective increase or decrease in the amount of light entering the apparatus. But when you compare the human eye to a camera, some of the differences between these two are very striking. Perhaps the strangest difference between the eye and a camera is the positioning of the retina and analogous film. For a camera to be like the human eye, we would have to load our film into the camera backwards. That is, the photoreceptors actually pick the light up off the back surface of the eyeball. A camera must be held relatively steady to capture a clear image, but when the eyeball is held steady, the picture disappears. Both the camera and the eye have a lens that focuses an image on a surface, but they have different methods of focusing. The lens in a camera moves closer to or farther from the film in order to focus the image on the film; the lens of the eye changes shape to focus the image on the retina. This process in the eye is called accommodation. An upside-down mirror image is focused on both the film and the retina. The film and the retina differ, though, in that film records an image exactly as projected. The photoreceptors in the retina receive information from the visual stimuli that is analyzed and reconstructed as it moves through the visual system from the retina to the cortex. What we perceive is a picture that is not identical to the item we are looking at. Photographs in which people have their feet extended closer to the camera in front of them are comical because the feet look so big. When the eye processes the same scene, the feet do not look big because we take relative distances into account and perceive the feet as being a constant size. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Eye Exam Ask students to share their experiences with eye exams. Those who have ever been fitted for eyeglasses will have experienced a type of difference threshold. Examinees look through a large pair of “binoculars” to check for the best lenses. Ask if students remember being asked as they looked at the visual display, “Can you tell the difference between Lens 1 and Lens 2? Lens 1? Lens 2?” The doctor was, in effect, checking for just noticeable difference (JND). Ask students to share how well they believe they were able to perceive the difference between alternative lenses if they felt rushed by the doctor. Their responses will help you introduce the idea that sensations and perceptions, though governed by psychophysical laws, are influenced to some degree by emotions. But before discussing such factors, it’s important to grasp the basic processes of sensation and perception. To begin with, it’s important to understand the difference between the two: sensation is the physical experience of seeing or hearing or sensing in some other way; perception is the psychological process of giving meaning to what has been sensed.
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Visual System Converts 2-D to 3-D Many of the so-called geometric illusions (e.g., the Ponzo illusion, and the Müller-Lyer illusion, pictured in Figures 1 and 2) are a result of the massive and critical task of transforming the twodimensional retinal images into a three-dimensional percept. In the case of the Ponzo illusion (see Figure 1), the line at the top, in the middle of the converging lines, is seen as longer than the line at the bottom—although they are both physically the same length. The explanation is that, in the natural environment, images become smaller and parallel lines (e.g., train tracks) converge with increasing distance from us. Therefore, in the “real world,” when two objects have the same image size on the retina and one is perceived as being much farther away than the other, the one that is farther away MUST be larger. Via the 2-D to 3-D transformation by the visual system, we perceive the top line in the Ponzo illusion as being farther away, thus it appears compellingly longer. For the Müller-Lyer illusion (see Figure 2 below), the lines drawn between the angles are physically the same length. The line bisecting the angles flanked outward, however, appears longer. Again, the explanation involves the visual system’s conversion from 2-D to 3-D. These kinds of angles (although not readily perceived) are found in corners of rooms—the outward flanked angles are most often perceived as belonging to a corner of a room that is pointed away, whereas the inward flanked angled are most often perceived as a corner that is pointed toward us (see Figure 3). Because we assume that the corner that is pointed away from us is farther away, the line belonging to that image (although physically equivalent) appears longer than the line belonging to the corner that is pointed toward us. A discussion of the 2-D to 3-D conversion, including these illusions and explanations, will serve to enhance students’ concept of perceptual representation. It should also lead students to critically examine their own beliefs regarding perception vs. reality.
Figure 1. The Ponzo illusion
Figure 2. The Müller-Lyer illusion
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Figure 3. Another version of the Müller-Lyer illusion ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Kinetic Depth Effect The importance of motion in the perception of form can be readily appreciated after experiencing the kinetic depth effect. This demonstration shows how the shadow of a wire form looks flat until the form begins to move, and how the shadow then takes on a three-dimensional aspect in the perception of the viewer. To build the apparatus, you will need a cardboard box, some tissue paper, a flashlight, and a few coat hangers. The box must be open at both ends, and then one end must be covered with tissue paper to provide a screen for the shadow. Each coat hanger should be bent to create a form of some kind, with a straight shaft formed from one end of the wire. Make a hole on one side of the box so that the straight shaft of the wire coat hanger form can be inserted and rotated when the time comes. The wire form inside the box should be as close to the screen as possible, but with enough room to rotate it freely. Place the box on a table with the screen facing the students and darken the room if possible. Use the flashlight to cast a shadow on the wire form for several seconds without rotating it. Then slowly begin to rotate it to bring out the kinetic depth effect. A collection of several different forms will add to the demonstration’s effectiveness. Students should be instructed to close their eyes while the form is positioned and open them and guess the shape of the form before rotation begins. For more information, consult the reference given below. Reference: Wallach, H., & O’Connell, D. N. (1953). The kinetic depth effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 45, 205-217.
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: If a Tree Fell in the Forest So, if a tree fell in the forest, and no one is there to hear it, would there be a sound? This classic question presents a great opportunity to distinguish, using the sensory modality of hearing, physical reality from perceptual reality. The intelligent answer to this question is, “It depends.” It depends on how one defines sound. Sound can be defined in two ways (1) Physical definition: sound is the compression and rarefaction of air molecules. (2) Psychological definition: sound is the experience we have when we hear. Therefore, if one defines sound in the physical way, then the answer to the question is yes. However, using the psychological definition, the answer is clearly no. This question makes for a nice lecture starter—you might consider starting a lecture or section on hearing by asking the question and seeing how many students indicate “yes” vs. “no.” Then tell them that both sides are, in fact, correct . . . then explain why! ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Auditory Localization We use our ears to point our eyes in the direction of sound-producing events. For this to happen, the auditory system must be able to perceive the direction from which a sound is originating, and the system’s perception of space must be integrated with the visual system’s perception of space. Unlike the eye, the ear has no direct coding of spatial direction. Information about the sound’s direction is perceived by comparing the stimulation in one ear with that in the other. In this respect, sound localization is much like the visual-depth cue of binocular disparity. There are two basic sources of information about sound coming from the left or right; the sound entering one ear differs from that entering the other in both intensity and time. When a sound comes from directly in front of your head, its intensity is equal at your two ears. In the case of high-frequency sounds coming from the side, your head creates a sound shadow, making the sound less intense at the ear farthest away from the sound than at the ear closest to the sound. It is only for high frequencies that there is information about how far to one side or another a sound is located. The other major source of information about the horizontal direction of a sound is the time at which it arrives at your two ears. When a sound comes from directly in front of your head, the arrival times are the same because your two ears are the same distance away from the sound. However, when the sound comes from the side, the sound wave must travel farther to reach the ear on the far side. Even though this extra distance takes only a little extra time—less than one-thousandth of a second—it is enough to tell us which side sound is coming from. The direction of sounds from left to right, or right to left, is probably the most important part of spatial hearing, but it is not the only part. You can also tell whether a sound is coming from above or below— the sound of a jet streaking overhead or of an object dropped at your feet. You are not able to perceive vertical direction from simple arrival times or intensities, however. It is the shape of the external ear that allows you to perceive the vertical dimension of space. Notice that your ear is asymmetrical. There are many complex, sound-reflecting folds in the pinna above the ear canal, and few below it. These differences in the shape of the external ear make subtle changes in the sound wave that enters your ears, depending on the vertical direction of the sound source. Somewhere in the auditory centres of the brain, these differences are detected and decoded, allowing you to perceive upward and downward directions of environmental sounds. .. 185
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We are left with the problem of perceiving the third dimension of depth—how far away the source of a sound is from us. A sound that is near is louder than one that is far away, so you might think that intensity would provide all the information you need about the distance (or depth) of the source of a sound. Unfortunately, it is not that easy. A low-intensity sound at the ear might have come from either a loud sound far away or a soft one nearby. This situation is analogous to the relations among retinal size, object distance, and object size in visual perception. If the sound is one whose usual intensity you know, such as someone speaking in a normal voice or the sound of an average car engine, you can perceive its approximate distance by sound using intensity information. If the sound is one whose usual intensity you do not know, you cannot tell how far away it is by hearing it; you have to look. Because you can locate the direction that the sound is coming from using your ears, you can use them to point your eyes in the correct direction, which can then do the job of judging distance. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Perfect Pitch Absolute pitch, or what is commonly called “perfect pitch,” is the ability to identify the pitch of a musical tone without the need to hear another tone for reference. Absolute pitch occurs in about 0.1% of the population, and those who have it tend to have been raised in a musical family and their absolute pitch had been discovered before age 10 (Profita & Bidder, 1988). Individuals with absolute pitch are more likely to become eminent musicians and composers compared to individuals without absolute pitch. Additionally, individuals who do not have absolute pitch apparently cannot develop it later in life, suggesting a critical period for the development of absolute pitch. Profita and Bidder found that absolute pitch is inherited, suggesting that it may be at least partly determined by a single dominant gene. The dominant gene may trigger brain development that better allows for pitch analysis. There are differences in brain anatomy in individuals with perfect pitch compared to those without perfect pitch. In most individuals a section of the temporal lobe, called the planum temporale, is larger in the left hemisphere than in the right hemisphere; Wernicke’s area is located in the left planum temporale. Generally, the left hemisphere is specialized for making absolute, categorical judgments, such as distinguishing between r- and s-sounds. The right hemisphere is specialized for making relative judgments, such as judging whether one line is shorter than another. Because individuals with perfect pitch are able to make absolute judgments about the pitch of a musical tone, one might predict that some area(s) of the left hemisphere, which specializes in absolute judgments, may be larger or different in individuals with perfect pitch. Although research is underway, one study gives us an inkling into the brain areas associated with perfect pitch. Schlaug et al. (1995) found that this asymmetry was much greater among musicians with absolute pitch than among musicians without absolute pitch or nonmusicians. Specifically, they found the surface area of the left planum temporale was 80% larger than that of the right planum temporale in musicians with absolute pitch. By comparison, the surface area of the left planum temporale was 26% greater than the right for musicians without absolute pitch and 23% greater than the right for nonmusicians. Schlaug et al. suggest that individuals have this pitch-analyzing machinery in the left hemisphere, as opposed to the right hemisphere, and this allows these individuals to utilize the left hemisphere to make absolute, categorical judgments about pitch.
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References: Profita, J., & Bidder, T. G. (1988). Perfect pitch. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 29, 763-771. Schlaug, G., Janke, L., Yanxiong, H., & Steinmetz, H. (1995). In vivo evidence of structural brain asymmetry in musicians. Science, 267, 699-701. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Smell Myths Human smell has often been characterized as being deficient when compared to the smell abilities of some lower organisms. Summarized below are four myths about human smell that have been contradicted by research. Myth 1: Human smell is less sensitive than that of other animals Research indicates that the individual smell receptor cells in humans will respond to a single odorant molecule. The difference in overall sensitivity appears to be due to the fact that some lower organisms, such as dogs, have more smell receptors. Myth 2: Humans have a relatively poor ability to detect changes in smell intensity Although earlier research indicated that the difference threshold for smell was the largest of all the senses, more recent research, carefully controlling the concentrations of the smell stimuli, indicated that difference thresholds were equal to or lower in size than those for other senses. Myth 3: Odour identification ability is poor in humans Although early research indicated that the ability to recognize previously presented odours was poor, this result may be related to the fact that unfamiliar odours were used as the stimuli. Odour identification accuracy is primarily a function of labeling, not smell. That is, if subjects are given the correct label of an odour when they are first exposed to it, their ability to later identify the odour is significantly improved. Myth 4: Although many animals use odours to communicate, humans do not Several studies have demonstrated that individuals are able to identify correctly about 75% of the time whether odours associated with sweat or breath came from a male or female. Menstrual synchrony, a phenomenon in which women who live in close proximity for a period of time begin to have similar starting times for menstruation, has also been found to be related to smell. References: Goldstein, E. B. (1989). Sensation and perception (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Reprinted from Hill, W. G. (1995). Instructor’s resource manual for Psychology by S. F. Davis and J. J. Palladino. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Noses, Aisle 12 A childish joke runs something like this: Puerile yuckster: “Did you pick your nose when you were a kid?” Unsuspecting patsy: “Yeah, sure.” Puerile yuckster: “Well, why didn’t you pick one that was smaller?!” If chemist Nate Lewis has his way, soon we all can pick noses smaller than a dime to sniff out scents as large as we please. And he’s not joking. Lewis and his colleagues at the California Institute of Technology are at work developing an artificial nose, research motivated partly by the challenge and partly by practicality. The challenge is that smell remains the least studied and least understood of the senses. Although relatively primitive (compared to the sophisticated intricacies of vision), scientists still don’t have a complete understanding of the rules governing how smell works. To that end, Lewis and his colleagues have created a variety of artificial noses, ranging from tiny “noselets” to bookcase-size monstrosities. Each is dedicated to the task of detecting various scents, odours, and stinks in the environment. That’s where the practicality comes in. Smell is big business, from truffle-sniffing pigs to deodorant testers to perfume evaluators to rotten food detectors. Currently this work is done by humans (well, not the truffle-finding) whose noses tire quickly and who aren’t equally sensitive to all odours. A reliable artificial nose would allow industry to perform a variety of important tasks cheaply and efficiently. What’s more, Lewis envisions a day when small artificial noses will detect carbon monoxide in your home, rotting foods in your refrigerator, leaking fluids in your car, or peptic upset from your breath. In fact, John Glenn’s recent NASA mission included a prototype of Lewis’ artificial nose to sniff space air for potential health hazards. Here’s how it works. Chemists have known for some time that industrial plastics swell when they absorb a chemical odour. This is not earth-shaking; all polymers do that. However, specialized plastics that conduct electricity could be used to create a unique pattern of electrical activity for each chemical scent. By combining different plastics that generate different electrical signals, a fairly accurate “scentprint” would result for each odour. However, there are a finite number of electricity-generating plastics, so Lewis and his team have switched instead to cheap industrial plastics combined with soot particles to generate electric current. When hundreds or thousands of these units are combined in a single detector, the result is a cheap, mass produced, rugged, yet highly sensitive nose. Some of these developments are years away, but several research and industry teams have joined the search for an artificial nose. Unfortunately, the answer may not be as plain as the … well, you know. Reference: McFarling, U. L. (1999, February 20). Chemist wants to place noses in your car, house. Austin American-Statesman, A21, A24.
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Pheromones and the President of the United States One day President and Mrs. Coolidge were visiting a government farm. Soon after their arrival they were taken off on separate tours. When Mrs. Coolidge passed the chicken pens she paused to ask the man in charge if the rooster copulates more than once each day. “Dozens of times” was the reply. “Please tell that to the president,” Mrs. Coolidge requested. When the president passed the pens and was told about the rooster, he asked “Same hen everytime?” “Oh no, Mr. President, a different one each time.” The president nodded slowly, then said “tell that to Mrs. Coolidge.” This story led to what is now referred to as the “Coolidge effect” (predominantly seen in lower mammals and thought to be mediated by pheromones—apocrine sweat glands, found primarily in armpits and around nipples, release these air-borne hormones). A discussion based on the humourous story will complement well the information in the text on pheromones, and also presents an opportunity to critically evaluate the use of pheromones to stimulate sexual activity in humans (not much evidence to support this). However, some evidence indicates that female humans are indeed sensitive to the action of pheromones: (1) Menstrual synchrony: women who spend more time with each other are more likely to menstruate at the same time. (2) Puberty in females triggered by unfamiliar male presence. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Facts about Skin The sense of touch is, compared to vision and hearing, far less studied, and students are generally not as inherently interested in this sensory modality. What could work to stimulate some interest is offering some interesting facts/data regarding skin (which we often take for granted): Skin is the heaviest organ in the human body (~16% of total body weight). Like the retina, skin contains a number of different kinds of receptors that signal the presence of different kinds of stimuli. The outer layer of skin (epidermis) replaces itself every 15–30 days. This “dead” layer of skin accounts for roughly 95% of household dust. GROSS! Epidermis is avascular (contains no blood vessels). So, one won’t bleed if the cut is superficial (doesn’t penetrate below the epidermis).
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THE PRIMARY PURPOSE OF THE SKIN IS PROTECTION. 1) Against physical trauma—dermis is dense tissue 2) Against infection (3 ways): a) Chemically—low pH (~5.5) due to sebum b) Physical wall—epidermis c) Biologically—macrophages scavenge bacteria and viruses 3) Against water loss—keratin (a thick, fibrous protein) and lipids in epidermis make it waterproof 4) Against chemicals—keratin 5) Against UV (~290–400 nm) light— a pigment in skin (melanin) absorbs much of the light that is biologically active (produces sunburn) OTHER FUNCTIONS OF SKIN 1) Body temperature regulation a) Sweating (evaporation causes cooling) i) Sweating is continuous (insensible perspiration) b) Blood flow changes (more blood in skin = heat loss from skin, and vice versa) After learning these facts and functions regarding skin, students should gain a better appreciation for not only skin, but for the sense of touch (whose receptors are found there). ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Perception of Pain The determinants of pain perception have been one of the most elusive problems in psychology. Unlike other sensory systems, the intensity of pain does not correlate well with stimulus intensity. For example, phantom limb pain, a very intense pain, has no external stimulus, whereas soldiers on the battlefield can be seriously injured and feel little discomfort. A theory based solely on stimulus characteristics is clearly insufficient to explain these phenomena. Melzack and Wall (1965; see also Melzack and Casey, 1968) included a cognitive component in their gate-control theory of pain perception. They proposed that two neural systems are involved in the transmission of pain information. One, the lemniscal tract, consists of large fibres with fast transmission rates and carries heat, cold, touch, and, to a lesser extent, pain input. The second, the spinothalamic system, transmits pain information over slower, smaller fibres. A “gate” in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord controls what is transmitted to the brain. Activity in the large fibres closes the gate and prevents the small fibres from sending pain input to the brain. This may be why rubbing the area of an injury reduces the pain; large fibres for touch are activated, closing the gate. The cognitive factors in pain perception are explained by adding a cognitive gate control. Attitude, expectancy, and attention can cause the brain to send a signal that closes the gate, reducing pain. Enkephalins (endogenous opiates) may be the biological mechanism involved in the cognitive control of the gate. There is evidence that enkephalins are produced in response to placebos and electrical brain stimulation. Enkephalins block the release of substance P, thus closing the gate and reducing pain.
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For possibly 80 million people pain is an everyday fact, costing the United States $60 billion a year (Stark, 1985). Standard treatments for chronic pain include electrical stimulation (to activate the lemniscal system and close the gate), acupuncture, drugs, and, in extreme cases, cingulatomy (cutting the nerve tracts connecting the frontal lobes with the limbic system). Unfortunately, for some people these provide only temporary relief. However, Stark (1985) reports that a cognitive behavioural approach is often very effective in managing chronic pain. Patients are taught what factors affect pain and techniques to reduce pain, such as relaxation. Even limited control over the pain can reduce anxiety and tension, which, in turn, reduces the pain. Although the pain is not eliminated, many patients are better able to cope and to lead relatively normal lives. References: Melzack, R., & Wall, P. D. (1965). Pain mechanisms: A new theory. Science, 150, 971–979. Melzack, R., & Casey, K.L. (1968). Sensory, motivational and central control determinants of pain: A new conceptual model. In D. R. Kenshalo (Ed.), The skin senses. Springfield, IL: Thomas. Stark, E. (1985). Breaking the pain habit. Psychology Today, 19, 30–36. Adapted from Whitford, F. W. (1995). Instructor’s resource manual for Psychology: Principles and applications by S. Worchel and W. Shebilske. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Perception of Phantom Limb Pain The stimulus intensity-pain perception relationship is an imperfect one. Perhaps more perplexing than explaining “typical” pain (resulting from illness, injury, or accident) is explaining phantom limb pain. Phantom limb refers to the subjective sensory awareness of an amputated body part, and may include numbness, itchiness, temperature, posture, volume, or movement. In addition to legs and arms there have been cases of phantom breasts, bladders, rectums, and internal organs. Phantom limb pain refers to the specific case of painful sensations that appear to reside in the amputated body part. Patients have variously reported pins-and-needles sensations, burning sensations, shooting pains that seem to travel up and down the limb, or cramps, as though the severed limb was in an uncomfortable and unnatural position. Many amputees often experience several types of pain; others report that the sensations are unlike other pain they’ve experienced. Unfortunately, some estimates suggest that over 70 percent of amputees still experience intense pain, even 25 years after amputation. Most treatments for phantom limb pain (there are over 50 types of therapy) help only about 7 percent of sufferers. One study has shed light on the causes of phantom limb sensations. Researchers at Humboldt University in Berlin suggest that the most severe type of this pain occurs in amputees whose brains undergo extensive sensory reorganization. Magnetic responses were measured in the brains of 13 arm amputees in response to light pressure on their intact thumbs, pinkies, lower lips, and chins. These responses were then mapped onto the somatosensory cortex controlling that side of the body. Because of the brain’s contralateral control over the body, the researchers were able to estimate the location of the somatosensory sites for the missing limb. They found that those amputees who reported the most phantom limb pain also showed the greatest cortical reorganization. Somatosensory areas for the face encroached into regions previously reserved for the amputated fingers.
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Although these findings do not by themselves solve the riddle of phantom limb pain, they do offer avenues for future research. For example, damage to the nervous system may cause a strengthening of connections between somatosensory cells and the formation of new ones. Phantom limb pain may result due to an imbalance of pain messages from other parts of the brain. As another possibility, pain may result from a remapping of somatosensory areas that infringe on pain centres close by. References: Boas, R. A., Schug, S. A., & Acland, R. H. (1993). Perineal pain after rectal amputation: A 5-year follow-up. Pain, 52, 67–70. Bower, B. (1995). Brain changes linked to phantom-limb pain. Science News, 147, 357. Brena, S. F., & Sammons, E. E. (1979). Phantom urinary bladder pain—Case report. Pain, 7, 197–201. Bressler, B., Cohen, S. I., & Magnussen, F. (1955). Bilateral breast phantom and breast phantom pain. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 122, 315-320. Dorpat, T. L. (1971). Phantom sensations of internal organs. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 12, 27–35. Katz, J. (1993). The reality of phantom limbs. Motivation and Emotion, 17, 147–179. Shreeve, J. (1993, June). Touching the phantom. Discover, pp. 35–42. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: New Hope for the Paralyzed Christopher Reeve’s life and death prompted a re-examination of treatments for paralysis. Several avenues of research hold the promise of breakthroughs in therapeutic techniques. Hocoma AG, a Swiss company, has developed a device called the Lokomat. It is an exoskeleton that allows patients with partial damage to the spinal cord to walk on a treadmill, improve cardiovascular function, reduce swelling in the legs, and generally build confidence. Confidence doesn’t come cheap: A Lokomat runs about $250,000. In comparison to a team of physical therapists and other specialized equipment that are currently used in rehabilitation, that price may be cheap in the long run…in fact, a small price to pay for the promise of restored mobility. Meanwhile, researchers at Duke University have reported success with a brain implant that allows monkeys to move a robotic arm using their thoughts alone. This science fiction scenario holds the promise of remote action in specialized situations (such as mentally controlling a bomb-defusing robot), but also has day-to-day applications in the life of the paralyzed. Imagine being able to send a mental command to a robotic arm to feed oneself, or, possibly, sending mental signals to an exoskeleton to cue coordinated muscle movements to accomplish walking. Right now, the monkeys who have been tested are successful at performing simple tasks, comparable to their earlier training using a joystick. But more complex applications, such as using wireless devices, processors with greatly enhanced power, or even commands sent over the Internet, remain in the realm of possibility.
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Finally, on a related note, researchers from the Georgia Institute of Technology and the University of Western Australia have created a robotic arm that creates “art” from signals generated from rat brain cells. Weird? You betcha! The brain cells are kept in a petri dish in a lab in Atlanta, and their impulses are sent over the Internet to the mechanical arm that translates the signals into abstract squiggles and lines. Although the creations won’t win any blue ribbons, the scientists are much more interested in the biology of it all than the artistic merits. By studying how brain impulses work in concert with one another, the work may eventually lead to breakthroughs in the mental control of remote behaviour. References: Keefe, B. (July 13, 2003). What is a ‘semi-living artist?’ Rat brain cells and a robot arm. Austin American-Statesman, A17. Stengle, J. (October 18, 2004). Exoskeleton helps paralyzed Dallas man walk again. Austin American-Statesman, B6. Weiss, R. (October 13, 2003). In study, mokeys move robotic arm with thoughts. Austin AmericanStatesman, A1, A12. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▲ Return to Table of Contents ▼ CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Pressure Phosphene Sensation Sensory Adaptation Expectancy and Perception Beware of What You Wish For Using Escher to Illustrate Perceptual Principles In Search of Perceptual Illusions ESP Illusions Can Tell Us How the Visual System Works Dark Adaptation Mapping the Blind Spot Rods and Cones Seeing Your Retina “... More than the Sum of Its Parts ...” How High Can You Hear? Auditory Localization The Role of Smell in Determining Flavour Odour Identification Test Want a Cookie? Jellybeans Saliva and Taste The Body’s Sensitivity to Touch The Body’s Sensitivity to Touch Demonstrating Disabilities in the Classroom Field Demonstrations Crossword Puzzle Fill-in-the-Blanks
▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Pressure Phosphene Sometimes students have difficulty distinguishing, in a real sense, sensation from perception. Partly it is because of semantics—often people will use the term sensation when they mean perception. For example, people will refer to a “tingly sensation,” or “warm sensation” when in fact the basic conscious realization that something (feeling, seeing, hearing, etc.) is occurring is perception. Sensation is the very front-end of the process: the conversion of energy or substances into patterns of neural discharges. Perception occurs when the brain makes sense of these patterns of neural discharges. A really nice way to demonstrate the distinction between sensation and perception is to have students produce their own pressure phosphenes. Pressure phosphenes illustrate Johannes Muller’s doctrine of specific nerve energies. Briefly, the doctrine states that if you stimulate (say with electrical current) a taste receptor that normally responds to sweet, you will perceive a sweet taste. For vision, if you stimulate a photoreceptor with a slight amount of pressure (as opposed to light, its natural stimulus) you will perceive light! This is called a “pressure phosphene.” The easiest way to produce a pressure phosphene is to have students close their left eye, and look at their nose with their right eye. Then, using the index finger of the right hand, have students repeatedly press gently the outside corner of their right eye (they should press on the outside corner of the eye lids, not directly on the eye ball). This doesn’t require .. 194
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much pressure at all. One should observe a round patch of light that appears to the left of the tip of the nose. Remember to remind students to repeatedly (lightly) press or tap. The first reaction to this demonstration is usually “wow,” or “cool.” From a pedagogical standpoint, the fascinating aspect of this demo is the fact that we are able to produce a sensation of light when no light exists! Because the sensory receptors responsible for vision have been activated, they carry out their “duty”—sensation—and the brain assumes that the series of neural impulses it receives is light (perception). Another critical point to note is the fact that the light appears on the opposite side of where the pressure is applied…why is this? (This is a good question to ask students). Of course, the reason is that images are focused onto the retina in such a way that they are reversed and inverted (relative to the outside world). So, those light rays that normally reach the photoreceptors corresponding to the pressure stimulated ones in the demo, come from the left visual field. Hence, we perceive the light as coming from the left! ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Sensation Students apply various phenomena associated with sensation to everyday examples. The student handout for this exercise is included as Handout Master 4.1. Answers: 1. Distribution of receptors: Sensitivity is associated with the number and concentration of receptors. The fingertips and lips have many densely packed touch receptors. The lower back has relatively few, and the brain has none. 2. Difference threshold: The smallest difference in stimulation that can be reliably detected by an observer when two stimuli are compared is called the difference threshold. Apparently, the difference in sweetness among the three cups allows one to be perceived as distinct but is insufficient for discriminating between the other two. 3. Signal detection theory: Signal detection theory indicates that active decision-making behaviour is involved in the absolute threshold. The tiredness, as well as attention, of subjects may be affecting such behaviour. 4. Sensory adaptation: A reduction in sensitivity results from unchanging, repetitious stimulation. John may be having trouble feeling the glasses on his head because they’ve been there for a while. 5. Optimal levels of stimulation: The human brain requires a certain level of stimulation to work most effectively. Stimulation is a matter of change and variety in the environment. Bill’s work may be so repetitious that it fails to stimulate him.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Sensory Adaptation According to the text, our senses automatically adjust to the level of stimulation they are receiving so that they can be as sensitive as possible without getting overloaded. As a result, our senses become less sensitive when the overall level of stimulation is high, but more sensitive when the overall level of stimulation is low. This explains, for example, why the tick of a watch is more annoying in a quiet room than on a busy street. This phenomenon of sensory adaptation can be readily illustrated in class with a variety of senses, including touch, taste, and vision. Depending on your class size (e.g., if you have fewer than 30 or 35 students), you could allow all students to participate in the first two exercises or for larger classes you might prefer to select a subset of volunteers. Touch. Fred Whitford suggests a simple exercise for demonstrating sensory adaptation with touch. Bring to class a number of samples of very coarse sandpaper and distribute them to students. After rubbing their index fingers gently over the paper a few times, they should rate its coarseness on a scale from 1 (very soft) to 7 (very coarse). After a minute or two, have them rub the same finger over the paper and again rate its coarseness. Their senses should have adapted to the coarseness and thus the ratings for the second time should be lower. Taste. A different exercise (suggested by John Fisher) can be used to demonstrate sensory adaptation with taste. You’ll need to bring to class (a) a pitcher containing a strong solution of water and sugar, (b) a pitcher containing fresh water, and (c) several Dixie cups. Distribute two Dixie cups to each student and fill one with sugar water and one with fresh water. Instruct students to take a sip of the sugar water and to swish it around in their mouths for several seconds without swallowing it; gradually it should taste less sweet. After swallowing it (or spitting it back into the cup), students should then taste from the cup containing fresh water. Students will be shocked at how incredibly salty the water tastes and will wonder if you didn’t spike it with salt when they weren’t looking! Explain that when the overstimulated taste buds responsible for sweetness became temporarily less sensitive, the taste buds responsible for salt became more prominent as a result. Vision. A final exercise (suggested by Bill Hill) requires a little more effort but powerfully illustrates sensory adaptation in vision. Davis and Grover (1987) first described this activity, a modified version of a procedure developed by Hochberg et al. (1951), that uses a Ganzfeld (a homogenous visual field) to demonstrate that the visual system requires varied stimulation to prevent sensory receptor adaptation. To conduct this demonstration, you will need to make a Ganzfeld and have a red light source, such as that on a stereo or coffee maker. The Ganzfeld is constructed using a ping pong ball. Cut the ping pong ball in half and discard the side with the writing on it. Then attach cotton around the rim of the remaining half in order to protect the student’s eye. Instruct a student volunteer to place the Ganzfeld on one eye, touch the Ganzfeld on the red light, close their other eye, and continue to stare at the red light, reporting any experience that occurs. After a minute or so, although the light is still on, the student will state that you have turned the red light off. Explain to your students that this effect is the result of receptor adaptation because of the Ganzfeld. References: Davis, S. F., & Grover, C. A. (1987). And then the lights went out: Constructing a simple Ganzfeld. In V. P. Makosky, L. G. Whittemore, & A. M. Rogers (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology: Vol. 2 (pp. 49–50). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Fisher, J. (1979). Body Magic. Briarcliff Manor, NY: Stein and Day.
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Hill, W. G. (1995). Instructor’s resource manual for Psychology by S. F. Davis and J. J. Palladino. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hochberg, J. E., Triebel, W., & Seaman, G. (1951). Colour adaptation under conditions of homogeneous visual stimulation (Ganzfeld). Journal of Experimental Psychology, 41, 153–159. Whitford, F. W. (1995). Instructor’s resource manual for Psychology: An Introduction by C. G. Morris (8th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Expectancy and Perception Our expectations (i.e., preconceptions about what we are supposed to perceive) can influence perception. There are several simple, effective exercises to demonstrate this point in class. • John Fisher suggests conducting a “spelling bee in reverse.” Ask students to pronounce a word out loud after you write it on the board. Following MAC DONALD ... MAC HENRY... MAC MAHON... with MAC HINERY will likely generate a chorus of Scottish-sounding surnames (e.g., “MacHinery”) rather than the real pronunciation of machinery. • For a similar exercise, Martin Bolt suggests adopting an old children’s riddle. Ask students to shout out answers to the following questions: “What do these letters spell?” (Write FOLK on the board) “What do these letters spell?” (CROAK) “And these?” (SOAK). Then quickly ask, “What do you call the white of an egg?” Students will scream out “yolk” before they realize they’ve been had. (You can then inform them of the little-known fact that the white of an egg is called the albumin.) • J. R. Corey suggests an exercise that demonstrates the effect of expectancy on an anagram solution. This exercise requires that you construct two different lists of anagrams and randomly distribute one to each student. Half of the students should receive anagrams that can be solved to form animals: LULB (bull), CALEM (camel), NUKKS (skunk), SEUMO (mouse), BAZER (zebra), and EAP (ape). The other half should receive anagrams that can be solved to form vegetables: NORC (corn), NOONI (onion), MATOOT (tomato), PREPPE (pepper), TEBE (beet) and EAP (pea). Note that the last anagram, EAP, can be solved in two ways (ape or pea) and thus provides the expectancy test. If students’ expectancies are influential, then those who received the animal list should be more likely to solve EAP as ape, whereas those who received the vegetable list should be more likely to solve EAP as pea. According to Corey, the expectancy effect occurs for approximately 80–90% of the students. • A powerful illusion based on expectancy is called the size-weight illusion. Use three food containers (metal or plastic), for example, three that hold 8 ounces, 16 ounces, and 32 ounces. Put dirt or pebbles into each container so that all three are exactly the same weight (use a kitchen scale). Cover them with tin foil so the material inside cannot be seen. Most people asked to judge the lightest or heaviest will be certain that the smallest container weighs the most, and the largest weighs the least. Even though you prepared them yourself, you may have difficulty accepting that they are all the same weight. This effect is explained by our expectations. When we see the large container, we prepare our muscles to lift something heavy. When it is only filled to a portion of its capacity, it is picked up easily. • Ann Elliott suggests a demonstration of gustatory expectancy. Two hours before class time, pour milk into a cup and coffee into a cup and allow them to sit until they become room temperature. In class, poll students to make sure no one has a food allergy or religious reason that would prohibit them from drinking certain beverages (you might administer a quick survey, listing several beverages so that the importance of milk and coffee in this demonstration is not immediately apparent). Ask for volunteers to close their eyes and sip from each of the cups (yo might have one
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student volunteer or have the entire class participate; you can counterbalance the order of sips, or do a quicker presentation). After each sip, ask the volunteers to rate the temperature of the beverage on a scale ranging from 1 (cold) to 4 (hot). You might also ask students to indicate in writing if they thought the beverages were the same temperature. You should find that, due to students’ expectations, they rate the coffee as cool or cold, whereas they rate the milk as warm or hot. In reality, of course, both beverages are room temperature. The expectation of a hot beverage (coffee) that isn’t leads to a cooler rating, just as the expectation of a cold beverage (milk) that isn’t produces a warmer rating. References: Block, J. R., & Yuker, H. E. (1989). Can you believe your eyes? New York: Gardner Press. Bolt, M. (1992). Instructor’s resources for use with D. G. Myer’s, Psychology (3rd ed.). New York: Worth. Corey, J. R. (1990). Psychological set and the solution of anagrams. In V. P. Makosky, C. C. Sileo, L. G. Whittemore, C. P. Landry, & M. L. Skutley (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology. Vol. 3 (pp. 90–91). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Elliott, A. N. (1999). A classroom demonstration of Galileo’s distinction between objective and subjective reality. In L. T. Benjamin, B. F. Nodine, R. M. Ernst, and C. B. Broeker (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 4). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Fisher, J. (1979). Body Magic. Briarcliff Manor, NY: Stein and Day. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Beware of What You Wish For (Group Activity) The student handout for this exercise, in which students imagine how their sensory world would change if their sensory receptors were more acute, is included as Handout Master 4.2. This exercise encourages creativity and stimulates students to think about the evolutionary purposes of sensation and consider the fact that an optimal level of sensory acuity depends on the purposes for which the senses are needed. Suggested answers are listed below. 1. Instead of a world of substantial objects, you might see groups of colliding molecules, and as a result, you might hesitate to sit on a chair because it would not look solid. You might see through walls, like Superman. It would be disconcerting to see your lover’s liver and kidneys at work. You might lose the illusion of solid patches of colour on TV, if yellow appeared as rows of red and green dots. You might lose the illusion of movement in movies and television, seeing the individual frames with pauses between. Spontaneous activity in the visual cortex might cause you to see flashes and spots of light when you close your eyes or are in complete darkness. You might see ultraviolet, infrared, and radio waves. You might see germs and bacteria on everyone; nothing would ever look clean again. 2. You might hear your heart beating, the blood pumping through your arteries and veins, the food in your stomach being digested, your intestines at work—and perhaps even molecules banging against each other. You might hear your next-door neighbours talking about you, and music emanating from the houses on your block and passing cars. The sounds of airplanes, leaf blowers, jack-hammers, etc., might be unbearable. You might hear water passing through pipes and electricity passing through wires. You might hear your house groaning as it expands and contracts with changes in temperature. And because of all this, you might have trouble sleeping, studying, and maintaining your sanity. .. 198
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3. Tastes would be too strong, and the bad taste in your mouth in the morning would be extremely unpleasant. You might taste stray molecules floating around in the air. You might smell the residue of food that rotted in your refrigerator a year ago. You would smell the scents left by animals almost everywhere, and you wouldn’t dare go near a pig pen or a fish cannery. You could smell other people’s soap, shaving cream, toothpaste, and natural odours from across the room. You might find yourself somewhat disgusting. 4. Our senses have evolved in the way they have in order to maximize our chances for survival. For example, since we are diurnal (awake in light) we have many cones on the retina; nocturnal animals need mainly rods. Since we evolved as carnivores (hunting and eating meat), our eyes are close together so the overlapping visual fields can provide good depth perception. There is only so much room inside the human skull, which means that for any additional sensory capacity, something else must be sacrificed. For human beings, language is more important to survival than smell. 5. Over several million years we might lose some abilities and gain others. For example, since the range of sounds is somewhat different in the urban jungle than in a real jungle, we might become more sensitive to certain sound wave frequencies and less sensitive to others. We might lose our aversion to bitter tastes because we no longer forage for berries and don’t often have to discriminate instantly between poisonous and nonpoisonous foods. If pollution resulted in everyone living under large domes with temperature control, cutaneous sensitivity to atmospheric conditions might become necessary. However, changes in sensory systems will occur only if certain genes give the individuals who carry them an advantage over others in living to maturity and reproducing. It would probably take a major environmental change to produce this kind of advantage. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Using Escher to Illustrate Perceptual Principles Debra Stein suggests a group exercise that both stimulates critical thinking and increases student interest in the discussion of perceptual processes. Divide your students into groups of 5 and give each group copies of two different M. C. Escher prints. You might want to purchase a book or calendar so that you’ll have enough prints to go around. Instruct your groups to choose a recorder and a spokesperson, and then give them 20–30 minutes to identify any and all examples of the following perceptual principles from the textbook: (a) figure-ground, (b) closure, (c) similarity, (d) continuity, (e) proximity, (f) monocular cues, binocular disparity, (h) superposition, (i) elevation, (j) aerial perspective, (k) linear perspective, (l) texture gradient, (m) convergence, and (n) shadowing. When groups are finished, the spokesperson from each group should briefly present the group’s finding to the class by outlining examples on a transparency projection of the print (Note: you’ll need to make these out beforehand). Stein reports several positive benefits of this exercise, including: an increased amount of focused discussion about perceptual processes (due to the group discussions as well as the presentations), an increase in students’ understanding of perceptual processes as revealed in test scores, and a tendency for greater application of the material (e.g., her students brought other examples from advertisements and art to class; others created illusions on their own). Adapted from Stein, D. K. (1995). The use of M. C. Escher and N. E. Thing Enterprises prints to illustrate perceptual principles. Paper presented at the 17th National Institute on the Teaching of Psychology, St. Petersburg Beach.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Assignment: In Search of Perceptual Illusions Although the text provides several examples of the most common perceptual illusions, students often can gain a better understanding of them by actively finding their own examples. Possible ways to document examples include taking photos, cutting clippings out of magazines or newspapers, or by describing the illusion in detail if it is not possible to obtain a sample (e.g., if it was seen in a movie). Real world examples of afterimages, stroboscopic motion, perceptual contrast, Gestalt principles, and monocular cues abound, and students will likely enjoy their quest for the ultimate illusion. An added benefit is that students can share their examples with the rest of the class, who can try to identify the illusion portrayed. This way, all students will have had access to numerous examples outside of the text. As an alternative assignment, ask students to create or develop their own illusion (i.e., by drawing or painting a two-dimensional picture or by assembling a three-dimensional object). Although the illusion should be unique, it should of course be based on principles from one of the major illusions discussed in the text. As an example, students could create their own reversible figure, illustrate one or more monocular cues (e.g., linear perspective, shadowing) in a drawing or painting, or create new examples of Gestalt principles of perceptual organization such as closure or proximity.
▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: ESP Create a deck of 20 ESP cards by making copies of Handout Masters 4.3A and 4.3B and gluing them to pieces of cardboard or posterboard. Cut the “cards” apart to create your ESP stimuli. Copy Handout Master 4.4 to give to students. Distribute one ESP Record Sheet to each student. To test for telepathy, shuffle the cards, look at each card, and concentrate carefully on the design for about 15 seconds while the students try to pick up your telepathic message. After about ten cards, ask for a student volunteer to “send” the messages about the second half of the deck. To test for clairvoyance, shuffle the cards and slowly place each of the 20 cards face down on the desk in front of the class while the students record their predictions. To test for precognition ask the students to predict the order of the ESP cards before you shuffle the deck. Warning: Sometimes students will accurately guess the correct answers! This is an excellent moment to describe the important criteria of repetition and replication in scientific methodology.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Illusions Can Tell Us How the Visual System Works Figure 1 The Hermann Grid illusion. Most students come to introductory psychology with a superficial, “gee whiz” appreciation for visual illusions, not knowing that illusions actually can tell us a lot about how the visual system works. For example, the Hermann Grid (see Figure 1) produces illusory “ghost” gray spots at the junctions of the black squares because of how the retina is “wired.” This wiring results in what is called lateral inhibition, and, because the visual system is specialized to detect edges and enhance contrast, in certain situations (e.g., the Hermann Grid illusion) these emphases produce a false percept. Another great illusion that tells us how the brain works to produce perception that makes sense is the illusion of depth caused by the equal-sized coins (Figure 2). Students are aware that the dime is actually the smallest, then the nickel, then the quarter. But, when each is made to be equal in size, what is the corresponding situation in the “real world”? To produce this situation, the dime must be moved closer to the viewer (to have the same size on the retina as, say, the quarter); the same is true, to a lesser extent, for the nickel. As a result, in this illusion the dime appears closer to the viewer than both the nickel and the quarter (the quarter appears farthest away), which of course is impossible—they are all the exact same distance from the viewer. The compelling illusion of depth is based purely on our previous knowledge of the sizes of these coins. It’s just another example of how the visual system is constantly trying to make sense of the world for us. Students will appreciate the fact that you are taking the time to actually explain the basis for these illusions, and not simply showing them illusions.
Figure 2 Coins whose images have been adjusted to be equal in size appear to have different depths due to our knowledge of their actual relative size. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Dark Adaptation Have each student blindfold one eye at the beginning of class. Conduct class in your usual fashion, and after about 30 minutes, darken the room. Ask the students to remove their blindfolds. The differential sensitivity of the two eyes is immediately apparent.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Mapping the Blind Spot There are no visual receptors where the optic nerve leaves the eye and enters the brain. This area is called the optic disk or blind spot. We do not notice this blind are because most of us have two working eyes and when an object falls into this area in one eye, the other eye can visually process the information. A good Web site on mapping the blind spot can be found at: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Rods and Cones Cones are sensitive to colour but not as sensitive to light. By contrast, rods are sensitive to light, but do not register colour information. Thus, in dim light, when the rods are doing most of the work, it is difficult to see colours. To demonstrate this phenomenon, bring in several pieces of construction paper of different colours. Ten minutes before you want to demonstrate this concept, dim the lights until you can just barely see. Then, hold up the pieces of paper and ask the students to write down what colour they think that paper is. After you turn on the lights, review the correct colours with your students. How accurate were they? ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Seeing Your Retina This is a great demonstration to conduct in a classroom that has light walls and no windows, or windows on which you can close the blinds. It’s worth it to buy cheap keychain-type flashlights to give students as a gift...and as a tool for this demonstration. This works well in a relatively small class (20–30 students). Give each student a flashlight and ask them to stand and face the light-coloured wall (not the chalkboard or any dark surface). Darken the room, and tell students the retina is essentially a “web” of blood vessels and neurons (retina means “web” in Latin). We essentially look through blood vessels and neurons all the time. We can’t see the neurons, but we can see the blood vessels if we look hard enough. At this point, tell students to look at the wall and tilt their heads downward slightly and look up with their eyes at about a 45-degree angle onto the wall. With their flashlights, instruct students to hold the flashlight (turned on) next to one of their eyes and to flicker the light. They should be able to see a web of blood vessels out of the corner of their eye, and if they focus closely enough on this web, they will see that the blood vessels all converge at one point—where the optic nerve begins—the blindspot. This demonstration does have a relatively high gross-out factor, making it a great demo for Halloween time! Reference: Fisher, J. (1979). Body magic. New York: Stein and Day.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity “... More than the Sum of Its Parts ...” The Gestalt psychologists were fond of describing perception as something in which “the whole is more than the sum of its parts.” Be prepared to elaborate on this statement, because some students might find it troublesome. For example, the perception we experience when watching a motion picture is more than the simple addition of frame 1, plus frame 2, plus flame 3, and so on. Point out that on very close examination, a newspaper photograph or a document produced with a dot matrix printer is just a bunch of dots; yet we perceive much more. Although many movie theaters are now located in shopping malls, some students may have seen the rows of flashing lights that often ring a theater marquee. The flashing lights that create the perception of continuous motion illustrate the phi phenomenon. You can easily demonstrate this in class. The simplest way is to darken the room and flash two stationary lights on and off. Students will perceive the apparent movement of the light from one place to another, although the light sources never actually move. You could also cut two holes about two inches apart in a piece of cardboard or thick paper. Darken the room and quickly pass a flashlight behind the holes. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: How High Can You Hear? A fun in-class activity that can be used for classes of any size involves a test of the upper limits of high- frequency perception. Many free and easy-to-use computer-based tone generators can be embedded into a PowerPoint presentation for the purposes of this demo. Humans can hear (on average) tones from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. Quite a bit of variability exists at the upper end, however. Because most audio equipment (yes, even in classrooms) can reproduce frequencies up to about 20kHz, you can test your students’ high-frequency perception. The frequency portion of the tone generator is adjustable, and you may want to get familiar with it prior to conducting this demo in class. The idea is to determine the student in your class with the best high-frequency perception. You may want to start at about 5000 Hz (a tone that everyone can hear—be forewarned, it is a little annoying). Then, in steps of about 1000 Hz, creep up toward 20 000 Hz. Have students keep their arms raised as long as they can hear the tone, and tell them to lower their arms when they can no longer hear the tone. In my experience, at around 16 000 Hz, a lot of arms will start dropping. Due to the limitations of the audio equipment in the classroom and the limitations of the sound card in the computer you’re using, it is rare that a student will be able to get past 20 000 Hz (the physical sound just might not be there). However, I once had a student that was able to detect 23 000 Hz reliably—I did some “catch” trials in which I attempted to make her think that I was triggering the tone generator when I actually wasn’t! She only raised her hand when the tone was presented. The other students were looking at her like, “How does she hear that! There’s nothing there to hear!” You will probably find that female students are able to hear “higher,” whereas the men in your class will tend to drop off at lower frequencies. This finding is rather consistent in the literature—the theory is that males tend to participate in activities that contain louder sounds (e.g., listen to loud rock music) more so than females, and thus damage their hearing (particularly the high frequency portion) earlier. Before telling students this explanation, ask students to generate their own hypotheses, and ask how their hypotheses might be tested.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Auditory Localization The benefit of having two good ears, separated by our head, is largely a benefit in locating sounds in space. Our determination of the direction of a sound source is made primarily by comparing the quality of sound that arrives at each ear. Basically, two judgments are made: relative loudness and relative timing. Once a distinct sound is produced, if the sound seems louder to the left ear than to the right ear and is heard at the left ear before it gets around to the right ear, then the person will decide that the sound came from the left. To demonstrate this, ask a student to sit in front of you, facing the class. Blindfold the student and move around him/her, making a distinct sound. Snapping fingers works, but a sharper sound, such as clicking together two spoons works even better. Your student’s job is to locate the source of your sound in space. The student can either point in the direction of the sound or try to describe its location verbally. The subject will have little trouble if the sound is produced off to either side, either directly or at an angle. The trouble begins when the sound is equidistant from both ears, such as when the sound is made directly in front of, behind, or above the student. Although the student may realize that the sound is not coming from one side or another, there is little basis for deciding whether the sound is in front, above, or behind when the sound is equidistant from both ears. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: The Role of Smell in Determining Flavour The rich flavour that we sense from our favorite (and not-so-favorite) foods is derived from a combination of taste and smell. According to the text, without smell we can sense the basic tastes (e.g., bitterness, saltiness, sourness, sweetness) but do not experience flavour and thus we cannot identify many popular foods. You can easily replicate the Mozel et al. (1969) study mentioned in the textbook in your classroom by doing the following: Ask for a volunteer (ideally one with no food allergies) who isn’t squeamish about tasting a variety of foods while blindfolded (and with a plugged nose). Implore your class to be quiet (you can show them cue cards with the correct answer during each guess), and then present the subject with a variety of foods that he or she should try to correctly identify without the sense of smell. For best results, food should be cut into small, uniform bite-size pieces and placed on toothpicks (you might need to help guide the food into subjects’ hands). Without smell, subjects will have a surprisingly hard time identifying (or distinguishing between) foods with similar textures such as carrots, onions, pears, apples, squash, and potatoes. Adapted from Fantino, B. F. (1981). Taste preferences: Influence of smell and sight. In L. T. Benjamin & K. D. Lowman (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (pp. 29–30). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Odour Identification Test Although people can discriminate among a large number of odours, they have a surprisingly difficult time identifying the source of even the most familiar odours. You can illustrate this fact to your students (many of whom will be skeptical) by conducting a large-scale “smell test.” First, gather several (approximately 8–15) dark or opaque containers with lids (empty black film canisters are ideal). Assign a different number to each canister (be sure to make a coding sheet with the correct sources) and place cotton balls in the bottom of each to absorb the smell. Good substances to test include baby powder, coffee, peanut butter, pencil shavings, ammonia, lemon extract, peppermint extract, vinegar, chocolate, coconut, Crayola crayons, Play-doh, soap, bubble gum, and spices (e.g., cloves, pepper, garlic, cinnamon). Instruct the students to lift the lid but to keep their eyes closed when smelling the canisters. Then, pass the canisters around the room and have students mark their responses on a sheet of paper. Your confounded students will have a sense of familiarity (“Oh, I definitely know this one ... what is it?”) more often than they will have an exact identification. [Note that having students match the smells with a list of possible sources would greatly increase their chances of being successful.] If you have time, tally the number of correct guesses by a show of hands. Do good or poor smellers have any hypotheses about the cause of their abilities (or lack thereof)? Do the results replicate the finding that women generally have a better sense of smell than do men? ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Want a Cookie? Students apply their knowledge about the senses of taste and smell to questions about a family’s Sunday afternoon cookie break. The student handout for this exercise is included as Handout Master 4.5. Answers: 1-d, 2-b, 3-c, 4-a. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Jellybeans Students usually aren’t aware of the fact that the sense of taste determines only roughly half of what we consider to be flavour. Flavour is, in fact, a combination of taste and smell. The demo outlined here, adapted from The University of Chicago’s “Brain Benders” (Nicholson et al.), provides an excellent illustration of this fact. Give each of your students a jellybean (or two, or three). Ask the students to pinch their nose closed when they first place the jelly bean in their mouth. After they have chewed the jellybean with their nose plugged, ask them to unplug their noses and notice the difference. They will then be able to perceive much more of the flavour of the jellybean and be much more likely to be able to identify the flavour. At first (when the nose is plugged), students may be able to tell that the jellybean is sweet or sour, but upon unplugging the nose the full flavour of the jelly bean emerges—the brain is now receiving signals from the both tongue and nose. It combines the two and BOOM you get full flavour. In the brain, nerve signals from the tongue and brain are combined to produce the flavour of the jelly bean. When the nose is pinched, the strict taste properties (i.e., sweet, salty, sour, or bitter) of the jellybean .. 205
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are apparent. But you couldn’t tell the full flavour until the receptors in the nose could send nerve signals to the brain. You may want to tell the students, “next time you are stuffed up with a cold, pay attention to the flavour of things you eat. Because the nasal receptors may be blocked, the flavour of the food you eat may seem much different—not as ‘tasty’!” ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents In-Class Activity: Saliva and Taste Students may be surprised to learn that food must be dissolved in water in order to be tasted. That is, some kind of liquid must be available to bind solid food to the appropriate taste receptor (e.g., sweet, sour, bitter, or salty). John Fisher suggests a simple exercise that demonstrates the crucial role of saliva in taste. First, have students wipe their tongue dry (the drier, the better) with the back of their hand. Then, walk around the room with a bowl of sugar and have students take a small pinch and place it on the tip of their tongue. They should not be able to taste anything until their mouth gradually moistens—with renewed saliva, the familiar sweet taste should come flooding back. Reference: Fisher, J. (1979). Body Magic. Briarcliff Manor, NY: Stein and Day. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: The Body’s Sensitivity to Touch Although the skin senses in general are remarkably sensitive, various parts of the body differ greatly in their sensitivity to pressure. This is because larger portions of the cerebral cortex are devoted to body areas that, for adaptive reasons, show greater sensitivity. (For example, crucial human features such as the mouth, face, and fingers are much more sensitive than are important, but less central, features such as the legs, feet, and back.) Both John Fisher and James Motiff have suggested exercises to illustrate this phenomenon. For this demonstration, divide students into pairs and have them take turns experiencing the vast differences in touch sensitivity on different parts of their body. In Motiff’s version, one student in the pair should keep his or her eyes closed while the other person randomly presses from one to four fingers lightly on that person’s back, neck, leg, shoulder, forearm, face, and hand. The person being touched should attempt to guess in each case the number of fingers being applied. Students will have a much easier time correctly identifying the number of fingers applied to especially sensitive areas (such as the face and hand) compared to the other, less sensitive areas, which will feel indistinguishably like one point of pressure (i.e., one finger). In Fisher’s version, distribute a single hairpin to each pair of students. One student should pry the hairpin apart (so that its prongs are roughly an inch apart) and press the hairpin against the back of their partner’s forearm. The person being touched will report feeling only a single point of pressure. Next, the student should bend the prongs inward so that they are only about 1/16 of an inch apart and place it this time on their partner’s index finger tip. This time (despite the smaller difference between the prongs), the partner will have no trouble differentiating the two points, as the finger tip is much more sensitive than the forearm. For an eerier demonstration, Fisher suggests dragging the hairpin (with prongs one inch apart) slowly from the crease of the elbow down to the finger tips. Although the spacing between the prongs remains constant, the person being touched will report that distance between the prongs increases the closer the hairpin gets to the fingertips.
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Finally, a demonstration suggested by Douglas Chute and Philip Schatz nicely illustrates that not all body locations receive the same attention from the brain. For this demonstration, you’ll need a ballpoint pen and volunteers with bare feet. First, ask students to close their eyes and hold out one of their hands. Explain that you will touch the tip of the pen to each of the three middle fingers (i.e., ignoring the thumb and the pinky), and after each touch the student should report which finger was touched. Do this about 7-10 times, varying which finger gets touched. To no one’s astonishment, students should be spectacularly successful in knowing which finger received the stimulation on each trial. Next, ask students to doff their shoes and socks, and repeat the demonstration, this time touching the three middle toes (i.e., ignoring the big toe and the littlest toe). Have students “number” their toes (big = 1, next = 2, littlest = 5, and so on), and again report which toe was touched by the pen tip on each trial. You should now find that students are spectacularly unsuccessful at indicating which toe received the stimulation on each trial. The explanation for these differences lies in neural organization. The sensorimotor strip is dedicated much more heavily to the fingers, which receive a lot more stimulation, do a lot more work, and are a lot more important to a variety of tasks than are the toes. References: Chute, D. L., & Schatz, P. (1999). Observing neural networking in vivo. In L. T. Benjamin, B. F. Nodine, R. M. Ernst, and C. B. Broeker (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 4). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Fisher, J. (1979). Body Magic. Briarcliff Manor, NY: Stein and Day. Motiff, J. P. (1987). Physiological psychology: The sensory homunculus. In V. P. Makosky, L. G. Whittemore, & A. M. Rogers (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology: Vol. 2 (pp. 49-50). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: The Body’s Sensitivity to Touch Demonstrating Disabilities in the Classroom Deborah L. Shapiro, of Emporia State University, is a school psychologist who works with students who have various disabilities. As a psychology instructor, she also sees awareness activities as one of the best ways for students to understand disabilities. The following demonstrations will help students understand what it would be like to live with a physical impairment. • To demonstrate living with a visual impairment, blindfold your students or have them wrap plastic wrap over their eyes and send them out on an errand (consider providing an escort to ensure safety, but instruct the escort to avoid helping unless it is to avoid injury). • For physical impairment, have your students walk around the room on their knees while holding onto their feet or have them maneuver around campus for a day in a wheelchair. • To demonstrate living with a hearing impairment, have the students wear ear plugs or cotton in their ears during one class session. • Several methods allow students to experience a particular disability. For example, bring in socks for your students to wear on their hands, and have them attempt to take notes, button a shirt, and tie a shoe. This will help them experience what it is like to have cerebral palsy. As another example, tell your students to take notes from your lecture using their non-preferred hand for approximately ten minutes. Maintain your normal lecture speed. This will help students relate to individuals who have a learning disability and to experience some of their frustrations.
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The basic message behind these activities is: You can relate to individuals with disabilities easier and understand the limiting effects of each disability by directly experiencing it. The way in which this demonstration is carried out is up to the individual instructor. You can spend a class period in which each student must demonstrate possession of a disability and have the students work together to complete a project, or have them spend a day experiencing the disability and spend class time discussing the experience. You can ask students to develop their own ways to demonstrate the effects that various disabilities can have. This demonstration can be very effective in developing an awareness and an understanding of disabilities, and its flexibility allows it to be implemented in or out of the classroom. Reference: Davis, S. F., & Palladino, J. J. (1996) Interactions: A newsletter to accompany Psychology, 2(Spr), 5. Deborah L. Shapiro, an instructor at Emporia State University, wrote this demonstration. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Assignment: Field Demonstrations As a simple but involving assignment, ask students to go out into the real world and experience instances of perceptual phenomenon that are too difficult to demonstrate in class. Students could, for example, choose 2 demonstrations from among the following and write a short paper describing their experiences and relating them to theory and research presented in the text. Dark Adaptation. For this demonstration, students should take about 15 index cards and a flashlight that is opaque on all sides (so that light shines only through the front) into a very dark room. After placing all 15 cards over the beam of light, students should slowly remove the cards one at a time until they can barely detect the light. Have them count the number of cards that remain over the light. After a few minutes, the light should begin to look brighter. When this is the case, have students try to add a card and see if they can still see the light. They should repeat this process of gradually adding cards over a 15- minute period. Consistent with dark adaptation, students should be able to detect an increasingly dim light the longer they spend in the dark. Night Vision and the Fovea. Because rods rather than cones are active in dim light, it is easier to see objects that fall in areas rich with rods (i.e., outside the fovea) than in areas packed with cones (i.e., the fovea). To experience this, students should choose a relatively clear night (with few surrounding bright lights) to observe stars. Specifically, they should locate a relatively dim star so that it is slightly to the right or left of the focal point of their gaze. When students suddenly shift their gaze to look directly at the star, however, it should disappear. The Autokinetic Illusion. Students can experience the autokinetic illusion (i.e., the apparent motion created by a single stationary object) for themselves by doing the following. Students should first create a very small point of light, either by using a thin, sharp flashlight or by covering a larger flashlight with a piece of cardboard containing a small hole. They should then go into a very dark room and shine the light on the wall about 10 feet in front of them. After a few moments, the light should appear to drift and move around slightly. In a dark room, there are no cues to tell you that the light is stationary. Therefore, the involuntary eye movements that typically go unnoticed in a changing environment cause the stationary object to appear to move.
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Temperature Adaptation. Students can easily explore temperature adaptation by locating 3 medium size bowls and filling them with (a) very hot (but not painfully so) tap water, (b) very cold tap water, and (c) a mixture of the very hot and very cold water. Students should arrange them so that their right hand is in front of the cold water, their left hand is in front of the hot water, and the lukewarm water is in the middle. Students should them submerse their hands into the water (right into cold, left into hot) for about 3 minutes. After 3 minutes, they should quickly transfer both hands to the lukewarm (middle) bowl, and they will undoubtedly experience adaptation “first-hand.” Reference: Matlin, M. W., & Foley, H. J. (1992). Sensation and perception (3rd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Crossword Puzzle Copy and distribute Handout Master 4.6 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment. Answers to crossword puzzle: Across 4. visual sensory receptor found at the back of the retina, responsible for colour vision and sharpness of vision. Cones 8. area in the retina where the axons of the three layers of retinal cells exit the eye to form the optic nerve. Blindspot 10. the sensation of taste. Gustation 11. the study of ESP, ghosts, and other subjects that do not normally fall into the realm of ordinary psychology. Parapsychology 14. bundle of axons from the hair cells in the inner ear. Auditory nerve 15. disorder in which the signals from the various sensory organs are processed in the wrong cortical areas. Synesthesia 16. the tendency to perceive objects that are close to each other as part of the same grouping. Proximity 17. the rotation of the two eyes in their sockets to focus on a single object. Convergence Down 1. the ability to perceive the world in three dimensions. Depth perception 2. the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete. Closure 3. the sensations of movement, balance, and body position. Vestibular 4. snail-like structure of the inner ear, filled with fluid. Cochlea 5. images that occur when a visual sensation persists for a brief time even after the original stimulus is removed. Afterimages 6. cues for perceiving depth based on both eyes. Binocular 7. visual sensory receptor found at the back of the retina, responsible for non-colour sensitivity to low levels of light. Rods 9. cues for perceiving depth based on one eye only. Monocular 11. the method by which the sensations experienced at any given moment are interpreted and organized in some meaningful fashion. Perception 12. the activation of receptors in the various sense organs. Sensation 13. the sensation of smell. Olfaction
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Fill-in-the-Blanks Copy and distribute Handout Master 4.7 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment. Answers to Fill-in-the-Blanks 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.
Sensation Just noticeable difference Absolute threshold Subliminal perception Habituation Sensory adaptation Saturation Cornea Lens Cones Light adaptation Afterimages Eardrum Auditory nerve Gustation
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Olfaction Olfactory bulbs Somesthetic senses Kinesthetic sense Perception Figure ground Proximity Closure Depth perception Monocular Binocular Perceptual set Extrasensory perception Parapsychology
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents ▼ HANDOUT MASTERS CHAPTER 4: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Handout Master 4.1 Sensation Handout Master 4.2 Beware of What You Wish For Handout Master 4.3A ESP Card Masters Handout Master 4.3B ESP Card Masters Handout Master 4.4 ESP Record Sheet Handout Master 4.5 Want a Cookie? Handout Master 4.6 Crossword Puzzle Handout Master 4.7 Fill-in-the-Blanks Exercise
▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 4.1 Sensation Sensation is initiated by the physical stimuli that surround and inhabit the body. As stimuli impinge on receptors, neural impulses are initiated and speed along specific pathways toward destinations in the brain. During sensation assorted influences come into play; the intensity of stimulation, its repetitiousness, and the range and mixture of stimuli. Stimulation may be subliminal, may produce sensory adaptation, or may be less than optimal. Below, explain the phenomenon being described in terms of the concept listed after it. 1.
Different portions of the body vary in their sensitivity to touch. The fingertips and lips are especially sensitive and the lower back is relatively insensitive. The brain itself is completely indifferent to touch. Distribution of receptors:
2.
Jane has prepared three cups of coffee but can’t recall how much sugar is in each. The cup with the smallest amount of sugar is easy to identify, but Jane can’t taste any difference between the other two cups even though she knows one has more sugar. Difference threshold:
3.
A nurse notices that patients perform more poorly on auditory tests—tests involving the threshold of hearing—when they are tired as a result of loss of sleep. Signal detection theory:
4.
John is looking all over for his glasses when his wife points them out at the top of his head. Sensory adaptation:
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Bill was initially delighted to land a job at the post office, but recently he has become worried. By the end of his shift, he almost always feels edgy, nervous and confused. This is difficult for Bill to understand because his work makes few demands. He just sits there all day, alone in a room, putting thousands of letters into the numerous bins. Optimal levels of stimulation:
► Return to Activity: Sensation ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 4.2 Beware of What You Wish For Human beings do not have the most sensitive or acute sensory systems in the animal world. Some bats can hear frequencies that exceed 100,000 Hertz, dolphins receive auditory messages from great distances, and cats can probably localize sounds better than we do because they can rotate their ears. Rats see better at night than we can, eagles have more acute distance vision, and horses have a wider visual field. Rabbits have more taste buds than we do, and many animals have a keener sense of smell. This exercise asks you to consider how you would perceive the world if your senses were more acute or sensitive than they actually are. 1. List a few things you would see, that you cannot see now, if your sense of vision were “better.”
2. List a few things you would hear, that you cannot hear now, if you could hear “better.”
3. If your chemical senses—taste and smell—were more sensitive, how might you be affected?
4. Why are our senses no more and no less acute or sensitive than they are?
5. If human beings continue to be urban creatures for the next few million years, in what ways might our sensory systems evolve or change?
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Handout Master 4.3A ESP Card Masters—Page 1 of 2
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Handout Master 4.3B ESP Card Masters—Page 2 of 2
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◄ Return to Activity: ESP ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 4.4 ESP Record Sheet This exercise is designed to allow you to test your abilities to perform various types of extrasensory perception (ESP). Your instructor has a stack of 20 special ESP cards. You will be asked to perform three different types of ESP tasks and to keep track of your performance below. There are four different symbols used on the ESP cards. You will be asked to make various types of predictions about these cards:
The three tasks you will be asked to perform are as follows: 1. Telepathy: For this task your instructor (or someone else) will look at each card and concentrate intensely on the design for about 15 seconds while you try to pick up the message “telepathically.” Record your response for each card on the chart below. 2. Clairvoyance: Your instructor will shuffle the cards, then place them face down, one by one, in front of him or her. You are to try to discern what each card is by “clairvoyance.” Record your response for each card on the chart below. 3. Precognition: Predict the order of the cards before your instructor shuffles the deck. Write your predictions below. Cl ai r vo yan ce
Tel ep ath y
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How many did you get right on each task? Remember, you could be expected to get five right on each task strictly by chance. (You have a one in four chance of guessing each card correctly without ESP.) If you got more than five cards right on a task, does that mean you have ESP?
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Handout Master 4.5 Want a Cookie? Every Sunday afternoon, Craig Smith bakes cookies for his family. This particular Sunday afternoon, Craig is baking chocolate chip cookies. The aroma of the freshly baked cookies soon entices everyone into the kitchen, except Maggie, who happens to be in the kitchen already. J. J., his five-year-old daughter, bursts into the kitchen and says, “Those cookies smell great, can I have one now?” Craig, who can’t smell the cookies, says, “Sure, but be careful—they’re hot.” Zach, who has just finished eating a bag of candy, is the first to lay hold of a cookie though. His only remark is: “Dad, these aren’t as chocolatey as usual!” Maggie, who has a cold, complains that the cookies have no taste. She says: “These cookies taste like cardboard!” Craig is wondering if it is really worth doing this every Sunday. Fortunately, his wife, Kim, after sampling her first cookie, says, “Honey, another great batch of cookies!” However, about a minute later, when she eats her second cookie, she thinks to herself that the first one seemed much sweeter. 1) The kind of candy that Zach ate before tasting the chocolate chip cookies was probably: a) lemon-flavoured. b) caramel-flavoured. c) strawberry-flavoured. d) chocolate-flavoured. 2) Maggie was likely to have a difficult time tasting the cookies’ flavour because: a) her taste buds weren’t sensitive to taste because of her cold. b) she couldn’t smell the cookies very well. c) she had cross-adapted to the flavour of the cookies. d) all of the above. 3) Kim’s second reaction to the cookies was probably due to the fact that: a) her taste buds had adapted to the flavour of the cookies. b) her taste buds had cross-adapted to the flavour of the cookies. c) the cookies had cooled off. d) she had caught Maggie’s cold. 4) Craig’s problem in smelling the cookies was likely due to: a) sensory adaptation. b) cross-adaptation. c) defective olfactory bulb. d) blocked olfactory receptors in the nasal cavity.
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◄ Return to Activity: Want a Cookie? ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 4.6 Crossword Puzzle activity Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception
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Across 4. visual sensory receptor found at the back of the retina, responsible for colour vision and sharpness of vision. 8. area in the retina where the axons of the three layers of retinal cells exit the eye to form the optic nerve. 10. the sensation of taste. 11. the study of ESP, ghosts, and other subjects that do not normally fall into the realm of ordinary psychology. 14. bundle of axons from the hair cells in the inner ear. 15. disorder in which the signals from the various sensory organs are processed in the wrong cortical areas. 16. the tendency to perceive objects that are close to each other as part of the same grouping. 17. the rotation of the two eyes in their sockets to focus on a single object. Down 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
the ability to perceive the world in three dimensions. the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete. the sensations of movement, balance, and body position. snail-like structure of the inner ear, filled with fluid. images that occur when a visual sensation persists for a brief time even after the original stimulus is removed. 6. cues for perceiving depth based on both eyes. 7. visual sensory receptor found at the back of the retina, responsible for non-colour sensitivity to low levels of light. 9. cues for perceiving depth based on one eye only. 11. the method by which the sensations experienced at any given moment are interpreted and organized in some meaningful fashion. 12. the activation of receptors in the various sense organs. 13. the sensation of smell. ◄ Return to Activity: Crossword Puzzle (answers) ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 4.7 Chapter 4—Fill-in-the-Blanks: Sensation and Perception 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
___________________ is the activation of receptors in the various sense organs. _______________ ________________ is the smallest difference between two stimuli that is detectable 50 percent of the time. The smallest amount of energy needed for a person to consciously detect a stimulus 50 percent of the time it is present is called__________ ______________. The process by why subliminal stimuli act upon the unconscious mind, influencing behaviour is called___________ _______________. __________________ is the tendency of the brain to stop attending to constant, unchanging information.
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6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.
The tendency of sensory receptor cells to become less responsive to a stimulus that is unchanging ____________ _____________. This refers to the purity of the colour people see and it is called_________________. The______________ is a clear membrane that covers the surface of the eye; protects the eye and is the structure that focuses most of the light coming into the eye. The_______________ is another clear structure behind the iris, suspended by muscles; finishes the focusing process begun by the cornea. The visual sensory receptors found at the back of the retina, responsible for colour vision and sharpness of vision are called the_______________. The recovery of the eye’s sensitivity to visual stimuli in light after exposure to darkness is called ___________ ________________. The images that occur when a visual sensation persists for a brief time even after the original stimulus is removed are called__________ ______________. The thin section of skin that tightly covers the opening into the middle part of the ear, just like a drum skin covers the opening in a drum is called the___________ ____________. The bundle of axons from the hair cells in the inner ear; receives neural message from the organ of Corti in the_________ _____________. The term for the sensation of a taste is called_________ ____________. The sense of smell is called_________ __________. The areas of the brain located just above the sinus cavity and just below the frontal lobes that receive information from the olfactory receptor cells are called_________ __________. The body senses consisting of the skin senses, the kinesthetic sense, and the vestibular senses are called__________ __________. The sense of the location of body parts in relation to the ground and each other is called the ___________ _______________. ___________ _______________ is the method by which the sensations experienced at any given moment are interpreted and organized in some meaningful fashion. A Gestalt principle known as__________ ______________ is the tendency to perceive objects, or figures, as existing on a background. The Gestalt principle of is the tendency to perceive objects that are close to each other as part of the same grouping. The Gestalt principle of is the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete. The ability to perceive the world in three dimensions is known as_________________ ________. cues for perceiving depth based on one eye only. cues for perceiving depth based on both eyes. is the tendency to perceive things a certain way because previous experiences or expectations influence those perceptions. is the claim of perception that occurs without the use of normal sensory channels such as sight, hearing, touch, taste, or smell. The study of ESP, ghosts, and other subjects that do not normally fall into the realm of ordinary psychology is called .
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Words for Fill-in-the-Blanks 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
Absolute threshold Afterimages Auditory nerve Binocular Closure Cones Cornea Depth perception Eardrum Extrasensory perception Figure ground Gustation Habituation Just noticeable difference Kinesthetic sense
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Lens Light adaptation Monocular Olfaction Olfactory bulbs Parapsychology Perception Perceptual set Proximity Saturation Sensation Sensory adaptation Somesthetic senses Subliminal perception
◄ Return to Activity: Fill-in-the-Blanks (answers) ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents ▼ WEB RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents General/Comprehensive Sites Sensation and Perception Tutorials: http://psych.hanover.edu/ MUST SEE SITE!!! This wonderful site created and maintained by John H. Krantz contains links to various tutorials and lots of visuals. These demonstrations and exercises are helpful starting points for familiarizing your students with the basic principles of sensation and perception. Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World—Howard Hughes Medical Institute: http://www.hhmi.org/ MUST SEE SITE!!! This site provides an excellent and current information about sensation, perception, and the brain. Subliminal Perception—Encyclopedia of Psychology: www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/ Philip M. Merikle from the University of Waterloo provides a nice summary and bibliography of subliminal perception.
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Vision/Visual Illusions 3D Vision: www.vision3d.com Contains links to 3-D eye exercises, vision therapy, optical illusions, and those Magic Eye 3-D things that seem to keep hanging around. Also explains some disorders related to vision. Have your students review this site as a starting point for discussing the basic principles of visual perception. Blind Spots: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/ Quick demonstrations and explanations of the blind spot. Cow’s Eye Dissection—The Exploratorium: www.exploratorium.edu/ This is a very interactive “look” into the eye of a cow. Vivid displays of anatomy of the eye. The Exploratorium—Online Exhibits: www.exploratorium.edu/ An online source for exhibits from the Exploratorium, San Francisco’s premiere science museum. Visual tests and illusions are the highlight. Grand Illusions: www.grand-illusions.com/ Includes links to some great illusions with good explanations behind them. There is an excellent Pinwheel illusion that is now digitized (so you don’t have to spin the stimulus on a pencil anymore!). Also included are links to the moon illusion, a freaky afterimage, brightness contrast effects, lateral inhibition, and the famous “My Wife and my Mother-in-Law” print by W. E. Hill (1916). How We See: www.accessexcellence.org/ This is a detailed text website complemented by helpful diagrams that explain the nature of human vision. Also, you can use the URL as a vision test in itself. See how quickly your students can decipher the CAPITALS, underscores, and runtogetherwords. Vischeck Colour Blindness Simulator: www.vischeck.com/ This website allows the viewer to experience how things look to those who are colour blind. Visual Illusions Gallery: http://dragon.uml.edu/ Links to various visual illusions, including negative afterimages. The World of M. C. Escher: www.worldofescher.com/ Nice collection and online gift store. Auditory Auditory Illusions—The Exploratorium: www.exploratorium.edu/ Digital recreations of three auditory illusions are featured on this site: the Shepard Scale, the Tritone Paradox, and the Risset Scale. Virtual Tour of the Ear: http://ctl.augie.edu A very extensive look at the anatomy of the ear.
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Taste/Smell Smell: http://sun.science.wayne.edu/ A review of major topics related to smell, including descriptions of anatomy, olfactory stimuli, types of smells, and damage to the olfactory system. Taste: http://sun.science.wayne.edu/ A review of major topics related to taste, including descriptions of anatomy, gustatory stimuli, types of tastes, learning, and damage to the olfactory system. Touch/Other Senses Touch: http://sun.science.wayne.edu/ A review of major topics related to touch, including descriptions of anatomy, tactile stimuli, heat, pressure, pain, and damage to the tactile system. Other Senses: http://sun.science.wayne.edu/ Provides an overview of kinesthetic and vestibular senses. ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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5/ CONSCIOUSNESS TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲ Return to Table of Contents
MODULE 5.1: Biological Rhythms of Consciousness ➢ Lecture Guide: Biological Rhythms of Consciousness (p. 224) ➢ Resources Available (p. 232) MODULE 5.2: Altered States of Consciousness ➢ Lecture Guide: Altered States of Consciousness (p. 233) ➢ Resources Available (p. 237) MODULE 5.3: Drugs and Conscious Experiences ➢ Lecture Guide: Drugs and Conscious Experiences (p. 238) ➢ Resources Available (p. 244) FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES ➢ Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 245) ➢ Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 259) ➢ Handout Masters (p. 271) ➢ Forty Studies that Changed Psychology (p. 279) ➢ Web Resources (p. 280)
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LECTURE GUIDE I. MODULE 5.1: BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS OF CONSCIOUSNESS: WAKEFULNESS AND SLEEP (Text p. 170) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology associated with sleep, dream, and sleep disorders. o See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand how the sleep cycle works. o The sleep cycle consists of a series of stages going from Stage 1 through Stage 4, to REM sleep, and then cycling back down again. The first sleep cycle lasts around 90 minutes, with deep sleep dominating the early cycles and REM gradually increasing in later cycles. ✓ Understand theories of why we sleep. o There are two theories as to why we sleep. According to the rest and repair hypothesis, we sleep so that the body can recover from stress and strain of the day. The preserve and protect hypothesis suggests that sleep has evolved as a way to reduce activity (in turn, the need for energy intake) and provide protection from potential threats. ✓ Apply your knowledge to identify and practise good sleep habits. o Students should be able to analyze whether they are getting enough sleep by completing the Epworth Sleepiness Scale. ✓ Analyze different theories about why we dream. o Freud believed dreams were a release of our pent-up urges. He used his psychoanalytic theory to examine the manifest content of dreams for symbolic, latent content. However, this approach lack scientific evidence. The activation-synthesis theory suggests that dreams are just interpretations of random electrical activity in the sleeping brain. The problem-solving theory is another alternative that suggests dreams reflect recent events and serve as a way to solve problems and store memories. 1) Every day, we go through multiple changes in consciousness. Consciousness (p. 170) is a person’s subjective awareness, including thoughts, perceptions, experiences of the world, and self-awareness.
What Is Sleep? 1) We spend approximately one-third of our lives asleep. Biological Rhythms 1) Organisms have developed biological rhythms (patterns that cycle within days, weeks, months, or years) that are adapted to the cycles in the environment. i) For example, bears hibernate during the winter. a) This is a circannual rhythm because it happens every year. Circadian rhythms (p. 171) are internally driven daily cycles of approximately 24 hours affecting physiological and behavioural processes. ii) Circadian rhythms are involved in our tendency to sleep or be awake, feel hunger, and even concentrate. .. 224
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2) Most humans (minus those who work the night shift and night owls) sleep during the night because our circadian rhythms are regulated by daylight interacting with our nervous and endocrine (hormonal) systems. i) One key brain structure in this process is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). a) Cells in the retina of the eye relay messages about light levels in the environment to the SCN. b) The SCN then communicates these signals to the pineal gland (Figure 5.1). c) Those with blindness from retinal damage cannot process the light that induces this cycle, and so they must take melatonin. Entrainment (p. 172), when biological rhythms become synchronized to external cues such as light, temperature, or even a clock. Endogenous rhythms (p. 172) biological rhythms that are generated by our body independent of external cues such as light. 3) Our circadian rhythms related to sleep appear to change with age (Figure 5.2). i) We need less sleep as we age. a) Especially REM sleep. ii) Teenagers and those in their 20s tend to prefer to stay up late and sleep in. a) Those in the age range also prefer to work, study, and play late in the day. iii) Those later in adulthood usually prefer to go to bed earlier and wakeup earlier. a) Many this age also prefer to work and exercise earlier in the day. iv) Overall, people tend to show greater alertness and cognitive functioning during their preferred time of day. Chronotype (p. 173), the tendency to prefer sleeping earlier or later in a given 24-hour period. The Stages of Sleep 1) Sleep has rhythms of its own. Polysomnography (p. 174) refers to a set of objective measurements used to examine physiological variables during sleep. 2) Devices used on polysomnography include those to measure respiration, a thermometer, and electrical sensors attached to the skin to measure muscle activity around the eyes and other parts of the body. 3) However, sleep cycles are usually defined by the electroencephalogram (EEG), a device that measures brain waves (see Module 3.4). i) The output of an EEG is a waveform (Figure 5.3). a) These waves are described by their frequency—the number of up-down cycles every second cycle. b) Waves are also described by their amplitude—the height and depth of the up-down ii) Beta waves (high-frequency, low-amp waves) are characteristic of wakefulness. a) The irregular nature of these waves (bursts of activity in different regions of the cortex) are often interpreted as a sign that a person is alert. iii) Alpha waves (slower, larger, and more predictable waves) signal that a person may be daydreaming, meditating, or starting to fall asleep. 4) The EEG signals during sleep move through four different stages (Figure 5.3). .. 225
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i)
Stage 1: marked by theta waves (slow waves, high-amp). a) Breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate all decrease. b) After 10-15 minutes, the sleeper enters the next stage.
5) The EEG signals during sleep move through four different stages (Figure 5.3). i) Stage 1: marked by theta waves (slow waves, high-amp). a) Breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate all decrease. b) After 10-15 minutes, the sleeper enters the next stage. ii) Stage 2: marked by sleep spindles and K complexes (periodic bursts of EEG activity). a) Brain continues to slow. b) The bursts of activity are not completely understood, but research suggests they may help in maintaining a stage of sleep and in the process of memory storage. c) The more time spent in this stage, the less we respond to outside stimuli (e.g., lights and sound). d) After about 20 minutes, we enter the next stage. iii) Stage 3: marked by delta waves. a) Brain continues to slow. iv) Stage 4: also delta waves, but deepest stage of sleep. a) Difficult to wake a person in this stage. 6) After an hour of sleeping, we reach the end of our first Stage 4 sleep phase. i) The sleep cycle then goes in reverse and we move back up to Stage 1 patterns. a) However, we do not go all the way back to Stage 1; instead we move into a unique stage of REM sleep. REM Sleep (p. 175) is a stage of sleep characterized by quickening brain waves, deep relaxation, inhibited body movement, and rapid eye movements (REM). 7) REM sleep is sometimes called paradoxical sleep because the EEG waves appear as though we are awake. i) The REM pattern is so distinct that the first four stages of sleep are known collectively as nonREM (NREM) sleep. ii) At the end of the first REM phase, we cycle back down into the deep stages of sleep and then back into REM sleep again every 90-100 minutes (Figure 5.4). a) Earlier cycles are dominated by deeper stages (3 and 4), but gradually give way to longer REM periods. iii) When we are deprived of sleep, we usually experience REM rebound. a) Our brains spend an increased time in REM-phase sleep when given the chance.
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Why We Need Sleep Theories of Sleep 1) There are two main theories as to why we sleep. i) The most intuitive explanation for why we sleep is the restore and repair hypothesis. Restore and repair hypothesis (p. 175) is the idea that the body needs to restore energy levels and repair any wear and tear experienced on the body from the day’s activities. ii) Research shows that sleep is a physiological and psychological necessity. a) A lack of sleep eventually leads to cognitive decline, emotional disturbances, and impaired immune function. b) For some species, sleep deprivation can be fatal. iii) However, this theory would suggest that we sleep more after physically and/or mentally challenging days, which we do not. Preserve and protect hypothesis (p. 176) suggests that two more adaptive functions of sleep are preserving energy and protecting the individual organism from harm. iv) This theory is supported by the fact that animals most vulnerable to predators sleep in safe hideaways and during the time of day when they are most susceptible. a) Humans and other visually orientated creatures sleep at night when they are at their greatest disadvantage. b) Conversely, lions and bears are rarely victims of predators and they sleep up to 15 hours a day. Sleep Deprivation and Sleep Displacement 1) There are a number of reasons why people do not get the amount of sleep they need. Sleep deprivation (p. 176) occurs when an individual cannot or does not sleep. 2) The day after being sleep deprived is marked by periods of sleepiness, interspersed with other periods of feeling normal levels of wakefulness. i) Research shows that volunteers who stay up for days tend to show more and more signs of sleepiness during night hours and normal wakefulness during the day (especially around afternoon). a) Cognitive ability, reaction times, and reflexes were also best during the day and worse each night. ii) Research on adolescents show that for every hour of sleep missed, a predictable increase in physical illness, family problems, substance abuse, and academic problems. iii) Driving while sleep deprived is similar to driving while mildly intoxicated. iv) Sleep deprivation can also be very dangerous for certain careers (Figure 5.5). a) For example, long-haul drivers and medical residents that work through the night (see Figure 5.6). Sleep displacement (p. 177) occurs when an individual is prevented from sleeping at the normal time although she may be able to sleep earlier or later in the day than usual.
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3) Travelling is a common cause of sleep displacement and in turn, jet lag. Jet lag (p. 178) is the discomfort a person feels when sleep cycles are out of synchronization with light and darkness. i)
For example, let’s say you’re from balmy Winnipeg who flies to London for a vacation. a) The first night in London, you may to go to bed at your usual time of 12am, but your body’s rhythms will be operating at 6pm. b) This will result in jet lag for three to four days until your internal clock can readjust with the external day-night cycles. ii) Feelings of jet lag vary on how many time zones are crossed and how quickly they’re crossed. a) For example, it is easier to adjust if one drives versus flying. b) It is also easier to adjust when traveling west, because it is easier to stay up later than go to bed early.
Theories of Dreaming The Psychoanalytic Approach 1) In the Western world, many beliefs about the meaning of dreams come from the psychoanalytic perspective of Sigmund Freud. i) In 1900, he published The Interpretation of Dreams. ii) He believed dreams were an unconscious expression of wish fulfillment. iii) Freud believed humans were driven by primal urges (e.g., sex and aggression), but were unable to act on these urges. a) However, when we sleep, we lose our ability to suppress these urges and they come out in our dreams. iv) The manifest content of our dreams (might involve sex and aggression), but usually it seems like a bunch of random imagery and events that represent a hidden meaning. Manifest content (p. 179) is the images and storylines that we dream about. Latent content (p. 179) is the actual symbolic meaning of a dream built on suppressed sexual or aggressive urges. v) Although, dream interpretation lives on today, it lacks scientific evidence and objective measurements. The Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis 1) There are two main theories as to why we dream: activation-synthesis hypothesis and the problemsolving theory. Activation-synthesis hypothesis (p. 179) suggests that dreams arise from brain activity originating from bursts of excitatory messages from the pons, a part of the brainstem. 2) The brainstem actions initiate the activation component and the synthesis component arises as the brain tries to make sense of all the images (Figure 5.7). i) These images are randomly activated, which explains why the storyline of dreams usually seems disjointed and bizarre. 3) Electrical activity during REM sleep suggests perceptual areas of the brain are activated and producing imaginary sights and sounds. i) Emotional areas of the brain are also active during REM sleep. .. 228
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Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Dreams, REM Sleep and Learning 1) What do we know about dreams, REM sleep and learning? i) REM produces brainwaves that are similar to waking brainwaves. ii) Perhaps the functions being performed are similar to when we are awake. Problem-Solving Theory (p. 180) the theory that thoughts and concerns are continuous from waking to sleeping, and that dreams may function to facilitate finding solutions to problems encountered while awake. 2) How can science explain the effects of dreams and REM sleep on learning? i) REM sleep affects some types of memory. a) linked to learning new information and new tasks. b) poor sleep is associated with worse learning. 3) Can we critically evaluate this evidence? i) Most research is correlational. a) Can’t guarantee that REM sleep is causing improved memory. ii) Early morning REM seems to be most important, why is some REM sleep more influential than others? iii) To say that REM sleep alone improves learning is an oversimplification. 4) Why is this relevant? i) These studies imply that sleep may critically important to students.
Disorders and Problems with Sleep Insomnia 1) The most widely recognized sleeping problem is insomnia. Insomnia (p. 181) a disorder characterized by an extreme lack of sleep. i)
Because the hours of sleep one needs is so variable, insomnia is defined in terms of how rested a person feels during the day. ii) There are also different types of insomnia. a) Onset insomnia occurs when a person has difficulty falling asleep (30 minutes or more). b) Maintenance insomnia occurs when a person cannot easily return to sleep after waking in the night. c) Terminal insomnia occurs when a person wakes up too early (sometimes hours early) and cannot return to sleep. iii) Insomnias are a result of internal sleep disturbances versus external stimuli (e.g., neighbor’s dog barking). a) Primary insomnia refers to cases that arise from an internal source and are not the result of another disorder (e.g., person stays awake worrying about upcoming events). b) Secondary insomnias are the result of other disorders (e.g., depression), physical problems (e.g., back pain), or use of substances (e.g., cocaine).
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Nightmares and Night Terrors 1) Over the course of a year, almost all (85-95%) adults in a study report having bad dreams. i) These are dreams that have negative emotional content (e.g., feeling sad, lost, angry). Nightmares (p. 182) are particularly vivid and disturbing dreams that occur during REM sleep. ii) However, not everyone recalls disturbing dreams. a) Research suggests that nightmares are correlated with psychological distress. b) Problem-solving theory explains that those who are distressed while awake are likely to experience distress while asleep. 2) Worse than nightmares are night terrors. Night terrors (p. 182) are intense bouts of panic and arousal that awaken the individual, typically in a heightened emotional state. i)
A person having a night terror might call out or scream, fight imaginary attackers, or leap from bed and flee before waking. ii) Unlike nightmares, night terrors are not dreams. a) These occur during NREM sleep. b) Most do not remember the content of the dream. c) Night terrors are more common in young children than adults and increase during times of stress. Movement Disturbances 1) To sleep well, a person needs to remain still. i) During REM sleep, the brain prevents movement by sending inhibitory signals down the spinal cord. 2) A number of sleep disturbances involvement movement and related sensations. i) A severe and dangerous condition is REM behaviour disorder. REM behaviour disorder (p. 182) is a condition that does not show the typical restriction of movement during REM sleep; in fact, they appear to be acting out the content of their dreams. ii) Sleepwalking is another sleep disorder. Somnambulism (p. 183) (or sleepwalking) is a disorder that involved wandering and performing other activities while asleep. a) This disorder is more common in children. b) It is not indicative of any sleep or emotional disturbance. c) It is also a myth that it’s unsafe to awaken a sleepwalker. iii) A similar, but more adult disorder is sexomania or sleep sex. a) Individuals with this condition engage in sexual activity such as the touching of the self or others, vocalizations, and sex-themed talk while in stages of 3 and 4 sleep.
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Sleep Apnea Sleep apnea (p. 183) is a disorder characterized by the temporary inability to breathe during sleep (apnea literally translates to “without breathing”). 1) A number of factors contribute to sleep apnea, however, it is most common among those who are overweight and it is twice as prevalent among men. 2) In most cases of apnea, the airway becomes physically obstructed anywhere from the back of the nose and mouth to the neck (Figure 5.8). 3) Apnea can also be caused by damage to the medulla of the brain stem, which is responsible for controlling the chest muscles during breathing. 4) Treatments include: i) A dental device to hold the mouth in a specific position during sleep. ii) Weight-loss efforts if needed. iii) Severe cases require the use of a continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) device to force air through the nose, keeping the airway open. 5) Disorders that stop breathing rarely result in death. i) The body naturally gasps for air when its deprived of oxygen. ii) Those with apnea often don’t even realize they go through this process many times each night. Narcolepsy 1) Unlike the previous disorders that dealt with a lack of sleep, narcolepsy involves sleeping when we shouldn’t. Narcolepsy (p. 184) is a disorder in which a person experiences extreme daytime sleepiness and even sleep attacks. i)
These bouts of sleep may only last a few seconds, especially if the person is awakened by jarring movements (e.g., swerving car). a) Even without disturbances, the bouts are rather short (few minutes). ii) People with narcolepsy go almost immediately into REM sleep (vs. going through the 4 stages) iii) Research has shown that those with narcolepsy have fewer brain cells that produce orexin, which functions to maintain wakefulness. Overcoming Sleep Problems 1) There are many ways that people try to treat their sleep problems (e.g., consuming warm milk, wine, or a snack), but practicing good sleep hygiene and habits is most effective (Table 5.1). 2) There are also a number of sleep aids available (e.g., over-the-counter and prescription). i) For most of the 20th century, drugs prescribed drugs for insomnia included sedatives (e.g., Valium). a) These drugs work for short-term problems, but could worsen long-term problems. b) People built a tolerance and became dependent. ii) More modern sleep drugs are believed to be safer, but should be taken with caution. a) Few modern-drugs have been studied with a placebo group and even fewer have studied the long-term effects.
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 5.1 Lecture Launchers ➢ Being Unconscious ➢ The Disadvantages of Shift Work ➢ How to Get a Good Night’s Sleep ➢ Sleeping Too Much? ➢ Sleep Disorders and Treatment ➢ Sleep and School Times ➢ Drowsy Driving ➢ The Bitter Taste of Drugged Sleep Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Sleep Deprivation ➢ Working Shifts ➢ Sleep Survey Web Resources ➢ Basics of Sleep Behaviour: www.sleephomepages.org/ ➢ National Center on Sleep Disorders Research – NIH: www.nhlbi.nih.gov/ ➢ Sleepnet.com: www.sleepnet.com/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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II. MODULE 5.2: ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS: HYPNOSIS, MINDWANDERING, AND DISORDERS OF CONSCIOUSNESS (Text p. 187) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology associated with hypnosis, mind-wandering, and disorders of consciousness. o See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand the competing theories of hypnosis. o Dissociation theory states that hypnosis involves a division between observer and a sort of hidden observer. Social-cognitive theory states that hypnosis is a process in which the beliefs and expectations about the process heighten the subject’s willingness to follow suggestions. ✓ Apply your knowledge of hypnosis to identify what it can and cannot do. o Students should be able to read statements of how hypnosis could potentially work and determine whether they are true or false. ✓ Analyze the effectiveness of neuroimaging to study mind-wandering. o Neuroimaging studies have repeatedly shown that two brain networks—the default mode and the frontoparietal—are more active when someone is mind-wandering. o It is important to remember that brain imaging studies are correlational in nature, therefore, the activity in these networks co-occurs with mind-wandering, but we cannot say for certain if this activity causes mind-wandering. ✓ Analyze the ability of researchers to detect consciousness in brain-damaged patients o Consciousness cannot easily be detected in these patients because movement is needed. o Neuroimaging techniques may indicate conscious awareness in patients in a vegetative state.
Hypnosis 1) Hypnosis is wrongly portrayed by the media. i) There are no swinging pocket watches and an increasingly subdued subject. Hypnosis (p. 188) is a procedure of inducing a heightened state of suggestibility. 2) In other words, hypnosis is about suggestibility; it is not a trance (as often portrayed by the media). i) The hypnotist suggests changes and the subject is more likely (but no certain) to comply. a) The hypnotists could suggest that someone’s sore hand no longer hurts to help diminish pain, but the suggestion to rob a bank would not work. 3) Although one could make suggestions about anything, hypnotic suggestions are usually most effective when they fall into one of three categories. i) Ideomotor suggestions: are related to specific actions that could be performed, such as adopting a specific position. ii) Challenge suggestions: indicate actions that are not to be performed, so that the subject appears to lose the ability to perform an action. iii) Cognitive-perceptual suggestions: are to remember or forget, or to experience altered perceptions (e.g., reduced pain sensations).
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Theories of Hypnosis 1) One theory of hypnosis describes the experience as a sort of divided state. i) At one level, the hypnotized individual is focused on the suggestions, while at another level of consciousness s/he is attending to something else. Dissociation Theory (p. 188) explains hypnosis as a unique state in which consciousness is divided into two parts: an observer and a hidden observer. ii) For example, when you first started driving, you focused intently on your actions. a) After years of practice you became an expert and seem to drive on “autopilot” while attending to other things (e.g., music, conversation, etc.). b) However, we are not really on autopilot, a part of our brain is still paying attention. iii) Dissociation theory does not explain research findings that people tend to conform to suggestions of what to expect. Social-Cognitive Theory (p. 189) explains hypnosis by emphasizing the degree to which beliefs and expectations contribute to increased suggestibility. 2) The social-cognitive theory is supported by experiments in which individuals were told they would either be able to resist ideomotor suggestions or not be able to resist. i) Results show that people tend to conform to what they’ve been told to expect. Applications of Hypnosis 1) Research shows that hypnotherapy is an effective addition to medical treatments for anxiety related to post-traumatic stress. i) Combining hypnosis with cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) has been shown to be equally, if not more effective, than CBT alone (known as cognitive hypnotherapy). a) Cognitive hypnotherapy has been shown to reduce public speaking anxiety. 2) Hypnotherapy appears to work best when used in conjunction with other therapies, but more work needs to be done. i) For example, hypnosis to quit smoking and a nicotine patch. a) However, only 1/5 individuals receiving this treatment were smoke-free for a year. ii) Those receiving cognitive hypnotherapy only improved 5-8% on measure of depression than those receiving CBT alone. 3) It appears the most practical use for hypnosis is in the treatment of pain. i) A meta-analysis of 18 studies found that approximately 75% of all individuals experienced adequate pain relief with hypnosis beyond that provided by traditional analgesics or no treatment. a) The other 25% might have not been easily hypnotized. ii) Type of pain appears to also relate to the effectiveness of hypnosis. a) Short, acute pain appears to respond better to hypnosis than chronic pain. Myths in Mind: Recovering Lost Memories through Hypnosis 1) Before the limitations of hypnosis were fully understood, many professionals in psychology and law believed hypnosis could be used to recover memories. 2) However, in the highly suggestible state of hypnosis, a person could comply with suggestions and create a story that is entirely false. i) This has happened multiple times. ii) The reality is that hypnosis does not improve memory.
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3) Today, hypnosis is used in more responsible ways. i) Most psychologists do not use hypnotherapy to uncover or reconstruct lost memories. ii) Testimony based on hypnosis sessions alone cannot be submitted as evidence in most US courts. Mind-Wandering 1) During hypnosis individuals enter a state of altered consciousness where they are more suggestible than usual. Mind-wandering (p. 190) an unintentional redirection of attention from one’s current task to an unrelated train of thought. Mind-Wandering and the Brain 1) Researcher Marcus Raichle made a discovery while looking over brain images. i) He found that a number of brain areas were active while completing a task. ii) He also noticed that for a number of studies, a deactivation pattern also occurred, meaning that a number of brain regions became less active during the task. Default mode network (p. 191) is a network of brain regions including the medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate gyrus, and medial and lateral regions of the parietal lobe that is most active when an individual is awake but not responding to external stimulus (Figure 5.9). The Benefits of Mind-Wandering 1) Mind-wandering typically occurs during tasks that are repetitive, don’t require much thought, and /or are familiar. 2) Mind-wandering is related to future thinking and planning.
Disorders of Consciousness 1) There are three disorders of consciousness identified by medical personnel: coma, persistent vegetative state and minimally conscious state. Brain death (p. 192) a condition in which the brain, specifically including the brainstem, no longer functions. Coma (p. 192) is a state marked by complete loss of consciousness. 2) A coma begins with a serious brain injury or trauma. i) In response, the person enters a state of consciousness that may look like sleeping. ii) However, in a coma the body remains still (minus some reflexes) and brain stem reflexes are suppressed (e.g., pupils no longer dilate and contract with changes in brightness). 3) If a patient in a coma improves slightly, the individual is likely to enter a persistent vegetative state (PVS). Persistent Vegetative State (PVS) (p. 192) is a state of minimal to no consciousness in which the patient’s eyes may be open, and the individual will develop sleep-wake cycles without clear signs of consciousness. i)
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Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Assessing Consciousness in the Vegetative State 1) Determine the level of consciousness is challenging in brain damaged individuals. 2) What do we know about the assessment of consciousness in vegetative patients? i) There are a number of checklists that rate patients’ consciousness. ii) One problem is the checklists focus on over behaviours. 3) How can science explain consciousness in vegetative patients? i) Some patients in a vegetative state can show some consciousness. a) Neurological responses to hearing one’s name. b) In one patient different fMRI results when given different imagery instructions. c) This was one specific patient and may not apply to all patients. ii) Neuroimaging may indicate consciousness in patients who cannot make overt behaviours. 4) Can we critically evaluate this evidence? i) 43% of patients with disorders of consciousness are misdiagnosed. a) Perhaps the fact that only a small number of vegetative patients can show signs of consciousness in Neuroimaging studies is related to misdiagnosing these patients as more brain damaged then they really are. ii) All research has focused on language but some patients have brain damage to language areas, what then? 5) Why is this relevant? i) There are life and death implications of determining whether someone has consciousness when they are unable to overtly respond. 6) The least severe of the three disorders is the minimally conscious state (MCS). Minimally conscious state (MCS) (p. 196) is a disordered state of consciousness marked by the ability to show some behaviours that suggest at least partial consciousness, even if on an inconsistent basis. i)
These behaviours must last long enough or be produced with some consistency to be distinguished from reflexes (which are possible without awareness). a) For example, the patient might be able to follow simple instructions, intentionally reach for or grasp objects, provide yes/no answers (regardless of whether they are right), or produce intelligible speech. 7) The disorder of consciousness that most resembles the healthy, awake state—at least in terms of awareness—is locked-in syndrome. Locked-in syndrome (p. 196) is a disorder in which the patient is aware and awake, but because of an inability to move his or her body, appears unconscious. 8) There is much debate over when one should be removed from life support. i) One approach is to consider the prognosis for individuals in PVS. a) It is unlikely they will recovers after 12 months in PVS. ii) Others believe that patients in PVS have some consciousness. a) There have been cases of rudimentary responses to language. b) Some report neurological changes in response to one’s name as well as the emotional tone of a speaker’s voice. c) fMRI scans of PVS patients told to imagine themselves completing certain activities have revealed activation in regions of the brain, similar to those not in PVS. iii) The answer remains unsolved because another person’s consciousness cannot be directly measured.
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 5.2 Lecture Launchers ➢ Dream Content: What Do You Dream About? ➢ Do We Dream in Colour? ➢ Speaking of Dreams ➢ Swimming in the Stream of Consciousness ➢ Light, Mood, and Consciousness ➢ Measuring Hypnotizability ➢ Early Birds, Night Owls, and Hypnotic Susceptibility Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Dream Interpretation ➢ Sleep and Dream Diary ➢ Dream Survey ➢ Dream Journal ➢ Hypnosis Required? ➢ Demonstrating Hypnotic Suggestibility ➢ Mesmerism ➢ An Educational Deception ➢ Brief Meditation Experience ➢ Changing the Mind Web Resources ➢ Lucid Dreaming: Awake in Your Sleep? www.psychwww.com/ ➢ Lucid Dreaming: Psychophysiological studies of consciousness during REM sleep: www.lucidity.com/ ➢ Frequently Asked Questions Regarding the Scientific Study of Hypnosis: www.psychwww.com/ ➢ History of Hypnotism: www.wayneperkins.net/ ➢ Hypnosis.com: www.hypnosis.com/ ➢ The Social Reconstruction of Memories: www.psychwww.com/ ➢ Use of Hypnosis in Pain Management: www.psychwww.com/ ➢ Using Hypnosis for Medication-Free Pain Control: http://www.hypnos.co.uk/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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III. MODULE 5.3: DRUGS AND CONSCIOUS EXPERIENCE (Text p. 197) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology related to different categories of drugs and their effects on the nervous system and behaviour. o See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand drug tolerance and dependence. o Tolerance is a physiological process in which repeated exposure to a drug leads to the need for increasingly larger doses to experience the intended effect. Dependence occurs when the user takes a drug to avoid withdrawal symptoms. ✓ Apply your knowledge to better understand your own beliefs about drug use. o Students should be able to complete the scale in Table 5.5 and reflect on their beliefs about drug use. ✓ Analyze the difference between spiritual and recreational drug use. o The difference, such as in the case of salvia, is entirely dependent upon cultural factors, the setting in which the drug is used, and the expectations of the user. ✓ Analyze the short- and long-term effects of drug use. o Table 5.4 gives a summary of short-term effects of the major drug categories. The long- term effects will vary by drug. This module focused on the long-term effects of methamphetamine. Long-term use of this drug can result in damage to nerve cells that transmit norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine as well as loss of white matter. There are also cognitive deficits found in abusers, such as those involved with monitoring thought processes. 1) Depending on how one defines the term drug, one could say that every human uses drugs. i) For example, there are compounds in chocolate that are similar to those found in amphetamines and marijuana. ii) Caffeine and alcohol are also prevalent in many cultures. iii) The difference between a drug and nondrug compound seems to be that drugs are taken because the user has an intended effect in mind.
Physical and Psychological Effects of Drugs Short-term effects 1) Altering the amount of neurotransmitter being released. 2) Preventing the reuptake of a neurotransmitter. 3) Blocking the receptor that the neurotransmitter would bind to. 4) Binding to the receptor in place of the neurotransmitter. 5) Different drugs affect different systems. i) Club drugs affect serotonin. ii) Pain killers affect opiod receptors. 6) The ‘high’ from many drugs results from effects on dopamine. 7) Drugs interact with the environment. i) More likely to overdose in new environment. a) Classically conditioned tolerance to the effect of drug in familiar environment.
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Long-term effects 1) The effects of drugs change as we become frequent users. Tolerance (p. 199): when repeated use of a drug results in a need for a higher dose to get the intended effect. 2) When receptors are overstimulated the neurons fire more; to counteract this fire receptors move further away from the synapse. i) Require more of a drug to get the same effect. 3) Physical dependence can also result from long term use. Physical dependence (p. 199): the need to take a drug to ward off unpleasant physical withdrawal symptoms. 4) Withdrawal from long term use of alcohol is more serious than withdrawal from heroin. 5) People also develop psychological dependence. Psychological dependence (p. 199): occurs when emotional need for a drug develops without any underlying physical dependence. i) One example is using drugs to combat negative emotions. ii) There is no single cause of drug dependence. iii) Genes may be influential. iv) Early experiences are influential.
Commonly Abused “Recreational” Drugs 1) Almost all drugs discussed in this chapter are known as psychoactive drugs. Psychoactive drugs (p. 200) are substances that affect thinking, behaviour, perception, and emotion. i)
However, the line between illegal drugs and legal prescription drugs can be very thin. a) Many prescription drugs are similar to illegal drugs, but they are safer. ii) Many illegal drugs today were once a part of commonly used products. Stimulants Stimulants (p. 201) are a category of drugs that speed up the nervous system, typically enhancing wakefulness and alertness. 1) The most widely used—and perhaps the abused—stimulant is caffeine. i) It can be found in many substances, including coffee, tea, many soft drinks, and chocolate. ii) Caffeine temporarily increases energy levels and alertness. iii) Depriving yourself of caffeine will typically result in headaches, fatigue, and occasionally nausea; however, these symptoms will usually disappear after two or three days. 2) Cocaine is another commonly abused stimulants. i) It is synthesized from cocoa leaves, most often grown in South American countries. a) Those who harvest this plant often chew on the leaves and experience a mild increase in energy. .. 239
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ii) Illicit cocaine is usually snorted or prepared and smoked. 3) A group of stimulants, Amphetamines, come in a variety of forms. i) For example, there are legal prescriptions. a) Ritalin (methylphenidate) is prescribed for ADHD. b) Provigil (Modafinil) is prescribed to treat narcolepsy. ii) Methamphetamine is a seriously addictive illegal drug with negative side effects. a) Many abusers suffer from neurological and external physical problems. b) It is made with chemicals such as hydrochloric acid and farm fertilizer, which contributes to these effects. 4) Stimulants affect neural activity in the reward centres of the brain (Figure 5.14). i) For example, cocaine blocks reuptake of dopamine by binding to presynaptic terminals ii) Methamphetamine increases the release of dopamine at the presynaptic neurons. 5) Ecstasy (MDMA) is a stimulant with hallucinogenic effects. Ecstasy (MDMA) (p. 203) is typically classified as a stimulant, but also has hallucinogenic effects. i)
Ecstasy was developed in the early 1900s as a prescription drug and became popular in the 1980s as a “club drug”. ii) It heightens sensations and is known to increase social bonding and compassion among those under its influence. iii) Side effects include heat stroke and dehydration.
Hallucinogens 1) One of the most commonly used hallucinogens includes LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide). i) This is a laboratory-made (synthetic) drug. Hallucinogenic drugs (p. 204) (also known as psychedelics) are substances that produce perceptual distortions. 2) These distortions may be visual, auditory, and sometimes tactile in nature (e.g., something crawling on the skin). 3) Under the influence, people often misperceive their own thinking and attach deep significance to objects, events, or thoughts that are rather ordinary. 4) Hallucinogens can have long-lasting effects of 12 hours or more for LSD users. i) This can include emotional experiences ranging from euphoria to paranoia. 5) Two short-acting hallucinogens have become increasingly popular: ketamine and DMT (dimethyltryptamine). i) Ketamine (also called Special K or Vitamin K) was originally developed anaesthetic to be used where gaseous anaesthetic could not be applied (e.g., on the battlefield). a) It produces dream-like states, memory loss, dizziness, confusion, and distorted sense of body ownership. b) This drug block receptors for glutamate, which is an excitatory neurotransmitter responsible for such things as memory. ii) DMT can be found in the bark from trees native to Central and South American, on the skin surface of certain toads, and even in the human nervous system. a) However, the function of DMT in the brain is unclear. b) Some believe it plays a role in sleep, dreaming, and out-of-body experiences. 6
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6) Salvia divinorum is a sage plant that grows in Central and South America. i) Smoking or chewing it produces intense, but short-lived hallucinations. ii) It often causes dissociative experiences—a detachments between self and body. 7) There is no scientific evidence that salvia has healing properties, but many cultures still use it in ceremonies. iii) The Mazateca people of Mexico use salvia in divine rituals to communicate with the spiritual world. iv) Shamans of the Mazateca people use salvia for spiritual healing. Opiates 1) Opiates are drugs that bind to endorphin (“endogenous morphine”) receptors in the nervous system. i) Endorphins are neurotransmitters that reduce pain and produce pleasurable sensations. a) Opiates magnify these effects. Opiates (p. 205) (also called narcotics) are drugs such as heroin and morphine that reduce pain and induce extremely intense feelings of euphoria. 2) Naturally occurring opiates are derived from certain species of poppy plants that are primarily grown in Asia and the Middle East. 3) Opiate drugs are commonly used in the emergency room. i) For example, fentanyl is used to treat those with extreme pain. a) “China White” is the street version of fentanyl, which can be more than 20 times the strength of heroin. ii) Oxycodone (OxyContin) is prescription opioid for people in extreme pain. a) However, it also has a very high abuse potential. 4) Treating opiate addition is very challenging. i) People often continue to use just to avoid withdrawal symptoms. ii) Methadone is a synthetic opiate that binds to the opiate receptors, but does not give the same kind of high as heroin. a) A daily regimen of methadone can help addicts adjust and cope without the drug.
Legal Drugs and Their Effects on Consciousness Sedatives Sedative Drugs (p. 206) sometimes called “downers”, depress activity of the central nervous system. 1) Barbiturates were an early form of medication used to treat anxiety and promote sleep. i) High doses of this drug can shut down the brain stem regions that regulate breathing. a) So their medical use has been swapped with safer drugs. 2) Barbiturates have a high abuse potential for those looking to lower their inhibitions, relax, and improve sleep. i) They actually have the adverse effect on sleep by reducing the amount of REM sleep. 3) Newer forms of the sedative drugs, called benzodiazepines, increase the effects of gammaaminobutyric acid (GABA). i) This is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps reduce feelings of anxiety or panic. ii) Prescription drugs include Xanax, Ativan, and Valium. iii) Unlike barbiturates, high doses of benzodiazepines are unlikely to be fatal.
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Prescription Drug Abuse 1) Second to marijuana, prescription drugs are the most commonly abused drugs i) Over 15% of Canadian high-school students report abusing prescription drugs at some point in their lives. ii) People opt for these drugs because they are legal (when prescribed), pure (e.g., not contaminated or diluted), and somewhat easy to get. iii) These drugs are taken at large doses and often administered in a way that gives a quicker, more intense effect. a) For example, people crush and sort Ritalin or inject liquefied oxycodone. 2) Decreasing prescription drug abuse has been a challenge. i) Scientists have been working on developing pain medicine that doesn’t stimulate the reward centres in the brain. a) For example, compounds can be made to stimulate cannabinoid receptors in the peripheral regions of the nervous system. ii) Many communities offer drug disposal of unused medicine. iii) Doctors are also more vigilant of patients seeking prescription drugs due to addiction rather than pain.
Alcohol 1) Alcohol is by far the most commonly used drug, found in almost every culture. i) Western civilization has had a negative influence on cultures leading to increased alcohol abuse. ii) Most societies regard alcohol as an acceptable form of drug use, but try to limit and regulate its use through legal means. iii) Cultural norms also affect alcohol use. a) For example, it is more socially acceptable for men to be heavy drinkers versus women. 2) Alcohol initially targets GABA receptors in the brain, and subsequently affects opiate and dopamine receptors. i) This accounts for feelings of euphoria with lower doses. ii) Alcohol facilitates activity of GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter, which depresses the central nervous system. a) This helps explain impairments in balance and coordination. iii) Alcohol also appears to inhibit areas of the frontal lobe involved with inhibiting behaviour and impulses, which explains the lowered inhibitions of those who drink. a) It inhibits the inhibitor. 3) Lowered inhibitions can help someone give a toast at a social gathering, but can have negative consequences for binge drinkers. i) This includes sexual assaults, unplanned pregnancies, and contraction of STIs. 4) Underage drinkers are at a higher risk for negative consequences. i) For example, they are at a higher risk of binge-drinking. ii) Alcohol myopia is more likely in youth and people with low self-esteem as they respond to feelings of social pressures by engaging in risky behaviour.
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Marijuana Marijuana (p. 208) is a drug made from the leaves and buds of the Cannabis plant that produces a combination of hallucinogenic, stimulant, and relaxing (narcotic) effects. 1) The bud of the Cannabis plant contains a high concentration of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). i) THC binds to cannabinoid receptors distributed across various regions of the brain. 2) Usually smoked, this drug induces feelings of euphoria, relaxation, and heightened and sometimes distorted sensory experiences. i) Memory impairment is one short-term side effect. a) This is most likely because most cannabinoid receptors are in the hippocampus (which is a key region for memory). 3) THC mimics anandamine, a neurotransmitter found in the brain and peripheral nerves. i) This neurotransmitter is involved in regulating circadian rhythms and sleep, memory, and other functions. 4) Marijuana has been shown to reduce physical pain, which is one reason why it has been used for medicinal purposes.
PSYCH @ University Parties 1) Research shows that university students drinks significantly more than their peers who do not attend college. i) In one study, almost half of the university students binge-drank, 1/3 drove under the influence, 10-12% sustained an injury, and 2% were victims of date rape. 2) Alcohol abuse is common in our society and increases during celebrations. 3) In an attempt to reduce binge drinking, researchers went to fraternities and offered monetary rewards and/or entrance into a raffle if the fraternity could keep their blood alcohol level below .05 at their next party. i) The intervention appeared to be successful. a) Blood alcohol levels were significantly lower from baseline. Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Marijuana, Memory and Cognition The earliest reference to marijuana is found in ancient Hindu text Raja Nirghanta, calling the drug the “promoter of success”, “the cause of reeling gait”, and “the laughter moving”. What do we know about the effects of marijuana on memory and cognition? 1) Research has confirmed that marijuana disrupts short-term memory. Studies on long-term memory have also found that its use is associated with a reduced ability to recall, as well as false memories. 2) Cognitive abilities like decision making and other executive functions are impaired by THC. How can science explain these effects? 1) Through neuroimaging research has indicated that memory and cognitive difficulties in individuals who use marijuana, specifically due to a decrease in brain activity in the reight frontal lobe. 2) One study found that even when marijuana participants completed the tasks as efficiently as the control group their brains generated different patterns of activity. This suggests that marijuana users need to work harder to reach the same level of performance. 3) Brains under the influence of marijuana have to find alternative structures and networks to compensate for the drug effect.
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Can we critically evaluate this information? 1) When investigating with fMRI data it is important remember that the findings are correlational and therefore doe not predict behaviour. 2) Further investigation would find that the hippocampus and medial sections of the frontal lobes have receptor sites sensitive to THC. Why is this relevant? 1) Chronic marijuana usage can influence how parts of the brain transmit and receive information. 2) Heavy long-term use is also associated with a 4-point decline in IQ scores. 3) All of the finding thus far may become magnified in the future as the strands of marijuana today are much more concentrated with THC than in previous generations. Marijuana and the Teenage Train 1) Recreational drug use often begins in teenage years. This causes particular concern for brain development, as many higher-order cognitive areas develop after most other areas fully mature. 2) As a result, evidence does exist suggesting that marijuana use before the age of 17 does have a negative effect on memory and executive functioning.
Why are Some Drugs Legal and Others Illegal? 1) This is a complex topic with no clear answer. i) Some highly addictive and dangerous drugs such as nicotine and alcohol are legal whereas marijuana, which has lesser effects on the body, is illegal most places. RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 5.3: Lecture Launchers ➢ Hallucinogens and Religion ➢ The FDA approves MDMA for PTSD ➢ Witchcraft or Ergot Poisoning? Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Design a Drug Challenge ➢ Drugs’ Effects on the Brain and Behaviour (Group Activity) ➢ Is Alcoholism a Disease? ➢ Should Drugs Be Legalized ➢ Drug Abuse in Film: Drugstore Cowboy ➢ Crossword Puzzle ➢ Fill in the Blank Web Resources ➢ How Does Caffeine Affect the Body?: www.scientificamerican.com/ ➢ National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism – NIH: www.niaaa.nih.gov ➢ National Institute on Drug Abuse – NIH: www.nida.nih.gov ➢ Neuroscience for Kids: The Effects of Drugs on the Nervous System: http://faculty.washington.edu/ ➢ RxList: The Internet Drug Index: www.rxlist.com ➢ Web of Addictions: www.well.com/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents .. 244
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▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS ▲ Return to Table of Contents ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Being Unconscious (adapted from Melucci, 2005) The Disadvantages of Shift Work How to Get a Good Night’s Sleep Sleeping Too Much? Sleep Disorders and Treatment Sleep and School Times Drowsy Driving The Bitter Taste of Drugged Sleep Dream Content: What Do You Dream About? Do We Dream in Colour? Speaking of Dreams Swimming in the Stream of Consciousness Light, Mood, and Consciousness Measuring Hypnotizability Early Birds, Night Owls, and Hypnotic Susceptibility Hallucinogens and Religion The FDA approves MDMA for PTSD Witchcraft or Ergot Poisoning?
▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Being Unconscious (adapted from Melucci, 2005) Students are often confused about what exactly consciousness is. Most people grasp the basic idea of consciousness as being alert, aware, and able to process information on a “deep” level (e.g., thinking about one’s own thinking process). Sometimes, in order to critically analyze a phenomenon, one should attempt to define its opposite. For example, if something is not good, is it necessarily evil? Using this approach to define consciousness involves determining what being unconscious is. Many believe that being asleep is equivalent to being unconscious. The following list contains some notable distinctions between being asleep and being unconscious. Going over these points in class should enlighten students, and make them aware of the fine distinctions involved in this issue. •
•
The brain processes sensory information while you are sleeping. o Important information, e.g., a baby’s cries will serve to awaken someone, whereas moderately loud snoring, or the sound of a train in the distance will not. o Noises are often incorporated into dreams. The brain processes internal bodily signals while you sleep. o When a person is too warm/cold while sleeping, generally he or she will make compensatory adjustments to be more comfortable. o A full bladder will awaken a sleeping person. o Mental activity related to a person’s experience is often incorporated into dreams.
Given the preceding evidence, sleep is clearly different from being unconscious. However, it is also quite different from being conscious—the ability to process external information and to self-monitor is severely compromised while asleep!
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Disadvantages of Shift Work There are several studies that have documented the detrimental health effects of shift work. One study conducted by Gordon et al. (1986) found that males who work variable work schedules had higher rates of heavy drinking, job stress, and emotional problems than did males working set schedules. Females who worked variable shifts reported more use of sleeping pills, tranquilizers, and alcohol as well as more job stress and emotional problems. One interesting finding was that no difference was found in heavy cigarette smoking or coffee drinking between straight-shift workers and variable-shift workers. The authors suggest that more attention should be placed on health promotion at variable shift worksites. Many students also tend to work shifts. You might ask your students how difficult it is to maintain sleep schedules that are conducive to them being a good employee as well as a good worker. Reference: Gordon, N. P., Cleary, P. D., Parker, C. E., & Czeisler, C. A. (1986). The prevalence and health impact of shiftwork. American Journal of Public Health, 76, 1225–1228. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: How to Get a Good Night’s Sleep Health Writer Russell Wild has these suggestions for getting a good night’s sleep. (1) Turn off the TV—this means the radio as well. (2) Turn off the lights because they block the sleep-promoting hormonemelatonin. If you can, get extra darkening window shades. (3) Go to bed the same time every night— those who do, research shows, get better sleep. (4) Go to bed sober—any alcohol may interfere with REM sleep. (5) Eat your dinner early—6 or 7:00 is best. If you need a snack, try something that contains tryptophan—milk, yogurt, cheese, turkey, or fish. Tryptophan is converted to serotonin, which will help you feel drowsy. (6) Don’t exercise right before going to bed. (7) Read something that is good for you. It is suggested that many people are not getting the amount of sleep that they need on an ongoing basis. This may be the cause of more automobile accidents and lowered job performance. Reference: Wild, R. (2004). Try Deze and doze. AARP: The Magazine, 99.
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Sleeping Too Much? Is it possible to get too much sleep? Most people who are returning to work after a long weekend would say “no!” However, there are some researchers who seem to believe that there are some people who get too much sleep. A study in the journal Sleep has found after surveying more than 104,000 people in Japan ages 40–79, for nearly 10 years, found that those who reported sleeping eight or more hours a night were more at risk of death than those who slept seven hours. Overall, subjects who slept seven hours had the best survival rate. However, everyone does not need the same amount of sleep. You should strive to get the amount of sleep that makes you feel the best and stick with it. Reference: Song, S. (2004, February 23). Sleepyheads. Time Magazine. Time Inc., New York.
▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Sleep Disorders and Treatment As many as 100 million Americans suffer from sleep disturbances or sleep disorders. Three major sleep disorders include sleep apnea, insomnia, and narcolepsy. Approximately 18 million Americans have sleep apnea, which is characterized by brief interruptions of breathing during sleep. During any given night, the number of involuntary breathing interruptions can number up to 20 to 300 or more instances per hour. Two forms of sleep apnea include central sleep apnea and upper-airway sleep apnea. In central sleep apnea, the sleeper’s brain ceases to send signals to diaphragm, so the diaphragm stops functioning. In upper-airway sleep apnea, loss of muscle tone in the throat, tongue, and larynx can block breathing. This type of sleep apnea is also accompanied by loud snoring, as the sleeper tries to get air into the lungs. The sleeper often awakes after about 60–100 seconds of sleep and begins gasping for air, then falls back to sleep. Often, the sleeper is oblivious to frequent awakenings for air, and rarely remembers waking so many times during the night. Often, these individuals complain of insomnia. Experimental treatments include the Nasal CPAP (Continuous Positive Airway Pressure), in which a fan inside a mask is placed over the nose during sleep; the mouth must be closed, so there is a chinstrap to keep the mouth closed. A Stanford surgical procedure involves slicing tendons in the tongue to pull it away from the back of the throat. Insomnia is characterized by a chronic inability to fall asleep at night and/or stay asleep. Factors that contribute to insomnia include: medical illness, including head trauma, asthma, hypertension, arthritis, headache and lower back pain, Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, and kidney/thyroid dysfunction; psychiatric illness, including major depression, PTSD, generalized anxiety disorder, bipolar disorder, dementia, and schizophrenia; medication and drugs, including alcohol, narcotics, amphetamines, caffeine, nicotine, and certain antidepressants; co-morbid sleep disorders, such as sleep apnea; poor sleep habits, such as extended time in bed, napping, and irregular sleep schedules; and situational factors, such as stress, bereavement, jet lag, shift work, poor sleeping environment (bad bed partner, noise, etc.). Some of the most successful treatments for insomnia have been cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) treatments. Behavioural sleep medicine experts suggest that individuals have chronic insomnia due to learned behaviours and thought patterns that get in the way of a good night’s sleep. They
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recommend a combination of methods to help individuals overcome their insomnia, including sleep education (e.g., learning about your own sleep and resting patterns), cognitive therapy (e.g., to change negative beliefs and thoughts about sleep), stimulus control (e.g., don’t drink a soda before you go to bed), sleep restriction (e.g., bed is only for sleeping and sex), and relaxation (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation at bedtime). Narcolepsy, or “sleep attack,” is characterized by feeling sleepy all the time and falling asleep throughout the day without realizing it. We often think of dogs who are running across the yard, then suddenly fall asleep for a few minutes; this is the same sort of occurrence in adults. Approximately 1–5 individuals of every 5000 are narcoleptic. Often the sleep attack is triggered by an intensely experienced emotion, such as surprise, excitement, stress, or anger. The attacks last for about 5 minutes, but can last longer. Often, individuals with narcolepsy experience vivid dreams while awake, called hypnagogic hallucinations. Amphetamine drug treatment is one treatment used to maintain alertness, however this is not a cure for narcolepsy. More recently, Provigil has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of narcolepsy. Provigil is not an amphetamine, but how it works for treatment of narcolepsy is still a mystery. Reference: National Center on Sleep Disorders Research, National Institutes of Health. www.nhlbi.nih.gov/about/ncsdr ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Sleep and School Times Studies have shown that adolescents have greater sleep needs than adults, due to changes in circadian rhythms. If they are in their late adolescence, your students are likely to report preferring to go to sleep later at night and then to sleep later in the morning. In addition, adolescents face a need for a greater amount of sleep. Ask students how this information can be used. For example, recently high schools have begun moving their start times to a later hour in the morning to accommodate these adolescent sleep needs. Schools that have taken this step report better attendance. However, this measure often causes a logical problem with busing young children in the pre-dawn hours. In addition, later school start times may restrict teens’ abilities to participate in sports or to hold after-school jobs. Nevertheless, the findings from studies of adolescent sleep needs led Rep. Zoe Lofgren (D-CA) to propose the Z’s to A’s Act in March 2001. The act is designed to encourage school districts to delay school start times until after 9 a.m. by providing federal grants of up to $25,000 to cover the administrative and operating costs associated with making this transition. Would your students support such a bill? Do they wish that their schools had started later? What do they see as the pros and cons? Reference: Frontline: Inside the Human Brain, www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/teenbrain/from
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Drowsy Driving Because drowsy driving occurs so frequently, it warrants additional attention during class. Present the warning signs of drowsy driving (see the Sleep Foundation Web site, listed below). Ask students what they do when they feel tired behind the wheel. Point out that many of their ideas (e.g., cracking the window, blasting the music) are unlikely to prevent them from entering into microsleeps. Give them some alternatives that might work (e.g., caffeine or—even better—taking a break to nap). In addition, ask students to consider whether technological advances might help to ward off drowsy driving. For example, BMW has been testing a “driving alertness assistant,” a built-in warning system that monitors eye movements to determine drivers’ alertness. Finally, lead a discussion (or a debate) about whether there should be laws against knowingly driving while drowsy. References: Smart Drivers Brake for Sleep, www.drowsydriving.cornell.edu/ Drowsy Driving, by AAA, www.aaafoundation.org/resources/index.cfm?button=drowsyfaq
▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Bitter Taste of Drugged Sleep Sleeping pills and tranquilizers are often taken to get a night of good sleep. The same pills that initially may bring sought-after sleep to the weary insomniac can, over a period of time, profoundly disturb sleep. Reliance on sleeping pills can: • • • • • •
change the percentage of REM and NREM sleep experienced; cause insomnia; reduce certain deeper stages of sleep; cause withdrawal experiences of nightmares; result in more REM sleep than usual (called REM rebound); and sometimes even cause convulsive seizures.
Barbiturates are commonly prescribed in the United States to decrease insomnia, yet they are commonly abused. They are the most common chemical causing death by suicide. Studies have conclusively shown that barbiturates decrease the percentage of REM sleep during the night. With prolonged use there is a loss of this REM suppressant effect and, when the drug is withdrawn after chronic use, an REM rebound effect occurs. Barbiturates do increase total sleep time. Alcohol also increases total sleep time but decreases REM sleep, particularly in the first half of the night. This is the effect of acute alcohol ingestion on sleep in normal humans. Withdrawal from alcohol after taking it several days often results in a pronounced REM rebound. This REM rebound is actually larger than that following withdrawal of barbiturates or any other drug. The hallucinatory experiences of individuals with delirium tremens (DTs) where they report seeing bugs and other things crawling around may be related to the underlying physiology of the REM state. .. 249
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It is a general pharmacological rule that many chemical agents decrease REM sleep. In addition to alcohol and barbiturates, morphine, heroin, amphetamines, narcotics, and acute doses of marijuana produce similar effects on sleep. Those few drugs (e.g., LSD and reserpine) that increase REM sleep interact with the brain serotonin, whereas those that reduce it do not. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Dream Content: What Do You Dream About? In 1958, Griffith and colleagues interviewed hundreds of American and Japanese college students regarding the content of their dreams. Overall, they found that the students tended to dream about everyday, common events and situations that usually included familiar people. Interestingly, one of the primary findings from the study was that the students were more likely to dream about failure than success (unusual in the context of Freud’s wish fulfillment theory). They were also more likely to dream about aggression (or situations that involved aggression or anxiety) rather than peaceful or calm situations. Apprehension and anxiety were the most frequently experienced emotions during dreaming, and males were three times as likely to experience these emotions as females (12% to 4%). The following table (also presented as Handout 5.1) lists the percentage of students that experienced a particular kind of dream at any point in their lives.
Falling Being attacked or pursued Trying repeatedly to do something Schools, teachers, studying Sexual experiences Arriving too late Eating Being frozen with fright A loved person dying Finding money
Swimming Snakes Being inappropriately dressed Being smothered, unable to breathe Being nude Fire Failing an examination Seeing oneself as dead Killing someone
83 77 71 71 66 64 62 58 57 56
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Do We Dream in Colour? One of the questions students ask most frequently about dreams is, “Do we dream in colour?” The results of research on this topic vary depending on whether the research used home-based dream reports or reports from individuals in sleep laboratories. The presence of colour is reported in 20 to 25% of home (i.e., non-laboratory) dreams. In one laboratory-based study, colour responses were reported spontaneously in 25% of the dreams. When the researchers asked the participants about colour in their dreams 70% of them reported distinct colour in their dreams and 13% more reported vague colour. Colour is more often reported in laboratory dreams because investigators are able to ask participants about it immediately after they are awakened. An interesting finding is that individuals for whom colour perception is a significant feature of their waking lives are quite sensitive to colour in their dreams. For example, a group of art students (mostly painters), science students, and engineering students turned in reports of their most recent dreams (home reports). Colour was spontaneously reported in the dreams of 50% of the art students, 16% of science students, and none of the engineering students. When the investigator asked about the possibility of colour in dreams, 45% of the engineering students denied that their dreams had any colour qualities. The well-known dream researcher, Calvin Hall, compared dreams to a movie or play. When you leave a theatre, you are most likely to talk about plot, characters, and action. Colour is a less important detail and therefore likely to be forgotten or not reported unless it is specifically asked about. References: Van de Castle, R. L. (1994). Our dreaming mind. New York: Ballantine Books. Adapted from Davis, S. F., & Palladino, J. J. (1995) Interactions: A newsletter to accompany Psychology, 1(Sum), 12. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Speaking of Dreams Throughout history, and probably prehistoric times, humans have thought that dreams have special significance; that they have a divine source, that they predict future events, or prescribe a course of action. A primary duty of the wise men in many cultures was to interpret dreams. One wonders how preliterate tribes react to their dreams, to these images that invade their sleep. Perhaps they think that some alien being has taken over their body, or that they are receiving a message from the spirits of the earth or the demons of the forest. The idea that dreams have personal meaning was introduced in modern times by Freud when he published The Interpretation of Dreams in 1900. Freud said that “Dreams are impartial, spontaneous products of the unconscious psyche…they show us the unvarnished truth.” Freud thought that the vigilance of the ego relaxed during sleep, allowing primitive and forbidden sexual and aggressive urges to escape from the unconscious. However, this material was so threatening that the disgusting desires of the unconscious were disguised in dreams. It is interesting that Freud, like biblical .. 251
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characters and people of the past, thought that only a wise man can interpret dreams, in this case, the wise man being himself or a person trained in his method of psychoanalysis. Freud thought that there was a universal set of symbols that are used by the unconscious to disguise the hidden content of dreams. For example, dreams of flying signify the desire for sexual adventure; elongated objects like trees and pencils symbolize the penis; containers, including closets and automobiles, represent the vagina; and sexual intercourse is disguised as riding a horse or shooting a gun. Carl Jung was a member of Freud’s inner circle who broke away because of theoretical disagreements with Freud. He did agree with Freud that dreams are the clearest expression of the unconscious mind. He did not agree with Freud’s idea that there is a universal set of symbols that are used to disguise certain aspects of dreams. He believed that “the general function of dreams is to restore psychological balance.” He also thought that important messages in dreams could only be interpreted from a series of dreams that occur over time. He estimated that he analyzed at least 80,000 dreams during his professional career. There is a great deal of anecdotal evidence to support Freud’s and Jung’s ideas about dreams, but their theories cannot be experimentally supported or rejected because of problems in doing the necessary research. Research on dreaming was stimulated in the early 1950s when two investigators (Aserinsky and Kleitman) at the University of Chicago established the relationship between REM sleep and dreaming, but their research does not answer the questions posed by the theories of Freud and Jung. Does everyone dream? Some people claim that they never dream, but research tells us that everyone dreams. People who claim they don’t dream just do not recall their dreams. Dreams are not stored in permanent memory, and they will be lost unless they are reviewed or recorded immediately upon waking, before other material replaces them in the temporary memory store. How could you prove to a person that he or she dreams? Watch the person during sleep. When the eyeballs begin to move under the eyelids, give them a few minutes and then wake them up. At this point the person should be in the midst of a dream. How long do dreams last? Until the relationship between rapid eye movements and dreaming was identified, people believed that dreams occur in an instant. This seemed reasonable to most people because of having had the experience of an environmental event, like the ringing of an alarm clock, incorporated into the narrative of a dream. Investigators have timed the REM period, and then asked people to report the dream they had. There is a rather close relationship between the time it takes to report the dream and the length of the REM period. Are we more likely to have good dreams or bad dreams? Investigators who have collected and studied dreams have found that bad dreams are more commonly recalled than good dreams. Dreams are more likely to involve failure, misfortune, and frustration than success and pleasant emotions. What do people dream about? Falling or being chased are among the most common dream themes. The appearance of celebrities in dreams is also common. Many dreams involve frustration: trying repeatedly but unsuccessfully to do something, finding yourself nude in a public place, arriving late to catch a plane or take an exam, and losing important papers or treasured objects. Sex is not among the more common dream themes, even among college students. The occurrence of penile and clitoral erections during dreams is apparently unrelated to the content of the dream.
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Can people control the contents of their dreams? Research shows that people do have some control over the content of their dreams. And some people have more control than others. Control may be something that can be learned. It has been reported that the Senoi people of Malaysia teach children to control their dreams from an early age. Have you ever had the experience of controlling the content or outcome of a dream? Does problem solving occur during dreams? There are many reports of people finding the solution to a troublesome problem in a dream, but research has failed to support the idea that dreams play a significant role in problem solving. You may have “slept on a problem” and found yourself closer to a solution in the morning, but there are a number of explanations for this other than “dream work.” Why do people dream? Several explanations for dreaming have been offered. Freud thought dreams preserve our sanity by allowing us to gratify forbidden or unrealistic wishes. Informationprocessing theorists suggest that the function of dreams is to assimilate new data into memory and to jettison mental garbage. The activation-synthesis theory says dreams result when the brain tries to make sense of random neural firing that occurs during sleep. Do people need to dream? A number of studies have been done on dream deprivation. Subjects are awakened as soon as rapid eye movements begin to occur. The results show that as dream deprivation continues, REM periods occur more and more frequently, and subjects become harder to arouse. Also, subjects who have been dream deprived dream more than usual when they are allowed to sleep normally. Although some subjects have become irritable after a night or two of dream deprivation, most seem to adjust to it. We do not know what effect it would have on a person if dream deprivation were continued over an extended period. What should you do if you want to remember your dreams? Dreams are very fragile, so if you want to remember them you will need to be able to record them with a minimum of effort. 1. Keep writing material or a tape recorder within easy reach of your bed and be sure that you can turn on a light easily without getting up. 2. Before going to bed, tell yourself that you are going to wake up after a dream. If you are unable to obey your command, try setting a gentle alarm for two hours after retirement and every two hours thereafter. 3. When you wake up, keep your eyes closed, and review the dream before you record it. 4. Make a questionnaire or checklist to remind you of the information you want to record. This might include such things as the setting, actors, activities, outcomes, and emotional tone of the dream. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Swimming in the Stream of Consciousness Whether it’s William James’ stream or your Uncle Jeb’s creek that runs down to the fishin’ hole, metaphors that describe consciousness as a continuum hold more than a kernel of truth. Our common experiences of drifting from alertness into a daydream, or from pleasant conversation into the hypnagogic state, reveal that consciousness ebbs and flows rather than existing as discrete states. What this suggests, then, is that thoughts and feelings experienced in one state of consciousness could impact other states of consciousness.
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Rosalind Cartwright reasoned that conscious wishes about an important personal dimension should impact one’s dreams. Drawing on “housekeeping” notions of dreaming and Freudian ideas, Cartwright suggested that drawing a person’s attention to a pressing personal problem should make it more likely that the issue would become the focus of a night’s dreaming. To test this idea, 17 volunteers identified aspects of their personality (e.g., “poised,” “shy,” “lazy,” “defensive”) that they wanted to change. As they fell asleep, participants were instructed to repeat to themselves “I wish I were not so _____________,” inserting that aspect that they wanted to change. During their REM periods participants were awakened and asked to recount the content of their dreams, which they typically did easily and thoroughly. When the dream content was analyzed, 15 of the 17 participants were found to have dreamt about the target adjective (importantly, they also dreamt about other descriptors they had rated, although these did not appear at significant proportions). Cartwright suggests that dreaming serves not so much as a vehicle for wish fulfillment, in the Freudian sense, but rather as a means of exploring wants and wishes in ways that might not be available to waking consciousness. Punctuating this approach is the work on lucid dreaming, or dreams in which the dreamer knows that he or she is dreaming. Abandoning that word salad definition for the moment, lucid dreamers essentially are able to control the content and outcomes of their dreams. Realizing that the events unfolding to the mind’s eye are only a dream, lucid dreamers report deciding to behave in ways that would ordinarily be dangerous or physically impossible. For example, a lucid dreamer falling from a great height might decide to sprout wings and fly to safety, or walk away, Wile E. Coyote-style, from the impact. Studies of this type of conscious control over what has long been presumed a nonconscious process remain somewhat controversial. As with many aspects of consciousness, the answer lies in further research. Reference: Cartwright, R. (1974). A primer on sleep and dreaming. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. LaBerge, S. (1985). Lucid dreaming. New York: Ballantine. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Light, Mood, and Consciousness In 1979, Gergen and colleagues published a study in which they enlisted groups of total strangers to sit together (for half of the trials) in either a well-lit room or (for the other half of the trials) in a dark room. In the well-lit condition, the participants carried on many conversations that tended to be somewhat superficial (e.g., “How about this weather we’ve been having?”). In the dark condition, participants tended to speak less, but importantly, the subjects of their conversations hovered around deeper ideas (e.g., the energy crisis or how to reduce hunger in the world). Contrary to what most people might think, very few people in the dark room condition disliked the experience. In fact, 90% of the participants intentionally touched another participant, and many hugged each other! It appears that, given the results of this study, darkness has the effect of relaxing and disinhibiting people, which leads to a less guarded state of mind. This “barriers down” state of mind apparently has the effect of leading to mental, emotional, and (potentially) physical intimacy.
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Measuring Hypnotizability As the text mentions, people vary greatly in their susceptibility to being hypnotized. Attempts to quantify these differences may at first seem intractable; short of successfully putting someone into a hypnotic state, it might seem difficult to measure the extent of a person’s susceptibility. Several efforts have been made, however, to address this issue. Perhaps the best-known measures of hypnotic susceptibility are the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale (SHSS) and the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility (HGSHS). Both were developed in the late 1950s/early 1960s and in fact the Harvard scale is an adaptation of the Stanford scale. The HGSHS presents a hypnotic induction followed by 12 suggested behaviours. The HGSHS often is used as a prescreening instrument; those participants who record scores in response to the behaviours show signs of hypnotic susceptibility. These candidates may then be tested on the SHSS, a more elaborate test that takes 50–60 minutes to administer and also involves a hypnotic induction, followed by 12 suggestions. A more recent measure is the Waterloo-Stanford Group C (WSGC) Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility (Bowers, 1993). It takes approximately 1½ hours to administer and is intended as a follow-up to prescreening on the HGSHS. Like its predecessors, the WSGC presents a hypnotic induction and 12 suggestions. These include lowering one’s hand, hallucinating tastes, music, and a mosquito, maintaining arm rigidity, and experiencing an age regression. Other measures include the Hypnotic Induction Profile (Spiegel & Spiegel, 1978), characterized by its brief administration. A rapid hypnotic induction is used followed by a short series of suggestions; the entire procedure takes about 10 minutes. Similarly, the Stanford Hypnotic Arm Levitation Induction and Test (SHALIT; Hilgard, Crawford, & Wert, 1979) is a rapid technique emphasizing motor behaviour, as is the Rapid Induction Susceptibility Scale (RISS; Page & Handley, 1989). What these measures share in common, besides tongue-defying acronyms, is a focus on assessing a person’s likelihood of entering a hypnotic state. This differs from assessing a person’s experience of being hypnotized. This so-called “hypnotic depth,” or immersion in the hypnotic experience, also has been measured using a variety of instruments. For example, the Depth of Hypnosis Inventory (Field, 1965) and variants of the Linton-Langs Questionnaire (Linton & Langs, 1962; Ludwig & Levine, 1965) were two early measures of hypnotic experiences. Such early measures typically focused on the dissociative effects of hypnosis and its qualities as an altered state of consciousness. More recent efforts, such as the Hypnotic Experiences Questionnaire (Kelly, 1985), take a multidimensional approach. Factors such as relaxation, rapport, visual imagery, and amount of anxious, ruminative, self-reflective thought, as well as dissociation/altered states, are assessed using a self-report format. Both sets of instruments—those measuring susceptibility and those measuring hypnotic experience— combine to shed light on what is still a rather murky state of consciousness. References: Bowers, K. S. (1993). The Waterloo-Stanford Group C (WSGC) Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility: Normative and comparative data. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 41, 35–46. .. 255
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Field, P. B. (1965). An inventory scale of hypnotic depth. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 13, 238–249. Hilgard, E. R., Crawford, H. J., & Wert, A. (1979). The Stanford hypnotic arm levitation induction and test (SHALIT): A six-minute hypnotic induction and measurement scale. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 27, 111–124. Kelly, P. J. (1985). The relationship between hypnotic ability and hypnotic experience. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Waterloo, Canada. Linton, H. B., & Langs, R. S. (1962). Placebo reactions in a study of lysergic acid diethylamide. Archives of General Psychiatry, 6, 369–393. Ludwig, A. M., & Levine, J. (1965). Alterations in consciousness produced by hypnosis. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 140, 146–153. Page, R. A., & Handley, G. W. (1989). The Rapid Induction Susceptibility Scale. Psychology: A Journal of Human Behaviour, 26, 49–55. Shor, R. E., & Orne, E. C. (1962). Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility: Form A. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Spiegel, H., & Spiegel, D. (1978). Trance and treatment: Clinical use of hypnosis. New York: Basic Books. Weitzenhoffer, A. M., & Hilgard, E. R. (1959). Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale: Forms A and B. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Weitzenhoffer, A. M., & Hilgard, E. R. (1962). Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale: Form C. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Early Birds, Night Owls, and Hypnotic Susceptibility “Mornings are primetime for me; 7:00 a.m. comes and I’m ready to go.” “I do my best work between 10:00 at night and 1:00 in the morning.” “I like to get up when the sun is warm, around 1:30 or 2:00 in the afternoon.” These statements illustrate the difference between day persons and night persons, or those of us who are most alert and active during, respectively, morning and early afternoon hours or late afternoon and evening hours. These differences can be seen through casual observation and have been confirmed by a variety of measures of alertness under more controlled circumstances. These peak periods, however, may themselves be a manifestation of an underlying ultradian rhythm, or fragment of the 24-hour rest-activity cycle of the human body. Many physiological processes (such as gastric motility or urinary flow) and behaviours (such as vigilance, fantasizing, or responsiveness to perceptual aftereffects) seem to follow spontaneous cycles of highs and lows throughout the day. Being a “day person,” then, may in part be a product of responding to these cycles. These distinctions have been linked to hypnotic susceptibility in a study by Benjamin Wallace of Cleveland State University. Using a within-groups design in two experiments, Wallace identified day persons and night persons, and administered both the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale (SHSS) and the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility (HGSHS). Regardless of the scale used, patterns were found in the hypnotic susceptibility of the participants. Day persons seemed most susceptible at 10 and 2 p.m., whereas night persons peaked at 1 p.m. and between 6 p.m. and 9 p.m.
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These results hold practical implications for hypnotic induction as well as theoretical import for the study of biological rhythms. First, they indicate that hypnotic susceptibility will differ not only between individuals but also within a single individual, partly as a function of that person’s typical cycles of alertness. Second, although the issue remains unresolved, the role of ultradian rhythms suggests a promising avenue for further research. Such rhythms may impact both the day person/night person distinction as well as one’s susceptibility to hypnosis. Reference: Wallace, B. (1993). Day persons, night persons, and variability in hypnotic susceptibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 827–833. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Hallucinogens and Religion The following is adapted from Griffiths and De Wit’s (2001) presentation at the Council on Spiritual Practices symposium. In the United States, hallucinogens are classified as Schedule I substances under the Controlled Substances Act because they are considered to have high abuse liability and to be of no therapeutic value. The Schedule I classification gives rise to the common assumption that the hallucinogens have no value of any type, or no net value relative to their risks. Yet psychoactive plants having hallucinogenic effects have been valued for thousands of years in many cultures, in structured contexts, for their ability to facilitate spiritual (i.e., mystical/transcendent) experiences (Schultes & Hofmann, 1992). The phenomenology of such mystical experiences has been well-described and can be reliably measured. Many scholars of religion believe that "naturally occurring" mystical experiences, often occasioned by prayer, fasting, solitude, or other austerities, have provided the bedrock phenomenological foundation for most of the world's religions (Smith, 2000). That is, the founders of many religions had profound mystical experiences on which they based their teachings. In fact, many cultures use hallucinogenic drugs (such as Mandrake) in religious ceremonies to increase the possibility of communicating with the supernatural realm. Indeed, hallucinogens can induce profound mystical experiences that are indistinguishable in description and impact from the "naturally occurring" mystical experiences. The striking similarity between the drug-induced and “natural” mystical states suggests the intriguing possibility that the two may be mediated by common biological mechanisms. In fact, the last several years have witnessed increasing interest in the neurobiology of mystical experiences (Austin, 1999; Newberg et al., 2001). A basic premise of this growing field of "neurotheology" is that the compelling commonalties among mystical experiences reported across time and across different cultures and faiths suggest a common neurobiology reflecting the structures and function of the human brain. A discussion of this interesting topic should stimulate students to consider the possibility that religiosity, or “religious states of mind” are a result of simply changing the brain’s chemistry. The more intriguing discussion point is the fact that many studies (as suggested earlier) indicate that these states of mind are similar to those brought on by hallucinogenic drugs.
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The FDA approves MDMA for PTSD The FDA has formally approved the hallucinogenic agent Ecstasy (MDMA) for research use in humans. The drug is popular among people of all ages because it produces feelings of euphoria, empathy and contentment. Some researchers feel that these feelings may be helpful in treating terminally ill cancer patients or soldiers suffering from PTSD. Studies to determine the safety of the drug on humans is being conducted at the University of California at Los Angles. Not until the safety of the drug has been verified can the drug be used in clinical trials. There is some concern regarding serotonin levels. One study reported that heavy Ecstasy users experienced a 30 percent decrease in their serotonin levels. The study also reported that the subjects did not experience the hostile and impulsive behaviour linked to lowered serotonin in other studies. References www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00252174 Psychedelic medicine: Mind bending, health giving, Feb 2005, NewScientist.com www.newscientist.com/article/mg18524881.400 Staff. (1994, May/June). A dose of Generation X. Psychology Today (pp. 16–17). ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Witchcraft or Ergot Poisoning? Linnda Caporael, a behavioural psychologist and a full professor at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York, may have found a possible explanation for the behaviours that started the famous Salem Witch Trials of 1692. “Ergot poisoning can’t even explain all of the events at Salem,” Caporael concedes. Some of the behaviours exhibited by the witch accusers probably were the result of mass hysteria—or outright fakery. “At the end of June and the beginning of July 1692, I think there was more imagination than ergot. But by that point in time three people had already been hung, and the trials had taken a path that people felt they had to stay on,” Caporael says. “One of the clearest examples is the young accuser who, in the late summer, said ‘wait a minute, I don’t think that there are witches after all.’ At that point, the other girls began accusing HER of being a witch, and she immediately seemed to understand what was going on and began being a vociferous accuser again.” Caporael, as a senior in college writing a research paper for a history class, noticed a link between the strange symptoms reported by Salem’s accusers, chiefly eight young women, and the hallucinogenic effects of drugs like LSD. LSD is a derivative of ergot, a fungus that affects rye grain. Ergotism—ergot poisoning—had indeed been implicated in other outbreaks of bizarre behaviour, such as the one that afflicted the small French town of Pont-Saint-Esprit in 1951.
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The conditions that were necessary for the development of ergot poisoning were present at the time the accusations of witches first began. It is also noted that toxicologists now know that eating ergotcontaminated food can lead to a convulsive disorder. The symptoms of this disorder include violent muscle spasms, vomiting, delusions, hallucinations, crawling sensations on the skin, and a host of other symptoms all of which were presented as evidence at the witch trials. Reference: www.luminet.net/~wenonah/history/ergot.htm ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents ▼ CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Sleep Deprivation Working Shifts Sleep Survey Dream Interpretation Sleep and Dream Diary Dream Survey Dream Journal Hypnosis Required? Demonstrating Hypnotic Suggestibility Mesmerism An Educational Deception Brief Meditation Experience Changing the Mind, Changing the Body Design a Drug Challenge Drugs’ Effects on the Brain and Behaviour (Group Activity) Is Alcoholism a Disease? Should Drugs Be Legalized? Drug Abuse in Film: Drugstore Cowboy Crossword Puzzle Fill in the Blank
▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Sleep Deprivation Sleep deprivation can be quite unhealthy and (as noted in the chapter) can result in sometimes deadly accidents. Poor sleep is associated with such maladies as colon cancer, breast cancer, heart disease, and diabetes. Additionally, sleep deprivation can result in seemingly permanent changes in personality. Take, for instance, the case of 1950s disc jockey Peter Tripp. In 1958, he staged a “wakeathon,” during which he was broadcast live, from Times Square in New York City, for 200 consecutive hours (roughly 8 days!). After a couple of days without sleep, his speech became slurred, and he intermittently made incoherent comments. Additionally, he began to experience visual hallucinations. After another couple of days, he became paranoid and somewhat delusional—he thought there was a conspiracy involving doctors who wanted to send him to jail. After the eight days of no sleep, Peter Tripp slept for 24 consecutive hours. He claimed to feel completely normal, except that his family and friends noted that he was quite different. He was apparently more irritable than before, and was noticeably depressed. This change in personality eventually led to a divorce and many career changes. Tripp eventually died at age 73 of a stroke. .. 259
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Working Shifts If you decide to talk about the effects of variable shift work, mention that some of your students are future managers and supervisors who will determine other people’s work schedules. Therefore, this topic will be especially important to them. Ask for a show of hands of those students who have worked on rotating shifts or have parents or close friends who have done so. If some students have worked variable shifts, ask them to describe their experiences including how long they held the job, the number of hours they worked, which shift they worked, and how often they rotated to a different shift. How did shift work affect job satisfaction, productivity, and personal relationships? Others might comment on how shift work affected their family structure or friendship patterns. Ask about sleep schedules with working the night shift. You can point out that a significant number of accidents (e.g., Three Mile Island) have occurred during the middle of the night when people are less alert. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Sleep Survey On average, people require about 8 hours of sleep to feel refreshed and perform their everyday obligations at a reasonably high level. However, this generalization does not mean that everyone needs 8 hours. In fact, quite a bit of variability, with younger people generally requiring more sleep and older people less sleep, is frequently observed. Additionally, differences in circadian rhythm are apparent among young versus old people: younger people tend to be “night owls” (staying up late and sleeping in late), whereas people older than ~40 tend to be “early to bed, early to rise.” For this activity, students should conduct a two-question survey in an attempt to examine the issues described here. They should try to obtain results from two age cohorts: < 25 years old, and > 40 years old. Perhaps 10 participants for each group would be sufficient. Here are the suggested questions: 1) How many hours of sleep do you require in order to feel refreshed the following day? 2) What time do you typically go to bed at night? What time do you typically wake up in the morning? Have students compute the averages (and ask them to choose whether the mean or median is preferred) for both younger and older groups, and also present the ranges that they found. Various biological reasons explain these discrepancies (even rats show these same patterns), but students should critically consider environmental influences (e.g., as you get older, you have to get up early and go to work) that may affect the results.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Dream Interpretation Although the interpretation of dream content is popular and intriguing, a significant amount of data indicates that this kind of analysis is merely guesswork—not a revelation of a person’s unconscious motives or personality. A potentially fun way to help students critically think about this topic is to read to them a dream that a “former female student” related to a psychotherapist. Then, read them the therapist’s interpretation of the dream (both the dream and interpretation are fictitious). Afterwards, ask students about potential angles of criticism regarding dream interpretation, and perhaps why people are so willing to believe in this kind of analysis. Dream: I dreamed that I was chased into my backyard (where I lived as a child) by a figure dressed in black. When I turned to look who it was, I was suddenly in my bathroom, looking in the mirror. I tried to smile in the mirror, but as I did, I saw that I had no teeth! For some reason, I wanted to reach for my hairbrush, but my hands had become deformed stumps with no fingers. I felt very panicky, and when I looked up into the mirror again, I saw my mother’s face, and she was crying. Interpretation: The figure dressed in black is you. Therefore, you fear what you truly are. Additionally, you fear society’s expectations of you, and you feel helpless about who you are supposed to be. You are most likely suppressing homosexual feelings, and, given your inability to beautify yourself in your dream, you clearly don’t desire to sexually please a man, even if you think you should. Your mother would be most hurt by this revelation, perhaps because she desperately wants grandchildren. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Sleep and Dream Diary Most students do not believe that they dream at all because they do not remember their dreams. At least one week before you begin the current material, ask students to keep a Sleep and Dream Diary (Handout Master 5.1). I generally recommend two weeks of dream record keeping. Explain to the students that each morning when they first wake up that they need to write down all the dreams that they can remember each morning. At the end of the data collection period, instruct students that they should calculate a mean for the number of dreams that they can remember. In class, ask students to discuss their data with each other, then generate hypotheses that could easily be tested with the data at hand. Collect a few hypotheses from the class, then analyze the data. For example, one might hypothesize that those who spend more time sleeping also spend more time dreaming and thus can report more dreams; this would be a correlation between Items 1 and 2.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Dream Survey As an entertaining introduction to the topic of dreaming, begin your discussion by asking students about their own dreams. Handout Master 5.2 contains a brief dream survey that can be read aloud (students can simply raise their hands in response to questions) or photocopied and distributed to students. Many students will also be willing to share details of their most interesting dreams. A discussion of common themes in dreams should spark a lively discussion about the function of dreams and will provide a nice context for exploring the various theories of dreaming, including Freud’s psychoanalytic explanation, Hobson and McCarley’s activation-synthesis model, and other recent neurophysiological interpretations mentioned in the text. Students may also be interested in knowing how their dreams compare to those of over 1,000 Psychology Today readers who responded to a survey about dreams. In that survey, 95% of those who responded said that they remember at least some of their dreams, and 68% reported having a recurring dream. Popular recurring dreams included falling, being chased, returning to a childhood home, flying, appearing naked in public, and being unprepared for an exam. Thirty-nine percent reported so-called “lucid” dreams in which they claimed to control the course of the dreams. (Some of your students will no doubt recall using control over a dream to end a nightmare, and others may report using strategies in an effort to dictate what they will dream about on a particular night.) Interestingly, 28% of respondents reported dying in a dream, and over 45% dreamed about celebrities at one time or another (e.g., sex symbols and rock stars, such as Tom Selleck or Elvis Presley). [Celebrities featured in current students’ dreams are likely to include Madonna, Brad Pitt, Tom Cruise, Michelle Pfeiffer, and Michael Jordan.] ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Dream Journal Lucy Benjamin suggests that having students keep a record of their dreams over a period of time can be a terrific way to generate data for class discussion. Several weeks before you plan to cover states of consciousness, assign students to keep a daily diary or journal of their dreams (Handout Master 5.3) contains a sample assignment that can be photocopied and distributed to students as is or modified for your class as desired). A long lead time is necessary to give students who have trouble remembering their dreams several extra chances to remember at least some of them, and will also give you enough time to make observations about their dreams before discussing them in class (ideally, the assignment should be due the class period prior to your discussion). In doing this assignment, students should try to keep daily notes about their dreams (preferably, as soon as they wake up); they can then type up a summary from their notes after they have successfully remembered several dreams. Be aware that you might need to make provisions for the fact that, despite great effort, some students may not remember their dreams; perhaps you could give these students an alternate assignment or make this one optional. You should also reassure students that you will keep the content of their dream journals strictly confidential, and you should encourage them to freely edit or omit any details that they don’t feel comfortable sharing with you. Finally, be sure to caution students against discussing their dreams during this assignment so they don’t unintentionally influence each other. After you have read the journals, you can solicit student volunteers to share the content of their dreams with the class during discussion.
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References: Benjamin, L. T. (1981). To sleep, perchance to dream. In L. T. Benjamin & K. D. Lowman (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (pp. 196–198). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. (Portions of the assignment handout were adapted from Bolt, M. (1992). Instructor’s resources for use with D. G. Myers’, Psychology (3rd ed.). New York: Worth.) ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Hypnosis Required? (adapted from Melucci, 2005) People can often perform the seemingly astounding feats seen under hypnosis when they aren’t hypnotized! Your students will be amazed to see the following two demonstrations in class: (1) the famous “levitation” trick, and (2) the anaesthetized hand trick. Trick #1 requires a volunteer. Simply have the student lie down on three chairs, his/her feet placed on one, buttocks on another, and head on the other. When the student is comfortable, simply remove the middle (buttocks) chair. The student should have no problem maintaining this seemingly extraordinary posture. For trick #2, tell students that you have given yourself a posthypnotic suggestion and completely anesthetized your hand. Convince them that you can feel absolutely nothing with this hand by wiggling it loosely and pinching it without reacting. Then tell them that you will further prove your point by slightly burning your hand with a match! Strike a match (with your “good” hand) and hold it under your hand while maintaining a calm, focused facial expression. After about 10 seconds, lift your hand up to reveal the black burn mark on the palm of your hand. IMPORTANT POINTS: Use paper matches (not wooden ones)! Paper matches tend to produce more carbon (soot) while burning, and less heat than wooden matches. This should serve to enhance the drama (and make the “burn” mark on your hand more impressive!). Also, if you begin to feel some discomfort heat while performing this task, just move your hand or the match a little—the heat is actually quite tolerable. Lastly, try to keep your hand ever so slightly to the side of the match (most of the heat travels directly upward, so this will serve to reduce any discomfort). It is highly recommended that you practice this trick prior to demonstrating it in class (and perhaps remind students that they shouldn’t teach this trick to younger siblings!).
▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Demonstrating Hypnotic Suggestibility If you’d rather not devote an entire class period to hypnosis, consider performing at least one of several easy demonstrations that require the same kind of suggestibility used in hypnosis. John Fisher describes several simple exercises that can readily be used in class. (1) Bring a small, sealed jar of coloured but odorless liquid (e.g., water treated with food colouring) to your class, and explain to students that it contains a very exotic liquid made from foreign ingredients. Tell them that you will open the jar to allow the scent to waft around the room and that they should raise their hands as soon as they smell it. To facilitate acceptance of this suggestion, you might wrinkle your nose as you uncork the jar or even arrange for a cooperative confederate or two to raise their hands. (2) Ask your students to close their eyes and to imagine that they are cutting a large, sour, bitter lemon, a lemon so full of juice that it is dripping
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on the floor. Then tell them to imagine that they are sucking the juice from the same fruit. The majority of your students should be awash in saliva by this point! (3) Create the perception of a bodily itch by making several suggestions to itching and scratching. Start by reminding students how pleasurable it is to scratch an annoying itch, such as a tickle on the back or the ankle or the nose. Suggest that students might be starting to perceive slight itching sensations on various parts of their body, and that these might get progressively stronger so that they soon won’t be able to refrain from scratching (scratching yourself unobtrusively at this point helps). The more you play this up (e.g., by describing your itches and scratches in great deal and with emotion), the more students will feel compelled to scratch. Before long, the majority of your audience will be scratching itches on their heads, shoulders, faces, and arms that exist only in their minds. Suggesting a compelling urge to swallow also works well, as does the suggestion of the need to yawn (especially when accompanied by a wide, exaggerated yawn on your part). (4) Tell students to hold their fists in front of them about 15 inches apart with their index fingers pointing towards each other. Then suggest that their fingers are becoming nervous and shaky in this position and that consequently their fingertips are not pointing precisely together. At this point, suddenly and immediately instruct them to bring their fingertips together instantly, without any hesitation (“NOW!”). Although this sounds amazingly easy, the mere suggestion of shakiness and doubt throws most people off just enough to make their fingertips miss. In complying with these “suggestions,” your students will demonstrate the enormous human capacity for accepting an idea and responding to it almost automatically. Note that some students will be more responsive to these suggestions than others, and you can discuss how this variability relates to real individual differences in susceptibility to hypnosis. How do students think they would score on Hilgard’s Stanford Susceptibility Scale? Are they surprised by their responsiveness (or nonresponsiveness)? Discuss how hypnotic susceptibility is related to age, childhood upbringing, having an active imagination, hereditary factors, and contextual cues in the hypnotic setting. Reference: Fisher, J. (1979). Body magic. Briarcliff Manor, NY: Stein and Day. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Mesmerism Mesmer’s demonstrations of animal magnetism show an interesting side of psychology. Mesmer’s public displays were effective because of hypnotic suggestion, not because of magnetic forces. Although he demonstrated a real psychological phenomenon, his explanation was entirely wrong. Discussion of his techniques will contrast nicely with contemporary methods. The Royal Commission (which included Ben Franklin and Guillotin) established by the French government to investigate Mesmer’s claims provides an excellent example of a skeptical analysis of paranormal phenomena. Gould (1991) provides a comprehensive and colourful account. Eventually, Mesmer was run out of town. However, his name remains, as we still talk about being mesmerized. Reference: Gould, S. J. (1991). Bully for Brontosaurus. New York: Norton.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: An Educational Deception A number of researchers contend that hypnosis is not discretely different from a heightened level of suggestibility. Prearrange with a student in your class to be part of your deception. (Your choice of student is crucial here; select a skeptical student rather than one who is eager to become “hypnotized.”) During class, ask for a “volunteer” to be hypnotized, and then select the student who agreed to be part of the deception. Go through the motions of hypnotizing this student, but do it in a way that hypnosis would be impossible. Then ask the student, who is now supposedly under hypnosis, to carry out several tasks. For example, ask the student to lie on his or her back on the floor. Then have two other students lift him or her by the neck and ankles and place him or her suspended across two chairs. Most students will be impressed by this demonstration, but in fact, most healthy students can do this while fully awake. You can also ask the student to cluck like a chicken, regress to his or her childhood, or to do other typical hypnosis demonstrations. At the end of the demonstration, ask how many students believe that your volunteer was truly hypnotized. Most of them will. Then ask the volunteer whether he or she indeed was hypnotized. At this point, he or she should admit to the deception. This demonstration should illustrate to the students how difficult it is to determine whether hypnosis is a discretely different state from being awake. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Brief Meditation Experience During your discussion of altered states of consciousness, students will undoubtedly ask about meditation, which most will have heard about from popular sources but will have never experienced. Concentrative meditation can be demonstrated fairly easily in the classroom using the following exercise, which was adapted from exercises suggested by Linda Leal and by Antonio Puente. Before you begin, briefly explain the rationale behind meditation. The primary goal of meditation is to achieve a deep state of relaxation, usually by concentrating on one repetitive stimulus so that all other thoughts and images are blocked out. This narrowing of concentration, accompanied by deep, slow breathing, effectively reduces the activity of the sympathetic nervous system (e.g., by lowering heart rate and respiration rate) and slows down metabolism. Meditation promotes feelings of well-being and relaxation, and has been used to help people cope with stress as well as to treat certain medical problems (e.g., drug addiction). After you’ve introduced the idea of concentrative meditation, turn off (or dim) the room lights and make sure the room is free of distractions for 10 to 15 minutes. Instruct students to sit erect in a comfortable position, with their hands either on the desk or in their lap and with their feet uncrossed and touching the ground. After students are in a relaxed position, ask them to close their eyes and to sit quietly and breathe in and out as usual for about 30 seconds. Tell students that they should try to clear their minds by letting go of all random thoughts and by focusing on their breathing. Tell them that each breath should come from the abdomen, and, if possible, they should breathe through their nostrils. Thus, they should concentrate on the rise and fall of their abdomen, saying slowly to themselves “in” and “out” with each inhalation and exhalation. Stress that they should think of nothing else but the rise and fall of their abdomen and the corresponding thoughts of “in” and “out.” At this point, you might want to reassure .. 265
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students that although they may have trouble concentrating initially, this problem diminishes with practice. After approximately 10 minutes of this exercise, gently tell students to start focusing on bodily sensations as well as the sounds in the room around them. Give them about a minute of this reorientation period before asking them to open their eyes. Once students are fully alert, allow them to discuss their experiences. Linda Leal suggests the following questions to guide discussion. (1) Why does meditation promote feelings of well-being and satisfaction? Research suggests that the beneficial effects are related to the lowered activity of the sympathetic nervous system. The most common bodily change reporting during meditation, hypometabolism, is characterized by decreased metabolic rate and reflected in lower heart and respiration rates and lower oxygen consumption. It may also be that the concentration required in meditation distracts people away from other concerns. (2) Why is it difficult to keep distracting thoughts from entering consciousness while meditating? One possible explanation is that the repeated presentation of a single stimulus leads to habituation, or a general decrease in sensory responding. Another possibility is that the mind is undisciplined and requires practice to achieve deep concentration. (3) Does meditation lead to heightened states of consciousness, alertness, or creativity? There is some controversy over whether meditation significantly alters normal states of consciousness. Many proponents claim that it does, but it is a difficult proposition to test scientifically and many reports are based on personal accounts for poorly controlled studies. Although many of the same physiological changes can be obtained simply from deep relaxation, the text notes that a meta-analysis comparing transcendental meditation (TM) with other forms of meditation and relaxation techniques found TM to be superior for reducing anxiety. Note: If your roster is too large to perform this exercise in class, consider asking students to practice this technique at home (over the course of several different 20-minute sessions) and to write a short discussion paper describing their experiences and relating them to material presented in the text and lecture. References: Leal, L. (1990). Concentrative meditation. In V. P. Makosky, C. C. Sileo, L. G. Whittemore, C. P. Landry, & M. L. Skutley (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology: Vol. 3 (pp. 237–238). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Puente, A. E. (1987). An introduction to meditation. In V. P. Makosky, L. G. Whittemore, & A. M. Rogers (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology: Vol. 2 (pp. 284–285). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Changing the Mind, Changing the Body This activity is designed to demonstrate that one can change one’s physiology (in this case, reducing heart rate) by changing one’s mental state, via meditation. Even if a student has never meditated before, the concept is rather simple. Meditation can be achieved by closing the eyes and mentally focusing intently on one (rather innocuous) object, such as a building or fountain on campus. Prior to meditating, students should first determine their pulse rate. (An easy way to calculate beats per minute is to count the number of heartbeats in a ten-second period, then multiply that value by 6. After the “baseline” heart rate has been determined, students should clear their mind and relax (preferably in a room with low light and few distracters) for a few minutes. Then, while sitting down, students should close their eyes, try to breathe deeply, attempt to clear their minds of everything except that one thing, and try to maintain this focus for three to five minutes. A second measure of heart rate should then be obtained (some students .. 266
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may even be able to assess their heart rate while meditating). Most students should be able to lower their heart rate by approximately 5 beats per minute just by meditating. Although the average resting heart rate for a male is roughly 72 beats per minute, some Zen Buddhist masters, through meditation, can reportedly lower their heart rate to ~35 beats per minute! ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Design a Drug Challenge People can often perform the seemingly astounding feats seen under hypnosis when they aren’t hypnotized! Your students will be amazed to see the following two demonstrations in class: (1) the famous “levitation” trick, and (2) the anesthetized hand trick. Trick #1 requires a volunteer. Simply have the student lie down on three chairs, his/her feet placed on one, buttocks on another, and head on the other. When the student is comfortable, simply remove the middle (buttocks) chair. The student should have no problem maintaining this seemingly extraordinary posture. For trick #2, tell students that you have given yourself a posthypnotic suggestion and completely anesthetized your hand. Convince them that you can feel absolutely nothing with this hand by wiggling it loosely and pinching it without reacting. Then tell them that you will further prove your point by slightly burning your hand with a match! Strike a match (with your “good” hand) and hold it under your hand while maintaining a calm, focused facial expression. After about 10 seconds, lift your hand up to reveal the black burn mark on the palm of your hand. IMPORTANT POINTS: Use paper matches (not wooden ones)! Paper matches tend to produce more carbon (soot) while burning, and less heat than wooden matches. This should serve to enhance the drama (and make the “burn” mark on your hand more impressive!). Also, if you begin to feel some discomfort heat while performing this task, just move your hand or the match a little—the heat is actually quite tolerable. Lastly, try to keep your hand ever so slightly to the side of the match (most of the heat travels directly upward, so this will serve to reduce any discomfort). It is highly recommended that you practice this trick prior to demonstrating it in class (and perhaps remind students that they shouldn’t teach this trick to younger siblings!). ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Drugs’ Effects on the Brain and Behaviour (Group Activity) Assign small groups of four to six students one drug substance, and a controversial question about which they must research and present to the class. Specifically, students should be prepared to (a) describe the drug classification as it pertains to their particular drug substance; (b) describe the behavioural effects of the drug; (c) describe the physiological effects of the drug, with a discussion of the potential for abuse; and (d) discuss their assigned question with the rest of the class. Handout Master 5. 4 provides a handout of the various drug topic questions. I recommend that you have groups randomly choose their questions out of a hat; therefore, the handout is designed for you to cut into pieces. Reference: Stark, E. (1984, October). To sleep, perchance to dream. Psychology Today, p. 16.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity/Debate: Is Alcoholism a Disease? The text discusses the enormous physiological and social costs of alcohol use and abuse. Given these costs, it is not surprising that a major priority of psychologists is to better understand alcoholism and its causes. Despite the large amount of research devoted to the issue, however, there exists a heated controversy over its cause and opinions are sharply divided. The question at the heart of the debate is this: Should alcoholism be viewed as a disease, a physiological defect over which “victims” have little or no control? Those who support the disease model (including Alcoholics Anonymous, which is based on this premise) issue a resounding “yes” and argue that alcoholism is a biological illness stemming from some combination of genetic, metabolic, hormonal, or other physiological factors. Those who say “no” reject the idea that alcoholism is uncontrollable or has biological causes and argue that the disease model discourages alcoholics from taking responsibility for their behaviour. Social attitudes are equally divided and mirror those of researchers and practitioners. Some simply view alcoholism as a behavioural or moral problem whereas others see it as a physical problem whose victims deserve treatment rather than punishment. Your students are likely to have formed strong opinions on this issue from what they have seen or heard in the media. Encourage them to explore this important issue in greater depth by considering the scientific evidence and arguments in a debate format. Is there evidence supporting the disease model of alcoholism? What does biological and genetic research indicate? What implications do answers to these questions have for assigning personal responsibility for alcoholism and its consequences? Using the debate procedures suggested at the beginning of this manual, assign students to research this issue and to be prepared to defend either side. Reference: Lilienfeld, S. O. (1995). Seeing both sides: Classic controversies in abnormal psychology. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity/Debate: Should Drugs Be Legalized? Although the enormous societal and financial consequences of legal drug use (such as alcohol and nicotine) are well-documented, few topics arouse as much public and political concern as does the use and abuse of illegal drugs. Drug abuse emerged as an important public issue in the 1960s with the rise of the counterculture and its experimentation with drugs such as heroin, marijuana, and LSD. In the 1980s, the high price of cocaine led to the development of cheap substitutes (such as crack), which produced violent disorderly behaviour and led to street wars between gangs fighting over control of its distribution. This epidemic of drug use and violent crime led to the current “war on drugs” (declared during the Reagan and Bush administrations), which advocates stiff penalties for drug-related crimes. Has the so-called war on drugs improved the drug problem in this country? Opinions are sharply divided. Many experts who argue that the war on drugs has failed have proposed their own controversial solution to the problem: the controlled legalization of drugs. Proponents argue that legalization would diminish crime by driving drug traffickers out of business and would also lead to a savings of several billion dollars each year through tax revenues, which could be used for education and treatment programs. .. 268
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Critics argue that widespread availability, lower prices, and the elimination of the legal stigma would lead to an enormous increase in drug abuse, which in turn would lead to skyrocketing medical costs and would jeopardize public safety. Ask your students to debate the scientific merit of arguments and evidence on both sides of this volatile issue. Use the debate procedures suggested at the beginning of this manual and assign students to research this issue and to be prepared to defend either side. Reference: Finsterbusch, K., & McKenna, G. (2001). Taking sides: Clashing views on controversial social issues (11th ed.). Guilford, CT: Dushkin Publishing Group. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Drug Abuse in Film: Drugstore Cowboy In this critically acclaimed 1989 film, Matt Dillon and Kelly Lynch star in a gritty, intense look at the lives of a junkie couple and their similarly drugged-out friends. It is an honest but not altogether pleasant glimpse into the world of addiction that most of us, thankfully, will never see. This is a real eye-opening film, one that clearly illustrates many of the principles of the text while allowing students to safely step into the shoes of an addict for an hour and a half. Ask students to screen the film and then to write a paper discussing principles from the text and lecture. When possible, their discussion should include any specific drugs that they can identify as well as the physical effects of each as they are manifested in the film (Live; 104 min). ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Crossword Puzzle Copy and distribute Handout Master 5.5 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment. Answers for the Crossword puzzle: Across 6. drugs that increase the functioning of the nervous system. Stimulants 9. depressant drugs that have a sedative effect. Barbiturates 10. bad dreams occurring during REM sleep. Nightmares 13. mental series of exercises meant to refocus attention and achieve a trance-like state of consciousness. Meditation 14. drugs that decrease the functioning of the nervous system. Depressants 17. narcotic drug derived from opium that is extremely addictive. Cocaine 18. stimulants that are synthesized in laboratories rather than being found in nature. Amphetamines 21. the inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, or get a good quality of sleep. Insomnia 22. drugs that alter thinking, perception, and memory. Psychoactive
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Down 1. drugs that lower anxiety and reduce stress. Benzodiazepines 2. physical symptoms that can include nausea, pain, tremors, crankiness, and high blood pressure, resulting from a lack of an addictive drug in the body systems. Withdrawal 3. a class of opium-related drugs that suppress the sensation of pain by binding to and stimulating the nervous system’s natural receptor sites for endorphins. Narcotics 4. state of consciousness in which the person is especially susceptible to suggestion. Hypnosis 5. stage of sleep in which the eyes move rapidly under the eyelids and the person is typically experiencing a dream. REM 7. sleep disorder in which a person falls immediately into REM sleep during the day, without warning. Narcolepsy 8. a mild stimulant found in coffee, tea, and several other plant-based substances. Caffeine 11. long, slow waves that indicate the deepest stage of sleep. Delta 12. a cycle of bodily rhythm that occurs over a 24 hour period. Circadian 15. brain waves that indicate a state of relaxation or light sleep. Alpha 16. a natural drug derived from the leaves of the coca plant. Cocaine 19. a person’s awareness of everything that is going on around him or her at any given moment. Consciousness 20. brief sidesteps into sleep lasting only a few seconds. Microsleeps 23. disorder in which the person stops breathing for nearly half a minute or more. Sleep apnea 24. drugs that cause false sensory messages, altering the perception of reality. Hallucinogens 25. the chemical resulting from fermentation or distillation of various kinds of vegetable matter. Alcohol ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Fill in the Blank Copy and distribute Handout Master 5.6 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment. Answers to Fill in the Blank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Consciousness Altered State Circadian rhythm Microsleeps Restorative Theory Alpha waves Rapid Eye Movement Night terrors Paradoxical sleep Insomnia
11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
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▼ HANDOUT MASTERS ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Handout Master 5.1 Sleep and Dream Diary Handout Master 5.2 Dream Survey Handout Master 5.3 Student Assignment: Keeping a Dream Journal Handout Master 5.4 Drugs’ Effects on the Brain and Behaviour Handout Master 5.5 Crossword Puzzle Activity Handout Master 5.6 Fill in the Blank Class Activity
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Handout Master 5.1 Sleep and Dream Diary Part 1: Daytime Napping Complete before going to bed at night. Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Day 6
1. Number of naps taken today. 2. Total sleep time of naps taken today. 3. Overall rating for sleepiness/alertness today (1–7).* * For Item 3 use the following scale: 1 = feeling active, vital, alert, wide awake 2 = functioning at a high level 3 = relaxed, not fully alert, responsive 4 = a little foggy, not at peak, let down
5 = fogginess, losing interest, slowed down 6 = sleepy, prefer to be lying down 7 = almost in a reverie, hard to stay awake
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Part 2: Nighttime Sleeping Complete after waking up in the morning. Night 1
Night 2
Night 3
Night 4
Night 5
Night 6
Night 7
1. Total time spent sleeping (e.g., 8.25). 2. Number of times you woke up during the night. 3. Number of separate dreams you can recall at least partially. 4. Number of dreams related to experiences of the recent days. 5. Overall Sleep Rating (1–7)** **For Item 5, use the following scale: 1
2 3 4 5 6 7 +—————————————————————————————————————+ I feel groggy I feel very I feel very I feel I feel neither refreshed somewhat refreshed tired and want to go alert nor tired and ready to back to bed start my day
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Handout Master 5.2 Dream Survey Instructions. Respond to each question below by circling “YES” if the answer is “Yes” and by circling “NO” if the answer is “No.” Please note that your responses to these questions are strictly anonymous. This survey will not be collected, and no one will see your responses but you (although you are welcome to share your responses with the class if you wish). 1. Do you typically remember your dreams? 2. Have you ever been able to control what you dream about or how your dream unfolds? 3. Have you ever died in a dream?
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4. Do you have a recurring dream? Briefly describe it. 5. Have you ever dreamed about doing something impossible (e.g., flying, playing music even though you can’t)? 6. Have you ever had a dream in which one person transformed into another? 7. Do your dreams often contain inconsistencies (e.g., you know it’s your house or your room but it doesn’t look like it’s supposed to)? 8. Do you ever dream about celebrities? Which ones? 9. Do you incorporate outside noises into your dream (e.g., an alarm clock, a telephone ring)? 10. Have you ever dreamed about: • a sexual experience? • being naked in public? • killing someone? • finding money? • being attacked or pursued? • arriving too late for something important? • being locked up? • war?
YES NO
YES NO YES NO
YES NO YES NO
YES NO YES NO YES NO YES NO YES NO YES NO YES NO YES NO YES NO
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Handout Master 5.3 Student Assignment: Keeping a Dream Journal Your task for this assignment is to keep a dream journal for several weeks in order to record the content of at least 5 different dreams. Instructions: 1. In order to best remember your dreams, you should follow several steps. First, place a pen and pad next to your bed before you go to sleep. Before you go to sleep, tell yourself that you’ll be able to remember your dreams when you wake up. When you do wake up, keep your eyes closed and replay the dream until the plot and details become clear in your mind. Then, gently sit up, turn on the light, and write down what you remember about your dream. If you typically have trouble remembering your dreams, try setting your alarm clock for 10 or 15 minutes earlier than normal (this should interrupt your last dream of the night). 2. When recording your dream, include whatever information you can remember about: • the setting (e.g., indoors or outdoors) • characters (e.g., relatives, friends, strangers) • nature of the interaction (e.g., friendly, hostile, sexual) • activities (e.g., running, speaking, flying) • whether or not the dream was in colour • any relationship to the previous day’s events or the next day’s planned activities .. 273
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3. Once you have recorded your dreams on paper, please type them and arrange them as a list of entries according to the date of the dream. When typing your dreams to hand in, feel free to summarize details or to edit material that you would like to keep to yourself; on the other hand, detailed transcripts are fine, too. Regardless of whether you edit your selections or not, be assured that any information that you turn in to me will be kept strictly confidential. 4. Following your final dream entry, spend a paragraph or two noting your observations and feelings about your dreams. Did you notice any major themes or patterns to your dreams? Did you generally dream in colour? Did your dreams seem meaningful or were they totally random and bizarre? Did you have any “lucid” dreams (i.e., in which you were aware of dreaming and exerted control over it)? Were there any recurring characters? Were than any specific events (such as drinking alcohol or getting very little sleep) that seemed to influence the content or character of your dreams? ► Return to Activity: Dream Journal ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 5.4 Drugs’ Effects on the Brain and Behaviour GHB: What is date rape and how has GHB been implicated as a date rape drug?
ALCOHOL: What is meant by binge drinking, and how prevalent is binge drinking on college campuses?
MARIJUANA: Should marijuana be legalized? Why or why not?
HEROIN: What is the rate of heroin use in your geographic area, and what is being done in our city to treat those with heroin addiction?
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ECSTASY: Should Ecstasy be used for therapeutic purposes, such as for treatment of depression from loss of a loved one?
RITALIN: Is Ritalin over-prescribed for children diagnosed with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD)?
NICOTINE: Should nicotine be made illegal? Why or why not?
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► Return to Activity: Drugs Effect on the Brain and Behaviour ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 5.5 Crossword Puzzle Activity Chapter 5: Mind, Consciousness, and Alternate States
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Across 6. drugs that increase the functioning of the nervous system. 9. depressant drugs that have a sedative effect. 10. bad dreams occurring during REM sleep. 13. mental series of exercises meant to refocus attention and achieve a trance-like state of consciousness. 14. drugs that decrease the functioning of the nervous system. 17. narcotic drug derived from opium that is extremely addictive. 18. stimulants that are synthesized in laboratories rather than being found in nature. 21. the inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, or get a good quality of sleep. 22. drugs that alter thinking, perception, and memory. Down 1. drugs that lower anxiety and reduce stress. 2. physical symptoms that can include nausea, pain, tremors, crankiness, and high blood pressure, resulting from a lack of an addictive drug in the body systems. 3. a class of opium-related drugs that suppress the sensation of pain by binding to and stimulating the nervous system’s natural receptor sites for endorphins. 4. state of consciousness in which the person is especially susceptible to suggestion. 5. stage of sleep in which the eyes move rapidly under the eyelids and the person is typically experiencing a dream. 7. sleep disorder in which a person falls immediately into REM sleep during the day, without warning. 8. a mild stimulant found in coffee, tea, and several other plant-based substances. 11. long, slow waves that indicate the deepest stage of sleep. 12. a cycle of bodily rhythm that occurs over a 24 hour period. 15. brain waves that indicate a state of relaxation or light sleep. 16. a natural drug derived from the leaves of the coca plant. 19. a person’s awareness of everything that is going on around him or her at any given moment. 20. brief sidesteps into sleep lasting only a few seconds. 23. disorder in which the person stops breathing for nearly half a minute or more. 24. drugs that cause false sensory messages, altering the perception of reality. 25. the chemical resulting from fermentation or distillation of various kinds of vegetable matter.
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► Return to Activity: Crossword Puzzle ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 5.6 Fill in the Blank Class Activity 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6. 7. 8.
9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
16. 17. 18. 19.
20.
is a person’s awareness of everything that is going on around him or her at any given moment. The state in which there is a shift in the quality or pattern of mental activity as compared to waking consciousness is called of consciousness. The is a cycle of bodily rhythm that occurs over a 24- hour period. are brief sidesteps into sleep lasting only a few seconds. The of sleep is the theory of sleep proposing that sleep is necessary to the physical health of the body and serves to replenish chemicals and repair cellular damage. are brain waves that indicate a state of relaxation or light sleep. is a stage of sleep in which the eyes move rapidly under the eyelids and the person is typically experiencing a dream. are a relatively rare disorder in which the person experiences extreme fear and screams or runs around during deep sleep without waking fully. REM sleep is also known as because there is high level of brain activity. is the inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, or get a good quality of sleep. is a disorder in which the person stops breathing for nearly half a minute or more. is a sleep disorder in which a person falls immediately into REM sleep during the day without warning. The state of consciousness in which the person is especially susceptible to suggestion is called _______________________. When more and more of the drug is needed to achieve the same effect it is called___________. The physical symptoms that can include nausea, pain, tremors, crankiness, and high blood pressure, resulting from a lack of an addictive drug in the body systems are called______________. The feeling that a drug is needed to continue a feeling of emotional or psychological well-being is______________________ ___________________. are drugs that increase the functioning of the nervous system. Drugs that decrease the functioning of the nervous system are known as . are a class of opium-related drugs that suppress the sensation of pain by binding to and stimulating the nervous system’s natural receptor sites for endorphins. are drugs including hallucinogens and marijuana that produce hallucinations or increased feelings of relaxation and intoxication.
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Words to use: Alpha waves Altered State Circadian rhythm Consciousness Depressants Hypnosis Insomnia
Microsleeps Narcolepsy Narcotics Night terrors Paradoxical sleep Psychogenic drugs Psychological dependence
Rapid eye movement Restorative theory Sleep apnea Stimulants Tolerance Withdrawal
► Return to Activity: Fill in the Blank ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents ▼ FORTY STUDIES THAT CHANGED PSYCHOLOGY Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research, 6/e (013603599X) By Roger Hock This unique book closes the gap between psychology textbooks and the research that made them possible by offering a first hand glimpse into 40 of the most famous studies in the history of the field, and subsequent studies that expanded upon each study’s influence. Readers are able to grasp the process and excitement of scientific discovery as they experience an insider’s look at the studies that continue today to be cited most frequently, stirred up the most controversy when they were first published, sparked the most subsequent related research, opened new fields of psychological exploration, and changed most dramatically our knowledge of human behaviour. Studies examined in Perception and Consciousness: To Sleep, No Doubt to Dream... Aserinsky, E., & Kleitman, N. (1953). Regularly occurring periods of eye mobility and concomitant phenomena during sleep. Science, 118, 273–274. Dement, W. (1960). The effect of dream deprivation. Science, 131, 1705–1707. Unromancing the Dream Hobson, J. A., & McCarley, R. W. (1977). The brain as a dream-state generator: An activation-synthesis hypothesis of the dream process. American Journal of Psychiatry, 134, 1335–1348. Acting as if you are Hypnotized Spanos, N. P. (1982). Hypnotic behaviour: A cognitive, social, psychological perspective. Research Communications in Psychology, Psychiatry, and Behaviour, 7, 199–213. ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▼ WEB RESOURCES ▲Return to Table of Contents Sleep Basics of Sleep Behaviour: www.sleephomepages.org/ Comprehensive online “syllabus” (really a book) on many aspects of sleep behaviour, including dreams. National Center on Sleep Disorders Research – NIH: www.nhlbi.nih.gov/ Sleepnet.com: www.sleepnet.com/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents Dreams
Lucid Dreaming: Awake in Your Sleep?: www.psychwww.com/asc/ld/blackmor.html Lucid Dreaming: Psychophysiological studies of consciousness during REM sleep. www.lucidity.com/ Article by Steve LaBerge (1990), originally published in Bootzen, R. R., Kihlstrom, J.F. & Schacter, D.L., (Eds.) Sleep and Cognition. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1990 (pp. 109–126). Hypnosis Frequently Asked Questions Regarding the Scientific Study of Hypnosis: www.psychwww.com/ Excellent summary of scientific issues related to hypnosis. History of Hypnotism: www.wayneperkins.net/ A brief summary on this fascinating topic. Hypnosis: www.openhart.demon.co.uk/ Information from the Hypno-analysis Centre in Salisbury, England. Hypnosis.com: www.hypnosis.com/ The Social Reconstruction of Memories: www.psychwww.com/ An online article on this topic by Spanos, N. P., Burgess, C. A., and Burgess, M. F. Use of Hypnosis in Pain Management: www.psychwww.com/ A review of the current state of knowledge – an online article on this topic by Marcuse, M. (1993) Using Hypnosis for Medication-Free Pain Control: http://www.hypnos.co.uk/ Article by Jenny Sill-Holeman CHT, CtHA. ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▲ Return to Table of Contents Drugs How Does Caffeine Affect the Body? www.scientificamerican.com/ Summary article from Scientific American. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism – NIH: www.niaaa.nih.gov/ National Institute on Drug Abuse – NIH: www.nida.nih.gov/ Neuroscience for Kids: The Effects of Drugs on the Nervous System http://faculty.washington.edu/ – Eric H. Chudler, University of Washington RxList: The Internet Drug Index: www.rxlist.com/ That is, a list of drugs posted on the Internet, not necessarily “Internet drugs,” which are different from “television drugs” or “PalmPilot drugs.” If you’d like your students to learn more about drugs and their effects, this is the place to go. A brief report might be in order. Web of Addictions: www.well.com/ Not to be confused with the “web of lies,” this site offers a variety of links to sites associated with addiction facts, meetings, topics, and help. Students can start here to prepare a report about the various options available for help with addictions.
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6/ LEARNING TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲ Return to Table of Contents
MODULE 6.1: Classical Conditioning: Learning by Association ➢ Lecture Guide: Classical Conditioning (p. 283) ➢ Resources Available (p. 289) MODULE 6.2: Operant Conditioning: Learning Through Consequences ➢ Lecture Guide: Operant Conditioning (p. 290) ➢ Resources Available (p. 298) MODULE 6.3: Cognitive and Observational Learning ➢ Lecture Guide: Cognitive and Observational Learning (p. 299) ➢ Resources Available (p. 303) FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES ➢ Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 304) ➢ Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 324) ➢ Handout Masters (p. 338) ➢ APS: Readings from the Association of Psychological Science (p. 349) ➢ Forty Studies that Changed Psychology (p. 350) ➢ Web Resources (p. 350)
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LECTURE GUIDE I. MODULE 6.1: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: LEARNING BY ASSOCIATION (Text p. 214) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology involved in classical conditioning. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand how responses learned through classical conditioning can be acquired and lost. o Acquisition of a conditioned response occurs with repeated pairings of the CS and the US. Once a response is acquired, it can be extinguished if the CS and US no longer occur together. However, the CR may be spontaneously recovered when the organism encounters the CS again. ✓ Understand the role of biological and evolutionary factors in classical conditioning. o Not all stimuli have the same potential to become a strong CS. Responses to biologically relevant stimuli (e.g., snakes) are more easily conditioned than flowers or guns. Similarly, organisms quickly develop (in one pairing) aversions to harmful foods even after long intervals of time, as a means of survival. ✓ Apply the concepts and terms of classical conditioning to new examples. o Students should be able to read classical conditioning scenarios and identify the conditioned stimulus (CS), unconditioned stimulus (US), conditioned response (CR), and unconditioned response (UR). ✓ Analyze the use of negative political advertising to condition emotional responses to candidates. o Negative images, sounds, and/or statements are paired with images of the targeted candidate. The goal is to have viewers link negative emotions with the target. However, if the images are deemed cruel or inappropriate, it is possible that viewers will feel negative emotions toward the sponsor of the ad instead. 1) Learning allows us to do many things that we were not born to do. i) This includes tying your shoe to playing a musical instrument. Learning (p. 214) is a process by which behaviour or knowledge changes as a result of experience. 2) There are different types of learning. i) Cognitive learning: this includes reading, listening, and taking tests to acquire new knowledge. ii) Associative learning: this includes how we come to pair certain stimuli. a) For example, we pair certain holidays with certain smells, sights, and sounds.
Pavlov’s Dogs: Classical Conditioning of Salivation 1) Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) was a Russian physiologist that studied digestion using dogs. i) As part of his researcher procedure, he collected saliva and other gastric sections from the dogs when they were given meat powder. ii) Pavlov and his assistants noticed that the dogs began salivating as they prepared the meat powder.
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iii) To test this assumption, Pavlov first presents a sound from a metronome and then gave the dogs the meat powder. a) After many pairings, the dogs came to salivate just to the sound of the metronome (Figure 6.1 & Figure 6.2). Classical Conditioning (p. 215) (also called Pavlovian conditioning) is learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus elicits a response that was originally caused by another stimulus. b) Classical conditioning influences many responses and occurs in a variety of settings. 2) A stimulus is an external event or cue that elicits a response. i) Stimuli (e.g., food, pain, water, etc.) elicit different types of responses. ii) These responses can be reflexive (unconditioned or unlearned) or learned (conditioned). Unconditioned Stimulus (US) (p. 216) is a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response without learning. Unconditioned Response (UR) (p. 216) is a reflexive, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus. iii) In Pavlov’s experiment, meat powder (external stimulus) elicited unconditioned salivation in his dogs (top panel of Figure 6.2). a) Other pairings of US and UR include flinching (UR) in response to a loud noise (US). iv) The tone was originally a neutral stimulus because it didn’t elicit a response (top panel of Figure 6.2). Conditioned Stimulus (CS) (p. 217) is a once neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response because it has a history of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. (middle panel of Figure 6.2). Conditioned Response (CR) (p. 217) is the learned response that occurs to the conditioned stimulus. v) After repeated pairings with the US, the once neutral tone became a conditioned stimulus (CS) because it elicited the conditioned response (CR) of salivation. vi) To establish conditioning has taken place, the tone (CS) must elicit salivation on its own (bottom panel of Figure 6.2). 3) A common area of confusion is the difference between a conditioned response and an unconditioned response. i) In Pavlov’s experiment, they are both salivation. ii) Salivation was a UR when it was paired with food. a) In other words, dogs naturally drool when given food. iii) Salivation became a CR when it occurred in response to the tone (CS). a) Dogs do not naturally drool when they hear a tone; this was a learned response.
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Evolutionary Function of the CR 1) The UR and the CR do not have to be identical responses. Often the CR plays a functional role in the behaviour. i) One example is the deer freezing in the headlights on a highway. ii) Many animals instinctually freeze to avoid predators. This CR was recreated in laboratory settings as well. iii) The CR and the UR are often quite different responses with conditioning serving an evolutionary function. Classical Conditioning and the Brain 1) Classical conditioning can occur in simple organisms, like Aplysia, suggesting that classical conditioning is a basic biological process. i) Connections between specific groups of neurons (axon terminals and receptors) become strengthened during each instance of classical conditioning. a) Example given is the eye blink (Figure 6.3) a puff of air to the eye given simultaneous to a distinct sound. Eventually the sound will evoke the eye blink.
Processes of Classical Conditioning Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery 1) Learning involves a change in behaviour due to experience. 2) In classical conditioning, acquisition is the phase in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the US. i) In Pavlov’s experiment, the conditioned salivary response was acquired through numerous tone food pairings (Figure 6.4). Acquisition (p. 219) is the initial phase of learning in which a response is established. 3) A critical part of acquisition is the predictability with which the CS and US occur together. i) In Pavlov’s experiment, conditioning wouldn’t occur, or was weak, when the tone and food were paired inconsistently. 4) In the laboratory, as well as the real world, the CS and US do not always occur together, which can lead to extinction. Extinction (p. 219) is the loss or weakening of a conditioned response when a conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus no longer occur together. i)
For example, presenting the dogs with only the tone and no food should lead to less and less of a salivary response (Figure 6.4). a) However, even after extinction occurs, it is possible for the CR to return. 5) Spontaneous recovery suggests that extinction does not result in forgetting, but in learning something new. Spontaneous Recovery (p. 219) is the reoccurrence of a previously extinguished conditioned response, typically after some time has passed since extinction. i)
For example, the dogs learned that the tone no longer meant food was coming.
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Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination 1) The dogs in Pavlov’s experiment salivated in response to tone similar to the one originally used i) However, Pavlov’s dogs didn’t salivate to every noise they heard. Generalization (p. 220) is a process in which a response that originally occurs to a specific stimulus also occurs to different, though similar, stimuli. Discrimination (p. 220) occurs when an organism learns to respond to one original stimulus but not to new stimuli that may be similar to the original stimulus. 2) Discrimination would mean that the dogs would only salivate in response to the original tone used in the experiment. i) For example, if the original tone was a 1200 Hz tone, they would not salivate to a 1100 or 1300 Hz tone (Figure 6.5).
Applications of Classical Conditioning Conditioned Emotional Responses 1) Early psychologists in the 1920s, such as John Watson, recognized that our emotional responses could be influenced by classical conditioning. Conditioned emotional responses (p. 221) consist of emotional and physiological responses that develop to a specific type of object or situation. 2) Watson and Raynor conducted their first studies with an 11-month-old child known as Little Albert. i) They presented Albert with a white rat, to which he showed no fear. ii) When he was in the vicinity of the rat, they hit a bar with a hammer, startling Little Albert. iii) After repeated pairings, Little Albert came to fear the white rat. 3) Conditioned emotional responses happen outside of the laboratory as well. i) For example, a little boy who doesn’t have any pets may be very curious about the neighbour’s cat. ii) When he goes to pat the cat, it gets defensive and scratches his hand. iii) The cat may become a CS, which elicits a fear response. iv) If generalization occurs, he might come to fear all cats. v) If the reaction develops into an intense fear, he may come to develop a phobia of cats. 4) Classical conditioning has also been used to help understand psychological disorders. i) Those with psychopathy (similar to antisocial personality disorder) are known for disregarding the feelings of others. ii) Those with psychopathy were shown human faces (CS) followed by a painful stimulus (US). iii) These pairings should have resulted in a negative emotional reaction (CR) to the faces, but this sample did not respond that way (Figure 6.6). a) They showed very little physiological arousal. b) Their emotional brain regions remained inactive. c) They did not seem to mind looking at faces that had been paired with pain. i) The control group responded exactly opposite.
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Evolutionary Role of Fear Conditioning 1) It appears that we are predisposed to acquire fear of objects that are threatening versus those that are not (Figure 6.7). i) One studied the pairing of pictures of snakes with an electrical shock. ii) Palm sweat was measured—known as the skin conductance response. a) This response occurs when our bodies are aroused by threatening or uncomfortable stimuli. iii) Over time, the pictures of the snakes (CS) elicited a strong skin conductance response (CR). iv) Participants were then shown pictures of flowers, which were also paired with a shock. a) A much lower conditioned response developed. b) The same experiment was done with pictures of guns. c) However, the conditioned response was still less than that in the snake experiment and comparable to that in the flower experiment. d) The CR in the snake experiment was longer lasting and slower to extinguish. Preparedness (p. 223) refers to the biological predisposition to rapidly learn a response to a particular class of stimuli. 2) Preparedness explains the findings that we learn to fear snakes more readily than flowers or guns. i) From an evolutionary perspective, those who learned to fear animals that were fatal were more likely to survive.
Conditioned Taste Aversions 1) Another example of how biological factors influence classical conditioning comes from food aversions. i) For example, there are probably foods (or certain drinks) that you can’t even look at because they once made you extremely ill. Conditioned Taste Aversion (p. 223) is the acquired dislike or disgust of a food or drink because it was paired with illness. ii) In this case, a taste (CS) is paired with food (US). Getting Sick is the UR. The CR is the nausea in response to the CS (Figure 6.8). 2) We are biologically prepared to associate food, versus the surrounding stimuli, with illness. i) For example, if you ate some bad fish and vomited while music played in the background, you would develop an aversion to the fish, not the music. 3) Conditioned taste aversions are unique in certain ways compared to the previous conditioning examples. i) Usually, the CS and US have to be paired very close together. a) Food poisoning takes hours. ii) Conditioning requires multiple pairings. a) Food aversion usually takes only one pairing. 4) Conditioned taste aversions usually only develop with new foods. i) If we eat fish all the time and don’t get sick, we’re much less likely to develop an aversion after getting ill one time. ii) This is the same with other forms of conditioning. a) If you have played with your family cat for years injury free, you’ve much less likely to develop a fear of cats if it scratches you during an encounter. Latent inhibition (p. 224) occurs when frequent experience with a stimulus before it is paired with a US makes it less likely that conditioning will occur after a single episode of illness.
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Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Conditioning and Negative Political Advertising 1) What do we know about classical conditioning in negative political advertising? i) advertisers regularly pair negative statements with unflattering images of opponents. 2) How can Science help explain the role of classical conditioning in negative political advertising? i) Studies show that positive and negative evaluations of stimuli can be conditioned in laboratory conditions that mimic what people experience in everyday exposure to advertisements. ii) One study had participants view a slide show of a Brand L toothpaste (CS) paired with attractive visual scenery (US). a) The control group did not get the pairing. iii) Those in the paired group had more positive evaluations of the toothpaste. 3) Can we critically evaluate this information? i) One question is whether creating a negative association for one candidate means you are making the other candidate seem more appealing. ii) there are cultural differences in responses to negative ads as well as educational and socioeconomic differences in responses. a) politicians know this and create multiple ads targeted at different groups. iii) do not want to create sympathy for the group they are campaigning against as happened when one group mocked Jean Chretien`s facial paralysis. 4) Why is this relevant? i) many people don`t think negative advertising affects them (called the `third person effect`) ii) could mean they are influenced by it, voting based on it, and not voting based on the outcome they want. iii) people may be being manipulated without knowing it.
Drug Tolerance and Conditioning 1) Classical conditioning accounts for drug-related phenomena, such as cravings and tolerances (see Module 5.3). i) Cues that accompany drug use can become conditioned stimuli that elicit cravings. a) For example, the sight of a lighter or others smoking can elicit cravings in people who smoke. ii) Conditioned drug tolerance, involves physiological responses in preparation for drug administration. • For example, if a heroin user always administers the drug in the same room and with the same paraphernalia, the body eventually pairs these cues with the drug and begins to react as though the drug is already administered (e.g., processes that metabolize the drug). • Users are subject to overdosing if they use in a different situation or use a different ritual, because their body hasn’t prepared itself for the injection. iii) Similar results have been found in experiments with rats. a) When rats received heroin in an environment different from where they were used to receiving the drug, mortality doubled.
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 6.1 Lecture Launchers ➢ Learning Chapter Classroom Discussion Topics ➢ Twitmyer, Serendipity, and Self-Promotion ➢ Consumer Psychology ➢ Whatever Happened to Little Albert? Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Classically Conditioned Responses in Class ➢ Applying Classical Conditioning ➢ Classical Conditioning in Humans ➢ Identifying Components of Classical Conditioning ➢ Classical Conditioning and TV Advertisements ➢ Classical Conditioning and the Pupil Dilation Response Web Resources ➢ Association for Applied Behaviour Analysis: http://www.abainternational.org/ ➢ Operant and Classical Conditioning: http://www.brembs.net/ ➢ Using Classical vs. Operant Conditioning: http://www.utexas.edu/ ➢ Classical (Respondent) Conditioning—Valdosta State University: http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/ ➢ Conditioned Emotional Reactions: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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II. MODULE 6.2: OPERANT CONDITIONING: LEARNING THROUGH CONSEQUENCES (Text p. 228) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know key terminology associated with operant conditioning. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand the role that consequences play in increasing or decreasing behaviour. o Positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood of a behaviour, whereas positive and negative punishment decrease the likelihood of a behaviour. In both cases, the term positive indicates the addition of a stimulus to the situation, and the term negative indicates a removal of a stimulus. ✓ Understand how schedules of reinforcement affect behaviour. o Schedules of reinforcement can be fixed or variable, and based on intervals (time) or ratios (the number of responses). Partial reinforcement tends to elicit greater responding. Superstitions often arise when it is unclear which behaviour brought about the reward. ✓ Apply your knowledge of operant conditioning to examples. o Students should be able to read operant conditioning scenarios and determine whether positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, or negative punishment was used. ✓ Analyze the effectiveness of punishment on changing behaviour. o Many psychologists recommend that people rely on reinforcement to teach new and/or appropriate behaviours. This is because punishment alone is not very effective and can have a number of negative side effects. For example, punishment may teach individuals to engage in avoidance or aggression, instead of developing an appropriate alternative behaviour. 1) We tend to repeat behaviours that bring rewards and avoid those that lead to punishment. Operant conditioning (p. 228) is a type of learning in which behaviour is influenced by consequences. 2) The term operant is used because the individual operates on the environment before consequences can occur. 3) Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning involves voluntary actions (e.g., speaking, starting an activity, etc.) (Table 6.1). i) Classical conditioning involves reflexive responses. ii) Classical conditioning also doesn’t require a response for a reward. a) The dogs got the meat powder regardless of whether they salivated.
Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning 1) Contingency refers to a consequence which is dependent upon an action. i) For example, earning good grades is contingent upon studying. 2) The consequences of a behaviour can be either reinforcing or punishing (Figure 6.10).
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Reinforcement and Punishment Reinforcement (p. 229) is a process in which an event or reward that follows a response increases the likelihood of that response occurring again. 1) The effects of reinforcement were first studied by Edward Thorndike. i) He measured how long it took cats to learn how to escape from puzzle boxes (Figure 6.11). ii) After repeated trials, the cats were able to escape more rapidly because they learned which responses worked (e.g., pressing a lever). iii) Law of effect: idea proposed by Thorndike that responses followed by satisfaction will occur again, and those not followed by satisfaction will become less likely. Law of effect (p. 230) the idea that responses followed by satisfaction will occur again in the same situation whereas those that are not followed by satisfaction become less likely. 2) Within a few decades, the famous behaviourist, B.F. Skinner, began conducting his own studies on reinforcement. i) Similar to Thorndike, he also used animals in a laboratory. ii) Pigeons or rats were placed into operant chambers (also called Skinner boxes) (Figure 6.12). a) These were boxes that included a lever or key that the subject could manipulate. b) Pushing the lever could result in the delivery of a reinforcer (e.g., food). Reinforcer (p. 230) is a stimulus that is contingent upon a response, and that increases the probability of that response occurring again. 3) Learning is measure using the operant chambers. i) Researchers vary when reinforcers become available record the animal’s rate of responding over time. ii) Similar processes can be seen in Vegas with slot machines. 4) Decreased responding is also a possible outcome of an encounter with a stimulus. i) Similar to reinforcers, punishers are defined based on their effects on behaviour. Punishment (p. 231) is a process that decreases the future probability of a response. Punisher (p. 231) is a stimulus that is contingent upon a response, and that results in a decrease in behaviour. Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment 1) Behaviour can be increased through reward or through the removal of aversive stimuli (Table 6.2). Positive reinforcement (p. 231) is the strengthening of behaviour after potential reinforcers such as praise, money, or nourishment follow that behaviour. 2) With positive reinforcement, a stimulus is added to a situation. i) The term “positive” indicates the addition of a reward. Negative reinforcement (p. 231) involves the strengthening of a behaviour because it removes or diminishes a stimulus.
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3) With negative reinforcement, “negative” indicates the removal of something. i) For example, taking aspirin is negatively reinforced because doing so removes a headache and we are more likely to repeat the behaviour as a result. ii) This concept is often difficult for students to understand. a) Reinforcement indicates an increase in behaviour. b) Positive means something was given to increase the behaviour. c) Negative means something was removed to increase behaviour. 4) Negative reinforcement can be further classified into two subcategories. Avoidance learning (p. 231) is a specific type of negative reinforcement that removes the possibility of a stimulus occurring. i)
For example, taking a detour to avoid traffic congestion or paying bills to avoid late fees. Escape learning (p. 231) occurs if a response removes a stimulus that is already present.
ii) For example, covering your ears upon hearing extremely loud music. a) You cannot avoid the music, so you escape the aversive stimulus. iii) The responses of avoiding traffic and covering your ears increase in frequency because they have effectively removed the aversive stimuli. iv) Many operant chambers are lined with a grid metal floor that can be used to deliver mild electric shocks. a) Responses that remove (escape learning) or prevent (avoidance learning) the shock or negatively reinforced. 5) Similar to reinforcement, various types of punishment are possible (Table 6.2). Positive punishment (p. 232) is a process in which a behaviour decreases because it adds or increases a particular stimulus. 6) Some cat owners use positive punishment in an attempt to train their pet. i) They might spray their cat with a water bottle when it scratches the furniture. a) The term positive indicates something was added (water) in this case to decrease a behaviour. 7) Behaviour may also decrease as a result of the removal of a stimulus. Negative punishment (p. 232) occurs when a behaviour decreases because it removes or diminishes a particular stimulus. i)
For example, a parent may withhold driving privileges as a result of an undesirable behaviour (e.g., rule breaking).
Shaping 1) Rats placed in operant chambers do not automatically go straight for the lever and start pressing it; they have to learn that behaviour. i) Teaching a rat to do so is accomplished by reinforcing behaviours that approximate lever pressing. a) This includes the rat standing up, facing the lever, placing paws on the lever, etc. Shaping (p. 232) is a procedure in which a specific operant response is created by reinforcing successive approximations of that response.
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Chaining (p. 232) is a similar process involving linking together two or more shaped behaviours into a more complex action or sequence of actions. ii) Shaping is done in a step-by-step fashion until the desired response is learned. iii) Animals acting in movies are almost certainly learned through shaping and chaining. Applying Operant Conditioning 1) Operant conditioning is the bases for an educational method called applied behaviour analysis (ABA). Applied behaviour analysis (ABA) (p. 232) involves using close observation, prompting, and reinforcement to teach behaviours, often to people who experience difficulties and challenges owing to a developmental condition such as autism. 2) People with autism are usually nonresponsive to normal social cues from an early age, which can lead to a deficit in developing many skills. i) For example, explaining how to clear dishes from the dinner table to a child with autism could be very difficult. 3) Psychologist who specialize in ABA often shape desired behaviours using prompts (e.g., asking the child to stand up, gather silverware, etc.) and verbal rewards as each step is completed.
Processes of Operant Conditioning 1) Investigating why some stimuli affect our behaviour while others have no influence whatsoever. • Biological reasons?
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers 1) Reinforcers can come in basic forms (e.g., food, water, shelter, etc.) or in forms that we learn have value (e.g., money, good grades, etc.). i) For example, an infant would not care too much about a $1,000 cheque, except maybe to eat it. Primary reinforcers (p. 233) consist of reinforcing stimuli that satisfy basic motivational needs. Secondary reinforcers (p. 249) consist of reinforcing stimuli that acquire their value through learning. 2) Our motivation to satisfy basic needs is related to a brain structure called the nucleus accumbens (Figure 6.13). i) This area becomes active when processing rewards, such as eating and having sex, as well as “artificial” rewards, such as smoking cigarettes. ii) Variations in people’s nucleus accumbens might explain why some people are prone to high-risk behaviours (e.g., gambling). a) They need a greater rush in comparison to people who are stimulated by natural rewards. 3) Token economies demonstrate the power of secondary reinforcers. i) These are often used in residential treatment settings. ii) Residents earn tokens through good behaviour, which can be exchanged for something else they want (e.g., candy). iii) Misbehaviour results in lost tokens, so these tokens can also play a role in punishment.
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Discrimination and Generalization 1) Classical conditioning and operant conditioning share similar phenomena (Table 6.3). 2) When a discriminative stimulus reliably elicits a specific response the behaviour is said to be under stimulus control. i) For example, we check the light on the coffee machine before we pour a cup of coffee. ii) This is a discriminative stimulus that tells us the beverage will be hot. Discriminative stimulus (p. 234) is a cue or event that indicates that a response, if made, will be reinforced. Discrimination (p. 234) occurs when an organism learns to respond to the original stimulus but not to the new stimuli that may be similar to the original. iii) For example, your behaviour of stopping at a red light has been reinforced in the past. • However, you do not stop at green lights even though they are in the same area and are the same size, shape, and brightness. Generalization (p. 234) also occurs when an operant response occurs in response to a new stimulus that is similar to the stimulus present during original learning. iv) For example, children who are reinforced by their parents for tying their shoes, are likely to demonstrate this same behaviour for other adults when asked.
Delayed Reinforcement and Extinction 1) In many situations, the reward or punishment is delayed. i) This decreases the effectiveness of the feedback. ii) Drugs with immediate consequences are more addictive. 2) Sometimes the reinforcement does not happen at all, in those cases you will get extinction. Extinction (p. 234) refers to the weakening of an operant response when reinforcement is no longer available. i)
For example, if you lose power you will stop trying to load your web browser; the behaviour will be extinguished.
Reward Devaluation 1) Food is only rewarding when you are hungry, and it becomes less rewarding when you are not. 2) A person is less likely to act a certain way for a reward when the reward has been devalued in some way. a) If it doesn`t satisfy a need, hard to get, or has unpleasant consequences later on. • Example, when rats are pre-fed before having to complete a task where food is the reward, the food is devalued and less desireable, and therefore less likely to condition behaviour.
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Reinforcement Schedules and Operant Conditioning Schedules of Reinforcement 1) Typically, behaviour is rewarded according to some kind of schedule. Schedules of reinforcement (p. 236) are rules that determine when reinforcement is available. 2) Reinforcement may be available at predictable or irregular times. i) It might be based on how often someone engages in a behaviour, or the passage of time. Continuous reinforcement (p. 236) occurs when every response made results in reinforcement. a) For example, vending machines should delivery your snack every time you deposit the correct amount of money and push the correct buttons. Partial (intermittent) reinforcement (p. 236) occurs when only a certain number of responses are rewarded, or a certain amount of time must pass before reinforcement is available. 3) There are four types of partial reinforcement schedules (Figure 6.14). i) Ratio schedules are based on the amount of responding. Fixed-ratio schedule (p. 237), reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been completed. a) For example, a rat may have to press a lever 10 times before receiving food. b) Someone working on a commission might have to sell ten cars before receiving a bonus. Variable-ratio schedule (p. 237), the number of responses required to receive reinforcement varies according to an average. c) For example, slot machines and other games of chance run on a variable-ratio schedule. d) This schedule promotes strong response levels because it is unknown when the reward will come, but it is known that the possibility is there. ii) In contrast, interval schedules are based on the passage of time, not the number of responses. Fixed-interval schedule (p. 237) reinforces the first response occurring after a set amount of time passes. a) If your professor gives you an exam every three weeks, you are on a fixed-interval schedule. b) This schedule produces a scalloped pattern as the behaviour decreases after the reward and picks back up around the time the reward is supposed to come. c) This is similar to how students study. They stop studying after an exam and then pick back up right before an exam. Variable-interval schedule (p. 237) the first response is reinforced following a variable amount of time.
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a) The time interval varies around an average. • Example, looking at the sky during a meteor shower rewards you for looking up at irregular times. However, looking up more frequently would not cause more meteors to appear. Partial reinforcement effect (p .237) refers to a phenomenon in which organisms that have been conditioned under partial reinforcement resist extinction longer than those conditioned under continuous reinforcement. b) Likely due to the individual becoming accustomed to not receiving reinforcement each time. • This effect can be seen with gambling, pick-up lines in bars, or superstitious behaviour by athletes. Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Reinforcement and Superstition 1) What do we know about superstition and reinforcement? i) Reinforcement is often systematic and predictable or else the behaviour is extinguished. ii.) In some cases, it isn’t clear what behaviour lead to reinforcement. a) For example, after a losing streak, a team suddenly wins a game. b) No one changed how they played, so what happened? c) Was it a change in the pre-game rituals? Not washing a pair of socks? iii) It is believed this is how superstitions are formed. 2) How can science explain superstition? i) B.F. Skinner attempted to create superstitious behaviour in pigeons by delivering food every 15 seconds, regardless of what the birds did. a) The pigeons came to repeat whatever behaviour they were doing right before the food came (e.g., spin, stand on one foot, etc.). ii) In another study, children were told a doll would sometimes spit marbles out at them and that these marbles could be traded in for toys. a) These children developed superstitious behaviours, such as sucking their thumbs or kissing the doll on the nose. iii) Superstitious behaviours have also been found to have an effect on performance outcomes. a) College students where ask to take part in a putting competition. One group was given the “lucky ball” and the other was given “the ball everyone has used so far”. b) Those who believed they had a lucky ball performed significantly better than those with the other ball. 3) Can we critically evaluate these findings? i) Superstitious beliefs have been shown to have positive effects on certain outcomes. a) However, this depends on whether one has more control over the outcome or not. b) For example, one has more control on an exam than gambling. ii) Superstitious behaviours may help behaviours such as putting and taking an exam, but not on whether the slot machine will pay out. 4) Why is this relevant? i) People all over the world believe in superstitions. a) Patrick Roy was famous for his superstitions. b) He would skate backwards and spin, talk to his goal posts, etc. c) Still lost 400 games despite his superstitions.
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Applying Punishment 1) People tend to be more sensitive to punishment than they are to rewards. i) For example, in one study students played a computerized game where they could choose a response that brought a monetary reward or loss. a) The students found losing money to be about three times as punishing as being rewarded with money was pleasurable. 2) There are a lot of ethical concerns around the use of punishments, especially the spanking of young children. i) Over 20 countries have banned corporal punishment. ii) When severe (e.g., hard or in the face), corporal punishment has been associated with poorer parent-child relationships, delinquency in children, and higher changes of the children becoming victims or perpetrators of abuse in adulthood. a. Less harsh forms (e.g., light spanking) have been shown to be more effective and have less negative side effects. 3) Punishment is most effective when combined with reinforcement of an alternative, suitable behaviour (Table 6.4).
Are Classical and Operant Learning Distinct Events? 1) It is possible that complex bahviour is likely influenced by both classical and operant conditioning. i) Example used earlier is the slot machine. The machine pays out on a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement, while the lights and sounds are the conditioned stimuli that cause an unconditioned response of excitement. • Classical conditioning produced an emotional response, while Operant conditioning maintained the behaviour.
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 6.2 Lecture Launchers ➢ Pigeon Overhead: Bombs Away! ➢ Superstitious Behaviour: Being a Little Critical of Skinner ➢ Superstitious or Playing It Cautious? ➢ Behavioural Control of a Behaviour Problem ➢ The Cat’s Out of the Bag! ... er, Box! ➢ Chimpanzees, Poker Chips, and Token Economies ➢ Applied Learning ➢ Neural Mechanisms in Classical and Operant Conditioning ➢ Punishment Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Operant Conditioning in Human Behaviour ➢ Using Candy to Illustrate Operant Conditioning Concepts ➢ Reinforcement vs. Punishment ➢ Schedules of Reinforcement ➢ Shaping the Professor’s Behaviour ➢ Conditioning a Student “Rat” Web Resources ➢ B. F. Skinner Foundation: http://www.bfskinner.org/ ➢ Positive Reinforcement: A Self-Instruction Exercise: http://psych.athabascau.ca/ ➢ Animal Cognition Web Site: http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/ ➢ Animal Trainer’s Introduction to Operant and Classical Conditioning: http://www.wagntrain.com/ ➢ Animal Training at Sea World: http://www.seaworld.org/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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III. MODULE 6.3: COGNITIVE AND OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (Text p. 242) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology associated with cognitive and observational learning. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand the concept of latent learning and its relevance to cognitive aspects of learning. o Without being able to observe learning directly, it might seem as if no learning occurs. However, Tolman and Honzik showed that rats can form “cognitive maps” of their environment, even though they is no obvious reward for learning them. The rats only demonstrate their knowledge when reinforcement is made available. ✓ Apply principles of observational learning outside of the laboratory. o Answer the questions on page 267 based on what the information in Module 6.3. ✓ Analyze the claim that viewing violent media increases violent behaviour. o Psychologists agree that observational learning occurs and that media can influence behaviour. Many studies show a correlational relation between violent media exposure and aggressive behaviour. However, research is lacking in cause-and-effect. Albert Bandura’s work from the 1960s suggests that exposure to violent media can at least temporarily increase aggressive behaviour.
Cognitive Perspective on Learning 1) When it comes to the real world, learning is rarely as simple as pairing a conditioned stimulus (tone) with an unconditioned stimulus (food) as is done with classical conditioning. i) In addition, classical conditioning can take place only if an organism recognizes that there is a consistent relationship between the two stimuli. a) For example, rats show fear for tones paired 100% of the time with shocks than tones paired 50% of the time with shocks (Figure 6.15).
Latent Learning 1) Much of human learning involves absorbing information and then demonstrating what we have learned at a later date (e.g., quizzes). i) Psychologist Edward Tolman proposed that humans (as well as other animals) display latent learning. Latent learning (p. 243) is learning that is not immediately expressed by a response until the organism is reinforced for doing so. 2) He demonstrated latent learning in rats running a maze (Figure 6.15). i) He had three groups of rats run through the maze 10 times. a) One group was rewarded every time they found the route out. b) The second group was rewarded only after the 10th time. c) The third group was never rewarded. ii) However, the second group quickly performed as well as the first group after receiving a reward. a) It appears the second group was learning after all, but only demonstrated their knowledge when they received reinforcement worthy of quickly running through the maze. iii) This study demonstrated that rats process a cognitive map of their environment.
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3) This study relates to human behaviours as well. i) For example, you probably have a familiar route you take to school or work every day. a) Let’s say there is a vacant building along the way that you never give much attention. b) But if a great, inexpensive restaurant moved in, you would be able to navigate there without any trouble.
S-O-R Theory of Learning 1) Latent learning suggests more thinking is involved in learning than is suggested by conditioning theories. 2) Stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) Theory was created to account for the internal thought processes. 3) Differences in performance across conditions would be attributed to cognitive interpretation of the situation. i) Could be influenced by mood, fatigue, social factors. 4) The key factor is the ‘O’, the organism mediates each S-R situation.
Observational Learning 1) Previous examples of learning involved direct experience, however direct experience is not necessary to learn. Observational learning (p. 244) involves changes in behaviour and knowledge that result from watching others. i) Many cultural customs are spread through observation. ii) Rats smell the breath of other rats and then search for food that matches that odor. a) A breathing rat is a good indicator that the food is alright to eat. iii) Children will avoid foods they witness their parents reacting with disgust to.
Processes Supporting Observational Learning 1) Albert Bandura identified four processes involved in observational learning (Figure 6.16): i) Attention to the act or behaviour. a) Seeing someone react with a classically conditioned fear to snakes can result in acquiring a similar fear. b) Paying attention to others being rewarded or punished, as in operant conditioning, can result in learning. c) However, we are more likely to learn by seeing others rewarded than punished. ii) Memory for it. a) There is often a delay from when we learn a new behaviour and when the need to perform it arises. b) For example, you might watch a cooking show, but not repeat the step until dinner time. iii) Ability to reproduce it. a) We obviously need the ability to be able to reproduce the behaviour. b) Observational learning is most effective when we first observe, practice immediately, and continue practicing soon after acquiring the response.
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c) It also helps to observe others throughout the process of learning. This helps to see a model making a mistake so that we can reflect on our own mistakes. iv) Motivation to do so. a.) Being hungry or thirsty will motivate an individual to observe where others are going to find food a drink. b.) Conversely, a child with no interest in playing a piano is less motivated to observe his teacher during lessons.
Myths in Mind: Teaching is Uniquely Human 1) Teaching behaviours are not limited to humans. i) Research has found teaching behaviours in ants. a) A “teacher” ant gives a “pupil” ant feedback on how to locate a food source. 2) Field researchers studying the behaviours of Japanese macaque monkeys noticed a rapid spread of potato washing in salt water. i) One of the smarter monkeys of the group began washing the potatoes, which probably gave them a better taste, and those in the group quickly followed this monkey’s behaviour. 3) A lot of social learning occurs between mothers and their young. i) Chimpanzee mothers demonstrate to their young the skills required to crack open nuts. ii) Mother killer whales show their offspring how to beach themselves in order to eat marine mammals (e.g., seals).
Imitation and Mirror Neurons 1. One of the primary mechanisms that allow observational learning to take place is imitation. Imitation (p. 245) is recreating someone else’s motor behaviour or expression, often to accomplish a specific goal. i)
Children imitate the facial expressions of adults as early as infancy. a) As they mature, children imitate motor acts produces by models (e.g., parents, teacher, friend, etc.). 2. Humans will actually over-imitate other humans. i) One study had a model show 3 and 4-year-old children and chimps how to open black box to retrieve a treat. a) The catch is that the model added some steps that were not necessary in opening the box. ii) Both the children and chimps figured out how to open the box, but the children imitated every step, whereas the chimps skipped the useless steps.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Linking Media Exposure to Behaviour 1) What do we know about the media and behaviour? i) Learning from the media can involve direct imitation as well as influence what we view as normal or acceptable behaviour. ii) American children spend roughly 5 hours a day interacting with electronic media. iii) There is much concern about the effects of media on certain behaviours (e.g., aggression) as well as the desensitization of individuals to violence.
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2) How can science explain the effect of media exposure on children’s behaviour? i) Albert Bandura performed one of the first experiments examining whether watching violence leads to violent behaviour. a) One group of children watched an adult or cartoon attack a “Bobo” doll, whereas the other group watched adults who did not attack the Bobo doll. b) These children where then brought into a room filled with toys, including the Bobo doll. c) Those who watched the adults attack the doll, where also likely to attack the doll. d) The other group of children did not attack the doll. ii) Listening to violent music can also lead to aggressive behaviours. a) In one study, students listened to either classical music, heavy metal, or no music while participating in a laboratory experiment. b) All students completed a survey about their mood at the beginning and then wrote a short essay while listening to the music. c) They were then brought into another room where they got negative feedback about their essay (regardless of content) as a means of provoking aggression in the students. d) Following this feedback, students rated their anger and mood levels with a questionnaire. e) Those who listened to heavy metal music reported greater feelings of anger in response to the negative feedback as well as lower levels of mood. 3) Can we critically evaluate this research? i) Decades of research show there is a positive correlation between exposure to violent media and aggressive behaviour in people. a) This correlation is stronger than that between aggression and peer influence, abusive parenting, or intelligence. ii) However, correlation does not equal causation. a) Long-term studies are limited by correlational designs versus the use of formal experiments. 4) Why is this relevant? i) Despite being able to determine cause-and-effect, we know that media violence is at least a risk factor for future aggressiveness. ii) As a result, many organizations have stepped in to help parents make decisions about which type of media their children will be exposed to. a) The Motion Picture Association of American has been rating movies since 1968. b) Parental advisory stickers have been on music with lyrics that are sexually explicit, reference drug use, or depict violence since the 1980s. c) Video games are also labeled with parental advisory stickers.
Biopsychosocial Perspectives: Violence, Video Games, and Culture 1) Research has found that a regular pattern of playing violent video games causes short- and long-term effects on violent thinking and behaviour. 2) Being able to personalize your own character in the game is related to an increase in aggressive behaviour. 3) People who play violent video games often become less sensitive to the feelings and well-being of others. 4) Players of violent video games show increased physiological arousal during play. 5) These same effects can be found in both Western and Eastern cultures. 6) There are no overall gender differences in aggression displayed by gamers.
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 6.3 Lecture Launchers ➢ Bear Boys, Swine Girls, Wolf Children ➢ Role Models: Who and Why Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Applying Behavioural Principles ➢ Human Cognitive Maps ➢ Tie Your Shoes ➢ Learning Theory Comparison ➢ Conditioning in Everyday Life ➢ Behaviour Modification Project Web Resources ➢ Transmission of Aggressions Through Imitation of Aggressive Models: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Learning Chapter Classroom Discussion Topics Twitmyer, Serendipity, and Self-Promotion Consumer Psychology Whatever Happened to Little Albert? Pigeon Overhead: Bombs Away! Superstitious Behaviour: Being a Little Critical of Skinner Superstitious or Playing It Cautious? Behavioural Control of a Behaviour Problem The Cat’s Out of the Bag! ... er, Box! Chimpanzees, Poker Chips, and Token Economies Applied Learning Neural Mechanisms in Classical and Operant Conditioning Punishment Bear Boys, Swine Girls, Wolf Children Role Models: Who and Why Chemical Alarms Sleep-Assisted Learning
▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/ Discussion: Learning Chapter Classroom Discussion Topics •
If you were designing the ideal slot machine, how could you apply the principles of learning to ensure that people play the machine over and over again despite winning very little money? How does your ideal slot machine compare to state lotteries or mail contests (such as Publisher’s Clearing House Sweepstakes)?
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There is no doubt that at least some behaviours in some people can be controlled through conditioning techniques, both operant and classical. The question then is, “Who controls the controllers?” What is to prevent a few powerful individuals from taking advantage of others by applying behaviour modification techniques? What are the potential abuses of behaviour modification? How can behaviour modification be used so that everyone—both controllers and those controlled—is happy?
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Think of cases in your own life when punishment worked effectively and other cases when it did not. What were the differences between the two situations? Why did it work in some cases but not in others? How do your own experiences compare to the discussion in the text on the circumstances under which aversive control is likely to be most effective? Can you add new conditions to those listed in the text?
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▼ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Twitmyer, Serendipity, and Self-Promotion Ivan Pavlov is, of course, credited with “discovering” classical conditioning, and every introductory psychology student learns of procedures he developed to identify learning in dogs. Few, if any, ever hear of Edwin Twitmyer. Twitmyer is interesting for a couple of reasons. First, his 1902 doctoral dissertation provides a wonderful example of how accidents can lead to scientific discovery. Second, it shows that how scientific information is constructed depends on more than simply making discoveries in laboratories. Twitmyer “discovered” classical conditioning in the United States at the same time Pavlov was doing his own work in Russia, and before Pavlov’s work became public. However, Twitmyer failed to gain the notoriety that Pavlov did. At the time Twitmyer was finishing his doctoral research, neurophysiologists and psychologists were studying the simplest unit of behaviour, which is called a “reflex arc.” Most students are already familiar with the patellar reflex, or knee jerk, which is an example of a simple reflex. In this reflex, as it is tested in medical exams, consists of a sharp tap on tendon attached to the kneecap. In turn, this tap elicits a kicking movement of the lower leg. Repetition of the tapping increases the amount of movement. Twitmyer was interested in why repetition should enhance the reflex. Why, he thought, doesn’t repetition lead to fatigue and a weakened response? To find out, he conducted a long series of experimental sessions. Gardner and Gardner (1998) summarized Twitmyer’s procedure as follows: Twitmeyer’s [sic] experimental apparatus released a hammer that hit the kneecap with a measured amount of force at a precise time. To warn his subjects, the apparatus also struck a bell once just a half-second before the hammer struck the kneecap. One day, the apparatus broke down while a well-practiced subject was in place. When Twitmyer retested the apparatus, the bell sounded but the hammer failed to operate. To Twitmyer’s surprise, the subject’s knee jerked as if struck by the hammer. Twitmyer thought that the subject, a fellow student, was joking or possibly kicking without waiting for the hammer. The subject reported that he was as surprised as Twitmyer. The knee seemed to jerk by itself. (p. 21) Twitmyer repeated this error with a few other subjects, that is, he rang the bell without letting the hammer deploy. He found that some kicked without the hammer, but some did not. In particular, he found that the number of pairings between hammer and bell mattered. Some responded to the bell without the hammer after only 30 trials, but almost all responded to the bell without the hammer (i.e., a conditioned response) after 130 pairings. It was clear that Twitmyer (1974) understood the significance of his chance discovery: The movement of the legs following the tap of the bell, without the blows on the tendons, has the characteristics of a simple, immediate reaction to the stimulus. Upon the unanimous testimony of the subjects, it was not produced voluntarily, i.e., there was no idea of the movement in consciousness, antecedent to the movement itself. It may, therefore be held, tentatively at least, that the movement is a reflex action. The afferent excitation must therefore reach the [spinal] cord at the level of the medulla and then pass down to the second or third lumbar segment in which the cell bodies of the efferent conduction path are located. Here then we have a new and unusual reflex arc.
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…The occurrence of the phenomenon, therefore, depends upon the preliminary simultaneous occurrence of the sound of the bell with the kick produced in the usual way, i.e., a blow on the tendon. After a certain number of such trials, the number varying for different subjects, the association of the sound of the bell and the kick becomes so fixed that the bell itself is capable of serving as a stimulus to the movement. (pp. 1063-1065). According to Dallenbach (1959), Twitmyer’s work was “one of the most, if not the most, important experimental discoveries of his day and generation in his hand and he let it slip through his fingers!” (p. 635). Why is it, then, that Twitmyer failed to continue this line of research? And why was his research ignored? Dissertations generally don’t gain much publicity. To compound matters, Twitmyer chose a modest title for his dissertation, “A Study of the Knee-Jerk,” which attracted little attention and offered no suggestion as to the new and exciting discovery he had made. Next Twitmyer presented his research at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association in a paper called, “Knee-Jerks Without Stimulation of the Patellar Tendon.” This title was no more exciting. Conferences typically publish abstracts of presentations, not full papers, and these abstracts were not readily available. So, even though the essentials of his discovery were included in his abstract, most would not find it. To make matters worse for Twitmyer, the audience he had at this conference was unhelpful. Dallenbach pointed out that, “William James, president of the Association that year, presided at the meeting at which Twitmyer reported. [Twitmyer’s] report, though presented before the elite of American psychology, fell dead. Not one of his hearers commented upon it after his presentation.” Dallenbach also pointed out that, had he been a good chairman of the session, James would have helped this poor student by asking the first question to get the discussion rolling. Instead, he said nothing. So why didn’t Twitmyer continue this line of research? Why do you know of Pavlov, but not of Twitmyer? One might blame Twitmyer’s mentors for not encouraging him. One might blame the Zeitgeist. As Schulz said in his first edition of A History of Modern Psychology, “[u]nless the Zeitgeist is ready for what the great man has to say, he may not be heard…” (p. 10). However, Dallenbach placed significant responsibility on the researcher himself. Dallenbach suggested that Twitmyer failed to push his ideas forward and to effectively report them. According to Dallenbach, “[Twitmyer] 'missed the boat,' not because of an unfavourable Zeitgeist, but because he was a young, inexperienced scholar, not a promoter. He did not know how to promote his discovery and he could not withstand discouragement. Pavlov, on the other hand, was experienced in the promotional arts, and he utilized them to their fullest extent. He gave his phenomenon a distinguishing name, "conditioned response," and, despite initial discouragement, he continued his experiments and reports. … He persisted in his 'promotion' until he had created a Zeitgeist favourable to his work” (pp. 637–638). References: Dallenbach, K. (1959). Twitmyer and the Conditioned Response. The American Journal of Psychology, 72(4), 633–638. Gardner, R. A. & Gardner, B. T. (1998). The Structure of Learning: From Sign Stimuli to Sign Language. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 20–22 Schulz, D. P. (1969). A History of Modern Psychology. New York: Academic Press, Inc. Twitmyer, E. B. (1974). A study of the knee jerk. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 103(6), 1047– 1066.
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▼ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Consumer Psychology Impulse buying is a joy to many retailers, but a scourge to many consumers. It is also a behaviour of great interest to consumer psychologists who want to know why people give in to their impulses. Are window displays especially important in catching the shoppers’ attention and eliciting their spending behaviour? Or, is it those clever commercials that reel in the customers? The field of consumer psychology addresses these questions and many others. As you might guess, researchers in this field are in demand by advertisers, manufacturers, and retailers who want advice on how to capture the attention of potential customers and get people to open their wallets. Consumer psychologists have shown that many of Madison Avenue’s techniques are based on principles of conditioning, whether advertising executives realize it or not. For example, Gerald Gorn (1982) showed that associating an item with pleasant stimuli induces people to like the item itself. Gorn had college students view slides of either a beige or blue pen. During the presentation, half the students heard a song from a recent musical film and half heard a selection of classical Indian music. (Gorn made the reasonable assumption that the show tune would be more appealing to most Americans.) Later, students were allowed to choose one of the pens. Almost three-fourths of those who heard the popular music chose a pen that was the same colour as the one they had seen in the slides. An equal number of those who heard the Indian music chose a pen that differed in colour from the one they had seen. This is an instance of classical conditioning: the music was an unconditioned stimulus for internal responses associated with pleasure or displeasure, and pens became conditioned stimuli for similar responses. You can see why television commercials often pair products with music, attractive people, or other appealing stimuli. Advertising is not the only influence on spending. Credit cards, as some of us know all too well, have a power of their own. Handing over your card to a sales person is immediately rewarded by the delivery of a desired item into your hands; the payment is not due until much later. Thus, through a process of operant conditioning, credit card use becomes more likely. Even the mere presence of a credit card increases the likelihood and magnitude of spending. When a card is repeatedly paired with the responses involved in spending, it becomes a stimulus for “spending behaviour.” Through a process of classical conditioning, it may also come to elicit positive emotional responses (Feinberg, 1986). Retailers may use this information to attract customers, say, by displaying signs of the credit cards they accept. But, a knowledge of conditioning principles can also help consumers control their spending. To avoid impulse buying, credit cards can be left at home. To reduce susceptibility to commercials, turn down the sound. But, perhaps the most effective inhibitor of that impulse to “buy, buy, buy” is to think of Pavlov and Skinner. References: Feinberg, R. A. (1986). Credit cards as spending facilitating stimuli: A conditioning interpretation. Journal of Consumer Research, 13, 348–356. Gorn, G. J. (1982). The effects of music in advertising on choice behaviour: A classical conditioning approach. Journal of Marketing, 46, 94–101.
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▼ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Whatever Happened to Little Albert? In an article that was originally published in American Psychologist, February 1979, Volume 34, Number 2, pp. 151–160, Ben Harris contends that many General Psychology textbooks have misrepresented the details and interpretations of the Watson and Rayner’s research with Little Albert. Excerpts from the article: Almost 60 years after it was first reported, Watson and Rayner’s (1920) attempted conditioning of the infant Albert B. is one of the most widely cited experiments in textbook psychology. Unfortunately, most accounts of Watson and Rayner’s research with Albert feature as much fabrication and distortion as they do fact. From information about Albert himself to the basic experimental methods and results, no detail of the original study has escaped misrepresentation in the telling and retelling of this bit of social science folklore. The Experiment As described by Watson and Rayner (1920), an experimental study was undertaken to answer three questions: (1) Can an infant be conditioned to fear an animal that appears simultaneously with a loud, fear-arousing sound? (2) Would such fear transfer to other animals or to inanimate objects? (3) How long would such fears persist? In attempting to answer these questions, Watson and Rayner selected an infant named Albert B., whom they described as “healthy,” and “stolid and unemotional” (p. 1). At approximately 9 months of age, Albert was tested and was judged to show no fear when successively observing a number of live animals (e.g., a rat, a rabbit, a dog, and a monkey), and various inanimate objects (e.g., cotton, human masks, a burning newspaper). He was, however, judged to show fear whenever a long steel bar was unexpectedly struck with a claw hammer just behind his back. Two months after testing Albert’s apparently unconditioned reactions to various stimuli, Watson and Rayner attempted to condition him to fear a white rat. This was done by presenting a white rat to Albert, followed by a loud clanging sound (of the hammer and steel bar) whenever Albert touched the animal. After seven pairings of the rat and noise (in two sessions, one week apart), Albert reacted with crying and avoidance when the rat was presented without the loud noise. In order to test the generalization of Albert’s fear response, 5 days later he was presented with the rat, a set of familiar wooden blocks, a rabbit, a short-haired dog, a sealskin coat, a package of white cotton, the heads of Watson and two assistants (inverted so that Albert could touch their hair), and a bearded Santa Claus mask. Albert seemed to show a strong fear response to the rat, the rabbit, the dog, and the sealskin coat; a “negative” response to the mask and Watson’s hair; and a mild response to the cotton. Also, Albert played freely with the wooden blocks and the hair of Watson’s assistants. After an additional 5 days, Watson reconditioned Albert to the rat (one trial, rat paired with noise) and also attempted to condition Albert directly to fear the previously presented rabbit (one trial) and dog (one trial). When the effects of this procedure were tested in a different, larger room, it was found that Albert showed only a slight reaction to the rat, the dog, and the rabbit. Consequently, Watson attempted “to freshen the reaction to the rat” (p. 9) by presenting it with the loud noise. Soon after this, the dog began to bark loudly at Albert, scaring him and the experimenters and further confounding the experiment. To answer their third question concerning the permanence of conditioned responses over time, Watson and Rayner conducted a final series of tests on Albert after 31 days of neither conditioning nor
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extinction trials. In these tests, Albert showed fear when touching the Santa Claus mask, the sealskin coat, the rat, the rabbit, and the dog. At the same time, however, he initiated contact with the coat and the rabbit, showing “strife between withdrawal and the tendency to manipulate” (Watson & Rayner, 1920, p. 10). Following these final tests, Albert’s mother removed him from the hospital where the experiment had been conducted. (According to their own account, Watson and Rayner knew a month in advance the day that Albert would no longer be available to them.) Introductory-Level Textbook Versions of Albert A selective survey of textbooks used to introduce students to general, developmental, and abnormal psychology revealed that few books fail to refer to Watson and Rayner’s (1920) study in some manner. Relatively minor details that are misrepresented include Albert’s age (Calhoun 1977; Johnson & Medinnus, 1974), his name (Galanter, 1966), the spelling of Rosalie Rayner’s name (e.g., Biehler, 1976; Helms & Turner, 1976; McCandless & Trotter, 1977; Papalia & Olds, 1975), and whether Albert was initially conditioned to fear a rat or a rabbit (CRM Books, 1971; Staats, 1968). Of more significance are texts’ misrepresentations of the range of Albert’s postconditioning fears and of the postexperimental fate of Albert. The list of spurious stimuli to which Albert’s fear response is claimed to have generalized is rather extensive. It includes a fur pelt (CRM Books, 1971), a man’s beard (Helms & Turner, 1976), a cat, a pup, a fur muff (Telford & Sawrey, 1968), a white furry glove (Whittaker, 1965), Albert’s aunt, who supposedly wore fur (Bernhardt, 1953), either the fur coat or the fur neckpiece of Albert’s mother (Hilgard, Atkinson, & Atkinson, 1975; Kisker, 1977; Weiner, 1977), and even a teddy bear (Boring, Langfeld, & Weld, 1948). In a number of texts, a happy ending has been added to the story by the assertion that Watson removed (or “reconditioned”) Albert’s fear, with this process sometimes described in detail (Engle & Snellgrove, 1969; Gardiner, 1970; Whittaker, 1965). What are the causes of these frequent errors by the authors of undergraduate textbooks? Prytula et al. (1977) cataloged similar mistakes but offered little explanation of their source. Cornwell and Hobbs (1976) suggested that such distortions, if not simply due to overreliance on secondary sources, can be generally seen as authors’ attempts to paint the Albert study (and Watson) in a more favourable light and to make it believable to undergraduates. Certainly, many of the common errors are consistent with a brushed-up image of Watson and his work. For example, not one text mentions that Watson knew when Albert would leave his control—a detail that might make Watson and Rayner’s failure to recondition Albert seem callous to some modern readers. However, there are other reasons for such errors besides textbooks’ tendencies to tell ethically pleasing stories that are consistent with students’ common sense. One major source of confusion about the Albert story is Watson himself, who altered and deleted important aspects of the study in his many descriptions of it. For example, in the Scientific Monthly description of the study (Watson & Watson, 1921), there is no mention of the conditioning of Albert to the dog, the rabbit, and the rat that occurred at 11 months 20 days; thus Albert’s subsequent responses to these stimuli can be mistaken for a strong generalization effect (for which there is little evidence). A complementary and equally confusing omission occurs in Psychological Care of Infant and Child (Watson, 1928a). There, Watson begins his description of the Albert study with Albert’s being conditioned to a rabbit (apparently the session occurring at 11 months 20 days). As a result, the reader is led to believe that Albert’s fear of a rat (a month later) was the product of generalization rather than the initial conditioning trials. Besides these omissions, Watson and Rayner (1920) also made frequent editorial comments, such as the assertion that fears such as Albert’s were “likely to persist indefinitely, unless an accidental method for removing them is hit upon” (p. 12). Given such comments, it is understandable that one recent text overestimates the duration of the Albert experiment by 300% (Goldenberg, 1977), and another states that Albert’s “phobia became resistant to extinction” (Kleinmuntz, 1974, p. 130).
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A second reason for textbook authors’ errors, it seems, is the desire of many of us to make experimental evidence consistent with textbook theories of how organisms should act. According to popular versions of learning theory (as described by Herrnstein, 1977), organisms’ conditioning should generalize along simple stimulus dimensions; many textbooks list spurious fear-arousing stimuli (for Albert) that correspond to such dimensions. To illustrate the process of stimulus generalization, Albert is often said to have feared every white, furry object—although he actually showed fear mostly of nonwhite objects (the rabbit, the dog, the sealskin coat, Watson’s hair), and did not even fear everything with hair (the observers). But to fit a more simplified view of learning, either new stimuli appear in some texts (e.g., a white rabbit, a white glove) or it is simply asserted that Albert’s conditioning generalized to all white and furry (or hairy) stimuli (see Biehler, 1976; Craig, 1976; Helms & Turner, 1976). Though it might seem as if Albert’s fear did generalize to the category of all animate objects with fur (e.g., the rabbit) or short hair (e.g., Watson’s head), this is impossible to show conclusively. The only experimental stimuli not fitting this category were the blocks and the observers’ hair. Apparently the blocks were a familiar toy (thus not a proper stimulus), and Albert’s familiarity with the observers is not known (although we may guess that one might have been his mother). ▼ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Pigeon Overhead: Bombs Away! Animals have consistently played a prominent role in learning and conditioning experiments, from Edward Thorndike’s cats to Edward Tolman’s rats to the disobedient menagerie of Marian and Keller Breland. Included in this list are some very famous pigeons who almost helped the national defense. B. F. Skinner worked at the University of Minnesota during the second World War. Interested in applying the principles of operant conditioning to the war effort, Skinner trained pigeons to peck at discs which had moving pictures of enemy targets displayed on them. The pecking served to close electronic circuits, which in turn formed a self-regulating system. Although this is no great feat in itself – these actions faithfully follow the most basic rules of operant conditioning – Skinner’s vision was to install his pigeons, discs, and circuits in gliders packed with explosives. The idea was to have the pigeons peck on cue to manipulate the circuits, which in turn would keep the glider on its kamikaze course toward an enemy target. A neat, tidy bombing run, with no loss of human life. The Defense Department declined Skinner’s help, even though he demonstrated to top scientists that the homing device withstood electronic jamming, the apparatus was inexpensive to build, and the basic set-up could be applied to a range of enemy targets. In the present era of Star Wars weaponry, stealth bombers, and combat guided by virtual reality, perhaps a pigeon bombardier wouldn’t seem so far-fetched. References: Hergenhahn, B. R., & Olson, M. H. (1993). An introduction to theories of learning (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Skinner, B. F. (1960). Pigeons in a pelican. American Psychologist, 15, 28–37.
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▼ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Superstitious Behaviour: Being a Little Critical of Skinner Referring to any behaviour as “superstitious,” in the context of science, is using loaded terminology, particularly when attributing this behaviour to a nonhuman species. Such a claim, under normal circumstances, would require substantial evidence to support it. One should also expect rival hypotheses to be considered and conclusions to be based on replication of findings. However, sometimes, even the science of psychology fails its own tests. The case of “superstitious behaviour” demonstrates that psychology doesn’t always worry about burden of evidence when a “sexy” finding and the reputation of a well-known psychologist are at stake. Perhaps because of his notoriety, mainstream psychology has not been horribly critical of B. F. Skinner. In fact an informal study published by Skinner in 1948 is still cited regularly, even in this text, as a classic study and as sufficient evidence of superstitious behaviour. However, findings are only as good as the methods used to obtain them. In his 1948 paper Skinner made informal observations of eight pigeons. He describes neither his procedures, nor his method for making observations clearly. Schwarz (1989) summarized Skinner’s study as follows: Pigeons were first trained to eat grain from a feeder. Then the pigeons were exposed to a procedure in which the feeder was made available at regular intervals irrespective of what they were doing—that is, pigeons were not required to do anything to get food. … Skinner’s reasoning in doing this experiment was roughly this: when food was delivered, the pigeons would certainly be doing something. They might be strutting about the cage, grooming, flapping their wings, turning around, pecking at a screw on the wall, etc. While one could not be sure of what the pigeons would be doing at any particular moment, one could be sure that they would be doing something. When reinforcement occurred, it would be paired with whatever response the pigeons had just emitted. Though this response did not produce the reinforcer, the temporal contiguity of response and reinforce would be sufficient to strengthen (increase the likelihood of) the behaviour. … Skinner expected that each pigeon would ultimately be engaged in some activity with a high frequency. And this is what Skinner observed.” (pp. 156–157) In his report, Skinner failed to describe his procedure for reinforcement nor did he describe the method used to record pigeon behaviour in sufficient detail for anyone to make a direct replication. Indeed, upon reading his report, it is impossible to determine to what extent he was systematic in manipulating the reinforcement schedule or in collecting his data. Because of this lack of detail, readers must depend on his interpretation of the observations he (presumably) made. Without citing anyone else or offering any alternative explanations, Skinner simply stated that “The experiment might be said to demonstrate a sort of superstition. The bird behaves as if there were a causal relation between its behaviour and the presentation of food, although such a relation is lacking” (p. 171). Then he immediately drew analogies between his interpretation of the pigeons and human behaviour. Whenever a researcher finds what he was looking for, readers should be cautious, as should the researcher. Richard Feynman is often quoted as saying that science is a means of bending over backward to prove ourselves wrong (Feynman, 1985). Skinner did the opposite. He tried to confirm his expectation with the least amount of evidence. Even though his report is interesting and should prompt further systematic investigations, it was so informally conducted (and reported) that a responsible scientist would not draw conclusions prior to replication and prior to looking for alternative explanations.
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Staddon and Simmelhag (1971) were among the responsible scientists who attempted to replicate Skinner’s study and indeed challenged him. In their report, they provided the details necessary to replicate. For example, they described their pigeon subjects in some detail. They described the three schedules of food delivery they used: (1) a response-independent fixed-interval schedule in which the food magazine was presented at 12-second intervals; (2) a response independent variable-interval schedule in which the food magazine was presented on the average every 8 seconds; and (3) food was delivered (reinforcement occurred) for the first key peck 12 seconds or more after the preceding reinforcement. They developed a formal system of coding pigeon responses which they include in their publication. They also published their analyses in a systematic fashion, which allowed the reader to see the pattern in the data that the researchers had seen in the pigeons. Schwarz (1989) pointed out that Staddon and Simmelhag’s procedure . . . was very much like Skinner’s procedure. The main difference came in the recording of data. Staddon and Simmelhag established 16 behavioural categories, including wing-flapping, walking, turning in circles, putting the head in the feeder, raising the beak to the ceiling, and pecking at one or another part of the chamber. They then observed the pigeons continuously during the sessions, and classified all the pigeons’ activities into these 16 categories. At the end of each session they had a record of the frequency with which these different responses occurred, and the order in which they occurred. Thus their observations were much more detailed and systematic than Skinner’s” (p. 157). Based on Skinnerian notions, Staddon and Simmelhag would have anticipated that “at the time of the very first food delivery the pigeons might be engaged in any one of the 16 responses. … The effect of that first food delivery would be to increase the frequency of whatever response had preceded it. This in turn would make it likely that the same response would be occurring when the next food delivery occurred, thus increasing its frequency still more. Ultimately, we would expect to find each pigeon spending most of its time engaged in one particular activity—different from one pigeon to the next, but quite reliable from minute to minute and session to session for each pigeon” (Schwarz, 1989, p. 158). However, that is not what they found. Staddon and Simmelhag reported “that the ‘superstition’ situation generally produces two distinct kinds of activity: interim activities that occur at short and intermediate postfood times, and the terminal response that begins later in the interval and continues until food delivery” (p. 12). All birds produced the same terminal behaviour pattern, not the random assortment that Skinner reported. Terminal responses consisted of pecking at the wall above the food hopper, what you would expect if pecking were a prefeeding behaviour rather than the result of being reinforced (Gardner, 1998, p. 155). As Schwarz (1989) pointed out, “Though Skinner’s demonstration of superstition has been extremely influential, it has not been confirmed in subsequent research” (p. 157). On the other hand, other researchers have confirmed the findings and interpretations of Staddon and Simmelhag, for example, Fenner (1980), Reberg, Innis, Mann, & Eizenga (1978), and Timberlake and Lucas (1985). Yet Skinner maintains his notoriety while these others folks do not. References: Fenner, D. (1980). The role of contingencies and “principles of behavioural variation” in pigeons pecking. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour, 34, 1–12. Feynman, R. P. (1985). Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman! Adventures of a Curious Character. New York: Bantam Books. Gardner, R. A. & Gardner, B. T. (1998). The Structure of Learning: From Sign Stimuli to Sign Language. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 154-155.
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Reberg, D., Innis, N. K., Mann, B., & Eizenga, C. (1978). Superstitious behaviour resulting from periodic response-independent presentations of food or water. Animal Behaviour, 26, 507–519. Schwarz, B. (1989). Psychology of Learning and Behaviour, 3rd ed. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 156–158. Skinner, B. F. (1948). “Superstition” in the pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 168– 172. Staddon, J. E. R., & Simmelhag, V. L. (1971). The “superstition” experiment: A reexamination of its implications for the principles of adaptive behaviour. Psychological Review, 78, 3–43. Timberlake, W. & Lucas, G. A. (1985). The basis of superstitious behaviour: Chance contingency, stimulus substitution, or appetitive behaviour. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour, 44, 279–299. ▼ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Superstitious or Playing It Cautious? Consider this type of learning. A man who calls himself Orpheus tells you that he has the power to make the sun rise by singing to it. Being, by now, scientifically skeptical, you demand a demonstration of this environmental control. Orpheus begins to sing at about 5 A.M. and soon the sun rises. He can repeat this demonstration for you daily, showing that his response is always followed by this change in the environment. You now suggest another test: omit the singing and see if the sun still comes up. Orpheus must reject such a test. The consequence of his not singing would surely be the sun’s not rising, and for the sake of the world, he dare not risk such a dire consequence. This example can be seen as accidental operant strengthening of a coincidental relationship between behaviour and reinforcers. The rituals gamblers use in trying to change their luck illustrate their learned belief that something they were doing caused the dice or cards to fall a certain way. Such accidentally conditioned responses are called superstitions. Superstition develops whenever a behaviour coincidentally happens to be followed by a reinforcer and, as a result, the behaviour is repeated. Many common examples occur in the context of athletics. Many athletes go through some rather bizarre rituals, tugging on the belt, adjusting their cap, tapping their spikes with a bat, before entering the batter’s box. One explanation for these behaviours is that at one time it happened to be followed by hitting a home run. These behaviours often do not easily extinguish because circumstances provide intermittent reinforcement for them. If a batter goes through a ritual every time he or she steps to the plate, he or she will, from time to time (about a third of the time, if he or she is a good hitter) again be reinforced for these actually unrelated behaviours. When the environmental consequences are vital for an individual or a group, a superstitious response is extremely resistant to extinction. This is true for two reasons. First, as in the case of Orpheus, the risk involved in not making the response, if the connection were a causal one, would be greater than the gain in knowledge from finding out that one’s behaviour was not producing the effect. Second, if the individual believes the superstition is valid, omitting the “necessary” act might produce other changes in his or her behaviour that would directly affect the event in question. This is often seen among students who have a special pen or pair of jeans that they always use for taking final exams. If the pen is lost or the filthy jeans are thrown out by an exasperated parent, they may indeed do poorly on the exam because of expectation of failure and distracting thoughts about “their luck running out.”
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The development of such superstitions can be demonstrated easily in the laboratory. A hungry pigeon is confined to a box with a feeding mechanism that automatically dispenses a pellet of food every 15 seconds, regardless of what the pigeon does. Whatever response the pigeon happens to be making when the food is delivered then becomes a reinforced response, and the probability of its occurrence is increased. Different stereotyped behaviour patterns are likely to emerge in different subjects—turning counterclockwise, turning in a circle several times before going to the food dispenser, jerking the head in one direction, as well as other “bizarre” movements. ▼ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Behavioural Control of a Behaviour Problem Rorey B. was a preschool child of average intelligence who was a “behaviour problem.” He screamed, fought, disobeyed, and bossed others both at home and school, although he was only four years, eight months of age. His parents were concerned over this obviously undesirable behaviour that they expected to get even worse as he got older. “He continually told other children what to do and how to play, and enforced his demands with punches, kicks, and slaps,” they reported. Observation of Mrs. B’s interaction with her son revealed three things: (a) she reinforced this undesirable behaviour with excessive attention; (b) she did not program consequences in a consistent fashion; and (c) the relationships between the undesirable behaviour and any negative consequences was unclear because she frequently used lengthy explanations before applying the sanctions. The behavioural psychologists who consulted with Mrs. B taught her to arrange three types of contingencies: punishment, extinction, and reward. Punishment: As soon as Rorey acted aggressively or disobediently, Mrs. B took him to a time-out room that contained no items of interest to a child. He was told only that he could not stay with the others if he fought or disobeyed. He was put in the time-out room, without conversation or further explanation, for a two-minute period (or two minutes from the end of his last cry or tantrum). This punishment involved the negative stimulus of loss of opportunity for stimulation. It could be removed by behaving in socially acceptable ways. When the time was up, Rorey was taken back to his regular activities without comment on the previous episode. Extinction: Less serious forms of undesirable behaviour were ignored so that they would have no reinforcing consequences—a contingency. Positive Reinforcement: Desirable behaviours such as cooperative play and following instructions were directly praised, and at the end of each period of desirable play, Rorey got some special treats such as cookies, cold drinks, or a small toy. To demonstrate the effectiveness of mother as behaviour therapist, the psychologists first observed Rorey’s behaviour for a period of time—a baseline period—and then instructed Mrs. B to carry out her behavioural contingency management program. This sequence was repeated a second time. Rorey’s aggressive and disobedient behaviour was dramatically changed by manipulating their consequences. His parents and neighbours commented that Rorey behaved like a “different child.” During the first baseline period, Rorey followed only about 30 percent of instructions given him, but a week later he was following three-fourths of them. On some days, Rorey never misbehaved at all, even resisting striking back when another child hit him. As Rorey’s problem behaviour declined, his mother .. 314
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commented more favourably about him; she felt she was a more effective mother and showed more affectionate concern for her son. Reference: Zeilberger, J., Sampen, S., & Sloane, H. (1968). Modification of a child’s problem behaviours in the home with the mother as therapist. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis, 1, 47–53. ▼ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Cat’s Out of the Bag! ... er, Box! Edwin Guthrie is chiefly known for one idea in Behaviourism; the principle of one-trial learning. Guthrie held that learning was complete – that is, an association between a stimulus and a response was at its strongest – after only one pairing of the stimulus and response. The way he set about testing his idea was to use a variant of Thorndike’s puzzle box. Guthrie modified the box by placing a long, thin rod vertically in it, wired so that each time a cat rubbed against it the door to the box would spring open, allowing the animal to exit. Guthrie noted that among some 800 cats, each had a stereotyped way of rubbing the rod, which was repeated trial after trial, even in absence of reinforcement. He took this as evidence for one-trial learning; the response was full-blown from the first trial, and it was not modified over trials. Being a good Behaviourist, Guthrie made careful observations of the laboratory animals. Being a good Behaviourist, Guthrie stuck to fairly straightforward, objective testing conditions. But being a good Behaviourist, Guthrie assumed that species-specific behaviour would not play a major role in the experiment’s outcomes. Like Clark Hull, for example, Guthrie was interested in demonstrating a principle of learning, regardless of whether it was demonstrated by a cat, rat, chimpanzee, or human. Unfortunately, cats exhibit a stereotyped greeting response when in the presence of a conspecific (which, for most domestic cats, includes humans). That is, they rub against their fellow cat as it passes by or, in the case of greater distances, they rub against a more convenient object, such as a tree, furniture, or Uncle Harry’s leg. As Guthrie and his laboratory assistants observed the cats, then, it is not remarkable that they all showed highly stereotyped behaviour; they did what cats do. Bruce Moore and Susan Studdard illustrated this point in a simple experiment. Cats were placed in puzzle boxes that had long, thin, vertical rods, but this time rubbing the rods triggered no doors. Moore and Studdard also varied whether a person was present or not as the cats meandered through the box. They discovered, quite simply, that when a person was present the bar was rubbed, and when a person was not present, the bar was not rubbed. As Guthrie observed, the rubbing itself was quite stereotyped, befitting an innate feline response. References: Guthrie, E. R., & Horton, G. P. (1946). Cats in a puzzle box. New York: Rinehart. Leahey, T. H., & Harris, R. J. (1993). Learning and cognition (3rd. ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Moore, B., & Studdard, S. (1979). Professor Guthrie and felis domesticus, or: Tripping over the cat. Science, 205, 1031–1033.
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▼ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Chimpanzees, Poker Chips, and Token Economies According to Skinnerian thought, in token economies, when individuals engage in particular behaviours, they earn tokens (i.e., secondary reinforcers) that can later be traded for primary reinforcers. These tokens thus serve to reinforce the behaviour that preceded the token. An alternative explanation for why token economies, and indeed money, work suggests that the tokens feed individuals forward into the next behaviour, rather than reinforcing backwards. The following excerpt lays out the logic more clearly by presenting research conducted by Kelleher with several chimpanzees. “Cowles (1937) and Wolfe (1936) demonstrated that chimpanzees could learn to use poker chips to operate a vending machine that dispensed grapes, and then learn to pull a lever (much like a Nevada slot machine lever) to earn poker chips, which they could insert into a slot to operate a vending machine. Textbooks and teachers often cite this result as a demonstration that the value of money depends on secondary reinforcement. “In later experiments, Kelleher (1956, 1957a, 1957b, 1958a, 1958b) replicated and extended Cowles’s (1937) and Wolfe’s (1936) findings. Basically, Kelleher taught two young male chimpanzees first to get grapes by operating the vending machine with poker chips, and then to earn poker chips by pressing a telegraph key. Kelleher next varied the schedules of poker chip reward for key-pressing. When the chimpanzees were working for poker chips, he lighted a white earning light; when they could spend their poker chips, he turned off the earning light and lighted a red spending light. “Time has to be divided into earning periods and spending periods in this experiment. If Kelleher had allowed the chimpanzees to press the key to earn poker chips and then let them spend each poker chip in the vending machine as soon as they received it, the demonstration would be much less significant. Without the division into earning and spending periods, Kelleher’s procedure would only be an example of a chain of responses starting with a key-press, followed by a poker chip, followed by picking up the chip and putting it in the slot, followed by receiving a grape. This is practically the same thing as the chains analyzed by the goal gradient principle for rats in mazes. … The only difference is that chimpanzees have hands that they can use to manipulate objects so that they can execute chains of movement that are superficially more complex than the chains of running executed by rats in mazes. Other attempts to demonstrate [a reinforcing effect of a stimulus] through complex chains of reinforcement schedules in a Skinner box fail for the same reason (e.g., Jacob & Fantino, 1988). [A discriminative stimulus] can maintain an earlier link in a chain by feeding forward to the next link without feeding backward to reinforce the link that it follows. “By lighting one light to signal working periods and a second light to signal spending periods, Kelleher produced a much more interesting situation, something much more like a chimpanzee working to earn poker chips in order to spend them later. Human beings also work during designated times, and spend during other, quite separate, times. Even street vendors who get paid in coins, transaction by transaction, normally collect the coins during designated earning times and spend the money later. “The rate at which Kelleher’s chimpanzees worked at pressing the key depended on the schedule of poker chip reward. Like many human factory workers, however, they got to a point where each chimpanzee worked at a stable rate for a given schedule of payment so that it took about the same amount of time, about 4 hours, each day for them to earn the allotted number of poker chips, about 50 chips, depending on the condition. Consequently, they could have been working for a stable period of .. 316
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time or for a stable number of chips. The spending light came on after about the same amount of working time either way. Note that this is because of the stable rate of working maintained by a stable schedule of reward. … “Kelleher’s chimpanzees lived in rather boring cages when they were not serving in experiments. The experimental enclosure was larger and more interesting. At the beginning of the experiment, the chimpanzees naturally spent a certain amount of time running, jumping, climbing, playing with the apparatus, and otherwise enjoying the place before they settled down. This period of playfulness before settling down to work persisted through hundreds of hours of experimental sessions. At the beginning of each session, the chimpanzees took between 20 and 40 minutes before they pressed the key for the first time. The next key-press came a little sooner, the next sooner, and so on, faster and faster until they reached their top speed usually with a spurt at the end of the earning period. “Kelleher (1958b) reasoned that this pattern of results could be interpreted in either of two ways. First, if the poker chips acted as secondary rewards, then the pause at the beginning of each session might be the result of lack of reward. The first chip rewarded the first few responses, which reinforced key-pressing so that responding increased, which resulted in more rewards, which further increased responding, and so on until the chimpanzees reached their top speed. “Perhaps the poker chips acted, instead, as discriminative stimuli. As chips collected in the pile beside the lever, the steadily growing pile was a kind of clock telling the chimpanzees how close they were coming to the end of the earning period and the beginning of the spending period with its delicious grapes. At the beginning of the session with no pile at all, a chimpanzee could see that spending time was a long way off. Even after accumulating a few chips he could see that grape time was still far away. He might respond more than he had at the start, but still sluggishly. As the pile grew, he could tell that spending time was getting closer and this stimulated him to press faster and faster until the end spurt when the pile was highest. In the secondary reward description, the poker chips act backward to reinforce what the chimpanzee had done before. In the discriminative stimulus description, the poker chips act forward to stimulate the next thing the chimpanzee does. “With this in mind, Kelleher tried the following ingenious test. He put 50 poker chips in the experimental enclosure before each chimpanzee arrived for his daily session. If the poker chips were acting as response contingent secondary rewards (Sr), then the chimpanzees would be finding a large heap of free Srs as they entered the enclosure. The free chips would then reward the beginning laziness and playfulness, and reward this behaviour at a better rate than key-pressing ever had. If the chips were Srs, the chimpanzees should take much longer to settle down to work, or they might never settle down to work at all. If the pile of chips was acting as a discriminative stimulus, however, we would expect just the opposite. The chimpanzees would arrive to find the clock set ahead telling them that they were near to spending time. If the chips were [discriminative stimuli] the chimpanzees should begin at the high middle-of-the-session rate, immediately, and improve them then on as more chips piled up. “Kelleher’s results were decisive. When the chimpanzees found the pile of free chips, they omitted their usual 20- to 40-minute period of no responding. They went directly to work pressing the key at a high rate. “Kelleher’s experiment tests whether the pile of poker chips acts backward as an Sr to reward the chimpanzees for pressing the key, or acts forward as [a discriminative stimulus] to stimulate them to press the key more rapidly. When the chimpanzees got a pile of poker chips for doing nothing, they immediately started to press the key rapidly as if the pile of chips stimulated them forward to intense activity rather than rewarding them backward for doing nothing.”
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Source of excerpts: Gardner, R. A. & Gardner, B. T. (1998). The Structure of Learning: From Sign Stimuli to Sign Language. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., pp. 147–150. ▼ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Applied Learning Behaviour modification can be thought of as a technology that developed out of learning theory. Based on the principles of operant conditioning, behaviour modification seeks to structure the reinforcement a person receives for his or her actions in order to modify or shape more productive behaviour. There are several areas of application, as noted by Garry Martin and Joseph Pear. •
Education. Behaviour modification has been applied to both classroom management and specific learning skills, from preschool through university education. For example, disruptive behaviours such as tantrums, aggressive acts, or leaving one’s seat can be modified effectively with the proper program. Content skills, such as reading comprehension, mathematics, or spelling, can also benefit from the application of operant principles.
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Severe mental and behavioural problems. Perhaps the most visible use of behaviour modification techniques is in the management of mental retardation, schizophrenia, and autism. In these instances, social skills, vocational skills, and self-care can be established either on an institutional ward or in a private setting.
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Clinical behaviour therapy. Behaviour therapy has grown in popularity over the past several decades. In many cases (e.g., the treatment of phobias and obsessive-compulsive disorder), it is the treatment of choice.
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Self-management. Behaviour modification has been used to help people achieve their personal goals, such as overcoming procrastination, maintaining an exercise program, or relieving mild phobias.
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Medicine and health care. There are several areas related to medical practice that currently rely on operant principles. For example, patient compliance in drug-taking can be increased through appropriate reinforcement, as can stress management or the promotion of healthy lifestyles.
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Community psychology. Behaviour modification techniques have been applied beyond the level of the individual to the level of the community. Community mental health centres, halfway houses, and youth organizations often employ behavioural techniques to promote job-skills training or increase compliance with community programs (e.g., recycling, litter removal, decreasing vandalism).
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Business, industry, government. Positive reinforcement, schedules of reinforcement, fading, and chaining have been used to improve worker morale, reduce shoplifting, decrease absenteeism, and increase worker efficiency.
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Sports psychology. Behaviour modification has been used to improve athletes’ skills (such as coordination and execution), to change coaches’ behaviours (such as teaching effective managerial strategies), to increase motivation and endurance (such as having athletes keep public records of their fitness training), and to treat athletes’ personal problems (such as a behavioural therapist might do). .. 318
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Behavioural assessment. Psychodiagnostic assessment has gained a new partner in behavioural assessment. Identifying problem behaviours and long-standing behaviour repertoires at intake can help establish an effective treatment program.
Reference: Martin, G., & Pear, J. (2007). Behaviour modification: What it is and how to do it (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. ▼ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Neural Mechanisms in Classical and Operant Conditioning With regard to classical conditioning, Ramirex-Amaya and Bermudez-Rattoni (1999) found that the amygdala and insular cortex were related to classically conditioned immune responses. Likewise, Fanselow and LeDoux (1999) and LeDoux (2000) have also found that the amygdala plays an important role in conditioned fear responses. Interestingly, the hippocampus is not related to conditioned fear responses or conditioned immune responses. However, any additional learning that may occur in addition to the learning via classical conditioning does involve hippocampal neural processes. When the hippocampus is lesioned in rats, contextual learning, such as learning that the rat’s cage is related to receiving shock or food, is disrupted. Approach and avoidance behaviours are typical behaviours that emerge after operant conditioning procedures. For example, reinforcement (e.g., food) promotes approach behaviours, and punishment (e.g., shock) promotes avoidance behaviours. Gray (1987, 1990) has implicated emotional reactions in his description of two distinct systems that are related to approach and avoidance behaviours: the behavioural approach system (BAS) and the behavioural inhibition system (BIS). In the BAS, environmental signals of reward produce positive emotions (e.g., happiness, hope, relief), both of which increase the likelihood of approach behaviour. In the BIS, environmental signals of punishment produce negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, fear), both of which increase the likelihood of avoidance behaviour. Distinct neural pathways support Gray’s behavioural systems. Specifically, activation of the left frontal lobe is related to pleasurable feelings and approach behaviour, whereas activation of the right frontal lobe is associated with unpleasant emotions and avoidance behaviours (Davidson, 1995; Sutton & Davidson, 1997). References; Davidson, R. (1995). Cerebral asymmetry, emotion and affective style. In R. J. Davidson & K. Hugdahl (Eds.) Brain Asymmetry (pp. 361–387). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Gray, J. A. (1987). ThePsychology of Fear and Sstress. New York: Cambridge University Press. Gray, J. A. (1990). Brain systems that mediate both emotion and cognition. Cognition and Emotion, 4, 269–288. Ramirez-Amaya, V., & Bermudez-Rattoni, F. (1999). Conditioned enhancement of antibody production is disrupted by insular cortex and amygdala but not hippocampal lesions. Brain, Behaviour, & Immunity, 13, 46–60. Sutton, S. K., & Davidson, R. J. (1997). Prefrontal brain asymmetry: A biological substrate of the behavioural approach and inhibition systems. Psychological Science, 8, 204–210.
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▼ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Punishment Students often have difficulty distinguishing between negative reinforcement and punishment. These examples of types of punishment may clarify what it is and when it should be used. Physical punishment or aversive punishment involves administering a stimulus that evokes discomfort. Spankings, electric shock, harsh sounds, or pinches would be included in this category. Aversive punishment its typically used in extreme cases, as it is neither pleasant to administer nor to receive. Reprimands are strong verbal commands (“No!” “Stop that!” “Bad!”) used when an inappropriate behaviour is displayed. They are sometimes accompanied by physical or nonverbal reprimands. Timeout can be exclusionary or nonexclusionary. Exclusionary timeout involves removing an individual for a short time from a situation that he or she finds reinforcing. Nonexclusionary timeout involves introducing a stimulus that is less reinforcing. For example, children might be given a “good conduct” badge to wear while playing in a classroom. If the child becomes disruptive, the badge will be removed, and the child will be ignored by the teacher and not allowed to play with the others. Finally, response cost involves removing a specified amount of reinforcement after an undesired behaviour occurs. Parking tickets, bank fees, or library fines would be examples of this type of punishment. As the text mentions, to be effective punishment must be swift, certain, and sufficient. Some guidelines for deciding to use punishment include selecting a specific response to punish (such as spitting out food) rather than a general category of behaviour (such as not eating or being finicky); maximizing the conditions for a desirable alternative response and minimizing the conditions for the causes of the undesirable response; and selecting an effective punisher (i.e., one that can be delivered immediately and will not be associated with subsequent positive reinforcement). Reference: Martin, G., & Pear, J. (2007). Behaviour modification: What it is and how to do it (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. ▼ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Bear Boys, Swine Girls, Wolf Children Cases of feral children can be traced back for centuries, at least as far as the celebrated case of Romulus and Remus. The term feral, in its modern usage, refers to a number of situations: Human children raised by animals; children surviving in the wilderness; children raised in isolated confinement; or children raised in confinement with little human contact. Regardless of the circumstances, children reared under atypical conditions present a unique case of learning. Carlos Linnaeus first documented cases of feral children based largely on anecdotal evidence. Colourful figures such as the Hessian wolf-boy (1344), Lithuanian bear-boy (1661), or Irish sheep-boy (1672) covered both a lot of terrain and much of the animal kingdom, and provided ammunition for thinkers from Jean-Jacques Rousseau to Francis Gall about the contributions of nature and nurture to human development. Other notable cases include the Wild Boy of Aveyron, Kaspar Hauser, and Wild Peter. It wasn’t until the well-known case of the wolf-children of Midnapore, Kamala and Amala, that structured psychological study of feral children began. Captured in 1920 by Reverend J. A. L. Singh .. 320
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and a hunting party, Kamala (approximately age 8) and Amala (perhaps 1½) were seen in the presence of a wolf mother and three cubs, and were taken as they tried to leave their den. Amala died after a year apart from the wolves, although Kamala lived until about the age of sixteen. During her eight years living with humans she was able to understand speech, mastered a vocabulary of 45 words, and could form 2- and 3-word sentences, in addition to a wide repertoire of gestural communication. These developments did not take place overnight. For several years Kamala was frightened of humans (uttering shrieks and cries when they came near) and was largely mute. Through therapeutic massage and dedicated attention by Mrs. Singh, Kamala grew to become an active, affectionate member of the Singhs’ orphanage. The case of Anna provides a contrast to Kamala. Born in 1932, Anna was the second illegitimate child of a rural woman. Unwanted by her parents (they tried unsuccessfully to place her for adoption) and hated by her grandfather, Anna was kept locked from sight in the attic of the family home. For 6 years she lived with minimal human contact and subsisted on a diet of cow’s milk. She could neither walk nor talk and was malnourished. After a few years of institutional care Anna was able to speak in phrases and short sentences, although her abilities remained in the retarded range. She died August 6, 1942, at the age of ten. The challenge to learning is clear in these examples. In many cases, feral children are quadruped and in most cases they lack speech. Hence, the challenge of restoring some aspects of behaviour (e.g., walking upright, not eating from the floor) compound the normal challenges of learning (e.g., speech training, interpersonal skills training). In some cases, previous responses must be replaced by new ones, such as Kamala’s learning to eat from a table, whereas in other cases existing cognitive processes need to be modified, such as Kaspar Hauser’s rudimentary speech. In all cases, feral children provide food for thought about a variety of issues related to learning, development, and cognition. References: Candland, D. K. (1993). Feral children and clever animals: Reflections on human nature. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Davis, K. (1940). Extreme social isolation of a child. American Journal of Sociology, 45, 554–565. Gesell, A. (1940). Wolf child and human child: The life history of Kamala, the wolf girl. New York: Harper. Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema Naturae (10th ed.). McNeil, M. C., Polloway, E. A., & Smith, J. D. (1984, February). Feral and isolated children: Historical review and analysis. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, pp. 70–79. Singh, J. A. L., & Zingg, R. M. (1941). Wolf-children and feral man. New York: Harper & Bros. Zingg, R. M. (1940). Feral man and extreme cases of isolation. American Journal of Psychology, 53, 487–517.
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▼ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Role Models: Who and Why A great deal of attention is given to the notion of role models in the popular media. Social learning theory supports the idea that many of our behaviours are learned through observation and imitation. Ask students to identify the characteristics of individuals likely to serve as role models. Tell them to be specific about the learning situation—a playground, a dance floor, an artist’s studio, a social situation, or the family household. Why are particular individuals more likely to become role models? What characterizes the relationship between the learner and the role model? Next, consider the imitative behaviour that is often observed between “best friends” who share expressions, gestures, and other behaviours. Can peers be role models for one another? Using principles of learning discussed in the chapter, how would you explain such behaviours? ▼ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Chemical Alarms When injured, many social fish release a chemical that alarms other fish in the school. Experimenters can observe the alarm reactions of a school of fish confined to a laboratory fish tank by stimulating the live fish with chemicals from a fish killed outside of the tank. The alarm reaction of zebra danio fish is fairly elaborate and includes swimming toward the source of the alarm chemical, infusion of the substance with tasting movements, followed by rapid darting movements as if trying to disperse and escape from the tank, followed by forming a compact group, dropping to the bottom of the tank, and swimming back and forth as close to the bottom as possible (Gardner & Gardner, 1998, p. 41). Suboski and his colleagues conducted a series of experiments. In the first, they demonstrated that a small school of zebra danio fish would produce a full alarm reaction when they simply saw another school of zebra danio fish in an adjacent tank exhibiting an alarm reaction. (The fish in the adjacent tank had been exposed to an alarm chemical.) Next, the researchers paired an innocuous substance, called morpholine, with the alarm chemical. This resulted in the conditioning of the fish to respond to morpholine as if it were the alarm chemical. To clarify, after conditioning, the presence of morpholine was sufficient to induce a full alarm reaction. Next, the researchers placed a second group of zebra fish in the tank along with the group that had just been conditioned to the morpholine. Then they added morpholine to the tank. At first exposure to morpholine, the second group of fish continued to swim about normally. Soon after, however, they began following the conditioned fish in their alarm response. In this way, the second group of fish was conditioned to respond to morpholine as they would to an alarm chemical. Finally, when this second group of fish responded to morpholine without the first group in the tank, Suboski and colleagues (1990) used these fish, which had never experienced morpholine paired with an alarm chemical, to condition a third group of fish to respond to morpholine with an alarm response. Fairly elaborate behaviour patterns can be conditioned by classical conditioning. It isn’t limited to simple responses such as salivation and leg withdrawal.
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References: Suboski, M. D., Bain, S., Carty, A. E., McQuoid, L. M., Seelen, M. I., & Seifert, M. (1990). Alarm Reaction in Acquisition and Social Transmission of Simulated-Predator Recognition by Zebra Danio Fish (Brachydanio rerid). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 104(1), 104–112. Gardner, R. A. & Gardner, B. T. (1998). The Structure of Learning: From Sign Stimuli to Sign Language. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. ▼ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Sleep-Assisted Learning The text provides a critique of sleep-assisted learning, using http://www.sleeplearning.com as an example. The following quote also comes from this Web site. Read it to the class as an introduction to your lecture on learning fads. How much is one good exam grade, language or subject mastery worth to you? Suppose you could sit down, write a few notes, record them, set your timer and then effortlessly absorb that information—night after night—while you sleep. Imagine . . . one good exam result could bring you tons of good job offers and new prospects, time and time again—for the rest of your life. So anytime you need to learn anything quickly—you simply turn the tap on. Dollar-for-dollar, nothing provides a better return on investment than education and it doesn't matter what subject matter or area you decide to learn. Education pays, pays, pays! and then keeps on paying you back. Think about it. A gift of a new language or mastery of a specialist area of knowledge is the most powerful attribute anybody can ever acquire or offer to a prospective employer. In half the time and effort it takes normally, you can pass an exam, learn a new language, or change the way you see things with the powerful application of sleep learning. Ask students to critically analyze this ad.
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▼ CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Classically Conditioned Responses in Class Applying Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning in Humans Identifying Components of Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning and TV Advertisements Classical Conditioning and the Pupil Dilation Response Operant Conditioning in Human Behaviour Using Candy to Illustrate Operant Conditioning Concepts Reinforcement vs. Punishment Schedules of Reinforcement Shaping the Professor’s Behaviour Conditioning a Student “Rat” Applying Behavioural Principles Human Cognitive Maps Tie Your Shoes Learning Theory Comparison Conditioning in Everyday Life Behaviour Modification Project Learning Self-Test Crossword Puzzle Fill-in-the-Blanks Chapter 6
▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Classically Conditioned Responses in Class There are several different demonstrations you can use to elicit a classically conditioned response in your students en masse. I personally prefer the water gun demo below; it can be quite cathartic for the instructor. 1. “Jaws” theme (Smith, 1987) — you will need a recording of the shark-attack music from ‘Jaws’ — ask the students to relax, close their eyes and imagine themselves in following event: — it’s a warm, sunny day and you are laying on the warm sand of the Florida beach — the sun is beaming down on you and you feel its warmth — you hear the sounds of waves and the soft sound of children playing in the distance — the sun is hotter now and you decide to cool off in the cool ocean water — you get up and lazily walk toward the water — you wade in up to your waist and feeling very refreshed you start to swim toward deeper water and you are feeling great — at this point, you should play the tape — students will undoubtedly change their relaxed expressions, maybe feel their heartrate increase, and probably begin to laugh — ask students why they responded as they did to the music and then ask them to explain their responses in terms of classical conditioning
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2. balloons (Kohn & Kalat, 1992) — you will need from 5–10 inflated balloons taped on the walls around the room, and a nice, sharp needle — instruct students that they should be aware of their own reactions during the demo — then walk around the room and pop all but the last balloon — you might want to say before popping each balloon something like “ok, here we go, one, two, three” then pop the balloon at varying delays (up to 10 seconds) after saying “three” — as you pop more balloons, students’ flinching responses should decrease — when you get to the last balloon, on “three” just pretend to pop the balloon; most students won’t flinch at all — act as though everyone should have flinched, and ramble on about how it should have worked, and at some point actually pop the balloon unexpectedly—everyone should jump (startle response) — ask students how they were responding for balloons 1–9; most will probably report that they engaged in preparatory responses like tensing one’s muscles to avoid flinching or jumping in response to the ‘pop’ — if they don’t explain it, explain that they were not engaged in preparatory responses during balloon 10 after you “faked it,” thus resulting in a jumpy startle response 3. hot peppers — I love this one, because at one point you can look at your entire class conforming to a ridiculous request — you will need a large jar of hot peppers; I usually use pepperocinis — give each student a paper towel and one big, juicy pepper — tell students to keep the pepper on the paper towel for the time-being — as you walk around the class, talk about how spicy the peppers are, especially when they are full of juice; if you really play this up, you may even get students to make comments about how hot the peppers are — once everyone has a pepper, ask them to squeeze out the juice and even break it open a little bit to see the veins of the pepper which are particularly potent and hot; again, play this up as best as you can — at this point, and you may want to ask students what they are feeling; many of your students may be salivating — push this demo one step further and ask students to tilt their heads back, stick out their tongues, and hold the pepper just above their tongues — no doubt most of your students will be salivating and experiencing tongue constrictions; many will also be nervously laughing — now ask how they feel — tell them that they can eat their pepper if they like, otherwise be sure to pass around a trashcan — ask students to identify the US, UR, NS, CS, and CR 4. watergun fun (Shenker, 1999) — you will need a rain poncho, a watergun (the larger, the better), a chair, a towel, and a volunteer willing to get sprayed in the face with water — ask the student to put on the rain poncho and sit in the chair facing the class — you should stand facing the class with the watergun pointed at the volunteer — tell the class that they should silently observe the behaviour of the volunteer during the demo — squirt the volunteer in the face to demonstrate the UR — read the following list of words, and after reading the word CAN when it is in capital letters, squirt the volunteer cup, can, lime, CAN, dish, girl, chalk, can, dish, CAN, key, screen, ran, CAN, desk, CAN, knob, bag, tape, CAN, dish, clip, CAN, air, ban, cheese, CAN, door, can, box, dish, hair,
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CAN, ring, nail, CAN, boat, cap, dish, CAN, crane, wheel, fire, CAN, take, call, brick, pair, CAN, spin, chair, CAN, camp, CAN, dish, CAN, bridge, scale, can, fan, board, CAN, cool, three, horn, disk, CAN, can, cast, test, pen, dime, CAN, dish, van, can, card, stand, meat, pad, can, dish, set, can, tree, ice, plum, can, cost, bird, glass, can, light, can, sword, juice, can, dish, rock, smoke, grease, dish, keep, kid, tan, dice, hole, set, dish, eye, friend, wax, bill, bulb, dish, class, mine, mark, work, can, dish, can, bus, dish, phone, can, smart, first, can, crack, feet, can, tub, bowl, can, van, day, can, rake, dish, CAN, bluff, risk, CAN, salt, dish, CAN, ball, stack, CAN, rain, hat food, can, van, disk, tree, can — at the end, give the volunteer a towel, and a thankful round of applause — ask students to describe what they observed — topics of conversation related to this demo include the following: — identification of US, UR, NS, CS, and CR — stimulus generalization: words that begin with a C or rhyme with can may have elicited a CR — stimulus discrimination: CRs are most likely to occur only after can — extinction: can is read several times without the US, reducing the likelihood of the CR — spontaneous recovery: can is not mentioned for a while after experimental extinction; then it is mentioned and may elicit the CR — reconditioning/relearning: the US is paired with can at the end of the demonstration, showing fast learning of the CR (faster than initial learning) 5. eye puff experiment — you will need several mechanisms that can create a short puff of air; I recommend the small, handheld, rubber device used to clean one’s ears. — divide students in to teams of three; one participant and two experimenters; ask the participant to leave the room until s/he is retrieved by the experimenter — instruct one of the experimenters to use the air puffer to make a puff of air to one eye of the participant (about 2–3 inches away from the eye) to produce an eyeblink reflex (UR) — instruct the other experimenter to create a NS to become a CS (a snap of one’s fingers, a tap on the desk) — the two experimenters should coordinate their timing for the pairing trials (NS before CS) away from the participant — experimenters should perform the trials with the participant and count the number of trials required to elicit a CR to the CS presented alone 6. classical salivary conditioning (Cogan & Cogan, 1984) — you’ll need a can of sweetened lemonade powder and enough small Dixie-type cups so that each participating student has one. — after discussing Pavlov’s work, distribute to each student a cup approximately half-filled with lemonade powder. — after deciding on a neutral stimulus to serve as the conditioned stimulus (the Cogans suggest “Pavlov”), you are ready to begin conditioning — instruct students to moisten the tip of their index finger and then to dip it into the powder and then onto their tongues whenever you give a prearranged signal (such as raising your arm). Also inform students that you will occasionally say the words “test trial” instead of giving the signal; when this occurs, students should refrain from tasting the powder and instead close their eyes and concentrate on their own experience. — present the CS (i.e., say “Pavlov”) and then after a delay of .5 to 1.5 seconds, give the signal for students to taste the lemonade powder (i.e., raise your arm). These learning trials should be repeated every 10 to 15 seconds, with test trials (in which you say, “Pavlov ... test trial”) occurring after every 10 learning trials. — after each test trial, ask for a show of hands for those who are salivating (the majority of the students should be salivating by the 7th or 8th trial). When most students show evidence of
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conditioning, demonstrate extinction by continuously giving test trials (i.e., saying “Pavlov...test trial” over and over) until students no longer salivate. — during the next class session, demonstrate spontaneous recovery by saying the word “Pavlov” and asking for a show of hands for those who salivate. The Cogans report that in addition to being enthusiastically received by students, this demonstration facilitates understanding of conditioning principles and generates a discussion of classical conditioning applications to real life problems. References: Cogan, D., & Cogan, R. (1984). Classical salivary conditioning: An easy demonstration. Teaching of Psychology, 11, 170–171. Kohn, A., & Kalat, J.W. (1992). Preparing for an important event: Demonstrating the modern view of classical conditioning. Teaching of Psychology, 19, 100–102. Shenker, J. I. (1999). Classical conditioning: An all-purpose demonstration using a toy watergun. In L. T. Benjamin, B. F. Nodine, R. M. Ernst, & C. B. Broeker (Eds.) Activities Handbook for the Teaching of Psychology,Vol. 4 (pp. 163–165).Washington DC: American Psychological Association. Smith, R. A. (1987). JAWS: Demonstrating classical conditioning. In V. P. Makosky, L. G.Whittemore, & A. M. Rogers (Eds.) Activities Handbook for the Teaching of Psychology, Vol. 2 (pp. 65–66).Washington DC: American Psychological Association. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Applying Classical Conditioning Students apply various principles associated with classical conditioning to everyday examples. The student handout for this exercise is included as Handout Master 6.1. Suggested answers appear below. 1. Dogs are often disciplined by being swatted (the US) with rolled up newspapers, magazines, and such (the CS). Fear is a natural response to being hit (the UR) and an acquired response (CR) to the sight of such objects. 2. Joan has been attacked (the US) by monkeys (the CS) in the past. Fear of monkeys (the CR) is an acquired response and fear of attacks (the UR) is more reflexive. Extinction is occurring as contact continues without further incident; that is, presenting the CS (monkeys) without the US (pain from the attack). Moreover, a bit of counterconditioning is also taking place as the cuddly, affectionate monkeys elicit feelings incompatible with fear. 3. Screeching tires (CS) often cause people to tense up and flinch (CR). The lack of this response during a car race suggests that stimulus discrimination may be present. Because neither person has had an accident, higher-order conditioning may account for their learning. Specifically, screeching tires (CS) often give rise to mental images of accidents. These mental images are already established CSs, providing the basis for the CS-CS pairing. 4. The sight of Donna (CS) elicits romantic excitement (CR). The response was extinguished when Donna failed to stimulate her partner (the US). The reaction one year later suggests spontaneous recovery—the reappearance of the conditioned response after an apparent extinction. .. 327
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5. The turkey is the source of the CS; the appearance, smell, and taste of turkey, and also the US, the contamination. The nausea pattern is naturally elicited by contaminated foodstuffs (UR) and is an acquired response to specific foods (CR). In the example, stimulus generalization is taking place. ◄Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Classical Conditioning in Humans Objective: To show classical conditioning as a relevant form of learning Materials: Drinking straws Procedure: A well-known demonstration involves puffing air (UCS) through a straw directed at a subject’s eye which causes an eye blink (UCR). Precede the puff with a finger snap or another appropriate neutral stimulus. Students should carry out this activity in pairs. One student should be the experimenter and the other the subject. In the first set of trials, the experimenter should expose the subject to several pairings of the neutral and unconditioned stimulus. In the second set of trials, the experimenter should vary presentations of the neutral stimulus such that it sometimes precedes the UCS and sometimes does not. The second set of trials should demonstrate that the subject blinks in response to the neutral stimulus even when it is not followed by the UCS. Thus, the neutral stimulus will have become a CS, and the eye blink a CR. ◄Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Identifying Components of Classical Conditioning For each of the following scenarios, identify the CS, UCS, CR, and UCR, as well as any indication of generalization or discrimination. You may need to make inferences about how learning took place. 1) Cancer patients often have trouble maintaining good nutrition because they come to associate food with the feeling of nausea. After a while the sight of any food makes them nauseated. How did they learn this association? 2) By the end of their first month, newborn infants begin sucking when they see the bottle, even before the nipple hits their mouth. How did they learn this association? 3) Baseball players are notorious for their superstitious rituals. How did Nomar Garciaparra come to reposition his gloves so many times before he batted? Why does he do it before every pitch now? 4) My pet cat comes running when she hears the can opener, even if I’m opening a can of corn. Why does she do this? 5) An instructor always prints quizzes on half-sheets of paper. Midway through the quarter, when the instructor arrives to class with a stack of half-sheets of paper, students notice an increased heart-rate and a sense of dread. Why did these students learn to fear half-sheets of paper? .. 328
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6) You never feared the ocean as a child. However, one day, you got caught in an undertow and almost drowned. Now you fear the ocean. Interestingly, you don’t fear swimming in lakes. ◄Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Classical Conditioning and TV Advertisements Objective: To demonstrate the use of the principles of learning in advertising Materials: Videotape of several TV commercials Procedure: Present the ads and lead a discussion in which students analyze the pairing of emotionprovoking stimuli (possible classical conditioning) with products. For example, a commercial that advertises tires might portray a mother and baby driving on a dark, rainy night (fearful stimulus), the implication being that fear can be avoided by choosing the proper brand of tire. Another might a sexy model approaching a man drinking a particular brand of beer, suggesting that a man can attract a sexy woman (pleasant stimulus) by drinking the right kind of beer. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Classical Conditioning and the Pupil Dilation Response Roger Hock suggests a simple classical conditioning experiment that students can perform on themselves at home. Students will need a bell, a hand-held mirror, and a room that becomes completely dark when the light is turned off. Instruct students to hold the bell while standing in the room near the light switch. Once in position, they should ring the bell and then immediately turn off the light. After waiting in total darkness for about 15 seconds, they should turn the light back on. They should wait another 15 seconds with the light on, and then ring the bell and immediately turn the light back off (again waiting 15 seconds in the dark). Students should repeat this procedure 20 to 30 times, making sure that in each case the bell is rung immediately before the light is turned off. After numerous pairings, students are ready to see the results. With the light on, they should watch their eyes closely in the mirror and then ring the bell. Students’ pupils should dilate slightly even without a change in light! For a simple out-of-class assignment, ask students to perform this demonstration at home and to report on their results as part of a class discussion. For a more elaborate assignment, ask students to write a 1 to 2-page paper explaining the process in terms of classical conditioning. Students should explain that because pupils naturally dilate and constrict according to the amount of light intensity, the darkness in this study is an unconditioned stimulus (US) that leads to the unconditioned response (UR) of pupil dilation. By repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus (e.g., the bell) with the unconditioned stimulus (i.e., darkness), the bell has become a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits the conditioned response (CR) of pupil dilation. As part of their paper, students should also propose another (i.e., original) classical conditioning experiment that they can perform at home. Have students perform their experiment, and then in their papers they should carefully describe the procedure and results in classical conditioning terms. An added benefit of this assignment is that many of the clever ideas generated by students can be used as out-of- class demonstrations for future classes!
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Reference: Hock, R. R. (2008). Forty studies that changed psychology: Explorations into the history of psychological research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Operant Conditioning in Human Behaviour Because much of the operant conditioning research presented in textbooks is conducted with animals (e.g., rats, pigeons, dogs), students sometimes have difficulty seeing its relevance to human behaviour, which presumably is not as susceptible to environmental control. Edward Stork suggests a simple demonstration that can be used to generate a discussion of human operant conditioning. While discussing operant conditioning, interrupt your lecture with a question that you know will elicit a mostly positive response (e.g., “How many of you are planning to major in psychology?” “How many of you live within 5 miles of campus?” “How many of you plan to register for classes next term?”). Most students will raise their hands in response to your question. Tell them to hold that position, and ask if anyone told them to raise their hands or even mentioned raising hands. After the chorus of groans (from “being caught”) dies down, ask students to explain their behaviour in terms of operant conditioning, and then use this activity as a springboard for generating other examples of operant conditioning in humans. Reference: Stork, E. (1981). Operant conditioning: Role in human behaviour. In L. T. Benjamin, Jr., & K. D. Lowman, (Eds.), Activities Handbook for the Teaching of Psychology (p. 57). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Using Candy to Illustrate Operant Conditioning Concepts After having tricked your students into displaying evidence of operant conditioning in the previous exercise, reward them with this simple (and tasty!) demonstration that uses a candy machine to illustrate operant conditioning concepts. During your lecture on operant conditioning, place a filled candy machine (e.g., containing M&Ms or peanuts) on a table at the front of the room. (A bubble gum machine can be substituted, but because it requires pennies it can be a little more cumbersome to use). Invite any and all interested students to come inspect the machine and do whatever they want to with it (most will, of course, pull the lever and be rewarded with candy). While students are engaging in this activity, ask them to relate any behaviours they observe to material from the text. You can also prompt them with questions to help them understand additional terms and concepts, such as: (1) What would happen to your behaviour if all the candy were gone? (extinction), (2) What if the machine was refilled? (spontaneous recovery), (3) What if there was an empty coffee jar next to the candy machine? (discrimination), (4) What if there was a similar machine (such as a gumball machine), filled, but not exactly like the candy machine? (generalization), (5) What if you do not like candy or cannot eat it for health reasons? (effectiveness of a reinforcer, motivation), (6) What if the machine were filled with money instead of candy? (secondary reinforcer), (7) What if, like a slot machine, money only appeared after a random number of pulls of the lever? (variable ratio schedule), (8) What might happen to your behaviour if you are reinforced on a variable ratio schedule instead of a continuous one? (superstitious .. 330
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behaviour, extinction would take longer), (9) What would happen if very bad tasting candy came out of the machine? (punishment). During the course of this exercise, it is likely that students will come up with additional questions or interesting variations of their own. Adapted from Smith, J. Y. (1990). Demonstration of learning techniques. In V. P. Makosky, C. C. Sileo, L. G. Whittemore, C. P. Landry, & M. L. Skutley (Eds.), Activities Handbook for the Teaching of Psychology: Vol. 3 (pp. 83–84). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Reinforcement vs. Punishment Although reinforcement (which serves to increase or strengthen a behavioural response) is conceptually the opposite of punishment (which serves to decrease or weaken a behavioural response), students often have a hard time distinguishing negative reinforcement from punishment. Handout Master 6.2 contains several realistic examples of behaviour that can be classified as positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, or punishment. After you have discussed these principles in lecture, test your students’ ability to apply what they’ve learned by going over this short exercise in class. Correct answers are given below. 1. PR 2. PUN 3. PUN 4. NR 5. PR
6. PR 7. NR 8. PUN 9. PUN 10. NR
11. NR 12. PR 13. PUN 14. NR 15. PR
16. PR 17. PUN 18. PR 19. PUN 20. PR
◄Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Schedules of Reinforcement After you have lectured on reinforcement schedules, test students’ ability to apply Fixed Interval (FI), Fixed Ratio (FR), Variable Interval (VI), and Variable Ratio (VR) schedules to everyday behaviour using Handout Master 6.3 which contains many real-world examples of these schedules and can be duplicated and distributed to students or given orally. Correct answers follow. 1. FI 2. VI 3. VR 4. VI 5. FR
6. VR 7. FI 8. FR 9. VI 10. VR
11. FR 12. FR 13. FI 14. VR 15. VI
16. FI 17. VI 18. FI 19. VR 20. FR
Examples selected from a compilation by Roig, M., and Greco-Vigorito, C. (1993). Catalog of negative reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement schedule examples. Paper presented at the 101st Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto.
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◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Shaping the Professor’s Behaviour Objective: To demonstrate the principles of shaping Materials: None Procedure: Tell students that you are going to leave the classroom. While you are outside, they are to select a simple behaviour, for example, standing in a particular place or picking up chalk. Next, one student should be selected to serve as a recorder who will count instances of the target behaviour. Once a behaviour is identified and a recorder selected, students should call you back into the room and smile at you whenever you display a behaviour similar or identical to the target behaviour. Five minutes before class ends, have students reveal the target behaviour. The recorder should report on any increase in frequency of the behaviour. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Conditioning a Student “Rat” A fun demonstration of shaping the behaviour of a student “rat” can be used to liven up your coverage of operant conditioning. (This exercise should be done after students are familiar with the concept of shaping by successive approximations.) Ask for a student volunteer to be the rat and send that person outside the classroom. In the meantime, the class should select a target behaviour for the rat to perform. Potential target behaviours include turning off the classroom lights, turning on the overhead projector, picking up chalk or an eraser, scratching his or her head, shaking hands with the instructor, and so on. The class should also select its method of reinforcement; smiles (which can be big or small), nods (which can be slight or vigorous), clapping, or even pencil tappings should work well. When the “rat” returns, the class should reinforce successive approximations of the goal behaviour. That is, they should reinforce the rat when it is close to performing the behaviour, and do nothing when it is far from the desired behaviour. Alternatively, students can adopt the popular “temperature” version from the childhood game and use “cold,” “cool,” “warm,” “hot” and so on to reflect closeness to the goal. A variation of this procedure involves negative feedback in the form of “booing.” In these demonstrations, the student “rat” receives no feedback if he/she is close to the desired behaviour, but receives “booing” from the class if he/she is not performing the desired approximations toward the desired behaviour. This exercise can also be modified to include more student rats as part of a small-group activity. Depending on your class size, divide students into groups of about 4–6 people and ask for a volunteer “rat” from each group. To keep things flowing smoothly, you should distribute to each group a slip of paper containing the target behaviour. These should be simple, personal behaviours (such as having rats cover their eyes, clap their hands, stand on one leg, make the “okay” gesture, say a target word, take off a watch, etc.) rather than more expansive behaviours (such as going to a corner of the room) in order to keep the activity coordinated and manageable. If you have time, you may want to let each student have a turn playing the rat.
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◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Applying Behavioural Principles (Group Activity) Divide the class into small groups or work as a whole class to suggest ways that a behaviourist would view the three problems which appear on the student handout for this exercise (Handout Master 6.4). Suggestions for behavioural solutions are listed for each problem. 1. Suggestions: The plan should encourage ride-sharing and bus-riding by using rewards and punishments. A high toll could be charged for cars with a single occupant and no toll for cars with two or more passengers. Traffic lanes could be allocated in such a way that delays in passing the toll gate are longest for cars with a single occupant and shortest for buses and carpools. During the rush hour, several cars with three or more passengers could be randomly selected every day. The driver and passengers of these cars could each receive $100. A bus-riders’ lottery could be established. Riders get one lottery ticket for each bus ticket. Tickets are drawn and cash prizes are given once a week. Money for the cash prizes will come from the high tolls paid by drivers who do not share a ride. Local businesses could receive recognition for high participation of employees in car and van pools, and businesses could reward employees for ride-sharing and bus-riding by letting them leave an hour or two early on the last Friday of every month. People who ride the bus or share a ride could be given buttons and bumper stickers indicating “ecological awareness.” People with high status and prestige could be asked to use the buttons and bumper stickers to enhance their value as reinforcers. 2. Suggestions: The low achievers may spend more time with homework because they do not work as rapidly as the children who make better grades. Note that homework was measured in “time spent” rather than “work done.” The low achievers may be highly motivated to do well in school. Their parents and teachers, trusted advisors, tell them that homework is “the key to success.” The children are convinced that more study time will result in higher grades. The parents of low achievers might have been insistent on homework being done. For example, these children may have been required to spend a certain amount of time doing homework before they could play or watch TV. Time spent with homework is not the same as time spent studying. The research showed that the children who spent more time with homework made lower grades than children who spent less time. This compares children with other children rather than with what their own performance might have been if they spent less time with homework. Maybe their grades would be even lower than they are. The homework may have been poorly planned. It could be primarily “busy work,” or perhaps it did not meet the needs of low-achieving children. 3. Suggestions: Extrinsic motivation sometimes tends to reduce intrinsic motivation. Academic talent and personality factors are likely to be rewarded rather than the efforts made by the children. The self-esteem of bright and charming children is likely to be increased and the selfesteem of less bright and less charming children reduced. There is a dilemma in setting criteria for rewards. If criteria are based on absolute standards, some children will never be rewarded. If they are based on improvement, children will see the criteria as .. 333
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unjust. (She got a cookie for spelling those easy words. I missed “pneumonia” on the spelling test and did not get a cookie.) There is an assumption that the “rewards” are reinforcing. A reward is reinforcing only if it increases the probability of the target behaviour. Popcorn is not reinforcing for a child who does not like it, and stickers are not a reward for a child who is tired of them. Administering the reward system will take teacher time that may be better spent teaching.
◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Human Cognitive Maps Tolman’s famous study demonstrated that latent learning (i.e., learning not immediately reflected in behaviour change) can occur in rats. His study showed that rats left alone in a maze, even when not reinforced for their behaviour, formed “cognitive maps” (mental representations of the maze) that allowed them to run the maze swiftly and accurately when later reinforced with food. Humans, too, use a variety of cognitive maps to represent important environments, such as a school, a stadium, an airport, a freeway system, a parking lot, a shopping mall, and so on. You can illustrate this phenomenon easily with students by having them generate a cognitive map for a relevant environment, such as your college campus. After discussing Tolman’s study, ask students to take out a blank sheet of paper and sketch a map of the campus. Compare and contrast the features included in (and excluded from) students’ maps by either projecting an actual campus map on the overhead or by having a few students with detailed maps sketch their maps on the board. Discuss how and why students’ maps differ. What landmarks were central to most maps? Were any features commonly left out? Were there differences between students who live on campus and those who commute? Were there differences related to major of study? Perhaps students’ maps were more detailed and/or accurate for areas near their major department. Were there noticeable differences between maps drawn by seniors (who have spent considerably more time on campus) and first-year students? Were there any gender differences? Were there differences between athletes and nonathletes? These and other questions should spark an interesting discussion on the role of experience in developing cognitive maps. Reference: Whitford, F. W. (2005). Instructor’s resource manual for Psychology: An Introduction by C. G. Morris (12th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Tie Your Shoes Objective: To educate students on the prevalence of behaviours that acquired by observational learning Materials: Students with shoes that have laces Procedure: This activity involves students teaching other students to tie shoes. Have students pair up. One member of the pair should be wearing shoes with laces. Ask students to untie their shoes. The other, referred to as the “Teacher,” provides instructions on how to tie shoes. Assuming nothing, the student should follow the instructions without inference of any kind (e.g., which lace to grab with which hand; how to make “bunny” ears). The teacher cannot point to the laces nor do any type of prompting. After several minutes of probable frustration, ask the teacher to use vicarious or participant modelling. .. 334
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◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Learning Theory Comparison Objective: To help students better understand learning theories Materials: Handout 6.5 Procedure: Instruct students to use their textbooks and lecture notes to complete the chart ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Conditioning in Everyday Life After having read the textbook, after having been exposed to lecture, and after having completed some of the practice exercises suggested here, students should be well-versed in the theories and principles behind classical and operant conditioning. Students should now be ready to apply what they’ve learned to everyday life. Ask students to write a 2 to 3-page paper discussing practical extensions of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or both. There are several variations to this assignment. In one version, students can discuss a variety of examples of conditioning from their own personal experience. A student might, for instance, retell the story of a recent taste aversion experience, note that a pet cat is conditioned to respond to the sound of a can opener, or describe how they reinforce their own study habits. In another version, students can be asked to find examples of how businesses cleverly use these principles in an attempt to influence consumers. Potential examples include magazine or newspaper ads that associate a product with a stimulus that produces positive feelings, letters from polling organizations that include an incentive (such as a crisp dollar bill) for completing a questionnaire, “gifts” (such as personalized address labels) from not-for-profit charitable organizations seeking donations, or any of a new crop of “personalized” appeals that get our attention because they use cues associated with friendship rather than outright sales pitches (e.g., a handwritten message on a yellow sticky note attached to what appears to be a vacation postcard from a friend). In still another version of this assignment, students can be asked to locate two or three reports of recent research that apply principles of classical or operant conditioning to real-world problems (e.g., classical conditioning as a treatment for bedwetting, incentives for participating in curbside recycling programs, the revoking by states of teenage drivers’ licenses for school truancy). For any and all versions of this assignment (combinations are possible as well), students’ papers should contain a thorough discussion that relates their examples to theory and principles discussed in text and lecture. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Behaviour Modification Project An excellent way for students to gain a greater appreciation for learning concepts is to put what they’ve learned to practical use. For this assignment, ask students to apply principles of operant conditioning to modify an existing behaviour. Instruct students to identify a target behaviour to be modified, either an undesirable behaviour that they would like to eliminate or a desirable behaviour that they would like to strengthen. By taking a close look at many aspects of their own behaviour—such as study habits, sporting skills, health habits, or personal-interaction skills—students should have no trouble selecting a behaviour they’d like to change. Examples of potential undesirable behaviours to eliminate include
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smoking cigarettes, eating fatty foods, watching too much TV, speeding, phobias or anxieties (e.g., fear of flying, test anxiety), and procrastination before exams or papers. Examples of desirable behaviours to be increased include remembering people’s names, becoming more punctual with respect to class or social events, outlining textbook chapters while reading, using a turn signal while driving, and increasing a skill in sports (e.g., using a left foot in soccer, increasing free-throw percentage in basketball). For this assignment, students should propose a program for changing a behaviour and then later, after implementing their program, report on its results. This probably works best as a two-part assignment (to ensure that students’ programs are carefully thought out and so they don’t fudge on their criteria for, or evaluation of, success), but should also work fine as a single final report. After identifying the target behaviour, students should monitor their behaviour for a few days and try to generate a plausible explanation for why the problem exists. They should also describe why they want to change the behaviour and what benefits change will bring. Next, students should carefully design a program for modifying the behaviour. In their program proposal, students should describe all relevant conditioning principles incorporated within their plan, which might include the use of positive and negative reinforcers, punishment, shaping, schedules of reinforcement, modelling, extinction, stimulus discrimination or generalization, primary and secondary reinforcers, and so on. Students should then implement their program and write up an honest report of the results. To what degree was the program successful? Plausible explanations for success or failure should be highlighted. If students failed, they should propose (but not carry out) an alternative plan that might be more successful in the future. If students succeeded, they should propose a plan to help them maintain the change. In fairness and to encourage students to select important (but perhaps difficult) target behaviours, students should be graded on their understanding and application of learning principles (e.g., as evident in their program design and implementation) rather than their degree of success at modifying the chosen behaviour. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Learning Self-Test This is a good homework exercise or in-class review exercise for students to use when they have finished this chapter. The student handout for this exercise is included as Handout Master 6.6. Answers to the items on the Learning Self-Test are furnished below. Answers:
Questions 1–13: 1-d, 2-d, 3-a, 4-b, 5-c, 6-b, 7-a, 8-b, 9-a, 10-d, 11-c, 12-a, 13-c Questions 14–15: 14. US= eating oysters oysters UR= nausea 15. US= beating UR= upset
CS= thinking of CR= nausea CS= yardstick CR= upset
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◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Crossword Puzzle Copy and distribute Handout Master 6.7 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment. Answers for the Crossword puzzle: Across 4. learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful. Latent 6. classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person. Vicarious 9. any event or object that, when following a response, decreases the likelihood of that response occurring again. Punishment 10. the use of feedback about biological conditions to bring involuntary responses such as blood pressure and relaxation under voluntary control. Biofeedback 11. the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experiencing of a pleasure stimulus. Positive 13. the strengthening of a response that occurs when that response is followed by a pleasurable consequence. Reinforcement 14. any behaviour that is voluntary. Operant 15. any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response more likely to happen again. Reinforcer 16. the disappearance or weakening of a learned response. Extinction 17. stimulus that has no effect on the desired response. Neutral 18. type of behaviour modification in which desired behaviour is rewarded with tokens. Token Economy Down 1. the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past. Learned Helplessness 2. learning to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the reflex. Classical 3. the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behaviour. Behaviour Modification 5. the reinforcement of simple steps in behaviour that lead to a desired, more complex behaviour. Shaping 7. learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus. Conditioned Response 8. the sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come quickly. Insight 12. the reinforcement of each and every correct response. Continuous ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Fill-in-the-Blanks Copy and distribute Handout Master 6.8 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment.
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Answers for Fill-in-the-Blanks: Chapter 6 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.
Learning Ivan Pavlov Classical conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response Conditioned Stimulus Stimulus generalization Stimulus discrimination Reinforcer Spontaneous recovery Thorndike’s Law of Effect Operant Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Shaping Continuous reinforcement Punishment Instinctive drift Behaviour modification Learned helplessness Observational learning
▼ HANDOUT MASTERS ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Handout Master 6.1 Applying Classical Conditioning Handout Master 6.2 Reinforcement vs. Punishment Handout Master 6.3 Schedules of Reinforcement Handout Master 6.4 Applying Behavioural Principles Handout Master 6.5 Learning Theory Comparison Handout Master 6.6 Learning Self-Test Handout Master 6.7 Crossword Puzzle Activity Handout Master 6.8 Fill-in-the-Blanks Activity
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Handout Master 6.1 Applying Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning, learning produced by the pairing of stimuli and responses in time and place. It contributes to likes and dislikes, emotional reactions, and reflexlike responses to things. Below, explain the situation being described in terms of classical conditioning. For each description, identify or suggest the US, UR, CS, CR, as well as the principles likely to be at work.
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1. While caring for a friend’s dog, you notice that it displays a fear-like posture as you roll up a newspaper. You try this several times more and become convinced that this dog is generally afraid of rolled up newspapers.
2. Joan, an animal trainer, has been phobic about monkeys since an earlier attack. However, because of the money, she has agreed to work with monkeys for a movie studio. At first, just going anywhere near cages makes Joan tense, sweaty, and apprehensive. Lately, though, things have changed. Working with such cuddly, affectionate, human-like creatures is causing Joan to wonder why she ever felt such extreme distress.
3. At a red light, Bob and Fred automatically tensed and felt chills when they heard the screech of tires behind them. Later, while watching a car race, Bob remarked how the screeching of tires was having little effect then. Fred agreed and wondered why they reacted at all, because neither had as much as a dent on his driving record.
4. Early in their relationship, the mere sight of Donna excited Jack. This gradually died out, however, as Donna behaved tolerantly but indifferently. When the relationship ended, Jack was bored with Donna and didn’t even think about her for the next year. Now, he was surprised at how excited he was becoming as he saw Donna through the window of a bus.
5. Bill couldn’t ever remember being so sick and nauseated. He would never go to that restaurant again, and he would never again eat chicken. All he could think about was the good dinner his mother would prepare for his homecoming. As he entered the kitchen, be became flushed and felt nauseated when he saw the golden brown turkey sitting on the table. ► Return to Activity: Applying Classical Conditioning ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 6.2 Reinforcement vs. Punishment Instructions. For each example presented below, identify whether positive reinforcement (PR), negative reinforcement (NR), or punishment (PUN) is illustrated by placing the appropriate abbreviation in the blank next to the item. 1. Police pulling drivers over and giving prizes for buckling up 2. Suspending a basketball player for committing a flagrant foul 3. A soccer player rolling her eyes at a teammate who delivered a bad pass 4. A child snapping her fingers until her teacher calls on her 5. A hospital patient being allowed extra visiting time after eating a complete meal .. 339
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6. Receiving a city utility discount for participating in a recycling program 7. Grounding a teenager until his or her homework is finished 8. Scolding a child for playing in the street 9. A prisoner losing TV privileges for one week for a rule violation 10. A parent nagging a child to clean up her room 11. A rat pressing a lever to terminate a shock or a loud tone 12. A professor giving extra credit to students with perfect attendance 13. A dog being banished to his doghouse after soiling the living room carpet 14. A defendant being harassed and tortured until he confesses 15. A young child receiving $5 for earning good grades in school 16. A mother smiling when her child utters “Mama” 17. A child being put into “time out” for misbehaving 18. Employee of the month getting a reserved parking space 19. At a party, a husband becoming sullen when his wife flirts with a colleague 20. A woman watching a football game offers her child candy to play quietly ► Return to Activity: Reinforcement vs. Punishment ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 6.3 Schedules of Reinforcement Instructions. Identify the reinforcement schedule illustrated in the following examples by placing the appropriate abbreviation in the blank next to the item. Use the following code: Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Interval (VI)
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1. Getting a paycheck every other week 2. Pop quizzes 3. Slot machines at gambling casinos 4. Calling the mechanic to find out if your car is fixed yet 5. A factory worker being paid on piece work 6. Fly fishing: casting and reeling back several times before catching a fish 7. Looking at your watch during a lecture until the end of the lecture 8. A salesperson getting paid on commission 9. Calling a friend and getting a busy signal because he or she is frequently on the phone 10. Signaling with your thumb while hitchhiking 11. Frequent flyer program: receiving rewards after flying X amount of miles 12. Collecting bottles, cans, or other recyclables for cash 13. An athlete’s contract specifies salary increases to be renegotiated every three years 14. Buying lottery tickets 15. A person refraining from drugs for fear of random drug testing 16. Checking the refrigerator to see if the jello is ready 17. Watching for shooting stars 18. Checking the mail, assuming the mail carrier comes at the same time every day 19. Playing Bingo 20. A worker receiving $1 for every 100 envelopes stuffed and sealed ► Return to Activity: Schedules of Reinforcement ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 6.4 Applying Behavioural Principles Look at the following social problems as a behaviourist would. Suggest behavioural solutions for each. 1. Traffic! The problem of traffic gridlock in American cities continues to increase. Campaigns to encourage people to share a ride or take the bus have not been very successful. In one large city, commuters entering the city must cross one of several bridges to get to the area where office buildings and factories are concentrated. How could behaviour modification be used to reduce the traffic congestion in the city?
2. The Homework Puzzle. An article published in The New York Times reported the results of a large- scale study on the benefits of homework for elementary school children. The study showed that the lowest-achieving children spent more time with homework than children with better grades. How can the longer time spent by the low-achieving children be explained? Why aren’t the children who spent more time with homework the ones who are making better grades?
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3. Stars and Stickers. Should elementary school children receive material rewards for performance and cooperation? Imagine that you are a parent and that you have a child in the first grade. You have received a notice from the principal of the school that a program of tangible rewards (buttons, stickers, stars, bags of popcorn, cookies) is being considered. The notice compares tangible rewards for the children with the pay adults get for work. From what we know about behaviourism, is this a good idea? Explain why the extensive use of tangible rewards may backfire in this situation.
► Return to Activity: Applying Behavioural Principles ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 6.5 Learning Theory Comparison Describe the procedures and results, and give an example for each learning theory. Comparison Classical Conditioning Procedure
Result
Example
Operant Conditioning Procedure
Result
Example
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Observational Learning Procedure
Result
Example
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Handout Master 6.6 Learning Self-Test For each situation below, indicate whether it is an example of: a. classical conditioning b. operant conditioning c. insight d. observational learning 1. Susie is a four-year-old child. One day she watches her mother vacuum the living room. Her mother comments to Susie, “Doesn’t the living room look nice now that I’ve cleaned it?” The next day, her mother finds Susie “vacuuming” the living room with her toy vacuum. 2. You are thinking of asking the teacher for an extension on your paper. Just as you are about to go up to the teacher, another student approaches the teacher with the same request. The teacher appears angry, and very loudly and rudely turns down the student’s request for an extension. You decide not to ask for an extension. 3. Until she was eight, Barbara liked cats. When she was eight, she was bitten through the hand by a cat as she tried to get it out from under a bed. This was an upsetting experience. Since that time, Barbara experiences anxiety whenever she is near a cat. 4. Alison, age four, needs to learn to speak up louder in class. Her parents and teacher agree that whenever Alison speaks up loudly in class, she will get a star on her chart. Whenever she accumulates 25 stars, she will get to go to Baskin-Robbins for ice cream. Alison starts speaking up in class more frequently.
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5. Scott, age six, has difficulty in reaching clothes hanging from the clothes bar in his closet because the clothes bar is too high. He figures out that if hangers simply had longer necks, he would be able to manage with the clothes bar at the current height. Working with his father, he creates a set of long-necked hangers and enters them in the “Invent America” contest at his school. 6. Tom is hammering nails into planks to build a fence. He experiments with holding the nail a different way and immediately hits his thumb with the hammer. OUCH! He continues his work, but he never holds the nail that way again. 7. It is summer time. Sarah and Jeremy are in love. They enjoy being together and are thoroughly relaxed and content in each other’s presence. The hit song that summer is “Buckets of Love” and they hear that song a lot when they are together. At the end of the summer, they have to return to their separate colleges, which are quite far apart. That fall, every time Sarah hears the tune “Buckets of Love,” she experiences the same feelings of relaxation and contentment that she felt when she was with Jeremy. In the following examples, identify which is being used to control behaviour: a. positive reinforcement b. negative reinforcement c. punishment d. extinction 8. The smoke detector in Jesse’s house is low on batteries. It emits an annoying chirp every few seconds. Jesse installs a new battery so it will stop making that noise. 9. Dr. Smith, a Doe College instructor, is having difficulty getting students to turn in papers. Previously, he had not assigned credit for homework; rather, he had simply assumed that students would do it for the practice. Dr. Smith establishes a policy that all students who turn in papers will get full credit for their work. Students now turn in papers much more often. 10. Robert puts $0.85 in the Coke machine to buy his daily Coke. Today, nothing comes out, and he does not get his money back. Robert does not put any more money in the machine. 11. Jeff is playing with his food at the dinner table. His mother tells him to stop playing with his food. When he does not stop, she takes his food away, leaving Jeff hungry all night. Jeff never plays with his food again. 12. Jeff is playing with his food at the dinner table while his parents are trying to carry on an adult conversation. When his mother notices what Jeff is doing, she stops talking with her husband and directs her attention to Jeff. She yells at him to stop playing with his food, and says that playing with his food is a horrible and disgusting habit. Jeff plays with his food again several times during that meal, and even more frequently the next night. 13. Jeff is diligently working on an art project at school. His teacher notices how nicely he is working and praises him loudly for his efforts. Jeff immediately seems less interested working on his project. The teacher praises the little bits he completes as time goes on, and Jeff stops working on the art project entirely. For each example given, identify the unconditioned stimulus (US), unconditioned response (UR), conditioned stimulus (CS) and conditioned response (CR):
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14. Art goes to a meeting in New Orleans and tries some oysters at the oyster bar. He likes the taste and eats quite a few. Soon he becomes very ill with an upset stomach. Now, even the thought of oysters makes him nauseous. US= UR=
CS= CR=
15. When Trudy was four, Trudy did not have any particular reaction to, or interest in, yardsticks. From the time she was five, until she was eight, Trudy’s parents beat her with a yardstick. Trudy was very upset every time she was beaten. Now Trudy becomes very upset every time she sees a yardstick. US= CS= UR= CR=
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► Return to Activity: Learning Self-Test ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 6.7 Crossword Puzzle Activity Chapter 6: Learning
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Across 4. learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful. 6. classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person. 9. any event or object that, when following a response, decreases the likelihood of that response occurring again. 10. the use of feedback about biological conditions to bring involuntary responses such as blood pressure and relaxation under voluntary control. 11. the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experiencing of a pleasure stimulus. 13. the strengthening of a response that occurs when that response is followed by a pleasurable consequence. 14. any behaviour that is voluntary. 15. any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response more likely to happen again. 16. the disappearance or weakening of a learned response. 17. stimulus that has no effect on the desired response. 18. type of behaviour modification in which desired behaviour is rewarded with tokens. Down 1. the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past. 2. learning to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the reflex. 3. the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behaviour. 5. the reinforcement of simple steps in behaviour that lead to a desired, more complex behaviour. 7. learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus. 8. the sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come quickly. 12. the reinforcement of each and every correct response.
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► Return to Activity: Crossword Puzzle ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 6.8 Chapter 6—Fill-in-the-Blanks: Learning 1. Any relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about by experience or practice is called _______________________. 2. The Russian physiologist (person who studies the workings of the body) who discovered classical conditioning through his work on digestion in dogs was_____________________. 3. _________________________ is learning that makes a reflex response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the reflex. 4. _________________a naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary response. 5. __________ ______is an involuntary response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned stimulus. 6. A stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus is called a_________________. 7. _________________is the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response. 8. _________________________the tendency to stop making a generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus. 9. A________________is any event or object that, when following a response, increases the likelihood of that response occurring again. 10. The reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred is called___________________ _________. 11. ________________ _____________________ is a law stating that if a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated. 12. Any behaviour that is voluntary is called_________________________. 13. The reinforcement of a response by the addition or experiencing of a pleasurable stimulus is called ________________________. 14. The reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus is called___________ ________________. 15. The reinforcement of simple steps in a behaviour that lead to a desired, more complex behaviour is called_________________________. 16. The reinforcement of each and every correct response is called_____________________________. 17. Any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen again is said to be______________________. 18. ___________________________. is tendency for an animal’s behaviour to revert to genetically controlled patterns. 19. The use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behaviour is called _____________________________. 20. _______________________________ the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past. 21. Learning new behaviour by watching a model perform that behaviour is known as______________ ___________________.
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► Return to Activity: Fill-in-the-Blanks ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents Words for Fill-in-the-Blanks: Behaviour modification Classical conditioning Conditioned Stimulus Continuous reinforcement Instinctive drift Ivan Pavlov Learned helplessness Learning Negative reinforcement Observational learning Operant
Positive reinforcement Punishment Reinforcer Shaping Spontaneous recovery Stimulus Discrimination Stimulus generalization Thorndike’s Law of Effect Unconditioned Response Unconditioned Stimulus
▼ APS: READINGS FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE ▲ Return to Table of Contents Current Directions in Introductory Psychology, Second Edition (0-13-714350-8) Edited by Abigail A. Baird, with Michele M. Tugade and Heather B. Veague This new and exciting American Psychological Reader includes timely, cutting-edge articles, giving readers a real-world perspective from a reliable source Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. This reader includes over 20 articles that have been carefully selected and taken from the very accessible Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. Articles discuss today’s most current and pressing issues in introductory psychology and are broken down into these main sections: Scientific Thinking; Nature/Nurture; Consciousness; Individual Differences; and Applications. Nicholas L. Carnagey, Craig A. Anderson, Bruce D. Bartholow Media Violence and Social Neuroscience: New Questions and New Opportunities. (Vol. 16, No. 4, 2007, pp. 178–182) p. 203 in the APS reader Decades of research have demonstrated that exposure to violence on television can cause increases in aggression. The recent emergence of violent video games has raised new questions regarding the effects of violent media. The General Aggression Model (GAM) predicts that exposure to violent media increases aggressive behaviour through one of three primary pathways (arousal, cognitions, and affect). Past psychophysiological research has supported GAM but has been limited to examining arousalrelated variables. Recent advances in social neuroscience have opened the door to investigations of exposure to violent media on cognitive and affective components and their neurocognitive underpinnings. Neuroscience tools have the potential to provide answers to the new questions posed by recent advances in media technology.
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▼ FORTY STUDIES THAT CHANGED PSYCHOLOGY ▲ Return to Table of Contents Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research, 6/e (013603599X) By Roger Hock This unique book closes the gap between psychology textbooks and the research that made them possible by offering a first hand glimpse into 40 of the most famous studies in the history of the field, and subsequent studies that expanded upon each study’s influence. Readers are able to grasp the process and excitement of scientific discovery as they experience an insider’s look at the studies that continue today to be cited most frequently, stirred up the most controversy when they were first published, sparked the most subsequent related research, opened new fields of psychological exploration, and changed most dramatically our knowledge of human behaviour. It’s Not Just About Salivating Dogs! Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes. London: Oxford University Press. Little Emotional Albert Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3, 1–14. Knock Wood! Skinner, B. F. (1948). Superstition in the pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 168–172. See Aggression…Do Aggression! Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575–582.
▼ WEB RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents General/Comprehensive Websites Association for Applied Behaviour Analysis: http://www.abainternational.org/ An international organization “dedicated to promoting the experimental, theoretical, and applied analysis of behaviour.” Operant and Classical Conditioning: http://www.brembs.net/ Compares and contrasts operant and classical conditioning. Provides helpful diagrams that your students can use while learning about learning. Using Classical vs. Operant Conditioning: http://www.utexas.edu/ Self-test examples of classical and operant conditioning—many vignettes illustrating examples of classical and operant conditioning. You are asked to figure out which it is. Answers and explanations are provided.
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Classical Conditioning Classical (Respondent) Conditioning—Valdosta State University: http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/ An overview of classical conditioning with cute diagrams. Conditioned Emotional Reactions: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/ A reprint of the classic (1920) paper by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner (the story behind “Little Albert and the White Rat”), presented on the Web as part of the “Classics in the History of Psychology” series maintained by Christopher D. Green. Operant Conditioning B. F. Skinner Foundation: http://www.bfskinner.org/ A comprehensive site devoted to the legacy of B. F. Skinner. Positive Reinforcement: A Self-Instruction Exercise: http://psych.athabascau.ca/ Site designed to teach the concept of positive reinforcement. Lots of examples and nonexamples with analyses. Observational/Social Learning Transmission of Aggressions Through Imitation of Aggressive Models: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/ An account of one of the “Bobo doll” studies of aggressive behaviour, by Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1961), originally published in the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575–582. The online version is part of Classics in the History of Psychology, an Internet Resource developed by Christopher D. Green at York University, in Toronto. Animal Training Animal Cognition Web Site: http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/ Course homepage includes information on the history of animal learning, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and complex animal behaviour. Animal Trainer’s Introduction to Operant and Classical Conditioning: http://www.wagntrain.com/ A nicely written article by Stacy Braslau-Schneck, MA. Explains how basic principles of operant and classical conditioning are incorporated into clicker training Animal Training at Sea World: http://www.seaworld.org/ Great site for students to see “fun” applications of operant conditioning principles. ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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7/ MEMORY TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲ Return to Table of Contents
MODULE 7.1: Memory Systems ➢ Lecture Guide: Memory Systems (p. 353) ➢ Resources Available (p. 361)
MODULE 7.2: Encoding and Retrieving Memories ➢ Lecture Guide: Encoding and Retrieving Memories (p. 362) ➢ Resources Available (p. 367)
MODULE 7.3: Constructing and Reconstructing Memories ➢ Lecture Guide: Constructing and Reconstructing Memories (p. 368) ➢ Resources Available (p. 373)
FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 374) Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 390) Handout Masters (p. 400) APS Readings from the Association of Psychological Science (p. 405) Forty Studies that Changed Psychology (p. 406) Web Resources (p. 406)
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LECTURE GUIDE I. MODULE 7.1: MEMORY SYSTEMS (Text p. 252) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology of memory systems. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand which structures in the brain are associated with specific memory tasks and how the brain changes as new memories form. o The hippocampus is critical to the formation of new declarative memories. Long-term potentiation at the level of individual nerve cells is the basic mechanism underlying this process. Long-term memories stores are distributed across the cortex. Working memory utilizes the parts of the brain associated with visual auditory perception, as well as the frontal lobes (central executive). ✓ Apply your knowledge of the neural basis of memory to predict what types of memory would be affected by damage to different areas of the brain. o After reading brain damage scenarios, students should be able to predict likely effects to memory. ✓ Analyze the claim that humans have multiple memory systems. o Most psychologists agree that research provides evidence about the existence of multiple storage systems and control processes. For example, data related to the serial position effect indicate that information at the beginning and end of a list is remembered and stored differently. Also, evidence from amnesia studies suggest that LTM and STM can be affected separately by brain damage or disease. 1) Memory is not a single ability, but rather a collection of several different systems that store information in different forms for differing amounts of time (Figure 7.1).
The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model 1) In the 1960s, Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin developed a memory model with three systems of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM) (Figure 7.1). i) These three memory systems also act as stores. Stores (p. 253) retain information in memory without using it for any specific purpose. 2) Information is moved from one memory to the next through control processes. Control Processes (p. 253) shift information from one memory to another. i)
Information from the senses (e.g., vision, hearing, etc.) enters the sensory memory and the control process of attention selects which information passes on to STM. ii) Some of the information in STM goes through encoding to move into LTM and retrieval bring the information from LTM back into STM. Attention (p. 253): a process which selects which information will be passed on to short term memory.
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Encoding (p. 253) is the process of storing information in the LTM system. Retrieval (p. 253) brings information from LTM back into STM.
Sensory Memory Sensory Memory (p. 253) is a memory store that accurately holds perceptual information for a very brief amount of time. Iconic memory (p. 253) is the visual form of sensory memory. Echoic memory (p. 253) is the auditory form of sensory memory. 1) The length of time the information is held differs by sensory system. i) For example, the visual form of sensory memory (iconic memory) lasts for 1/2 to 1 second. ii) The auditory form of sensory memory (echoic memory) lasts about 5 seconds. a) Ever have that “What? Oh!” phenomenon? 2) One way to detect iconic memory is by comparing two conditions in a memory experiment: The whole report and the partial report, developed by George Sperling. i) In the whole report condition, researchers flash a grid of letters on a screen for a split second and participants attempt to recall as many as possible (Figure 7.2a). a) Participants can usually only report 3 or 4 of the letters, and those are all in the same line. ii) In the partial condition, researchers flash the set of letters on the screen, but the display is followed immediately by a tone that is randomly chosen to be low, medium, or high (Figure 7.2b). a) After hearing the tone, participants reporting the corresponding lines (bottom, middle, or top). b) Participants still reported only 3 or 4 letters, but they can report them from any randomly selected line. c) The tone comes after the screen went blank, so the only way the participants got the letters right was if they were recalled from memory.
Short-Term Memory and the Magical Number 7 1) Short term memory can hold about 7 items plus or minus 2. i) more information can be maintained if the information can be chunked into meaningful units. Short-term memory (STM) (p. 255) is a memory store with limited capacity and duration (approximately 30 seconds). Chunking (p. 255): organizing smaller units of information into larger, more meaningful units. (Figure 7.4).
Long Term Memory Long-Term Memory (LTM) (p. 257) is a memory store that holds information for extended periods of time, if not permanently.
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Chapter 7: Memory 1) Once in long term memory, information needs to be organized. i) Sometimes by semantic categories. a) e.g. cat is organized with other animals. ii) Sometimes by sounds. a) evidence that words that sound are arranged together comes from the tip of the tongue phenomenon. Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon (p. 257) when you are able to retrieve similar sounding words or words that start with the same letter but can’t quite retrieve the word you actually want. Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Distinguishing Short-Term from Long-Term Memory Stores 1) What do we know about short-term and long-term memory stores? i) STM holds 7+/- 2 and lasts about a minute. ii) LTM has no fixed capacity or duration. 2) The distinction between STM and LTM is often demonstrated using the serial positions task. i) Researchers had people study a list of 20 words and then immediately try to recall the words. a) Plotting the results produces a U-shaped curve (serial position curve) because people tend to remember the first and last few words and only one or two in the middle (Figure 7.6). b) This happens with lists of words, ads you might recall after watching the Super Bowl, and many other types of information. Serial Position Effect (p. 258) in general, most people will recall the first few items from a list and the last few items, but only an item or two from the middle. ii) The first few items are more likely to be remembered (known as the primacy effect) because they have started the process of moving into the LTM, whereas the last few items are still in the STM (the recency effect). a) These processes begin to produce proactive interference and retroactive interference (Figure 7.7). 3) How can science explain the difference between STM and LTM stores? i) The shape of the serial positions curve suggests that there are two different memory processes at work. ii) Items early in the list produce proactive interference. iii) Items at the end of the list produce retroactive interference. Proactive interference (p. 258) the first information learned (e.g., in a list of words) occupies memory, leaving fewer resources left to remember the newer information. Retroactive interference (p. 258) the most recently learned information overshadows some older memories that have not yet made it into long-term memory. iv) It appears that research has isolated the effects of two different neural systems, which, working together, produce the serial position curve. a) fMRI scans were taken of 10 volunteers asked to study a list of 12 words presented on a computer screen at one time. b) The screen then flashed one word at a time and the volunteers had to identify it as one of the words on the list or not. c) The hippocampus (involved with the formation of LTM) was active when volunteers remembered words from the beginning of the list. .. 355
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d) Brain areas associated with sensory information (seeing and hearing the words) were more active when recalling words from later in the list. 4) Can we critically evaluate the distinction between STM and LTM? i) The functioning in some memory disorders appears to support the distinction between STM and LTM. a) For example, those with dementia can remember enough to have conversations (STM), but might have trouble remembering whether they took their medicine (LTM). 5) Why is this relevant? i) Knowing how the primacy and recency effects work, students might change how they study facts. a) For example, switch the order in which they study.
The Working Memory Model: An Active STM System 1) Someone gives you their phone number, but you don’t have a pen handy to write it down. i) You will probably use rehearsal to remember it until you can write it down. Rehearsal (p. 259) repeating information until you do not need to remember it anymore. Working memory (p. 259) is a model of short-term remembering that includes a combination of memory components that can temporarily store small amounts of information for a short period of time. 2) Working memory includes new information as well as older information from LTM. 3) The working memory model for short-term remembering can be subdivided into three storage components (Figure 7.8)
The Phonological Loop Phonological Loop (p. 260) is a storage component of working memory that relies on rehearsal and stores information as sounds, or an auditory code. i)
The phonological loop uses regions of the brain specialized in speech and hearing without affecting memory for visual and spatial information.
1) The word-length effect tell us that people remember more one-syllable words (e.g., hat, bar, etc.) than four or five-syllable words (e.g., helicopter, alligator, etc.) in a short-term task. 2) Research shows that working memory can store as many syllables as can be rehearsed in about two seconds. 3) The Brown-Peterson Test is a technique for measuring the duration of working memory. i) This test relies on meaningless stimuli and interference. ii) Participants are asked to remember a trigram (an unpronounceable series of three letters) not associated with anything in LTM. a) This ensures that participants use their STM. iii) They are then given a three-digit number from which they have to count backwards by threes. a) This process is to interfere with memory trick, such as repeating the trigram.
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The Visuospatial Sketchpad Visuospatial sketchpad (p. 261) is a storage component of working memory that maintains visual images and spatial layouts in a visuospatial code. 1) Items stored in visuospatial memory can be counted based on shapes, colours, and textures. i) This memory also uses chunking, but in this case it’s called feature binding (Figure 7.9). 2) After feature binding, visuospatial memory can accurately retain about four whole objects, regardless of how many individual features one can find on those objects (see Figure 7.9). i) The magical number in this memory is said to be 5. ii) For example, when you are driving you take in a car, toll booth, person, and speedometer. Not red, shiny, and smooth; building, lights, tunnel, etc.
The Episodic Buffer Episodic buffer (p. 261) a storage component of working memory that combines the images and sounds from the other two components into coherent, story-like episodes. 1) These episodes include the relevant information to make sense of images and sounds. 2) This is the “newest” of the working memory system, so there is much research still needed to understand this system. 3) Research suggests it may hold 7-10 pieces of information, which may be combined with other memory stores. i) For example, people can remember 7-10 more words when citing meaningful prose than when reading a random list of unrelated words. a) Some portion of the working memory is able to connect the prose with LTM (knowledge) to increase memory capacity.
The Central Executive 1) The central executive is another component of working memory that is not primarily used for storing information. i) It seeks out what is relevant to our goals, interests, and prior knowledge. Central executive (p. 261) is the control centre of working memory; it coordinates attention and the exchange of information among the three storage components. a) For example, it is easy to remember a list of letters from a familiar alphabet by rehearsing them in the phonological loop. b) However, if the letters were from a foreign language, you would need to use the visuospatial sketchpad.
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Long-Term Memory Systems: Declarative and Nondeclarative Memories 1) Long-term memory can also be divided into components (see Figure 7.10). i) There are memories that one is aware of versus those that do not require awareness. 2) Declarative memories are those that you are aware of, such as what you had for breakfast and that a penguin is a bird. Declarative memories (or explicit memories) (p. 262) are memories that are conscious and can be verbalized, including facts about the world and one’s own personal experiences. Nondeclarative memories (or implicit memories) (p. 262) include actions or behaviours that you can remember and perform without awareness. i)
Classical conditioning (Module 6.1) is another type of nondeclarative memory, because people can be classically conditioned without awareness.
Declarative Memory 3) There are two types of declarative memories: Episodic and Semantic. Episodic memories (p. 262) are declarative memories for personal experiences that seem to be organized around “episodes” and are recalled from a first-person (I or my) perspective. Semantic memories (p. 262) are declarative memories that include facts about the world. i)
For example, your semantic memory of a bike is your knowledge of what a bike is, whereas your episodic memory is the memory of when you first learned to ride a bike. ii) As people age, their episodic memory declines more rapidly than their semantic memory. • They are more likely to forget where they went on vacation five years ago than the state capitals.
Nondeclarative Memory 1) Other memories, such as how to walk or type, involve nondeclarative memories and procedural memories. Procedural memories (p. 263) include patterns of muscle movements (motor memory).
The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory Memory at the Cellular Level 1) At the neural level, memory formation begins with long-term potentiation. i) Potential (action potential from Module 3.2) is the electrical signal within a neuron. ii) Long-term means anywhere from a few minutes to hours; it is not permanent. Long-term potentiation (LTP) (p. 263) means that there is an enduring increase in connectivity and transmission of neural signal between nerve cells that fire together.
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Chapter 7: Memory 2) The first discovery of LTP occurred when researchers electrically stimulated two neurons in a rabbit’s hippocampus (Figure 7.11). i) Stimulation to this area increased the number of electrical potentials from one neuron to the other. ii) So on, the neurons began to generate stronger signals than before, a change that could last up to a few hours. 3) For example, you can become classically conditioned to blink at the sound after enough pairings of the tone with a puff of air to your eye. i) At the neural level, the tone causes a series of neurons to responds, and the puff of air causes another series of neurons to respond. ii) If a neuron in the auditory circuit stimulates a neuron in the eye blink circuit, both will be active at the same time. a) This simultaneous activation provides the opportunity for LTP to begin, representing the first stages of memory. 4) However, LTP lasts anywhere from minutes to hours. Lasting memories require consolidation. i) Consolidation can happen at the level of small neuronal groups to across the cortex. Consolidation (p. 264) the process of converting short-term memories into long-term memories in the brain. 5) When LTP continues long and often enough, the neurons adapt and make the changes more permanent, a process called cellular consolidation. i) Without this process, LTP eventually fades and so does the memory. 6) Long-term declarative memories are distributed throughout the cortex of the brain, versus being stored in one region (a phenomenon known as cross-cortical storage). i) The hippocampus is one area involved in the consolidation phase of getting declarative memories into LTM (Figure 7.12). ii) Laboratory animals with lesions to the hippocampus have little success in learning and remembering spatial information. 7) The activity of the hippocampus during encoding is part of a second level of consolidation called systems consolidation. i) For this process to occur, the hippocampus maintains LTP until the acquired behaviour can form multiple connections throughout the cortex. ii) Once the memory traces are formed in the cortex, the memory is distributed in an entire network of cells. iii) After this, damage to the hippocampus is less likely to result in loss of those long-term memories. 8) The hippocampus is also involved in reconsolidation, or the updating of memories. i) For example, when someone reminds you of a previous event from years ago. 9) Applying this outside the laboratory, alcohol reduces the ability of cells in the hippocampus to transmit electrical signals. i) Binge-drinking results in pronounced effects, which explains why some individuals may experience blackouts or en bloc memory loss.
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Memory, Brain, and Amnesia 1) Much of our understanding of the brain basis of memory comes from cases of amnesia. Amnesia (p. 264) a profound loss of at least one form of memory. 2) One feature among various forms of amnesia is time (Figure 7.14). Anterograde Amnesia (p. 264) is the inability to form new memories for events occurring after a brain injury. i)
Someone with anterograde will be able to remember his/or past, but not who the new president is, the fact they moved to an assisted living residence, etc. a) This is similar to Drew Barrymore’s character in 50 First Dates. ii) Anterograde amnesia also seems to involve a problem with transfer from STM to LTM. a) Individuals retain their prior memories, suggesting their retrieval process is intact. b) This suggests the problem lies in consolidation. 3) One famous case of anterograde amnesia involves a patient called H.M. i) Surgeons removed his left and right hippocampus to treat his seizures. ii) He could remember the names of nurses who cared for him before the surgery, but not those hired to care for him after the surgery. iii) One interesting finding was that H.M was able to improve his performance on a puzzle with practice, even though he couldn’t remember the puzzle. a) This shows that anterograde amnesia affects declarative memory more so than nondeclarative memory. b) It also affects episodic memories more than semantic memories.
STORED MEMORIES AND THE BRAIN 1) Long-term memories do not sit collecting dust on a neurological shelf. Storage (p. 265) refers to the time and manner in which information is retained between encoding and retrieval. 2) Memory storage is an active process, with updates through reminders. i) This process is called reconsolidation in the hippocampus where it is updated, strengthened and modified. Retrograde amnesia (p. 266) a condition in which memory for the events preceding trauma or injury is lost. a) Memories that have not had the time to develop cross-cortical networks are more likely to be lost following a head injury than older memories. b) “Lost time” is generally limited to the seconds to minutes leading up to the injury.
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 7.1 Lecture Launchers ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Episodic ≠ Semantic Amnesia and Implicit Memory Memory Anomalies: Beyond Déjà Vu Musical Memories
Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ What Is Memory? ➢ Do We Make Accurate Copies of Events in Our Memories? ➢ The Limits of Short-Term Memory ➢ The Value of Chunking ➢ Chunking to Increase Meaningfulness ➢ Memory in Film: Memento ➢ Decay and Interference in Short-Term Memory
Web Resources ➢ Exploratorium: www.exploratorium.edu/
▲ Return to Table of Contents
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II. MODULE 7.2: ENCODING AND RETRIEVING MEMORIES (Text p. 268) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology related to forgetting, encoding, and retrieval. o See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand how the type of cognitive processing employed can affect the chances of remembering what you encounter. o Generally speaking, the deeper the processing, the more likely something is to be remembered. Methods in achiever deeper processing include elaborating on the meaning of the information, using emotional content, and coding of images and sounds simultaneously. ✓ Apply what you have learned to improve your ability to memorize information. o Students should be able to be given a list and use the method of loci to remember all the items. ✓ Analyze whether emotional memories are more accurate than non-emotional ones. o Both personal experiences and controlled laboratory studies demonstrate that emotion enhances memory. However, in the case of flashbulb memories, even memories of significant events decline over time, although confidence in memory accuracy usually remains very high.
Encoding and Retrieval 1) The most familiar aspects of memory are encoding, storage, and retrieval—the processes by which we acquire new memories and recall old ones.
Rehearsal: The Basics of Encoding 1) Many students use rehearsing and repeating to remember information, but this is probably not the most effective way to remember. i) One experiment had people rehearse a single word for varying amounts of time before being asked to recall it (Figure 7.15). a) Participants were asked to remember four numbers while repeating a single word (for 2 to 18 seconds) until asked to stop and recall the word they were saying. b) There was no relation between rehearsal time (2-18 seconds) and recall. 2) Research suggests it’s not how long we rehearse, but how we rehearse that counts. i) Just repeating information does not help with memory. ii) Instead, one should think about the meaning of the information. Maintenance rehearsal (p. 270) prolonging exposure to information by repeating it. Elaborative rehearsal (p. 270) prolonging exposure to information by thinking about its meaning.
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Levels of Processing 1) Not all types of elaborative encoding are equally effective. 2) Levels of processing (LOP) framework suggests that perceptual processing is less effective than meaningful processing. Shallow processing (p. 270) involves more superficial properties of stimulus, such as the sound or spelling of a word. Deep processing (p. 270) is generally related to an item’s meaning or its function. The self-reference effect (p. 270) occurs when you think about information in terms of how it relates to you or how it is useful to you; this type of encoding will lead to you remembering that information better than you otherwise would have. i)
If asked to decide whether a word rhymes with another word it will not be remembered as well as if asked if the word is a synonym for another word, memory for the synonym condition may be as much as 7 times greater (Craik and Lockhart, 1972) (see Figure 7.16).
Retrieval 1) Once information is encoded we need to retrieve it when needed. i) Can use recall or recognition. Recognition (p. 270) involves identifying a stimulus or piece of information when it is presented to you. Recall (p. 270) involves retrieving information when asked, but without that information being present during the retrieval process. 2) Shared context can include internal factors (e.g., mood) or external factors (e.g., characteristics of the room you’re in). 3) There are several ways to observe encoding specificity. Encoding specificity principle (p. 271) suggests that retrieval is most effective when it occurs in the same context as encoding.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Context-Dependent Memory 1) What do we know about context-dependent memory? i) Participants are better at remembering items if they are presented in the same context at learning and retrieval (see Figure 7.17). 2) How can science explain context-dependent memory? i) Characteristics of the environment serve as retrieval cues. ii) Brain imaging shows areas related to memory are active when context is the same. 3) Can we critically evaluate this evidence? i) Have also found that false positives increase when the context is the same (see Figure 7.18). ii) Same context may lower threshold for saying “I remember”.
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4) Why is this relevant? i) Implies that information may not be forgotten, may be a lack of cues. ii) Context could provide a false feeling of familiarity that may lead to false positive in police line ups, for example.
State Dependent Memory State-dependent memory (p. 274) suggests that retrieval is more effective when your internal state matches the state you were in during encoding. 1) One study had students with phobias memorize words in the presence of snakes or spiders. 2) Those who studied and recalled in the same context did better than those who relaxed during recall.
Mood Dependent Memory Mood-dependant memory (p. 274) indicates that people remember better if their mood at recall matches their mood during encoding. 1) Changes in the intensity of the mood do not seem to have an effect. 2) Sometimes we walk into a room to retrieve an object and forget what it is we were going to retrieve. i) Context-dependent forgetting: the change in environment influenced forgetting. ii) Context-reinstatement effect: occurs when we return to the original location and the memory of what we wanted to get suddenly comes back.
Emotional Memories 1) The importance of emotion in memory formation has been confirmed in numerous laboratory studies. i) One experiment showed students a slide show of a woman going about her daily activities, with a final slide showing a bunch of friends gathered outside her door. a) One group was told she was on her way to her birthday party. b) The other group was told she was severely depressed and suicidal. ii) Those in the depressed group recalled more details. iii) One explanation for this is that emotions facilitate deeper levels of processing. 2) However, LOP doesn’t account for all aspects of emotional memories. i) In one study students read a list of words and then either watched a tape of oral surgery (emotional condition) or how to brush their teeth (control). a) Those shown the surgery tape remembered more words (Figure 7.19). ii) This suggests that emotions can lead to stronger memory formation, even if the information is not directly related to the emotional event. 3) The limbic system in the brain appears to be involved in the link between emotions and memories. i) This includes the hippocampus (associated with encoding long-term memories) and, ii) The amygdala (two small structures involved in emotional processing and responding). a) Brain imaging shows emotional memories often activate the amygdala, whereas nonemotional memories presented at the same time do not.
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Chapter 7: Memory 4) Highly charged emotional memories typically involve recollections of location, what was happening at the time of the even, and the emotional reactions of self and others.
Flashbulb Memories Flashbulb memory (p. 276) an extremely vivid and detailed memory about an event and the conditions surrounding how one learned about the event. 1) These can be personal memories, to those shared by a nation (e.g., 9/11). 2) One defining feature of flashbulb memories is that people are highly confident that their recollections are accurate, even though that may not be the case.
Myths in Mind: The accuracy of flashbulb memories 1) Flashbulb memories are not any more accurate than other types of memories. 2) For example, researchers examined how college students remembered the 9/11 attacks in comparison to an emotional but more mundane event. i) On 9/12/11 the students were asked to describe the events surrounding the moment they heard about the attacks. ii) As a comparison, they asked students to describe something memorable two or three days before the attack. iii) Over several months, the students were asked to recall details of both events, and the researchers compared the accuracy of the two memories. iv) Although their memory for both events faded at the same rate and were equal in accuracy, the students only acknowledged a decline in memory for the mundane event. a) They had a high level of confidence in their memories surrounding 9/11. v) Similar results have been found with other flashbulb memories, such as the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger explosion and the verdict in the O.J. Simpson murder trial.
Forgetting and Remembering The Forgetting Curve: How Soon We Forget… 1) Many psychologists acknowledge Hermann Ebbinghaus as the founder of memory research. i) He used himself as a research subject and studied hundreds of nonsense syllables for his experiments. a) He used nonsense syllabus because he believed these had no meaning and therefore would not be easier to remember. b) He studied the lists of syllables until he could repeat them twice. c) Then he tested himself repeatedly day after day. ii) He forgot about half of a list in an hour, but then his forgetting rate slowed to the point where one does not seem to forget at all. iii) His results came to be known as a forgetting curve (see Figure 7.21). iv) These findings have been substantiated by hundreds of studies. 2) These findings also relate to students’ learning. i) They are likely to forget half of the material in this course, but then the curve will slow and some of the material will stick. ii) One study followed foreign language students as long as 50 years after graduation (Figure 7.22).
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Mnemonics: Improving Your Memory Skills 1) There are a number of methods to improve memory; one is mnemonics. i) These methods work by chunking (from Module 7.1). Mnemonics (p. 277) techniques that are intended to improve memory for specific information. 2) One way of improving memory through imagery use is the method of loci (pronounced “LOWsigh”). Method of loci (p. 277) is a mnemonic that connects words to be remembered to locations along a familiar path. i)
To use this method, one must imagine a route that has landmarks (e.g., things you pass on our way home). ii) The learner then takes the first word, fact, etc. on the list and relates it to the first location on the route. a) For example, if you need to pick up noodles, mild, and soap from the store and the first thing you pass is a weeping willow tree, you might envision the branches made out of spaghetti and so on. iii) To recall the information, the learner imagines the route. 3) Two types of mnemonic are the acronym and the first letter technique. Acronym (p. 278) is a pronounceable word whose letters represent the initials of an important phrase or set of items. i) For example, scuba = self-contained underwater breathing apparatus. ii) Acronyms have meaning of their own, so learners benefit from both elaborative rehearsal and deeper processing. First letter technique (p. 278) uses the first letters of a set of items to spell out words that form a sentence. iii) For example, “Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge” represents the treble clef in musical notation (Figure 7.23). a) And “FACE” represents the four spaces between E, G, B, D, and F. 4) A number of mnemonic devices are based on the premise of dual coding. i) For example, a verbal description and a visual image or a description and a sound. Dual coding (p. 278) occurs when information is stored in more than one form. ii) For example, most children in the US learned the alphabet through song. iii) This produces stronger memories than the use of one form alone. a) Twice as much information is stored. b) These mnemonics also make use of LOP by requiring elaboration with the images, which is key in memory effectiveness. 5) Waiters not allowed to write out orders often use mnemonic strategies. i) They might use the method of loci to link faces with positions at the table. a) Switching your seats will mess this up. ii) Coding salad dressing might look like RaVoSE for ranch, vinegar and oil, and sesame.
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Chapter 7: Memory 6) It is important to note that these methods of memorization may not improve your understanding of the material. i) The use of desirable difficulties (Module 1.1) can aid learning. ii) The testing effect is another way to improve test performance, sometimes more than extra studying. Testing effect (p. 279) the finding that taking a practice test can improve exam performance, even without additional studying.
RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 7.2 Lecture Launchers ➢ The Case of Mr. M ➢ Gingko Biloba and Memory ➢ Predicting Alzheimer’s Disease
Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Coding in Long-Term Memory Context and Its Effect on Memory Memories of 9/11 Telephone Game in the Classroom
Web Resources ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Elizabeth F. Loftus: http://faculty.washington.edu/ Elizabeth Loftus Interview for Frontline’s “What Jennifer Saw”: ww w.pbs.org/ H.M.—The Day His World Stood Still: http://brainconnection.positscience.com Alzheimer’s Association: www.alz.org/index.asp Self-Improvement Online: www.selfgrowth.com/
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III. MODULE 7.3: CONSTRUCTING AND RECONSTRUCTING MEMORIES (Text p. 281) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology used in discussing how memories are organized and constructed. o See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand how schemas serve as frameworks for encoding and constructing memories. o Schemas guide our attention, telling us what to expect in certain circumstances. They organize long-term memories and provide us with cues when it comes time to retrieve those memories. ✓ Understand how psychologists can produce false memories in the laboratory. o Psychologists have found that a number of factors contribute to the construction of false memories, including misinformation, imagination inflation, and the semantic similarities used in the DRM procedure. ✓ Apply what you have learned to judge the reliability of eyewitness testimony. o Students should be able to read a graph summarizing more than 200 of exonerations and determine what role eyewitness testimony plays and what this means for research on eyewitness testimony. ✓ Analyze the arguments in the “recovered memory” debate. o One side of the debate believes that some memories are so painful that they are blocked from conscious awareness and that they can only be recovered through therapeutic techniques. Others argue that it is difficult to prove that a “recovered” memory is actually recovered. Given how easy it is to create false memories, they believe these recovered memories should be questioned.
How Memories are Organized and Constructed The Schema: An Active Organization Process 1) Much of the way we store memories depends on our tendency to remember the gist of things. Schema (p. 282) an organized cluster of memories that constitutes one’s knowledge about events, objects, and ideas. 2) Schemas are automatically active when we encounter familiar objects or events, and allow us to know what to expect, what to pay attention to, and what to remember. i) There is a purposefully vague passage on p. 282 that can be used as an example. The procedure is quite simple. First, you arrange things into different groups. Of course, one pile may be sufficient, depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities, that is the next step; otherwise, you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. After the procedure is completed, one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more, and the whole cycle will have to be repeated. (Bransford & Johnson, 1973) a) Most would have a hard time recalling the facts of this paragraph. b) However, this would change drastically if told it was about doing laundry.
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Chapter 7: Memory 3) Schemas affect our memory in two ways: i) Organization: a) When information is schema-consistent and objects and events fit our expectations, the new information makes sense to us. b) It is easier to recall, but may be more difficult to report exact details. c) For example, you would have an easy time recalling a walking path with grass and shrubbery, tall buildings, and a river. However, you would have trouble recognizing pictures of the specific buildings you passed. ii) Distinctiveness: a) When new information is schema-inconsistent and seems weird or unusual, it will be easier to recall. But if it’s not that unusual, it will likely be forgotten. b) For example, you are likely to recall an elephant on your walk than a random shoe or vandalized sign (even though you would recognize them in a picture).
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: How Schemas Influence Memory 1) What do we know about schemas? i) The vague ‘laundry’ passage on p. 282 didn’t make much sense until we were told it was about doing laundry. a) Then our schema for laundry became active and we could apply our knowledge about the events described to washing clothes. ii) Schemas are involved in all three stages of memory. a) They guide what to expect, what to pay attention to, and what to remember. 2) How can science explain schemas? Constructive memory (p. 283) is a process by which we first recall a generalized schema and then add in specific details. i)
Schemas appear to be the products of culture and experience. a) For example, individuals with a culture tend to have schemas for gender roles. b) Even if the individual realizes the schema is inaccurate, s/he is still likely to engage in schematic processing when memory gets difficult. ii) One study had participants view photos of men and women engaged in schema-consistent and schema inconsistent tasks (male working on plumbing vs. folding baby clothes and woman folding baby clothes vs. working on plumbing) (Figure 7.24). a) Immediately after viewing the photos, they correctly recalled who was engaged in what behaviour. b) After two days, their memories changed to be more schema-consistent. 3) Can we critically evaluate the concept of a schema? i) Critics are skeptical of schemas because one cannot record brain activity to see a schema and individuals are generally unaware they use schematic processing. ii) However, schemas are a convenient way to describe a complex set of memory events and they also help in certain therapies. 4) Why is this relevant? i) We also have schemas about ourselves called self-schemas, which may contribute to psychological problems. a) For example, someone who is depressed is likely to pay attention to things that are consistent with the depressive symptoms and will be more likely to recall events and feelings that are consistent with this negative self-schema. ii) Challenging these negative self-schemas in psychotherapy has shown to help individuals recover from serious bouts of depression.
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Schemas and the Self 1) Psychologists have been trying to explain infantile amnesia, our inability to remember anything before the age of three. 2) Research suggests that young children need to develop schemas to help organize and store memories. i) Cross-cultural research has shown that children develop schemas between 18-24 months. a) Without schemas, it is difficult, and maybe impossible, to organize and encode memories about the self. 3) However, culture plays a factor with babies in independent cultures developing earlier memories. i) This is likely due to the focus on the self in such cultures, which leads to a greater focus on events, objects, etc. related to the individual. ii) Collectivist cultures promote group harmony over the individual, resulting in a schema that is more socially integrated. a) This may explain the slightly later onset of autobiographical memory in Asian Children. 4) This does not mean that by talking to children about themselves at an earlier age will help infants remember life events. i) Key memory regions in the brain need to develop first.
Memory Reconstruction 1) Instead of remembering every detail of an event (very time consuming), we remember the general picture or gist. 2) One of the most interesting and research topics of memory is false memory. False memory (p. 285) remembering events that did not occur, or incorrectly recalling details of an event. i)
Every time we revisit a memory it is reconstructed, which opens the possibility of getting some details incorrect, even those about which we are extremely confident.
The Perils of Eyewitness Testimony 1) Researchers, such as Elizabeth Loftus, have used the misinformation effect to change the details in memories. i) She had participants watch a video of a staged car accident. a) Participants were asked about objects not in the video (e.g., a yield sign that was not in the video, there was a stop sign instead). b) Later, those in the experimental group were more likely to report seeing a yield sign. ii) This experiment shows that memories can be altered by the mere phrasing of a question. Misinformation Effect (p. 286) happens when information occurring after an event becomes part of the memory for that event.
Psychology @ Court: Is Eyewitness Testimony Reliable? 1) In the US, 220 individuals convicted of crimes have been exonerated based on DNA evidence. i) More than 75% of the original convictions were the result of mistaken eyewitness testimony. ii) Eyewitnesses are usually shown a lineup of people (in person or in photographs) and asked to point out the suspect. a) Based on the topics discussed in this chapter, it is no surprise that eyewitnesses sometimes make mistakes.
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Chapter 7: Memory 2) Luckily, there are ways to improve this process. i) Employ double-blind procedures. a) Double-blind lineups can prevent an investigator from biasing an eyewitness (accidentally or intentionally). ii) Use appropriate instructions. a) The eyewitness should be told the suspect might not be in the lineup. b) Witnesses often assume the suspect is in the lineup and chose someone who looks similar. iii) Compose the lineup carefully. a) The lineup should consists of people who match the witness’s description, not the investigator’s beliefs about the suspect. iv) Use sequential lineups. a) When suspects are presented at the same time, witnesses may assume one person is guilty and settle on the best match. b) Witnesses are more likely to consider the next in line when suspects are presented sequentially. v) Require confidence statements. a) A witness should rate their confidence after an identification is made, because confidence can change from lineup to lineup as well as from the investigator’s responses. vi) Record the procedures. a) Eyewitness researchers have identified at least a dozen things that can go wrong during identification procedures. b) Recording these procedures offers a way to evaluate the reliability of the testimony.
Imagination and False Memories 1) The more clearly and readily we can imagine events, the more certain we are the memories are accurate. i) Researchers used this information to create false memories in a number of ways, such as imagination inflation. Imagination inflation (p. 288) refers to the increased confidence in a false memory of an event following repeated imagination of the event. 2) To study this effect, researchers created a list of events that may or may not have happened to participants (e.g., got in trouble for lying to the cops, found a $10 bill in a parking lot). i) The participants rated their confidence that the event happened. ii) They were then asked to imagine these events over a period of days. iii) They rated there confidence again and for each event they were asked to imagine, repeated imagination inflated their confidence ratings. 3) Guided imagery involves a researcher giving instructions to participants to imagine certain events. i) Similar to the misinformation effect, guided imagery can be used to alter memories for actual events as well as create entirely false memories.
Creating False Memories in the Laboratory 1) The Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm (DRM) is probably the most straightforward procedure used in false memory research (Figure 7.27). DRM procedure (p. 288) participants study a list of highly related words called semantic associates (which means they are associated by meaning).
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2) A list of highly related words are presented with the most obvious word missing, called the critical lure (Figure 7.27). i) When give a memory test on the list of words, participants are likely to remember this word even though it wasn’t on the list. a) When individuals recall the critical lure, it is called an intrusion. b) Almost 70% of people make intrusion errors. c) Explaining how intrusion errors occur can help reduce such errors.
The Danger of False Remembering 1) Our memory systems are not perfect, but it’s normally of not much consequence. i) The greatest danger comes in the form of false recovered memories. Recovered memories (p. 289) memories of traumatic event that are suddenly recovered after blocking the memory of that event for a long period of time. 2) The idea that we suppress traumatic memories is popularly known as repression from Freudian psychoanalysis. i) The belief is that recovery of this suppressed thought can allow someone to cope with the trauma. a) Some therapists use hypnosis and guided imagery in an attempt to unearth these memories. 3) Recovered memories are difficult to study because one can rarely determine if they are true or false, which had led to a debate over their validity. Recovered memory controversy (p. 290) is a heated debate among psychologists about the validity of recovered memories. i)
On one side of the debate are some clinical mental health workers who regularly attempt to recover they believed are suppressed. ii) On the other side are those who question whether suppressed memories exist and whether recovered memories are really false memories. 4) An extreme case involved Beth Rutherford. i) In the 1990s, she sought help from her church counselor to deal with personal issues. ii) The counselor managed to convince her that her father, a minister, had raped her. iii) The memory was elaborated so that she remembered becoming pregnant and reported that her father forced her to undergo an abortion with a coat hanger. iv) Her father was forced to resign and it tore the family apart. v) Eventually a medical exam was done that showed none of these memories were true.
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 7.3 Lecture Launchers ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
The Power of Schemas Studying Infant Memory The Lost Memories of Early Childhood Why You Don’t Remember Your First Birthday Party Aging, Culture, and Memory Culture and Memory The Chowchilla Kidnapping Eyewitness Testimony The Fallibility of Eyewitness Testimony How False Memories are Formed Hypnosis and Memory
Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Schemas and Memory Improving Memory A Combined Demonstration and Review Do Adults Repress Memories of Childhood Sexual Abuse?
Web Resources ➢ Imagination Inflation: Imagining a Childhood Event Inflates Confidence that it Occurred : http://faculty.washington.edu/ ➢ Recovered Memories of Sexual Abuse: www.jimhopper.com/ ➢ The Recovered Memory Project: www.brown.edu/ ➢ Creating False Memories: http://faculty.washington.edu/
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▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Episodic ≠ Semantic Amnesia and Implicit Memory Memory Anomalies: Beyond Déjà Vu The Power of Schemas Musical Memories The Case of Mr. M Gingko Biloba and Memory Predicting Alzheimer’s Disease Studying Infant Memory The Lost Memories of Early Childhood Why You Don’t Remember Your First Birthday Party Aging, Culture, and Memory Culture and Memory The Chowchilla Kidnapping Eyewitness Testimony The Fallibility of Eyewitness Testimony How False Memories are Formed Hypnosis and Memory
▲ Return to Table of Contents ▼Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: Episodic ≠ Semantic The daily lives of Beth, Jon, and Kate sound nightmarish. The 14-, 19-, and 22-year-olds can’t remember where they’ve been shortly after they’ve been there, can’t recall who’ve they’ve seen shortly after they’ve seen them, and can’t recognize familiar buildings shortly after they’ve walked out of them. Each of these young people suffered from brain seizures at an early age that produced extensive damage to the hippocampus. And if the story ended here we’d shake our heads dejectedly, mumbling about the grace of God and knocking on available wood, as the trio walked away under the constant supervision of their parents. It turns out, though, that Beth, Jon, and Kate all attended mainstream schools, have good speech and language skills, read and spell as well as their peers, and have acquired lots and lots of factual knowledge. Their abilities in these areas, contrasted with their disabilities in others, highlight the difference between semantic memory and episodic memory. What’s more, they suggest that the areas of the brain responsible for these types of memory are different. Researchers led by Faraneh VarghaKhadem of University College London Medical School studied these unusual individuals and concluded that although the hippocampus regulates recall of personal experiences, it plays only a minor role in the storage and acquisition of factual knowledge. In short, while episodic memory has been tragically disrupted for these three, semantic memory has remained largely intact. Reference: Bower, B. (1997, August 2). Factual brains, uneventful lives. Science News, 152, 75.
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Lecture/Discussion: Amnesia and Implicit Memory Implicit memory effects occur when there is improvement on a task, in which participants are not asked to consciously remember prior information. Instead, increases in performance on implicit memory tasks demonstrate priming effects. Implicit memory effects have been found in amnesic individuals who perform poorly on explicit memory tasks of recall and recognition, relative to normal controls. Interestingly, individuals with amnesia perform at the same level as normal controls with implicit memory tests, suggesting that previously learned information is available in memory but not accessible with traditional memory measures of recall and recognition. H.M. suffered from anterograde amnesia due to removal of several brain areas associated with memory, including the segments of the hippocampus. While H.M. could not explicitly remember newly experienced events, such as solving the Tower of Hanoi puzzle, he showed improved performance on such tasks on later trials, indicating an implicit memory effect. H.M. died December, 2008. See more in Lecture/Discussion: The Case of Mr. M. References: Schacter, D. L. (1998). Memory and awareness. Science, 280, 59–60. Warrington, E. K., & Weiskrantz, L. (1970). Amnesic syndrome: Consolidation or retrieval? Nature, 228, 629–630. www.nytimes.com/2008/12/05/us/05hm.html?_r=2 ▼Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: Memory Anomalies: Beyond Déjà Vu The déjà vu experience is perhaps the best-known anomaly of memory, but it is by no means the only one. Like déjà vu, these anomalies are relatively harmless (unless they occur quite frequently) and may occur in most people’s lives at some point. • Jamais vu. The opposite of déjà vu, jamais vu refers to experiencing a lack of familiarity in a particular situation when this should clearly not be the case. For example, someone who insists that they have never before met a fairly well-known acquaintance might be having a jamais vu experience. Clearly, jamais vu needs to be distinguished from the memory disruptions found among Alzheimer’s patients (who often fail to recognize familiar objects, people, or settings), from the effects of amnesia (whether physical or psychogenic in origin), or from simply a faulty memory (such as not encoding information about a person in the first place). A defining quality of jamais vu, then, is the feeling of astonishment or incredulity at encountering the object (“Are you sure we’ve met before?!”).
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• Time-gap experience. “I left work, and then I arrived at home. I’m not sure what happened in between.” Most of us have shared the experience of doing a fairly complicated task (such as driving a car) and upon completion realizing that we have no recollection of the task at all (such as which turns were made, when we stopped, the route we took, and so on). This time-gap experience can be explained using the distinction between automatic and effortful processing. An effortful task, such as one that is new or unfamiliar, demands our cognitive resources for its completion. Even a fairly intricate task, however, once it has become automatic, can be performed outside of conscious awareness. • Cryptomnesia. Cryptomnesia can be thought of as unintended plagiarism: A person honestly believes that some thought, publication, composition, or other work is an original creation when in fact it is not. Many musicians, for example, seem to fall prey to this memory anomaly. The most celebrated case involved George Harrison’s song “My Sweet Lord,” which a court ruled was unintentionally based (quite closely, actually) on the Chiffons’ “He’s So Fine” (Brown & Murphy, 1989). A song by Huey Lewis and the News, “I Want A New Drug,” also came under scrutiny as a too-close variant of Ray Parker’s “Ghostbusters,” and Aerosmith recently came under fire for lifting the line “Mister, you’re a better man than I” from the Yardbirds’ song of the same name. In each case the similarities were determined to be unintentional, suggesting that cryptomnesia was at work. References: Brown, A. S., & Murphy, D. R. (1989). Cryptomnesia: Delineating inadvertent plagiarism. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 432–442. Searleman, A., & Herrmann, D. (1994). Memory from a broader perspective. New York: McGrawHill. ▼Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: The Power of Schemas This oldie but goodie is surprisingly (sadly) a brain teaser that students still have a hard time figuring out. A son and his father get into a serious car accident. The boy is taken in one ambulance to a hospital, and the father is taken in another ambulance to a different hospital. Upon reaching the emergency room, the doctor looks at the boy and says, "I can't work on this patient. He is my son!" How is this possible? The answer, of course, is that the emergency room doctor is the boy’s mother, but students will have difficulty. The scenario is “tricky” because our schemas of medical staff still include males as the doctors and females as the nurses. After presenting this scenario, you can describe the function, value, and problems with relying on schemas.
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Lecture/Discussion: Musical Memories Most students can relate to the power of music to evoke emotions and memories. Music is often a powerful retrieval cue for a variety of other memories. In a 2005 study (Nature, March 10, 2005), researchers at Dartmouth University discovered that if individuals are listening to familiar music, they mentally retrieve auditory imagery, or memories to fill in the gaps if the music stops playing. By studying the brains of participants with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), it was shown that participants were able to mentally fill in the spaces if a familiar song was missing short segments. The auditory cortex remained active even when the music had stopped. The investigators report that this finding expands earlier studies that demonstrate that sensory-specific memories are stored in the brain areas that created those events. Researchers also discovered that lyrics influence the different auditory brain areas that are utilized when musical memories are reconstructed. ▼Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: The Case of Mr. M The case of Mr. M (also know and H.M.) is one of the most well-known in psychology. In his book Memory’s Ghost, Philip Hilts (1995) pieces together what happened to Mr. M over the course of a decade-long investigation. Mr. M was born in 1926 in Hartford; his early life was rather uneventful. At age seven a boy riding a bike downhill hit M, knocking him unconscious and cutting his face and head. In retrospect, this accident may have been a cause of the epilepsy that would lead to his famous surgery. At age 16, Mr. M, his mother and father were riding to Hartford to celebrate his birthday when he experienced a seizure; his limbs stiffened, his head jerked violently, he wet his pants, and bit his tongue until it bled. Up until that time he had noticed only short moments of blankness; small interruptions in the middle of conversations when he would stare blankly for a moment. He graduated from high school; however, the teachers feared the possibility of a seizure so they would not allow him to march to receive his diploma. As time passed, M experienced more minor seizures (in which he blanked out for a moment several times a day) and major ones (sometimes weekly). Eventually Mr. M experienced about ten minor blackouts each week. Dr. William Scoville, a neurosurgeon who had performed lobotomies, was consulted and recommended a radical surgery. On an August morning in 1953, Scoville administered a local anesthetic (skull area only) to Mr. M and then used a hand-held rotary drill to bore two holes above the eyes. Scoville then used a lever to lift up the frontal lobes; evidence of the resulting compression of the frontal lobes could be seen in brain scans taken 40 years after the surgery. Mr. M was awake throughout the procedure in which central portions of his brain were sucked out. The neurosurgeon hoped he had removed the source of the epilepsy. Scoville expected Mr. M to exhibit some disorientation and memory loss after the operation, but the results were far worse than expected. Mr. M could not find his way to the bathroom in the hospital. Nurses entered his room, spoke to him, and left. Upon their return, he had no memory of them. He recognized no one, did not know where he was, how he got there, or why. After the operation, Mr. M did have fewer and less severe seizures; however, they did not cease entirely. In fact, he had a full seizure the day after surgery. Upon discharge, Scoville described Mr. M as “improved.”
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Scoville tried to duplicate the effect of the operation (which we now know is due to removal of the hippocampus) by removing parts of the brains of animals. Scoville described the surgery as “frankly experimental” and urged surgeons not to try such procedures. Shortly after arriving home after the surgery, Mr. M’s mother found she could not let him walk two blocks to the store because he was unable to find his way back. His IQ of 110 to 120 seemed unchanged after the operation. In the 1960s and 1970s Mr. M was sent to a centre for intellectually challenged children, where he was able to do so some work such as inserting metal clasps into folders. However, he needed to be reminded from time to time of what the task was. When he went to the bathroom he could not find his way back to his workstation even though it had been marked with a flag. Independent life was impossible for Mr. M. He lived with his parents until 1980, when at age 95 his mother was too old and too ill to care for him. He moved in with a retired psychiatric nurse and a distant relative of his and was living in a nursing home at the time of his death in December 2008. Mr. M could read a newspaper or magazine, put it down, pick it up a short time later and read it over as if for the first time. The date on the cover did not offer any help because he did not know the day, month, or year. References: Hilts, P. J. (1995). Memory’s ghost. New York: Simon & Schuster. Adapted from Davis, S. F., & Palladino, J. J. (1996) Interactions: A newsletter to accompany Psychology, 2(Spr), 1. www.nytimes.com/2008/12/05/us/05hm.html?_r=2 ▼Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: Gingko Biloba and Memory Although there are ways to improve one’s memory by using strategies for organizing and retrieving information as discussed in the Study Skills section of this text, people down through the ages have hoped for an easier way to get better memory. Wouldn’t it be nice to be able to take a simple little pill and have improved memory ability without all the effort? Or help prevent or at least relieve the memory problems that come with aging, such as Alzheimer’s? One of the most recent substances that has been proposed as an aid to memory is an herbal extract from the leaves of the gingko biloba tree, the oldest living tree species currently known to be in existence. Commonly prescribed as a drug in Germany and France, gingko biloba extract (GBE) is one of the most well-researched herbal treatments worldwide (Murray, 1996). GBE, in the form of a daily supplement, is said to increase blood flow to the brain, has been credited with a number of health-enhancing effects: countering the effects of aging, reducing the ringing in the ears that often comes with age, controlling cholesterol, enhancing circulation in the brain, and improved memory skills (Murray, 1996; Solomon et al., 2002). It is the effect of GBE on memory that will be the focus here. Testimonials from people who have used GBE are numerous, but they are still only testimonials. People who take supplements and then notice an improvement in whatever the supplement was said to improve may be experiencing the placebo effect—they notice improvement because they expect to improve. What does the scientific research say about the effects of gingko biloba on memory?
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Chapter 7: Memory There have been numerous double-blind studies of the effects of GBE on memory, both in people with Alzheimer’s-type dementia and in people with normal cognitive functioning. In people with dementiarelated memory problems, the tendency for GBE to open up blood vessels and improve the oxygen flow to the brain cells seems to significantly improve cognitive functioning and memory when compared to placebo treatment (Haase et al, 1996; Le Bars et al., 2000, 2002). Those studies did find that the improvement was dependent upon the degree of impairment: those who were showing only mild to moderate symptoms did improve, but those who suffered from more severe symptoms experienced only a slowing down of the worsening symptoms or a stabilization of those symptoms (Le Bars et al., 2002). Does gingko biloba extract help people who have normal mental functioning? Can taking a simple herbal supplement have a positive impact on memory for the average adult? The research shows mixed support for the positive effect of GBE on the memory abilities of people who have no serious memory problems. In two studies with healthy young volunteers, ginkgo biloba and a gingko biloba-ginseng combination (ginseng is an herbal supplement taken from the root of the ginseng plant) were associated with significant improvement in attention and memory when compared to a placebo (Kennedy et al, 2000, 2001). Similar effects have been found for older participants (Rigney et al., 1999; Stough et al., 2001; Wesnes et al., 2000). More recent research has found evidence to the contrary: in healthy, normal older adults, gingko biloba extract produced no difference in participants’ performances on a battery of neuropsychological tests, including measurements of memory, concentration, and the use of language (Solomon et al., 2002). In this experiment, participants were measured on various cognitive abilities both before and after a sixweek double-blind trial in which half of the participants received GBE and half a placebo. It is not yet clear if long-term use of the supplement might have a different impact, while manufacturers of the supplement typically claim that results will be seen in four weeks. Although gingko biloba might help those in the early stages of Alzheimer’s or similar dementias, its use for ordinary memory improvement in healthy people is questionable at best in light of these new findings. Questions for Further Discussion: 1. Is there any possible harm in taking an herbal supplement such as GBE for the purpose of enhancing memory? 2. What might be some of the dangers in taking supplements that are not approved by the Federal Drug Agency? 3. What other memory-improving “home remedies” have you encountered? Is there any scientific evidence that any of them actually work? References: Haase, J., Halama, P., & Horr, R. (1996). Effectiveness of brief infusions with Ginkgo biloba. Special Extract EGb 761 in dementia of the vascular and Alzheimer type. Gerontology and Geriatrics, 29 (4), 302–309. Kennedy, D. O., Scholey, A. B., & Wesnes, K. A. (2000). The dose-dependent cognitive effects of acute administration of Gingko biloba to healthy young volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 151 (4), 416–423. Kennedy, D. O., Scholey, A. B., & Wesnes, K. A. (2001). Differential, dose-dependent changes in cognitive performance following acute administration of Gingko biloba/Panax ginseng combination to healthy young volunteers. Nutrition and Neuroscience, 4(5), 399–412. Le Bars, P. L., Kieser, M., & Itil, K. Z. (2000). A 26-week analysis of a double-blind, placebocontrolled trial of gingko biloba extract EGb 761 dementia. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders. 11(4), 230–237. Le Bars, P. L., Velasco, F. M., Ferguson, J.M., Dessain, E. C., Kieser, M., &Hoerr, R. (2002). .. 379
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Influence of the severity of cognitive impairment on the effect of Gingko Biloba extract EGb 761 in Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychobiology, 45(1), 19–26. Murray, F. (1996). Gingko biloba: Therapeutic and antioxidant properties of the “tree of health” (Keats Good Herb Guide) . Keats Publishing. Rigney U, Kimber S, Hindmarch I. (1999). “The effects of acute doses of standardized Gingko biloba extract on memory and psychomotor performance in volunteers.” Phytotherapy Research, Aug: 13(5), 408–415. Solomon, P.R., Adams, F., Silver, A., Zimmer, J., & DeVeaux, R. (2002). Gingko for memory enhancement: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288 (7), 835–840. ▼Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: Predicting Alzheimer’s Disease Alzheimer’s disease tragically afflicts many elderly people each year, resulting in a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning ability, and personality. Even more disturbing is that the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s can only be made conclusively upon autopsy, when the plaques and tangles in the brain, characteristic of the disorder, can be confirmed. Recently, however, the results of an archival study have suggested that linguistic markers may predict Alzheimer’s with some degree of accuracy. David Snowdon, an epidemiologist at the University of Kentucky, led a research team that examined the writings of 93 nuns. In the 1930s, when these women entered a Milwaukee convent, they composed brief autobiographical essays, which subsequently were scored by Snowdon’s team for linguistic markers such as the density of ideas or grammatical complexity. For example, a nun who might have written “I plan to give my all to God” probably would score low on such measures, whereas a nun who composed the beatitude “I long to linger in the sweet garden of Christ, rejoicing in the splendor that He is and thanking Him daily for His abundances” might not win a literature contest, but certainly shows a greater degree of complexity in her writing. All of the nuns lived under highly similar conditions. Sixty years later, however, those nuns who scored low on the psycholinguistic markers were more prone to develop Alzheimer’s. Of the 14 nuns who had died, in fact, five had low idea density scores, and all five had Alzheimer’s disease. What this reveals about the course of Alzheimer’s is still something of a mystery. It may be, for example, that as young women these nuns were already showing signs of the disorder, suggesting that Alzheimer’s develops slowly and insidiously over a prolonged period of time. Studies showing that some forms of Alzheimer’s can afflict people in their 20’s complement this idea. An alternative, however, is that linguistic skills may offer some “immunity” to the development of Alzheimer’s, much as the adage “use it or lose it” suggests. Perhaps those nuns with more highly developed linguistic ability were better able to stave off the effects of this disorder. As with most studies of this nature, the causality of events remains murky. Other archival data, or other markers of ability (such as mathematics scores, or measures of reasoning or memory) may shed more light on this encouraging line of research. Indeed, Snowdon and his associates have imposed on the generous nuns of the School Sisters of Notre Dame one more time. The research team has recently discovered an important link between strokes and declines in mental abilities seen in Alzheimer’s patients. Among 61 deceased nuns whose brains all clearly showed signs of Alzheimer’s, 19 seemed in life to have escaped the confusion, dementia, and mental deterioration so characteristic of the disease. In one case, a 101-year-old nun remained, by all accounts, as sharp as a tack, even though her brain was a battlefield of plagues, tangles, and gaping holes. .. 380
Chapter 7: Memory The key was that she, like 18 of the others, had not suffered from strokes during old age. In fact, only 57% of stroke-free nuns developed Alzheimer’s, compared to 93% of nuns who had a history of ministrokes. In an additional comparison, Snowdon looked at the brains of 41 nuns who did not have Alzheimer’s-like brains but who had suffered strokes; these women had no significant decrease in their overall mental competence. An avenue for treatment suggests itself. By preventing strokes it may be possible to delay the onset of symptoms in Alzheimer’s patients. The “double-whammy” of dealing with two brain diseases in a single individual may be halved, providing substantial comfort to those dealing with Alzheimer’s. References: Nash, J. M. (March 24, 1997). Medicine. Time, 80-82. Rogers, A. (1996, March 4). The weight of words: Can writing style predict dementia? Newsweek, 55. ▼Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: Studying Infant Memory Studying memory in infants can be problematic. However, researchers have come up with some creative methods for testing infant abilities. Interestingly, tests for abilities other than memory, such as the ability to distinguish between sounds, often depend on an infant's ability to remember. Chapter 7 describes Rovee-Collier's work, which, quite creatively, uses wiggling as the dependent measure. Other researchers have come up with equally creative measures. For example, Leslie Cohen used gaze duration to determine how infants categorize angles. In this method, an infant is shown a particular angle on a screen in front of him. Infants have a tendency to look at novel stimuli. The researcher monitors infant gaze until the infant begins looking away from the screen. At that point, the researcher changes the angle and continues to monitor infant gaze. The researcher interprets an increase in gaze duration as the infant acknowledging that he now sees an angle he has not seen before. The researcher interprets a decrease in gaze duration as an indication that the infant remembers having seen an angle of this type, and therefore finds it uninteresting. The Mind Teaching Video Module 10 shows an example of this experiment. Module 10 also shows Eric Courchesne demonstrating a similar method using an infant’s brain activity to distinguish between faces. In Module 9, William Fifer shows yet another similar method using sucking to measure a newborn’s ability to distinguish between a mother’s voice and another sound. An informal video clip of visual habituation appears at www.youtube.com/watch?v=UiB2ZX1phmc. The teaching modules show the research method, while the informal clip simply shows the behaviour of habituation which the research methods depend on. References: Cohen, L. B. & Younger, B. A. (1984). Infant perception of angular relations. Infant Behaviour & Development, 7(1), 37–47. Courchesne, E., Ganz, L., & Norcia, A. (1981). Event-related brain potentials to human faces in infants. Child Development, 52(3), 804–811. DeCasper, A. J., & Fifer, W. P. (1980). Of human bonding: Newborns prefer their mothers' voices. Science, 208(4448), 1174–1176.
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Lecture/Discussion: The Lost Memories of Early Childhood You may want to begin by asking students to write a brief answer to the question, “What is your earliest memory from childhood?” People cannot recall autobiographical memories before their third or fourth year. Yet children have remarkable memories in other ways. A two-year-old can remember where grandmother keeps the cookies even if she hasn’t been to grandmother’s house for a month. The ability of children to acquire language before the age of three also indicates considerable memory capacity. Children also store and remember motor skills. If a child learns to ride a tricycle before he is three, he will probably still be able to do it at 70 (if he has one of those big tricycles). So why can’t we remember any autobiographical data? Why doesn’t episodic memory begin until the age of three or four? Theory 1: Freud thought that forgetting is essential to get safely through the Oedipal years with their violent and incestuous impulses. In Freud’s theory, childhood amnesia results from repression of these impulses, and he thought memories from these years can be retrieved in psychoanalysis by the use of methods like free association and the analysis of dreams. There is some evidence that people tend to have a cluster of childhood memories from about the time Freud thought the Oedipus complex is resolved. However, like many aspects of Freud’s theory, his ideas about childhood amnesia cannot be confirmed or rejected by research. Theory 2: Another theory points to the immaturity of brain structures. Animal studies have shown that animals that have mature brains at birth, like guinea pigs, are able to store permanent memories early in life, and that animals, like rats, that are born with immature brains cannot. It is true that the brains of children are immature. They do not have the synaptic connections of a mature brain. However, a problem with this theory is, again, why does the amnesia affect only autobiographical or episodic memory? Theory 3: Another theory that utilizes the idea of immaturity of brain structures was proposed by a French psychiatrist, Juan Pascual-Leone, who worked with Piaget and suggested that childhood amnesia occurs because of limited M-space capacity. M-space is described as “attentional capacity” and seems to be similar to the concept of short-term memory. Whereas adults can retain seven chunks in their M-space, small children can retain only one. For this reason, they are unable to store retrieval cues—they can’t use what they already know to establish retrieval cues because there isn’t room in Mspace to bring material from long-term memory. Research shows that the capacity of short-term memory is small in early childhood and increases to adult capacity by puberty. However, this theory does not account for children’s ability to comprehend and produce speech. For example, if a child’s attentional capacity is so small, how can the child comprehend a sentence of seven or eight words? Theory 4: There are also explanations that emphasize the difference between the schemas of small children and those of adults. Children’s schemas tend to be idiosyncratic. For example, a small child’s daddy schema may include all adult males, football games on TV, Daddy’s favourite chair, and the lawn mower. Processes like Piaget’s assimilation and accommodation proceed to alter these schemas as the child’s organization of reality comes to be more like that of the adults of his or her society. .. 382
Chapter 7: Memory Memories of early childhood may be altered and revised until they are adult memories rather than actually early childhood memories. The early memories are altered to “fit” into schemas that the child develops with age. This theory is similar to interference in that as the child matures, new memories interfere with or replace older memories. This theory seems reasonably credible because it can be applied to both episodic and semantic memory. Children do not remember the overgeneralizations they made of words or the restricted context in which they used early vocabulary. They also do not remember the grammatical structures they used as they began to combine words into sentences. Theory 5: Another explanation that emphasizes schemas also points to the difference between the schemas of early childhood and those of later years. Early memories would have to be represented by actions, images, and feelings, rather than symbols, primarily words. Even after children begin to use words, some psychologists claim that language is used for expressive purpose and communication, but not as a tool for thought. A child might be four or five years old before memories begin to be symbolically stored with language. As language takes over as the primary vehicle for the organization of reality, the ability to retrieve autobiographical memories stored as emotions, actions, or images is lost because there are no retrieval cues. There are aspects of this theory that have appeal, particularly because it specifically takes the child’s lack of language into account. The three primary theories of adult forgetting are motivated forgetting or repression, interference, and cue-dependent memory. Versions of these same theories can be used to explain childhood amnesia, along with theories that emphasize immaturity of brain structures. The bottom line is that childhood amnesia remains a mystery. At present, we can only speculate about why it occurs. ▼Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: Why You Don’t Remember Your First Birthday Party Humans typically don’t remember events in their lives that happened prior to their third or fourth birthday. Explaining why has been somewhat up for grabs. Freudians might suggest that this infantile amnesia is due to some murky unconscious process. However, infantile amnesia has been observed in frogs, mice, rats, dogs, and wolves (Spear, 1979), making it difficult to defend an “amphibian theory of repression” or “canine defense mechanisms.” Similarly, the sheer passage of time cannot account for this kind of forgetfulness. Many of us can remember quite clearly and accurately events that happened long ago (such as an 80-year-old remembering her first ride in an automobile), and people with extraordinary memories routinely recount incidents from the distant past. Something different must be at work. A more promising explanation implicates the retrieval process. It’s quite likely that information is encoded and organized by infants in a manner that is very different from what an adult might do. For example, adults routinely rely on language to help store information in memory (e.g., through verbal rehearsal, through mnemonics, and through the very process of translating experiences into information that can be communicated). Preverbal infants and children clearly would not have this same strategy, or at least not developed to the same extent as in an adult. Consequently, when an adult tries to retrieve memories from childhood, his or her schemas would not likely match the schemas used to encode the information in the first place. Much like the reinstatement of context suggested by the encoding specificity principle, an adult retrieval strategy for child-encoded information isn’t going to get very far. .. 383
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References: Searleman, A., & Herrmann, D. (1994). Memory from a broader perspective. New York: McGraw- Hill. Spear, N. E. (1979). Experimental analysis of infantile amnesia. In J. F. Kihlstrom & F. J. Evans (Eds.), Functional disorders of memory (pp. 75–102). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ▼Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: Aging, Culture, and Memory As people age, it takes them longer to retrieve names, dates, and other facts. In this case, the reason does seem to be their impaired perceptual-motor skills and their slower reaction times, not impaired memory itself. Some of the memory decline that occurs in older adults is a result of poor health, poor education, or lack of practice. One study found that years of schooling and current enrollment in school were better predictors of differences in memory ability than age was (Zivian & Darjes, 1983). Another found that college students (ages 18 to 25) were more likely to use encoding strategies to help them remember, whereas older adults (ages 61 to 84) relied more on planning and making lists (Loewen, Shaw, & Craik, 1990). It is unfortunate, therefore, that many older people are so hard on themselves about retrieving memories. When they cannot remember a name, they say “Drat, I’m getting old.” When younger people cannot remember a name, they just say “Drat.” Implicit memory, unlike explicit, appears to show no decline with age, meaning that people do not invariably lose the ability to learn and remember as they get older (Graf, 1990). Moreover, just as studies document the beneficial effects of training programs on intelligence scores, they also show that older adults can do as well as people in their 20s, even on explicit memory tests, when given guidance and cues for retrieving memories (Loewen, Shaw, & Craik, 1990). Older adults are also just as good as young ones at long-practiced abilities, which is why all kinds of people—physicians, lawyers, teachers, farmers, and insurance agents—continue their work well into old age. A recent study conducted by Becca Levy and Ellen Langer (1994) suggests that cultural beliefs about the elderly and the aging process may play an important role in determining the extent to which the elderly “lose” their memories. The authors compared attitudes about aging in three cultures: Chinese culture, American deaf culture, and American hearing culture. They argue that in China and in the American deaf community, the elderly are viewed as wise role models and mentors. American hearing culture, on the other hand, views old people in a much less positive light, stereotyping the elderly as mentally incompetent. The researchers tested elderly and young individuals in each of the three cultures and had them complete several tests of memory, as well as a measure of attitudes toward the elderly. As predicted, Levy and Langer found that the American hearing sample had the least positive views about the elderly, and the Chinese sample had the most positive views. Scores on the tests of memory indicated that while memory performance did not differ among the younger samples from each culture, the Chinese elderly outperformed the American deaf elderly, who outscored the American hearing elderly. In fact, memory performance by the elderly Chinese sample did not differ from that of the younger Chinese! The authors argue that these effects demonstrate the potential for cultural beliefs about aging to determine memory loss, a sort of cultural “self-fulfilling prophecy.”
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Chapter 7: Memory The impact of culture on cognition is a topic most students probably have not considered, and you might ask them to consider other ways in which a society’s beliefs, traditions, and practices might influence cognitive development and performance. You might also use this opportunity to help students work on critical thinking skills; the data reported by Levy and Langer is correlational, and while compelling, one cannot rule out alternative explanations. Can students think of any plausible ones? References: Graf, P. (1990). Life-span changes in implicit and explicit memory. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 28, 353–358. Levy, B., & Langer, E. (1994). Aging free from negative stereotypes: Successful memory in China and among the American deaf. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 989–997. Loewen, E. R., Shaw, R. J., & Craik, F, I. (1990). Age differences in components of metamemory. Experimental Aging Research, 16(1–2), 43–48. Zivian, M., & Darjes, R. (1983). Free recall by in-school and out-of-school adults: Performance and metamemory. Developmental Psychology, 19, 513–520. ▼Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: Culture and Memory All cultures place certain memory expectations on their members. For example, in Western culture we are expected to remember (through honors, ceremonies, observances) significant dates, persons, or activities. The Fourth of July, Thanksgiving Day, Presidents Day, and, most obviously, Memorial Day, are examples of a kind of culturally-shared memory system. Although often there are no explicit guidelines for activities on these occasions and no particularly dire sanctions for not observing them, we will certainly be looked at askance if we don’t remember when they are or what they signify. Other cultures and subcultures have similar occasions, such as religious observances (e.g., first Friday of the month) or anniversaries (e.g., the Tiananmen Square demonstration). Cultures and subcultures also have ritualized reminders for memory events. For example, people in Western cultures automatically know that a string around one’s finger or an image of an elephant serve as reminders to do something, just as rosary beads help Catholics remember their prayers or a flag at half- mast helps remind a large group to honor someone’s memory. The use and form of these reminders can vary from culture to culture, although like the memory tasks themselves they typically are learned implicitly within a cultural context. Beyond these aspects of a “general cultural memory,” there is also evidence that gender stereotypes play a role in what gets remembered and by whom. As discussed in the chapter on sex and gender, the formation of gender stereotypes and gender role expectations are often culture-bound. That cultural learning can in turn inspire certain types of memory. For example, Stephen Ceci and Urie Brofenbrenner (1985) showed that remembering when to terminate an event is better if the event is consistent with gender stereotypes. Boys were better at remembering when to stop charging a motorcycle battery than remembering when to take cupcakes out of the oven, whereas girls showed the opposite pattern. Similarly, Douglas Herrmann and his colleagues (1992) showed that female and male undergraduates had differential memory for an ambiguous paragraph depending on its title. When given a “male-like” title (“How to Make a Workbench”), men remembered more details than did women, although the opposite was true if the ambiguous passage had a “female-like” title (“How to Make a
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Shirt”). The influence of culture on memory, then, also occurs indirectly through the expectations and stereotypes set up within a cultural context. References: Ceci, S. J., & Brofenbrenner, U. (1985). “Don’t forget to take the cupcakes out of the oven”: Prospective memory, strategic time-monitoring, and context. Child Development, 56, 152–164. Herrmann, D. J., Crawford, M., & Holdsworth, M. (1992). Gender-linked differences in everyday memory performance. British Journal of Psychology, 83, 221–231. Searleman, A., & Herrmann, D. (1994). Memory from a broader perspective. New York: McGraw- Hill. ▼Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: The Chowchilla Kidnapping In the summer of 1976, a busload of children, together with their bus driver, Ed Ray, were kidnapped— bus and all—from a country road in Madera County in California. The abductors ditched the bus, hiding it in a drainage ditch nine miles west of Chowchilla. They drove the kidnap victims (19 girls, 7 boys, and Ray) around for eleven hours in two vans, finally putting all of the children and the driver into a moving van that was buried in a rock quarry. The moving van was 8 feet by 16 feet. After 16 hours underground, they dug their way out and were eventually found and returned to their homes in Chowchilla. Ed Ray was hypnotized and eventually was able to remember five of the six numbers on the license plate of one of the vans used in the abduction, which led to the arrest of three young men who were tried and found guilty. A draft of a ransom note had been found in the home of one of the young men along with other evidence tying them to the crime (Terr, 1981, 1983). This case marked the increased interest of law enforcement personnel in the use of hypnosis as a tool for helping witnesses to remember crime details. Unfortunately, this case is the exception to the rule: memories recovered under hypnosis cannot be assumed to be accurate without some other kind of evidence that the memories are real. In the Chowchilla case, the ransom note and other things found in one of the kidnapper’s homes were that evidence, but those things might not have been found if not for Ray’s hypnotically aided recall. (In this instance, hypnosis helped Ray relax enough to recall the memory of the number that he had actually tried to memorize. If he hadn’t made that initial effort to remember the number, hypnosis would not have helped his recall.) Questions for Further Discussion: 1. What is the danger in using hypnosis to enhance memory in court cases? 2. How might hypnosis have been used to help the children who were kidnapped recover from their ordeal? References: Terr, L. C. (1981). Psychic trauma in children: Observations following the Chowchilla bus kidnapping. American Journal of Psychiatry, 138, 14–19. Terr, L. C. (1983). Chowchilla revisited: The effects of trauma four years after the school bus kidnapping. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 1543–1550.
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Lecture/Discussion: Eyewitness Testimony What about the effect of incorrect information given after the fact? In this experiment, Loftus showed subjects a three-minute video clip taken from the movie Diary of a Student Revolution. In this clip, eight demonstrators disrupt a classroom and eventually leave after interrupting the professor’s lecture in a noisy confrontation. At the end of the video, two questionnaires were distributed containing one key question and ninety “filler” questions. The key question for half of the subjects was, “Was the leader of the four demonstrators who entered the classroom a male?” The other half was asked, “Was the leader of the twelve demonstrators who entered the classroom a male?” One week later, a new set of questions was given to all subjects in which the key question was, “How many demonstrators did you see entering the classroom?” Subjects who were previously asked the “four” question stated an average recall of 6.4 people, while those who read the “twelve” question recalled an average of 8.9 people. Loftus concluded that subjects were trying to compromise the memory of what they had actually seen—eight demonstrators—with later information. Reference: A Second Study: Loftus, E.F. (1975, April 4). “Eyewitness testimony: Does the malleable human memory interfere with legal justice?” The Daily, University of Washington. ▼Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: The Fallibility of Eyewitness Testimony A number of studies have shown that eyewitness testimony is not very trustworthy. How do you account for this? People have difficulty in distinguishing members of other races. To get the original identification of the accused, the police use a line-up that includes the accused and several “distractors.” The distractors may be much different from the accused, so the eyewitness chooses the only Hispanic, the only tall person, or the only person with a beard. The eyewitness has a desire to please the police and prosecutor, and lets them slant the testimony. Police and lawyers can make subtle suggestions to the eyewitness in the language they use. For example, they might say “when the murderer was beating the victim” instead of “when the murderer and the victim were struggling.” When eyewitnesses are the victims, as might occur in the case of rape, the eyewitnesses are angry and humiliated and the desire for revenge may cause them to be more certain of an identification than is justified by their memory of the event. People tend to remember only some aspects of an event. To make their account of the event coherent, they construct the event, filling in with material that is created by the mind to make sense of the event.
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Lecture/Discussion: How False Memories Are Formed Researchers at Northwestern University have used MRI technology to study how people form false memories. The purpose of the study was to create laboratory conditions that set up a circumstance in which people would remember something that did not happen. Participants were asked to look at pictures of objects and to imagine other objects while their brain activity was being measured. Researchers found that the brain areas associated with generating visual images were highly activated when people imagine images. Many of the images that the participants were asked to imagine were incorrectly identified as actually having been seen. According to Kenneth Paller, co-investigator of the study, parts of the involved in perceiving an object and those involved in imagining an object appear to overlap. This would allow a vividly imagined event to leave a memory trace in the brain that is similar to a real event. Three brain areas (precutaneous, right inferior parietal cortex, and anterior cingulate) showed greater responses in the study phase to words that would later be falsely remembered as having been presented with photos. Brain activity during the study phase could predict which objects would subsequently be falsely remembered as having been seen as a photograph. The false memories appeared to be associated with more vivid visual imagery that left a trace in the brain that was mistaken for a true memory. References: www.northwestern.edu/newscenter/stories/2004/10/kenneth.html www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2004-10/nu-nrp101404.php ▼Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: Hypnosis and Memory Dr. Elizabeth Bowman (1996) has summarized the following points from research on hypnosis and memory: • Hypnotized subjects report more accurate and inaccurate information than subjects who are not hypnotized do. So even though hypnosis makes it easier to recall some memories, it also makes it easier to recall false ones. • Hypnosis enhances the confidence subjects have in their memories, regardless of their accuracy or inaccuracy. • Subjects cannot always distinguish between memories which they have always had and new “memories” recently recovered under hypnosis. • False memories can be created when directly suggested by the hypnotist during age regression. • Hypnotic age regression does not appear to increase the accuracy of childhood recall. (Remember, Chapter Four discussed the findings that regressing someone to an earlier age seems to result in play-acting rather than a real “return” to childhood.) • The impact of hypnosis on the reliability of later memory depends on the type of question asked. Open-ended questions cause less memory “contamination” than closed-ended, leading questions. • Some pseudomemories (false memories) suggested by hypnosis do not persist after the hypnosis. • Pseudomemories reported during hypnosis do not replace real memories; and they are frequently not believed by the subject.
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Chapter 7: Memory In addition to the above points from research on hypnosis and memory, she summarizes the following points from research on hypnotizability (how susceptible a person is to being hypnotized) and memory: • High hypnotizability is a more important factor in the production of pseudomemories than actually being hypnotized. • High hypnotizability and hypnosis together produce the highest rates of pseudomemories. Clearly, memories obtained through hypnosis should not be considered as accurate without solid evidence from other sources. Reference: Bowman, E. S. (1996). Delayed memories of child abuse: Part II: An overview of research findings relevant to understand their reliability and suggestibility. Dissociation: Progress in Dissociative Disorders, 9, 232–243. ▼Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▼ CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
What Is Memory? Do We Make Accurate Copies of Events in Our Memories? The Limits of Short-Term Memory The Value of Chunking Chunking to Increase Meaningfulness Memory in Film: Memento Decay and Interference in Short-Term Memory Coding in Long-Term Memory Context and Its Effect on Memory Memories of 9/11 Telephone Game in the Classroom Schemas and Memory Improving Memory A Combined Demonstration and Review Do Adults Repress Memories of Childhood Sexual Abuse? Crossword Puzzle Fill-in-the-Blanks
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Activity: What Is Memory? Objective: To illustrate that human memory differs from a photograph or recording Materials: None Procedure: Ask 10 or so students to leave the room. Bring the first student back in and read the paragraph below aloud to him or her. Veteran teachers will tell you how much things have changed in the past 20 years. And you will find that today’s teacher has more responsibilities than ever before. For one thing, there is simply a lot more to know about teaching and learning. The knowledge explosion of the past few decades means that much more information is available to the new teacher starting out today than was available to graduates of schools of education only a few short years ago. It also means that teachers need to know more. Call in a second student and have the first student try to recite the paragraph from memory. Next, call in a third student and ask the second student to recite the paragraph to him or her. Repeat the procedure until the last student has had the paragraph recited to her or him. Compare the original version to the last version. Advise the rest of the students who are watching the activity not to give any clues or to laugh.
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Activity: Do We Make Accurate Copies of Events in Our Memories? It is relatively simple to demonstrate the inaccurate and incomplete nature of some memories. Read the following story at the beginning of class, asking students to listen carefully because their memory of the story will be tested later. Five to ten minutes before the end of class, ask students to recall the story verbatim. “Monday night, a 17-year-old suburban youth was shot in the abdomen by an unknown gunman. Witnesses claimed the shot was fired from a blue Chevrolet van that moved down the street slowly until after the shooting, when it turned a corner and disappeared before anyone could get more than the first two letters from the license plate. The victim dropped out of school in the 10th grade and is believed to be one of the ‘superior seven,’ a group of teenagers who sell marijuana on street corners near several local high schools. A spokesperson for the police department declined to say whether the police believe the shooting is related to the continuing war between rival gangs over territories for selling drugs. The condition of the victim is described as stable.” Read several of the recalled stories to the class, and note how memories are reconstructed to be consistent with the cognitive schemas of the writer. For example, the incident occurred in a suburban area and no mention is made of sex, race, or ethnicity of the victims, yet you may find such elements included in the students’ reports. You could also check memory for particular words or phrases, like “suburban youth,” “shot in the abdomen,” “selling marijuana,” and “letters of the license plate.” ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲Return to Table of Contents
Activity: The Limits of Short-Term Memory This demonstration reveals the limited capacity of short-term memory (approximately 7 +/– 2 items by many accounts) through the use of a digit-span test. Instruct students to take out a sheet of scratch paper and pencil. Tell them that you will read a string of unrelated numbers and their task is to memorize those digits in the exact order presented. After reading the numbers, pause, then signal the students to record their answers by saying “Go.” Here is a sample list. Read at an even pace and in a monotone voice. Span of four Span of five Span of six Span of seven Span of eight Span of nine Span of ten Span of eleven
“Ready? “Ready? “Ready? “Ready? “Ready? “Ready? “Ready? “Ready?
2,8,3,1 7,4,1,3,9 4,9,7,2,1,5 5,1,8,3,9,2,6 1,9,5,6,3,4,7,2 3,6,2,5,1,9,7,4,8 6,1,5,4,9,8,3,2,8,7 8,9,3,1,6,4,2,7,5,1,3
Go.” Go.” Go.” Go.” Go.” Go.” Go.” Go.”
Read the answers or display them on a transparency so students can score their performance. Then ask for a show of hands to indicate the largest memory span they successfully completed. The majority of students should be successful up to and including the 6-digit span.
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Activity: The Value of Chunking The purpose of this demonstration is to illustrate how short-term memory performance can be enhanced by the use of “chunking” procedures; that is, by grouping items into larger, meaningful units. In the following two-part demonstration, ask a student to volunteer. Inform the volunteer that he or she will be presented with a set of items to be memorized in exact order. Then read the following list of letters:
XIBMCIAFBICBSMTV After a short delay, ask the student to recall as many of the letters as possible. In the second part of the demonstration, tell the student that you will improve his or her memory with a little help. Then read the letters in the following “chunked format”:
X IBM CIA FBI CBS MTV The student should have nearly perfect recall. Grouping the letters reduced the memory task from 16 items to 6 items. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Activity: Chunking to Increase Meaningfulness Objective: To demonstrate the importance of meaning in encoding and retrieval Materials: Handout attached (2nd page) as an overhead or copied and cut in half Procedure: Present the first sentence to students (if you hand it out, only give out the top half). Give them about 30 seconds to memorize this first string of letters in order. Next challenge them to recall the letters by writing them down on paper. Inquire as to whether it would make a difference to present the letters in chunks, then show the second string of letters, which are clearly chunked into meaningful units. There are many other examples of the effects of chunking (e.g., IBMCBSCNNDOA becomes IBM, CBS, CNN, DOA). Think about putting your school’s initials (e.g., UCLA; UM; UNI; NDSCS) in this example. The military also has a habit of using chunks (e.g., Bomb Damage Assessment with three chunks now becomes BDA with one chunk).
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Activity: Memory in Film: Memento Guy Pearce stars in this unusual film about a man whose wife has been murdered. A murder-mystery is not so unusual; what’s odd is that the film is told entirely in reverse. In the first scene, we see Pearce’s character gunning down his wife’s murderer, and each subsequent scene shows the events that took place right before the previous scene. Imagine reading a book from the last page to the first and you’ll get the idea. Oh, and complicating matters is the fact that Pearce’s character suffers from the inability to form short-term memories. This leads him not only to develop novel ways of keeping track of information, but also hinders his ability to remember who he’s after, whom he can trust, and why he’s doing whatever he’s doing at a given moment. The filmmakers did their research on short-term memory and the biological systems underlying it. They’ve also constructed a gripping film with more than a few twists to it. Recommended! ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Activity: Decay and Interference in Short-Term Memory This simple exercise uses the Brown-Peterson distracter technique to demonstrate the effects of delay and interference on short-term memory. Tell students that you want them to remember a sequence of three consonant letters while counting backwards from a number you provide them. When they’re ready, say, “W T K” and then “701.” They should then say “701, 698, 695, 692, 689, 686” and so on. After 15 to 18 seconds, say “write” as a signal to students to recall the three letters. According to Peterson and Peterson (1959), students should have a fairly difficult time accomplishing this because the counting task prevents them from rehearsing the letters and thus allows the memory trace to decay. Keppel and Underwood (1962) later argued that the forgetting in the Brown-Peterson task was primarily due to the buildup of proactive interference. As evidence, they pointed to the fact that students could often remember the letters during the first trial or two, but had much greater difficulty remembering letters on any subsequent trials, when proactive interference would develop (i.e., they would have trouble distinguishing between letters presented earlier and on the current trial). Verify this effect with your students by conducting several trials. Examples of potential letter/number combinations might include PZX 317, BVQ 421, LFC 991, JHG 187, and SRN 275. Students will be astonished at their atrocious performance, which, if typical of experiments of this type, should yield about 1 in 10 correct recalls after only 18 seconds of the distracter task! Reference: Keppel, G., & Underwood, B. J. (1962). Proactive inhibition in short-term retention of single items. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 1, 153–161.
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Activity: Coding in Long-Term Memory Searleman and Herrmann suggest a simple exercise (adapted from Sachs, 1967) that demonstrates that information in long-term memory is typically coded by meaning rather than by literal content. Tell your students that they should carefully read the story presented on the overhead (see attached handout) and that they should be prepared to have their memory tested for one of its sentences. After students have had time to read (but not study) the story, present the sentences (students should choose which one was presented in the story) and remove the story. Most students will quickly eliminate choice C (which has a different meaning than the other sentences) but will have difficulty deciding among the other three choices (which differ in form and structure but not meaning). Thus, it appears that people quickly forget verbatim information while retaining its general meaning. In actuality, our coding process is a very flexible and adaptive one. When we absolutely need to (e.g., when we must memorize a poem, riddle, or quotation), we can code verbatim information into long-term memory. Most of the time, however, because it is most important that we remember the meaning of events, we code the gist of information rather than its literal content. [Note: If your class is too large or you don’t have access to an overhead machine, this exercise can be conducted orally as well.] References: Sachs, J. S. (1967). Memory in reading and listening to discourse. Memory & Cognition, 21, 73–80. Searleman, A., & Herrmann, D. (1994). Memory from a broader perspective. New York: McGraw-Hill. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲Return to Table of Contents
Activity: Context and Its Effect on Memory Objective: To demonstrate the effects of context on memory Materials: An overhead transparency with the following matrix on it, making sure that the number 13 looks like a cross between a B and 13: A
12 13 14
C
Procedure: Divide the room in half by identifying an individual in the middle and telling one half to start from the top of the display and process downward and the other half to process from left to right. Ask for a show of hands and ask, “Who saw 12, 13, and 14?” Most of one side will raise their hands. The other half will look puzzled. Now ask, “Who saw A, B, and C?” The other half will respond. Now show them the matrix again, and discuss the effect of psychological set on processing.
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Activity: Memories of 9/11 In class before a discussion of flashbulb (FB) memories, you might want to ask students to write a memory report about everything they remember when they first heard the news of the terrorist attacks in New York and Washington, DC. Then discuss Brown and Kulik’s research on FB memories. A flashbulb memory refers to memory for a situation in which you first learned of a very surprising and emotionally arousing event, usually of international significance. Examples of FB memories include the assassination of JFK, assassination of MLK, the Challenger explosion, the O.J. Simpson verdict, the death of Princess Diana, the death of JFK Jr., the Columbine High School shooting, and now the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Brown and Kulik (1977) examined FB memory reports of the assassination of JFK and derived six “canonical” categories of information that are reported in FB memory reports across individuals: the location (remembering where you heard the news); the ongoing event (remembering what you were doing at the time you heard the news); the informant (remembering who told you about the event); emotional affect in others (noticing the emotional reactions of others); emotional affect in self (noticing the emotional reactions of oneself); and aftermath/consequentiality (remembering what you did after you heard the news). Ask students to now analyze their own memory reports for the six categories of information typically reported in FB memory reports. As part of a homework assignment, you may want to have students collect memory reports from a few of their friends, then analyze the data set as a whole for the six categories. Students will quickly notice that while the details of the memory reports may differ, all tend to report the same general categories of events. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲Return to Table of Contents
Activity: Telephone Game in the Classroom This demonstration allows students to play the childhood “telephone game” to illustrate the role of schemas in memory. Tell students that one person in the class will receive a message from the instructor, and they should whisper the message to the next person, and so on, until the message makes its way around the room. The last person should then report the message to the class. Whisper the following message to the first student: After doing this, Joe found the article. He then walked through the doorway and took a piece of candy out of his pocket. Next, he got some change and saw a person that he knew. Subsequently, he found a machine. He realized he had a slight headache and was very thirsty. After he aligned the original, Joe put in the coin and pressed the button. (Based on Trafimow & Wyer, 1993) One of two things may occur in the class with regard to the above storyline: either the [correct] copy machine schema may be reported or a story that includes putting money into a soda machine may be reported. Regardless of what story theme emerges at the end of the demonstration, the message will be altered significantly from the original message. Ask the first student to report the original message again, then read the original message to the classroom. Ask students to discuss
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why they think the story changed as it was “passed around” the classroom. Discuss how rumors are spread and may be distorted. Segue into Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts and subsequent work on schemas and memory. Reference: Trafimow, D., & Wyer, R. S. (1993). Cognitive representation of mundane social events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 365–376. ▼Return to complete list of Activities, Demonstrations and Exercises for Chapter 7 ▲Return to Table of Contents
Activity: Schemas and Memory Frederick Bartlett’s schema theory describes how our past experiences and expectations can affect memory. Specifically, Bartlett argues that our schemas (i.e., organized mental frameworks that we rely on to interpret and filter incoming information) greatly influence the retrieval of information stored in longterm memory. To demonstrate this effect in your classroom, replicate an exercise suggested by Drew Appleby. Tell students that you are going to show them a list of 12 words and that they should try to remember them. Then, slowly display (by using index cards or transparencies) the following words one at a time as you read them aloud: REST, TIRED, AWAKE, DREAM, SNORE, BED, EAT, SLUMBER, SOUND, COMFORT, WAKE, NIGHT After you’ve completed the list, distract your class for 30 seconds or so (to ensure that the words are no longer held in short-term memory) and then give them 2 minutes to write down as many words as they can recall. Ask for a show of hands from all those who recalled the word AARDVARK. Your students, none of whom will have mistakenly recalled AARDVARK, will look at you as if you’re crazy. Then ask for a show of hands for those who remembered SLEEP. Appleby reports that 80 to 95% of the students typically recall the word SLEEP, and are astonished to discover that SLEEP was not on the list (prove it to them). Asked to explain the effect, most students will intuitively understand that schemas influenced their recall. That is, because all of the words were associated with each other and related to the topic of sleep, their schema for “sleep” was invoked and it seemed only natural that it would be on the list. Thus, this demonstration suggests that schemas can cause us to fabricate false memories that happen to be consistent with our schemas. You might also want to discuss with students the following interesting implication: If people sometimes mistakenly remember information because it is consistent with their schemas, is it possible that they can mistakenly forget information that is inconsistent with their schemas? Ask students to provide examples from their own lives or from cases they’ve heard about in the media. Reference: Appleby, D. (1987). Producing a déja vú experience. In V. P. Makosky, L. G. Whittemore, & A. M. Rogers (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology: Vol. 2 (pp. 78–79). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
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Activity: Improving Memory This exercise, like the behaviour modification project suggested in a previous chapter, asks students to put what they’ve learned to practical use. For this assignment, students should target some specific aspect of their memory that they would like to improve and then apply one or more memory principles from the text or lecture to make the improvement. Students might, for example, strive to enhance their performance on exams, to recall important birthdates and anniversaries, to remember people’s names following introductions, or to reduce absentminded actions, such as misplacing keys or a wallet. Potential memory strategies include the use of established (e.g., Pegword, method of loci) or homemade mnemonics, eliminating distracters and paying careful attention when studying, meeting new people, or putting keys down, trying to encode material deeply and by multiple methods (e.g., by meaning, by self-referencing, and by encoding visually), making better use of retrieval cues, engaging in active, elaborative rehearsal while reading, applying the SQ3R method, and so on. Students might also be encouraged (but not required) to consult additional sources for ideas. One potential resource for this assignment is an excellent, well-written book by Kenneth Higbee. After implementing their plan, students should write a short paper in which they report on their experiences. Specifically, students should describe (a) the aspect of memory they targeted for improvement (and why), (b) the memory principles or strategies they used (including the rationale behind them), and (c) any results (positive or negative) from applying these techniques. After grading students’ papers, you might want to devote some class time to discussion so that students can share their successful experiences with others. Reference: Higbee, K. L (1993). Your memory: How it works and how to improve it. New York: Paragon House. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲Return to Table of Contents
Activity: A Combined Demonstration and Review Ask the class to memorize the following list of words. Read the list aloud slowly to the class at a rate of about one word every 4 seconds. bed turn night toss silence quilt night artichoke snoring fatigue dark rest tired night clock dream Read the answers or display them on a transparency so students can score their performance. On average, students will recall about ten items correctly, which is considerably better than the usual recall rate of about seven words when the words are unrelated. Students generally recall more words from this list because the list is loaded with memory aids, such as the following: Primacy effect: Most people recall “bed” because this word is the first presented. In general, the first bit of information to enter the memory has an advantage, because people rehearse the item more frequently. Recency effect: Nearly everyone remembers “dream” because this word is presented last. In general, the most recent information is better recalled because the information is still fresh in the mind.
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Frequency: The word “night” also enjoys a memorial advantage because it is presented three times. The more we rehearse material, the more likely is the material to enter our memory. Distinctiveness: Students generally have little trouble recalling “artichoke” because it is distinctly different from the other words, all of which involve sleep. Organization: Many students recall “toss” and “turn” consecutively. This illustrates that the mind imposes an organization on new material; it organizes small units, “toss” and “turn,” by chunking them into one larger unit: “toss and turn.” Reconstruction: Many people “remember” hearing “sleep,” although “sleep” is not included in the list of words. We tend to fill in the gaps in our knowledge with words or ideas that ought to be there according to our schemas. Thus, memory is not a direct sensory readout of previous experience, but in large part an inference about what the past must have been like. Visual imagery: Many students try to remember the words by forming a visual image of a bedroom. They can then use their “mind’s eye” to look around the room, locating objects that were on the list. This process is a very useful mnemonic device. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲Return to Table of Contents
Activity: Debate—Do Adults Repress Memories of Childhood Sexual Abuse? It is difficult to imagine another psychological issue in recent memory that has garnered as much public attention as has the validity of repressed memories (e.g., sexual abuse memories that surface many years after the fact). There is no doubt that sexual abuse occurs and is a serious and undeniable trauma; what is in question, however, is whether all recovered memories are in fact accurate or whether at least some memories are unwittingly but falsely shaped by others. This volatile but important issue has been the subject of television shows, symposia, journal issues, conferences, and has even spawned an organization, the False Memory Syndrome Foundation (www.fmsonline.org). Your students may have already formed opinions on this issue from what they have seen or heard in the media. Encourage them to explore this issue in more depth—and from both sides—by considering the scientific evidence and arguments in a debate format. Assign students to research this issue and to be prepared to defend either side. Taking Sides presents both pro and con viewpoints on this controversial topic, and students should be encouraged to find more recent sources from journal articles (see, for example, the American Psychologist) and from the popular media. Among other things, this debate should give students insight into the nature of long- term memory, conflict among psychologists from different perspectives, and the relationship between the media and psychological issues. Reference: Slife, B. (2003). Taking sides: Clashing views on controversial psychological issues (12th ed.). Guilford, CT: Dushkin Publishing Group.
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Activity: Crossword Puzzle Copy and distribute Handout Master 7.1 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment. Answers for the Crossword puzzle: Across 4. the very first stage of memory, the point at which information enters the nervous system through the sensory systems. Sensory 5. the brief memory of something a person has just heard. Echoic 7. the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input. Selective attention 11. loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories. Anterograde amnesia 13. memory that is consciously known, such as declarative memory. Explicit 14. the system of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently. LTM 15. any memory strategy that aids in encoding, storage, and retrieval of memories. Mnemonic 16. holding onto information for some period of time. Storage 19. visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second. Iconic Down 1. the memory for events and facts related to oneself. Autobiographical Memory 2. the tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows. Primacy 3. an active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage. Memory 4. the ability to access a visual memory for 30 seconds or more. Eidetic Imagery 5. the inability to retrieve memories from much before the age of three. Infantile Amnesia 8. type of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person remembering it. Flashbulb 9. getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used. Retrieval 10. type of declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others, such as daily activities and events. Episodic 11. loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used. Decay 17. the ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact. Recognition 18. the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems. Encoding
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Activity: Fill-in-the-Blanks Copy and distribute Handout Master 7.2 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment.
Answers for Fill-in-the-Blanks—Chapter 7 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
memory encoding storage retrieval sensory memory iconic memory eidetic imagery echoic memory short term memory selective attention chunking maintenance rehearsal long term memory procedural memory declarative memory anterograde amnesia semantic memory
18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.
episodic memory retrieval cue state dependent recall serial position primacy effect recency effect recognition flashbulb memories false memory encoding failure memory trace proactive interference retroactive interference hippocampus Alzheimer’s disease
▼HANDOUT MASTERS FOR CHAPTER 7: MEMORY ➢ Handout Master 7.1 Crossword Puzzle Activity ➢ Handout Master 7.2 Fill-in-the-Blanks Activity
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Crossword Puzzle Activity Chapter 7: Memory Across 4. the very first stage of memory, the point at which information enters the nervous system through the sensory systems. 5. the brief memory of something a person has just heard. 7. the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input. 11. loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories. 13. memory that is consciously known, such as declarative memory. 14. the system of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently. 15. any memory strategy that aids in encoding, storage, and retrieval of memories. 16. holding onto information for some period of time. 19. visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second.
Down 1. the memory for events and facts related to oneself. 2. the tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows. 3. an active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage. 4. the ability to access a visual memory for 30 seconds or more. 5. the inability to retrieve memories from much before the age of three. 8. type of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person remembering it. 9. getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used. 10. type of declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others, such as daily activities and events. 12. loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used. 17. the ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact. 18. the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems
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Chapter 7: Memory ►Return to Activity: Fill-in-the-Blanks (answers) ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 7.2 Chapter 7—Fill-in-the-Blanks: Memory 1.
2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
is an active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage. is the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems. is the process of holding onto information for some period of time. is getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used by the individual. The very first stage of memory is called and it is the point at which information enters the nervous system through the sensory systems. The visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second is called the __________ _____________. The rare ability to access a visual memory for 30 seconds or more is called __________ __________. The is a brief memory of something a person has just heard. The memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used and is also called the working memory is known as . The ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input is called____________ ______________. is when bits of information are combined into meaningful units, or chunks, so that more information can be held in STM. The practice of saying some information to be remembered over and over in one’s head in order to maintain it in short-term memory is called_______ ___________ The system of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently is called _. The type of long-term memory including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses is called . These memories are not conscious but are implied to exist because they affect conscious behaviour. The type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known is called__________ ____________ _____________ _____________is the loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories. is the type of declarative memory containing general knowledge, such as knowledge of language and information learned in formal education. is the type of declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others A stimulus for remembering information is called a . memories are formed during a particular physiological or psychological state will be easier to recall while in a similar state. .. 403
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21. The type of memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be “pulled” from memory with very few external cues much like on an essay test is called________ ______________. 22. effect is the tendency of information at the beginning and end of a body of information to be remembered more accurately than information in the middle of the body of information. 23. The is the tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows. 24. The is the tendency to remember information at the end of a body of information better than the information ahead of it. 25. The ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact—much like the information on a multiple choice test is called_____________. 26. The type of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person remembering it is called_______ ________. 27. syndrome is the creation of inaccurate or false memories through the suggestion of others, often while the person is under hypnosis. 28. The failure to process information into memory is called . 29. The is the physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed. 30. The memory retrieval problem that occurs when older information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of newer information is called______ _________ 31. is a memory retrieval problem that occurs when newer information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of older information. 32. The is the area of brain responsible for the formation of LTMs. 33. The primary memory difficulty in is anterograde amnesia, although retrograde amnesia can also occur as the disease progresses.
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Words for Fill-in-the Blanks 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
Alzheimer’s disease anterograde amnesia chunking declarative memory echoic memory eidetic imagery encoding encoding failure episodic memory false memory flashbulb memories hippocampus iconic memory long term memory maintenance rehearsal memory memory trace
18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.
primacy effect proactive interference procedural memory recall recency effect recognition retrieval retrieval cue retroactive interference selective attention semantic memory sensory memory serial position short term memory state dependent storage
▼APS: READINGS FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE ▲Return to Table of Contents Current Directions in Introductory Psychology, Second Edition (0-13-714350-8) Edited by Abigail A. Baird, with Michele M. Tugade and Heather B. Veague This new and exciting American Psychological Reader includes timely, cutting-edge articles, giving readers a real-world perspective from a reliable source Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. This reader includes over 20 articles that have been carefully selected and taken from the very accessible Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. Articles discuss today’s most current and pressing issues in introductory psychology and are broken down into these main sections: Scientific Thinking; Nature/Nurture; Consciousness; Individual Differences; and Applications. Kevin S. LaBar Beyond Fear: Emotional Memory Mechanisms in the Human Brain. (Vol. 16, No. 4, 2007, pp. 173–177) 64 of the APS reader Neurobiological accounts of emotional memory have been derived largely from animal models investigating the encoding and retention of memories for events that signal threat. This literature has implicated the amygdala, a structure in the brain’s temporal lobe, in the learning and consolidation of fear memories. Its role in fear conditioning has been confirmed, but the human amygdala also interacts with cortical regions to mediate other aspects of emotional memory. These include the encoding and consolidation of pleasant and unpleasant arousing events into long-term memory, the narrowing of focus on central emotional information, the retrieval of prior emotional events and contexts, and the subjective experience of recollection and emotional intensity during retrieval. Along with other mechanisms that do not involve the amygdala, these functions ensure that significant life events leave a lasting impression in memory
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Elizabeth F. Loftus Memories of Things Unseen. (Vol. 13, No. 4, 2004, pp. 145–147) 81 of the APS reader New findings reveal more about the malleability of memory. Not only is it possible to change details of memories for previously experienced events, but one can sometimes also plant entirely false memories into the minds of unsuspecting individuals, even if the events would be highly implausible or even impossible. False memories might differ statistically from true ones, in terms of certain characteristics such as confidence or vividness, but some false memories are held with a great degree of confidence and expressed with much emotion. Moreover, false memories can have consequences for later thoughts and behaviours, sometimes rather serious ones.
▼FORTY STUDIES THAT CHANGED PSYCHOLOGY ▲Return to Table of Contents Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research, 6/e (013603599X) By Roger Hock This unique book closes the gap between psychology textbooks and the research that made them possible by offering a first hand glimpse into 40 of the most famous studies in the history of the field, and subsequent studies that expanded upon each study’s influence. Readers are able to grasp the process and excitement of scientific discovery as they experience an insider’s look at the studies that continue today to be cited most frequently, stirred up the most controversy when they were first published, sparked the most subsequent related research, opened new fields of psychological exploration, and changed most dramatically our knowledge of human behaviour. Studies examined in Intelligence, Cognition, and Memory: Thanks for the Memories! Loftus, E. F. (1975). Leading questions and the eyewitness report. Cognitive Psychology, 7, 560–572.
▼WEB RESOURCES ▲Return to Table of Contents General/Comprehensive Web Resources
Exploratorium: www.exploratorium.edu/ This branch of San Francisco’s Exploratorium science museum features work by “a memory artist,” who paints his childhood home from memory. A novel application of memory principles that your students will enjoy seeing. Retrieval of Memories
Creating False Memories: http://faculty.washington.edu/ A nice overview of the literature on the topic by Elizabeth Loftus, originally published in Scientific American, September 1997, vol. 277 (3), pp. 70–75.
Elizabeth F. Loftus: http://faculty.washington.edu/ Why not go right to the source? Visit the homepage of Elizabeth Loftus.
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Elizabeth Loftus Interview for Frontline’s “What Jennifer Saw” www.pbs.org/ Elizabeth Loftus has done some of the most important research on eyewitness testimony. This interview touches on the validity of eyewitness testimony as well as on many of the other memory issues. This interview accompanies the Frontline documentary “What Jennifer Saw.”
H.M.—The Day His World Stood Still: http://brainconnection.positscience.com A four-part article that chronicles the life of H.M., the most studied case of anterograde amnesia. How Reliable Are Memories?
Imagination Inflation: Imagining a Childhood Event Inflates Confidence that It Occurred: http://faculty.washington.edu/ Article by Maryanne Garry, Charles G. Manning, Elizabeth F. Loftus and Steven J. Sherman summarizing research on the relationship between imagining an event and confidence that the event really occurred. Originally published in Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (1996), 3 (2), 208–214.
Recovered Memories of Sexual Abuse: www.jimhopper.com/ Provides abstracts and summaries of research on memories of sexual abuse. Maintained by Jim Hopper, Ph.D.
The Recovered Memory Project: www.brown.edu/ Archive of cases of recovered memory with links to related references and resources. Applying Psychology
Alzheimer’s Association: www.alz.org/ Comprehensive site devoted to the neurodegenerative disease that affects memory.
Self-Improvement Online: www.selfgrowth.com/ This site reviews and recommends memory improvement and memory training websites. A service of Self-Improvement Online.
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8/ THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲ Return to Table of Contents MODULE 8.1: The Organization of Knowledge ➢ Lecture Guide: The Organization of Knowledge (p. 409) ➢ Resources Available (p. 413 MODULE 8.2: Problem Solving, Judgment, and Decision Making ➢ Lecture Guide: Problem Solving, Judgment, and Decision Making (p. 414) ➢ Resources Available (p. 420) MODULE 8.3: Language and Communication ➢ Lecture Guide: Language and Decision Making (p. 421) ➢ Resources Available (p. 427) FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES ➢ Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 428) ➢ Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 440) ➢ Handout Masters (p. 451) ➢ APS Readings from the Association of Psychological Science (p. 454) ➢ Forty Studies that Changed Psychology (p. 454) ➢ Web Resources (p. 455)
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Chapter 8: Thought and Language LECTURE GUIDE
I. MODULE 8.1: THE ORGANIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE (Text p. 293) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology associated with concepts and categories. o See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand theories of how people organize their knowledge about the world. o First, certain objects and events are more likely to be associated in clusters. The priming effect demonstrates this phenomenon. For example, hearing the word “fruit” makes it more likely that you will think of “apple” than “table. More specifically, we organize our knowledge about the world through networks consisting of categories with varying levels of specificity. We usually think in terms of basic level categories, but under some circumstances we can either be more or less specific. ✓ Understand how experience and culture can shape the way we organize our knowledge. o There are a number of examples of how culture influences the way we categorize object. For example, people from North American (and Westerners in general) tend to focus on an individual, or focal objects in a scene, whereas people from Japan tend to focus on how objects are interrelated. ✓ Apply your knowledge to identify prototypical examples. o Students should be able to identify prototypical objects of common categories as well as those created spontaneously. ✓ Analyze the claim that the language we speak determines how we think. o Researchers have shown that language can influence the way we think at some level, but it cannot entirely shape how we perceive the world. For example, people can categorize colours even if they do not have specific words for them.
Concepts and Categories 1) Cognition would not be possible without concepts and categories. Concept (p. 294) is the mental representation of an object, event, or idea. 2) Concepts are rarely independent. i) We do not have one concept for chair, table, etc. a) Instead, each concept can be divided into smaller groups with more precise labels (e.g., wicker chair or dinner table). b) However, all of these items can be lumped into a single label, furniture. 3) We form such groups through the process of categorization. Categories (p. 294) clusters of interrelated concepts.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science Rule-Based Categorization Rule-Based Categorization (p. 294) this theory claims that objects or events are categorized according to a certain set of rules or by a specific set of features—similar to a dictionary definition. 1) Definitions are a great way of explaining how people categorize items. i) Knowing the definition of a triangle, we are able to identify triangles mixed in with other shapes (Figure 8.1). 2) However, classical categorization doesn’t fully explain how we categorize, such graded membership (Table 8.1). Graded membership (p. 294) the observation that some concepts appear to make better category members than others. For example, researchers flashed sentences on a screen to which participants responded “yes” or “no”. a) One sentence was, “A sparrow is a bird.” b) Another sentence was, “A penguin is a bird.” ii) Almost always, participants said yes faster about the sparrow being a bird. a) This goes against a classical, rule-based categorization system because both are birds. b) These results suggest that we have “best examples” for each category. i)
Categorization by Comparison 1) The likely image that comes to mind at the suggestion to imagine a bird is what psychologists call a prototype (Figure 8.2). Exemplar (p. 295) a specific example that best represents a category. Prototypes (p. 295) are mental representations of an average category member. i)
Prototypes allow for classification by resemblance. a) For example, if you come upon a new creature in the woods and it has wings and flies, you would likely categorize it as a bird. ii) Rules or definitions are not used; instead similarities in overall shape and function. 2) The main advantage of prototypes is that they help explain why some category members make better examples than others. i) For example, ostriches are birds just as much as blue jays, but they do not resemble the rest of the family as well. 3) We are likely to rely on rules (classical categorization) when there are complications and resemblances (prototypes) when there are a few major distinctions between items. i) For example, a bat looks like a bird, but it gives birth because it is a mammal. Networks and Hierarchies 1) The connections among ideas can be represented in a network diagram (Figure 8.3). Semantic network (p. 296) is an interconnected set of nodes (or concepts) and the links that join them to form a category. i)
Nodes are circles that represent concepts.
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Chapter 8: Thought and Language ii) Links connect nodes together to represent the structure of a category as well as the relationships among different categories. a) When concepts are closer together in the network diagram, we are quicker to identify them as true. b) For example, “A robin is a bird” vs. “A robin is an animal.” 2) These networks are organized in a hierarchy, moving from general to very specific. i) The basic level category consists of: a) The terms used most often in conversation. b) The easiest to pronounce. c) Prototypes. d) The level at which most thinking occurs. Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Priming and Semantic Networks 1) What do we know about semantic networks? i) In normal daily interactions, we create connections within semantic networks each time we encounter related aspects of a category and other related concepts come to mind. ii) For example, if you hear the word “fruit,” you may think of an apple, and apple may cause you to think computer, and then about a paper that is due tomorrow. iii) This is an example of priming. Priming (p. 297) the activation of individual concepts in long-term memory. 2) How can science explain priming effects? i) The effects of priming are tested through reaction time measurements, like the lexical decision task. a) This task requires participants to answer yes or no to semantically related words spelled correctly. ii) Research by Coane found that participants demonstrated priming effects without any laboratory priming when the words were congruent with seasonal trends. 3) Can we critically evaluate this information? i) The influence of priming can affect thought and behaviour at times; however, it can also have a weak influence at times. ii) Attempts to replicate some experiments have been difficult for this reason, and have therefore sparked debates about the best way to conduct research and interpret results. 4) Why is this relevant? i) Priming is a valuable tool used by advertisers to help promote products. a) Researchers found that a smoking company would benefit from showing anti-smoking ads. b) While the verbal message was “Don’t smoke,” the images actually primed the smoking behaviour.
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Experience, the Brain, and Culture Experience and Categorization 1) Our ability to form categories is based on experience. i) New stimuli are instinctively grouped with ones we have knowledge about. 2) This is true for children and adults. 3) Sometimes previous experience can be problematic. i) Medical students may be biased to diagnose a patient based on recent experience with a disorder. ii) Medical students were more likely to base diagnoses on pictures they saw of skin conditions, than on rules they knew about diagnosing. iii) Expert physicians were not susceptible to this bias. Categories in the Brain 1) Since our ability to make categorical decisions is influenced past experiences, we know this process involves memory. 2) Damaging certain parts of the brain could impair one’s ability to recognize some categories while not affecting others. 3) This disorder is referred to as category specific visual agnosia. Culture and Categories 1) Objects might be categorized differently by culture. i) For example, cows are sometimes referred to as “livestock” or “food animals” in the US. ii) Neither category would apply in India, where cows are viewed as sacred. 2) How objects relate to each other can also differ greatly by culture. i) Americans tend to focus on an object, whereas Japanese people tend to view objects in relation to their surroundings. ii) For example, researchers asked American and Japanese college students to take a picture of someone from any angle, perspective, etc. they wanted (Figure 8.7a). a) American students were more likely to take close-ups, whereas Japanese students included surrounding objects. iii) American students are also more likely to group cows and chickens together (because both are animals), whereas Japanese students are more likely to group cows and grass (because that’s what they eat) (Figure 8.7b). 3) There is also a difference in brain functioning between cultures when viewing and categorizing objects (Figure 8.8). i) For example, when Americans view a picture of an animal against a backdrop of trees and grass, brain regions involved in processing both objects and background become active. ii) Whereas only the brain regions involved with background processes become action in East Asians.
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Chapter 8: Thought and Language Myths in Mind: How Many Words for Snow? Linguistic relativity (or the Whorfian Hypothesis) (p. 301) is the theory that the language we use determines how we understand (and categorize) the world. 1) Early in the 19th century, anthropologist Franz Boas observed that the Inuit had many different words for snow. i) For example, aput means snow that is on the ground, and gana means falling snow. 2) This story was repeated and often exaggerated upon, with claims that Inuit people had dozens of words for different types of snow. i) It was thought that the Inuit perceived snow differently in comparison to those who are not near snow year-round. ii) Scholars used this example to argue that language determines how people categorize the world. 3) However, the reality is that the Inuit categorize snow the same way a person from the rest of Canada does. i) For example, people in Alberta can tell the difference between snow on the ground and falling snow, as well as sticky snow, drifting snow, yellow snow, and so on. a) In this case, the linguistic relativity hypothesis is incorrect. b) The difference in vocabulary for snow does not lead to differences in perception.
RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 8.1 ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture Launchers ➢ Perception of Phonemes ➢ Talk That Talk, Baby ➢ The Influence of Language on Thought ➢ Nonverbal Gestures ➢ Who Talks More: Men or Women? Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Context and Speech Perception ➢ Exploring Bilingualism ➢ Is Reading Automatic? A Survey ➢ Mondegreens! ➢ The McGurk Effect
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II. MODULE 8.2: PROBLEM SOLVING, JUDGMENT, AND DECISION MAKING (Text p. 303) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology of problem solving and decision making. o See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand the characteristics that problems have in common. o All problems have initial states and goal states. We use operators to achieve goal states. Also, many problems include subgoals. Problems can range from well-defined to illdefined. ✓ Understand how obstacles to problem solving are often self-imposed. o Many obstacles arise from the individual’s mental set, which occurs when a person focuses on only one known solution and does not consider alternatives. Similarly, functional fixedness can arise when an individual does not consider alternative used for familiar objects. ✓ Apply your knowledge to determine if you tend to be a maximizer or a satisficer. o Students should be able to rate their (dis)agreement with a number of statements, average their score, and reflect on their score as to whether they are more of a maximizer or satisficer. ✓ Analyze whether human thought is primarily logical or intuitive. o This module provides ample evidence that humans are not always logical. Heuristics are helpful decision-making and problem-solving tools, but they do not follow logical principles. Even so, the abundance of heuristics does not mean that humans are never logical; instead, they simply point to the limits of our rationality.
Defining and Solving Problems 1) Despite how different problems may seem, they all share some key components. Problem solving (p. 304) means accomplishing a goal when the solution or the path to the solution is not clear. Problem-Solving Strategies and Techniques 1) There appears to be two basic strategies we use to solve problems. i) One is more objective, logical, and slower. a) For example, listing and pros and cons of dating someone. Algorithms (p. 304) are problem-solving strategies based on a series of rules. ii) The other is more subjective, intuitive, and quicker. a) For example, envisioning what it would be like to date the person. Heuristics (p. 304) problem solving-strategies that stem from prior experiences and provide an educated guess as to what is the most likely solution. 2) For example, think about how you might play the children’s word-game known as hangman (Figure 8.9). i) The goal state is to spell the word. ii) In the initial state, you have none of the letters or other clues to guide you. iii) Your obstacles are to overcome blanks without guessing the wrong letters.
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Chapter 8: Thought and Language iv) Using an algorithm, you could pick A, B, C, D, etc. a) But you would probably lose. v) Using another algorithm, you could determine which letters are most commonly used and guess those. a) According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the most common letter is E followed by A, R and I. vi) Using a heuristic, you might discover the last letter is G and guess the next-to-last letter is N because you know many words ending in –ing. 3) Most problems can be solved with either algorithms or heuristics, or a combination of both. Cognitive Obstacles 1) Some of the simplest (and maybe most frustrating) forms of cognitive obstacles are selfimposed. i) Sometimes we have trouble “thinking outside of the box.” 2) A great example of this is the nine-dot problem (Figure 8.10). i) The goal is to connect all nine dots using only four straight lines and without lifting your pen off the paper. ii) Most people impose limitations on where the lines can go, even though those limits are not part of the rules. a) People assume the dots mark the boundaries that they must stay in, but solving the problem requires to go outside the boundaries (Figure 8.11). 3) Routine solutions can be helpful, but they can also impose cognitive barriers. Mental set (p. 305) is a cognitive obstacle that occurs when an individual attempts to apply a routine solution to what is actually a new type of problem. i)
A mental set can also occur when an individual applies a routine solution when a much easier solution is possible. 4) Another obstacle is when we can only think of one function for an operator. Functional fixedness (p. 305) occurs when an individual identifies a potential operator, but can think of only its most obvious function. i)
For example, imagine you are asked to tie two strings together that are hanging from the ceiling (Figure 8.13; answer Figure 8.16). a) However, once you grab one string you cannot let go of it and you cannot reach the second string. There is a table next to you with a pair of pliers, a piece of paper, and a ball of cotton. b) Many people don’t think of using the pliers as a weight on a string to get it to swing into reach because that’s not a normal use for pliers.
PSYCH @ Problem Solving and Humour 1) Jokes often involve some problem that needs to be solved. i) Typically, the audience must detect that some part of the story is not what is expected. This theory is called incongruity detection. 2) Researchers suggest that for an incongruity resolution to be considered funny, the audience must elaborate, forming mental images or applying it to themselves, which should then lead to an emotion of amusement.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science 3) Neuroimaging studies manipulated the wording of a joke do better identify brain areas related with both humorous and nonsense stimuli. i) They found that incongruities occurred in temporal and med. Frontal lobes. While elaboration occurred in left frontal and parietal lobes.
Judgment and Decision Making Conjunction Fallacies and Representativeness 1) We often misjudge probabilities and frequencies. i) For example, Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also participated in antinuclear demonstrations. Which is more likely? a) Linda is a bank teller. b) Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement. ii) In one study, more than 80% of students chose B, even though A is more likely. iii) This is because the world has a certain number of bank tellers (A), which is the base rate. a) Among this group, there will be a certain number who are also feminists (Figure 8.15). b) The conjunction fallacy reflects the mistaken belief that finding a specific member in two overlapping categories is more likely than finding any number of one of the larger, general categories. 2) The conjunction fallacy demonstrates the use of the representativeness heuristic. Conjunction fallacy (p. 308) reflects the mistaken belief that finding a specific member in two overlapping categories (i.e., a member of the conjunction of two categories) is more likely than finding any member of one of the larger, general categories. Representativeness heuristic (p. 308) making judgments of likelihood based on how well an example represents a specific category. i)
In the bank teller example, there are no descriptors of a bank teller, but there are for social activism, which could represent a feminist. a) Therefore, the common judgment of B is based on representativeness. 3) Another heuristic we use to make judgments involves examples that are readily available, giving us the impression they happen frequently. The Availability Heuristic Availability heuristic (p. 308) entails estimating the frequency of an event based on how easily examples of it come to mind. i)
For example, researchers asked volunteers which was more frequent in the English language: a) Words that begin with the letter K. b) Words that have K as the third letter. ii) Most chose A, even though the correct answer is B. a) However, it’s easier to recall words that start with K.
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Chapter 8: Thought and Language 4) Although heuristics can lead us to make inaccurate judgments, they also help us to make quick and correct judgments. i) For example, the same participants were asked which was more common in the English language: a) Words that begin with the letter K. b) Words that begin with the letter T. ii) Most subjects choose the correct answer, B. 5) Real world examples of availability examples abound; we overestimate the risks of each event because they easily come to mind. i) For example, police brutality, shark attacks, kidnapping, and terrorist attacks. Anchoring and Framing Effects 1) Some heuristics are based on how problems are presented. i) For example, judgments can be influenced by wording, the variety of multiple-choice options, and frames of reference. Anchoring effect (p. 310) occurs when an individual attempts to solve a problem involving numbers and uses previous knowledge to keep (i.e., anchor) the response within a limited range. 2) In one study, participants were asked to name the year that British Columbia became part of Canada. i) Most thoughts included, “If Canada became a country in 1867, then British Columbia likely joined a few years after that.” a) In this case, the birth of our country in 1867 serves as the anchor for the judgment about when British Columbia joined Confederation. 3) Anchors are more effective when generated by the individual making the judgments, but they can also have effects when introduced by the experimenter. i) For example, researchers asked the same question to two groups, using a different anchor: a) What percentage of African nations belongs to the United Nations? Is it greater than or less than 10%? What do you think the exact percentage is? b) What percentage of African nations belongs to the United Nations? Is it greater than or less than 65%? What do you think the exact percentage is? ii) Those in group A estimated the number to be about 25%, whereas those in group B guessed around 45%. 4) How a question is worded affects decisions: a) For example, choices of options will vary depending on if a question is framed in terms of saving lives or framed in terms of people dying even when the probability of death in each case is the same. b) People favour options that involve saving over options that mention dying (see Figure 8.18).
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science Belief Perseverance and Confirmation Bias Belief perseverance (p. 310) occurs when an individual believes he or she has the solution to the problem or the correct answer for a question, and accepts only evidence that will confirm those beliefs. 1) For example, you and several friends sit down to play poker with an old deck of cards. i) The first dealer counts the deck and gets 51 cards (short), but on the second count he gets 52 and begins to deal. a) The dealer exhibited belief perseverance by ignoring the first count of 51 counts and accepting the 52 card count because this was the correct amount needed. Confirmation bias (p. 311) occurs when an individual searches for only evidence that will confirm his or her beliefs instead of evidence that might disconfirm them. 2) Confirmation bias involves the search for a particular type of evidence, whereas belief perseverance involves errors in the way of evaluating evidence that already exists. i) In the case of the dealer, he only sought out confirmatory evidence. 3) Confirmation bias and belief perseverance can act together to dramatically influence a person’s beliefs, especially in relation to complex, emotionally charge areas (e.g., politics). i) We tend to treat evidence in ways that minimize negative or uncomfortable feelings while maximizing positive feelings. ii) One study examined the brain regions and self-reported feelings involved in interpreting information about presidential candidates during the campaigns. a) Participants were all deeply committed to either the Republican or Democratic candidate, and they all encountered information that was threatening toward each candidate. b) Participants had strong emotional reactions to threatening information about their own candidate, but not to the alternative candidate or a neutral person (e.g., TV news anchor) (Figure 8.19). c) Brain scans showed that when the treat was directed at the participant’s candidate, brain areas associated with ignoring or suppressing information were more active, whereas very few of the typical detached, logical areas were activated. Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Maximizing and Satisficing in Complex Decisions 1) The advantage of living in a technologically advanced, democratic society includes the ability to make so many decisions for ourselves. i) The downside is that there are usually too many choices to consider them all. ii) This results in two types of consumers: a) Satisficers are those who seek to make decisions that are “good enough.” b) Maximizers are those who attempt to evaluate every option for every choice until they find the perfect fit. 2) What do we know about maximizing and satisficing? i) Given the time and effort put in seeking out the best option, many believe the maximizer would be the most satisfied shopper, but this is often not the case. a) Paradox of choice: the observation that more choices can lead to less satisfaction. ii) In one study, researchers questioned recent college graduates about their job search process. b) Maximizers averaged 20% higher salaries, but were less happy about their jobs than satisficers.
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Chapter 8: Thought and Language 3) How can scientists explain maximizing the satisficing? i) Scientists have participants read vignettes that include a trade-off between number of choices and effort. a) For example, Your cleaning supplies (e.g., laundry detergent, rags, carpet cleaner, dish soap, toilet paper, glass cleaner) are running low. You have the option of going to the nearest grocery store (5 minutes away), which offers 4 alternatives for each of the items you need, or you can drive to the grand cleaning superstore (25 minutes away), which offers 25 different alternatives for each of the items (for approximately the same price). Which store would you go to? b) Maximizers are much more likely to spend the extra time and effort to have more choices. ii) Another study told students they could sample only one piece of chocolate from either an array of 6 pieces or 30 pieces. a) Maximizers are happier when they can only chose from 6 pieces and satisficers are happier when they chose from 30 pieces (Table 8.2). 4) Can we critically evaluate this information? i) One reason for the dissatisfaction of maximizers might be because they invest more so they expect more from the outcome. a) For example, if a maximizer and a satisficer both buy a digital camera for $75, the maximizer will feel like s/he overpaid because of the extra time and effort put in to have the same product. ii) However, it is important to note this is only correlational research. a) People cannot be made maximizers or satisficers; they either already are or not. b) Therefore, we cannot say what causes what; it could be that maximizers tend to be less satisfied, which leads to maximizing behaviour. 5) Why is this relevant? i) Maximizing and satisficing behaviours can also be applied to taking a multiple-choice exam. a) Do you select the first reasonable choice, or do you compare them to one another before making your choice? b) Once you make your choice, do you stick with it, believing it is good (satisficer), or are you willing to change your answer to make the best possible choice (maximizing)? ii) Maximizing on tests appears to be the more effective choice. a) One study of 1500 individual examinations showed that when people changed their answers, they improved their score 51% of the time and hurt their score 25% of the time.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 8.2 ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture Launchers ➢ Do You Mentally “Hear” Yourself Reading? ➢ Problem Solving in Infants ➢ Intuition ➢ Don’t Believe Everything You Read…Except This ➢ Functional Fixedness ➢ Hormones and Thinking Skills ➢ Fallacies in Reasoning Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Top-Down Processing of Language ➢ Learning a Concept ➢ Breaking Sets in Problem Solving ➢ Availability Heuristics ➢ Demonstrating Cognitive Biases ➢ Mental Sets in Everyday Life Web Resources ➢ The Role of Language in Intelligence: http://ase.tufts.edu/ ➢ Anagram Server: www.wordsmith.org
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Chapter 8: Thought and Language III. MODULE 8.3: LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION (Text p. 315) ▲ Return to Chapter 8: Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology from the study of language. ○ See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand how language is structured. ○ Sentences are broken down into words that are arranged according to grammatical rules (syntax). The relationship between words and their meaning is referred to as semantics. Words can be broken down into morphemes, the smallest meaningful units of speech, and phonemes, the smallest sound units that make up speech. ✓ Understand how genes and the brain are involved in language use. ○ Studies of the KE family show that the FOXP2 gene is involved in our ability to speak. ○ However, mutation to this gene does not necessarily impair people’s ability to think. ○ Thus the FOXP2 gene seems to be important for just one of many aspects of human language. Multiple brain areas are involved in language—two particularly important ones are Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas. ✓ Apply your knowledge to distinguish between units of language such as phonemes and morphemes. ○ Students should be able to identify phonemes and morphemes from a list as well as whether any can count as both. ✓ Analyze whether species other than humans are able to use language. ○ Nonhuman species certainly seem capable of acquiring certain aspects of human language. Studies with apes have shown that they can learn and use some of the ASK signs or, in the case of Kanzi, use an artificial language system involving arbitrary symbols (lexigrams). Critics have pointed out that many differences between human and nonhuman use of language remain.
What Is Language? Early Studies of Language 1) The most unique and complex aspects of language are based in the left hemisphere (for most) in the regions known as Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area (Figure 8.20). i) Damage to these areas results in aphasias. Aphasias (p. 316) are language disorders caused by damage to the brain structures that support using and understanding language. 4) Broca’s area appears adjacent to a strip of the brain known as the motor cortex that helps us control body movements. i) This area helps physically produce speech, but also in syntax and processing musical notes. Broca’s area (p. 316) is a frontal lobe structure that controls our ability to articulate speech sounds that compose words. ii) A person with damage to this area will most likely be diagnosed with Broca’s aphasia. a) An individual can still speak, but it is very difficult and consists of limited single words filled with pauses. Even gesturing with speech can be affected. .. 421
IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science b) A conversation with someone with Broca’s aphasia might look like: Examiner: Tell me, what did you do before you retired? Person with aphasia: Uh, uh, uh, pub, par, partender, no. Examiner: Carpenter? Person with aphasia: (Nodding to signal yes) Carpenter, tuh, tuh, twenty year. iii) Individuals with Broca’s aphasia can understand questions and come up with answers, but just has trouble speaking. a) He had trouble saying “carpenter” and he missed the morpheme S from “twenty year.” 5) Located toward the middle, back portion of the temporal lobe, is Wernicke’s area. Wernicke’s area (p. 316) the area of the brain most associated with finding the meaning of words. i) Damage to this area results in Wernicke’s aphasia: a language disorder in which a person has difficulty understanding the words he or she hears. a) This problem involves semantics rather than syntax because the person can talk, but the word choices make no sense. b) For example, a conversation with someone with Wernicke’s aphasia might look like: Examiner: Do you like it here in Kansas City? Person with aphasia: Yes, I am. Examiner: I’d like to have you tell me something about your problem. Person with aphasia: Yes, I, ugh, cannot hill all of my way. I cannot talk all of the things I do, and part of the part I can go alright, but I cannot tell from the other people. I usually most of my things. I know what can I talk and know what they are, but I cannot always come back even though I know they should be in, and I know should something eely I should know what I’m doing … ii) Those who recover from this disorder report being able to hear someone speaking, but that they couldn’t understand it—they couldn’t even understand their own speech. Properties of Language Language (p. 317) is a form of communication that involves the use of spoken, written, or gestural symbols that are combined in a rule-based form. 1) Language requires us to link different sounds or gestures with different meanings to understand and communicate with people. 2) There are a few basic features of language that make it a unique form of communication. i) We use it to communicate about objects and events that are not in the present time and place. For instance, we can tell a roommate we’re going to order pizza later tonight and she will not think it’s already there. ii) Languages can produce entirely new meanings. You alone can produce a sentence that has never been uttered before in the history of humankind. a) As long as you use English words and grammar, others who know the language should be able to understand it. iii) Language is also unique because it is passed down naturally from parents to children.
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Chapter 8: Thought and Language Phonemes and Morphemes: The Basic Ingredients of Language 1) The psychologists’ cooking analogy: We all start with the same basic language ingredients, but they can be mixed together in an unlimited number of ways. Phonemes (p. 318) are the most basic of units of speech sounds. 2) Individual phonemes typically do not have any meaning by themselves. i) You cannot tell someone to T to get them to stop. ii) For example, the phoneme associated with the letter T is found at the end of pot or the beginning of stop. a) Depending on the letters around T, you will have to move your tongue, lips, and vocal cords slightly, which produces different sounds (but still a T sound). b) For example, try saying stop, stash, stink, and stoke. Morphemes (p. 318) are the smallest meaningful units of a language. 3) Morphemes can be simple words, suffixes, or prefixes. i) The word pig is a morpheme; it cannot be broken down into smaller units of meaning. ii) Morphemes can be combined following the rules of the language. a) For example, you can describe a person a person as piggish by combining the morphemes pig and ish. iv) Our ability to combine units of sound into an infinite number of meanings (productivity) differentiates language from other forms of communication. 4) Lastly, there are words that make up language. Semantics (p. 318) is the study of how people come to understand the meaning from words. i)
Humans appear to have a knack for this kind of interpretation. a) We know tens of thousands of words and can understand the meaning of new words based on their morphemes.
Syntax: The Language Recipe Syntax (p. 319) is the rules for combining words and morphemes into meaningful phrases and sentences. 1) Children master the syntax of their native language before they leave elementary school. i) They can string together morphemes and words. ii) They can tell the difference between well-formed and ill-formed sentences. iii) Despite mastering the rules at such an early age, most speakers cannot tell you what the rules are. 2) The most basic units of syntax are nouns and verbs. i) They are all that is required to construct a well-formed sentence (e.g., Goats eat). a) However, such sentences are limited, so we build phrases out of nouns and verbs (Figure 8.21).
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3) For example, we can change statements into questions by moving specific words. i) a. A goat is in the garden. b. IS a goat in the garden? ii) However, this does not work in all cases: a. A goat that is eating a flower is in the garden. b. IS a g that goat eating a flower is in the garden? iii) We must follow a set of rules (syntax) to determine word order. Pragmatics: The Finishing Touches 1) Keeping with the cooking analogy, syntax is the recipe for language, whereas pragmatics is the icing on the cake. i) Syntax takes place in your brain, whereas pragmatics focuses on the speaker’s behaviours and the social situation. Pragmatics (p. 319) is the study of nonlinguistic elements of language use. 2) Pragmatics reminds us that sometimes what is said is not as important as how it is said (Table 8.3). i) For example, your friend did not eat 50 pounds of cheeseburgers and you wouldn’t call her a liar for saying it because you know she meant she just ate a lot.
The Development of Language Infants, Sound Perception, and Language Acquisition 1) Infants distinguish phonemes from their own language by about 8 to 10 months. 2) Infants then learn to parse speech. 3) Children also show a rapid growth in vocabulary thought to be due to a certain process. Fast Mapping (p. 320) the ability to map words onto concepts or objects after only a single exposure. i)
The fact that children learn language differently than adults has led psychologists to use the term language acquisition when referring to children vs. language learning. a) The study of language acquisition in children all over the world has shown that children (regardless of language) develop language capability in stages (Table 8.4).
Producing Spoken Language 1) Early psychologists believed that language was learned through imitating sounds and being reinforced for pronouncing and using words correctly. i) However, learning through imitation and reinforcement is only one component of language development. a) For example, children produce phrases that include incorrect grammar or word forms that adults do not use. b) Children learn irregular verbs and pluralizations on a word-by-word basis. They will use ran and geese correctly until they learn the –ed and –s morphemes and then they’ll start saying runned (vs. ran) and gooses (vs. geese).
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Chapter 8: Thought and Language c) Children often ignore their parents’ attempts to correct their over-generalized rules of language. ii) In addition, if only reinforcement were at play, adults would be able to learn language as easily as children. Sensitive Period for Language 1) When families move to another country, the children pick up the new language rather quickly whereas the parents have difficulty with pronunciation and grammar. i) Many schools in the US postpone teaching a second language to students because they fear it might interfere with mastery of the first. a) However, research shows learning two languages simultaneously during childhood advantageous. 2) Most psychologists believe children pick up language so much easier than adults because there is a sensitive period for language. i) This is a time during childhood in which children’s brains are primed to develop language skills. a) Children can absorb language almost effortlessly, but this ability fades starting in the seventh year. b) Children who receive cochlear implants before the age of two develop speech better than those who receive implants after age four. ii) Cross cultural research shows that sign language also has a sensitive period. a) Children can pick up sign language rather quickly, whereas deaf adults who learn to sign later in life will never be as fluent. The Bilingual Brain 1) There are benefits to being bilingual but there are also costs. i) Costs include slower word naming as adults. 2) Benefits include a stronger ability to control attention. 3) May have health benefits. i) May have more connections in the brain, and a better back-up system if something goes wrong.
Genes, Evolution, and Language Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Genes and Language 1) What do we know about genes and language? i) Many scientists believe the evidence is overwhelming that language is a unique feature of the human species that evolved to solve problems related to survival and reproduction. ii) Language adds greater efficiency to thought, allows transmission of information without requiring direct experience (with potential dangers), and facilitates social needs and desires. iii) As with most complex behaviours, there are likely a number of genes involved with language. a) However, there appears to be one gene of particular importance. 2) Which scientific evidence supports a genetic basis of language? i) All humans carry the gene FOXP2. a) The physical and chemical processes of this gene codes for are related to language. ii) The KE family has a mutated copy of this gene, so those in this family have great difficulty putting thoughts into words (Figure 8.18). a) They have no problems performing tasks, so they are still able to think.
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iii) Brain scans were taken of KE family members who inherited the mutated gene and those who did not (Figure 8.22). a) They were asked to generate words themselves and to repeat the words back to experimenters. b) Those with a normal gene showed typical activity in the Broca’s area in the left hemisphere. c) Those with the mutated gene had no activity in Broca’s area, that the activity in the brain was unusual for that type of task. 3) Can we critically evaluate this evidence? i) Although studies such as these show the importance of the FOXP2 gene in language, it is not unique to humans (like language is). ii) Mice have a version very similar in molecular structure. iii) The molecular structure and activity of the FOXP2 gene in songbirds (unlike-non-songbirds) is similar to that in humans. 4) Why is this relevant? i) This research helps us to further understand the links between genes and language. ii) Someday other individual genes will be found that have direct links to language function. Can Animals Use Language? 1) Formal studies of language learning in nonhuman species gained momentum in the mid-1950s when psychologists attempted to teach spoken English to a chimpanzee named Viki. i) Viki was cross-fostered by humans. ii) However, after many years of trying, she was only able to whisper about four words. Cross-fostered (p. 324) raised as a member of a family that was not of the same species. 2) In the 1960s, researchers attempted to teach chimpanzees American Sign Language (ASL). i) It was thought that the lack of language in Viki’s case was not due to brain ability, but limitations in the vocal tract and tongue. ii) The first chimpanzee, Washoe, was immersed in an environment rich with ASL, with everyone signing instead of speaking. a) By 2 years of age, Washoe acquired 35 signs through imitation and direct guidance of how to move her hands. b) Eventually, she learned around 200 signs. c) She was also able to generalize signs from one context to another. For example, she learned the word “open” using certain doors and cupboards and later signed open for other doors, cupboards, as well as her soda bottle. 3) Researchers taught a bonobo named Kanzi an artificial language using symbols that represented complex ideas and phrases (lexigrams). i) He learned about 350 symbols through training. ii) However, he learned his first symbols by watching researchers attempting to teach his mother how to use the language. iii) He also seems to recognize about 3,000 spoken words. iv) His trainers believe his skills constitute language. a) He can understand symbols and at least some syntax. b) He acquired symbols simply be being around others who use them. c) He produced symbols without specific training or reinforcement.
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4) Psychologists have worked with other large-brained animals to see if they can acquire language. i) Dolphin trainers use gestures to refer to specific objects and directions (e.g., right and left). a) For example, “put the ball on the left into the basket on the right.” b) The question is whether these animals associate a single gesture with a reward or if they understand the use of gestures as symbols. 5) Although these animals appear to be able to communicate effectively, debate continues about whether these animals are using language. i) Researchers working with language-trained apes point out some key differences between species: humans. a) Apes communicate with only symbols, not with the phrase-based syntax used by. b) There is little evidence showing that apes pass their language skills to other apes. c) Productivity—creating new words (gestures) and using existing gestures to name new objects or events—is rare, it is occurs at all. d) Some of the researchers become very engaged in the lives of the animals and talk about them as friends and family, which may interfere with the objectivity of the data. RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 8.3 Lecture Launchers ➢ Learning to Read: Eye Movements and Developmental Dyslexia Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Non-Sexist Language ➢ Channels of Communication ➢ Do Animals Have Language? A Survey Web Resources ➢ Speed Reading Test Online: www.readingsoft.com/ ➢ Language Learning: www.nsf.gov/ ➢ Do Apes Use Language?—The Why Files: www.whyfiles.org/ ➢ Primate Use of Language: www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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Perception of Phonemes Talk That Talk, Baby The Influence of Language on Thought Nonverbal Gestures Who Talks More: Men or Women? Do You Mentally “Hear Yourself Reading? Learning to Read: Eye Movements and Developmental Dyslexia Problem Solving in Infants Intuition Don’t Believe Everything You Read…Except This Functional Fixedness Hormones and Thinking Skills Fallacies in Reasoning
▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Perception of Phonemes (adapted from Larkin, 2004) Lisker and Abramson (1970) conducted a classic study comparing the ability of participants to perceive these two phonemes using computer-generated sounds. The purpose of the study was to determine whether perception of the phoneme was related more to the detection of the puffing sound (generated from the lungs) or voice-onset time. Using a computer program, they could alter the voice-onset time of the phoneme ah, so that on some trials voice-onset was short and on others it was longer. Their results revealed that participants always perceived the phoneme as ba when voice-onset time was short and pa when voice-onset time was long. They concluded that speech discrimination occurred through detection of timing differences of voice onset by the auditory system. For this lecture enhancer, ask students to produce two phonemes: da and ta. Although both sound nearly the same, da requires no build up of air in the lungs, whereas ta does. Because a puff of air is built up for ta, the voice-onset time (i.e., the time between the initial sound and vibration of the vocal cords) is a little longer. This extremely subtle distinction is what our auditory systems use to distinguish these two phonemes. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Talk That Talk, Baby “Does baby want to play with the beads?! Do yoooooouuuu want to play with the beeeeeaaaaads? Yes you doooooo!! Yes you doooooooo, don’t yooouuuuuuuuu?!!” The high-pitched, drawn-out baby talk that new babies seem to find mesmerizing and new parents seem to find necessary may have a deeper significance than previously suspected. That semi-annoying tendency to repeatedly accentuate vowel sounds may serve an important function in language development, and may have a universal component. Patricia Kuhl, a neuroscientist at the University of Washington, studied mothers in Sweden, Russia, and Seattle as they talked to their infants. Swedish, Russian, and English have substantially different vowel systems, yet the vowel sounds that are common to each language—”ee,” “ah,” and “oo”—were the same sounds that were unintentionally accentuated in the mothers’ speech. These parents did not accentuate all sounds or raise the pitch of all words, as might someone pretending to speak “baby talk.” Rather, acoustic profiles of some 2,363 words across all three groups revealed that just these important
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Chapter 8: Thought and Language vowels were exaggerated, and, according to Kuhl, for good reason. By providing an infant with unambiguous examples of what vowel sounds belong together, the task of language acquisition is presumably made that much easier. To a 5-month-old learning to enunciate vowel sounds this can be an important boost. Some intriguing unanswered questions remain, however. First, although Kuhl and her associates have demonstrated the type of input given to these infants, it’s not known what babies do with this information or how and when learning takes place. If an adult did not exaggerate vowel sounds, for example, it’s not clear whether there would be a negative effect on an infant’s learning or simply no effect at all. Second, the universality of this effect suggests a biological basis for knowing how to talk to an infant. “Ee,” “ah,” and “oo” are in fact sounds common to all human languages. Why they are spontaneously stressed under certain circumstances hints at an important adaptive tendency. Reference: Neergaard, L. (1997, August 1). Baby talk contributes to an infant’s learning. Austin AmericanStatesman, A19. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Influence of Language on Thought In George Orwell’s chilling novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, a totalitarian government tries to narrow thought by shrinking language. The result, called Newspeak, is supposed to wipe out “thoughtcrime” by obliterating the words needed to commit it. “We’re destroying words—scores of them, hundreds of them, every day,” boasts a worder in the ironically named Ministry of Truth. “We’re cutting the language down to the bone.” Words also get new meanings: War is peace, love is hate. (Lest anyone think Orwell’s projections were pure fantasy, in recent years, leaders in our own government have called lying “misspeaking,” the wartime killing of civilians “collateral damage,” the accidental killing of American soldiers by their own side “friendly fire,” nuclear missiles “peacekeepers,” and tax increases “revenue enhancement.”) Was Orwell right? Does language provide a mental straitjacket for thought? Can we think only what we can say? Or does language merely express ideas and perceptions that would exist anyway? The leading spokesperson for the notion that language shapes thought was Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897– 1941), an insurance inspector by profession and a linguist and anthropologist by inclination. His theory of linguistic relativity held that (1) language molds habits of both cognition and perception and (2) different languages point speakers toward different views of reality. Whorf sometimes seemed to believe that language determines thought in an absolute way. He once wrote, “We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages” (Whorf, 1956). But usually he took the more moderate position that language has a powerful influence on cognition. Whorf’s evidence was linguistic and cultural. For example, he noted that English has only one word for snow, but Eskimos (now called the Inuit) have different words for falling snow, slushy snow, powdered snow, and so forth. On the other hand, the Hopi have a single noun that refers to all flying things and beings, with the exception of birds. This word can be used for aphids, airplanes, and aviators. Thus, the Inuit presumably would notice differences in snow that people in other cultures would not, and Hopis might see similarities between insects and aviators that others would miss. Since Whorf’s time, other writers have added examples of their own. Chinese, for instance, has at least nineteen words for silk, but (in keeping with the reticence of the Chinese about discussing sexual matters) it has no common word for either foreplay or orgasm, making it something of a challenge to do sex surveys in China (Kristof, 1991)! .. 429
IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science In English, much has been written about how the very word foreplay limits sexual imagination. Why are all activities other than intercourse merely “fore” play? Whorf felt that grammar had an even greater influence on thought than did separate words. He argued, for example, that grammar affects how we think of time. English verbs, he noted, force people to emphasize when an action took place; you can’t talk about seeing Joan without saying whether you saw her, see her now, or will see her. But Hopi verbs do not require these distinctions. Instead, they allow a speaker to convey whether he or she experienced the action personally, observed it, heard about it, or inferred it. Further, English speakers refer to time as a thing that can be saved, squandered, or spent, or as something that can be measured; we say time is short, long, or great. The linguistic differences pointed out by Whorf and others have fascinated students and teachers for generations. Clearly culture and language are intertwined: English is full of sports metaphors (“I scored some points with my boss,” “She plays hardball in negotiations”), whereas French is rich in food metaphors (un navet, “a turnip,” means a bad film, and C’est la fin des haricots! “This is the last of the stringbeans,” is equivalent to “It’s the last straw”) (Halpern, 1991). But does language shape thought, or does it merely reflect cultural concerns? Critics note that it is easy enough to describe in English what the various Inuit words for snow mean or how Hopis conceive of time, despite linguistic differences. Within a culture, when a need to express some unlabeled phenomenon arises, speakers easily manufacture new words. Like the Inuit, English-speaking skiers need to talk about several kinds of snow, so they speak of powder, corn, and boilerplate (ice). Linguistic evidence alone cannot prove that language determines, or even influences thought. Do the Inuit perceive snow differently from people who have fewer words for it? Do Hopis experience time differently because of their grammar? We cannot know, unless linguistic evidence is supplemented by psychological evidence, and unfortunately, the few psychological studies that have been done have been inconclusive, mainly because of difficulties in studying this question. Yet the theory of linguistic relativity, which has sometimes seemed deader than a dinosaur, keeps springing back to life. Within a language, it is easier to process some words and grammatical constructions than others; it is reasonable to assume, then, that it is easier to think certain thoughts in one language than another, because of the words and grammatical constructions the languages require (Hunt & Agnoli, 1991). Further, recent research suggests that languages may, at the very least, influence the acquisition of specific mental skills, by guiding attention in particular directions. For example, Irene Miura and her colleagues (Miura et al., 1988; Miura & Okamoto, 1989) argue that linguistic differences can help explain why Asian children tend to outperform English-speaking children on tests of numerical ability. In many Asian languages, names of numbers reflect a base-10 system: the label for 12 is “ten-two,” the label for 22 is “two ten(s)-two,” and so forth. These names may help children understand numbers and simple arithmetic. In a study of Korean, Chinese, Japanese, and English-speaking American first-graders, Miura and her associates (1988) had children stack blocks to represent five different quantities. White blocks stood for single units and blue blocks for tens units. Each child had two chances to show the numbers. Most of the Asian children could express all five numbers in more than one way, for example, 12 as either 12 white blocks or 1 blue block and 2 white ones. But only 13 percent of the American children could do the same; most simply used a collection of white blocks. Further, on their first try most of the Asian children used patterns corresponding to written numbers, for example, 2 tens and 8 ones for 28. But only 8 percent of the American children did so. Of course, these results do not prove that linguistic differences are responsible for the differences in math achievement. It is interesting, though, that bilingual AsianAmerican students tend to score higher in math achievement than do those who speak only English (Moore & Stanley, 1986). .. 430
Chapter 8: Thought and Language Finally, language affects social perceptions (Henley, 1989). In the previous sentence, you read the name of a psychologist. Would you be at all surprised to learn it was Nancy Henley? Feminists have long observed that in much of our writing, humanity is male and women are outsiders, the “second sex.” This is why they have long objected to the use of men or mankind to refer to humanity, and he to refer to any person, sex unspecified. Language, then, can influence thinking, reasoning, and social stereotypes. It allows us to manipulate symbols rather than objects. It directs our attention. It allows us to create detailed plans for the future. But the degree to which linguistic differences between cultures result in different ways of thinking and perceiving remains an open question. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Nonverbal Gestures The study of nonverbal gestures and their meaning has received extensive research attention in psychology, sociology, and communication. Through basic research we know a great deal about what gestures convey, how they are culturally variable, and how they act as cues to emotional and other internal states of a communicator. Roger Axtell, former international business executive and now professional speaker and author, has cataloged a variety of gestures and their appropriate uses in cultures around the world. His collection of examples shows clearly that an intended message may not always be communicated successfully. Some common miscommunicated meanings include: •
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The “two-fingered salute.” In most of the contemporary world flashing the index and middle finger in a “V” shape, palm outward, signifies “victory” or “peace” (depending on the vintage of the communicator). However, in England, Australia, and several other countries, a simple turn of the wrist (flashing the sign with the palm toward the communicator) changes this gesture to a highly insulting one: a two-fingered version of our “one-fingered salute.” “The fig.” Brazilians clench their fists with a thumb jutting between the index and middle fingers to signal good luck and help in warding off evil spirits. In Greece and Turkey, however, this same gesture is quite insulting, whereas in Holland and Tunisia it has sexual connotations. “Hook ‘em Horns.” Texans, especially Austinites, know that an outstretched index and pinky finger signal a cheer for the University of Texas Longhorns to do well on the playing field. This same gesture signals a curse in Africa, a good luck sign in Brazil, and an Italian chide that the recipient is being cuckolded. Signaling that someone is “crazy” can take on a variety of forms. In Germany, it is done by rotating the forefingers back and forth around one’s temples. Italians send the same message by tapping their hands to their foreheads. To complicate matters, in Holland a forefinger to the temple means “intelligent” whereas a forefinger to the forehead signals “crazy.” The common North American gesture of a circular motion around the temple actually signals “There’s a phone call” among Argentineans. “Nice job!” Flashing a “thumbs up” to a friend usually signals that the person has done well or that the communicator wishes good luck. In Australia, however, it is considered the equivalent of the “two-fingered salute” discussed above, whereas in Japan it signals “five,” in Germany it indicates “one,” and in Bangladesh it is considered obscene. “Pointing” is accomplished in North America and Europe by using the index finger. In Malaysia the thumb is preferred, whereas in Japan and China an open hand is used. The “hand sweep.” Moving one’s hand and arm across a table in a sweeping motion signals “someone is stealing” in Latin American countries. In Peru, this same gesture means “pay me.”
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Extending the palm of the hand toward someone might be a way of saying “no more” or “no thanks.” In Greece, however, it is an extremely insulting gesture mimicking shoving dirt (and other brown matter) into someone’s face.
References: Axtell, R. E. (1991). Gestures: The do’s and taboos of body language around the world. New York: Wiley. Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1969). The repertoire of nonverbal behaviour: Categories, origins, usage, and coding. Semiotica, 1, 49–98. Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1972). Hand movements. Journal of Communication, 22, 353– 374. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Who Talks More: Men or Women? Women talk a lot more than men, right? A long-standing stereotype of the socially gifted, talkative woman is contrasted with the stereotypical male: somewhat guarded, less social, and less talkative. Do experimental data bear these stereotypes out? In 2006, Louann Brizendine, founder and director of the University of California, San Francisco’s Women’s Mood and Hormone Clinic, published The Female Brain. In it was a claim that women speak an average of 20,000 words per day, nearly three times the mere 7,000 spoken by men. This seemingly sensational claim was immediately questioned by James Pennebaker, a psychologist at University of Texas, Austin. In a series of studies (prior to the publishing of Brizendine’s controversial book) at schools in Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, researchers used an electronically activated recorder to record samples of male and female students’ talking for 17 hours per day. From the samples of 396 students (210 females and 186 males) it was estimated that women and men speak roughly the same number of words per day. Women were found to speak an average of 16,215 words per day whereas men speak 15,669. This result does not even approach statistical significance, and calls into question Brizendine’s claim. Moreover, Pennebaker’s findings indicate that the stereotypes of the talkative woman / reserved man are simply psychomythology. A discussion of these findings will nicely illustrate how sound psychological experimentation can lead to the truth. Additionally, most students hold these stereotypes, and this discussion should elucidate the power of stereotypes—some students who, even when faced with strong scientific evidence to the contrary, will maintain their views. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Do You Mentally “Hear” Yourself Reading? The idea of subvocal speech, where thought is mediated via moving the vocal tract below hearing level, was an idea posited by behaviourist John Watson. Although the idea that all thought is predicated on mastery of language raises some issues, many (if not most) people report that they “mentally hear” the words that they read while reading to themselves. Ask students if they hear (or listen to) themselves while reading—many may not realize that they do. A discussion of how language can lead to producing thoughts and reasoning can flow from this question.
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Chapter 8: Thought and Language ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Learning to Read: Eye Movements and Developmental Dyslexia As noted in the text, many cognitive (e.g., symbolism, meaning, recognition) skills require fine-tuning in order for a person to learn how to read. Another skill that often goes unappreciated in the development of reading is proper and accurate eye movements. Reading text involves a series of quick, jutting eye movements called saccades, with intervening fixations. We are not usually aware of these movements, but if you’ve ever watched someone’s eyes while they are reading, the saccadic “jumping” of the eyes is quite conspicuous. In order to read effectively, a person’s eye movements must be precisely controlled. As with most other facets of development, some variability is apparent among children in developing this skill, and some people actually never appear to attain the high-performance eye movement control necessary for good reading ability. This developmental deficiency is thought by some researchers to manifest as dyslexia, a selective impairment of reading and spelling abilities without a deficit in general intelligence. Indeed, through careful reading and eye movement experiments involving dyslexics and normal controls, the voluntary component of saccade control was demonstrated to differentiate dyslexics from controls (e.g., Bednarek et al., 2006; Ram-Tsur et al., 2006). The result of this slight imperfection in eye movement timing is that information from the text is not in register with eye-movement mediated visual input. To approximate the difficulty encountered by a person with dyslexia while reading, have students rotate their book (or other reading material) 90 degrees (clockwise or counterclockwise is fine). This way, students will have to read from either up to down, or vice versa (not the usual left-to-right). The most noticeable change in reading performance is a decrease in reading speed. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Problem Solving in Infants (from Malley-Morrison & Yap, 2001) How early in the human life span can we see evidence of problem-solving ability? Are babies capable of performing any cognitive tasks prior to developing language? How would we test for these kinds of abilities? McCarty, Clifton, and Collard (1999) describe several techniques that researchers have used to assess problem-solving in infants and toddlers, like pulling a cloth to get a string, then pulling the string to get a toy, or selecting an appropriate tool from among many to rake in a desired toy. McCarty and colleagues developed a task that evaluated young children’s problem-solving strategies— a test of guiding a spoon into the mouth. Participants were 9, 14, and 19 months old. The idea was to test to see whether a subject could properly grasp and orient a spoon such that s(he) could guide it into the mouth. A spoon (which had food on it) was placed in front of the child, and its orientation varied randomly for each trial. The most efficient way for infants to get the food on the spoon to their mouths was through their using a radial grip with the preferred hand on the handle of the spoon, with their thumb toward the bowl of the spoon. To achieve this grip, the infants would have to make accommodations to the changing orientation of the spoon. The McCarty team also presented children with items that had no clear goal or no obviously correct way of being held (e.g., a toy animal attached to a handle). They reasoned that comparing the children’s grasping strategies for these items with their grasping strategies for the spoon should reveal whether children reach in a particular manner toward items with a handle regardless of what the item is and how it may be used.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science The main finding in the study was that the children consistently placed the bowl of the spoon in the mouth, indicating that the spoon was used in a purposeful way, whereas for the toys the children did not take any particular course of action. The 9-month-olds tended to reach with their preferred hand in the overhand orientation, which sometimes led to an awkward grip on the spoon. They immediately placed the spoon in the mouth, which meant that the handle ended up in the mouth on trials when the spoon was oriented such that the food was on the same side as their preferred hand. Although the 14-montholds also tended to reach with their preferred hand in the overhand orientation, they made corrections, if necessary, before transporting the spoon to the mouth so that they only placed the bowl of the spoon in the mouth and never the handle. Rather than always reaching with their preferred hand, the 19-montholds tended to alternate hands in coordination with the spoon’s orientation, reaching with their handleside hand in the overhand orientation to achieve a radial grip. The authors concluded that recognizing the orientation of the spoon and reaching to achieve a radial grip involves a problem-solving strategy that is a precursor of reasoning and thinking about problems, and also that their research documents the evolution of the ability to plan ahead during the second year of life. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Intuition Psychologists have long been interested in understanding reasoning, problem solving, and decision making. But the other, “softer” side of this cognitive coin is the study of intuition; how we develop a “gut feeling” or “sense” about a judgment, situation, or another person. Far from relying on an aching bunion or creaky joint to understand intuition, scientists have recently put the notion to the test. Antonio Damasio and his colleagues at the University of Iowa College of Medicine studied 6 people who had damage to the ventromedial sector of the prefrontal cortex and 10 people who did not. This area of the brain is responsible for storing information about emotional experiences and is also involved in decision making. Armed with $2000 in fake money, the participants were presented with four decks of cards and were told they could turn over cards from any deck during the course of a game. Unbeknownst to the participants, two decks were rigged to produce lower immediate rewards but a higher overall payoff, whereas the other two decks yielded short-term, large payoffs but at the price of greater total losses. Participants flipped cards at will while being monitored for GSR as an indicator of nonconscious (or conscious) anxiety. After the first 20 rounds the research team questioned the participants, and did so again after each subsequent 10 rounds, in order to determine when the participants became conscious of the best strategy to win. Those participants without brain damage began to show signs of anxiety before picking cards from the losing decks, and began to avoid those decks, although consciously they were not yet aware that they were losers. By the 80th round 7 of the 10 normal participants consciously knew to avoid the losing decks, and although the remaining 3 did not reach that insight, they nonetheless continued to make advantageous choices. The 6 brain damaged participants, however, continued to pick from the losing decks, never expressed a hunch that something was amiss, and never showed signs of anxiety. In short, the intuition or unconscious knowledge that arose in the normal subjects was absent in the impaired group; there never arose a “sense” or “feeling” of what was going on. One study digs deeper to the roots of intuition. A team of researchers led by David Skuse, a psychiatrist at the Institute of Child Development of University College in London, found evidence suggesting intuition is an inherited trait passed from fathers to their daughters. Skuse and his colleagues defined intuition in terms of social skills, such as the ability to decode nonverbal communication or recognize socially appropriate behaviour. Although the research team has not identified a gene (or genes) .. 434
Chapter 8: Thought and Language responsible for these abilities, their patterns of evidence suggest a specific chain of inheritance. The parents of 88 girls with Turner’s syndrome (characterized by a single X chromosome) were asked to rate their daughters on various measures of social intelligence, such as awareness of other’s feelings, skill at following instructions, or awareness of offending others. The researchers next determined whether each girl’s single X chromosome had come from her father or mother. The results revealed that those girls who had inherited the mother’s chromosome scored worse on the measures of “intuition” than did those receiving the X from their fathers. Parents of normal boys and girls were also asked the same questions. The boys, compared to the normal girls, scored lower on the measures of social intuition: Like all boys, they also received their X chromosome from their mothers. Furthermore, the researchers also compared the responses of the Turner’s syndrome girls with those of normal boys and girls on a battery of neuropsychological measures. Turner’s syndrome girls who received their X chromosome from their mothers scored worse on tests that required extensive planning or the inhibition of urges; normal boys also scored worse on the inhibition measures (but not the planning tasks). References: Brown, D. (June 12, 1997). Women inherit intuition from dads, researchers say. Austin AmericanStatesman, A1, A6. Stein, R. (March 9, 1997). Intuition affects sensible choices, researchers find. Austin AmericanStatesman, A25. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Don’t Believe Everything You Read…Except This People sometimes believe in things they ought not to, such as flat Earths, cheese moons, or their own invulnerability. But forming and clinging to misbegotten beliefs may itself be a consequence of some fundamental cognitive processes, such as how information gets encoded in memory or what happens to a disrupted attentional system. Dan Gilbert, of Harvard University, has been exploring the problem of “believing what isn’t so” for several years. In explaining the process by which such belief takes place he invokes the thinking of Rene Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, both of whom wrote quite a bit about how information is perceived and stored in a mental system. Descartes argued that information is first comprehended, and then in a subsequent step, a truth value is assigned to it: We decide to accept or reject the information as being true. This would suggest, of course, that we can easily entertain ideas (indefinitely, perhaps...putting them up in a mental guest room, so to speak) without necessarily putting stock in them. If comprehension (understanding) of information and endorsement (acceptance or rejection) are two distinct steps, humans should be able to hold an idea without believing it. Spinoza adopted a different position on the nature of belief, arguing that comprehension and acceptance of information are accomplished in a single initial step, only later to be followed by certification or rejection of the information. This view holds that the very act of receiving information entails assigning a belief to it [“this information is true” (or false, as the case might be)], which only later can be substantiated or “unbelieved,” as might be called for. Quite unlike Descartes, then, Spinoza argued that ideas could not be entertained, “beliefless,” in a cognitive system, but rather are believed upon first being received into the cognitive system.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science How to disentangle these competing predictions? Notice that both, if allowed to run their course, would lead to the same outcome: The acceptance or rejection of information as being true. The difference lies in when the belief is assigned, either in a Spinozan first step or in a Cartesian second step. Gilbert reasoned, then, that disrupting a belief system in action would be the only way to tell which system (Spinozan or Cartesian) was at work. If Descartes was correct, disrupting the system between steps should have no effect on cognition: We would be left holding a collection of ideas that had not yet been assigned truth values. If Spinoza was correct, however, disruption should produce a very pronounced tendency: We should be left believing information to be true (since it was automatically tagged with a truth valued upon entering the cognitive system) when in some cases it is not. To test these ideas, Gilbert and his colleagues asked research participants in one of several experiments to learn some (fictitious) Hopi language terms. Participants saw a Hopi/English word-pairing flash on a computer screen (such as “A monishna is a star,” “A rirg is a valley,” or “A neseti is a bee”), which was followed by a brief pause, and then followed by one of three outcomes: The word “True” (signaling that the preceding pairing was accurate), the word “False” (indicating that the preceding pairing was incorrect), or a blank screen. Note that Descartes and Spinoza are still neck-and-neck at this point. Either account of belief would argue that participants could take in the information (untouched, as Descartes would have it, or believed as true, as Spinoza would have it) and then correct it based on the True or False cue later given (which would mean assigning a belief in the Cartesian system, or revising/substantiating an existing belief in the Spinozan system). However, the researchers asked participants to do one additional task. On some trials participants were asked to press a button if they heard a particular tone. This additional task served to tax their available cognitive resources, making it more difficult to perform the correction step of integrating the true/false cues with the prior information. These participants, however, provided an answer to the riddle of belief. When later polled they showed a particular pattern of errors; namely, they were left believing propositions that should have been revised (i.e., those tagged as “False”) as being true. Given the controls of the experiment, the only way to account for this outcome is that the information must have been encoded as true upon first being read (just as Spinoza argued). Because these resource-depleted subjects were disrupted from performing Spinoza’s second task (certifying or, in these cases, rejecting the previously-believed information), they were left believing what they ought not to. The implications of this research are startling. For example, as Dan Wegner and his colleagues have shown, it may help explain the workings of innuendo. When presented with information that may or may not be correct, our Spinozan belief system compels us to endorse that information upon comprehension. If our cognitive resources are later disrupted we may be unable to correct our initial comprehension. Similarly, this research may help explain why belief perseverance takes place. If the stage of correcting initial information is subject to disruption, we may be left clinging to beliefs even in the face of clearly disconfirming evidence. Finally, these results fly in the face of what your parents always told you. Far from “not believing everything you read,” it seems that we can’t escape that fate. References: Gilbert, D. T. (1993). The assent of man: Mental representation and the control of belief. In D. M. Wegner & J. W. Pennebaker (Eds.), Handbook of mental control (pp. 57–87). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Gilbert, D. T. (1991). How mental systems believe. American Psychologist, 46, 107–119. Gilbert, D. T., Krull, D. S., & Malone, P. S. (1990). Unbelieving the unbelievable: Some problems in the rejection of false information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 601–613.
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Chapter 8: Thought and Language Ross, L., Lepper, M. R., & Hubbard, M. (1975). Perseverance in self-perception and social perception: Biased attributional processes in the debriefing paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 880–892. Wegner, D. M., Wenzlaff, R., Kerker, R. M., & Beattie, A. E. (1981). Incrimination through innuendo: Can media questions become public answers? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 822–832. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Functional Fixedness To demonstrate functional fixedness, gather a number of household items, such as an egg carton, film container, baby food jar, nail, paper clip, baking cup, empty toilet paper roll, piece of string, paper napkin, clothes pin, safety pin, Band-aid, and cotton ball. You may wish to have several of each item depending on how many students are in your class. Arrange the class in small groups and have each group choose several items. Their task is to brainstorm as many new uses for their items as possible in the time allowed. For four or five items, allow 10 to 15 minutes. Have each group report their results to the class. The following discussion should allow you to reinforce ideas about the nature of creativity and the meaning of functional fixedness. If a person suggests using a baby food jar to store small items such as buttons, this is still fixating on the function of the jar as a container. A more creative suggestion would be to break the jar and use a piece for cutting, or to draw around it to make a circle. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Hormones and Thinking Skills Uriel Halbreich, UB professor of psychiatry and gynecology and obstetrics, and an expert in psychopharmacology, hormonal disorders and behaviour, has reported that the performance of postmenopausal women on certain tests measuring the ability to integrate several cognitive functions improved significantly after a course of estrogen-replacement therapy (ERT). It was found that low levels of estrogen may impair some cognitive functions, while estrogen-replacement therapy may help improve certain thinking and biological brain processes, and also may play a role in elevating mood, results of studies involving postmenopausal women conducted by researchers at UB have shown. Post-menopausal women and women of child-bearing age were given a wide variety of tests that measure different areas of cognitive functions according to Halbreich. The women were then given estrogen for 60 days, and there appeared to be a significant improvement. This increase in cognitive ability was correlated with the plasma levels of estrogen. The results indicated that integrative abilities, reaction times and short-term verbal memory of many of the postmenopausal women improved after estrogen therapy. Halbreich believes that estrogen may help maintain some functions that typically decline with age or menopause.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Fallacies in Reasoning We often have lapses in critical thinking as we speak and write. A fallacy is a belief or argument that rests on invalid or false inference, that is logically unsound. Fallacies are often used unintentionally, but they are also used intentionally when an effort is being made to deceive or mislead the listener or reader. 1. “If you know about BMW, you either own one or you want one.” What’s wrong with this statement? It is an example of the fallacy called false alternatives. It is also called dualistic or black-and-white thinking and bifurcation. The fallacy occurs when it is presumed that a classification is exclusive or exhaustive. It often takes the form of overlooking alternatives that exist between two polar opposites. Here is another example of false alternatives written by an educator who was suggesting that children should begin public school at the age of four and that high school should end after the eleventh year: “Twelfth grade has become a bore for able students and a holding tank for the rest.” 2. “I asked my doctor why my mouth was so dry and he told me that it was because my saliva glands are not producing enough saliva.” What do you think of the doctor’s diagnosis? This is an example of the fallacy of begging the question, or circularity. The fallacy occurs when the solution to a problem is a restatement of the problem, or, an argument for a proposition is equivalent to the proposition, such as “He throws tantrums all the time because he has a terrible temper.” Diagnoses of mental disorders are sometimes considered to beg the question: “Why is he so nervous and agitated?” “He has generalized anxiety disorder.” “What does that mean?” “It means that he has anxiety and apprehension.” Here is another example that may seem ridiculous, but when things such as this occur in the context of speech or writing, they often sound all right, maybe even impressive: “Bodies fall because they have a downward tendency.” 3. “He is an innocent man. He was tried before a jury of his peers and the prosecution was unable to prove him guilty.” Is the assumption of innocence justified? This is an example of the fallacy called appeal to ignorance. This fallacy occurs when it is argued that because we cannot prove a proposition to be true, it must be false; or if we cannot prove a proposition to be false, it must be true. Here is another example: “There has never been any scandal about this candidate for president. Therefore, he must be an honest, moral person.” 4. “If you don’t pick up your clothes before you go to bed at night, pretty soon you’ll be knee-deep in dirty clothes.” Is that the way it is? This is an example of the fallacy called slippery slope; certain applications of it have been called the domino theory. The argument is that if the first in a possible series of steps or events occurs, the other steps or events are inevitable. .. 438
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5. “If you don’t pick up your clothes before you go to bed at night, pretty soon you’ll be knee-deep in dirty clothes.” Is that the way it is? This is an example of the fallacy called slippery slope; certain applications of it have been called the domino theory. The argument is that if the first in a possible series of steps or events occurs, the other steps or events are inevitable. Here is an example from a letter to the editor of a metropolitan newspaper. The writer was responding to an article discussing the morality of euthanasia in the case of a person with an advanced case of multiple sclerosis: “If we allow this to happen, where do we stop? Who would decide at what point someone should die? Do we give them poison the moment they know they have multiple sclerosis or cancer, before they have any suffering?” 6. “TV can’t be harmful for children because it occupies their attention for hours and keeps them off the streets.” Is this argument against the idea that TV can be harmful for children convincing? It is an example of the fallacy called irrelevant reason. This fallacy occurs when the argument given to support a proposition has little or no relevance to the proposition. Here is another example: “Conservationists have suggested that we could conserve fuel by increasing the tax on gasoline. But more taxes, whether they’re paid by the oil companies or passed on to the consumer at the pump, will not produce one more barrel of oil.” 7. “I don’t see how she can get elected. No one I know is going to vote for her.” What’s wrong with this argument? This is the fallacy called hasty generalization. It occurs when an isolated or exceptional case is used as the basis for a general conclusion. In more statistical language, it is making a conclusion about a population based on information obtained from a sample that is biased or too small. It is an error of inductive reasoning—going from the particular to the general when it is not justified by the evidence. Another example is attributed to the brother of a former president of the United States: “I never read a book by a woman because I never met a woman who had sense enough to write a book.” (Either he hasn’t met very many women, in which case the sample is too small, or the ones he has met are a biased sample. Of course, there is the possibility that he is a devout sexist.) 8. “If socialized medicine will result in better and lower-cost healthcare, shouldn’t the same logic be applied to automobiles? Wouldn’t nationalization of the auto industry produce better and lower-cost cars? And if we nationalized auto mechanics, wouldn’t we get better and less-expensive repairs?” These words were spoken in rebuttal after Senator Kennedy had called for national health insurance in a speech at a meeting of the United Auto Workers. Does the speaker’s argument make sense? It represents the fallacy called questionable analogy. In questionable analogy an attempt is made to make two situations seem more similar than they actually are. Another example is from a state senator who was using the crucifixion as a rationale for capital punishment: “Where would Christianity be if Jesus got 8 to 15 years with time off for good behaviour?”
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Context and Speech Perception Non-Sexist Language Channels of Communication Do Animals Have Language? A Survey Exploring Bilingualism Is Reading Automatic? A Survey Mondegreens! The McGurk Effect Top-Down Processing of Language Learning a Concept Breaking Sets in Problem Solving Availability Heuristics Demonstrating Cognitive Biases Mental Sets in Everyday Life
▲ Return to Table of Contents ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Context and Speech Perception Margaret Matlin points out that human speech perception is quite flexible: We are active listeners who, instead of receiving speech sounds, use context as a cue to help figure out a word or a sound. One implication of this flexibility is phonemic restoration, in which people regularly (and without awareness) fill in missing sounds using context as a cue. Apparently, our skill at reconstructing missing sounds (e.g., hearing the word peel in the sentence, “The _eel was on the orange”) has evolved because we are accustomed to having phonemes occasionally masked by extraneous noises, such as coughs, whispers, pages turning, etc. Interestingly, it is our ability to perceive words on the basis of context that also allows us to ignore sloppy mispronunciations. To demonstrate this in class, practice reading the following sentences until you can read them smoothly. Then, read them aloud to your class, asking students to identify which sound/word in each sentence was incorrect. 1. In all the gunfusion, the mystery man escaped from the mansion. 2. When I was working pizily in the library, the fire alarm rang out. 3. The messemger ran up to the professor and handed her a proclamation. 4. It has been zuggested that students be required to preregister. 5. The president reacted vavorably to all of the committee’s suggestions. Your students, if consistent with research by Cole, should not notice mispronunciations when they occur in the context of a sentence (although Cole’s subjects were able to distinguish syllables such as gun and con when the isolated syllables were presented). Matlin notes that our tolerance of sloppy speech may cause us to overlook startling pronunciation mistakes made by children, as in the case of the child who sang the following words to a famous Christmas carol, “O come all ye hateful: Joy, Phil, and their trumpet.” Reference: Matlin, M. W. (1994). Cognition (3rd ed.). Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace.
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Chapter 8: Thought and Language ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Non-Sexist Language The generic use of man and other masculine pronouns excludes women in our language and also contributes to gender stereotyping. As a thought-provoking assignment, have your students try to generate gender neutral alternatives for the words in Handout Master 8.1 (suggested alternatives are given below). This exercise should not only spark a lively discussion of the importance of gender neutral language, but should also provide students with plausible alternatives that they will then (hopefully) incorporate into their own speech. You might also consider assigning Janet Hyde’s excellent article referenced below. Some suggested gender neutral alternatives: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
business people businesswoman cave dwellers, cave people chair, head, president, leader, moderator, coordinator student representatives, members of Congress, Congress people craftsperson, artisan, craft worker delivery clerk, courier, deliverer ancestors, forebears supervisor, boss, leader, foreperson, head juror laypeople mail carrier, postal worker the human species, humans, humanity, humankind, human beings, people handmade, hand-built, human-made, synthetic, manufactured, constructed personnel, staff, human resources, labour, people power meter reader, meter attendant police officer repairer, repair person salesclerk, salesperson, sales rep (or representative) trash collector References: Hyde, J. S. (1984). Children’s understanding of sexist language. Developmental Psychology, 20, 697– 706. Swinkels, A., Giuliano, T. A., & Dickson, A. J. (2001). Her inclusion in mankind: A review of research on sexist language. Unpublished manuscript. Adapted from Miller, C., & Swift, K. (1988). The handbook of nonsexist writing (2nd ed.). New York: Harper & Row. Reprinted from Alan Swinkels (2003). Instructor’s resource manual for Psychology by S. Kassin. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Channels of Communication Nonverbal behaviour is often taken for granted, probably because it occurs so effortlessly in our interactions that we fail to notice it. It provides such a valuable aspect of communication, however, that it is definitely noticed when it is missing. You can illustrate the importance of nonverbal behaviour to your students with a simple demonstration. Start by drawing a simple dichotomy between verbal channels of communication and nonverbal channels. The verbal channel is easy; it is the words used, or perhaps a transcript of them. Ask your students to list the nonverbal channels of communication as you write them on the blackboard. The first response will usually be a generic “body language,” but tell them to be more specific; body language is a catch-all term incorporating many nonverbal channels. In short order you should find that students list facial expressions, eye contact, vocal cues (mainly tone of voice), and gestures, and with a little prodding they will add touch, interpersonal distance, speech dysfluencies, posture, gait, or appearance (such as hair or clothing style) as ways of communicating nonverbally. Seeing the board fill up with one verbal means of communication and 5 to 8 nonverbal channels will illustrate clearly the importance of nonverbal behaviour. After generating these ways of communicating, illustrate what kind of information each adds to a message. This will take some acting on your part, but it is easy to master with a little practice. Start by saying a very emphatic message (“I’m absolutely thrilled to be here today!”) while keeping all other channels of communication constant. In other words, hold your body perfectly still (arms at your side), keep a neutral facial expression, and say the words in a monotone. It should be clear that although the verbal channel is quite enthusiastic, the nonverbal channels belie the impact of the message. Next repeat the message, adding the appropriate vocal inflections and tone cues, but keeping all other channels constant. Add a happy facial expression in the next iteration, and finally repeat the gushing message with inflection, a happy face, and a broad sweep of your arms. Your students will get the idea that words actually “say” very little; most of this message is carried by other channels. A variation on this idea is suggested by Richmond and McCroskey, focusing on the vocal channel. You can demonstrate this yourself or by enlisting the help of 4 or 5 students willing to ham it up in front of the class. Consider the following phrases: “Gee, thanks,” “This turned out to be a fine day,” “I just love it when you do that,” “Way to go, dude,” “I would like nothing better,” “Wow, this is fun,” “Wonderful,” “That’s my favorite,” “Truly awesome,” “Real nice,” “This stinks,” and “Rhonda’s a real winner, isn’t she?” Ask your students to say each phrase using a variety of vocal styles, and have the class comment on the change in meaning that results. In each case the most obvious difference will come from the use of sarcasm, where the vocal inflection runs opposite to the verbal content. But many of these phrases (as well as others you might generate that are more specific to your university or to your class) can carry other meanings as well. For example, “Real nice” can convey sarcasm, sincerity, or sexuality depending on how it is delivered. Like the facial expression demonstration described earlier, these are fun and easy ways to introduce the topic of nonverbal behaviour. Reference: Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (1995). Nonverbal behaviour in interpersonal relations (3rd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Do Animals Have Language? A Survey A fairly large number of people believe that animals have language abilities. Most scientific data on the point, however, indicate that animals communicate, but do not use a complicated system of symbols and syntax to convey ideas. The following three questions can be used by students as an informal survey of people (including fellow students, parents, etc.) regarding the issue of animal language: 1) Do you believe that animals have language? a) If so, what specific species? 2) Why or why not? 3) Why do you think humans have such well-developed language abilities? Students can potentially learn a great deal by teaching those that they survey (presumably there will be many people who may not grasp the vast difference between animal communication and human language). Additionally, the answers to #3 may be interesting, enlightening, and even humourous. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Exploring Bilingualism Although many educators believe that bilingual children should be taught in English and in their native language (both to preserve their culture and because it has cognitive benefits), other educators and members of Congress are pushing to assimilate non-native speakers into U.S. culture by placing them in classes where only English is taught. Because much of the negativity and confusion about this issue may stem from a general fear and dislike for the unknown, your students might gain a fresh perspective on this controversial issue by considering what it’s like to be bilingual or multilingual. For this assignment, ask your students to write a short paper that explores the experiences of being bilingual or multilingual; Margaret Matlin (1994) suggests several excellent questions that can be used as the cornerstone for such an essay. If any of your students are bilingual or multilingual, they can answer some of these questions themselves. Otherwise, students should identify someone they know fairly well who they would feel comfortable asking about their experiences. Questions to be addressed include: 1. How old were you when you were first exposed to your second language? 2. How did you acquire this second language (e.g., Did you have formal lessons? Were you taught by a parent?) 3. When you began to learn the second language, did you find yourself becoming less fluent in your native language? What kinds of problems did you experience? Can you give examples? 4. What do you think are the advantages of being bilingual? For example, do you think you have any insight into the nature of language that a monolingual person might not have? 5. When you are with another bilingual person who speaks your native language, do you find yourself switching back and forth between the two languages? Are there situations in which you are especially likely to switch from one language to the other? 6. If you had something embarrassing or secret to divulge, in which language would you discuss it?
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7. Are there any topics or kinds of conversation for which you prefer one language over the other? For example, are there aspects of your education or job that, because they were derived from American terminology (e.g., psychological concepts), are harder to discuss in your native language? Is it difficult to express American cultural concepts in your native language? 8. Do you feel that the North American culture discourages bilinguals from using their first language? Reference: Matlin, M. W. (1994). Cognition (3rd ed.). Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Is Reading Automatic? A Survey The sentences presented contain words that are spelled identically, but have different pronunciations and meanings (these kinds of words are called homographs). This leads to potentially ambiguous reading of the sentences! However, most readers of English are extremely adept at reading the sentences, probably due to the context in which the words are used. In any case, students can use these 12 sentences as a sort of survey to be conducted on their fellow students. The idea is to have the subjects read each sentence aloud and determine whether any errors (even pauses could be interpreted as errors) occur. Each sentence should be presented individually, so as not to allow subject to “preread” the sentences. Additionally, subjects should attempt to read a sentence immediately after being presented with it. Total errors made should be tallied. If the homographs were indeed completely ambiguous, then we would expect errors in pronunciation for every sentence (a total of 12 errors). Most subjects will probably not exhibit this kind of error rate! A list of all homographs in the English language can be found on Wikipedia (look up “List of English Homographs”): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
The bandage was wound around the wound. The farm was used to produce produce. The dump was so full that it had to refuse more refuse. We must polish the Polish furniture. When shot at, the dove dove into the bushes. I did not object to the object. They were too close to the door to close it. The buck does funny things when the does are present. To help with planting, the farmer taught his sow to sow. After a number of Novocain injections, my jaw got number. Upon seeing the tear in the painting I shed a tear. I had to subject the subject to a series of tests.
▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Mondegreens! (based on Melucci, 2005) The term mondegreen was coined by newspaper columnist Sylvia Wright in a 1954 article. As a child, young Sylvia had listened to a folk song that included the lines “They had slain the Earl of Moray/And Lady Mondegreen.” As is customary with misheard lyrics, she didn’t realize her mistake for years. The .. 444
Chapter 8: Thought and Language song was not about the tragic fate of Lady Mondegreen, but rather, the continuing plight of the good Earl: “They had slain the Earl of Moray/And laid him on the green.” Nowadays, we all probably (unknowingly perhaps) have many, many mondegreens of our own. Listed here are several common mondegreens (compiled by Gavin Edwards in his 1995 book, “Scuze Me While I Kiss This Guy…and other misheard lyrics”). Although this activity/demonstration may seem like a cheap way to get laughs, it actually has a critical thinking psychology angle: How much is language perception dependent on bottom-up (i.e., from auditory receptors “upward”) processing, and how much on top-down (cognitive control, filling in words or meanings after the fact)? Mondegreens provide evidence of a threshold for top-down filling-in processes that apparently (although not always) tend to make sense of a given lyric. Often mondegreens occur when unfamiliar words or phrases are sung (e.g., the Creedence Clearwater Revival song “Bad Moon Rising” contains the lyric, “there’s a bad moon on the rise”—very often misheard as “there’s a bathroom on the right”). Of course, the argument for bottom-up processing is a strong one as well. Often, mondegreens occur when a singer simply doesn’t annunciate a given lyric very well, or perhaps the lyric is masked by a prominent, distorted guitar. In other words, the auditory input is definitely skewed a bit in these cases. If you can get recordings of some of the following examples and play them in class (with the actual and misheard lyrics presented), students should really get a kick out of it … and possibly learn something. There’s a bathroom on the right. Actual lyric: There’s a bad moon on the rise (Creedence Clearwater Revival, “Bad Moon Rising”) Are you going to starve an old friend? Actual lyric: Are you going to Scarborough Fair? (Simon & Garfunkel) Baking carrot biscuits or Tape it to a biscuit Actual lyric: Taking care of business. (BachmanTurner Overdrive, "Takin Care of Business") Big ole Jed had a light on. Actual lyric: Big old jet airliner. (Steve Miller Band) Carryin’ beans, now we’re sharin’ the same jeans. Actual lyric: Caribbean Queen, now we’re sharing the same dreams. (Billy Ocean) Climb every mountain. Actual lyric: I’m every woman. (Whitney Houston) Dirty deeds and the thunder chiefs. Actual lyric: Dirty deeds and they’re done dirt cheap. (AC/DC) Do a little dance, make a little rum, Italian Ice! Italian Ice! Actual lyric: Do a little dance, make a little love, get down tonight, get down tonight. (KC & The Sunshine Band, "Do a Little Dance") Do the lucky lady. Actual lyric: Dude looks like a lady. (Aerosmith) Bald-headed woman. .. 445
IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science Actual lyric: More than a woman. (Bee Gees) Good-bye yellow brick road There’s a dark cloud inside of the house. Actual lyric: So goodbye yellow brick road Where the dogs of society howl. (Elton John) I was so mad! Actual lyric: I’m a soul man. (Blues Brothers) I’ll never leave your pizza burning. Actual lyric: I’ll never be your beast of burden. (Rolling Stones) I’m 264 (“two sixty-four”) my shirt, 264 my shirt, 264. Actual lyric: I’m too sexy for my shirt too sexy for my shirt. (Right Said Fred, "I’m Too Sexy") I’m just a squirrel. Actual lyric: I’m just a girl. (No Doubt) I’ve got a new pair of shoes. Actual lyric: I’ve got a new attitude. (Patti LaBelle) Michelle, Ma Belle, Sunday Monkey Play No Piano Song, No Piano Song. Actual lyric: Michelle, ma belle, Sont des mots qui vont tres bien ensemble, tres bien ensemble. (The Beatles) Donuts make my brown eyes blue. Actual lyric: Don’t it make my brown eyes blue. (Crystal Gale) Goin’ to the Jack-O-Lantern, gonna get married. Actual lyric: Goin’ to the chapel and we’re gonna get married. (Dixie Cups, "Chapel of Love") Hold me closer, Tony Danza. Count the head lice on the highway. Actual lyric: Hold me closer, tiny dancer. (Elton John, "Tiny Dancer") I shot the Sheriff, but I didn’t shoot him dead you see. Actual lyric: I shot the Sheriff, but I didn’t shoot the deputy. (Eric Clapton) Red, red wine, steak, lobster meat. Actual lyric: Red, red wine, stay close to me. (UB-40)
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Chapter 8: Thought and Language Actual lyric: ‘Scuse me while I kiss the sky. (Jimi Hendrix) ‘Scuse me while I kiss this guy. She’s got a chicken to ride. Actual lyric: She’s got a ticket to ride. (Beatles) She’s got electric boobs, a mohair too. Actual lyric: She’s got electric boots, a mohair suit. (Elton John, "Benny and the Jets") Wrapped up like a douche. Actual lyric: Revved up like a deuce. (Manfred Mann’s Earth Band)
▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: The McGurk Effect The “McGurk effect” was first described by Harry McGurk and John MacDonald in “Hearing lips and seeing voices,” Nature 264, 746–748 (1976). In this classic work, McGurk and MacDonald describe how speech acquisition involves not only auditory but visual information as well. While assembling laboratory stimuli for testing language perception in infants, they discovered that if the phoneme ba was paired with the visual stimulus (lip and mouth shape) ga, subjects perceived the phoneme da! This effect was shown to be true for infants and adults. Ask students to first watch the speaker and ask them if they hear the phoneme “da” (most will). Then, play the video again, only this time ask students to look away. They will probably report hearing the phoneme “ba.” What is actually being played in the video is the phoneme “ba” paired with the lip/mouth movements for “ga”! This demonstration will illustrate the idea that language acquisition involves the integration of auditory and visual information. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Top-Down Processing of Language (inspired by Warren & Warren, 1970) This in-class demonstration is meant to demonstrate that speech perception is largely a top-down process; that is, the brain “fills in” gaps in incoming information in order to make sense of speech. The following sentences are missing the full phonetic information for the subject word. The sentences should be spoken out loud in class, preferably with some kind of distracting sound present (some music will do just fine). The task for the student is to reproduce the sentence that you have just spoken. You should turn your back so that students won’t see your lips while you speak. Students should fill in the missing phoneme with one that makes sense, given the context of the sentence. For some sentences, students may swear that you actually said the missing phoneme. These kinds of incidents are strongly supportive of topdown processing and the influence of contextual meaning. 1. It was found that the “eel” was on the axle. (wheel) 2. It was found that the “eel” was on the shoe. (heel) .. 447
IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science 3. It was found that the “eel” was on the orange. (peel) 4. It was found that the “eel” was on the table. (meal) 5. I don’t know how you “eel” about it, but I’m rather upset. (feel)
▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Learning a Concept Objective: To demonstrate concept learning Materials: 3 × 5 index cards Procedure: Draw one square and one triangle on each index card. The figures should vary in size (large/small), colour (green/red), and position (up/down). The fourth concept is, of course, shape. Select one student to learn the concept you have chosen but not revealed from the four possibilities. Give the student feedback after each card as to whether his or her response was correct. For instance, you have selected size as the relevant concept. If the student selects a large, blue triangle on the card, tell the student the choice is wrong (since you secretly selected small). See how many cards it takes the student to discover the relevant concept. You may want to repeat this exercise using a different concept for at least two other students. Conclusion: Discuss how concept formation is an important but often difficult task. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Breaking Sets in Problem Solving Objective: To demonstrate how psychological set (e.g., stating the problem) can interfere with the generation of solutions to problems Materials: See Handout Master 8.2 Procedure: Ask students to think about a problem; the problem may be a corporate problem (e.g., crime or pollution) or a personal problem (e.g., poor grades). Using the handout, each student should reword or describe the problem in several different ways. This may open some doors in terms of solutions. Next, students should develop at least two solutions to the problem.
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Chapter 8: Thought and Language ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Availability Heuristics Objective: To demonstrate the potential shortcoming of availability heuristics Materials: See Handout Master 8.3 Procedure: When people judge the relative frequency of objects or events, they are often influenced by the relative availability or accessibility of such events in their own memories. Distribute the handout and ask the students to indicate their answers to the questions. Their estimates are influenced by the availability heuristic if they indicate that the number of words beginning with r or k is greater than the number of words with those letters appearing third. This is because first letters are more useful cues than third letters for referencing and accessing items in one’s personal word collection. It is easier to generate (i.e., make available) words that begin with the letters. Actually, words with those letters appearing third are far more numerous. Similarly, their estimate of the number of women faculty on campus should be positively correlated with the number of female professors they have actually had. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Demonstrating Cognitive Biases Cognitive biases are often difficult for students to grasp. The following simple demonstrations will help students recognize such biases in their own thinking. 1. The availability heuristic is the tendency to judge the frequency of some event as a function of how available specific instances of that event are in memory. A geographer named Thomas Saarinen provides an interesting variation on the availability heuristic by asking students to draw their “mental maps” of the world. Saarinen asks students to take a pencil and a piece of paper and spend half an hour sketching a map of the world. He finds that there are two consistent patterns in the resulting maps. Students greatly enlarge the size of Europe and reduce the size of Africa. Saarinen finds that this occurs regardless of the country of origin of the students. This undoubtedly reflects the relative prominence of Europe and the relative obscurity of Africa in the Western view of history. That which we know more about is seen as physically larger, and that which we know little of is diminished in size. This is an easy phenomenon to demonstrate. Before a discussion of cognitive biases, ask students to spend half an hour outside of class drawing a map of the world. Make sure they know that they may not “cheat” by looking at maps, globes, or atlases. It may help to reassure students that you will not grade their maps, and that they may submit them anonymously. Have students turn in the maps at least one class prior to your discussion of the topic, so that you have time to review and summarize the results of the demonstration. See if your students exhibit the same biases that Saarinen reports; you might make overheads of some of the better examples you receive. You might use this demonstration to highlight the influence of culture on cognition, a topic that psychologists are only recently beginning to investigate.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science 2. The confirmation bias is the tendency to look for information that confirms one’s belief. There are many easy ways to demonstrate the confirmation bias. The standard approach is to write a series of three numbers, such as 5, 7, and 9 on the board. Tell students that there is a rule to which these numbers conform, and it is their job to determine what the rule is. To solve the problem, students may give you any sequence of three numbers and you will tell them whether it conforms to the rule. Record their sequences and your responses on the board or transparency. When they feel confident that they have guessed the rule, they should raise their hands and offer their solution. The rule for the above sequence is simply “any three ascending numbers,” but students will develop many more complicated possibilities. The confirmation bias will be demonstrated by the nature of the sequences that students offer to test their guesses. If a student believes that the rule is “three successive odd numbers,” he or she might ask whether “9, 11, 13” conforms to the rule. Additional sequences that they suggest will probably conform to the same rule. But these are confirming instances of their rule, and therefore provide little information. It is much more informative to provide a sequence that they believe is wrong, such as “2, 3, 4,” and discover that it is, in fact, consistent with the rule, thereby allowing them to reject an incorrect guess. 3. The hindsight bias is the tendency to overestimate one’s ability to have predicted an event once the outcome is known. To demonstrate this bias, ask students to predict the outcome of an upcoming event (Academy Awards, elections, World Series, etc.). Next to their predictions, ask students to rank their degree of confidence in the prediction on a scale from 1 (“Just a guess, I’m not at all sure.”) to 5 (“I’m very sure!”). Collect thepapers, and return them after the outcome of the event. Ask students to reflect on their reactions. Do they feel that “they knew it all along” even though their confidence ratings before the event indicate otherwise? Reference: Monastersky, R. (1992). The warped world of mental maps. Science News, 142, 222–223. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Mental Sets in Everyday Life Luchins’ water jar problem and the alphabetical number puzzle are ways to demonstrate how mental sets can create barriers to effective problem solving. After students have been introduced to the notion of mental sets (from the text, lecture, and exercises such as those given in the next section), you might ask them to write a short paper in which they identify instances of mental sets in everyday life. As one example, students could consider the problem of making the adjustment from high school to college. How might a mental set (i.e., the tendency to approach or respond to a problem in a particular way) learned in high school interfere with the successful solution of problems later on in college? Students should specify how strategies that at one time were adaptive or successful could eventually become undesirable or maladaptive. Traditional-age college students should have plenty of experience with mental sets related to academic strategies, social life, living away from home, financial responsibilities, and so on. If your students are older, they might consider mental sets related to major life changes (e.g., marriage, divorce, death of a loved one), career changes, or other situations requiring adjustment on their part. An added benefit of this assignment is that—in addition to better understanding the notion of mental sets—your students might also gain valuable insight into their own problem solving strategies and skills. .. 450
Chapter 8: Thought and Language Reference: Zechmeister, E. B., & Johnson, J. E. (1992). Critical thinking: A functional approach. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
▼ HANDOUT MASTERS FOR CHAPTER 8: LANGUAGE, THINKING, AND INTELLIGENCE ➢ Handout Master 8.1 Using Non-Sexist Language ➢ Handout Master 8.2 Breaking Sets in Problem Solving ➢ Handout Master 8.3 Availability Heuristics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Handout Master 8.1 Using Non-Sexist Language Instructions: For each of the following words or phrases below, try to generate at least one alternative word or phrase that is gender neutral. For example, firefighter is an appropriate gender neutral alternative for fireman, and anchor is a suitable substitute for anchorman. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
businessman career girl cavemen chairman, chairwoman coed (as in, “three beautiful coeds”) congressmen craftsman deliveryman forefathers forelady, foreman laymen mailman man, mankind (as in the human species) man-made manpower meter maid policeman, policewoman repairman salesman, saleswoman trashman
Adapted from Miller, C., & Swift, K. (1988). The handbook of nonsexist writing (2nd ed.). New York: Harper & Row.
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Handout Master 8.2 Breaking Sets in Problem Solving Think of a problem. Describe it concisely, then list four alternative ways to describe the difficulty. Initial statement of the problem:
Alternate 1:
Alternate 2:
Alternate 3:
Alternate 4:
Describe the problem from the point of view of other parties involved:
Describe two solutions to this problem, indicating how these solutions are influenced by the particular statement of the problem you have chosen:
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Chapter 8: Thought and Language ► Return to Activity: Breaking Sets in Problem Solving ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents Handout Master 8.3 Heuristics Availability Heuristics 1.
In the English language, are there more words beginning with the letter r or more words with the letter r appearing as the third letter? First position Third position
2.
In the English language, are there more words beginning with the letter k or more words with the letter k appearing as the third letter? First position Third position
3.
What percentage of the faculty at this university are women?
%
4.
How many of your courses have been taught by female professors?
courses
► Return to Activity: Availability Heuristics ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science ▼ APS: READINGS FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE ▲ Return to Table of Contents Current Directions in Introductory Psychology, Second Edition (0-13-714350-8) Edited by Abigail A. Baird, with Michele M. Tugade and Heather B. Veague This new and exciting American Psychological Reader includes timely, cutting-edge articles, giving readers a real-world perspective from a reliable source Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. This reader includes over 20 articles that have been carefully selected and taken from the very accessible Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. Articles discuss today’s most current and pressing issues in introductory psychology and are broken down into these main sections: Scientific Thinking; Nature/Nurture; Consciousness; Individual Differences; and Applications. Nasir Naqvi, Baba Shiv, and Antoine Bechara The Role of Emotion in Decision Making: A Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective (Vol. 15, No. 5, 2006, pp. 260–264) p. 56 of the APS reader Decision making often occurs in the face of uncertainty about whether one’s choices will lead to benefit or harm. The somatic-marker hypothesis is a neurobiological theory of how decisions are made in the face of uncertain outcome. This theory holds that such decisions are aided by emotions, in the form of bodily states, that are elicited during the deliberation of future consequences and that mark different options for behaviour as being advantageous or disadvantageous. This process involves an interplay between neural systems that elicit emotional/ bodily states and neural systems that map these emotional/ bodily states.
▼ FORTY STUDIES THAT CHANGED PSYCHOLOGY ▲ Return to Table of Contents Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research, 6/e (013603599X) By Roger Hock This unique book closes the gap between psychology textbooks and the research that made them possible by offering a first-hand glimpse into 40 of the most famous studies in the history of the field, and subsequent studies that expanded upon each study’s influence. Readers are able to grasp the process and excitement of scientific discovery as they experience an insider’s look at the studies that continue today to be cited most frequently, stirred up the most controversy when they were first published, sparked the most subsequent related research, opened new fields of psychological exploration, and changed most dramatically our knowledge of human behaviour. Studies examined in Intelligence and Cognition: Maps in Your Mind Tolman, E. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review, 55, 189–208.
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Chapter 8: Thought and Language ▼ WEB RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents Language Language Learning: www.nsf.gov/ A National Science Foundation site on language learning in children and adults provides interesting information on theory, critical periods for language acquisition, and a section on why we need to further study language. Do Apes Use Language?—The Why Files: www.whyfiles.org/ Interesting article on the topic. Primate Use of Language: www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/ Very nice review of studies of language acquisition in primates by Lauren Kosseff, of Tufts University. ▲ Return to Table of Contents Language and Thought The Role of Language in Intelligence: http://ase.tufts.edu/ A link to an interesting essay by Daniel Dennett on the link between language and thought. ▲ Return to Table of Contents Reading Speed Reading Test Online: www.readingsoft.com/ Students should get a kick out of this Web site, given that the text exposes the fact that evidence for the effectiveness of speed reading is basically nonexistent. ▲ Return to Table of Contents Thinking and Reasoning Anagram Server: www.wordsmith.org/ Find anagrams for any word. ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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9/ INTELLIGENCE TESTING TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲ Return to Table of Contents
MODULE 9.1: Measuring Intelligence ➢ Lecture Guide: Measuring Intelligence (p. 457) ➢ Resources Available (p. 462) MODULE 9.2: Understanding Intelligence ➢ Lecture Guide: Understanding Intelligence (p. 463) ➢ Resources Available (p. 467) MODULE 9.3: Biological, Environmental, and Behavioural Influences on Intelligence ➢ Lecture Guide: Heredity, Environment and Intelligence (p. 468) ➢ Resources Available (p. 472) FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES ➢ Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 472) ➢ Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 480) ➢ Handout Masters (p. 487) ➢ Forty Studies that Changed Psychology (p. 496) ➢ Web Resources (p. 496)
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LECTURE GUIDE I. MODULE 9:1: MEASURING INTELLIGENCE (Text p. 328) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology associated with intelligence and intelligence testing. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand the reasoning begin the eugenics movements and its use of intelligence tests. o The eugenicists believed that abilities like intelligence were inborn, and thus, by encouraging reproduction between people with higher IQs, and reducing the birthrate of people with lower intelligence, the overall genetic pool of humankind could be improved. ✓ Apply the concepts of entity theory and incremental theory to help kids succeed in school. o Beliefs about failure lead to failure. By training young people to think of themselves as changeable, to think of the brain like a muscle that can be strengthened through exercise, people can improve their scores on intelligence tests and be more resilient when life presents setbacks. ✓ Analyze why it is difficult to remove all cultural bias from intelligence testing. o tests may contain content or knowledge that is more relevant to some cultures, the environment for testing may make some people more comfortable, and stereotypes about some groups may interfere with test taking success.
Different Approaches to Intelligence Testing 1) Intelligence is hard to define. Many approaches have been used in the past.
Intelligence and Perception: Galton’s Anthropometric Approach 1) In1884 Galton introduced anthropometrics. Anthropometrics (p. 329) (literally, “the measurement of people”) referred to methods of measuring physical and mental variation in humans. 2) Galton thought differences in perceptual ability predicted intelligence. 3) Cattell discovered there was no correlation between different perceptual abilities. i) A problem for Galton who thought more intelligence meant all perceptions were heightened. ii) Also found sensory scores did not predict grades. 4) Galton’s anthropometric approach was abandoned, as a result.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science Intelligence and Thinking: The Stanford-Binet Test 1) In 1904, the French government created the Commission on the Education of Retarded Children. i) As part of this commission, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon developed a method of assessing children’s academic achievement at school. ii) The need for such a test arose out of a law requiring all children to attend school. a) Some were very unprepared. Intelligence (p. 330) is the ability to think, understand, reason, and cognitively adapt to and overcome obstacles. 2) Binet and Simon’s work resulted in an achievement test, which examined how well a child performed at various cognitive tasks relative to other children of his/her age. i) Binet preferred to say the test measured mental age vs. intelligence. Mental age (p. 330) is the average intellectual ability score for children of a specific age. ii) Under this system, a 7-year-old with a mental age of 7 was average. a) A 10-year-old with a mental age of 8 scored as well as a typical 8-year-old. iii) This information was used to determine which children needed extra help to bring their mental age up to their chronological age. 3) Lewis Terman at Stanford University modified the Binet-Simon test to assess high-achieving adults. i) This new test was published in 1916 and called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Stanford-Binet test (p. 330) a test intended to measure innate levels of intelligence. 4) Soon after, William Stern developed the intelligence quotient (IQ). Intelligence quotient (IQ) (p. 330) is a measure in which the mental age of an individual is divided by the person’s chronological age and then multiplied by 100. i) For example, a 10-year-old with a mental age of 7 would have an IQ of 7/10*100 = 70. ii) The IQ score replaced the idea of a mental age (something that reflects progress in school) with a number purporting to measure a person’s ability. a) Mental age was something that could be worked on to improve, whereas IQ seems permanent. Deviation IQ (p. 331) is calculated by combining the person’s test score with the average score for people the same age.
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The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) (p. 331) is the most commonly used intelligence test used on adolescents and adults. 1) David Wechsler first developed this test in 1939 (the Wechsler-Bellvue test) and it is now in its fourth edition. i) Wechsler was classified as “feeble minded” at nine-years-old when his family immigrated to the US from Romania. 2) The WAIS provides an overall IQ score (Full Scale IQ) as well as two subscale scores: General Ability Index (GAI) and a Cognitive Proficiency Index (CPI) (Figure 9.2 & Figure 9.3). i) The GAI is computed from scores on the Verbal Comprehension and Perceptual Reasoning indices. a) These measures tap into a person’s intellectual abilities without placing so much emphasis on how fast s/he can solve the problems and make decisions. ii) The CPI is based on working memory and processing speed. a) More cognitive resources devoted to reasoning and problem solving reflect a higher IQ. Raven’s Progressive Matrices 1) Many intelligence tests required knowledge of the test developer’s culture and language. i) This put those from other cultures at an unfair disadvantage. 2) In the 1930s, John Raven developed the Raven’s Progressive Matrices as a more fair, “culture-free” test. Raven’s Progressive Matrices (p. 333) is an intelligence test that emphasizes problems that are intended not to be bound to a particular language or culture. i)
The main tasks of this test measure the extent to which test takers can see patterns in the shapes and colours within a matrix and then determine which shape or colour would complete the pattern (Figure 9.4). ii) With this test, intelligence was measured by identifying and extracting important information (deductive reasoning) and then applying it to new situations (reproductive reasoning). iii) Scores on this test correlate with the performance elements of the WAIS.
The Checkered Past of Intelligence Testing IQ Tests and the Eugenics Movement 1) The popularity of the theory of evolution in the late 19th century led some to believe that humans of different cultures evolved different intellectual abilities. i) Specifically assumed that Westerners (white people) were genetically superior. 2) Francis Galton (cousin to Darwin) developed social Darwinism that Darwin himself was appalled by. 3) Galton influenced Lewis Terman, who suggested eugenics. i) Sterilize inferior people to improve the human race. 4) Although the actions of eugenicists were misguided the eugenicists genuinely believed they were making the world a better place with their actions.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science The Race IQ Controversy 1) The eugenics movement uncovered differences in IQ across races. 2) The race difference persisted even when tests were made more culturally fair. 3) Some argued that it was impossible for some groups to ever be successful and they should just live out their fates and not receive special programming in school etc. i) Some of the people making these arguments were academics. 4) Others said that studies were flawed. The differences in IQ scores between ethnic groups means that there are inherent, genetic differences in intelligence between the groups. Problems with the Racial Superiority Interpretation 1) The tests are simply culturally biased. 2) Research has also found that IQ differences may be due to stereotype thereat. Stereotype threat (p. 336) When people are aware of stereotypes about their social group, they may fear being reduced to that stereotype. 3) Psychologists have identified at least two main reasons stereotype threat may lower scores. i) Stereotype threat leads to physiological anxiety, resulting physical discomfort and changes in brain activity. ii) Stereotype threat causes individuals to focus more on how they are performing than on the test itself. 4) Research towards these concerns question the validity of IQ scores across cultures. i) Suggesting that differences are not in intelligence, but may reflect other factors such as language, or cultural bias in the test situation. 5) Other research argues against genetic differences, and suggests that environmental factors may play a role in intelligence. i) Disadvantages in life experiences may encourage individuals to adopt certain beliefs about themselves. ii) Past educational experiences may lead some to believe that they are not intelligent and as a result will not try very hard to do well.
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Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Beliefs about Intelligence 1) What do we know about the kinds of beliefs that may affect test scores? i) Children’s self-perceptions of their mental abilities have a very strong influence on their academic performance. ii) Dweck proposed two main theories regarding one’s intelligence that can either help or hurt academic performance. Entity theory (p. 336) the belief that intelligence is a fixed characteristic and relatively difficult (or impossible) to change. Incremental theory (p. 336) the belief that intelligence can be shaped by experiences, practice, and effort. 2) How can science test whether beliefs affect performance? i) The differences between the two theories is not as important as the differences in behaviours that result. ii) Dweck and colleagues gave students holding either entity theories or incremental theories the chance to complete 476 general knowledge questions. a) The students received immediate feedback on whether their answers were correct. b) Those holding entity theories were more likely to give up in the face of highly challenging problems, and they were likely to withdraw from situations that resulted in failure. c) Those holding incremental theories were more resilient and motivated to work through problems. iii) In another study, Dweck and colleagues randomly assigned Grade 7 students to a group that learned about incremental theory (that they could control and change their ability). a) This group’s grades increased over the school year, whereas the control group’s grades declined (Figure 9.5). 3) Can we critically evaluate this research? i) This research demonstrates how beliefs affect cognitive performance. ii) However, there are certain type of intelligence (e.g., fluid, crystallized, and analytical) that cannot be changed because we believe we can change our abilities. a) We may be amazingly analytical, but struggle with tasks requiring practical intelligence, even if we’re told that can change. 4) Why is this relevant? i) Awareness of the environmental factors that affect intelligence and adoption of an incremental view of intelligence increases students’ potential to boost their academic performance. ii) Dweck and colleagues created a program called Brainology to teach students K-12 that the brain can be strengthened through experience. iii) This knowledge can also help people overcome the negative effects that stereotypes seem to have on cognitive performance.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 9.1 Lecture Launchers ➢ The Darwin Awards—What Intelligence Isn’t ➢ Birth Order and Intelligence ➢ Terman’s Termites ➢ Arthur Jensen ➢ Information Processing Approach to Intelligence ➢ Einstein’s Brain ➢ IQ and Juror Selection Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ What Exactly Is Intelligence? ➢ Creative Thinking ➢ Creativity Quiz ➢ Intelligence ➢ Multiple Intelligences ➢ EQ Test (Emotional Intelligence) ➢ Intelligence and Mental Capacity in Film ➢ Age and Intelligence ➢ Should Psychology Adopt a Theory of Multiple Intelligence? Web Resources ➢ Assessment: www.ericae.net/intbod.htm ➢ Barbarian’s Online Tests: www.wizardrealm.com/ ➢ Classical Intelligence Test: www.queendom.com/ ➢ Darwin Awards: www.darwinawards.com ➢ Kohler’s Research on the Mentality of Apes: www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/ ➢ Intelligence: www.edpsycinteractive.org/ ➢ Intelligence of Dogs:www.petrix.com/ ➢ Majon’s Online IQ Tests: www.majon.com ➢ Mensa International: www.mensa.org ➢ Multiple Intelligences: http://tip.psychology.org ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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II. MODULE 9.2: UNDERSTANDING INTELLIGENCE (Text p. 339) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology related to understanding intelligence. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand why intelligence is described as a hierarchy. o Mental abilities encompass both the amount of knowledge accumulated and the ability to solve new problems. This understanding is consistent not only with our common views of intelligence, but also with the results of decades of intelligence testing. Also, the observation that fluid intelligence can decline over the life span, even as crystallized intelligence remains constant, lends further support to the contention that they are different abilities. ✓ Understand intelligence differences between males and females. o Males and females generally show equal levels of overall intelligence, as measured by standard intelligence tests. However, men do outperform women on some tasks, particularly spatial tasks such as mentally rotating objects, whereas women outperform men on other tasks, such as perceiving emotions. Although there are some male-female differences in specific abilities, such as math, it is not yet clear whether these reflect innate differences between the sexes, or whether other factors are responsible, such as reduced enrollment of women in math classes and the presence of stereotype threat in testing sessions. Apply your knowledge to identify examples from the triarchic theory of intelligence. o Students should be able to read scenarios and identify whether the person is low, medium, or higher in regards to analytical, practical, and creative forms of intelligence. ✓ Apply your knowledge to identify examples that reflect fluid vs. crystallized intelligence. o This distinction distinguishes between accumulated knowledge over time (crystalized) and the ability to learn and use new information and skill (fluid). ✓ Analyze whether teachers should spend time tailoring lessons to each individual student’s learning style. o Certainly, no one would want to discourage teachers from being attentive to the unique characteristics that each student brings to the classroom. However, large-scale reviews of research suggest that there is little basis for individualized teaching based on learning styles (e.g., auditory, visual, tactile).
Intelligence as a Single, General Ability 1) In the early 20th century, Charles Spearman proposed that there is a general intelligence. i) Those who rate high in general intelligence should do well at all sorts of tasks (e.g., math, language, mechanics, etc.). ii) Spearman developed techniques (e.g., factor analysis) to examine correlations among measures of mental abilities. a) For example, measures such as vocabulary, reading comprehension, and verbal reasoning might overlap enough to form a “language ability” factor.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science Spearman’s General Intelligence General Intelligence (abbreviated as “g”) (p. 340) a concept that intelligence is a basic cognitive trait comprising the ability to learn, reason, and solve problems regardless of their nature. 1) Spearman’s correlational findings indicate that a person with a high g score could use his/her intelligence to solve problems in any domain s/he chose (even different fields such as reading comprehension and algebra). i) General intelligence is related to a number of outcomes (Figure 9.6).
Does G Tell us the Whole Story 1) There may be many ways of being intelligent and reducing the diversity to a single number may overlook the different types of intelligence.
Intelligence as Multiple, Specific Abilities 1) An emphasis on multiple, specific skills sets. i) Each ability has a specific function that may not be related to other ability’s function, but each mental ability contributes to overall thought. a) This is similar to how a keyboard, mouse, and memory all contribute to the overall function of a computer. 2) Louis Thurstone examined Spearman’s techniques and scores on general intelligence tests and found seven different clusters that he termed primary mental abilities (e.g., reading, spatial reasoning, etc.). 3) Modern proponents of multiple intelligence types cite other evidence: i) An individual with a head injury or stroke may lose one ability (e.g., language production) without any loss in other aspects of intelligence. ii) If intelligence was a single ability, savants wouldn’t exist. ii) Psychologists have found that people vary a great deal in terms of physical, social, and artistic skills that are not well explained by g.
The Hierarchical Model of Intelligence 1) By the mid-90s, the analysis of research concluded that most intelligence studies were best explained by a three-level hierarchy. i) Our general intelligence is made up of sub-abilities, each of which are made up of specific abilities for individual tasks.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Testing for Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence 1) What do we know about fluid and crystalized intelligence? Fluid Intelligence (Gf) (p. 342) is a type of intelligence that is used to adapt to new situations and solve new problems without relying on previous knowledge. i)
Tests of Gf involve problems that do not require prior experience or specialized knowledge, such as pattern recognition and solving geometric puzzles (e.g., Raven’s Matrices, Module 9.1).
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Crystallized Intelligence (Gc) (p. 343) is a form of intelligence that relies on extensive experience and knowledge and, therefore, tends to be relatively stable and robust. ii) Tests of Gc include vocabulary, similarity/difference, and reading comprehension. 2) How can science help distinguish between fluid and crystallized intelligence? i) To test the hypothesis that we have both Gf and Gc intelligence, scientists have examined how each changes over time. ii) One study had 20 to 89-year-olds solve a variety of tasks, including the Tower of London puzzle, Block design, and tests of reaction time. a) Performance on Gf tests peaks in early to middle adulthood and declines later in life. b) Gc involves accumulated knowledge, so as long as an individual keep learning new information, Gc is less likely to decrease. iii) Brain scans show regions associated with Gf tasks declines sooner than functioning of those regions supporting Gc tasks. 3) Can we critically evaluate crystallized and fluid intelligence? i) Although research suggests that fluid and crystallized intelligence are distinct from each other, one should not over-generalize these findings. ii) Older people may be slower with reaction time tests, but they excel in social conflicts and dilemmas, which are highly complex, nuanced, and difficult to resolve. 4) Why is this relevant? i) Recognizing the distinctness of Gf and Gc can help reduce stereotypes and expectations about intelligence in older age. ii) Individual differences in performance on intelligence tests at any age may be explained by the different types of intelligence. iii) The notion of general intelligence may not fully capture the complex ways people express their cognitive skills. Myths in Mind: Learning Styles 1) Learning styles can be tested scientifically with a simple hypothesis: i) Individuals should learn and retain more information learned through their preferred learning style than through the other styles. 2) However, dozens of studies have failed to show any benefit for studying according to an individual’s learning style. i) This result probably occurs because regardless of how you encounter something (e.g., reading, tactile, etc.), you still need to store the meaning of the information to retain it over the long term. ii) As a result, it makes more sense for teachers to tailor their instructional styles to fit the material to make it more interesting, meaningful and engaging, instead of focusing on individual learning styles. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences 1) Howard Gardner (1999) proposed the concept of multiple intelligences (Table 9.1). Multiple intelligences (p. 345) a model claiming that eight different forms of intelligence exist, each independent from the others. i)
This model has been influential in elementary education, but the question is whether these constitute intelligence. a) Such questions are relevant to a number of educational practices that have used the notion of multiple intelligences to promote the idea of learning styles. b) The most common sets of learning styles include divisions such as visual, auditory, reading/writing, and kinesthetic/tactile. .. 465
IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science 2) Gardner found cases where less intelligent individuals had extraordinary abilities in specific areas, as well as people with brain damage who demonstrated a dramatic loss of specific abilities, while others remained functional. 3) His theory raised controversy due to the increase in embrace and application in the educational system, while critics question its lack of reliable ways of measurement.
PSYCH @ The NHL 1) Despite wearing head protection, hockey players still suffer from head injuries. Researchers have been able to estimate the rate of concussions at about 80 per season, which over time, can lead to chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). 2) As CTE develops over time, intelligence testing can be used to help with early detection. It would allow players and medical personnel to make smarter, more informed decisions about when and if to return to the sport. i) As head injuries tend to affect only a few cognitive skills, not g, players complete tests of judgment, memory, perception, and response times among other skills. ii) Following a head injury, players can be tested again to see if there are declines in any of these specific abilities. 3) Although baseline testing by itself won’t reduce concussions, it does make the detection of significant brain injury more effective. By facilitating full recovery and reducing re-injury, sports teams will hopefully be able to prevent CTE.
The Battle of the Sexes 1) Although earlier studies showed some average intelligence differences between males and females, this finding has not been upheld by subsequent research and is likely the result of bias in the tests that favoured males over females. 2) The difference between in results between the sexes still exists, but it has been vastly reduced as a result of sociocultural changes, such as making math education more accessible for females.
Do Males and Females Have Unique Cognitive Skills? 1) Others have argued that sex differences exist in specific cognitive abilities. i) For example, women seem to perform better on verbal fluency tasks and males do better on tests of visual-spatial manipulation. a) But, females outperform males when visual-spatial tasks also rely on verbal skills. 2) The study of these sex differences is important due to the implications they hold. i) If sex differences are due to socialization and stereotypes, then educational institutions and public policymakers may develop strategies to challenge these stereotypes. a) This could bring more women into the sciences. b) This movement would also bring more viewpoints to universities, medicine, and government.
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 9.2 Lecture Launchers ➢ Does the SAT Have Predictive Value? Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Five-Minute IQ Test ➢ Creating a Culture-Fair Intelligence Test ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science III. MODULE 9.3: BIOLOGICAL, ENVIRONMENT, AND BEHAVIOURAL INFLEUENCES ON INTELLIGENCE (Text p. 350) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology related to heredity, environment, and intelligence. o See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand different approaches to studying the genetic basis of intelligence. o Behavioural genetics typically involves conducting twin or adoption studies. Behavioural genomics involves looking at gene-behaviour relationships at the molecular level. This approach often involves using animal models, including knockout and transgenic models. ✓ Apply your knowledge of environmental and behavioural effects on intelligence to understand how to enhance your own cognitive abilities. o Choose challenging activities, eat a diet low in saturated fat, reduce stress. o Remain an active learner, don’t waste too much time on television and other media. o Practice brain training programs. o Explore nootropic dugs as a potential source of improved intellectual functioning. ✓ Analyze the belief that older children are more intelligent than their younger siblings. o Television viewing appears to have no benefits for cognitive development, and in some cases, slows this development. This relationship is especially strong among very young people (e.g., children younger than three years old).
Biological Influences on Intelligence The Genetics of Intelligence: Twin and Adoption Studies 1) Decades of research on families, adopted children, and twins has shown that genetic similarity contributes to intelligence scores (Figure 9.11). i) As genetic relatedness increases, so does similarity in IQ scores. ii) The correlation in intelligence scores between parents and their children and between siblings are .40 and .50. iii) Identical twins are more alike in intelligence than fraternal twins. a) Identical twins have a correlation of .85 when raised together and .80 when raised apart. iv) However, it is important to note that environment also plays a role.
The Heritability of Intelligence 1) The heritability of intelligence is estimated to be between 40% and 80%. i) 40% to 80% of variation in intelligence is due to variation in genes. 2) Heritability is higher among wealthier people. i) Wealthier people have more similar environments that poor people. 3) Genes may only indirectly influence intelligence. i) May promote novelty seeking which leads to reading which leads to higher IQ scores.
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Behavioural Genomics 1) To search for specific genes related to intelligence, researchers use behavioural genomics. i) This area of study focuses on identifying genes that are related to increases or decreases in certain types of learning and problem solving. ii) Current research in this area suggests individuals inherit a collection of genes that pool together in influence general cognitive ability. 2) Researchers have developed mouse models of intelligence using gene knockout (KO). Gene Knockout (KO) (p. 353) studies involve removing a specific gene thought to be involved in a trait (such as intelligence) and testing the effects of removing the gene by comparing behaviour of animals without the gene with those that have it. i)
In one of the first KO studies, researchers discovered that removing one particular gene disrupted the ability for mice to learn spatial layouts. ii) Scientists are also able to add a gene; these mice are referred to as transgenic animals. a) They have engineered better than average learning mice.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Brain Size and Intelligence 1) What do we know about brain size and intelligence? i) It was originally believed that brain size was related to intelligence. a) Scientists would take the skulls of the deceased, fill them with fine metal pellets, and then measure the volume. b) This contributed to racial prejudice, because Caucasian males (those doing the studies) had the largest skull sizes and therefore were the smartest of the human race. 2) How can science explain the relationship between brain size and intelligence? i) One study had 100 brains from deceased individuals as well as their scores on the WAIS. a) Overall, about 36% of the variation in verbal intelligence scores was accounted for by the size of the cortex (Figure 9.12). ii) The convoluted surface of the brain (called gyri) composes the outer part of the cerebral cortex. a) The number and size of these gyri is greater in species that have complex cognitive and social lives (e.g., elephants, dolphins, and primates). b) Differences in gyri have also been found in humans, with the degree of convolutions accounting for roughly 25% of the variability in WAIS scores. 3) Can we critically evaluate the issue? i) The “bigger is better” rule is not always true. a) The average human brain weighs between 1300 and 1400 grams, and Einstein’s brain was 1230 grams. b) However, the region of his parietal lobe associated with mathematical reasoning was 15% larger than normal. ii) This reminds us that other factors play a role in IQ, such as nutrition and physical health. 4) Why is this relevant? i) The relation between brain size and IQ can be used to better understand clinical conditions. a) Those with anorexia nervosa or prolonged periods of alcohol abuse appear to lose brain mass along with certain cognitive skills.
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Environmental Influences on Intelligence Birth Order 1) First-born children tend to have higher IQs. i) Older children are likely to tutor their younger siblings, which helps with their own intellectual development.
Socioeconomic Status 1) Children of affluent parents tend to have higher IQs than children living below the poverty level. i) High-socioeconomic-status students are more likely to attend better schools with better teachers and curriculum. ii) Low-income households have more stressors that distract from learning and negatively affects brain development.
Nutrition 1) Diet and lifestyle factors influence intelligence. i) Some evidence suggests that poor nutrition could have negative effects on intelligence. For example, diets high in saturated fat quickly lead to sharp declines in cognitive functioning. ii) In contrast, diets low in such fats and high in fruits, vegetables, fish, and whole grains are associated with higher cognitive functioning.
Stress 1) Poorer people experience more stress, which may adversely affect IQ scores.
Education 1) Research on education and school shows that children’s IQ scores are significantly lower if they are not attending school.
The Flynn Effect: Is Everyone Getting Smarter? Flynn Effect (p. 357) – the steady population level increases in intelligence test scores over time. 1) Performance on standardized intelligence tests has been improving at a steady pace for decades. i) For example, the Dutch and French militaries administer the Raven’s Progressive Matrices test (Module 9.1) to all newly enlisted adults. a) From the 1950s to the 1980s, the scores increased 21 points from a mean to 100 to 121 for the Dutch. b) The French saw a greater increase of about 10 points per decade. ii) Other studies examining standardized tests reported similar findings. a) One test was normed to have an average of 100 in 1953; in theory the same people taking that text 25 years later with a newer version of the same test should score the same. b) However, individuals’ scores averaged 8 points higher on the old test. iii) James Flynn examined studies from 1932 to 2007 and estimated that averages increase about 1 point every three years (Figure 9.13).
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2) The increase in scores has been explained in a number of ways. i) Some say the scores are due to improved nutrition, health care, and early childhood educational programs. a) However, the Dutch scores increased 7 points per decade meaning today’s group would score 135 on the 1950 test, which is unlikely. ii) Others argue that newer generations are better at taking tests. a) Students often take the test more than once, increasing their scores. b) Wealthy countries have increased their use of standardized tests, which gives students practice that may have added up over time. c) But the Flynn Effect holds for intelligence tests designed for infants, who have not had prior testing experience. iii) Another explanation involves technological advances. a) Increased use could be related to individuals’ ability to handle visualization tasks. b) Flynn has documented the most substantial gains on tests that measure speed of processing, visualization, and the like. 3) It appears the Flynn Effect may differ by country. i) Wealthy countries are seeing scores level off, and some have even declined. ii) Developing countries may be at the beginning of their own Flynn Effect.
Behavioural Influences on Intelligence Nootropic Drugs Nootrpic substances (p. 358) (meaning “affecting the mind”) are substances that are believed to beneficially affect intelligence. 1) Nootropic drugs and substances can improve cognitive functioning in a variety of ways. i) Increasing arousal or alertness. ii) Changing the availability of certain neurotransmitters. iii) Stimulating growth in the brain. 2) Examples of nootropic drugs are methylphenidate (Ritalin) and modafinil (Provigil). 3) Some severe side effects have been noted as well as dependency issues.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 9.3 ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture Launchers ➢ Genius ➢ Group Differences in IQ Do Not Apply to Individuals ➢ Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ A Critique of the Mozart Effect ➢ Take a Stand
▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS ▲ Return to Table of Contents ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
The Darwin Awards—What Intelligence Isn’t Birth Order and Intelligence Terman’s Termites Information Processing Approach to Intelligence Arthur Jensen Einstein’s Brain IQ and Juror Selection How to Improve Cognitive Processes Does the SAT Have Predictive Value? Genius Group Differences in IQ Do Not Apply to Individuals Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Lecture/Discussion: The Darwin Awards—What Intelligence Isn’t Another way to approach the issue of defining intelligence is to define what intelligence is not! This can be done in a humourous way by recounting a few passages from the well-known Darwin Awards books. It honors certain people who kill, or in rare cases sterilize themselves accidentally by attempting to do stupid feats or making careless mistakes. The Darwin Award books state that, “The Awards honour people who ensure the long-term survival of the human race by removing themselves from the gene pool in a sublimely idiotic fashion.” The Darwin Awards website has many examples of award winners from the past, plus a “vintage Darwins” section, which is a hall of fame of sorts for Darwin Awards: www.darwinawards.com/ Consistent with a critical thinking approach, the examination of an apparent lack of intelligence will prime students to consider what intelligence really is (besides not being stupid).
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Birth Order and Intelligence Birth order has been invoked to explain all manner of behaviour, according to the pop psychology that crowds the bookstore shelves. Although some of the claims are false and some are wishful thinking, there is a ring of truth to the effects of one’s family position on behaviour. In particular, birth order has been used to explain some elements of intellectual performance. Several studies have found that earlier-born children (in a family sequence) tend to perform better on aptitude and intelligence tests compared to later-born children. Why this is the case, however, remains somewhat a matter of debate. Several theories on the “nature” side of things, such as hormonal or other biological changes in slightly older mothers affecting later-borns, have been advanced and rejected. At present, the “nurture” side of the debate, emphasizing environmental influences, has captured the attention of researchers seeking to explain this outcome. Robert Zajonc and Gregory Markus have offered an explanation. Their confluence model argues that children will attain higher intellectual achievements if they are raised in environments that provide greater intellectual stimulation, coming, in part, from parents and siblings. At first blush this theory would suggest that larger families should provide more of such opportunities, and further that later-born children should reap the rewards of the abundant intellectual stimulation of their numerous siblings. However, Zajonc and Markus made the opposite argument, that as family size increases the intellectual climate of the family decreases. In the simplest case of two parents and a single child, the overall intellectual climate can be calculated based on a simple heuristic. If the parents each contribute 50 “intelligence units” (an arbitrary value used for illustration) and the infant contributes zero, the overall intellectual climate of the family would be 50 + 50 + 0 = 100 / 3 = 33. As the child grows his or her contribution to the family intellectual climate might increase by 3 points a year. After two years, if another child is born, the overall intellectual climate of the family has now changed to 50 + 50 + 6 + 0 = 106 / 4 = 27. If another sibling arrives two years after that, the equation changes to 50 + 50 + 12 + 6 + 0 = 118 / 5 = 24. In short, as more children arrive the overall intellectual climate decreases, given the contributions made by each family member, but only to a point. With extraordinarily large families (e.g., 10 or more children) a rise in overall climate can be seen in these calculations. When applied to data, Zajonc and Markus’ theory holds up remarkably well. For example, a reanalysis of data from a large Dutch study (Belmont & Marolla, 1973) generally confirmed the confluence model, with a few exceptions. First, there was an “only-child” effect, such that children with no siblings scored at about the same performance level as first-borns in families with four children. The confluence model should predict only-children to score highest, given that they enjoy the richest intellectual climate (based on the calculations). Second, there was a “last-born” effect, such that the last sibling’s intellectual performance tended to drop dramatically. This is curious, given the slight rise in calculated scores as families become substantially larger. Zajonc and Markus suggested that neither only-children nor last-borns get to be “teachers,” which may account for the anomalies in the pattern of scores. Only children have no one to teach, and last children seem unlikely candidates for teaching their older siblings. This intriguing explanation has a ring of truth to it, and fits well with the available data. So, how to plan a family to maximize intellectual development? Here the answer is not so clear. Only children may enjoy a rich intellectual climate, but succumb to the only-child effect. Up to a point, more .. 473
IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science children will reduce the overall intellectual climate. The strategy of spacing births out considerably, such as 5 or more years between two children to maximize the first child’s contributions, may lead to the lastchild effect. Although the confluence model makes a compelling case for explaining birth order effects, it remains silent on strategies for optimal family planning. References: Belmont, L., & Marolla, F. (1973). Birth order, family size, and intelligence. Science, 182, 1096– 1101. Zajonc, R. B., & Markus, G. B. (1975). Birth order and intellectual development. Psychological Review, 82, 74–88. http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=search.displayRecord&uid = 2001-17729-002 ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Terman’s Termites Lewis Madison Terman (1877–1956), began his career as a school principal in San Bernardino, CA. after having received his Ph.D. in psychology from Clark University. He was influenced by Alfred Binet and Sir Francis Galton. His Ph.D. thesis was titled “Genius and Stupidity: A Study of the Intellectual Processes of Seven “Bright” and Seven “Stupid” Boys.” He became a professor at the Los Angels Normal school and from there went to Stanford University where he taught from 1910 to 1956. While at Stanford, Terman published a revised and perfected the Binet-Simon scale for American populations. This “Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale,” soon became known as the “Stanford-Binet,” and was considered by far the best available individual intelligence test that is still in use today. Terman’s most ambitious undertaking in the 1920s was a study of 1500 child prodigies over their entire lives. Terman was to discredit the stereotype that bright children were frail, sickly, and socially maladapted. It was evident from the beginning of the study that the “Termite’s,” as they became to be called were healthier then their peers, were more likely to obtain a college education and generally earned more money. Terman was surprised to find that having a high IQ was no guarantee to success. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Information-Processing Approach to Intelligence As noted in Chapter 6, information-processing theory focuses on the study of how the mind processes and uses information. One of the concepts that information-processing theorists study is speed of processing, which is the speed with which the brain can make decisions. Would a person whose brain is speedier than someone else also be more intelligent than that other person? Researchers (Bowling and Mackenzie, 1996; Deary and Stough, 1996) have designed tests to measure speed of processing. The results of these tests were then correlated with the IQ of the subjects. The correlation was –0.45, which is a fairly decent, although not spectacular, correlation. (The correlation is negative because the shorter the speed of processing, the higher the IQ—see Chapter 2 for a review of correlation.) The conclusion from these studies is that having a speedy nervous system is at least part of what it means to be intelligent.
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Perkins, like Sternberg, has proposed that intelligence depends upon three factors (1995). But his three factors are a little different: 1. Neural intelligence: the speed and efficiency of the nervous system, which is relatively unchanging until late adulthood. 2. Experiential intelligence: the knowledge and skills that a person has acquired over time. 3. Reflective intelligence: The ability to become aware of one’s own habits of thinking, also known as metacognition. Both experiential and reflective intelligence can be improved, with the result that a person’s overall intelligence can increase with training and experience. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Arthur Jensen In 1969, Arthur Jensen stirred up a hornet’s nest of controversy by publishing an article titled “How Much Can We Boost I.Q. and Scholastic Achievement?” in the Harvard Educational Review (February 1969). In this article, Jensen concluded that race and intelligence are highly related to each other, with people of some races having a higher degree of intelligence than others. Specifically, he claimed that the white population in the United States typically scores about 15 IQ points higher than the black population, leading to his claim that black people were genetically less intelligent than white people. Therefore, the government was wasting the taxpayer’s money on remedial education for black children. Jensen also failed to understand that heritability only applies to differences that can be found within a group of people as opposed to those between groups of people or individuals (Gould, 1981). As discussed earlier, heritability estimates can only be used to talk about general trends within a particular group, and everyone in that group should have experienced similar environmental influences. In fact, Jensen’s two groups were not truly equivalent. His white subjects came from segregated schools in urban areas (with higher tax brackets and therefore more money for education, healthcare, and so on) while his black subjects came mostly from segregated schools in rural and economically depressed areas (reference to come). The differences between these two groups were far greater than the colour of their skin in terms of money, health, and opportunity. Jensen’s work was met with a flurry of criticisms. But Jensen still argues that his original findings are correct (Jensen, 1998). In 1994, Herrnstein and Murray published the controversial The Bell Curve, in which they cite large amounts of statistical studies (never published in scientific journals prior to the book) that lead them to make the claim that IQ is largely inherited. These authors go further by also implying, and in some cases stating outright, that people from lower economic levels are poor because they are unintelligent, and the fact that this particular level of the population has more children than does the upper-class, economically enriched level of the population. They also imply that some sort of “controls” should be placed on the “breeding” of the lower socioeconomic levels, and that intelligent (and therefore financially well-off) people should have more children. Reference: Jensen, A. R., & Miele, F. (2002). Intelligence, race and genetics: Conversations with Arthur R. Jensen. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Einstein’s Brain After Albert Einstein died of a hemorrhaged abdominal aneurysm in 1955, pathologist Dr. Thomas Harvey removed Einstein’s brain and kept it for scientific study. He noted that on a gross-anatomical level, Einstein’s brain was no larger or heavier than the normal human brain. Since 1955, Einstein’s brain has been photographed extensively and sectioned for further investigation. In 1996, Dr. Sandra Witelson obtained a significant section of Einstein’s brain and has reported with her colleagues that although Einstein’s brain was reported as average in size and weight, Einstein’s inferior parietal lobe was 15% wider than comparable parietal lobes. This brain area is associated with visual-spatial cognition, mathematical thought, and imagery of movement. Note that Einstein’s theoretical insights were usually the result of mental imagery that he translated into the mathematical language. Witelson and her colleagues also found that the sylvian fissure, which separates the frontal and temporal lobes, was shorter than average, suggesting tightly packed neurons and interconnections and thus increased communication between neurons in this brain region. It is still unknown whether Einstein was born with an extraordinary mind, or whether the brain reorganized itself around Einstein’s life work (following the principles of neural plasticity). As long as humans are intrigued by intelligence, we will always be interesting in the mystery behind genius. Reference: Witelson, S. F., Kigar, D. L., & Harvey, T. (1999). The exceptional brain of Albert Einstein. The Lancet, 353, 2149–2153. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: IQ and Juror Selection A California court case (People v. Pierce [40 Cal. Rptr. 2d 254]) raises the issue of how intelligent a person must be to serve as a member of a jury in a criminal trial. Ronald Blaine Pierce was convicted of forcible oral copulation, forcible sodomy, and false imprisonment. His conviction was overturned, however, on the grounds that one of the jurors who convicted him was mildly mentally retarded. During the voir dire process the judge asked prospective jurors to state their names, occupations, occupations of their spouses, and whether they had ever served on a jury. The juror in question answered honestly and simply. Subsequently, the judge asked, “Do any of you know any reason at all, perhaps something I haven’t touched on in my voir dire, that would bear upon your qualities to serve as a fair and impartial juror?” to which no one responded. The defendant’s attorney discovered during the jury’s final instructions that one of the jurors was mildly mentally retarded, and filed for a reversal of the conviction. A clinical psychologist later testified that the juror in question was a long-term resident of a group home and had an IQ of 66. In the psychologist’s opinion, the juror would have had difficulty processing the information in the trial, due to “her shortened attention span and her inability to process testimony at a normal rate of speech.” It was also revealed, however, that the juror in question worked 20 hours a week in a retail store, and had received several promotions and raises during the past two and a half years. The juror was also capable of getting to and from work using public transportation.
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California Code of Civil Procedure, section 203, lists the factors that disqualify potential jurors. These include people who are not U.S. citizens; who do not live in the state or in the jurisdiction in which they are called to serve; who have been convicted of a felony; who are serving as grand jurors; or who are the subject of conservatorship. On these grounds, the judge denied the defendant’s motion for a new trial, noting that none of these exclusions applied to the mentally retarded juror. The California Court of Appeal, however, ruled that the defendant had been denied due process “to a jury whose members are both impartial and mentally competent.” The appellate court ruled that section 203 eliminates certain categories of people, but not all categories of people who may be unfit to serve. This case raises several issues regarding the efficacy of the voir dire process, as well as the standards of “competence” and “incompetence” to be used in juror selection. Reference: Ewing, C. P. (1995, July). Is IQ relevant to juror selection? APA Monitor, p. 16. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: How to Improve Cognitive Processes A study published in the online edition of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences indicated that adults ages 58 to 78 who began any type of fitness program saw improvements in how their brains functioned. This fitness program could involve working out at a gym or activities as simple as brisk walking. The study, including 41 adults, showed that over a 3-month gradual increase in activity that led up to a 45minute walk three times a week increased their brain activity. The activity was measured by an MRI. Tests on decision making were also given, and there was an 11% improvement while performing a variety of tasks. The control group that performed only stretching and toning exercises—not aerobic type activities—had lower brain activity. However, they did show a 2% improvement over the pre-measure. Arthur F. Kramer of the Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology at Illinois explained, “The kinds of tasks that we explored are similar to those encountered in real world situations such as driving a vehicle or any endeavor that requires a person to pay attention despite distractions.” Reference: www.chiropracticresearch.org/NEWS_fitness_can_improve_thinking_amo.htm
▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Does the SAT Have Predictive Value? A discussion of the predictive value of the SAT is sure to get students’ attention. The following are some recent data and news regarding the SAT, and a critical look at whether the test is doing what it is supposed to do, i.e., predict school performance.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science The SAT is woven into the fabric of the college admissions process. Nearly all colleges use the SAT to help whittle down their applicant pool to a manageable number, and to select students with desirable intellectual qualifications. Nearly 2 million hopeful college applicants take the test annually, and nearly 1600 undergraduate institutions use the SAT to help them in their selection process. There have been many critics of the SAT, however, for many different reasons. Jeff Rickey, dean of admissions at Earlham College says about the SAT, “The test is too long (about 4 hours) for most young people to actually sit through…the present SAT experience is almost cruel and inhumane punishment.” According to an April 5 article in USA Today, 24 of the top 100 liberal arts colleges as ranked by U.S. News & World Report are SAT- and ACT-optional. “We expect the ACT/SAT-optional list to continue growing as more institutions recognize that the tests remain biased, coachable, educationally damaging and irrelevant to sound admissions practices,” said Robert Schaeffer, public education director of FairTest, a Cambridge, Massachusetts, agency that monitors standardized tests. “As leaders of the new test-optional campuses have eloquently stated, dropping ACT and SAT score requirements will enhance diversity and academic quality,” he said in an announcement about the increase in schools dropping test-score requirements. To examine the point of whether SAT scores actually do what they are supposed to do, we need to look at the issue scientifically. The information presented in the chapter that indicates two “branches” of predictive value for the SAT (the “low branch” of SAT scores has some [albeit limited] predictive power concerning college grade point average, whereas the “high branch” of SAT scores has virtually no predictive power) is intriguing. Another set of data, generated by the Ralph Nader report (1980) on the Educational Testing Service, indicates that random predictions for student performance were nearly 90% as accurate as the SAT! In other words, the SAT doesn’t appear to have much discriminative power with regard to future student school performance. As noted above, these kinds of revelations have been causing some schools to reconsider their reliance on the SAT as a tool for student selection in the admissions process. Of note, M.I.T. (a very prestigious institution) no longer uses it. Given the lack of predictive power for the “upper branch” of SAT scores, this totally makes sense. In fact, more and more colleges and universities are giving more weight to what appears to be the best predictor of collegiate success: high school grades. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Genius The story of Karl Friedrich Gauss in the chapter raises some questions regarding the relative contribution of genes and environment. For example, Gauss taught himself to read at the age of 2! Obviously, his ability to read at such an early age could not have solely been determined by environment, but probably there existed a genetic predisposition that afforded him an extreme advantage in processing written language. An average child requires much more extensive exposure to written language in order to develop reading skills (which usually are apparent at age 5 or 6). Contrast the story of Gauss with that of the three daughters of Laszlo Polgar. Polgar, although only a modest chess player, set out to raise his daughters to become great chess players, and, indeed, all three are world-class players (two are grand masters). Contrary to the case of Gauss, the Polgar daughters illustrate the important role that environment plays in determining ability in some dimension. More information on these two cases can be found on the following Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org) A discussion of these two cases should prime students to consider carefully the basis of intelligence, and provide a nice introduction to this somewhat controversial topic.
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Group Differences in IQ Do Not Apply to Individuals A discussion of group differences in IQ (e.g., White vs. African American) and the possible genetic and environmental factors that contribute to the differences is a nice way to delve into a lecture that critically examines this topic. The chapter presents some convincing evidence and theory regarding the apparent gap in IQ scores that exists between Whites and African Americans. The explanation is based on two highly overlapping distributions of IQ scores (see Figure 9.18). So, as the authors suggest, this indicates that the two groups really aren’t all that different – the primary differences in representation will be found at the upper and lower ends of the IQ distribution. To extend this line of reasoning, and to demonstrate how the formation of stereotypes can be a bad thing in many cases (see Chapter 13), you can provide students with a slightly different explanation of the IQ score disparity (based on the same analysis). Although there is brief mention of this concept near the end of the subsection titled, “Reconciling Race Differences,” to introduce this idea in class should facilitate deeper processing of the material. The idea is that, given such a highly overlapping distribution of anything (IQ included), what can we conclude when we evaluate an individual from one or the other group? The short answer is nothing. Just as an average doesn’t really describe any one person, group differences do not apply to individuals. In fact, many African Americans do better than Whites on IQ tests. As another example, although women tend to do (on average) better than men on tests of verbal ability, the two distributions of scores is highly overlapping, and many men do better than many women on tests of verbal ability. Another phenomenon of social psychology tends to rear its ugly head in these kinds of situations: confirmation bias. That is, if we know (or have a belief) of a group difference, when we see evidence for the difference, we will notice that difference, thus confirming our belief (bias). This might be a good time to introduce students to ways in which our beliefs can impact our judgments. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart As the chapter notes, creativity can be mistaken for intelligence. This is especially true in cases of prodigious creativity, especially at a young age. The personification of precocious, prodigious creativity is Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who wrote his first symphony at the age of 8. He is often referred to as a “musical genius,” – this title can be a little confusing in terms of creativity vs. intelligence (we normally associate the term genius with intelligence). However, given Howard Gardner’s idea of multiple intelligences (which includes musical intelligence, presented near the beginning of the chapter), and the idea that creativity is linked to intelligence, a discussion of the prolific creativity of Mozart should shed some light on intelligence’s influence on creativity. There is much information on Mozart that can be found on the Web; below are a few recommended sites.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science References: www.mozartproject.org/ www.its.caltech.edu/~tan/Mozartreq/main.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart A complete list of his over 600 compositions can be viewed at: www.classical.net/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
▼ CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
What Exactly Is Intelligence? Creative Thinking Creativity Quiz Intelligence Multiple Intelligences EQ Test (Emotional Intelligence) Intelligence and Mental Capacity in Film Age and Intelligence Should Psychology Adopt a Theory of Multiple Intelligence? Five-Minute IQ Test Creating a Culture-Fair Intelligence Test A Critique of the Mozart Effect Take a Stand Creativity and Intelligence Crossword Puzzle Fill-in-the-Blanks
▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: What Exactly Is Intelligence? An in-class discussion of what intelligence is can be an interesting and enlightening experience. Having students get together in small groups to discuss the definition of intelligence can produce even better results… pedagogically speaking. The following questions should be addressed by each group, and the groups should be prepared to share their ideas with the other groups. 1.
What are the common characteristics of intelligent behaviour? In other words, how can you tell if someone is intelligent? Why? (try to come up with 5 or 6 common characteristics)
2.
What proposed characteristics of intelligence that came up during your discussion of #1 were eventually eliminated? Why?
▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Creative Thinking (Group Activity) Tell your students that you want them to take out a sheet of paper because there is a quiz. Once all the groaning has stopped, have them write down all the uses they can think of for some item (i.e., Kitty Litter .. 480
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or rice). At the end of 5 minutes have them get into small groups and see how many uses the small groups can come up with for whatever item you have chosen. Have the students present their cooperative list to the class. Make sure that you tell them they need not repeat an item that another group has already presented. Find out how many items they originally came up with versus the number of items that the group named. It is interesting how many items have similar in the group. This finding can be a lead in to discussing a mental set and how it impedes creativity. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Creativity Quiz Draw a circle on the board. Allow students five minutes to list all of the things they can think of that your picture could represent. Use a plate and a wedding ring as examples, and urge them to think divergently. Sample responses may include, for example: Total eclipse of the sun / Top view of a baldheaded man / Floor plan for an igloo / Port hole at night / The end of a gun as seen by a victim / Belly button / Bucket of tar from the top ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Intelligence (Group activity) After discussing the different theories of intelligence, have your students design a series of test items that would indicate the different intelligences according to Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. For example: Spatial intelligence may be putting together a puzzle made out of a piece of plywood; Mathematical intelligence may be figuring out how many cups of water it is going to take to fill up a bucket; Athletic intelligence may be the actual running of a relay to fill up the buckets of water; Interpersonal intelligence may be assessed by having students find out information about other students; Musical intelligence may be assessed by defining which instrument is being played in a musical piece or knowing the words to a song, Verbal may be assessed with knowing what words fill in the blanks to some simple sentences; Intrapersonal may be understanding how you feel about a topic; Naturalistic may be assessed by being able to figure out how a plant needs to planted in order to grow the most it can. Students can up with a variety of means of assessing these different types of intelligences. There is no one real measure of any of these. Students will begin to see that intelligence is composed of many different abilities and may be expressed in numerous ways.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Multiple Intelligences Objective: To relate Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences to examples generated by students Materials: Handout Masters 9.1 Parts A and B Procedure: After discussing Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, have your students generate items that measure his concept of interpersonal intelligence. First, have students think of people they know who exemplify the types of intelligences presented on Handout 9.1 A. Next, on Handout 9.1 B, ask them to think of the individual named who has interpersonal intelligence and to describe two behaviours that the person exhibits that represent this high, interpersonal intelligence. After that, develop test items that you could use to measure interpersonal intelligence. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: EQ Test (Emotional Intelligence) Objective: To assess students’ emotional intelligence Materials: See Handout Master 9.2 EQ Test Procedures: Instruct students to take the test and follow directions to find their scores. After all have finished, tell them that the closer their score to 24, the higher their EQ. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Intelligence and Mental Capacity in Film Chapter 9 discusses the extremes of intelligence, from mental retardation to giftedness. The two films described below expand on these topics and give students an opportunity to explore these extremes in much greater detail. Charly explores the world of mental retardation whereas Little Man Tate considers the question of how best to nourish genius. Depending on your interests, assign either of these films (or give students a choice) and ask students to write a short paper relating insights in the films to psychological principles covered in the text and lecture. You might ask students to supplement their discussion with an article or two from the mental retardation or giftedness literatures using Psychological Abstracts. •
•
Charly (1968). In this endearing and classic tale, Oscar-winner Cliff Robertson portrays a retarded man with a drive to learn so powerful that he agrees to an experimental surgical procedure in order to become smarter. When he gets his wish, he must struggle to adapt to the changes and newfound emotions that accompany his sharp increase in intelligence (CBS/Fox; 104 min). Little Man Tate (1991). Jodie Foster stars in this heart-wrenching tale of an uneducated mother who knows she cannot provide the stimulating and enriched environment her genius son needs to thrive. This extremely well-done film depicts the boy’s frustrating struggle to gain both the love and the academic stimulation he needs (Orion; 99 min).
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▼ Return to List of Activities, Demonstrations and Exercises for Chapter 9 ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Age and Intelligence Objective: To help students understand the role of norms in the calculation and interpretation of IQ scores Materials: See Handout Master 9.3 Procedure: Have students fill in the blanks on the handout, then lead a discussion of what constitutes intelligent behaviour for people of various ages. ▼ Return to List of Activities, Demonstrations and Exercises for Chapter 9 ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Should Psychology Adopt a Theory of Multiple Intelligence? Intelligence used to be a simple thing; so simple, in fact, that it wasn’t even capitalized. But pretty much since the time of Spearman’s advocacy of “g” (a “general intellectual ability” factor) other theorists and researchers have proposed views of intelligence that involve multiple factors. Classic examples of such theories include Thurstone’s multiple factor model, Guilford’s Structure of Intellect model, Sternberg’s triarchic theory, modern musings on emotional intelligence, and Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. Clouding the issue is the fact that much of the time higher-order factors can be factoranalyzed back down to “g.” The debate, then, seems to centre on the utility of thinking about intelligence as a single thing versus many things. Ask your students to share their views as they debate this controversial issue. Reference: Slife, B. (2003). Taking sides: Clashing views on controversial psychological issues (13th ed.). Guilford, CT: Dushkin Publishing Group. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Five-Minute IQ Test Because most standardized IQ tests are long and copyrighted, they are impractical to use in class. This inclass activity, based on Sternberg and Davidson’s (1982) 12-item problem-solving intelligence assessment, lends itself to a relatively efficient use of class time. Five of the twelve questions can be found in Handout Master 9.4. This test assumes that a person’s IQ is related to a person’s ability to use novel approaches to answering questions. To engage students in critical thinking, ask them to consider the predictive validity of this test. Do scores on this test correlate with performance on other tasks, or predict IQ? Sternberg found that question 1 correlated best with a person’s IQ. Question 2, however, did not correlate very well with IQ, probably because answering question 2 correctly depends solely on reading the question correctly. The correct answers to the questions are listed below.
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On day 59. (remember, it doubles every day) Nine sheep. Three socks. (the ratio information is irrelevant) Allow both glasses to drain simultaneously. As soon as the 7-minute glass empties, flip it over (7 minutes have expired). Then, flip it over again after the 11-minute glass empties (11 minutes have expired). Fifteen minutes will have passed when the 7-minute glass empties. 5. The answer is five. The task here is to realize that the relation is not the sequence of presidency, but which denomination of bill upon which each face appears. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Creating a Culture-Fair Intelligence Test Objective: To help students understand the difficulties involved in separating culture from intelligence. Materials: None Procedure: Divide students into small groups. Instruct each group to come to a consensus about the kinds of questions that should be on a culture-fair intelligence test. After the groups have finished, ask each to report on its conclusions. Engage the entire class in discussions of each proposal, carefully examining how culture or specific experiences (e.g., education) might influence the results. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: A Critique of the Mozart Effect The sensational finding (Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky, 1993) of a simple way to increase intelligence, by simply listening to classical music, spawned numerous studies that examined the validity of the effect. A great way to expose students to the idea of environmental influence on intelligence, and the flaws associated with the original study is to conduct a short discussion of the original finding (many students will no doubt have heard of the effect). Remind your students that extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence. You could then indicate that the study was never replicated (at least to the degree that Rauscher et al. originally found). Then ask students to think of ways in which this study may have been flawed – why might the Mozart Effect be a spurious finding? This will surely get their critical thinking “hats” on! An excellent reference is The Human Intelligence website (www.indiana.edu/%7Eintell/), which provides a detailed account of the original study, and subsequent critical analyses. Furthermore, this site notes those studies that have partially replicated the “Mozart Effect” noted by Rauscher et al. (albeit to a lesser degree). ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Take a Stand Objective: To encourage students to recognize varying points of view about inclusion Materials: None Procedure: Designate one side of the room for students who believe that students with mental retardation should be included (sometimes called “mainstreaming”) in classes for normal students and the other for students who oppose inclusion. Ask each student to explain his/her views, and allow students to switch sides when they hear a convincing argument from the other side. .. 484
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Creativity and Intelligence As mentioned in the chapter, creativity and intelligence are moderately related, with correlations on the order of .20 to .30. As the authors put it, just about all creative people are intelligent, whereas not all intelligent people are creative. The following in-class activity, suggested by Buzan (1984), is based on the idea of divergent thinking, where many different pathways to a solution are generated (Guilford, 1967). Buzan claims that this test measures “inherent creative capacity” and it has been used in a variety of business settings. He asks people (in two minutes’ time) to list how many uses they can think of for a paper clip. His results show that 4 uses is about average, 8 is very good, 12 is rare, and only 1 in 1000 people come up with 16 legitimate uses for a paper clip! Have students perform this test, and then discuss the results, and potential implications for the relationship between creativity and intelligence (e.g., if you only came up with 2 uses, does this mean that you’re not intelligent?!). ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Crossword Puzzle Copy and distribute Handout Master 9.5 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment. Answers for the Crossword puzzle: Across 4. the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behaviour in new ways. creativity 5. aspects of language involving the practical aspects of communicating with others, or the social “niceties” of language. pragmatics 7. type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point. divergent 11. the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems. intelligence 13. ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities. concepts 14. a system for combining symbols so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others. language 15. concepts that are defined by specific rules or features. formal 16. an example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept. prototype
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science Down 1. the smallest units of meaning within a language. morphemes 2. the system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences. semantics 3. very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems. algorithms 4. the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs. Confirmation Bias 6. the rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences. semantics 8. the two percent of the population falling on the upper end of the normal curve and typically possessing an IQ of 130 or above. gifted 9. the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure. validity 10. the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past. Mental set 12. the system of rules by which the symbols of language are arranged. grammar ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Fill-in-the-Blanks Copy and distribute Handout Master 9.6 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment. Chapter 9: Answers to Fill-in-the-Blanks 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
Thinking or Cognition Mental Images Concepts Superordinate Concept Formal Concepts Natural Concept Prototype Problem Solving Trial and Error Algorithms Heuristic Insight Functional Fixedness Mental Set Confirmation Bias
16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
Intelligence Quotient Intelligence Standardization Validity Reliability Developmentally Delayed Creativity Convergent Thinking Divergent Thinking Howard Gardner Practical Intelligence Emotional Intelligence Language Phonemes Pragmatics
▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▼ HANDOUT MASTERS FOR CHAPTER 9: LANGUAGE, THINKING, AND INTELLIGENCE ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Handout Master 9.1 Handout A: Multiple Intelligences Handout Master 9.1 Handout B: Measuring Interpersonal Intelligence Handout Master 9.2 Emotional Intelligence Test Handout Master 9.3 Age and Intelligence Handout Master 9.4 Five-Minute IQ Test Handout Master 9.5 Crossword Puzzle Activity Handout Master 9.6 Fill-in-the-Blanks Activity
▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 9.1 A Multiple Intelligences For each of the types of intelligence listed below, name and describe a person you know (or know of) who embodies that kind of intelligence to you. Linguistic intelligence:
Musical intelligence:
Logical-mathematical intelligence:
Spatial intelligence:
Bodily intelligence:
Interpersonal intelligence:
Intrapersonal intelligence:
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Handout 9.1 B Measuring Interpersonal Intelligence Interpersonal intelligence involves understanding others—how they feel, what motivates them, and how they interact with another. List two people you believe are high in interpersonal intelligence: Person 1:
Person 2:
Describe two behaviours you have observed in each person that lead you to believe that they are high in interpersonal intelligence: Person 1:
Behaviour 1 Behaviour 2
Person 2:
Behaviour 1 Behaviour 2
Create a test item (using either true-false or an agree-disagree continuum) that reflects the interpersonal intelligence exhibited in each of the above behaviours: Item 1 (Person 1; Behaviour 1): Item 2 (Person 1; Behaviour 2): Item 3 (Person 2; Behaviour 1): Item 4 (Person 2; Behaviour 2):
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► Return to Activity: Measuring Interpersonal Intelligence ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 9.2 EQ Test (Emotional Intelligence) Check one response for each item. 1.
I’m always aware of even subtle feelings as I have them. Always
2.
Usually
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
Usually
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
Usually
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
I can sense the pulse of a group or relationship and state unspoken feelings. Always
6.
Never
My keen sense of others’ feelings makes me compassionate about their plight. Always
5.
Rarely
Instead of giving up in the face of setbacks or disappointments, I stay hopeful and optimistic. Always
4.
Sometimes
I can delay gratification in pursuit of my goals instead of getting carried away by impulse. Always
3.
Usually
Usually
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
I can soothe or contain distressing feelings, so that they don’t keep me from doing things I need to do. Always
Usually
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
Score your responses as follows: Always = 4 points, Usually = 3 points, Sometimes = 2 points, Rarely = 1 point, Never = 0 points. Add your scores for each item to derive a total score.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science ► Return to Activity: EQ Test (Emotional Intelligence) ► Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 9.3 Age and Intelligence For each age group, list five traits that characterize intelligence. 6-month-old
2-year-old
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
4.
4.
5.
5.
10-year-old
20-year-old
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
4.
4.
5.
5.
50-year-old
80-year-old
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
4.
4.
5.
5.
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► Return to Activity: Age and Intelligence ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 9.4 A Five-Minute IQ Test 1. Water lilies double in area every 24 hours. At the beginning of the summer, there is one water lily on a lake. It takes 60 days for the lake to become covered with water lilies. On what day is the lake half-covered?
2. A farmer has 17 sheep. All but 9 break through a hole in the fence and wander away. How many are left?
3. If you have black socks and brown socks in your drawer, mixed in a ratio of 4 to 5, how many socks will you have to take out in order to have a pair of the same colour?
4. With a 7-minute hourglass, and an 11-minute hourglass, how can you time the boiling of an egg for 15 minutes?
5. Washington is to one as Lincoln is to: a. b. c. d.
five ten fifteen fifty
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Handout Master 9.5 Crossword Puzzle Activity Chapter 9: Intelligence and IQ Testing
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► Return to Activity: Crossword Puzzle ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents Crossword Puzzle (answers) Across 4. the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behaviour in new ways. 5. aspects of language involving the practical aspects of communicating with others, or the social “niceties” of language. 7. type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point. 11. the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems. 13. ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities. 14. a system for combining symbols so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others. 15. concepts that are defined by specific rules or features. 16. an example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept. Down 1. 2. 3. 4.
the smallest units of meaning within a language. the system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences. very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems. the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs. 6. the rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences. 8. the two percent of the population falling on the upper end of the normal curve and typically possessing an IQ of 130 or above. 9. the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure. 10. the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past. 12. the system of rules by which the symbols of language are arranged.
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Handout Master 9.6 Chapter 9—Fill-in-the-Blanks: Intelligence and IQ Testing 1.
a mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand information and communicating information to others. 2. are mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picture-like quality. 3. are ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities. 4. The most general form of a type of concept, such as “animal” or “fruit” is known as the _____________ __________________ 5. Concepts that are defined by specific rules or features are known as . 6. A concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world is known as a___________ __________________ 7. A is an example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept. 8. _____________ ____________ is the process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways. 9. The problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found often takes much time and is called___________ _____________ 10. are very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems. 11. A an educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem. Also known as a “rule of thumb.” 12. The sudden perception of a solution to a problem is called______________and is often expressed in cartoons as a light bulb turning on over someone’s head. 13. A block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical 14. functions and not what else they can be utilized to do is called__________ _______________ 15. ______________ is the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past. 16. ___________ ______________ is the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs. 17. ___________ ______________ is a number that represents a measure of intelligence, resulting from the division of one’s mental age by one’s chronological age and then multiplying that quotient by 100. 18. The ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems is known as______________ 19. All tests go through a process where the test is given to a large group of people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed. This is part of the process.
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20. The degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure is known as the ______________. 21. The is the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people. 22. ________ ___________is a condition in which a person’s behavioural and cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of others who are the same chronological age. A more acceptable term for mental retardation. 23. is the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behaviour in new ways. 24. is a type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic. 25. ___________ ____________is the type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point (kind of creativity). 26. According to_________ there are many types of intelligences and he developed a theory known as multiple intelligences. 27. The ability to use information to get along in life and become successful is known as_________ _________________. 28. _______________ ____________ is the awareness of and ability to manage one’s own emotions as well as the ability to be self-motivated, able to feel what others feel, and socially skilled. Viewed as a powerful influence on success in life. 29. The system for combining symbols (such as words) so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others is known as____________. 30. The basic units of sound in a language are known as_________________. 31. _______________ are aspects of language involving the practical ways of communicating with others, or the social “niceties” of language. ► Return to Activity: Fill-in-the-Blanks ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents Words for Fill-in-the-Blanks: Algorithms Concepts Confirmation Bias Convergent Thinking Creativity Developmentally Delayed Divergent Thinking Emotional Intelligence Formal Concepts Functional Fixedness Heuristic Howard Gardner Insight Intelligence Intelligence Quotient
Language Mental Images Mental Set Natural Concept Phonemes Practical Intelligence Pragmatics Problem Solving Prototype Reliability Standardization Superordinate Concept Thinking or Cognition Trial and Error Validity
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▼ FORTY STUDIES THAT CHANGED PSYCHOLOGY ▲ Return to Table of Contents Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research, 6/e (013603599X) By Roger Hock This unique book closes the gap between psychology textbooks and the research that made them possible by offering a first hand glimpse into 40 of the most famous studies in the history of the field, and subsequent studies that expanded upon each study’s influence. Readers are able to grasp the process and excitement of scientific discovery as they experience an insider’s look at the studies that continue today to be cited most frequently, stirred up the most controversy when they were first published, sparked the most subsequent related research, opened new fields of psychological exploration, and changed most dramatically our knowledge of human behaviour. Studies examined in Intelligence: What You Expect Is What You Get Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1966). Teachers’ expectancies: Determinates of pupils’ IQ gains. Psychological Reports, 19, 115–118. Just How Are You Intelligent? Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
▼ WEB RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents Intelligence Assessment: www.ericae.net/ Offers definitions, descriptions, resources, and other detailed information about a wide range of assessment measures. Use this site as a starting point for a classroom presentation, demonstrating the different ways to assess mental functioning. Barbarian’s Online Tests: www.wizardrealm.com/ A variety of tests that are meant for “fun,” and are not based in psychometrics at all. Good for getting students to think critically about the validity of online tests. Classical Intelligence Test: www.queendom.com/ Free IQ test from Cyberia Shrink with online scoring. Unfortunately, no reliability and validity data are provided and there are no norms for this test provided online. Darwin Awards: www.darwinawards.com “Darwin Awards commemorate those who improve our gene pool by removing themselves from it in really stupid ways.”
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Kohler’s Research on the Mentality of Apes: www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/ Excerpts from a book on Kohler’s work with an insight on chimpanzees. There are some interesting pictures at the bottom of this page. Intelligence: www.edpsycinteractive.org Discussion and explanation of theories of intelligence, by Bill Huitt, Valdosta College, Georgia. Intelligence of Dogs: www.petrix.com Provides ranking of “brightness” by breed of dog. The Boarder Collie tops the list as the brightest dog, while the Afghan Hound is at the bottom of the list. Woof. Majon’s Online IQ Tests: www.majon.com Four online IQ tests are offered. Mensa International: www.mensa.org Organization for high-IQ-scoring individuals. See how the top 2% spend their time in this organization. Multiple Intelligences: http://tip.psychology.org Overview of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.
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10/ LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲ Return to Table of Contents MODULE 10.1: Physical Development from Conception through Infancy ➢ Lecture Guide: Methods, Concepts, and Prenatal Development (p. 599) ➢ Resources Available (p. 504) MODULE 10.2: Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive and Emotional Development ➢ Lecture Guide: Infancy and Childhood (p. 505) ➢ Resources Available (p. 513) MODULE 10.3: Adolescence ➢ Lecture Guide: Adolescence (p. 514) ➢ Resources Available (p. 518) MODULE 10.4: Adulthood and Aging ➢ Lecture Guide: Adulthood and Aging (p. 519) ➢ Resources Available (p. 523) FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES ➢ Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 524) ➢ Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 539) ➢ Handout Masters (p. 552) ➢ APS: Readings from the Association of Psychological Science (p. 562) ➢ Forty Studies that Changed Psychology (p. 564) ➢ Web Resources (p. 565)
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LECTURE GUIDE I. MODULE 10.1: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT FROM CONCEPTION THROUGH INFANCY (Text p. 362) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology related to prenatal and infant physical development. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand the pros and cons of different research designs in developmental psychology. o Cross-sectional data can be gathered at a single point in time, making this design less time consuming. Cross-sectional designs are also less likely to be affected by attrition (participant dropout). However, these designs are vulnerable to cohort effects (age differences due to historical factors rather than developmental differences). Longitudinal designs are less significantly affected by cohort effects because the same individuals are followed through the duration of the study. ✓ Apply your understanding to identify the best ways expectant parents can ensure the health of their developing fetus. o The key to healthy development is ensuring a chemically ideal environment; adequate nutrition, avoiding teratogens, and getting good medical advice are all important. ✓ Analyze the effects of preterm birth. o Children born very premature (25 weeks versus the normal 37 weeks) are at an increased risk for health problems. Use of personalized care, that emphasizes motherinfant contact, breastfeeding, and minimal sensory stimulation for the underdeveloped brain, increases the chances that preterm infants will remain healthy. Long-term studies indicate that with proper care, children born preterm will not be disadvantaged compared to peers born at normal term.
Methods for Measuring Developmental Trends 1) Developmental psychologists usually use a few different designs for measuring how psychological traits and abilities change over time (Figure 10.1). i) If you wanted to design a study examining the effects of premature birth on learning abilities from infancy through adulthood, you might compare people of different age group (e.g., 1-, 5-, 10-, and 20-year-olds) using a cross-sectional design. a) This design is convenient in terms of time and cost. Developmental psychology (p. 362) is the study of human physical, cognitive, social, and behavioural characteristics across the lifespan. Cross-sectional design (p. 363) is used to measure and compare samples of people at different ages at a given point in time. ii) In contrast, you would use a longitudinal design if you picked 50 infants and measured their cognitive development yearly over the course of 20 years. Longitudinal design (p. 363) follows development of the same set of individuals through time.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science a) Longitudinal studies take a lot of time and money. b) These studies also suffer from attrition, which occurs when participants drop out. c) A major advantage of longitudinal designs is the avoidance of group differences, such as those in cross-sectional designs. 2) On major issue to consider in cross-sectional designs is the potential for cohort effects. i) Cohort and generation are similar things in this context. Cohort effects (p. 363) are differences between people that result from being born in different time periods. ii) A number of factors (e.g., societal, nutritional, medical, etc.) can influence physical and behavioural development across different age groups. a) For example, in studying premature infants, medical care if very different now than it was 20 years ago. Pattern of Development: Stages and Continuity 1) One view is that development happens in stages, a progression of abrupt transitions in physical or mental skills, followed by slower, more gradual change. i) Transition from stage to stage is similar to a growth spurt, marked by rapid shifts in thinking and behaving. a) These stages represent a fundamental shift in the type of abilities. b) This understanding can be seen in developmental milestones of motor development (crawling, standing, walking; Module 10.2). 2) Another view is that development happens as a continuous change, at a slower, steady pace. i) Adults are more likely to see slow changes in their physical and mental abilities vs. rapid shifts. a) However, there are still stages in adulthood, such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement (Module 10.4).
Zygotes to Infants: From One Cell to Billions Zygote (p. 364) a cell formed by the fusion of a sperm and an ovum (egg cell). Fertilization and Gestation 1) Genetics and environment begin to shape an individual throughout pregnancy (gestation). Germinal Stage (p. 364) is the first phase of prenatal development and spans from conception to two weeks. 2) It all begins at fertilization with the formation of a zygote. i) The zygote begins dividing into more and more cells. ii) The zygotes developmental progress can be measured by its gestational age (estimated time since fertilization). iii) At a gestational age of six days, the zygote, not called a blastocyst, contains 50-150 nonspecialized cells. a) At this point, the blastocyst uses energy and resources provided by the ovum. 3) The blastocyst moves along the fallopian tubes and becomes implanted in the lining of the uterus (Table 10.1). i) Soon after implantation, the blastocyst divides into a group of cells that continues developing into the embryo and another group that forms the placenta. .. 500
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a) This is the structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass to the fetus and waste to leave the fetus. Embryonic Stage (p. 364) spans weeks two through eight, during which time the embryo begins developing major physical structures such as the heart and nervous system, as well as the beginnings of arms, legs, hands, and feet. 4) After week eight, the fetus passes into the fetal stage (Table 10.1). Fetal Stage (p. 364) spans weeks eight through birth, during which time the skeletal, organ, and nervous systems become more developed and specialized. i) Muscles develop and the fetus begins to move. ii) Sleeping and waking cycles start and the senses become fine-tuned. a) The fetus can even respond to external cues. Fetal Brain Development 1) The beginning of the human brain can be seen during the embryonic stage, between the second and third weeks of gestation. i) Brain development spans all the way to early adulthood. 2) Genetically programmed cells migrate to their appropriate sites and begin to differentiate into nerve cells. i) The first sign of major divisions of the brain (the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain) are apparent at 4 weeks’ gestation (Figure 10.2). ii) By 11 weeks’ gestation, the differentiations between the cerebral hemispheres, the cerebellum, and the brain stem are apparent. iii) Myelination, a process of fatty tissue building up around developing nerve cells, occurs during the final month of pregnancy. a) Myelin insulates nerve cells, enabling them to conduct messages more rapidly and efficiently (Module 3.2). 3) At birth, the newborn has around 100 billion neurons and a brain that is approximately 25% the size and weight of an adult brain. Nutrition, Teratogens, and Fetal Development 1) Pregnant women typically need an almost 20% increase in energy intake during pregnancy, including foods high in protein and calcium. i) Malnutrition as well as illness and drugs can result in mild to severe physical and psychological effects on the fetus. Teratogen (p. 366) is a substance, such as a drug or environmental toxins that impair the process of development. 2) Alcohol and tobacco can be teratogens if consumed at the wrong times and in large amounts during pregnancy. Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) (p. 366) involves abnormalities in mental functioning, growth, and physical development in the offspring of women who use alcohol during pregnancy.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science i) This condition occurs in roughly 1.5 per 1,000 births worldwide (but is probably underreported). ii) As little as one drink per day can cause detrimental effects on the fetus. 3) Smoking decreases blood oxygen and raises uterine concentrations of poisonous nicotine and carbon monoxide, increasing the risk of miscarriage or death during infancy. i) Babies usually have a lower birth weight and are 30% more likely to be born premature. ii) These babies are also at a great risk for having problems with some aspects of emotional development and impulse control. iii) Babies exposed to smoke are also three times more likely to die from sudden death syndrome.
Myths in Mind: Vaccinations and Autism 1) In the late 1990s, a team of researchers claimed that the combined vaccination for measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) was linked to the development of autism. i) This vaccine is given to children around their first birthday and a second dose is given around the time they start school. ii) Many parents heard this claim and refused to have the vaccine given to their children. 2) However, other scientists were unable to replicate the original findings. i) It was found that Andrew Wakefield, the doctor who published the study, had financial interests in linking the disease with the vaccine. ii) Anti-vaccine movement spreads conspiracy theories about the medical and pharmaceutical industries. By 2011, 30 plus countries saw increases in measles with serious concerns for outbreaks.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The Long-Term Effects of Premature Birth 1) What do we know about premature birth? i) Humans are usually born at a gestation age of around 37 weeks (9 months). Preterm infants (p. 368) are born at 36 weeks or earlier. ii) Children born at 25 weeks have a little better than 50% chance of surviving. iii) However, because fetal development happens quickly, children born at 30 weeks have a 95% chance of survival. iv) Survival is the first step followed by possible short- and long-term negative effects on psychological and cognitive functioning. 2) How can science be used to help preterm infants? i) One program, called the Newborn Individualized Developmental Care and Assessment Program (NIDCAP), is a behaviourally based intervention in which preterm infants are closely observed and given intensive care during early development. ii) One important component is keeping the brain healthy and protected against potentially harmful experiences. a) This includes minimizing lights, sound levels, and stress. iii) One study randomly assigned 117 infants born at 29 weeks or less to receive either NIDCAP or standard care in a prenatal intensive care unit. a) Within 9 months, the NIDCAP infants showed significantly improved motor skills, attention, and other behavioural measures. b) NIDCAP infants also showed improved brain development, including more advanced development of neural pathways between major brain regions. c) At 8 years, the children who had gotten NIDCAP care showed higher scores on some (not all) measures of thinking and problem solving as well as better frontal lobe functioning. .. 502
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3) Can we critically evaluate this research? i) The largest limitation of this study was the small sample size. ii) Statistically this presents a problem, increasing chance as having a role in the results. a) Also limits the ability to test interacting factors (gender, SES, ethnicity, etc.). iii) Study also doesn’t suggest why the program works, brain systems, or specific mechanisms or aspects of the treatment are responsible. 4) Why is this relevant? i) An estimated 9% of infants are born preterm worldwide. ii) Medical advances and interventions, such as NIDCAP, have greatly reduced the chances of longterm negative effects of preterm birth. iii) In developing countries where medical care may be minimal or nonexistent, research has found some effective and simple interventions. a) Messaging preterm infants 15 minutes a day can result in 50% greater daily weight gain and it reduces stress. b) Kangaroo care focuses on constant, ongoing physical contact between infants and their mothers, and has shown to improve the physical and psychological health of preterm infants. Sensory and Motor Abilities of Newborns 1) Compared to the offspring of other species, human infants are born almost completely helpless and require extended care as they develop their senses, strength, and coordination. 2) Sensory experiences and learning occur before birth. i) By month four of gestation, the brain starts receiving signals from the eyes and ears. ii) By seven to eight months of gestation, fetuses seem to be actively listening. a) To test this, scientists had mothers read The Cat in the Hat to their fetus during the last six weeks of pregnancy. b) At birth, their babies were given a pacifier that could be used to control a tape recording of their mother reading the story as well as stories that were not read before birth. c) The babies sucked the pacifier much more to hear The Cat in the Hat. iii) Research found that babies internalize their own native tongue before they are born, and do in fact cry with an accent. a) German vs. French babies demonstrated different cries based on their respective languages. 3) Infants vision is limited at birth, but reaches the normal 20/20 visual capacity between 6 and 12 months of age. i) Before this, infants see only about 30 cm or less away (about the distance between the mother’s face while breastfeeding). ii) Colour vision appears to develop around 2 months. iii) By 8 months, infants can perceive basic shapes and objects as well as adults do. 4) Odours are strong memory cues for infants. i) Like adults, newborns cringe when smelling something rotten or pungent, and they show a preference for the smell of sweets. ii) Newborns can discriminate the order of their mother’s breastmilk from the breastmilk of a stranger. a) They even turn their head toward the scent of breastmilk, which helps initiate nursing. Motor Development in the First Year 1) By five moths’ gestation, the fetus begins to have control of voluntary motor movements. i) In the last months of gestation and the first months of life, the muscles and nervous system develop enough to demonstrate basic reflexes. Reflexes (p. 370) involuntary muscular reactions to specific types of stimulation.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science ii) These reflexes provide infants with a basic set of responses for feeding and interacting with their caregivers. iii) Infants are able to imitate facial expressions of their caregivers just days after birth. Development within the Central Nervous System 1) The brain also undergoes tremendous growth in the first year. i) Key change in development is the myelination of axons, which occurs in reliable stages and is responsible for an infant’s ability to stand, walk, and voluntary control like finger grasps. Synaptogenesis (p. 372) describes the forming of new synaptic connections, which occurs at blinding speed through infancy and childhood, and continues through the lifespan. Synaptic pruning (p. 372) the loss of weak nerve cell connections. RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 10.1 Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ An Example of Post Hoc Fallacy ➢ Tracking the Development of Scientific Understanding of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome ➢ Chromosome Abnormalities ➢ Birthweight and Teratogens Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Development Across the Life Span ➢ Crossword Puzzle ➢ Fill-in-the-Blanks ➢ Using Homemade Videotapes to Teach Developmental Concepts ➢ Take a Stand (Teratogens) ➢ Registered Childbirth Educator ➢ Ultrasound Pictures Handout Masters ➢ Handout Master 10.1 Development Across the Life Span ➢ Handout Master 10.6 Crossword Puzzle ➢ Handout Master 10.7 Fill-in-the-Blanks Web Resources ➢ Canada’s Open University—Developmental: http://psych.athabascau.ca/ ➢ Jean Piaget Society: www.piaget.org ➢ Psychology Centre: Developmental Psychology: http://psych.athabascau.ca/ ➢ Intute: Social Sciences: www.intute.ac.uk/ ➢ Suite 101: http://earlychildhood.suite101.com ➢ The Visible Embryo: www.visembryo.com ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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II. MODULE 10.2: INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD: COGNITIVE AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (Text p. 374) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology associated with infancy and childhood. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand the cognitive changes that occur during infancy and childhood. o According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, infants mature through childhood via orderly transitions across the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages. According to Vygotsky, cognitive development unfolds in a social contest between caregivers/teachers and children. Specifically, children’s skills are nurtured by adults who are sensitive to the cognitive capacities that individual children have attained. ✓ Understand the importance of attachment and the different styles of attachment. o In developmental psychology, attachment refers to the enduring social bond between child and caregiver. Work on nonhuman primates by Harry Harlow demonstrated the strength of attachment motivation. Research involving the “strange situation” reveals the various styles of attachment that may form between children and their caregivers. Children are either securely or insecurely attached, and insecure attachments can be further divided into disorganized, resistant, and avoidant styles. ✓ Apply the concept of scaffolding and the zone of proximal development to understand how to best promote learning. o According to Vygotsky, cognitive development unfolds in a social context between caregivers/teachers and children. Adults who are attuned to the child’s experience can help to scaffold children’s learning, guiding them such that they focus on challenges that lie on the very edge of their capabilities. This keeps children engaged fully, in the zone of proximal development, maximizing their skill development. ✓ Analyze how to effectively discipline children in order to promote moral behaviour. o Prosocial behaviour begins with secure attachment; children have an innate sense of morality but this can be interfered with if their attachment needs are met. 1) The transition from infant to toddler has a physical, cognitive and social order that is influenced by genetic and sociocultural factors. Sensitive period (p. 375) is a window of time during which exposure to a specific type of environmental stimulation is needed for normal development of a specific ability. 2) During these crucial times in a child’s development abilities emerge such as depth perception, balance recognition and cultural identification.
Cognitive Changes: Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory 1) Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is often credited with initiating the modern science of cognitive development. Cognitive development (p. 375) the study of changing abilities and processes of memory, thought, and reasoning that occur throughout the life span.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science 2) According to Piaget, knowledge accumulates and is modified by two processes—assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation (p. 375) is fitting new information into the belief system one already possesses. i)
For example, a child who is familiar with the family’s pet Chihuahua might develop a concept that all dogs are furry creatures that stand less than a foot tall, until her concept is modified. Accommodation (p. 375) is a creative process whereby people modify their belief structures based on experience.
a) For example, the child might refer to a Great Dane as a horse, but will eventually correctly accommodate Great Dane into her concept of what a dog is. 3) Piaget’s research suggested that cognition develops in four distinct stages from birth through early adolescence: the sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage, the concrete operational stage, and the formal operational stage. i) Developmental milestones are an important aspect of this theory. ii) As infants and children progress from one stage to the next, they obtain mastery of important concepts or skills (Table 10.3). The Sensorimotor Stage: Living in the Material World 1) Infants’ thinking and exploration of the world are based on immediate sensory (e.g., seeing, touching) and motor (e.g., grasping, mouthing) experiences. i) This is in contrast to adults who can imagine people, places, and objects that are not present. Sensorimotor stage (p. 375) (spanning birth to two years), is the period in which infants’ thinking and understanding about the world is based on sensory experiences and physical actions they perform on objects. ii) The major milestone of this stage is object permanence. Object permanence (p. 376) is the ability to understand that objects exist even when they cannot be seen or touched. 2) To test for object permanence, Piaget would allow a child to reach for a toy and then place a barrier between the infant and the toy. i) If the infant stopped reaching for the toy (looking for something else to do), this marked a lack of object permanence. The Preoperational Stage: Quantity and Numbers 1) Once children have mastered sensorimotor tasks, they have progressed to the preoperational stage of development. Preoperational stage (p. 376) (spans ages two through seven years) is characterized by understanding of symbols, pretend play, and mastery of the concept of conservation. i)
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a) They may count objects and use numbers in their language, but they are still limited in their use of mental operations. Conservation (p. 376) is the knowledge that the quantity or amount of an object is not related to the physical arrangement and appearance of that object. 2) To test for conservation, a researcher might present a child with two identical rows of seven pennies (Figure 10.7). i) The researcher then spreads one row out and asks the child which row has more pennies. a) The child in the preoperational stage would answer based on immediate perception, instead of using more sophisticated mental operations. 3) Although Piaget emphasized developmental stages, he also recognized that mastery of cognitive tasks didn’t occur over night. i) Factors such as motivation, influence whether children appear to understand tasks, such as in conservation. a) For example, when children are presented with M&Ms (vs. pennies) and fewer M&Ms present in the row that is spread out, children will pick the row with more candy (especially if they get to eat it). ii) Children late in the preoperational stage may verbally say the wrong answer, but begin using their hands to gesture toward the correct row. 4) Children seem to have a “number sense” before they understand numbers. i) Infants appear to understand what it means to have less or more of something. 5) Children are still developing their ability to think abstractly, but are beginning to understand some basics (Figure 10.8). i) Before the age 2 to 2 1/2 years, children commit scale errors. a) They might try to slide down a doll-sized slide or get into a miniature toy car as if they are the real thing. ii) Around age 3, children begin to develop a sense for symbolic relationships. a) For example, 3-year-olds understand that a scale model of a room can symbolize an actual room. b) Children can watch an experimenter play a toy in the scale model and quickly locate the toy in the corresponding location of the actual room. The Concrete Operational Stage: Using Logical Thought 1) Conservation is one of the milestones marking the transition into the concrete operational stage Concrete operational stage (p. 377) (spanning 7 to 11 years) is when children develop skills in logical thinking and manipulating numbers. i)
Children in this stage can classify objects according to properties such as size, value, shape or some other physical characteristic. ii) Thinking becomes increasingly logical and organized. a) For example, a child in the stage recognizes that if X is more than Y, and Y is more than Z, then X is more than Z (a property called transitivity).
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science The Formal Operational Stage: Abstract and Hypothetical Thought 1) The ability to think logically about physical objects transitions into more abstract realms in the fourth and final stage. Formal operational stage (p. 378) (spanning 11 years of age into adulthood) involves the development of advanced cognitive processes such as abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking. i) Scientific thinking, such as gathering evidence and systematically testing possibilities, occurs. ii) Thinking can exist entirely in hypothetical realms.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Evaluating Piaget 1) What do we know about cognitive abilities in infants? Core knowledge hypothesis (p. 378) is a view on development that proposes that infants have inborn abilities for understanding some key aspects of their environment. i)
One method for testing knowledge in infants is through the habituation-dishabituation response. Habituation (p. 378) refers to a decrease in responding with repeated exposure to an event.
ii) For example, if an infant views the same stimulus over and over, she will stop looking at it. a) In this case, the habituated response is time spent looking at the event. iii) Conversely, if the stimulus suddenly changes, the infant will display dishabituation. a) She will return her gaze to the location that was once boring. Dishabituation (p. 378) is an increase in responsiveness with the presentation of a new stimulus. 2) How can science help explain infant cognitive abilities? i) The habituation-dishabituation response has been studied in infants as young as two days old (Figure 10.9). a) The infants were shown either 4 or 12 identical shapes (e.g., yellow triangles) and they heard either 4 or 12 tones (e.g., tu-tu-tu-tu). b) The shape or tone themselves didn’t matter; the infants were attentive to matches (i.e., 4 shapes with 4 tones). c) The researchers believe this reflects infants’ rudimentary appreciation for abstract numbers. 3) Can we critically evaluate alternative explanations? i) Many studies of early cognitive development use the “looking time” procedure, although not all psychologists agree that it is an ideal way of determining what infants understand. a) It is impossible to know what infants are thinking; they might look longer at certain events simply because they are more interesting. ii) We also can’t generalize findings from 16 infants that were two days old. a) Another 45 infants were too fussy or sleepy to successfully finish the task. 4) Why is this relevant? i) Habituation seems a lot like boredom in infants. a) Playing with a variety of toys, hearing various stories and songs, and interacting with different people will encourage the infants’ curiosity and stimulate intellectual development.
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Complementary Approaches to Piaget 1) Piaget’s theories have had a lasting impact on modern developmental psychology, however the details of his theories have generated some controversy. i) Piaget generally underestimated the abilities of infants and their rates of development. ii) He overlooked sociocultural and biological elements of cognitive growth. 2) The sociocultural context of development involves the dynamics between children and their parents, teachers, and peers. i) This is part of Lev Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development. Zone of proximal development (p. 380) development is ideal when a child attempts skills and activities that are just beyond what he or she can do alone, but the child has guidance from adults who are attentive to his or her progress. ii) This is an interaction approach to teaching and learning that facilitates knowledge building and understanding in children. Scaffolding (p. 380) is the approach to teaching in which the teacher matches guidance to the learner or student’s needs. 3) Cross-cultural research on parent-infant interactions shows that scaffolding is exercised in different ways. i) For example, one study looked at how parents from Turkey, Guatemala, and the United states interacted with their 12- 24-month-old children. a) The children were given a toy that required them to pull a string to make it move. b) All parents used scaffolding to teach their child to pull the string, but the Guatemalan parentchild pairs were more communicative with each other, both verbally and through gesture.
Social Development, Attachment, and Self-Awareness 1) Intense social bonding between humans starts with the dynamic between infant and caregiver. Attachment (p. 381) is the enduring emotional bond formed between individuals, initially between infants and caregivers. i)
Attachment is a motivation to seek out others for close physical and psychological comfort, especially during stressful situations.
What Is Attachment? 1) From an evolutionary perspective, safety and survival underlie the motivation for attachment. i) It was thought that the infants would form attachments to whoever satisfies their hunger or thirst (basic survival needs). ii) However, in the 1950s, Harry Harlow’s experiments with monkeys suggested that physical contact, rather than food, formed the basis for mother-infant bonding. a) He built two monkey-looking models from mesh wire. One had a terrycloth wrapped around it, but no food. The other had food, but was only made of wire. b) The infant monkey spent most of its time clinging to the softer model.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science iii) Additional studies by Harlow deprived primates of social contact during infancy. a) These primates showed abnormal social and sexual behaviours in adulthood. b) However, when given regular social contact, their behaviour returned to relatively normal levels.
Types of Attachment 1) To study attachment in human infants, researchers often use the strange situation. Strange situation (p. 382) a way of measuring infant attachment by observing how infants behave when exposed to different experiences that involve anxiety and comfort. i)
Around 8 months of age, infants become distressed when they encounter someone unfamiliar (stranger anxiety). a) This may result in crying and actively seeking out caregivers. b) Experiments using the strange situation, have a caregiver bring her child into a room with toys on the floor and a stranger nearby. 2) The mother leaves the room for a few moments and returns; meanwhile, the experimenter monitors the infant. i) Attachment styles are categorized by the reactions the infants exhibit when the mother leaves and returns (Figure 10.11). 3) Using this procedure, researchers have identified the following categories of attachment: i) Secure attachment: In the strange situation, the child plays comfortably while the mother is in the room. The child may or may not cry when the mother leaves, and seeks contact upon her return. ii) Insecure attachment: there are two subtypes: a) Anxious/Ambivalent: Child is upset when caregiver leaves room and is fearful towards the stranger. Once the caregiver returns, the child does seek comfort however also resists, not allowing their distress to be easily alleviated. b) Avoidant: The child behaves as if they do not need the caregiver. They are not upset with the caregiver leaving and shows no concern for the stranger. Once the caregiver returns they do not seek contact. iii) Researchers have identified an additional attachment style, disorganized, where the child does not have a consistent pattern of behaviour when the mother leaves or returns. The child might freeze for a moment, unsure of what to do next.
Parenting and Attachment 1) Two psycho-biological systems. Attachment behavioural system (p. 383) which is focused on meeting our own needs for security. Caregiving behavioural system (p. 383) which is focused on meeting the needs of others. 2) Each system guides behaviour, however the attachment system is primary. i) If a person is insecure it will be hard for them to reach out and take others` needs into consideration. ii) Conditional approaches to parenting, in which a parent`s choices are based on trying to train the child, are problematic. iii) Children become addicted to praise and may find it difficult to motivate themselves without it.
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iv) Negative impact on self-esteem and emotional security, as they now need rewards to feel good about themselves. 3) There are some good aspects to immediate rewards and punishment but they should be used with caution. i) Constant appraisal of every good and bad action is not a normal part of other relationships and should not be the foundation of a parent/child relationship. Introjection (p. 383) is the internalization of the conditional regard of significant others. ii) The more motivated one is through introjection, the more unstable their self-esteem. Inductive discipline (p. 383) involves explaining the consequences of a child’s actions on other people, activating empathy for others’ feelings. Self-Awareness 1) Between 18-24 months of age, toddlers and young children show evidence of self-awareness. Self-Awareness (p. 384) is the ability to recognize one’s individuality. i)
Self-awareness is tested by observing infants’ reactions to their reflection in a mirror or on a video. a) Children start by recognizing themselves in the mirror or video and progress to having the ability to reflect on one’s own feelings, decisions, and appearance. ii) By age 5, children become self-reflective, show concern for others, and are intensely interested in the causes of other people’s behaviour. 2) Until they develop awareness of others, young children are often described as egocentric. Egocentric (p. 384) they only consider their own perspective. It’s not that they are selfish or inconsiderate, they just can only perceive the world from their perspective. ii) For example, a two-year-old may hide by covering her eyes because to her, she is hiding. iii) Piaget tested for egocentrism by sitting a child in front of an object, and then presenting pictures of that object from four angles. a) While sitting opposite the child, Piaget would ask him or her to identify which image represented the object from Piaget’s perspective. b) Many children select the image corresponding to their own perspective. c) Piaget believed children were egocentric through the preoperational stage (ending around age 7). 3) However, modern research indicates that children take the perspective of others long before the preoperational phase is complete. i)
Theory of Mind (p. 384) is the ability to understand that other people have thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives that may be different from one’s own. i)
Researchers test for this using the false-belief task. a) They give a child (Andrea) a box of chocolate only to find it’s filled with pencils (tricked her). b) Then another child (Joseph) comes into the room and the researcher gives him the same box of chocolates.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science ii) The researcher asks Andrea what she thinks Joseph will find in the box. a) If she says pencils, she does not understand that Joseph is being misled and thinks Joseph knows the same thing she does. b) If she says chocolates, she understands it’s a trick, therefore she can take the mental perspective of another. iii) Children usually show theory of mind around the ages 4-5, but it doesn’t occur overnight. a) Older children may still have difficulty with perspective taking. b) Such findings suggest that children move away from egocentric thought at an earlier age than once believed. Psychosocial Development 1) Erik Erikson was a German-American psychologist who was a pioneer in the study of human development across a lifespan. Development Across the Lifespan 1) First stage is Infancy, and focuses on trust vs. mistrust. i) An infant’s primary challenge is a basic sense of security and feeling comfortable. 2) The second stage is Toddlerhood, and focuses on autonomy vs. shame. i) Exploring their world and learning that they are separate from others and the environment. ii) By the end of these two stages the child is fairly secure and has a basic sense of self. 3) The third stage is Early Childhood, and focuses on initiative vs. guilt. i) Learning a sense of responsibility and her ability to influence her own physical and social world. 4) Fourth stage is Childhood, and focuses on industry vs. inferiority. i) School and various skill development takes place.
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 10.2 Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ Autism ➢ Measuring Intelligence in Infants ➢ Maternal Depression Debate ➢ Is Television Bad for Children? ➢ Day Care and Social Development ➢ Does Spanking Lead Children to Become More Violent? ➢ The Consequences of Childhood Abuse ➢ Hormones and Toy Preferences ➢ Gender Identity and the Case of David Reimer Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development ➢ Can Cognitive Development Be “Speeded Up”—and Should It Be? ➢ Constructing a Life Line to Illustrate Erikson’s Stages of Development ➢ Using Children’s Books to Illustrate Developmental Principles ➢ Evaluating Baby Toys ➢ Take a Stand (Nature versus Nurture) ➢ Media Influences on Gender-Role Development ➢ The Effect of Divorce on Children ➢ Naturalistic Observation Handout Masters ➢ Handout Master 10.2 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development ➢ Handout Master 10.3 Can Cognitive Development Be “Speeded Up”—and Should It Be? Web Resources ➢ Child Development Institute: www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/ ➢ The Child Psychologist: www.childpsychology.com/ ➢ ChildStats: www.childstats.gov/ ➢ Early Childhood.com: www.earlychildhood.com/ ➢ Early Childhood Development: www.ecdgroup.com ➢ Infant and Toddler Development: www.amazingbaby.net/ ➢ ISIS: www.isisweb.org/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science III. MODULE 10.3: ADOLESCENCE (Text p. 389) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology concerning adolescent development. o See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand the process of identity formation during adolescence. o According to Erikson’s model, identity formation is the central issue of adolescence. Successful resolution results in a stable and personally satisfying sense of self. Different outcomes of identity development were described by Marcia, including identity achievement, identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, and identity moratorium. ✓ Understand the importance of relationships in adolescence. o Adolescents undergo a shift from focusing on their family to focusing on friends; the failure to develop a sense of belonging can lead to dysfunction later in life. ✓ Understand the functions of moral emotions. o Recent research suggests that moral behaviours result from justifying the behaviour to one’s self. ✓ Apply your understanding of the categories of moral reasoning. o Students should be able to read scenarios and identify which level of moral reasoning the character is using as well as which identity status best applies to the character. ✓ Analyze the relationship between brain development and adolescent judgment and risk taking. o Problems with judgment may involve a region of the brain called the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in planning, reasoning, and emotion and impulse control. This region of the brain continues to change, via myelination and synaptic pruning, during adolescence. The underdeveloped state of this structure may account for the problems with decision making and impulse control observed during adolescence. Nevertheless, this factor by itself does not explain such problems, as adolescents who may avoid risk and make prudent decisions also have cortical areas that are not yet fully mature.
Physical and Emotional Changes in Adolescence 1) Puberty begins at approximately age 11 in girls and age 13 in boys. 2) The changes that occur during puberty are primarily caused by hormonal activity. i) Physical growth is stimulated by the pituitary gland. ii) The nervous and reproductive systems interact to cause further physical changes to reproductive anatomy. iii) They hypothalamus begins stimulating the release of hormones such as testosterone and estrogen, both of which contribute to the development of sex characteristics (Figure 10.14). Primary sex traits (p. 390) are changes in the body that are part of reproduction. Secondary sex traits (p. 390) are changes in the body that are not part of reproduction. 3) Sexual maturity is also marked by menarche is females and spermarche in males. Menarche (p. 390) the onset of menstruation. Spermarche (p. 391) first ejaculation of sperm.
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i)
Menarche usually occurs around age 12, but the timing is influenced by physiological and environmental factors (e.g., nutrition, genetics, physical activity levels, and illness). a) The absence of a father or presence of a stepfather during development is associated with early onset of menarche. ii) Spermarche usually happens around 14 years of age as a nocturnal emission (wet dream). 4) Adolescents who reach puberty early tend to have more emotional difficulty with the experience than who experience it later or on time. i) Requiring masculine traits at an early age is regarded positively by the individual and his peers. ii) Females must cope with teasing and having their body become an object of attention. iii) Early developers have a greater risk of drug and alcohol abuse and unwanted pregnancies.
Emotional Regulation During Adolescence 1) The key challenge for teens during adolescence is to develop control over their emotions. i) Research has found that adolescence must develop a diverse set of adaptive strategies. ii) Those who have a more narrow scope of strategies tend to be at greater risk for anxiety and depression. 2) Cognitive reframing is the most flexible and strongest strategy for coping with emotions. i) Reframing is crucial to the ability to delay gratification. Delay gratification (p. 392) putting off immediate temptations in order to focus on longer-term goals. ii) E.g., Party with friends or study for a big exam. Teens who master this skill tend to be more successful in life.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Adolescent Risk and Decision Making 1) What do we know about adolescence and risky decision making? i) Research has found that adolescence are prone to making impulsive and risky decisions. ii) Examples include, reckless driving, unsafe sex, drug and alcohol abuse, accidence and violence are all more common at the adolescent stage. iii) The reasoning may be due to an increase in peer pressure, glorifying high risk activities, more freedom from parents, and both an under developed cognitive control centre in the brain, but a newly developed ability to questing and analyze societal values. 2) How can science test the link between brain function and decision-making in adolescents? i) One study examined how actual brain activity is affected in adolescents who make risky decisions. a) Brain scans were taken of adolescents while they played a betting game. b) They could choose between a risky option of betting $6 on stopping at a target with a 25% chance of hitting or a less risky option of betting $1 that the wheel would stop at a target that had a 50% chance of hitting. c) Those who chose the high-risk option had less brain activity in their prefrontal cortex (Figure 10.15). 3) Can we critically evaluate this explanation for risky decision-making? i) The still developing prefrontal cortex of adolescents offers a plausible scientific explanation for why they are prone to risk taking and poor decision making. a) However, they are still capable of making good decisions and accepting blame and taking credit where it is due. ii) Temperament and personality characteristics are also involved in risk taking and decision making, which vary from person to person, regardless of age.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science iii) Situational factors also play a role in whether adolescents take risks (Figure 10.16). a) For example, teenagers are more likely to take risks in the presence of peers. 4) Why is this relevant? i) Scholars, parents, and insurance companies regard adolescent risk-taking behaviour as a major public health problem. ii) Countless hours and public funds have been devoted to implementing programs aimed at steering adolescents toward making better decisions.
Cognitive Development: Moral Reasoning vs. Emotions 1) Cognitive abilities approach their peak between the onset of adolescence and young adulthood. i) Youths of this age begin thinking abstractly about things not present and about scenarios that are impossible or hypothetical. a) This is a major advance from concrete thinking of late childhood. ii) Adolescents also develop the ability and capacity to think scientifically and view problems from multiple perspectives. Kohlberg’s Moral Development: Learning Right from Wrong 1) Children begin to learn right and wrong through which behaviours are punished or rewarded. i) Adolescents come to understand that there can be a lot of space between these two alternatives. 2) Studying moral development traditionally involves posing a dilemma to people of different ages and examining the details of their responses. i) For example, A trolley is hurtling down the tracks toward a group of five unsuspecting people. You are standing next to a lever that, if pulled, would direct the trolley onto another track, thereby saving the five individuals. However, on the second track stands a single, unsuspecting person, who would be struck by the diverted trolley. ii) It is not so much your choice, but how and why you made your choice that is of great interests to psychologists. 3) Lawrence Kohlberg identified three stages of moral reasoning (Table 10.5). i) An adult and child both might chose to flip the switch, but for completely different reasons. ii) However, Kohlberg’s research is limited in that he only examined males’ moral reasoning. iii) In addition, many everyday dilemmas are based on emotional reactions versus logical problem solving. 4) It appears that girls reason differently about moral dilemmas than boys. i) Females appear to base moral decisions more on caring relationships and less on justice and abstract principles that Kohlberg emphasized. 5) According to the social intuitionist model of morality, our moral judgments are not guided solely by reason, but also by our emotional, intuitive reactions to a moral dilemma. i) For example, Julie and Steven are brother and sister. They are traveling together in France on summer vacation from college. One night they are staying alone in a cabin near the beach. They decide that it would be interesting and fun if they shared a romantic kiss. At the very least it would be a new experience for each of them. They both enjoy the experience but they decide not to do it again. They keep that night as a special secret, which makes them feel even closer to each other. ii) People’s first reaction to this scenario, typically involves their emotional intuition about whether the act was moral. a) This is often followed by thoughtful and reflective thinking, which often amounts to an afterthe-fact attempt to put into words how one feels.
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Social Development: Identity and Relationships Who Am I? Identity Formation during Adolescence 1) A major issue faced by adolescents in the formation of an identity. Identity (p. 395) is a clear sense of what kind of person you are, what types of people you belong with, and what roles you should play in society. 2) Adolescence is also a time for appreciating and expressing attitudes and values, which are typically realized through becoming closer with peers and social groups. 3) Erikson defined adolescence as the struggle of identity vs. role confusion. i) Forming an identity is crucial in adolescence that some may experience identity crises. 4) Parents tend to feel threatened as their teenager establishes more distance or experiments with their identity. i) This can lead to controlling or restrictive behaviour, which can cause teens to turn to peers. Peer Groups 1) Friendships take place within a broader social context of small groups or cliques. i) The membership and intensity of friendships within a clique are constantly changing. ii) Adolescent crowds—often referred to with labels such as jocks, geeks, Goths, and druggies— are larger than cliques and are characterized by common social and behavioural conventions. 2) Peer rejection at school and the experience of being of low social status troubles many adolescents. i) Psychologists believe that negative emotions connected with social rejection, bullying, teasing, etc. are what lead to tragic or violent outbursts (e.g., school shootings). Romantic Relationships 1) Teenagers tend to shift their attachment needs to intimate romantic relationships, opening up new worlds of physical intimacy and intensity. 2) North American culture may feel uncomfortable with adolescents exploring and engaging in sexual behaviour, but that doesn’t stop them. i) More than 80% of adolescents report participating in oral sex, mutual masturbation, and other acts that do not involve intercourse before the age of 16. ii) More teens are engaging in oral sex because they believe it is less of a health risk than intercourse. 3) Same-sex sexual encounters are common by early adolescence although is not necessarily an indicator that a person is homosexual or having any other sexual orientation. 4) Sexual identity may depend on these experiences, as well as how their family and peers may perceive them. 5) Recent study at University of New Brunswick have found concerning data supporting the theory that the emotional pressures adolescents face in their romantic relationships consumes a great deal of their attention and resources.
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Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ Adolescents Aren’t Just Slackers ➢ Identity and the Tasks of Adolescence Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Adolescence in Film: The Breakfast Club ➢ Adolescence and Identity Development: A Personal Exploration ➢ Adolescence Is ... Web Resources ➢ National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy: www.thenationalcampaign.org/ ➢ Society for Research on Adolescence: www.s-r-a.org/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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IV. MODULE 10.4: ADULTHOOD AND AGING (Text p. 398) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology concerning adulthood and aging. o See bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Know the key areas of growth experienced by emerging adults. o People making the transition from adolescence to adulthood face substantial life challenges that contribute to personal growth in three main areas: relationships, new possibilities, and personal strengths. ✓ Understand age-related disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease. o Alzheimer’s disease is a form of dementia that is characterized by significant decline in memory, cognition, and eventually personality and basic bodily functioning. It is probably caused by two different brain abnormalities— the buildup of proteins that clump together in the spaces between neurons, plus the buildup of a protein that forms tangles within nerve cells. ✓ Understand how cognitive abilities change with age. o Aging adults typically experience a general decline in cognitive abilities, especially those related to fluid intelligence, such as working memory. However, older adults also develop compensatory strategies that enable them to remain highly functional in their daily lives, despite their slow decline in processing capability. ✓ Apply your attitudes about your marriage. o know the four horsemen of the relationship apocalypse: criticism, defensiveness, contempt and stonewalling. ✓ Analyze the stereotype that old age is a time of unhappiness. o Research shows that older adults do face issues that might lead to unhappiness— changes in health, family structure, and activities generally accompany aging. At the same time, the research shows that such challenges do not necessarily condemn a person to unhappiness. In fact, many older adults have a very positive outlook on life. Optimism and life satisfaction tend to increase, and older adults have the wisdom to put themselves in situations that will be favorable to their well-being. From Adolescence through Middle Age Emerging Adults 1) Confront many adaptive challenges (e.g., Leave home, start college or full time job, new financial responsibilities, etc.). 2) New freedom to do anything you want which usually operates within a complex web of social relationships and responsibilities. Early and Middle Adulthood 1) Most obvious age-related physical changes in adulthood typically appears at middle adulthood. i) For women, this period starts around 50 years of age with the onset of menopause. Menopause (p. 399) the termination of the menstrual cycle and reproductive ability. a) This reduction of estrogen hormone can lead to hot flashes, reduced sex drive, and mood swings. ii) Men experienced lower testosterone and sex drive in middle age, but do not have the drastic symptoms associated with menopause.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science 2) This time is also important for romantic relationships. i) Erickson’s sixth stage of his theory of development (Module 10.2/10.3) is Young Adulthood. a) The individual must cope with the conflict of intimacy vs. isolation, with emphasis on establishing and maintaining meaningful relationships. ii) His seventh stage is Adulthood and focuses on generativity vs stagnation, in which the individual must either become a productive role player in the world or become overly absorbed in their own lives, failing to give back in useful ways.
Love and Marriage 1) Marriage is consistent with Erickson’s theory, and in most cases seems to be good for people. i) On average, people in relationships have greater health, longer lives and are happier. ii) Relationships provide encouragement to stay active, eat healthier, have more financial security and have a more satisfying sex life. 2) Around 40% of Canadian marriages end in divorce. i) A key factor that has been found to be responsible is how effectively partners were able to communicate with each other, specifically in a conflict. 3) Studies by Gottman in his “love lab” looked at communication patterns in couples. i) As a result, he has been able to predict with 94% accuracy whether or not a relationship will end in divorce. ii) He calls his patterns of predictive behaviour the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse. a) Criticism: Picking out flaws, expressing disappointment, making negative comments. b) Defensiveness: Responding to perceived attacks with counter attacks. c) Contempt: Eye rolling, sarcasm, and cutting tones. d) Stonewalling: Shutting down verbally and emotionally. Parenting 1) Becoming a parent forces you to become less self-centred and recognize their identity. 2) Parenthood can have an effect on marriage, with a reported decline in satisfaction around two years after children. i) Couples tend to rekindle their relationship after children reach young adulthood and leave the home. ii) A common myth suggest that parents suffer from an empty nest once children leave home, however most are likely to report being “very satisfied”.
Late Adulthood Happiness and Relationships 1) Developmental Psychologist describe personal development through socioemotional selectivity theory. Socioemotional selectivity theory (p. 402) which describes how older people have learned to select for themselves more positive and nourishing experiences. i)
This creates a much wiser approach to life and decreases negative emotions in senior age.
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2) Erickson describes one final stage of development from the age of 65 onward as Aging. i) This stage focuses on ego integrity vs. despair as individuals contemplate whether or not they lived a full life, accomplished what they wanted and can now enjoy relationships and social roles. ii) Older adults also have to cope with many downfalls of aging. a) Deaths of friends, family and their spouse. b) Decreasing physical capabilities, and personal freedoms (driving, etc.) The Eventual Decline of Aging 1) The body declines and the mind is not as sharp as it was. i) Research supports this as findings show that both structure and functional aspects decline with age, including reduced white and grey matter, as well as memory process in hippocampus. Dementia (p. 403) is a mild to severe disruption of mental functioning, memory loss, disorientation, poor judgment, and decision-making. ii) Approximately 14% of people older than 71 years of age have dementia. a) 10% of this group have a type of dementia called Alzheimer’s disease (Figure 10.19). Alzheimer’s Disease (p. 403) is a degenerative and terminal condition resulting in severe damage of the entire brain. 2) Alzheimer’s disease rarely appears before age 60, and it usually lasts 7 to 10 years from onset to death (although some have lived 20 years). i) Early symptoms include forgetfulness of recent events, poor judgment, and some mood and personality changes. ii) As it progresses, people struggle to recognize family members, have frequent memory loss, and experience confusion. iii) In the most advanced stages, individuals may fail to recognize themselves and develop difficulty with basic bodily processes (e.g., swallowing and bladder control). 3) Alzheimer’s disease is thought to be due to the buildup of certain proteins that clump together in the spaces between neurons. i) This interrupts normal activity. ii) Another protein forms tangles within nerve cells, which severely disrupts their structural integrity and functioning (Figure 10.19).
PSYCH @ The Driver’s Seat 1) Research has shown that the cognitive and physical changes in old age may take a toll on driving skills. 2) To address this problem, psychologist Karlene Ball developed an intervention call the Useful Field of View (UFOV) Speed of Processing training. i) These are a computer-based training exercises to increase the portion of the visual field that adults can quickly process and respond to. ii) Records from several states have shown that those who complete the UFOV training were half as likely to have an accident during the study period.
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Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Aging and Cognitive Change 1) What do we know about different cognitive abilities? i) Memory abilities change over the course of the life span. ii) Fluid intelligence peaks during young adulthood and proceeds to decline, whereas crystallized intelligence shows a much slower decline (Module 9.2). a) For example, your grandparent probably has no problem solving a crossword puzzle, which requires the use of accumulated knowledge. 2) How can science explain age-related differences in cognitive abilities? i) One test involves younger and older people recalling as much detail as they can about a cue word (e.g., vacation, yard work, injury, etc.). a) Results show that a young person might describe a vacation taken a year prior in great detail, while older people have difficulty providing this kind of specific information. b) When asked to envision the details of future events, elderly people also had more difficulty elaborating on the details. 3) Can we critically evaluate alternative explanations? i) It is too simplistic to say that memory declines with age—it depends on the type of memory system (STM or LTM) and on the individual. ii) There are many types of memory: a) Episodic = events b) Semantic = meaning and structure of facts c) Procedural = motor skills iii) Episodic memory and working memory decline at a more rapid rate than other types of memory in healthy, aging adults. a) However, older people remained skilled at remembering facts and ways to operate devices. 4) Why is this relevant? i) Although some declines in mental abilities are expected with age, people have a great deal of control over how they age. ii) Research has found that older people who choose to engage in cognitive tasks are mentally sharper and more satisfied with their mental abilities than those who feel they cannot overcome the effects of aging. a) One key appears to be engaging in activities that you like, such as socializing, gardening, etc. versus those people expect you to engage in (e.g., crossword puzzles). iii) These findings have an influence in how we interact with senior citizens at home and in retirement facilities.
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 10.4 Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ A Nation of Wimps ➢ The World of Work ➢ Parenting Styles ➢ Myths about Aging Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Exploring Societal Attitudes about Aging ➢ Ageism ➢ “Wearing the Shoes” of the Elderly ➢ Life Expectancy ➢ Aging in Film: To Dance With the White Dog ➢ A Test on Aging Handout Masters ➢ Handout Master 10.4 Life Expectancy ➢ Handout Master 10.5 Aging Quiz Web Resources ➢ AgeWorks: www.ageworks.com/ ➢ Center for the Study of Aging and Human Development: www.geri.duke.edu/ ➢ National Institute on Aging: www.nia.nih.gov/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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An Example of Post Hoc Fallacy Tracking the Development of Scientific Understanding of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Chromosome Abnormalities Birthweight and Teratogens Autism Measuring Intelligence in Infants Maternal Depression Debate Is Television Bad for Children? Day Care and Social Development Does Spanking Lead Children to Become More Violent? The Consequences of Childhood Abuse Hormones and Toy Preferences Gender Identity and the Case of David Reimer Adolescents Aren’t Just Slackers Identity and the Tasks of Adolescence A Nation of Wimps The World of Work Parenting Styles Myths about Aging An Aging Society Euthanasia
▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: An Example of Post Hoc Fallacy In 1999, Quinn, Shin, Maguire and Stone published a brief report in Nature describing the results of a study investigating the relationship between myopia and the use of nightlights. They reported that “the prevalence of myopia and high myopia during childhood was strongly associated with ambient light exposure during sleep at night in the first two years after birth.” As the authors have discussed repeatedly, correlation is not automatically indicative of causation. Media reports differed from the researchers’ report. Specifically, the media reported that the study showed that young children who sleep with the light on are much more likely to develop myopia in later life. This, of course, suggests that leaving the light on for children leads directly to myopia. You can highlight the importance of replicability by talking about later research (e.g., Guggenheim, et al. 2003) which did not confirm Quinn et al.’s findings, rather found a strong link between parental myopia and the development of child myopia. Later researchers also reported that myopic parents were also more likely to leave a light on in their children’s bedrooms. References: Guggenheim, J. A., Hill, C., & Yam, T-F. (2003). Myopia, genetics, and ambient lighting at night in a UK sample. British Journal of Ophthalmology, 87, 580-582. Quinn, G., Shin, C., Maguire, M., & Stone, R. (1999). Myopia and ambient lighting at night. Nature, 399, 113.
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You could also use the Quinn et al. report to show students the difference between the tendencies of researchers to be cautious in their use of language compared to media tendencies for exaggeration and drama. The article is only one page long and is quite readable. It is available online through library databases and could be shown on screen during class. You could also remind students of the capacity of science for self-correction. As it is only one page long, it could also be turned into a take-home assignment. ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Tracking the Development of Scientific Understanding of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Students have surely heard that pregnant women should not drink alcohol. By this time in the quarter, they have also surely heard that correlation doesn’t equal causation, and that ethics are relevant in the context of science. However, they probably haven’t put it all together to ask how it is that we say that alcohol causes fetal alcohol syndrome. Tracking the history about fetal alcohol syndrome from first noticing a pattern and establishing a correlation to then experimenting on other animals and producing similar results, allows you to emphasize another real-world example of how scientific knowledge is established. With sufficient time, you could first show students the 30-minute video called The Question of Causation, which tracks the history of the research involved in establishing the causal relationship between smoking and cancer. Then have students, using analogous reasoning, predict the steps they think researchers studying the effects on the fetus of maternal alcohol consumption would have taken to establish cause. References: Streissguth, A. (1994). A long-term perspective of FAS. Alcohol health & research world, 18(1), Riley, E. (1990). The long-term behavioural effects of prenatal alcohol exposure in rats. Alcoholism: Clinical and experimental research, 14(5), 670-673. ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Chromosome Abnormalities Down Syndrome, Klinefelter’s Syndrome, and Turner’s Syndrome Down syndrome, named after the doctor who first described its symptoms in 1866, is a disorder in which there is an extra chromosome within the body’s cells. The particular chromosome is associated with the 21st pair, making that pair a triplet. This most common type of Down syndrome is called trisomy 21, meaning “three number 21 chromosome bodies.” The risk of having a child with Down syndrome increases greatly in women over the age of 35 [Rev. 6, add “or under the age of 18”] who give birth. Symptoms include wide-set eyes with an almond shape and mental retardation (Hernandez and Fisher, 1996).
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science Other chromosome disorders include Klinefelter’s syndrome, in which the 23rd set of sex chromosomes is XXY, with the extra X producing a male with reduced masculine characteristics, enlarged breasts, obesity, and excessive height (Boxk, 1993). Another disorder is Turner’s syndrome. In this disorder, the 23rd pair is actually missing an X, so that the result is a lone X chromosome (Rank and Saenger, 2001). These females tend to be very short, averaging about 4 feet and 7 inches in height. They are infertile and tend not to develop the breast tissue and rounded hips typical of other girls in adolescence. Many Turner’s syndrome females have difficulty in learning, especially in the area of mathematics. ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Birthweight and Teratogens There has been evidence for many years that mother’s who smoke during pregnancy tend to have smaller birth weight babies. Low birthweight is a factor in 65 percent of infant deaths. Low birthweight babies may face serious health problems as newborns, and are at increased risk of long-term disabilities. Ask your students to find out their birthweights and whether their mothers smoked during their prenatal development and whether or not their father’s did also and if he did, how much time he spent around your mother smoking. If there are enough students in your class and they are able to find the answers to these two questions, there should be a significant difference in the birth weights. You may either collect the data in one class to show the next class or you may collect the data and perform the statistics during the class so that your students can observe how simple data collection is done. This activity will demonstrate the relationship between the prenatal environment and development. ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Autism The developmental disorder known as autism has become a very hot topic. Autism is defined as a complex neurological disorder that typically appears during the first three years of life. First identified by Dr. Leo Kanner in 1943, autism has become the target of both professionals and parents. The professionals are researching ways to improve the behaviour and outlook for autistic children, while the parents are trying to understand a very misunderstood disorder. Myths about autism abound: 1. Individuals with autism never make eye contact; they do not look at you. Fact: Many autistic children and adults make eye contact, although they may do it differently than expected. 2. Autism is a mental illness. Fact: Autism is a neurological disorder, meaning that some aspect of brain functioning is not working as it does in non-autistic people (Piven, 1997). 3. Individuals with autism don’t speak, and they cannot learn. Fact: Many autistic persons speak well enough to function in a regular school classroom, although they may need training to do so. Autistic children are capable of a great deal of learning, especially with the application of behaviour principles such as those used in Applied Behaviour Analysis (See Chapter 5).
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4. Individuals with autism cannot show affection and do not respond to physical affection, and they don’t smile or laugh. They don’t want friends, and they don’t relate to others. Fact: Many autistic children and adults laugh, smile, and show affection—like other children, they respond to their environment in both positive and negative ways. They do want friends but often lack the skills to make them, and the ways in which they relate to peers and adults may be different from what is expected. 5. Individuals with autism are geniuses inside. Fact: Autistic children, like non-autistic children, are found across the entire range of intelligence scores. Some may seem to have astonishing abilities that seem even more unique because of the uneven nature of their skills. They may read perfectly, but not understand a word, for example. 6. Bad parenting causes autism. Fact: This is an old myth based upon the early work of a psychologist who believed that mothers who were emotionally “cold” caused their children to have autism. The psychologist had no research or facts of any sort to back this assertion, and it is certainly not true. One of the most dangerous myths about autism is the widely-spread Internet rumor that autism is caused by the MMR vaccine. This rumor, like so many others, started with one person’s comments that were later blown out of proportion. In 1998, Dr. Andrew Wakefield gave a press conference in London. In his presentation, he claimed that there was an association between the MMR vaccination and autism, people ignored or didn’t understand the fact that his observations were based on only twelve children and absolutely no scientific research. Several later studies have shown that there is no link whatsoever between autism and the vaccine. In fact, researchers in Denmark found, in a study of 537,303 children of which 82 percent had received the vaccine and 18 percent had not, that the risk of autism was actually slightly lower for the children who had been immunized (Gilberg and Coleman, 1996). Why was Dr. Wakefield convinced that there was a link at all? He, like many of the parents who believed his findings, had noticed that autism is usually diagnosed within a year after the child has received the MMR vaccine. But autism is a disorder in which language delays and difficulties in speaking are some of the first visible signs of the disorder. The vaccine is usually given at 12 to 15 months, and language skills usually begin to show up just about that time. The timing is nothing more than coincidence; the autism would show up whether the child had received the vaccine or not. In fact, there are now ways to observe early signs of autism that exist long before a child receives the MMR vaccine (Mars et al., 1998). The known benefits of vaccines far outweigh any unknown risks. While one in three million children who receive the vaccine for measles, mumps, and rubella might experience symptoms serious enough to die from them (perhaps because parents have not read the literature provided with the vaccine and miss the signs of a reaction), one in five hundred children who contract the measles will die. Measles causes the deaths of one million children under the age of five each year. Death is of course the most serious complication of measles, but measles, mumps, and rubella can cause other complications as well: pneumonia, convulsions, (measles) encephalitis (measles, mumps, and rubella), viral meningitis, permanent hearing loss (mumps), and birth defects (rubella). Clearly, parents who are concerned for their children’s continued good health should make certain that each child receives all scheduled vaccinations.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Measuring Intelligence in Infants Most of the intelligence tests discussed in the textbook are designed to assess intelligence in older children and adults. There are, however, several instruments that are designed to assess intellectual functioning in infants and very young children. These measures may be examining different aspects of intelligence, such as physical, psychomotor, and social and emotional development rather than the verbally based measures typically used by intelligence tests. Although these measures may not accurately predict later intelligence, they can be useful in identifying potential developmental problems. The Bayley Scales of Infant Development The Bayley Scales are probably the most often used and best known measure of early infant intellectual development. This test assesses mental (e.g., memory, language usage, attempts at communication) and psychomotor (e.g., coordination and proficiency in motor activities such as sitting, walking, and grasping) development in children between the ages of 2 to 30 months. In addition, it includes a behaviour rating scale to assess the child’s emotional and social development. Denver Developmental Screening Test-Revised This test assesses potential delays in development occurring from birth to 6 years of age. Using direct observation of the child, it is designed to evaluate developmental progress in four areas: language, fine motor movements, gross motor movements, and social behaviours. Gesell Developmental Schedules This assessment instrument, originally developed in 1940, uses direct observation to assess development in five areas: adaptation, fine motor movements, gross motor movements, language, and social behaviour. This instrument has been shown to be effective in detecting cognitive deficits associated with neurological problems. It is also known as the Gesell Maturity Scale, the Gesell Norms of Development, and the Yale Tests of Child Development. Brazelton Neonatal Assessment Scale The Brazelton scale is used with infants from 3 days to 4 weeks of age, and assesses competence in areas such as neurological, social, and behavioural functioning. Factors such as reflexes, startle reactions, hand-mouth coordination, motor maturity, or cuddliness are used to derive 47 scores (20 elicited responses and 27 behavioural ratings). The chief limitation of the Brazelton scale is the absence of norms: Scores are obtained for a single case, but comparisons across infants are not easily made. References: Gardner, M. K., & Clark, E. (1992). The psychometric perspective on intellectual development in childhood and adolescence. In R. J. Sternberg & C. A. Berg (Eds.), Intellectual development (pp. 16–43). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Kaplan, R. M., & Saccuzzo, D. P. (1993). Psychological testing: Principles, applications, and issues (3rd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
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▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Maternal Depression Debate Many students may be aware of the recent public debate regarding postpartum depression that was waged by actors Tom Cruise and Brooke Shields. The discussion was precipitated by the publication of Shields’s book, Down Came the Rain; My Journey through Postpartum Depression, which described her struggles with postpartum depression. Tom Cruise responded publicly by blasting the legitimacy of the diagnosis and stating that any symptoms can be cured with proper nutrition, vitamins, and lifestyle changes. Cruise also went on to refer to psychologists and psychiatrists as “quacks.” Students are likely to have much to say about the debate itself as well as the appropriateness of celebrities making such public claims. This discussion can segue into a discussion of recent research on the impact of maternal depression on child development. Maternal depression has been linked to serious emotional and behavioural problems in children such as anxiety, depression, aggression, and antisocial behaviour. Even students who have minimal compassion for the possible suffering of the mother can understand how important treatment is due to the potentially devastating effects on the child’s development. Reference: www.hollywood.com/news/detail/article/2440860 www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8427947/ Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(2) (Feb 2005): 173–181 ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Is Television Bad for Children? Television plays a powerful and influential role in children’s daily lives. At the heart of this issue lies the controversy over whether excessive TV viewing by children is harmful to their intellectual development and/or promotes aggressive behaviour. There is no easy answer, as proponents on both sides of the issue cite a variety of studies to support their cause. Thus, while some argue that viewing violent TV is correlated with aggressive behaviour, others contend that there is no relationship or even that viewing prosocial programs can lead to an increase in helpful behaviour. Similarly, although research shows no correlation between the amount of television viewed and IQ, others suggest that television prevents children from engaging in other intellectually challenging activities. Your students will likely have strong opinions on this issue and will enjoy the chance to explore the controversy in greater depth. Assign students to research and defend both sides of this issue. Taking Sides contains excellent articles both pro and con on this topic, or you may want to assign articles of your own (or students’) choosing. Be prepared for a lively (and loud) debate! Reference: Slife, B. (2003). Taking sides: Clashing views on controversial psychological issues (13th ed.). Guilford, CT: Dushkin Publishing Group.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Day Care and Social Development The accumulated data from many studies of day care reveal no consistent negative effects. On the contrary, many studies find that children actually do better in day care than in home care. According to one such study of 150 children, ages 2 to 4, the social and intellectual development of children who were attending day-care centres (part time or full time) was advanced over that of children in home care (with the mother, a sitter, or day-care provider in the home) (Clarke-Stewart, 1991). What about the effects of putting infants in day care during their critical first year? In a major longitudinal study of 2,387 children, Frank Mott (1991) investigated whether various forms of infant care were related to the child’s performance on tests of physical, cognitive, and social development several years later. First, he controlled for a wide range of factors that would have been linked with a child’s having been put in day care during infancy, such as mother’s use of drugs or family income. That done, Mott found no statistically significant association between day care in infancy and the child’s later motor or social development. As for cognitive development, the children who had been in day care as infants scored higher than those who had been at home. On closer inspection, Mott found that healthy baby girls benefited the most by being away from their mothers in day-care arrangements; healthy baby boys neither gained nor lost by being in day care; but boys who were physically unhealthy in their first year benefited by being home in maternal care. Mott concluded that “no type of infant care arrangement can be generalized as being uniformly preferable or detrimental.” Most psychologists today, instead of assuming that day care is universally helpful or harmful, are asking different questions. Specifically, they are concerned with how the quality of day care affects children’s development, which children do well and which do poorly in different environments, and how parents and day-care programs can work effectively together. Children develop well in many kinds of caretaking arrangements. They go through the same stages of indiscriminate friendliness, fear of strangers, and independence, whether they are at home or in day care, as long as the care is good (Clarke-Stewart, 1991; Mott, 1991). References: Clarke-Stewart, K. A. (1991). A home is not a school: The effects of child care on children’s development. In S. L. Hofferth & D. A. Phillips (eds.), Child Care Policy Research. Journal of Social Issues, 47(2), 105–124. Mott, F. L. (1991). Developmental effects of infant care: The mediating role of gender and health. In S. L. Hofferth & D. A. Phillips (eds.), Child Care Policy Research. Journal of Social Issues, 47(2), 139–158. ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Does Spanking Lead Children to Become More Violent? Spanking has had a controversial history as an element of effective child-rearing. Some Scandinavian cultures have found the practice so abhorrent that it has been outlawed as a form of parental discipline. On the other hand, some private schools and many parents believe it is an effective, sociallyacceptable, parental choice practice for shaping a child’s behaviour. Ask your students to debate the merits of spanking and the potential consequences it holds for a developing child’s future behaviour.
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Given what we know about modeling and social learning, is spanking simply another source of information about aggressive behaviour? Given what we know about the effectiveness of punishment versus reinforcement, how does spanking change behaviour in the long-term and short-term? Should this simply be a parental decision, or should there be legislation governing this activity? In particular, does spanking lead children to become more violent? Ask your students to read more about both sides of this issue before discussing it in class. Reference: Slife, B. (2002). Taking sides: Clashing views on controversial psychological issues (12th ed.). Guilford, CT: Dushkin Publishing Group.
▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Consequences of Childhood Abuse A study reported at the 1995 meeting of the American Psychiatric Association found evidence that severe childhood sexual abuse leaves a permanent mark on the brain. The studies found that the hippocampal volume of women who had suffered severe sexual abuse as children was smaller than that of women who were comparable in age, but who had not been abused. Both groups of women were recruited from the same women’s health clinic, where they were receiving general care. The research teams suggest that this cerebral alteration may predispose people to experience dissociation and to develop the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Other investigators have reported similar reductions in hippocampal volume among Vietnam combat veterans suffering from PTSD. However, the point at which the reduction takes place is not clear, especially given that many adults who develop PTSD have experienced prior traumas. If the severe traumas of childhood sexual abuse or combat release stress hormones that harm the hippocampus, it may account in part for the fragmented memories experienced by many people suffering from PTSD. However, it is also known that many trauma survivors display no memory disruptions, dissociation, or symptoms of PTSD. This has led some researchers to speculate that a genetic predisposition to react strongly to extreme stress may also be implicated, especially in men. Further research will hopefully clarify this link between behaviour and brain. It was also reported in a study published in Cerebrum in late 2000 that childhood abuse and neglect results in permanent physical changes. The changes that occur in brain structure appear to be enough to cause psychological and emotional problems that may linger well into adulthood. Martin Teicher and his colleagues identified four different abnormalities in the brain that were much more prevalent in adult survivors of abuse and neglect than in adults who had not been abused. Most of these abnormalities dealt with the left hemisphere where depression and memory problems were most likely to occur. Teicher went on to say that “the trauma of abuse induces a cascade of effects, including changes in hormones and neurotransmitters that mediate development of vulnerable brain regions.”
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science Individuals who have suffered from abuse as children are more likely to admit to thinking about suicide more often than those who were not abused. Researchers also have found a vigorous correlation between epileptic-type brain abnormalities and thoughts of suicide. “This correlation may be stronger than that which ties suicide to depression,” Teicher notes. Garno and colleagues also noted that the incidence of bi- polar disorder was higher among those individuals who suffered from childhood abuse. References: Bower, B. (1995). Child sex abuse leaves mark on brain. Science News, 147, 340. Jessica L. Garno, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Long Island University, 6 Silvermine Drive, South Salem, NY 10590; Joseph F. Goldberg, M.D., Paul M. Ramirez, Ph.D., Barry A. Ritzler, Ph.D. http://mentalhealth.about.com/cs/abuse/a/abusebarin.htm www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2003/05.22/01-brain.html ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Hormones and Toy Preferences An early characteristic of gender role stereotypes is the preference for playing with sex-typed toys. Studies of individuals with the genetic disorder congenital adrenal hyperplasis (CAH), a condition characterized by high levels of adrenal androgens during prenatal development, reveal that CAH women exhibit traditional male characteristics (for example, more active and rougher play, a preference for masculine activities, and a greater spatial ability than their female relative). Most studies of this type, however rely on interview data rather than direct observation. To remedy this methodological shortcoming, Berenbaum and Hines studied 37 children (26 girls and 11 boys) with CAH and 33 unaffected male and female relatives, all between the ages of 3 and 8. The dependent variable, toy preference, was measured as the amount of time spent playing with either masculine (e.g., helicopters, cars, construction blocks), feminine (e.g., dolls, kitchen supplies, toy telephones), or neutral toys (e.g., books, board games, jigsaw puzzles). Although the control girls and boys showed large differences in toy preferences along sex-typed lines, CAH girls showed a significant preference for masculine toys (compared to the control girls) and also played with feminine toys less often than did the controls. Parental surveys and medical data indicated that these results could not be attributed to differential treatment or disease factors. The researchers concluded that “Although the data are consistent with an androgen influence on sex-typed toy choices, it is not necessary that hormones have a direct influence on these choices. Hormones may affect toy choices indirectly, perhaps through an influence on activity level, motor skills, abilities, or temperament” (p. 205). References: Berenbaum, S. A., & Hines, M. (1992). Early androgens are related to childhood sex-typed toy preferences. Psychological Science, 3, 203–206. Morris. Instructor’s resource manual for Psychology by S. F. Davis and J. J. Palladino. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Gender Identity and the Case of David Reimer David Reimer, a Canadian, was born in 1965 as a healthy boy. During circumcision, his penis was inadvertently destroyed, and he was subsequently raised as a girl. Psychologist John Money oversaw the case and reported the reassignment as successful, as evidence that gender identity is primarily learned. This case was particularly interesting as David had an identical twin brother. Much controversy followed, including David’s admission that he never identified himself as a female and his subsequent suicide in 2004. Extensive information about this case is available online, as well as in a book by John Colapinto, As Nature Made Him. ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Adolescents Aren’t Just Slackers Many of the negative stereotypes about adolescents involve their “laziness” and inability to pay attention and complete tasks. Since most college students are in their early 20’s they can easily recall situations in which their parents seemed to get frustrated by their behaviours and decisions. There is a general sense that teenagers are “flaky” and seem to “lose their minds” during puberty. It may make students relieved to find out that many of the attention, concentration problems of adolescence are related to a lack of brain maturation. Recent studies have demonstrated that the brain areas related to multi-tasking, which are located in the frontal cortex, are continuing to develop throughout adolescence. Another source of conflict between parents and teens is associated with teen sleeping patterns. Contrary to earlier beliefs that teens are just lazy, research has shown that teenagers need to sleep longer and later than adults in order to function optimally. References: www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/teenbrain.cfm www.apa.org/monitor/oct01/sleepteen.html www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/05/050518104401.htm ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Identity and the Tasks of Adolescence Sometimes a concept from academic research or theory catches the attention of the public and becomes integrated into the framework of society’s “general knowledge.” Perhaps this occurs because the concept is relevant at the time, or because it provides a framework for a generally recognized problem or issue. The “identity crisis” proposed by Erik Erikson is such a concept and was eagerly adopted by American society in the 1960s. At that time, the baby-boom cohort was reaching adolescence. The Vietnam War loomed as a threat to youth. Civil rights activists challenged the thoughtless discrimination of older generations, and the women’s liberation movement contested traditional ideas of female identity. Also, by the 1960s, adolescence had become established as a life stage created by technological society, giving status to a span of years between childhood and full adult status during which the young person prepared to live and work in an increasingly complex society. .. 533
IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science Erikson saw adolescence as a pivotal stage of development in which earlier psychosocial conflicts return in a new form, and in which the foundations are laid for the intimacy, generativity, and wisdom that are the favorable outcomes of later stages. Developmental psychologists sometimes organize discussion of life stage around the developmental tasks of the stage, those things we must do to be ready to move on to the next stage. The elements of the identity crisis can be considered “tasks of adolescence.” Acquiring Temporal Perspective
One aspect of temporal perspective is to have a clear conception of past and future and to have the confidence to plan. Another aspect of temporal perspective is the ability to regulate one’s own time. Freshman entering the university environment and who are living away from home for the first time often have difficulty regulating their own time. With no parent present to say “go to bed,” they will solve the world’s problems all night and be unable to get up for class the next morning. There are people in middle age who lose jobs, miss airplanes, and alienate friends because of their lack of ability to regulate their time. Acquiring Self-Certainty
Self-certainty is equivalent to what is also referred to as self-confidence or self-esteem. Erikson thought that efforts to begin to “sever the apron strings” and to become an autonomous or independent person begin early in life, about the time we begin to walk. If the child sees herself being able to do for herself and accomplish little things independently, then she has the basis to develop confidence in herself. In adolescence, there are new threats to self-confidence, such as the prospect of having to be financially independent and to find a desirable partner. Another aspect of self-certainty is that it must be accompanied by a self-image that is compatible with reality. Self-esteem that is unrealistic is a defense, a fantasy that prevents self-fulfillment. Role Experimentation
During childhood, we usually look to parents or teachers for role models. In adolescence, young people are likely to reject earlier models and to go through a series of “trying on” different roles. The movies and television provide a smorgasbord of roles and role models. Role models can be real people, characters from fiction, historical personages, or creations of our own imagination. Erikson thought that role experimentation is a healthy manifestation of the search for identity, but at some time we have to take the pieces we like from our role experimentation and put them together into a consistent identity. The opposite of role experimentation is role fixation. Sometimes one encounters a young person who has had an identity laid on him so heavily by parents that attempts at role experimentation produce too much guilt to be pursued. Apprenticeship
Theorists are often reluctant to talk about anything as mundane as getting a job and earning a living, but Erikson recognized that the prospect of having to be self-supporting is a real concern of adolescents. This does not mean that an adolescent has to choose his or her life’s work in junior high school, but it does mean making general preparation for independence. The university student may not have chosen a career or even have decided on a major, but the fact that he or she is in a college class suggests that the individual does not suffer from what Erikson called “work paralysis.” Sexual Polarization
The obvious meaning of this aspect of identity is that adolescents must come to grips with whether they are heterosexual, bisexual, or homosexual. It must be difficult for the young person who has a homosexual orientation to establish a positive identity during adolescence. There are great pressures for denial and for conformity to sexual roles that parents and most peers consider “normal.” Erikson wrote about the aspect of sexual polarization that can be described as “comfort and confidence in the role of male or female.” In early adolescence, young people often feel sexually inadequate because their bodies are less than perfect, or because they feel inferior to peers who tell tall tales of sexual adventures and
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prowess. Sexual roles are not as clearly delineated as they formerly were, particularly in the case of the female role, and young females may feel less than feminine if they have ambitious career aspirations and inadequate as humans if they don’t. Questions of Authority: Being a Leader and a Follower
Resentment of authority is so common among American adolescents that it is tempting to think of it as normal. Differentiating between legitimate authority and arbitrary authority is a task of identity establishment. Identity formation includes being able to take the role of leader or follower in the appropriate circumstances. Ideological Commitment
As the identity is formed, young people must select a basic philosophy, a set of values, and an orientation toward religion and politics. Excessive zeal for a cause, dramatic religious conversion, and allegiance to a cult are some of the extreme symptoms of young people searching for something to believe in. The task the adolescent faces is to adopt an ideology that is internally consistent and compatible with the self and the self-image. It may seem as though identity formation requires that one lay down plans for the remainder of one’s life and adopt beliefs that will guide one’s behaviour for all time. Of course, this is not the situation. Identity formation is bringing together various aspects of the self into a coherent whole and establishing a psychic “core” that defines the self. It is probably not a coincidence that Erikson’s identity crisis begins concurrently with Piaget’s stage of formal operations. Some of the cognitive skills of the mature intellect represented by this stage of cognitive development are instrumental in bringing together the threads of the self. ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: A Nation of Wimps Students may enjoy discussing an interesting article from Psychology Today that suggests that the reason that many people are finding parenting to be less enjoyable, and children are experiencing increasingly higher rates of disorders/problems is due overprotective parenting styles (see “A Nation of Wimps” by Hara Estroff Marano, published November 1, 2004). It is suggested that the parental tendency to “protect” children from any type of discomfort and failure is preventing children from developing the coping strategies they will need later in life. In fact, the increased rates of binge drinking and mental health problems in college students may be related to the “shock” of entering the real world in which their parents can’t exert the same control over the child’s environment in order to “protect” them. The argument is made that this desire to make a child’s life completely successful and painless is creating fragile children who grow into adults who are sorely lacking in resilience and independence skills. The article also suggests that the constant pressure parents are feeling to make their children’s lives perfect is emotionally exhausting to the parents and detracts from the positive aspects of being a parent.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The World of Work The task of choosing and entering a career is a very serious one, and one that many young adults have difficulty accomplishing. A college student may change majors more than once during the first few years of college, and even after obtaining a bachelor’s degree many may either get a job in an unrelated field or go on to a different type of career choice in graduate school. Older theories of career development, such as that of Super (1957), include stages that begin with a young adult building career skills and ends with retirement at age 65. This focus on age-related stages may not be as relevant to the working person of today, who may change careers several times (perhaps as many as 5 to 7 times) and who may experience periods of unemployment while between jobs. A more recent theory of career stages does not use age-related stages (Casto, 2003). Here are the six stages of modern career development: 1. Assessment: A stage in which the person is unsure of identity and career goals, as well as strengths and weaknesses. Career counseling and assessment testing are common. 2. Investigation: A stage of researching the possible job opportunities and career fields. Interviews with people already in certain careers may be helpful. 3. Preparation: Getting ready to enter a career. May include education and other forms of job training. 4. Commitment: Making a decision, searching for a job, and accepting a job offer. 5. Retention: Level of comfort is achieved in the chosen career. Building skills in the job and network of relationships. 6. Transition: Feelings of discomfort, making conscious career changes, becoming more adaptable in one’s choices. ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Parenting Styles Parenting children is a very important part of most people’s middle adulthood. Diana Baumrind (1967) outlined three basic styles of parenting, each of which leads to certain personality traits in the child receiving that style of parenting. Authoritarian parenting tends to be overly concerned with rules. This type of parent is stern, rigid, and uncompromising. Rules are not to be questioned, and breaking the rules is met with punishment, often of a physical nature. The parent who does the punishment often shows little warmth or affection to the child—which may be from a desire to appear stern more than from an actual lack of love. Children raised in this way are often insecure, timid, withdrawn, and resentful. As teenagers, they will very often rebel against parental authority in very negative and self-destructive ways—delinquency (criminal acts committed by minor children), drug use, or premarital sex. If you have ever heard anyone make reference
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to the “preacher’s kid” syndrome, they were probably referring to the tendency for children raised in overly strict homes to rebel. Permissive parenting occurs when parents put very few demands on their children for behaviour. Permissive neglectful parents simply aren’t involved with their children, ignoring them and allowing them to do whatever they want, until it interferes with what the parent wants. At that point, this relationship can become an abusive one. Permissive indulgent parents are actually too involved with their children, allowing their “little angels” to behave in any way they wish, refusing to set limits on the child’s behaviour or to require any kind of rules for fear of having a negative impact on the child’s natural development. Children from both kinds of permissive parenting tend to be selfish, immature, dependent, lacking in social skills, and unpopular with peers. Authoritative parenting involves combining firm limits on behaviour with love, warmth, affection, respect, and a willingness to listen to the child’s point of view. Authoritative parents are more democratic, allowing the child to have some input into the formation of rules, but still maintaining the role of final decision maker. If a rule is broken, the child is allowed an opportunity to explain any circumstances that might have led to this behaviour rather than simply being punished outright. Punishment tends to be nonphysical, such as restrictions, time-out, or loss of privileges. If you are familiar with the Huxtable family from the classic television show The Cosby Show, you’ve seen very good examples of authoritative parenting. The Huxtable parents, Cliff and Claire, are warm, loving, affectionate, and also firm. They set limits that are clear and understandable, and when a child crosses the limits, they allow an explanation and then agree upon the right way to handle the situation. ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Myths about Aging Aging is one of the mysteries of human life that has been a focus of science for a number of years. Researchers divide aging into two categories: primary aging and secondary aging. Secondary aging is change that occurs as a result of disease, stress, poor diet, lack of exercise, or exposure to toxic substances—any factor that contributes to aging that is actually or potentially preventable. What is left is primary aging. If genes were programmed to effect changes with age, that would be primary aging. As research progresses, many of the myths, misconceptions, and stereotypes associated with aging are being shattered; more of what was thought to be primary aging is, in fact, secondary aging. For example, research done in the 1950s and 1960s by highly regarded psychologists showed that IQ scores reach a peak in the 20s, remain stable until 40, decrease slowly from 40 to 60, and decline very rapidly after the age of 60. The idea of deterioration of cognitive functions with age seemed to be established, but more recent research using longitudinal data has challenged the earlier studies. Recent research has shown that significant changes in cognitive functions do not begin until the mid-70s, and even then intellectual capacities remain intact for people who continue to exercise them and remain in good health. In studies with rats, Marian Diamond has shown that rats who live in an enriched environment continue to show thickening of the cortex when they are beyond the normal life span of rats. One of the myths of aging is that people undergo personality changes as they grow older. Longitudinal data have been collected on a large group of volunteers for thirty years by the Gerontological Research Center for the National Institute on Aging. The data show stability of personality from young adulthood through old age. The director of the research noted that a person who is warm, sociable, and outgoing at
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science 20 is likely to be warm, sociable, and outgoing at eighty. He also observed that if you are likely to complain about physical symptoms when you are 80, you were probably a complainer when you were 20. Based on research in the 1950s, it was concluded that there is an age-related decrease in cardiac output, the amount of blood the heart pumps per unit of time. Thirty years later, using the same treadmill test, the results were different. Many of the older participants showed no decrease in cardiac output, and among those who showed a decrease, the problem was associated with lack of exercise. During the thirty years, a great deal was learned about heart disease. Many of the participants in the earlier study were not the healthy-hearted specimens they were believed to be. The conclusions from the recent research are that decrease in cardiac output is probably secondary aging, and not an inevitable consequence of growing older. Growing old is something we do not like to think about. When you consider the alternative, growing old is not bad. Many young people do not like to face the fact that habits and lifestyles they adopt today are likely to have a profound effect at the other end of life. Some young people say they don’t want to live that long, but there is never a good day to die, and most young people of today are likely to grow old, to live to be at least seventy-five or eighty. When you get there, you may not consider yourself old, like the 83-years-old woman that refused to shop in a certain store because she considered the clothes they carried only appropriate for old ladies. ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: An Aging Society With the emphasis on “saving social security” that everyone saw in the 2004 presidential election, we have just begun to see the coming impact of the aging of American society. As the population continues to age, and there are relatively fewer young people to physically and economically care for older people, there will clearly have to be some major changes in many social programs and how some elements in our society function. For example, social security will have to be changed to keep it from becoming insolvent when the “baby boom” generation reaches its peak retirement years. Programs like Medicare will also have to be revamped. Retirement ages may be moved farther back, so that the standard retirement age in the not-too-distant future may be seventy instead of sixty-five. While today’s elderly are generally healthier than the elderly of previous generations, as they reach their 80s and 90s (and even 100s) many will need extensive health care and nursing home care. This will require record numbers of health-care workers to help care for the elderly. In what other ways might an aging population impact society? This can be a thought-provoking discussion for students.
▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Euthanasia One of the more controversial issues related to aging and the health problems that often accompany it is the issue of euthanasia. Dr. Jack Kevorkian’s active euthanasia efforts eventually resulted in his being jailed, but brought a lot of controversy and publicity to this issue. You might ask students how they feel about this issue. Is active euthanasia ever justified? If so, under what circumstances? What moral issues
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does active euthanasia raise? What potential abuses could result from legalized active euthanasia? What about the slippery slope argument that once we begin allowing active euthanasia in some cases, it becomes easier to begin allowing it for less severe cases, and eventually it becomes just an easy way of getting rid of “inconvenient” elderly people who are a “nuisance” because of their ill health and discomfort? While most Americans oppose active euthanasia, because of these potential abuses, the picture is not as clear when it comes to the issue of passive euthanasia, in which no active steps are taken to shorten the person’s life, but no efforts are made to keep them alive when the person could be kept alive with outside help. Some researchers claim that well over 50 percent of physicians have occasionally engaged in passive euthanasia. How do students feel about this? How do their feelings about passive euthanasia differ from their feelings about active euthanasia? ▼ CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES ▲ Return to Table of Contents ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Development Across the Life Span Using Homemade Videotapes to Teach Developmental Concepts Take a Stand (Teratogens) Registered Childbirth Educator Ultrasound Pictures Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Can Cognitive Development Be “Speeded Up”—and Should It Be? Constructing a Life Line to Illustrate Erikson’s Stages of Development Using Children’s Books to Illustrate Developmental Principles Evaluating Baby Toys Take a Stand (Nature versus Nurture) Media Influences on Gender-Role Development Adolescence in Film: The Breakfast Club Adolescence and Identity Development: A Personal Exploration Adolescence Is ... The Effect of Divorce on Children Exploring Societal Attitudes about Aging Ageism “Wearing the Shoes” of the Elderly Life Expectancy Aging in Film: To Dance With the White Dog A Test on Aging Naturalistic Observation Crossword Puzzle Fill-in-the-Blanks
Activity: Development across the Life Span Freda Rebelsky (1981) described an activity designed to illustrate stereotypes concerning people’s attitudes, beliefs, and behaviour across the life span. Photocopy and distribute copies of Handout Master 10.1 and go over the instructions with your students. Tell them to think of three words that seem descriptive of each decade and to write the words on the corresponding blank line next to each decade. As an example, for the sixth decade they should think of a hypothetical person who is between .. 539
IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science the ages of 50 and 59 and ask themselves what words come to mind when trying to describe that person’s life. After giving students about 15 minutes to complete this task, ask them to designate the decades that they found the easiest and hardest to generate words for by putting the letters E and H by the respective decades. Then ask the students to discuss aloud which decades they found easiest and hardest to describe and tabulate the results on the board. Rebelsky noted that you will rarely get an equal distribution across all decades and can use the results to generate a discussion of why some decades were easier or harder than others. You can also ask students to volunteer some of their responses for the various decades. What words were most commonly associated with certain decades and why? What similarities and differences were there, and how do these reflect common stereotypes associated with particular age groups? Were there some decades for which descriptions or association were uniform? Were there some decades that were associated with very diverse responses? Rebelsky also notes that you could modify the instructions and have half of the class do the activity while thinking of a female, while the other half think of a male. This would allow students to explore variations in perceived experiences based on the sex of the hypothetical individual. If you have a relatively equal distribution of males and females in your class, you could further analyze how these differences depend on the sex of the student (e.g., are opposite-sex perceptions of experience, such as a female describing what life is like for a male, different from samesex perceptions, such as a female describing what life is like for a female)? Reference: Rebelsky, F. G. (1981). Life span development. In L. T. Benjamin, Jr. & K. D. Lowman (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (pp. 131–132). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Using Homemade Videotapes to Teach Developmental Concepts It is often difficult to illustrate developmental processes that occur in infancy and childhood in the classroom. One technique that is often suggested is to bring infants or children to the classroom for inclass demonstrations. Although this “live” demonstration is appealing, it has several problems such as locating infants or young children to use each time you teach the course, conflicts between your class schedule and the child’s schedule, and uncooperative or shy children. Although there are many good commercially produced videos of topics related to infant and child development (see the list at the end of this chapter), several authors have advocated the use of homemade videos (Poole, 1986; Silvestro, 1979; Trnavsky & Willey, 1984). A major advantage of homemade videos is the ability to develop brief teaching modules that address specific concepts which you are interested in covering in your course. Rather than edited videotapes illustrating specific developmental issues, Poole (1986) suggested using unedited videos and having the students analyze the video for illustrations of concepts that have been discussed in class. Poole (1986), Silvestro (1979), and Trnavsky and Willey (1984) provide specific guidelines and suggestions for developing your own instructional videotapes. References: Poole, D. A. (1986). Laboratories and demonstrations in child development with unedited videotapes. Teaching of Psychology, 13, 212-214. Silvestro, J. R. (1979). Use of video-cassette summaries of childhood in teaching developmental psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 6, 171–172. .. 540
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Trnavsky, P., & Willey, D. L. (1984). Developing instructional videotapes. Teaching of Psychology, 11, 169–170. Hill, W. G. (1995). Instructor’s resource manual for Psychology by S. F. Davis and J. J. Palladino. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Take a Stand (Teratogens) Objective: To encourage students to think about public policy responses to research on teratogens Materials: None Procedures: Designate one side of the room for students who believe that pregnant women who use illegal drugs should be prosecuted for child abuse and the other for students who disagree. Have each student explain his/her position, and allow students to switch sides. Follow up by asking how many believe pregnant women should be prosecuted for using legal drugs that have teratogenic effects (e.g., alcohol). Lead a discussion of how the legality of the substance involved affects support for policies intended to reduce drug use among pregnant women. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Registered Childbirth Educator An engaging and memorable way to expand upon the text’s discussion of prenatal development is to invite a registered childbirth educator to your class. You should have no problem locating a qualified speaker through the local yellow pages (e.g., under childbirth education, clinics, hospitals, or birthing centres), or if you prefer, you can ask family or friends for a recommendation. As experts in prenatal development, these educators often have access to terrific visual aids (including, for example, pictures of a fetus at various stages, models of the uterus, etc.) and are also likely to share interesting anecdotes from their own experiences. Besides describing the stages of prenatal development, they can discuss a variety of important issues in pregnancy and childbirth, such as the effects of drugs and toxins on the unborn baby (e.g., fetal alcohol syndrome, smoking and pregnancy), the importance of proper nutrition on development, options in reproductive technology, uses of prenatal screening tests (e.g., ultrasound, amniocentesis), and the merits of breast versus bottle feeding. Students—many of whom will be future parents—are likely to appreciate this lively, entertaining, and unforgettable presentation. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Ultrasound Pictures Bring pictures of sonograms to class and see if students can identify the various anatomical parts of the fetus. (You may want to make an overhead out of a sonogram.) Try contacting a local hospital or clinic for access to sample sonograms.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Students apply Piaget’s theory of cognitive development to four examples. The student handout for this exercise is included as Handout Master 10.2. Answers: 1. The child is in the preoperational stage and is showing egocentric thought. 2. Assimilation is not helping this child. She needs to accommodate. 3. The younger child is in the preoperational stage and lacks the ability to conserve. The older child is in concrete operations. 4. Johnny is in the sensorimotor stage and has recently developed object permanence.
▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Can Cognitive Development Be “Speeded Up”—and Should It Be? (Group Activity) People used to ask Piaget whether it was possible to speed up cognitive development. Piaget called this concern “the American question” because Americans, he said, are always trying to hurry things along. Most researchers agree that such pressure is indeed detrimental if the child is not developmentally prepared to learn. But others question Piaget’s assumption that children’s cognitive capacities develop like the ripening of a peach, and are largely unaffected by outside events. Distribute the copies of Handout Master 10.3 and ask students to identify two of the benefits of encouraging children to speed their intellectual development and two of the possible disadvantages. Some possible advantages: • The child may learn early in life to value intellectual skills such as reading and problem-solving. • The child may be more likely to reach the most mature stages of cognitive development (that many people never do reach). • The child whose intellectual development is faster than average may do better in school, and as a result have higher self-esteem. • Any special talents the child has may be recognized earlier, and therefore be more fully developed by training. • The child may be better equipped to take advantage of educational resources at school and therefore better qualified for a professional-level career. • The extra stimulation may enhance brain development and give the child an edge later on. Some possible disadvantages: • The child may feel stressed and pressured by the parents to be perfect, and as a result actually learn to dislike intellectual activities. • The child may start to feel that he or she is simply a possession that the parents wish to show off, and self-esteem may suffer. • The parents may push the child to accomplish things for which he or she is not developmentally ready, and everyone may be left feeling frustrated.
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The child may be so busy “speeding up” that he or she misses out on important developmental tasks of childhood accomplished through normal, unstructured play. The child may lose the intrinsic pleasures of learning for its own sake. The parents may become so psychologically invested in the child’s intellectual “success” that they communicate, subtly or not so subtly, that the child is inadequate if he or she “lets them down.”
▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Constructing a Life Line to Illustrate Erikson’s Stages of Development Peggy Brick suggests giving students the opportunity to actively explore Erikson’s stages of development in their own lives by constructing a “life line.” After discussing the eight stages of Erikson’s theory, ask students to take out a piece of paper, turn it lengthwise, and draw a line across the middle of the page. Tell them to put their birthdate on the far left and a projected date of death on the far right. Then have them put the current date a few inches down the line from their birthdate. Now instruct them to list several important events during the childhood and adolescence between their birthdate and the current date. For example, they might list an accident, a family move, a birthday party, their first day of elementary or high school, or a special holiday memory. After giving them a few minutes to list these events, ask them to consider the future and to list things that they would like to accomplish during early, middle, and late adulthood, including what their retirement will be like and what they want to do before they die. Brick suggests pairing students to let them discuss their time lines and then leading the class in a discussion of what they learned from the activity. During the discussion, ask students to focus on how the events or accomplishments that they listed reflect aspects of Erikson’s theory. Reference: Brick, P. (1981). The life cycle. In L. T. Benjamin, Jr. & K. D. Lowman (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (pp. 128–130). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Using Children’s Books to Illustrate Developmental Principles (Group Activity) As a variation on the above assignment, bring a variety of children’s books to class and use them to illustrate developmental principles. Children’s books make excellent teaching tools because they apply a tremendous range of principles in developmental psychology. Implicit in most books, for example, are important lessons that attempt to strengthen children’s development in some way. Popular topics include moral development (e.g., lying, stealing), coping with adversity and stress (e.g., death, divorce), techniques to advance cognitive and intellectual skills, issues of identity development and self-esteem, physical development and change (e.g., potty training), social and relationship issues (e.g., how to share, how to get along with others), coping with fears (e.g., of the dark), tolerance of diversity (e.g., racial, gender, and religious differences), gender role development, and so on. If you have a limited number of books available, you can describe them to the class and solicit student comments as you go through them. If you have several books available, divide your students into small groups, distribute two or three books to each, and have them identify the relevant developmental concepts
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science applicable to each. Then, to stimulate class discussion, you can allow groups to take turns making short presentations and soliciting student comments and questions. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Evaluating Baby Toys Objective: To speculate on the role that toys have in development Materials: Several different types of infant toys or photos of toys taken from a catalogue or brochure Procedure: Present the toys to the students. Invite your students to speculate on what benefits a child may gain by interacting with the toys. For example, do the toys encourage physical development or cognitive development? ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Take a Stand (Nature versus Nurture) Objective: To allow students to engage in a structured discussion of the nature-nurture controversy Materials: Stopwatch or watch/clock with second hand Procedures: Designate one side of the room as the “Heredity” side and the other as the “Experience” side. Set up the framework for the discussion by acknowledging that everyone probably agrees that both nature and nurture contribute to development. The students are then to choose which they believe to be the most important set of influences. Those who think genetics exert greater influence than experience should go to the “Heredity” side. Students who think that that experience is more important should go to the “Experience” side. Tell them that everyone has to take a side. Give students a few minutes to decide. Next, each student is allowed thirty seconds to explain his/her position. Alternate between the two sides. When all students have finished, allow students to switch sides. Students who switch sides should then explain what changed their minds. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Media Influences on Gender-Role Development One activity that is consistently popular with students is to have them explore a variety of media for views of sex-role development, gender identity, and the portrayal of gender stereotypes. Books (including children’s books as well as books aimed at parents), movies, videos, newspapers, magazines (including children’s magazines), and advertisements are all suitable subjects for analysis. After gathering a variety of sources, students should write a short paper applying principles from the text and lecture to their examples. What common themes or stereotypes are found throughout? Are there many instances of sex-typed behaviour? Are there certain kinds of media that break stereotypic portrayals? What influence will these portrayals likely have on the development of gender identity and gender role awareness in children? If available, it might be particularly instructive to compare older media sources (e.g., magazines or books that are 10–15 years old) with current ones. Which stereotypes seem to be firmly rooted in our culture and resistant to change? In what ways have stereotypes changed in the past
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decade? Because television is such an influential medium, particularly with respect to children, your students might also consider gender portrayals in various types of programming, comparing and contrasting children’s educational shows (e.g., Barney, Sesame Street), cartoons (e.g., Animaniacs), action shows (e.g., Power Rangers), and situation comedies (e.g., Full House). Students’ papers can also form the basis for a lively class discussion on this important topic. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Adolescence in Film: The Breakfast Club John Hughes’ wildly popular 1985 film gave birth to the infamous “brat pack” of actors and actresses and set the standard by which all teen movies were evaluated for several years. Molly Ringwald, Ally Sheedy, Emilio Estevez, Anthony Michael Hall, and Judd Nelson star as five totally different high school kids (a princess, a kooky introvert, a jock, a nerd, and a delinquent, respectively) who get to know each other while thrown together during an all-day Saturday detention session. This film gives credence to the “storm and stress” view of adolescence. Also included are compelling insights into adolescent struggles with identity formation, moral reasoning, self-esteem, sexual activity, and peer and parent relationships. Ask the students to watch it with an eye toward applying psychological principles from the textbook to the key issues of adolescence portrayed in the movie (MCA/Universal; 92 min). ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Adolescence and Identity Development: A Personal Exploration An excellent and involving way for students to consider the topic of adolescent development is to apply theory and research in this area to their own experiences. For this assignment, ask your students to write a thoughtful, reflective paper exploring aspects of their own identity formation during adolescence. Students should be given latitude to address whatever issues they feel are important and to include personal experiences at their discretion. It is important to assure students that their papers will be strictly confidential and that they do not have to reveal any sensitive information about themselves. Although there need not be firm guidelines for this assignment, you might suggest the following questions as potential issues for discussion: 1. Describe five positive and five negative characteristics you had as an adolescent. How did you come to be aware of your positive characteristics? Your negative characteristics? How did you overcome the negative aspects of your personality? 2. What were your typical concerns during early, middle, and late adolescence? How did you deal with these concerns? 3. Can you think of one or more events that happened during your high-school years that marked a turning point in your life, that had a profound influence on your personality? In other words, was there an event that caused you to feel that you were crossing some boundary or somehow growing up and developing into a different, more mature person? Looking back, how do you feel about it now? 4. What were you peer relationships like? How did they affect your life? How did your peer relationships change throughout adolescence?
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science 5. What was your relationship with your parents like? Describe some of the positive and negative aspects. What were the major issues in this relationship? How has your relationship with your parents changed? 6. How would you generally characterize your adolescence? Was it difficult? Does it support the “storm and stress” view of adolescence? What were your fears, anxieties, and hopes? 7. Can you think of personal instances which support David Elkind’s fallacies of adolescent thinking, imaginary audience and personal fable? Do these concepts apply to your thoughts and behaviours at that time? 8. How did your peers influence you with respect to alcohol and tobacco use? What information about smoking, drugs, and sexual behaviour did you receive from school? What influenced your own decisions about these matters? ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Adolescence Is... Marilyn Coleman suggests a “popcorn” method for identifying generalizations about adolescence. Ask your students to call out the first thoughts that come to mind when they hear the word “adolescent.” Write their responses on the board, allowing ample time for students to share their thoughts. Discuss the patterns that emerge from this list. Is adolescence seen primarily as a carefree time? A time of stress? What themes come up repeatedly in your students’ perceptions? Most of your students will be in the late stages of adolescence and will have reflections and memories firmly in mind. Use this discussion to link their experiences to the topics covered in the textbook. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: The Effect of Divorce on Children Divorce is troubling, difficult, and painful for children. Discuss with your class about the negative effects a divorce might have on a child between the ages of two and twelve who lives with the mother and visits with the father on alternate weekends. After mentioning the issues raised below, ask the class how the concerns may be eliminated. • The child may feel that he or she caused the divorce. • The child may feel that the father wouldn’t have left if the father really loved him or her. • The child may feel insecure. If one parent leaves, the other may leave, too. If the father is unable to keep a weekend visit with the child, the child may feel that he doesn’t want to see her or him. • The child misses the things he or she did with the father, and becomes lonely when thinking about games they played together. • The child may have a conflict about loyalty to the parents. • The parents may involve the child in their disputes, or use the child as a pawn to manipulate one another. • Financial considerations may make it necessary for the mother to move, and for the child to change schools and make new friends. • The mother may have less time for the child after the separation or divorce because of a job outside of the home, in addition to her usual responsibilities.
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The mother’s own emotional turmoil over the divorce may make it difficult for her to minister adequately to the child’s needs. Although the child visits with the father on a bi-weekly basis, the child may not have constant access to a male role model. The child may perceive female friends of the father and male friends of the mother as threats to his or her relationship with the parent.
▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Exploring Societal Attitudes about Aging An excellent way to explore societal attitudes about aging is to observe how the elderly are reflected in a variety of media. About two weeks before your coverage of developmental psychology, ask students to begin gathering greeting cards, magazine and newspaper articles, cartoons, or examples of advertising that illustrate society’s attitudes about aging. On the day of your discussion, collect student samples. Then, after introducing the topic of aging, divide your class into small groups and randomly distribute to each group several of the samples (making sure each group gets a variety of different sources). In their discussion, groups should note the major stereotypes about aging portrayed in these examples. Give the groups about 15 minutes for discussion, and then reconvene the class and have each group present their findings to the larger group. What common themes seem to run throughout the various portrayals? Are all stereotypes about the elderly negative (e.g., sedentary, senile, set in their ways, crabby, physically deteriorated), or are there positive stereotypes (e.g., wise, mature, respected) as well? Why do such stereotypes persist? Do students know people who do not fit these stereotypes? Can they make any suggestions for combating these negative portrayals? Have these stereotypes had any impact on students’ attitudes about growing older? That is, are they looking forward to this time, or are they dreading it? Are there steps they can take now to make things more positive when they get older? If you have time, you might also discuss portrayals of the elderly on television, comparing current or recent shows that are centred around older characters (e.g., Golden Girls, Matlock, Murder She Wrote) to those in which older characters play a more secondary role (e.g., George’s parents on Seinfeld, Ray’s parents on Everybody Loves Raymond). Similarly, you might consider whether or not there is a double standard with respect to aging. In other words, are the effects of aging (at least in terms of people’s perceptions) more negative for one sex than the other? Many people feel, for example, that gray hair is distinguishing on a man but just plain “old” on a woman. Also, several Hollywood actresses have recently complained that their choice of roles decrease drastically when they get older, but that the opposite is true for male actors. Is there evidence for this kind of double standard? Students are likely to enjoy this exercise, which is a humorous and thought-provoking way to create a better understanding of ageism. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Ageism Objective: To examine stereotypes about the elderly Materials: None Procedure: Ask students to jot down five words or phrases that describe most elderly people. After allowing time for students to respond, request that someone share the first item on his/her list. Ask how .. 547
IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science many others wrote something similar. Continue this procedure until you have identified three or four widely held beliefs about older adults. Next, ask for volunteers to share information about their own elderly relatives or acquaintances, or perhaps older social leaders or celebrities, who do not fit common stereotypes. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: “Wearing the Shoes” of the Elderly Students often have difficulty understanding or appreciating the sensory losses that sometimes accompany aging. Herbert Shore (1976), who designed a training program to help people who work with the elderly better understand sensory losses, suggests several simple and effective simulations, some of which can be experienced in class, and some of which might best be done out of class. Hearing. According to Shore, hearing loss is one of the most problematic sensory impairments for the elderly because the lack of clarity and understanding can lead to suspiciousness and paranoia. Hearing losses can be simulated by having students wear ear plugs, ear muffs, or by simply putting their fingers in their ears when trying to understand what is being said. Shore also recommends the “Unfair Hearing Test” in which students try to comprehend a list of words that have been tape-recorded with slight decibel distortions and with frequencies filtered out. Vision. Changes in the lenses can be simulated by having students wear underwater goggles. In addition, taping yellow cellophane on the goggles can help simulate changes in colour perception. Blindness can be simulated by having the student wear a blindfold while trying to perform a simple task such as tying their shoelace. In addition, you may want to take the blindfolded student on a “blind walk” so that they can experience dependency on a companion. Finally, losses in peripheral vision can be simulated by taping pieces of paper on the sides of glasses. Taste. Taste loss commonly experienced by the elderly can be simulated by camouflaging the texture of food by chopping, pureeing, or liquefying it (or by using commercial baby foods) and then having a volunteer eat it while blindfolded and wearing a nose clip. Kinesthesia. Difficulty in mobility can be simulated by wrapping an ace bandage around the student’s knee or elbow to simulate stiffness in joints. Other physical disabilities, such as those brought about by a stroke or other injury, can be simulated by writing with the opposite hand, walking on crutches, using a cane, or relying on a wheelchair for a day. Touch. Losses in tactile sensitivity can be simulated by applying rubber cement or paraffin to a finger. You can also have students try to identify common objects (that are out of view) while wearing mittens or plastic baggies on their hands. Reference: Shore, H. (1976). Designing a training program for understanding sensory losses in aging. The Gerontologist, 16, 157–165.
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▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Life Expectancy Objective: To make information about middle and late adulthood more personally relevant to collegeaged students Materials: Handout Master 10.4 Procedure: Each student should follow the directions on the handout to estimate his/her own life expectancy. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Aging in Film: To Dance with the White Dog In this 1993 made-for-TV movie, Hume Cronyn portrays an elderly man struggling to go on after the death of his beloved wife (Jessica Tandy). In poor health and terribly lonely, he befriends a stray white dog that protects and loves him. This extremely well-made film provides an honest portrayal of aging, loneliness, and death, and should give students remarkable insights into the mind and experience of an elderly person as well as ample material for a paper assignment (Republic; 98 min). ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: A Test on Aging Distribute the Aging Quiz (Handout Master 10.5) as students enter the class. Ask them to quickly answer the ten true/false questions. Answers suggested by research. 1.
False. Younger people are more likely to attend church. This does not mean that religious commitment decreases with age.
2.
False. In decision-making problems where the choice is between low-risk and high-risk alternatives, older people are as likely as younger people to choose the high-risk alternative.
3.
False. Older people belong to a cohort that experienced the same historical events and environmental conditions. For example, they lived through, and were affected by, the depression of the 1930s and World War II. Your own age cohort has similarities as a result of the events of your times. Individual differences are just as pronounced among older people as among younger ones.
4.
False. Adaptive ability is an aspect of the personality that tends to remain stable over time. Many older people voluntarily change their place of residence after retirement, and they buy personal computers and compact-disc players.
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False. There is no general decline in life satisfaction with age. The life satisfaction of individuals as they grow older is, however, more likely to be affected by death or illness of friends and loved ones.
6.
False. At any one time, about 5 percent of people over 65 are residing in this type of institution. Some are permanent residents because of incurable disease or physical disability. Others are temporary residents who are recovering from an illness or injury.
7.
False. The National Institute of Mental Health has concluded that older people are less likely than younger people to suffer from psychopathology.
8.
False. Depression is relatively common at any age, but older people are no more likely to have chronic depression than younger people.
9.
False. Decrease in cognitive functions is not inevitable. Research suggests that if it occurs among healthy senior citizens, it is a result of lack of practice at intellectual tasks. Intellect is apparently like sex—use it or lose it.
10.
False. Researchers have suggested that the brain could continue to function efficiently for 150 or 200 years if it were supported by other bodily systems.
▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Naturalistic Observation After students are well-versed in the theories of development, ask them to make unobtrusive observations of children at play. Observations should be relatively informal so that students are watching children as they engage in a variety of activities in natural settings. Potentially rich settings include classrooms, daycare centres or preschools, churches, parks, Little League baseball games, playgrounds, video arcades, and shopping malls. (Note that student observers should be unobtrusive so they don’t unintentionally influence children’s behaviour, and that they should secure permission if they are observing on private property.) Ask students to write a 2 to 4-page paper describing their observations and to include a discussion of how principles from the text and lecture apply to their observations. For best results, students should narrow their focus and identify their goals and expectations prior to observation. For example, are they going to explore variation in physical ability and motor development? Will they focus on evidence of cognitive development (in terms of Piaget’s stages)? Will they examine issues related to social development (play in groups, sharing, competition, same versus mixed-sex play)? If student observers are able to get within hearing distance, they might also relate principles of language development to children’s conversations (e.g., identifying babbling, holophrases, use of intonations, overgeneralizations, motherese).
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▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Crossword Puzzle Copy and distribute Handout Master 10.6 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment. Answers for the Crossword puzzle: Across 4. the union of the ovum and sperm. Fertilization 7. the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions. Nature 9. the behaviour associated with being male or female. Gender 13. cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm. Zygote 16. an emotional and psychological closeness that is based on the ability to trust, share and care, while still maintaining one’s sense of self. Intimacy 18. the behavioural characteristics that are fairly well-established at birth, such as easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up. Temperament 19. sense of wholeness that comes from having lived a full life and the ability to let go of regrets, the final completion of the ego. Integrity 22. times during which some environmental influence can have an impact on the development of the infant. Critical Periods 23. any factor that can cause a birth defect. Teratogen 24. tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA. Chromosome Down 1. the inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes. Egocentrism 2. section of DNA having the same arrangement of chemical elements . Gene 3. special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism. DNA 5. in Piaget’s theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action. Irreversibility 6. the influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions. Nurture 8. referring to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait. Dominant 10. the female sex cell, or egg. Ovum 11. the physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak. Puberty 12. name for the developing organism from 8 weeks after fertilization to the birth of the baby. Fetus 14. the science of inherited traits. Genetics 15. in Piaget’s theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object’s nature. Conservation 17. the period of life from about age 13 to the early twenties. Adolescence 20. name for the developing organism from 2 weeks to 8 weeks after fertilization. Embryo 21. the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver. Attachment 24. the moment at which a female becomes pregnant. Conception 25. the cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles and the end of a woman’s reproductive capability. Menopause
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Fill-in-the-Blanks (answers) Copy and distribute Handout Master 10.7 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment. Answers for Fill-in-the-Blanks: Chapter 10 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.
Longitudinal Design Cross-Sectional Design Cross-Sequential Design Nature Nurture Behavioural Genetics Genetics Dominant Recessive Chromosome Fertilization Conception Ovum Zygote Monozygotic Twins Dizygotic Twins Germinal Period Embryo Fetal Teratogen Critical Periods
22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42.
Reflexes Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Stage Object Permanence Preoperational Stage Egocentrism Conservation Concrete Operations Stage Formal Operational Stage Scaffolding ZPD LAD Temperament Attachment Trust vs. Mistrust Gender Puberty Personal Fable Kohlberg Integrity Activity Theory
▼ HANDOUT MASTERS ▲ Return to Table of Contents ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Handout Master 10.1 Development Across the Life Span Handout Master 10.2 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Handout Master 10.3 Can Cognitive Development Be “Speeded Up”—and Should It Be? Handout Master 10.4 Life Expectancy Handout Master 10.5 Aging Quiz Handout Master 10.6 Crossword Puzzle Handout Master 10.7 Fill-in-the-Blanks
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Handout Master 10.1 Development Aross the Life Span Instructions: Choose three words that are descriptive of each decade below and write your responses on the blank next to each one. To do this task, you should think of a hypothetical person from each decade (e.g., a person who is between the ages of 50 and 59) and write the words that come to mind when thinking of that person and what their life is like. DECADE
DESCRIPTORS
0–9 10 – 19 20 – 29 30 – 39 40 – 49 50 – 59 60 – 69 70 – 79 80 – 89 90 – 99
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Handout Master 10.2 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Piaget’s observations of children led to a revolutionary theory of cognitive development. Growth processes and experiences combine, so that cognitive functioning expands on four qualitatively different stages: the sensory-motor, the preoperational, concrete operations, and formal operations. At each stage, the child attempts to assimilate and accommodate new experiences. 1. A four-year-old insists small people must live in the TV because they are right there behind the glass. Identify the stage and the phenomenon being displayed by the child.
2. A child adept at roller skating goes ice skating for the first time. She keeps trying to stand and move just as on roller skates but falls again and again. According to Piaget, what is necessary for mastery of this new skill?
3. An 8-year-old boy threatened to tell his parents when given only one of the three candy bars he and his 110-year-old brother were told to share. The older child then broke his brother’s bar in half and gave him two pieces. This satisfied both children because they each had two pieces. Identify the cognitive stages of these children and the disadvantage that allows the younger child to be cheated.
4. Previously, whenever Johnny banged with a spoon, his mother would put it in a drawer and Johnny would quickly move on to something else. Now that he is eight months old, this isn’t working. The child continues to demand the spoon even though he can’t see it. Identify the cognitive stage of this child and the change that has taken place.
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▼Return to Activity List of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 10.3 Can Cognitive Development be “Speeded Up”—and Should It Be? Many American parents would like to “hurry up” the stages of cognitive development in their children. What are two benefits of encouraging children to speed their intellectual development and what are two possible disadvantages?
Two benefits are:
Two disadvantages are:
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Handout Master 10.4 Life Expectancy While there is no sure way to calculate your life expectancy, there are certain guidelines that can give you rough estimates. If you are between 25 and 65 years of age and reasonably healthy, this test provides a statistical view of your life expectancy. Start with the number 72 If you are male, subtract 3. If you are female, add 4. If you live in an urban area with the population over 2 million, subtract 2. If a grandparent lived to age 85 or over, add 6. If all four grandparents lived to age 80 or over, add 6. If either parent died of a stroke or heart attack before 50, subtract 4. If a family member under 50 has (or had) cancer, a heart condition, or diabetes, subtract 2. As an individual, do you earn over $60,000 a year? subtract 2. If you finished college, add 1. If you have a graduate or professional degree, add 2 more. If you are 65 or over and still working, add 3. If you live with a spouse or friend, add 5. If you live alone, subtract 1 for every 10 years alone since age 25. If you work behind a desk, subtract 3. If your work requires heavy physical labour, add 3. If you exercise strenuously three to five times a week, add 3. Do you sleep more than 10 hours each night? Subtract 4. Are you intense? Aggressive? Easily angered? Subtract 3. Are you easy-going and relaxed? Add 3. Are you happy? Add 1. Unhappy? Subtract 2. Have you had a speeding ticket in the last year? Subtract 1. Do you smoke more than two packs a day? Subtract 8. One or two packs? Subtract 6. One-half to one pack? Subtract 3. Do you drink the equivalent of two drinks of hard liquor a day? Subtract 1. Are you overweight? By 25 kg, Subtract 8. By 8-25 kg, Subtract 4. By 4-8 kg, Subtract 2. Are you a man over 40 and have annual check-ups? Add 2. If you are a woman and see a gynecologist once a year, add 2. If you are between 30 and 40, add 2. If you are between 40 and 50, add 3. If you are between 50 and 70, add 4. If you are over 70, add 5. Now total it all up and you’ll have a rough estimate of how long you can expect to live.
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▼Return to Activity List of Life Expectancy ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 10.5 Aging Quiz Record “true” or “false” for each of the following statements. Consider “younger” as under 65 and “older” as past the 65th birthday. T
F
1.
Older people are more likely than younger people to attend church.
T
F
2.
Older people are more cautious and less likely to make risky decisions than younger people.
T
F
3.
As people age, they tend to become more alike.
T
F
4.
Older people have more difficulty than younger people in adapting to a changing environment.
T
F
5.
A decrease in life satisfaction is usually experienced by older people.
T
F
6.
The majority of people over 65 live in nursing-home type institutions.
T
F
7.
Mental disorders occur more frequently among older people than among younger people.
T
F
8.
Depression is more common in older people than in younger people.
T
F
9.
Decreasing intelligence as measured by IQ tests and other measures of cognitive functions is one of the inevitable changes that occur with age.
T
F
10.
Aging of the brain leads the way for deterioration of other bodily systems and functions.
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Handout Master 10.6 Crossword Puzzle Activity Chapter 10: Human Development
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▼Return to Activity List of Crossword Puzzle Activity ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲Return to Table of Contents Crossword Answers Across 4. the union of the ovum and sperm. 7. the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions. 9. the behaviour associated with being male or female. 13. cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm. 16. an emotional and psychological closeness that is based on the ability to trust, share and care, while still maintaining one’s sense of self. 18. the behavioural characteristics that are fairly well-established at birth, such as easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up. 19. sense of wholeness that comes from having lived a full life and the ability to let go of regrets, the final completion of the ego. 22. times during which some environmental influence can have an impact on the development of the infant. 23. any factor that can cause a birth defect. 24. tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA. Down 1. 2. 3. 5. 6. 8. 10. 11. 12. 14. 15. 17. 20. 21. 24. 25.
the inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes. section of DNA having the same arrangement of chemical elements. special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism. in Piaget’s theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action. the influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions. referring to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait. the female sex cell, or egg. the physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak. name for the developing organism from 8 weeks after fertilization to the birth of the baby. the science of inherited traits. in Piaget’s theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object’s nature. the period of life from about age 13 to the early twenties. name for the developing organism from 2 weeks to 8 weeks after fertilization. the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver. the moment at which a female becomes pregnant. the cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles and the end of a woman’s reproductive capability.
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Handout Master 10.7 Chapter 10—Fill-in-the-Blanks: Development across the Life Span
1. A research design research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time is called a___________ _______________. ____________ is a research design in which several different age groups of participants are studied at one particular point in time. 3. The____________ ____________ design is a research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross sectional design but also followed and assessed for a period of no more than six years. 4. ____________ is the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions. 5. The influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions is called___________________. 6. The focus and study of the interaction between nature and nurture is called ___________________________________. 7. The science of studying inherited traits is____________________. 8. A___________________ gene is a gene that refers to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait. 9. A___________________ gene is a gene that refers to a gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene. 10. A tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA is known as a________________. 11. When there is a union of the ovum and sperm,__________________has taken place. 12. When a woman become pregnant, it is known as________________. 13. The female sex cell is known as the__________________. 14. The cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm; divides into many cells, and eventually forming the baby is called the___________________. 15. Identical twins, or___________ ______________ are formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo. 16. _____________ _______________are often called fraternal twins, occurring when two eggs each get fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at the same time and having the same birth date. 17. The____________ _____________ is the first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining 18. The________________is the name for the developing organism from two weeks to eight weeks after fertilization. 19. The__________ period is the name of the developing organism from eight weeks after fertilization until birth. 20. A______________ is anything that can cause a birth defect. 21. Times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant are called__________ ______________. 22. Infants are born with_________________such as sucking, moro, babinski and rooting that help them survive.
2. ____________
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23. _________ _____________ is the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory schemes. It is a mental concept formed through experiences with objects and events. 24. The____________________ is Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment. 25. ____________ _____________ is the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight. 26. The is Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world. 27. The inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes is called . 28. is the idea in Piaget’s theory, that the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object’s nature. 29. The third stage of Piaget’s cognitive development in which the school-age child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking is known as the _____________ _______________. 30. ____________ ____________ is Piaget’s fourth stage of cognitive development and indicates that the adolescent is now capable of abstract thinking. 31. _______________ is the process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable. 32. Vygotsky’s concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher is called the 33. The device that governs the learning of language during infancy and early childhood is called according to Chomsky. 34. is the behavioural characteristics that are fairly well established at birth. 35. The emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver is known as . 36. According to Erikson, first stage of personality development in which the infant’s basic sense of trust or mistrust develops as a result of consistent or inconsistent care is called__________ ______________. 37. is the behaviour associated with being male or female. 38. The physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak is called _____________. 39. The is the type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm. 40. was the individual who hypothesized how moral development developed. 41. According to Erikson, the sense of wholeness that comes from having lived a full life and the ability to let go of regrets and is the final completion of the ego is called . 42. The theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby is known as .
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science ▼Return to Activity List of Fill-in-the-Blanks: Development across the Life Span ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲Return to Table of Contents Words for Fill-in-the-Blanks: Chapter 10 1. Activity Theory 2. Attachment 3. Behavioural Genetics 4. Chromosome 5. Cognitive Development 6. Conception 7. Concrete Operations Stage 8. Conservation 9. Critical Periods 10. Cross-Sectional Design 11. Cross-Sequential Design 12. Dizygotic Twins 13. Dominant 14. Egocentrism 15. Embryo 16. Fertilization 17. Fetal 18. Formal Operational Stage 19. Gender 20. Genetics 21. Germinal Period
22. Integrity 23. Kohlberg 24. LAD 25. Longitudinal Design 26. Monozygotic Twins 27. Nature 28. Nurture 29. Object Permanence 30. Ovum 31. Personal Fable 32. Preoperational Stage 33. Puberty 34. Recessive 35. Reflexes 36. Scaffolding 37. Sensorimotor Stage 38. Temperament 39. Teratogen 40. Trust vs. Mistrust 41. ZPD 42. Zygote
▼ APS: READINGS FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE ▲Return to Table of Contents Current Directions in Introductory Psychology, Second Edition (0-13-714350-8) Edited by Abigail A. Baird, with Michele M. Tugade and Heather B. Veague This new and exciting American Psychological Reader includes timely, cutting-edge articles, giving readers a real-world perspective from a reliable source Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. This reader includes over 20 articles that have been carefully selected and taken from the very accessible Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. Articles discuss today’s most current and pressing issues in introductory psychology and are broken down into these main sections: Scientific Thinking; Nature/Nurture; Consciousness; Individual Differences; and Applications.
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Section 1: Developmental Psychology 1 Melanie Killen Children’s Social and Moral Reasoning About Exclusion. (Vol. 16, No. 1, 2007, pp. 32–36) p. 5 of
the APS reader
Developmental research on social and moral reasoning about exclusion has utilized a social-domain theory, in contrast to a global stage theory, to investigate children’s evaluations of gender- and racebased peer exclusion. The social-domain model postulates that moral, social-conventional, and personal reasoning co-exist in children’s evaluations of inclusion and exclusion, and that the priority given to these forms of judgments varies by the age of the child, the context, and the target of exclusion. Findings from developmental intergroup research studies disconfirm a general-stage-model approach to morality in the child, and provide empirical data on the developmental origins and emergence of intergroup attitudes regarding prejudice, bias, and exclusion. Myron A. Hofer Psychobiological Roots of Early Attachment. (Vol. 15, No. 2, 2006, pp. 84–88) p. 13 of the APS reader New laboratory research has revealed a network of simple behavioural, physiological, and neural processes that underlie the psychological constructs of attachment theory. It has become apparent that the unique features of early infant attachment reflect certain unique features of early infant sensory and motor integration, learning, communication, and motivation, as well as the regulation of biobehavioural systems by the mother–infant interaction. In this article, I will use this new knowledge to answer three major questions that have remained unsettled in our understanding of early human attachment: What creates an attachment bond? Why is early maternal separation stressful? How can early relationships have lasting effects? I will discuss the implications of these new answers for human infants and for the development of mental processes. Attachment remains useful as a concept that, like hunger, describes the operation of subprocesses that work together within the frame of a vital biological function. Suniya S. Luthar, Shawn J. Latendresse Children of the Affluent. Challenges to Well-Being. (Vol. 14, No. 1, 2005, pp. 49–53) p. 21 of the APS reader Growing up in the culture of affluence can connote various psychosocial risks. Studies have shown that upper-class children can manifest elevated disturbance in several areas-such as substance use, anxiety, and depression-and that two sets of factors seem to be implicated, that is, excessive pressures to achieve and isolation from parents (both literal and emotional). Whereas stereotypically, affluent youth and poor youth are respectively thought of as being at “low risk” and “high risk,” comparative studies have revealed more similarities than differences in their adjustment patterns and socialization processes. In the years ahead, psychologists must correct the long-standing neglect of a group of youngsters treated, thus far, as not needing their attention. Family wealth does not automatically confer either wisdom in parenting or equanimity of spirit; whereas children rendered atypical by virtue of their parents’ wealth are undoubtedly privileged in many respects, there is also, clearly, the potential for some nontrivial threats to their psychological well-being. Gene H. Brody Siblings’ Direct and Indirect Contributions to Child Development. (Vol. 13, No. 3, 2004, pp. 124– 126) p. 29 of the APS reader Since the early 1980s, a growing body of research has described the contributions of sibling relationships to child and adolescent development. Interactions with older siblings promote young children’s language and cognitive development, their understanding of other people’s emotions and perspectives, and, conversely, their development of antisocial behaviour. Studies address the ways in which parents’ experiences with older children contribute to their rearing of younger children, which Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 563
IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science in turn contributes to the younger children’s development. Finally, by virtue of having a sibling, children may receive differential treatment from their parents. Under some conditions, differential treatment is associated with emotional and behavioural problems in children. Antonius H. N. Cillessen, Amanda J. Rose Understanding Popularity in the Peer System. (Vol. 14, No. 2, 2005, pp. 102–105) p. 35 of the APS reader Much research has focused on youth who are rejected by peers; who engage in negative behaviour, including aggression; and who are at risk for adjustment problems. Recently, researchers have become increasingly interested in high-status youth. A distinction is made between two groups of high-status youth: those who are genuinely well liked by their peers and engage in predominantly prosocial behaviours and those who are seen as popular by their peers but are not necessarily well liked. The latter group of youth is well known, socially central, and emulated, but displays a mixed profile of prosocial as well as aggressive and manipulative behaviours. Research now needs to address the distinctive characteristics of these two groups and their developmental precursors and consequences. Of particular interest are high-status and socially powerful aggressors and their impact on their peers. The heterogeneity of high-status youth complicates the understanding of the social dynamics of the peer group, but will lead to new and important insights into the developmental significance of peer relationships. ▼FORTY STUDIES THAT CHANGED PSYCHOLOGY ▲Return to Table of Contents Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research, 6/e (013603599X) By Roger Hock This unique book closes the gap between psychology textbooks and the research that made them possible by offering a first-hand glimpse into 40 of the most famous studies in the history of the field, and subsequent studies that expanded upon each study’s influence. Readers are able to grasp the process and excitement of scientific discovery as they experience an insider’s look at the studies that continue today to be cited most frequently, stirred up the most controversy when they were first published, sparked the most subsequent related research, opened new fields of psychological exploration, and changed most dramatically our knowledge of human behaviour. Studies examined in Human Development: Discovering Love Harlow, H. F. (1958). The nature of love. American Psychologist, 13, 673–685. Out Of Sight, But Not Out Of Mind Piaget, J. (1954). The development of object concept: The construction of reality in the child (pp. 3–96). New York: Basic Books. How Moral Are You? Kohlberg, L. (1963). The development of children’s orientations toward a moral order: Sequence in the development of moral thought. Vita Humana, 6, 11–33. In Control and Glad of It! Langer, E. J., & Rodin, J. (1976). The effects of choice and enhanced personal responsibility for the aged: A field experiment in an institutional setting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 191–198.
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▼ WEB RESOURCES ▲Return to Table of Contents General/Comprehensive
Canada’s Open University—Developmental: http://psych.athabascau.ca/ Jean Piaget Society: www.piaget.org/ A society named in honor of Piaget, focused on the overall processes of cognitive development. Psychology Centre: Developmental Psychology: http://psych.athabascau.ca/ Numerous links to sites related to developmental psychology. Ask your students to pick a timeframe in life span development (i.e., adolescence, old age, infancy) and explore 2 or 3 relevant links from this site. A brief report on what they found would be in order. Intute: Social Sciences: www.intute.ac.uk/ Social Science Information Gateway. A point of departure for your search for information about human development. Suite 101: http://earlychildhood.suite101.com/ A collection of information on all aspects of human development. Prenatal Development The Visible Embryo: www.visembryo.com/ Infancy/Childhood Child Development Institute: www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/ Aimed toward answering parents’ questions, this site nonetheless offers a great deal of information for anyone interested in childhood developmental stages. The Child Psychologist: www.childpsychology.com/ This megasite provides a wealth of links to other information about developmental psychology. ChildStats: www.childstats.gov/ This government site provides statistics about a range of behaviours and trends during childhood. Early Childhood.com: www.earlychildhood.com/ This site nabbed the URL; start here for information about early childhood developmental stages. Early Childhood Development: www.ecdgroup.com International resources in support of young children and their families are the focus here. Infant and Toddler Development: www.amazingbaby.net/ Your amazing baby is … well, amazing! This feel-good site also contains a wealth of information about early developmental milestones.
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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith, An Introduction to Psychological Science ISIS: www.isisweb.org/ International Society on Infant Studies offers information about infant development and abilities. Adolescence National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy: www.thenationalcampaign.org/ Teen pregnancy can be a scary thing. Here are some tips to avoid it. Society for Research on Adolescence: www.s-r-a.org/ SRA’s homepage describes the organization and its functions. Adulthood AgeWorks: www.ageworks.com/ This site is maintained by the University of Southern California, and offers information about the aging process and gerontology from a leading centre of research. Center for the Study of Aging and Human Development: www.geri.duke.edu/ This site is maintained at Duke University. A good starting point for learning about the aging process. National Institute on Aging: www.nia.nih.gov/ NIA. You got it. ▲Return to Table of Contents
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11/ MOTIVATION AND EMOTION TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲ Return to Table of Contents
MODULE 11.1: Hunger and Eating ➢ Lecture Guide: Hunger and Eating (p. 568) ➢ Resources Available (p. 572) MODULE 11.2: Sex ➢ Lecture Guide: Sexual Motivation (p. 573) ➢ Resources Available (p. 578) MODULE 11.3: Social and Achievement Motivation ➢ Lecture Guide: Emotion (p. 579) ➢ Resources Available (p. 583) MODULE 11.4: Emotion ➢ Lecture Guide: Emotion (p. 584) ➢ Resources Available (p. 588) FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES ➢ Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 589) ➢ Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 604) ➢ Handout Masters (p. 612) ➢ APS: Readings from the Association of Psychological Science (p. 620) ➢ Forty Studies that Changed Psychology (p. 621) ➢ Web Resources (p. 621)
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LECTURE GUIDE I. MODULE 11.1: HUNGER AND EATING (Text p. 408) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology of motivation and hunger. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand the biological, cognitive, and social processes that shape eating patterns. o Energy is delivered through the bloodstream in the form of glucose found in food. The hormone insulin helps the cells throughout the body store this fuel. CCK signals fullness(satiety). These substances are monitored by the hypothalamus, which signals hunger when not enough glucose is available to the cells. You should also have an understanding of the effects of psychological cues, such as the unit bias well as social cues, such as the minimal eating norm. ✓ Understand the causes of common eating disorders. o This module discussed issues related to anorexia and bulimia, both of which involve periods of self-starvation and a fear of gaining weight. Bulimia also includes purging, such as through vomiting or the use of laxatives. Stress, peer pressure, and idealized depictions of beauty all influence the prevalence of eating disorders. It is likely that many people with eating disorders are attempting to establish a feeling of control over some aspect(s) of their lives. ✓ Apply your knowledge of hunger regulation to better understand and evaluate your own eating patterns. o Students should be able to keep a three-day journal about what they ate, when they ate, and what made them feel like eating. They should then be able to reflect on and evaluate their eating habits. ✓ Analyze the roles of media in people’s body image. o A number of studies have shown that the media has a negative impact on peoples’ body image; with your knowledge you should be able to identify these misrepresentations of what a normal body should look like to recognize that the motivation to eat is important and to see that beauty is not necessarily a size 2. 1) Initiating factors, or motives, include the thoughts, feelings, sensations, and bodily processes that lead to goal-directed behaviour. Motivation (p. 408) concerns the physiological and psychological processes underlying the initiation of behaviours that direct organisms toward specific goals. i)
At its most basic level, drive contributes to homeostasis. Homeostasis (p. 409) the body’s physiological processes that allow it to maintain consistent internal states in response to the outer environment. Drive (p. 409) biological trigger that tells us we may be deprived of something and causes us to seek out what is needed, such as food or water. Incentive (p. 409) stimuli we seek out in order to reduce drives.
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2) In some cases, behaviour cannot be explained by a desired state of homeostasis, but rather by an internal or external source of stress. i) Stress can lead to the use of resources that we normally wouldn’t use. ii) It is a challenge to homeostasis as its timing is unpredictable. Allostastis (p. 410) motivation that is not only influenced by current needs, but also by the anticipation of future needs caused by stress.
Physiological Aspects of Hunger 1) The on and off switched involved in hunger can be found in a few regions of the hypothalamus (Module 3.2 & Figure 11.3). Hypothalamus (p. 410) is a set of nuclei found on the bottom surface of the brain. i) Electrically stimulating the lateral hypothalamus causes rats to eat (the on switch). ii) The ventromedial region of the hypothalamus appears to serve as the off switch. a) Damage to this area lead to obesity in lab animals. iii) The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus also signals it’s time to stop eating by inhibiting the lateral hypothalamus. iv) The hypothalamus works as a hub, receiving messages about tastes, textures, and smells through nerves coming from the mouth and nose and it exchanges this information with the frontal cortex. 2) The hypothalamus also monitors blood chemistry for indicators of the levels of sugars and hormones involved in energy. i) For example, the hypothalamus detects changes in the levels of glucose. Glucose (p. 410) a sugar that serves as a primary energy source for the brain and the rest of the body. ii) When glucose levels drop, glucostats (specialized neurons) signal the hypothalamus that energy supplies are low, and hunger increases. iii) After food researches the stomach and intestines, sugars are absorbed into the bloodstream and transported throughout the body. a) Insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas, helps cells absorb this glucose for future use. b) As insulin rises, hunger decreases—but so do glucose levels, which eventually leads to hunger. iv) However, a psychologist can better predict how much a person will eat by asking, “How hungry are you?” than by measuring blood glucose levels. 3) The homeostasis of food intake is balanced between hunger motives and satiation. i) A growling stomach doesn’t cause us to be hungry; it’s only one of many processes.
Food and Reward 1) In our modern-day world, food is plentiful and rich in variety. Generations ago, food would be scarce at times, and as a result humans quickly learned to “eat while you can”, as the was no guarantee of eating again soon. i) It made sense at the time for humans to consume fatty food for energy. ii) Our bodies eventually responded by finding high-energy foods pleasurable. iii) Researchers suggest that we may be hard wired to like fatty foods because we have specialized receptors on our tongue that respond to fat content, which release endorphins.
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2) High-energy foods have been found to be a more powerful reinforcer than addictive drugs. i) Studies found that plain white sugar can stimulate the release of dopamine in the same area seen with amphetamines and cocaine. Satiation (p. 412) the point in a meal when we are no longer motivated to eat. 3) Cholecystokinin (CCK) is another chemical involved in regulating hunger. ii) As the intestines expand, neurons release CCK, which communicates to the hypothalamus that it is time to stop eating.
Psychological Aspects of Hunger 1) Eating is more than just maintaining homeostasis; we are also motivated by psychological factors. i) These include physical qualities of food such as its flavor and texture, as well as the availability of food, the social setting, and cravings.
Eating and Cognition 1) The quantity of food eaten is not entirely controlled by the brain. i) Attention can impact how much we consume. 2) We usually use portions to let us know when we should stop eating. Unit bias (p. 413) is the tendency to assume that the unit of sale or portioning is an appropriate amount to consume. 3) Unit bias works with some foods better than others. i) For example, a banana is a perfectly portioned food, whereas prepackaged foods often come in much larger quantities. ii) A bottle of soda used to be 6 ounces decades ago, but now a bottle is likely to be 20 ounces. 4) Natural food like bananas comes in more appropriate serving sizes than bottles of pop. 5) Portion sizes are linked to obesity around the world. 6) People who use a mindful eating technique engage in less impulsive eating and choose healthier snacks.
Eating and the Social Context 1) There are three main social factors related to eating. i) Social facilitation: Eating More. The longer a person sits at the table, the more likely s/he will continue to eat. Hosts often encourage guests to have second and third helpings. Those known to have large appetites will be encouraged to eat the most. ii) Impression Management: Eating Less. Some people control their behaviour so that others will see them in a certain way, known as impression management. In cultures where eating a lot is rude, people will only eat small amounts of food when around others. iii) Modelling: Eating Whatever They Eat. If others around us are not eating much, we will model them and not each much and vice versa if people are having second and third helpings (even if we’re not hungry).
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Disorders of Eating Obesity (p. 414) is a disorder of positive energy balance, in which energy intake exceeds energy expenditure. 1) Some refer to obesity in North America as an epidemic. i) In 2016 in Canada, approximately 60% of males and 45% of females are overweight or obese.
Anorexia and Bulimia 1) Anorexia Nervosa usually occurs during mid to late adolescence and has been on the rise (Table 11.1). Anorexia Nervosa (p. 414) is an eating disorder that involves (1) self-starvation, (2) intense fear of weight gain and a distorted perception of body image, and (3) a denial of the serious consequences of severely low weight. 2) Bulimia nervosa is most prevalent in late adolescence and young adulthood. Bulimia Nervosa (p. 414) is an eating disorder that is characterized by periods of food deprivation, binge-eating, and purging. 3) Binging involves short but intense episodes of massive calorie consumption marked by a lack of regulation of how many calories the body actually needs. i) This is followed by purging (self-induced vomiting, the most common type), fasting, taking a laxative or diuretics, or intense exercise. ii) Those with anorexia also purge, but it is less common. 4) Stress is a common factor for why people develop eating disorders. i) The combination of stress and psychological vulnerability increases chances of developing. 5) Sociocultural factors are also involved with eating disorders. i) Peer influence is considered a number one cause. ii) Family trends and expectations can also lead to poor eating habits. a) Adolescent girls whose families give them more autonomy are less likely to develop eating disorders. 6) Males can also develop eating disorders, although they are less prone to such problems. i) Adolescents and young men may starve themselves during periods of higher exercise to lose weight and achieve muscle mass.
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Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The Effect of Media Depictions of Beauty on Body Image 1) What do we know about the effect of media depictions of beauty on body image? i) Bodies shown in the media have been getting smaller and smaller and less realistic since the 1950s. 2) How can science explain the effect of the media on people’s body image? i) Women are more likely to compare their bodies to media images than men. a) Did not compare social skills to cultural figures. ii) Women may be exposed to ‘perfect bodies’ more frequently than men. 3) Can we critically evaluate this research? i) Perhaps the participants are answering questions just to please the experimenter. ii) In other cases though there has been evidence that the brain areas associated with fear and emotion are active when people with bulimia see negative words related to body image. iii) Overall, research suggests that idealized depictions of body image in the media have a negative impact on vulnerable individuals. 4) Why is this relevant? i) Understanding the role of media in body image assessment may help uncover ways to combat eating disorders. RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 11.1 Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ Good Carbs, Bad Carbs—Today’s Diet Plans ➢ Anorexia Nervosa Classroom Activities, Demonstration, and Exercises ➢ Fill-in-the-Blanks Handout Masters ➢ Handout Master 11.6 Fill-in-the-Blanks Activity Web Resources ➢ Eating Disorder Referral and Information Center: www.edreferral.com ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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II. MODULE 11.2: SEX (Text p. 418) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology associated with sexual motivation. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand the similarities and differences in sexual responses in men and women. o The similarities in sexual response cycles found in men and women can be explained by a common reproductive physiology in both sexes. However, males experience a distinct phase called the refractory period, during which erection or orgasm is not physiologically possible. ✓ Apply your understanding of sex and technology to examine your attitudes toward different forms of digital and online sexual activity. o Students should be able to complete a survey assessing their permissive and conservative attitudes toward sexuality and reflect on their scores. ✓ Analyze different explanations for what determines sexual orientation. 1) Researchers suggest that our sexual motivations are shaped by physiological, psychological and social factors that interact differently for each individual. Libido (p. 418) is the motivation for sexual activity and pleasure.
Human Sexual Behaviour: Environmental Influences Sexual Selection and Evolution Intrasexual selection (p. 419) is a situation in which members of the same sex compete in order to win the opportunity to mate with members of the opposite sex. Intersexual selection (p. 419) is a situation in which members of one sex select a mating partner based on their desirable traits. 1) Evolutionary psychologists suggest that individuals attempt to appear more genetically fit than their competitors; doing so would suggest to potential mates that their offspring would be similarly fit. Parental Investment and Sexual Selection 1) Across a broad sample, both men and women agreed that love, kindness, commitment, character, and emotional maturity were important. However, there were some interesting differences. i) Women valued men with strong financial prospects, status, and good health; whereas men placed a greater emphasis on physical beauty, youth, and other characteristics that relate to reproduction. 2) According to evolutionary psychologists, this difference might be due to the resources required to raise offspring. Females would be attracted to males who can provide resources to help raise a child; whereas, men are attracted to young, healthy women who are likely able to reproduce.
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Human Sexual Behaviour: Psychological Influences Interview Assessments of Sexual Motivation 1) Alfred Kinsey, a zoology professor, was one of the first scientist to tackle the topic of human sexual behaviour. i) He interviewed thousands of people between 1938 and 1952 and published two books known as the Kinsey Reports. ii) However, his methods were flawed by modern standards. a) He made generalizations based on limited samples. b) He also interviewed child molesters without reporting them to authorities. 2) During an era when the phrase “sexual orientation” did not even exist, many people found Kinsey’s work offensive. i) For example, 37% of males reported having had a homosexual experience resulting in orgasm at least once since puberty. ii) 13% of women reported a homosexual experience. iii) Kinsey believed that heterosexuality and homosexuality fell on a continuous scale. Survey Studies of Sexual Motivation 3) More modern methods to study what motivates human sexual behaviour include: i) More representative samples. ii) Anonymously completed questionnaires (vs. interviews) that encourage participants to provide more candid responses. 4) More recently, Meston and Buss (2007) asked 1500 college students to identify their reasons for having sex (Figure 11.6). i) Common themes included physical, personal, and social factors. ii) Physical reasons related to pleasure of the sex itself as well as to orgasm. iii) Instrumental reasons included accomplishing a goal such as financial or personal gain or revenge. iv) Students were also motivated by emotional reasons and because of feelings of insecurity. v) Reproduction was very far down on the list. 5) Studies not using college students have found additional motivations for having sex: i) Expressing value and nurturance. ii) Experiencing stress relief. iii) Enhancing one’s perception of personal power. iv) To have children.
Human Sexual Behaviour: Physiological Influences Physiological Measures of Sex 1) Starting in the 1950s, Masters and Johnson (1966) observed and described the human sexual response cycle in males and females (Figure 11.7). i) They observed 27 male and 118 female prostitutes who agreed to masturbate or have intercourse while under observation. a) It was believed they would be less inhibited than non-prostitutes. ii) They were hooked up to heart rate and blood pressure monitoring equipment as well as penile and vaginal photoplethysmographs, which measure blood flow to the genitalia.
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Sexual response cycle (p. 423) describes the phases of physiological change during sexual activity, which comprises four primary stages: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. 2) The sexual response cycle applies to both males and females, but they differ in how the stages are experienced and their duration. i) One study found 21-32% of women did not experience orgasm during masturbation or sexual intercourse, whereas only 2% of men did not. ii) Men usually experience a single orgasm followed by a refractory period, whereas some women can experience multiple orgasms without a refractory period. Refractory period (p. 423) is a time period during which erection and orgasm are not physically possible. iii) To examine the subjective differences in orgasms, researchers asked males and females to write detailed descriptions of their orgasm experiences. a) Brain imaging studies found that the sexual response cycle is influenced by the hypothalamus. b) Orgasm was found to start in the hypothalamus which in turn stimulated the pituitary gland to release oxytocin hormone. c) Oxytocin is involved in orgasm as well as the feeling of trust. iv) Blood levels of oxytocin surge after orgasm and may remain elevated for 5 minutes. v) Dopamine-rich reward centres of the brain also become highly active during orgasm. Sexual Orientation: Biology and Environment Sexual orientation (p. 423) is a consistent preference for sexual relations with members of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), same sex (homosexuality), or either sex (bisexuality). 1) Current definitions of sexual orientation focus on the psychological aspect of sexuality (e.g., desire, emotion, identification) rather than strictly behavioural criteria. i) A person can have a sexual orientation but never have sexual contact throughout their life. Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Sexual Orientation and the Brain 1) There have been a number of explanations for variations in sexual orientation. i) Sigmund Freud (1905) believed homosexuality could be traced back to a domineering mother and weak father figure. ii) Ellis and Ames (1987) argued homosexuality could be caused by experiencing seduction from an older sibling or playmate. iii) More recent debates focus on whether sexual orientation is a choice or based on biologically related factors such as genetics or differences in brain anatomy. What do we know about the sexual orientation and the brain? 2) In the early 1990s, neuroscientist Simon LeVay compared the brains of deceased gay and heterosexual males. i) He found an area of the hypothalamus that was, on average, smaller in gay men compared to heterosexual men (Figure 11.8). a) Many assumed this was proof of a genetic cause, but his work did not take environmental factors into consideration. b) His findings have also been difficult to replicate. ii) It should also be noted that the homosexual men in his study died of complications from HIV, which could have accounted for the brain differences.
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How can science explain the relationship between sexual orientation and the brain? 3) Brain imaging studies show that sexual stimuli elicit different patterns of brain activity in homosexual and heterosexual people. i) It may not be certain structures of the brain, but rather specific patterns of brain activity that are associated with sexual orientation. Testosterone (p. 424) is a hormone that is involved in the development of sex characteristics and the motivation of sexual behaviour. Can we critically evaluate this research? 4) In one study, homosexual men and women showed greater activation of the medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus while smelling a male derivative of testosterone found in underarm sweat. a) This brain region is involved in sexual behaviour in many different species. b) This region did not become activated when heterosexual men smelled the male sweat. 5) Homosexual males and females show greater activity in the brain’s reward centres when viewing pictures of genitalia of sexually aroused males. a) This same activity is found when homosexual women and heterosexual men view pictures of female genitalia. Why is this relevant? 6) Understanding that sexual orientation has a biological origin has important social implications. It demonstrates that sexual orientation isn’t simply a lifestyle choice that can be changed like a job or wardrobe. Genetics and Sexual Orientation 1) Sexual orientation may be influenced by a combination of genes. i) Twin studies have identified higher genetic correlations between identical twins compared with fraternal twin pairs (Figure 11.9). ii) Genetic correlations between .30 and .60 for homosexuality have been reported for men and women. a) This suggests about half of individual differences found in sexual orientation are due to genetic factors. iii) This result holds true for gay men across multiple studies, but findings are less consistent for females. a) Some studies have failed to confirm a genetic relationship between genes and homosexuality in women. Transgender and Transsexual Individuals 2) Until recently, very little was known about transgender individuals. i) Public figure Bruce Jenner (Now Caitlyn Jenner) brought this topic to the forefront. Transgender (p. 426) refers to individuals who experience a mismatch between the gender that they identify with and their actual biological sex. a) Transgender does not refer to sexual orientation. Transsexual (p. 426) refers to the subset of transgender individuals who wish to permanently transition from their birth sex to the gender with which they identify. b) Many transsexual individuals seek medical assistance for sexual reassignment surgery.
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ii) Researchers have recently been investigating brain-based differences between transgender and the rest of the population. a) Sex hormones like testosterone may cause the genitals and body to develop in the direction of one sex, while the brain and gender develop in the opposite direction. b) Some nuclei in the hypothalamus of male-to-female (MtF) transsexuals resemble female brains. c) Differences were also found between MtF vs FtM brains, however this research is still new.
@Psych: Sex Ed 1) In 2015 Ontario introduced a new sex education curriculum. i) Students are now learning the names and functions of the parts of human reproductive system, as well as learning about other aspects of modern sexuality. (Ex. Sexting, consent, contraception, sexual orientation, etc). ii) The goal was to provide students with scientifically accurate information, however a minority of parents opposed certain new teaching topics. iii) Also, not all teachers are equally capable of teaching this content. iv) The questions raised were now “What topics should be included?”, “Who should teach them?”, and “Do students benefit from this information?”
Human Sexual Behaviour: Cultural Influence Gender roles (p. 428) The accepted attitudes and behaviours of males and females in a given society. i)
These roles tend to change over time and across generations. Sexual scripts (p. 428) the set of rules and assumptions about the sexual behaviours of males and females.
ii) Important to note that not all males or females follow the same sexual script. Social Changes and Sexual Behaviour 1) For most of human history, societies were set up in a way that gave men greater power than women. Indeed, in many cultures, women were viewed as possessions—first of their fathers and then of their husbands—allowing the “status quo” of the patriarchy (male-dominated society) to continue. 2) There are three explanations as to why these social scripts are changing. i) The emergence of the women’s rights movement over the past 130 years. ii) The increasing presence of women in the workforce. iii) The (contraceptive) “pill” allowing women to have control over when they were going to become pregnant. Cultural Differences and Sexual Behaviour Sex guilt (p. 428) is negative emotional feelings for having violated culturally accepted standards of appropriate sexual behaviour.
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Sex and Technology 1) Adolescents, as well both single and married adults, may engage in cybersex. i) This is the use of the Internet and computer equipment for sending sexually explicit images and messages to a partner. a) An estimated one in three adults today has engaged in cybersex. 2) Although cybersex eliminates worries of unplanned pregnancies and STIs, there are potential problems associated with these behaviours. i) For example, people are less inhibited using digital media compared to fact-to-face encounters, which makes them more susceptible to impulsive behaviours. ii) Individuals might send sexually explicit pictures or messages (“sexting”). a) Some teens have found themselves accused and convicted of pornography charges and have had to register as sex offenders.
RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 11.2 Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Lookin’ for Love ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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III. MODULE 11.3: SOCIAL AND ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION (Text p. 432) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology of social and achievement motivation. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand how people experience a need to belong. o Psychologists have discovered a number of ways in which people are motivated to enter into personal relationships. People seek out friendships, romantic relationships, and group membership to satisfy this need. ✓ Understand the different forms of love. o Passionate love involves a physical and emotional longing for the other person. It typically occurs at the be-ginning of a relationship. Companionate love involves the tenderness and affection felt when a person’s life is intertwined with another person’s. Companionate love has a greater influence on the long-term stability of relationships. ✓ Apply theories of motivation to understand different motivations for success in school or at work. o Students should be able to complete questionnaires regarding their motivation for learning and reflect on their scores. ✓ Analyze claims that a sense of belonging is something people need versus something they want. o Although belonging may not be the most basic type of need on the hierarchy of needs— those positions are usually assigned to food, water, and shelter—it is a significant need nonetheless. Research has shown that doing without has some drastic consequences. Not only is loneliness related to depression, but it is also associated with a reduced life span. The fact that belonging is essential to good health and longevity provides strong support for classifying it as a need, not just something people want.
Belongingness and Love Needs 1) We need food and water to survive, but we also have social and achievement needs. 2) Abraham Maslow (1943) developed a hierarchy of needs (Figure 11.10). i) At the base are physiological motives that must be satisfied before all others are considered. ii) After these basic needs are met, individuals can turn to higher-level needs such as the need for love and belonging, self-esteem, and achievement. Self-Actualization (p. 433) the point at which a person reaches his or her full potential as a creative, deep-thinking, and accepting human being.
Belonging Is a Need, Not a Want 1) Recently, psychologists have begun to treat the need to belong as a need as basic as nourishment and protection. Need to Belong (p. 433) (sometimes known as affiliation motivation) is the motivation to maintain relationships that involve pleasant feelings such as warmth, affection, appreciation, and mutual concern for each person’s well-being. i)
It appears that a strong sense of belonging is as important as food and shelter; without these humans cannot survive. ii) However, it is the permanence of relationships that is most important. a) For example, an executive who flies all over the continent may have fascinating conversations with fellow passengers every week, yet feel extremely lonely. .. 579
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b) In contrast, a couple living on a rural farm who sees only a few neighbours during the week and participants in church on the weekends, will be much more satisfies with their sense of belongingness. 2) Social connectedness is a good predictor of overall health, whereas loneliness is a risk factor for illnesses such as heart disease and cancer. i) Loneliness elevates a person’s risk for having hypertension, a weaker immune system, and high levels of stress hormones. a) This relation holds true even when lonely and non-lonely individuals have the same amount of social interaction—it is the sense of belonging that counts. ii) Loneliness is equally good at predicting one’s life expectancy as smoking. Love 1) The feeling of belonging can develop into love. i) Involves trust, looking forward to being with the person, and enjoy travelling through life with them. 2) Romantic love can be somewhat different. i) To explain the differences psychologists have defined two main types of love. Passionate love (p. 434) is love that is associated with a physical and emotional longing for the other person. Companionate love (p. 434) is love related to tenderness and to the affection we feel when our lives are intertwined with another person. 3) Although passionate love is more exciting, companionate love appears to have more of an influence on long term stability. 4) What motivates love? Most research suggests that we are motivated to love because of the rewards associated with the feeling of love (see Figure 11.11).
Belonging, Self-Esteem, and Our Worldview 1) Being a part of a group provides a variety of benefits ranging from physical safety to love and sexual opportunities. 2) Groups provide a culture and a likeminded community which can lead to improved health, ability to cope with stress better, and can assist in dealing with philosophical fears like the fear of death.
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Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Terror Management Theory and the Need to Belong Humans are the only species that seem to be aware of their own mortality. Terror management theory (TMT) (p. 435) is a psychological perspective asserting that the human fear of mortality motivates behaviour, particularly those that preserve selfesteem and our sense of belonging. 1) What do we know about terror management theory? i) We use anxiety buffers, which prevent death related anxiety from occurring. ii) One buffer is known as the cultural worldview, which is a belief about how our world should work, or religious beliefs that our thoughts and provide belief in an afterlife. iii) Self-esteem is a buffer made up of the feeling of valued or significance, which can be built from living up to cultural standards of our worldview. 2) How can scientists study terror management theory and the need to belong? i) TMT is typically studied by manipulating the morality salience, how aware participants are of death. ii) For example, having a group discuss what happens to our bodies after death. And have another group discuss something also unpleasant, but not concerning death. Both groups are then receive criticism or no-criticism regarding their worldview. a) Psychologists have also discovered a way to decrease the impact of morality salience simply by generating positive thoughts about their parents. iii) This suggests that belonging to something (family, community) helps manage death related anxiety. 3) Can we critically evaluate this evidence? i) Research on TMT has typically received criticism regarding whether results were due to thoughts of death, or because they were in response to the unpleasantness of the study materials. ii) Researchers were quick to point out that the same effects were not seen in the control group, who were also exposed to unpleasant stimuli. 4) Why is this relevant? i) TMT has a link to politics. ii) Research has found that mortality salience can cause extreme beliefs leading to conservative political attitudes.
Achievement Motivation Achievement motivation (p. 437) is the drive to perform at high levels and to accomplish significant goals. 1) Achievement motivation often involves the need to compete with and outperform other individuals as well as the desire to master a task, with or without other incentives or rewards. 2) This is a wide variation in the amount and type of motivation people experience. Approach goals (p. 437) are enjoyable and pleasant incentives that we are drawn toward, such as praise, financial reward, or a feeling of satisfaction. Avoidance goals (p. 437) are unpleasant outcomes such as shame, embarrassment, or emotional pain, which we try to avoid. .. 581
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3) Another way to contrast motives is to compare approach and avoidance goals. 4) An individuals’ motivation to achieve is a combination of two factors: the desire to master something (versus simply performing) and the desire to gain (approach) or avoid something i) Procrastination is most likely when working on avoidance goals. a) For example, writing a paper at the last minute to avoid failing. ii) Procrastination is least likely when mastery and approach goals are combined. a) When students are genuinely interested and feel they will gain something, they are more likely to get started on a paper or project.
Self-Determination Theory 1) Made up of three primary universal needs. i) Relatedness – Feeling connected, a need satisfied by forming meaningful bonds with others. ii) Autonomy – The need to feel in control of your own life. iii) Competence – The ability to perform a task at a skill level that is satisfying to you. Self-efficacy (p. 438) an individual’s confidence that he or she can plan and execute a course of action in order to solve a problem. Self-determination theory (p. 438) is a theory that states that an individual’s ability to achieve their goals and attain psychological well-being is influenced by the degree to which he or she is in control of the behaviours necessary to achieve those goals. iv) When we achieve self-determination we are more motivated to perform, and we are also happier.
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation 1) There are different reasons or drives for wanting to achieve a goal. Extrinsic motivation (or performance motive) (p. 438) is motivation geared toward gaining rewards or public recognition, or avoiding embarrassment. Amotivation (p. 438) is a feeling of having little or no motivation to perform a behaviour.
2) Too much reliance on extrinsic motivators can lead people to become amotivational. Intrinsic motivation (or mastery motive) (p. 438) is the process of being internally motivated to perform behaviours and overcome challenges (e.g. a genuine desire to master a task rather than being motivated by a reward).
3) In a study of Grade 5 students, researchers found that children who were given extrinsic rewards tended to do more poorly and would lie about their success. A Continuum of Motivation 1) There is a continuum between amotivation, extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation that shows how much self-determination one feels (see Figure 11.12). 2) A person can move along the continuum, for example from intrinsic to extrinsic because the rewards is provided. .. 582
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i) This change is known as the over-justification effect and could eventually lead to a loss of intrinsic motivation and wind up with no motivation. 3) A second, possibly more powerful change occurs when a behaviour is initially extrinsic, motivated by money or another person. i) Over time, it is possible for these behaviours can become intrinsic and becomes a part of an individual’s identity.
Cultural Differences in Motivation. 1) The biggest difference between cultures can be summed up as Western (more autonomous) and Eastern (more emphasis on community). i) People in individualistic cultures (U.S. or Canada) may be less motivated to perform extrinsically motivated behaviours than collectivistic Eastern cultures. RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 11.3 Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Sternberg Triangular Theory of Love Scale ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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IV. MODULE 11.4: EMOTION (Text p. 443) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology associated with emotion. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand how the nervous system responds to emotions. o Our brain responds to threats activating the sympathetic nervous system which in turn can cause us to move in response to the emotion; finally our brain reevaluates the situation to see if we should continue the emotional response. ✓ Understand cultural similarities and differences in emotional expressions. o Emotions such as fear, anger, happiness, sadness, surprise, and disgust appear to be human universals—all people experience them regardless of culture. At the same time, we cannot completely explain human emotions without references to cultural variation in the form of dialects and display rules. ✓ Apply your knowledge of theories of emotion to new examples. o Students should be able to participate in an activity requiring the nodding and shaking of their head and reflect on how the movements might influence their decisions based on the facial feedback study described in this module. ✓ Analyze what purpose(s) facial expressions serve. o Facial expressions do more than tell the world what we are feeling, sometimes they actually change physiological processes such as air flow or sensation. 1) Each of our different emotions is accompanied by characteristic experiences, expressions, and physiological reactions. Emotion (p. 443) is a behaviour with the following three components: (a) a subjective thought and/or experience with (b) accompanying patterns of neural activity and physical arousal and (c) an observable behavioural expression (e.g., an emotional facial expression or change in muscle tension.)
Physiology of Emotion 1) Neural responses to emotions occur in a series of networks or loops, each involving different structures that work together to produce different responses.
The Initial Response 1) The amygdala, in the midbrain is critically important for emotional responses. Amygdala (p. 444) is a group of nuclei in the medial portion (near the middle) of the temporal lobes in each hemisphere of the brain. 2) The amygdala receives sensory information from the cortex approximately 200ms after the emotional stimuli appears and fires when we perceive the stimuli to be emotionally arousing (especially fear).
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The Autonomic Response: Fight or Flight? 1) When we are in a fearful situation (e.g., snarling dog starts running at you), a division of the autonomous nervous system (ANS) call the sympathetic nervous system, increases our energy and alertness to enable us to handle frightening and dangerous situations (activates fight-or-flight). i) This burst of energy involves increased heart rate, respiration, sweat, and alertness. 2) Another division of the ANS, called the parasympathetic nervous system, helps calm the body. i) This system uses energy more sparingly, bringing your heart rate and respiration back to resting rates and focusing on non-emergency tasks, such as digestion (Figure 11.15).
The Emotional Response: Movement 1) Even the simplest of movements requires the coordination of different parts of our nervous system in order to make muscle movement effective. 2) Research has found that emotional stimuli triggers an increase in activity in brain structures linked to planned movement, and in the spinal cord, suggesting that our body becomes prepared and speeds up of efficiency and emotional response.
Emotional Regulation 1) The evaluative stage of emotional response is complex and involves frontal lobe function. i) The frontal lobe receives highly detailed information from the amygdala and must determine if the instinctual emotional response is appropriate for the actual situation. ii) The appropriate behaviour is then generated.
Experiencing Emotions 1) Let’s say you are home late one night and see something move in your bedroom. Your heart starts to race and you jump up to determine the source of the movement. i) Competing theories explain how you came to experience fear (Figure 11.16). 2) In the James-Lange Theory, the subjective experience of fear follows the physiological response. i) For example, your heart was racing, which made you nervous about the noise. James-Lange Theory of Emotion (p. 446) suggests that our physiological reactions to stimuli (e.g. a racing heart) precede the emotional experience (e.g. the fear). 3) Walter Cannon and Philip Bard disagreed with this theory. Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion (p. 446) suggests that the brain interprets a situation and generates subjective emotional feelings, and that these representations in the brain trigger responses in the body. i) For example, we feared there was an intruder, which made our heart race. ii) One study had participants hold a pencil sideways in their mouth with only their teeth (basically making a smile). Facial feedback hypothesis (p. 446) suggests that our emotional expressions can influence our subjective emotional states.
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a) The participants reported greater levels of happiness. b) When participants hold the pencil with their lips (essentially a frown), the report decreased moods. iii) However, the facial feedback hypothesis seems to work better with happiness and sadness than other emotions, such as surprise.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion 1) What do we know about the two-factor theory of emotion? i) Stanley Schachter believes cognitive aspects (e.g., thoughts, memories, beliefs, interpretations of experiences, etc.) also play a role in emotional experiences (Figure 11.18). Two-factor theory of emotion (p. 448) holds that patterns of physical arousal and the cognitive labels we attach to them form the basis of our emotional experiences. ii) Physical arousal is the first factor to come into play (as James and Lange predict), and along with this state comes a cognitive label for the experiences, such as “I am sad.” 2) How can science explain the two-factor theory? i) The two-factor theory is supported by experimental evidence showing that our understanding of cognition affects how we appraise emotional reactions (see Figure 11.19). 3) Can we critically evaluate these findings? i) One major criticism of Schachter and Sutton’s study is that it may not apply to the real world. ii) However, the Capilano Bridge study replicated the effect in a more realistic scenario. a) The same woman was ultimately perceived as more attractive when a man experienced the fear from the bridge when he saw her than when he hadn’t. b) Misattribution of the emotion of fear leads to the attraction. 4) Why is this relevant? i) Although we have rapid physiological responses to events, cognition can affect behaviour. ii) People knowing they can control their responses may be beneficial for coping with emotional experiences.
Expressing Emotions 1) The polygraph test measures respiration, blood pressure, and palm sweat. i) These are autonomic nervous system responses that should increase when someone lies. 2) Most courts do not accept polygraph results. i) This is because these machines provide evidence of arousal, but they are not valid indicators of lying. ii) However, they are still used in evaluating statements made by convicted sex offenders, in divorce cases, and sometimes in employee screening. 3) Some research has shown that people can detect facial expression and other nonverbal cues of lying. i) Paul Ekman has shown that people can be trained to detect very subtle nonverbal microexpressions indicative of lying.
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Emotional Faces and Bodies 1) Emotions can convey internal responses to on lookers, and seem to serve some evolutionary purpose. i) Disgusted faces reduce airflow in nasal passages, perhaps so we will not breathe in something dangerous (Figure 11.20). ii) Fear involves opening of eyes, airways and nasal passages to take in more oxygen, and perhaps to make us ready for something dangerous. 2) Charles Darwin was the first to suggest that facial expressions are universal while on his world travels. i) Paul Ekman also performed cross-cultural studies that supported Darwin’s theory. a) He traveled to Papua New Guinea and tested whether Tribesmen could recognize western emotional facial expressions (fear, happiness, disgust, anger, surprise and sadness). b) They were able to identify all facial expressions, and their facial expressions were identifiable by American participants as well. 3) Body language is another form of nonverbal communication that conveys emotional responses. i) A study done at Queen’s University found that like facial recognition, body language and motion appears to be universal.
Culture, Emotion and Display Rules 1) People raised within a specific culture show characteristics that are specific to their regions. Emotional dialects (p. 452) variations across cultures in how common emotions are expressed. i)
For example, people from North America and from Gabon (a country in West Africa) experience contempt. a) However, North Americans are more likely to lower their brow. b) Gabonese people are more likely to raise their upper lip. 2) The situation or context is a major factor in determining when members of different cultures express certain emotions. Display rules (p. 452) refer to the unwritten expectations we have regarding when it is appropriate to show a certain emotion. i)
For example, say you experience an embarrassing situation. a) Normally, North Americans blush and look the other way. b) But in Japan, people tend to fake a smile and not show embarrassment. 3) Culture-specific display rules are found around the globe, and demonstrate the need to be cautious when over-generalizing emotional responses. i) Things like Facebook, Snapchat, and Instagram may reduce these cultural differences.
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Culture, Context and Emotion 1) One experiment had students from Western and Asian universities look at pictures of a group of people with a central person expression a different emotion from the rest (Figure 11.22). i) The students were asked to judge the emotion of the central figure. ii) Western students tended to focus on the facial expression of the central person, and did not interpret the figure’s emotion in respect to the others in the picture. iii) In contrast, Asian students interpreted the central figure’s emotion in reference to what people in the background might be feeling. iv) Asian students were also more accurate in remembering the figures in the background. 2) Although there are common core emotions around the world, the existence of emotional dialects and display rules can complicate the interpretation of emotions in people who may be unfamiliar. a) This can lead to misunderstandings when cultures clash. b) Individuals should be aware of possible cultural differences when traveling and/or hosting guests from afar. RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 11.4 Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ The Amazing Amygdala ➢ How Cognitions Influence Emotions ➢ Emotional Language ➢ Mood Awareness ➢ Miles of Smiles ➢ Why Don’t We Learn to Detect Deception? Classroom Activities, Demonstration, and Exercises ➢ Physiological Experiences and Emotion ➢ Vocal Cues and Emotion ➢ Display Rules of Emotion Assessment ➢ Tiny Fast Faces ➢ Smile When You Say That ➢ The Physiological Basis of Lie Detection ➢ Gender Differences in Sensation Seeking ➢ Detecting Terrorists at Airports ▲ Return to Table of Contents Handout Masters ➢ Handout Master 11.2 Display Rules of Emotion Assessment Web Resources ➢ American Polygraph Association: www.polygraph.org ➢ Controlling Anger Before It Controls You: www.apa.org/topics/anger/control.aspx ➢ Polygraphy: www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/polygraph/ota/analog.html ➢ Positive Psychology: www.positivepsychology.org/ ➢ The Pursuit of Happiness: www.davidmyers.org/happiness/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
The Amazing Amygdala How Cognitions Influence Emotions Emotional Language Mood Awareness Miles of Smiles Why Don’t We Learn to Detect Deception? What Fueled Misperceptions of Self-Esteem? Motivation in the Marketplace Extrinsic Rewards May Spoil Pleasure Peak Experiences and Psychological FLOW Achievement and Motivation Good Carbs, Bad Carbs—Today’s Diet Plans Anorexia Nervosa Where Does Folk Wisdom Come From?
▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Amazing Amygdala Scientists have long known that the limbic system is involved in emotional experience. In particular, the amygdala seems to play a crucial role in two different activities related to emotion. David Zald, a researcher at the Veterans Affairs Medical Center in Minneapolis, led a research team that studied the relation between odours and emotional reactions. Zald asked 12 women to smell a variety of concoctions while undergoing repeated brain scans. Some of the odours were quite pleasant, such as the scents of flowers, fruits, or spices, whereas others ranged from garlic breath to motor oil, and a sulfurous stench crossing rotting vegetables with a sewer. The pleasant smells didn’t trigger much of a reaction; only the right amygdala responded weakly. The most pungent odours, however, caused both amygdalae to respond swiftly and markedly, the equivalent of sending a “Yuck!” message to the rest of the brain. In fact, the anatomical link between the amygdala and brain centres responsible for processing olfactory sensations suggests a strong link between odour and affect. Pinpointing the amygdala’s reaction may help explain why unpleasant odours can produce negative emotional reactions. In recent studies, the negative emotional reaction to bad odours has been suggested as a link to bad driving. Research has suggested that certain odours can increase motivation, interest, and enhance mood, while other odours interfere with performance and decrease motivation. The RAC Foundation (British motoring organization) reported that the following smells are the most dangerous ones while you’re on the road: • Chamomile, jasmine, and lavender: They make drivers too relaxed. • Fast food wrappers, fresh bread, and pastry: These make drivers hungry and in a hurry to get something to eat. The result? Irritability and an increased risk of speeding and road rage. • Fresh-cut grass, pine woods, and roadside flowers: These things may send drivers on a trip down memory lane … to the extent that their daydreaming takes their mind off the road and the speed at which they’re travelling. Plus, those with allergies may be thrown off by sneezing and watery eyes. • Leather seats and oil: Older drivers may become nostalgic, thinking back to the thrill of their first cars, and adopt more risky driving behaviours.
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Certain perfumes and aftershaves: These may ignite sexual thoughts in both male and female drivers, making them more focused on romance than on the road.
Best Smells for Driving • Peppermint and cinnamon: They improve concentration levels and make drivers less irritable. • Lemon and coffee: These, too, help drivers achieve high concentration levels and clear thinking. • New car smell (a combination of cleaning products and organic solvents): This tends to make people more cautious about their driving and improves concentration. • Sea ozone: A breath of salty sea air may make drivers breathe deeply, which helps relieve stress, relax the muscles and calm the mind. In a separate study, researchers also examined the amygdala’s role in perceiving facial expressions of emotion. Researchers at the Salk Institute and the University of Iowa College of Medicine, led by Antonio Damasio, studied a remarkable woman identified as S.M. This 33-year-old was intelligent, cooperative, and had no difficulty remembering names and faces of acquaintances or people she recently met. When asked to pose an expression of fear on her face, however, S.M. found it impossible to do. Furrowing her brows and grimacing desperately, she was unable to display one of the primary emotions. Moreover, although S.M. could correctly identify expressions of happiness posed by others, she could not perceive fear in another person’s facial expression. The cause of these difficulties seemed to be the destruction of cells in the amygdala due to disease. What it revealed to the research team was the importance of this particular limbic system component in recognizing and producing a very specific expression of emotion. What it reveals more generally is the evolutionary development of emotion. Fear, an emotion so crucial to survival, seems to have claimed its own niche in the brain. References: Holtz, R. L. (December 24, 1994). Scientists find part of brain that reads facial expressions. Austin American-Statesman, A13. Ritter, M. (February 9, 1997). Tests catch image of brain saying “Yech!” Austin American- Statesman, A22. www.sixwise.com/newsletters/05/06/29/driving.htm www.senseofsmell.org/acr/Volume_IX_No_1.pdf
▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: How Cognitions Influence Emotions Students may want to consider the types of cognition-based emotions that they experience in the context of the academic environment. According to Bernard Weiner’s Attribution Theory of Motivation and Emotion, success and failure typically evoke the causal attributions of ability, effort, task difficulty, or luck, singly or in combination. Underlying these attributions are the dimensions internal/external; stable/unstable; and controllable/uncontrollable. So, for example, an attribution of success to high ability is an attribution to an internal, stable (likely to persist), uncontrollable cause. Students may want to consider: 1) What types of attributions encourage persistence in the face of failure. These are, in fact, effort, which is internal but also unstable and controllable, and luck and task difficulty, which are both usually perceived to be external, unstable and uncontrollable; 2) Why attributions of success to ability may be problematic for subsequent motivation. If effort is perceived to be unimportant it may decline and task performance may decline along with it; 3) The attributions that
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are necessary for the emotional experience of pride. Pride in success is dependent upon attributions to internal (ability and/or effort) causes. References: http://tip.psychology.org/weiner.html http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edpsybook/Edpsy5/Edpsy5_attribution.htm ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Emotional Language An interesting research article printed on January 12, 2003 by the APA states that: “At Ghent University, Guy Vingerhoets, Ph.D., Celine Berckmoes, M.S., and Nathalie Stroobant, M.S., knew that the left brain is dominant for language, and the right brain is dominant for emotion. But what happens when the brain is faced with emotional language? To find out, the researchers used Transcranial Doppler Ultrasonography (ultrasound), an inexpensive, non-invasive and patient-friendly way to measure blood-flow velocity in the brain’s left and right middle cerebral arteries—an indicator of activity level because neurons, to work, need blood-borne glucose and oxygen.” The researchers asked 36 participants, hooked up to ultrasound monitors, to identify the emotion conveyed in dozens of pre-recorded sentences. Vingerhoets et al. asked participants either to focus on the actual words (semantics) of the sentences, or to focus on the emotion conveyed by how they were spoken, in tone and intensity (prosody). As they listened to the sentences, participants pointed to the appropriate emotion on a card listing them, using both fingers to minimize setting off one side of the brain only (because body movement on one side is controlled by the brain’s opposite side). Vingerhoets et al. found that when participants were asked to focus on what was said—semantics—blood flow velocity went up significantly on the left side of the brain. When participants shifted attention to how it was said—tone of voice, whether happy, sad, anxious, angry or neutral—velocity also went up markedly on the right side of the brain. However, it did not go down on the left—probably, say the researchers, because the left brain processes meaningful semantic content automatically and also helps to label the emotions. Thus, physical evidence has revealed that the right hemisphere, while indeed the brain’s more “emotional” side, is not solely responsible for processing the expression of emotions. “Understanding emotional prosody,” says Vingerhoets, “appears to activate right hemispheric brain regions.” However, the left brain stays active to categorize or label the emotion—as befits its dominance in language processing. “Even if you pay attention to the ‘how’ information,” says Vingerhoets, “you can’t help hearing the semantic content, the ‘what’ of the message. We do this all the time; we are trained in it.” Reference: “Cerebral Hemodynamics During Discrimination of Prosodic and Semantic Emotion in Speech Studied by Transcranial Doppler Ultrasonography,” Guy Vingerhoets, Ph.D.; Celine Berckmoes, M.S.; and Nathalie Stroobant, M.S., Ghent University; Neuropsychology, 17(1).
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▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Mood Awareness Emotional intelligence (a broad collection of abilities related to understanding and utilizing affect) and alexithymia (a stunted awareness of one’s emotional states) have been “hot topics” recently in both the popular press and scientific circles. These notions share a common component, that awareness of one’s moods and emotions can contribute to successful mood regulation. This idea has been pursued in a recent set of empirical studies. Mood awareness refers to individual differences in attention directed toward one’s mood states. It is measured by the Mood Awareness Scale (MAS; Swinkels & Giuliano, 1995), a reliable 10-item measure composed of two related but distinct dimensions: mood labeling and mood monitoring. Mood labeling refers to the ability to identify and categorize one’s mood states, whereas mood monitoring refers to the tendency to focus on, evaluate, or scrutinize one’s mood. The processes of mood labeling and mood monitoring may be better understood by an analogy. There is a marked difference in the approaches used by a physician and by a hypochondriac when trying to assess states of health. The physician, because of training, experience, or insight, is usually successful in making an accurate diagnosis of an illness and recommending some course of treatment. In other words, the medical condition is diagnosed or categorized fairly readily, and steps are then taken to remedy the complaint (e.g., “take two aspirin and call me in the morning”) or maintain the state of health (e.g., “keep jogging to work every day”). In contrast, hypochondriacs are quite concerned about the state of their physical health, and in fact may become preoccupied with keeping track of their health status. A process of monitoring physical symptoms and checking for the onset of illness may become an ongoing ritual. The problem, of course, is that although hypochondriacs may be vigilant in checking their health, they are apt to be misled many times about their condition. In other words, they check on their physical states often, but may not reach a satisfactory or final judgment about their health, concluding instead that they are suffering from some vague bodily complaint. Several studies have demonstrated that labeling and monitoring exert different influences on other mood- relevant variables. For example, in comparison with low mood labelers, high mood labelers tend to seek and be satisfied with social support, experience positive affect, have higher levels of self-esteem, be extraverted, be less socially anxious or neurotic, and express greater global life satisfaction. High (as compared with low) mood monitors, by contrast, tend to experience more intense affective states, experience greater negative affect, have lower self-esteem, and report neurotic tendencies. Various other studies have investigated the role of mood awareness in: depression; self-views; reactions to life stress; self-reported physical symptoms; intelligence and cognitive abilities; and numerous other personality dimensions. More importantly, mood monitoring and mood labeling play a role in the process of mood regulation. Most people are motivated to sustain a positive mood (mood maintenance) or change a negative one (mood repair), although monitors and labelers might be more or less successful at this task. One study (Swinkels & Giuliano, 1995, Study 4), for example, found that although high mood monitors agreed that their moods influenced their behaviour and were important to them, they reported less success at regulating their negative mood states. Another study (Giuliano, 1995) found that the ability of mood labelers and mood monitors to repair their negative moods over time differed. High labelers were able to take relatively quick action to alter their mood states, whereas high monitors tended to wallow in their negative moods for a longer period of time.
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The reason for these differences can be understood by returning to the medical analogy. The act of labeling something implies that it becomes identified or categorized for further use. The physician who has made an accurate diagnosis now knows the likely course and duration of the illness, the available treatments, and the number of subsequent office visits for which the patient can be billed. In this sense mood labelling should generally promote constructive thought and behaviour in regard to one’s feelings. A mood that is readily labeled is a mood that does not need to be dwelt upon in order to be understood: the mood state has been identified and the stage presumably is set for acting on that mood in some way. In contrast, monitoring implies a certain degree of vigilance by an individual, which may or may not be productive. Like the hypochondriac who is nervously attuned to each twitch and tremor of his or her body, mood monitoring would imply a similar type of examination of or dwelling upon one’s mood; for some, perhaps, to the point of unhealthfulness, but for most out of a simple concern with tracking the progress of one’s feelings. The difficulty with mood monitoring, then, is that it may contribute to becoming absorbed in one’s mood state, much like the overconcern with physical health experienced by the hypochondriac. The high mood monitor may check on his or her moods often, and be quite vigilant in doing so, yet may still remain a bit confused about the nature of the mood state. Just as the accuracy of the hypochondriac’s diagnoses may be clouded by numerous false alarms or uncertainty about the nature of the discomfort, so too may the high mood monitor’s judgments of his or her mood be clouded by too great an absorption in the mood state itself. In the case of bad moods, this absorption may produce prolonged negative affect. References: Giuliano, T. A. (1995, August). Mood awareness predicts mood change over time. Presented at the 103rd Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, New York. Swinkels, A. (1993, August). Exploring the role of mood awareness in mood regulation. In D. Tice (Chair), Self-regulation of mood and emotion. Symposium conducted at the 101st Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto. Swinkels, A., & Giuliano, T. A. (1995). The measurement and conceptualization of mood awareness: Monitoring and labeling one’s mood states. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 934– 949. Swinkels, A., Giuliano, T. A., & Helweg-Larsen, M. (1996, August). Assessing mood awareness in diverse groups. Presented at the 104th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto. Swinkels, A., & Giuliano, T. A. (1992a). Mood awareness and self-regulation. Presented at the Fourth Annual Convention of the American Psychological Society, San Diego, California. Swinkels, A., & Giuliano, T. A. (1992b). [Mood clash: Negotiating interpersonal affect]. Unpublished research data.
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▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Miles of Smiles The Mona Lisa has a famous one. Your dentist encourages you to preserve yours. Jimmy Carter got elected using his. What could be more beguiling, more disarming, than a smile...and yet, more complicated? Laypeople, and many scientists, would argue that a smile is a smile is a smile. Just as happiness is a pretty uncomplicated emotion, so too is its expression. Indeed, cross-cultural research has found that expressions of happiness are most easily and most accurately detected by members of a variety of cultures (Ekman, 1984). Yet research has also demonstrated that smiles come in many varieties, many of which signal particular internal states. For example, the smile that accompanies enjoyment (once called a “felt” smile; see Ekman & Friesen, 1982, and Frank, Ekman, & Friesen, 1993) is characterized not only by the action of the zygomatic major muscle (which serves to pull the lip corners up and back) but more importantly is characterized by the action of the obicularis oculi. This muscle surrounds the eye and produces the slight squinting and “crow’s feet” seen in the eye region when happiness is displayed. This particular smile of enjoyment has been dubbed the “Duchenne smile,” in honor of G. B. Duchenne de Bologne, the French anatomist who originally postulated its existence (Duchenne, 1862/1990). In other cases, different smiles, with different corresponding facial actions, can signal other affective states. For example, Paul Ekman, Wally Friesen, and Maureen O’Sullivan (1988) studied the smiles shown by nurses who either told the truth or lied about a videotape they were watching. Whereas the smile of enjoyment could be detected (using the Facial Action Coding System) when the nurses truthfully related their positive experiences, “masking” smiles could be measured when the nurses lied. These types of smiles showed the action of the zygomaticus major, but also contained facial muscle actions shown when negative emotions such as disgust, anger, or sadness, are displayed. If considered at a surface level, however (“Is this person smiling?”), the differences in the muscle actions would be difficult to detect by an untrained observer. Ekman has also discussed the embarrassment smile, qualifier smile, coordination smile, Chaplin smile, dampened smile, miserable smile, compliance smile, and listener response smile as variants on this supposedly simple facial action (Ekman, 1985). The picture that emerges is that there is substantial research still called for, especially across cultures, to determine when a smile is just a smile. References: Duchenne, G. B. (1990). The mechanism of human facial expression or an electro-physiological analysis of the expression of the emotions (A. Cuthbertson, Trans). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 1862) Ekman, P. (1982). Emotion in the human face (2nd ed). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Ekman, P. (1985). Telling lies. New York: Norton. Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1982). Felt, false, and miserable smiles. Journal of Nonverbal Behaviour, 6, 238–252. Ekman, P., Friesen, W. V., & O’Sullivan, M. (1988). Smiles when lying. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 414–420. Frank, M. G., Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1993). Behavioural markers and recognizability of the smile of enjoyment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 83–93. .. 594
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▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Why Don’t We Learn to Detect Deception? Research indicates that there is little, if any, relationship between our confidence in our abilities to detect lies and our actual ability to do so. Students may want to consider detecting lies within the “Great Fourfold Table of Life.” It is possible that our overestimates result from a selective focus on those lies we have detected; these may be cognitively available to us and inflate our estimates of our own accuracy. In contrast, we may focus less on our “hit rate” with detecting the many truths we encounter daily. In fact, Ekman, O’Sullivan and Frank (1999) found that whereas federal officers correctly identified 80% of lies, they only detected 66% of truths. Reference: www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/05/990528003127.htm ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: What Fuelled Misperceptions of Self-Esteem? The myth of self-esteem seems to have been fueled, in part, by the confusion of correlations with causation. But other factors also contributed to its illusory influence. For example, early research suggested that high self-esteem was related to physical attractiveness and popularity, whereas low selfesteem was related to prejudice. In fact, there is no relationship between self-esteem and actual attractiveness and popularity. Students may want to consider this as a third variable problem: A systematic bias toward describing/perceiving oneself positively influenced both self-esteem scores and physical and social self-perceptions. With regard to self-esteem and prejudice toward outgroups, again this may be evaluated in terms of the Great Fourfold Table. Persons with high and low self-esteem should be compared not just in how they rate outgroup members, but also in terms of how they rate ingroup members. In fact, low self-esteem persons distinguish between ingroup and outgroup members less strongly than do those with high self-esteem. From this perspective, high self-esteem persons would be characterized as more prejudiced. Reference: www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=000CB565-F330-11BE-AD0683414B7F0000&page=5
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Lecture/Discussion: Motivation in the Marketplace The goal of advertising is to motivate the consumer to buy products. There are three basic components to the advertising strategies used to get you to part with your money. They are the following: The Audience In marketing the audience is called the “target market.” These people are the actual or potential buyers of the product. They can be either the decision makers or people who influence the person who makes the actual buying decision. For example, parents purchase goods for their children, but children often have a significant influence on the products their parents buy. Sometimes advertising is aimed at trying to change or enlarge the market, such as the makers of a certain automobile finding that most of their buyers are older. Because of that finding, the manufacturers may change their advertising strategy to target a younger population. The “baby boom” generation is currently between the ages of about forty and fifty years old and provides a very lucrative market, because of its large numbers and relative affluence. The Message There are two components of any motivational message. There is the verbal (or written) message and the nonverbal message. The nonverbal message is subtler, not directly stated, but nonetheless implied by the contents of the message. The nonverbal message may be transmitted by the background against which the product is displayed, such as the American flag, the shelves of impressive books, the beautiful home, the spacious office, or the cozy bar. All of these project a desirable image. The nonverbal message can also include clothes, facial expressions, and body language of the actors or models involved in producing the message. In the United States, this might include the presence of the family dog. The Communicator The communicator is the person who delivers the message or who is the central figure in print advertising. One characteristic of persuasive communicators is their credibility—the reputation of the individual as believable, as an expert or authority in his or her field. Attractiveness is another characteristic that advertisers exploit. This may mean that the person is admired as an actor, athlete, or musician, or as a person who has been outstandingly successful for whatever he or she is known. Sometimes the communicator is an individual that potential buyers can identify with, “a person just like me!” Recognizing these three components of advertisements can help us better understand why individual advertisements are constructed the way they are and help us be more critical of, and less susceptible to, their message. Now let us look at a few specific examples. Automobiles The Audience
Every car has its own intended market. How many 70-year-olds do you see driving Corvettes? Who is the market for a Cadillac? For BMWs? For pickup trucks? Car makers are sophisticated in targeting sexes, ages, and income groups in their advertisements. The Message
The verbal message may involve such issues as value, gas mileage, dependability, safety, performance, and prestige. The nonverbal messages may be far more potent and persuasive, exploiting such motives as sex appeal, social status, power, envy, success, and confidence. Backdrops of polo matches and mansions imply wealth; steelyards and factories imply durability; and bright lights and tall buildings imply success. For Americans, especially males, the automobile is almost an extension of one’s self. Cars convey an image of ourselves, as we would like others to perceive us.
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The Communicator
Individuals in automobile advertisements are usually very attractive, modeling the sort of person the buyer would want to be. Occasionally, the communicator is someone expected to know a lot about cars, such as a famous race car driver or greasy mechanic. Beer The Audience
The audience for beer is middle- and working-class males, “good ol’ boys” who like to get together to go fishing, watch football games, or play pool. Females appear in beer commercials, but often only as props. Beer is a man’s drink, and women are often targeted with other beverages such as wine coolers. The Message
Beer is associated with good times. Young, attractive, healthy people are often seen running around beaches, attending terrific parties, and engaging in thrill-seeking sports. People who drink beer can also be portrayed as “down to earth” folk, just like you. These “normal” people are more likely to sit in the kitchen or the backyard than in a formal setting, and they eat hamburgers and apple pie. The motivation for drinking beer is to have good friends and to have good times with them, to reward yourself at the end of the day with a beer or two while watching ball games. The Communicator
Most often, a male without a necktie, or at least a loosened tie, possibly in a flannel work shirt, touts the beer. He is a good “All-American,” man’s man. He knows how to hunt and fish, is a skilled athlete, can fix cars, and is not afraid of an honest day’s work. You might have your class discuss other products such as pain relievers, colas, and clothes. Have your class use their critical thinking skills to figure out the advertiser’s motivation the next time that they see an advertisement. They might want to ask themselves the following questions: • • • • • • • •
Am I a member of the target audience? Is the product really special and different, or just trying to be? What claims does the advertisement make of the product? How are the claims substantiated? If statistics are used, are they used fairly? If the product is compared to another, is it compared to a relevant product in a reasonable way? What are the nonverbal messages that the advertisement tries to impart? How were the communicators chosen to maximize impact and believability? What need does the product fill? Is the need real, or created by the advertisement?
Finally, advertising is not all bad. If it was, it might not be allowed. Ask your class why advertisements are legal, although their only purpose is to influence people to do things that they might not do without advertisements. One positive aspect of advertisements is their informational value. They alert consumers to the presence of new products and to legitimate differences among exiting products. Are there others? In closing, remember what the Romans said, “Caveat emptor!” (Let the buyer beware).
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▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Extrinsic Rewards May Spoil Pleasure The following tale is useful as a lead-in to a discussion of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards: An Italian shoemaker in New York became the target of epithets shouted gleefully by boys in the neighbourhood. “Dirty wop!,” “Greaseball, go back to Sicily!,” and other obscenities not fit for print. The boys were a general nuisance and disrupted business. The shoemaker ignored the boys in vain. He tried to reason with them, and he tried to chase them away, all to no avail. One day when he saw them approaching, the shoemaker tried a new approach. “Don’t ask me why,” said the shoemaker to the boys, “but I will give each one of you 50 cents if you will shout, “Dirty wop! No greaseballs in our neighbourhood!” as loud as you can.” The boys were delighted and enthusiastically shouted the phrases at the top of their lungs. The next day, right after school, the boys reappeared, expecting more of the same. The shoemaker met them with a smile and said, “You did such a wonderful job yesterday, I will gladly pay 50 cents to each of you that shouts the same things that you did yesterday, and makes up one new one.” Again, the boys complied, screaming at the top of their lungs until they were hoarse. The boys appeared the third day, and again the shoemaker met them with a smile. Nevertheless, today he was apologetic. “I am sorry,” he said, “but business has been slow. You put on a marvellous show yesterday, but all that I can afford today is a nickel.” The boys obliged by shouting the epithets with somewhat less enthusiasm than they had the day before. On the fourth day, the boys appeared right on schedule. Again, the shoemaker met them apologetically. “The show that you put on yesterday was indeed worth it, but business is so bad that I cannot afford to pay you today.” At this point, so the story goes, the boys grumbled that they had better things to do than entertain a dumb Italian, and wandered off, never to be seen again. Why did this approach at changing the boys’ behaviour work when none other had? It worked because it changed what had been an intrinsically rewarding activity into an activity that was done for an extrinsic monetary reward. Then, when the extrinsic reward was removed, the boys no longer had intrinsic or extrinsic motivation to engage in the problem behaviour. In simple terms, the fun was taken out of it. Psychologist Mark Lepper offers the following conclusions about the research and theory on the effects of reward on subsequent motivation: • •
Punishment is usually thought to create compliant behaviour change without internalization of the underlying attitudes, values, morality, or principles. Reward has been assumed to enhance likelihood that the desired behaviour change will be internalized. Festinger’s dissonance theory clearly distinguishes between public compliance and private acceptance in terms of the person’s perception of the external versus internal locus of pressure to behave in the given way. Private acceptance (internalized behaviour change) involves the actor believing he or she had sufficient freedom of decision to refuse to do a behaviour and that the decision was not overdetermined by threats, incentives, or someone else’s justification.
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• • •
When extrinsic rewards are imposed on an activity that was formerly freely chosen because of its intrinsic value to the child, subsequent motivation to engage in that activity is reduced. This is true for task-contingent rewards. Performance-contingent rewards do not necessarily undermine intrinsic motivation as task- contingent rewards do. The greatest loss of intrinsic motivation comes when the pupil perceives his or her task behaviour to be under surveillance and extrinsically rewarded.
▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Peak Experiences and Psychological FLOW In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and the concept of self-actualization, one of the defining elements of self- actualization is having peak experiences or experiences that can best be defined as mystic or profound in nature. Humanism often suffers the criticism of being vague and untestable, and many of Maslow’s descriptions of human activities certainly qualify. To the best of descriptive powers, then, peak experiences can be thought of as a kind of oceanic feeling. The individual at once feels focused yet open to unlimited experiences, powerful yet weak, ecstatic, and as though time and space have slowed or stopped. These feelings are apparently experienced without a specific link back to the self, so that the feeling, rather than the feeler, is the source of the experience. Peak experiences generally lead to the perception that something important has happened, possibly that can change one’s direction in life. In general, peak experiences are a momentary loss or transcendence of the self, during which a kind of revelation is experienced. Maslow thought that most people could have peak experiences, although they were more common among those who were self-actualized. Similarly, Maslow argued that a number of different circumstances could trigger peak experiences, from communing with nature to listening to classical music to insightfully solving a problem to orgasm. Apparently, there is hope for us all, both to climb the hierarchy to self- actualization and to glimpse the infinite in a peak experience. An experience that has been connected to peak experiences is the concept of psychological flow as defined by Csikszentmihalyi (1991) as a state of optimal experience in which people are so involved in an activity that they are unaware of anything else. Flow typically is connected to participation in an activity and working toward a goal. Students can often relate to an experience of flow. Handout Master 11.1 can be used to facilitate a discussion of the characteristics of psychological FLOW: References: Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1991). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: HarperCollins Perennial. Maslow, A. H. (1976). Religion, values, and peak experiences. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books.
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▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Achievement and Motivation What is achievement? A passable working definition is the development of motives, capabilities, interests, and behaviours that have to do with performance in evaluative situations. How does that pertain to the average child or adolescent in a realistic format? Achievement is an important concept for all of us relative to issues such as • • • •
grades during our school years; scores on college entrance exams; ability to pass a football or hit a softball; and engaging in appropriate social behaviour (to be popular).
These are all examples of achievements, but where or how does achievement become relevant to us? First, it is important for all of us in terms of the need for achievement (n Ach), the degree to which the individual strives for success. The need for achievement is based on expectancy theory. McClelland explained achievement motivation as the need to perform the difficult as well and as quickly as possible. In 1983, Spence and Helmreich identified three factors as contributing to achievement tendencies: work, mastery, and competition. Spence and Helmreich found that females scored higher on work and males scored higher on both mastery and competition. Have your class try to determine why. One reason is that they were well socialized into traditional gender roles. Do males and females have any tendency to adhere to specific patterns of motivation? Research by Dweck (1986) found the girls’ pattern of motivation differed from that of boys and that very bright females showed greater debilitation after failure; that is, they displayed greater decrements in motivation and performance than did other females or any males. Conversely, the brightest males showed facilitation following failure. Dweck posits that lower math achievement for females may be at least partially attributable to this difference in motivational patterns, because sex/gender differences in both math and motivation are greatest among the brightest students. Dweck also found that females show a lower preference for novel or challenging tasks than do males and that females are more likely to attribute their failure to lack of ability than are males. In addition to the determinants of achievement behaviour already mentioned, let us look at the cognitive determinants of this construct. Two factors that strongly impact what an individual is likely to achieve are the value placed on achievement of the goal and the expectation of achieving the goal. • •
An individual’s willingness to set high standards and work to attain them will fluctuate in accordance with how valuable the achievement is to them personally. Obviously, value then becomes a significant predictor of achievement behaviour. When dealing with children and adolescents, those who expect to succeed usually do, and those who do not expect to succeed usually do not.
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▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Good Carbs, Bad Carbs—Today’s Diet Plans Unless living in a cave somewhere, chances are most people have come across one of the new diet plans based on eating far less of the type of food the body uses for fuel, or carbohydrates. While human beings evolved eating carbohydrates in the form of roots, fruits, vegetables, and nuts as well as protein (meat and fish), it is relatively recent in the history of the human race that people started highly processing a lot of those carbohydrate foods. Rice was stripped of its husk and bran, as was wheat and other grains, leaving them tasty but of far less nutritive value. As people began to eat more and more of these highly processed starches, the fat started to pile on (Wolever et al., 1999). In the sixties, Dr. Atkins first proposed what was then a revolutionary idea: instead of eating the lowfat American Heart Association approved diet that emphasized eating more foods from the carbohydrate family of breads, grains, and other starches, he recommended that people wishing to lose weight should eat a diet high in protein and fat, and low in carbohydrates (Atkins, 1992). Several decades later, the Atkins diet has become so popular that major chain restaurants now offer special “Atkins Approved” sections on their menus. Researchers have found that the Atkins diet does work, at least in the short run (Westman, 2002). People lose weight rapidly at first for two reasons. The first is that a lot of water weight is lost in the first few weeks of any diet, as well as some muscle mass when carbohydrates are severely restricted. The other is that this diet theoretically causes the body, deprived of its normal carbohydrate fuel, to turn to burning off fat as fuel. This is actually a condition called ketosis, and is something that can happen in the medical condition called diabetes, a condition in which the pancreas does not produce enough insulin to counteract the blood sugar levels (Goodwin, 1999). Although the normal body fuel is glucose (sugar), when there isn’t enough glucose in the bloodstream, fat will be burned instead. When fats are used as fuel excessively, they convert to ketones, highly acidic substances that can, in excess amounts, make the blood highly acidic. This can lead to kidney damage and a host of other undesirable side effects. (Although a diabetic has higher than normal glucose levels, the lack of insulin prevents this glucose from being burned as fuel.) Ketosis is very likely to happen with high-protein, low-carbohydrate diets, a fact that the Atkins diet relies upon. Is the Atkins diet unhealthy? The jury is still out. Although researchers have found no short-term ill effects such as raised cholesterol, the long-term effects have yet to be determined. One recent study (Foster et al., 2003) found that although the Atkins diet did produce more initial weight loss than a traditional low-fat diet, after one year there were no differences between subjects in total weight loss. There are many other versions of low-carbohydrate diets on the market, but the more recent ones such as the South Beach Diet (Agatston, 2003) advocate knowing the difference between “good” fats (olive oil and canola oil, for example) and “bad” fats (butter and margarine), “good” carbohydrates (whole grain breads, brown rice, vegetables, and most fruits) and “bad” carbohydrates (highly refined and processed foods such as white bread, white rice, and white potatoes). The body needs fats, proteins, and carbohydrates, but there are healthy choices that can be made within those categories. In most of the newer diets, rather than eating a high-fat, high-protein, and low-carbohydrate diet, people are supposed to eat moderate fats of the good kind, lean meats and fish, and carbohydrates that are processed by the body more slowly and therefore less likely to trigger the pancreas into releasing a lot of insulin at once. When a person eats the more processed carbohydrates such as pasta and white bread, the sugar from that starch is released quickly into the bloodstream, triggering the insulin response. The .. 601
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insulin “over-reacts” by reducing the level of sugar in the bloodstream to below normal levels, which causes a low-blood sugar signal to the brain that says, “I’m starving, let’s eat!” even though dinner might have been only an hour ago. Known as the “glycemic reaction,” this fast-rising insulin reaction is at the heart of many of the newer diets. The “good” carbs, as they are commonly called, are less refined and produce a much slower rise in blood sugar, causing insulin levels to react much more slowly. With slower insulin reaction, there is no low-blood sugar hunger reaction, and overeating becomes less likely. Questions for Further Discussion: 1. Is rapid weight loss a good thing? 2. What is the role of exercise in weight loss? 3. If the Atkins diet and others like it were introduced in the seventies and were successful, why wasn’t everyone doing it from then until now? 4. Does “thin” equal “healthy”? ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Anorexia Nervosa There is little empirical data to address the various proposed etiologies for anorexia nervosa. To fill this gap in our understanding of this disorder, Ellen Walters and Kenneth Kendler conducted a study of 2,163 Caucasian female same-sex twins selected through a Virginia twin registry. Structured interviews provided the data for the study. In order to determine whether the twins were identical or fraternal, the researchers used a series of standard questions and blood typing in uncertain cases. The average age of the twin sample was 30 years. The lifetime prevalence of several disorders was ascertained using DSMIIIR criteria: anorexia nervosa, major depression, bulimia nervosa, alcoholism, panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and phobias. The researchers used three diagnostic approaches to assessing anorexia nervosa. These included a computer narrow procedure (based on DSM-IIIR criteria), a clinical narrow approach (for a definite or probable diagnosis based on all available information), and a clinical broad approach (for definite, probable, or possible cases of anorexia nervosa). A possible diagnosis means that some of the criteria for anorexia were not met; however, there were anorexic-like features that were outside the bounds of the normal range of weight-related problems. The lifetime prevalence using these three approaches were computer narrow (51%), clinical narrow percent), and clinical broad (3.70%). The age of onset of anorexia nervosa was approximately 19 years. The computer narrow group met all the diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa including being 15% underweight, a fear of becoming fat, and feeling that they were fat even though they were thin. Almost 100% of the women across the three groups met the criterion of fear of becoming fat despite being substantially underweight. Anorexia nervosa was associated with several factors: dieting, greater number of years of parental education, low self-esteem, high levels of neuroticism, and maternal overprotectiveness. The researchers concluded that classic, narrowly defined anorexia nervosa is relatively rare in women (lifetime prevalence of about 0.5%). However, a substantial number of women reported anorexic-like syndromes (more than 3%). The results are consistent with other findings of greater prevalence of anorexic symptoms among higher socioeconomic classes (based on the association with parental education).
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Women with a history of anorexia nervosa had significant comorbidity that included major depression, bulimia nervosa, generalized anxiety disorder, alcoholism, phobias, and panic disorder. The co-twins of those with anorexia had an elevated risk for anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, major depression, and current low body-mass index. Anorexia and bulimia seem to share common familial etiologic factors with major depression and bulimia; however, the breakdown between genetic and environmental influences could not be determined from this study. References: Walters, E. E., & Kendler, K. S. (1995). Anorexia nervosa and anorexic-like syndromes in a population-based female twin sample. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 64-071. Davis, S. F., & Palladino, J. J. (1994) Interactions: A newsletter to accompany Psychology, 1(Win), 2. ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Where Does Folk Wisdom Come From? Two of the most commonly heard pronouncements about love are that 1) “Beauty is in the eye of the beholder,” and 2) “Opposites Attract.” Given that both of these assertions are incorrect, students may want to consider why they may be so widely believed. For instance, people may have noticed that others disagree on whom they find most attractive. The frequency of these discrepancies in judgment may be overestimated due to their distinctiveness and consequent availability. Or persons may fail to recognize that these discrepancies are due to differences in familiarity with or liking for the target. In this case, more “objective” judgments may differ from more “subjective” ones. With regard to similarity, persons may also tend to notice (confirmation bias) and remember (availability heuristic) attributes that differentiate between romantic partners; they may fail to notice the many characteristics that they share in common. Reference: www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~wwu/psychology/attraction.shtml
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▼ CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Physiological Experiences and Emotion Vocal Cues and Emotion Display Rules of Emotion Assessment Tiny Fast Faces Smile When You Say That Gender Differences in Sensation Seeking The Physiological Basis of Lie Detection Detecting Terrorists at Airports Positive Psychology Motives Behind Daily Activities Comparison of Theories of Motivation Lookin’ for Love Sternberg Triangular Theory of Love Scale Fill-in-the-Blanks
▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Physiological Experiences and Emotion Stephen Kosslyn, Harvard University, has developed an illustration of the physiology of emotion. You will need something that can make a loud noise; I use a metal yardstick. I highly recommend that you practice this demo so that you get the timing just right. At the beginning of class, ask students to relax and close their eyes and tell them that you’d like to imagine themselves in the following situation. Read the following to students, increasing your volume and speed of speech as the event becomes “scarier.” At the end of the passage, SMACK the yardstick on the chalkboard or desk to create a classroom startle-response! You arrive at the county fair. It is a beautiful, crisp autumn night and the smell of popcorn and cotton candy is in the air. You walk over to the ferris wheel and hand the carnival man your ticket. You climb on the ferris wheel seat and pull down the bar across your lap. The ride begins and you soar up up up to the top. The breeze is chilled but exhilarating. You reach the top and you stop. Your seat begins swinging. You look down and you see that all of the lights are now turned off and no one is around. “Where is everyone?” you think. “How am I going to get down?” The only sound you hear is the sound of the wind at the top of the ferris wheel and the creak, creak, creaking of your swinging car. Now you notice that your car will not stop swinging. You try to stop it, but it only swings more. You look at the bar across your lap and notice that it does not latch. You nervously try to latch it to the car as you are swinging but it won’t latch. You look down and notice that one of the bolts has broken off, and your car is beginning to shift downward and no one is around. Then you hear a sound of metal whining and scraping and it’s coming from the side of your car. You look and see the bolt bending and oh my God the car is tilting tilting downward and BANG!!
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Your students should jump in their seats, and you’ll probably get a few screams, following by some laughter. Immediately ask students how they feel, physiologically. They will probably report their heart is racing and some will have sweaty palms. Ask them how they feel emotionally. Most will say they felt scared but then relieved and happy. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Vocal Cues and Emotion Several of your students have probably heard “I love you” said to them in a way that meant anything but the connotation of those words. Words are the meat and potatoes of oral communication, but paralanguage adds the spice. “I love you” could be the prelude to a breakup, a response made out of fear, a drunken slur between friends, a statement of empathy, or the expression of a genuine sentiment. Vocal cues, such as inflection, tone, speech rate, or pitch, convey much of the meaning behind words. Your students can demonstrate this with a simple exercise. Ask students to stand at the front of class in pairs, and tell them that their job is to communicate different emotional states to one another. (You might have one pair demonstrate this for the rest of the class, or use different pairs of people for different sets of emotions, or have partners within a pair trade-off.) Here are the rules. First, the students must stand back-to-back, facing away from one another. Second, the person communicating the emotion is allowed to use only one statement: “These pretzels are making me thirsty.” Hearing this phrase only, it is the partner’s job to guess each of the following emotions: anger concern fear
excitement affection sympathy
dejection protection love
disgust pleasure frustration
joy sadness hate
Given the restrictions of the rules, students often are surprised to find that they guess any of the emotions correctly; in fact, they’ll probably identify a significant number of them. That’s because the vocal expression of emotion is found in paralinguistic cues rather than the actual speech content. Studies of content-free filtered speech demonstrate that nervousness, anger, sadness, and happiness are the easiest emotions to detect from vocal cues alone, whereas surprise, fear, and love are much more difficult. Have students keep track of the number and type of emotions successfully communicated, and use this as a basis for discussing paralanguage. Reference: Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (1995). Nonverbal behaviour in interpersonal relations (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Display Rules of Emotion Assessment Objective: To increase students’ awareness of the display rules for emotions in various social groups. Materials: Handout Master 11.2 Procedures: Students should follow instructions on the handout.
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▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Tiny Fast Faces Collecting people’s judgments of facial expressions of emotion in the laboratory is a fairly easy task. Typically, subjects are given clearly visible depictions of faces and ample time to make their judgments. In real life, however, facial expressions must often be judged from greater distances or with very little time. This demonstration examines how recognition accuracy is affected when image size or image duration are changed. To prepare this demonstration you’ll need pictures of facial expressions. One source is Ekman and Friesen’s Unmasking the Face; pages 175 to 201 contain photographs of facial expressions. Additional sources include textbooks, newspapers or magazines, or posed photographs taken of friends and colleagues. Be sure that the six primary emotions expressed are clear and accurately portrayed. To demonstrate the effects of image size on judgments use a photocopier to successively reduce the pictures to half-size, quarter-size, or as many increments as you’d like. Next, make transparencies of all the facial expressions and bring them to class. From here you can make the procedure as simple or elaborate as you’d like. For instance, at the simple end you might present one example of each facial expression at original, half-, and quarter-size, varied randomly across the 18 presentations (6 depictions x 3 sizes). More elaborate strategies would include using more image sizes and/or more depictions of each expression. (Ultra-elaborate strategies would involve complete counterbalancing using a doublereverse, triple-hammerlock design...) Be sure to keep the exposure time relatively constant. Your students’ task is to simply identify which of the six primary emotions (happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, or surprise) is depicted in each case. If your students are like the subjects in Paul Ekman, Karen Brattesani, Maureen O’Sullivan, and Wally Friesen’s experiment they should have little trouble identifying the faces. These researchers varied image size between one-fifth that of a normal human face to twice the area of a typical human face, and found that little information was lost when subjects viewed the small facial expressions. Similarly, Joe Hager and Paul Ekman demonstrated that at distances between the observer and expressor of 30, 35, 40, or 45 meters, observers could maintain high rates of accuracy. However, this was especially true for the positive affects of happiness and surprise. Interestingly, a man’s expression of anger was judged equally well as the positive affects, even at 45 meters. Extrapolating from the data, Hager and Ekman estimated that recognition accuracy could be maintained at distances up to 100 meters, beyond the range that hand- propelled weapons could be thrown. To demonstrate the effects of image duration on judgments choose one set of pictures (i.e., the full-size set or perhaps the half-size set). The presentation of the faces can again be as simple or elaborate as you’d like. At the elaborate end, for example, you could purchase Ekman’s Pictures of Facial Affect (a set of more than 100 slides of facial expressions) and display them using a timer-driven slide projector. At the simple end, you can re use the transparencies and develop a quick wrist to cover and uncover the overheads rapidly! In any event, present a series of expressions with a very short duration and have students identify the expressions. If your students are like the subjects in Gilles Kirouac and François Doré’s experiment their accuracy should be quite good. Kirouac and Doré varied exposures between 10 and 50 milliseconds and found that 1) as duration increased, accuracy increased; 2) at 40 msec accuracy rates were already in the 60 to 80% range, and 3) happiness showed the highest accuracy (about 83%) at 30, 40, or 50 msec, whereas disgust showed comparatively worse accuracy (about 60%). An earlier study by these authors found accuracy rates in the 80 to 90% range using a 10-second exposure time. In short (literally!), brief exposures do not seem to hinder recognition of facial expressions of emotion. .. 606
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Of course, your students may not be like the subjects in any of these experiments. Examine their accuracy rates for different types of presentations. Discuss with your students why some facial expressions remain easy to identify even from far away or with short durations. What adaptive significance might this have? Why is it more adaptive to be able to recognize the “all is well” message of a smile or the “I’m going to kill you” message of anger from a greater distance, than it is the “I’m in distress” message of a sadness expression? References: Hager, J. C., & Ekman, P. (1979). Long-distance transmission of facial affect signals. Ethology and Sociobiology, 1, 77–82. Ekman, P. (1976). Pictures of facial affect. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Ekman, P., Brattesani, K. A., O’Sullivan, M., & Friesen, W. V. (1979). Does image size affect judgments of the face? Journal of Nonverbal Behaviour, 4, 57–61. Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1975). Unmasking the face. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kirouac, G., & Doré, F. Y. (1984). Judgment of facial expressions of emotion as a function of exposure time. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 59, 147–150. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Smile When You Say That Language and emotion are often examined by focusing on cultural differences for describing affective states. But language and emotion are linked in another way, one that capitalizes on the metaphors we use for feeling states. Several researchers, such as linguist George Lakoff, cognitive psychologist Andrew Ortony, or social psychologist Klaus Scherer, have noted the bond between the experience of emotion and the way we describe it to others. As just one example, when we’re angry we feel ready to blow up, our blood is boiling, and we need to let off steam. In other words, we’re likely to do a slow burn whenever we’re hot under the collar. Understandably, we’d have a short fuse if we were hotheaded, although eventually we’d simmer down once we’d stopped fuming. These metaphors are not accidental; the internal experience of anger is marked by a kind of agitated increase in internal pressure, much like the lid of a boiling pot bouncing up and down on a hot stove. In fact, George Lakoff and Zoltán Kövecses have detailed the many metaphors we use for anger. Anger is an internal pressure (bursting a blood vessel; eyes popping out), a particular area of the visible spectrum (seeing red; red in the face), an interference (can’t see straight; blind with rage), an explosion (hit the roof; blew my top; flipped my lid), a dangerous animal (snarling; hackles up; bite my head off), and, apparently, a precursor to insanity (fit to be tied; tearing my hair out; climbing the walls; foaming at the mouth; driving me crazy). The same can be said for other emotions: The metaphors we use for fear, sadness, happiness, surprise, and disgust try to capture the internal experience of those emotions. Have your students generate examples such as those just listed. As a start, consider how and when we talk about being cool, calm, and collected, or what gag me with a spoon is meant to convey, or why we’re frozen with fear, dumb with surprise, and jumping for joy. To make the activity more involved, have students work in small groups to categorize the metaphors within each emotion, as Lakoff and Kövecses did for anger. This activity can be a nice lead-in to talking about cultural similarities and differences in emotional experience (i.e., ask your bilingual students for other similar idioms and their meanings), or about the physiological components of emotion. It’s difficult to measure exactly what the body’s doing when various emotions are experienced, but our language can give us some insights: Boiling blood is unlikely to describe the experience of great happiness!
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References: Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lakoff, G, & Kövecses, Z. (1983). The cognitive model of anger inherent in American English. Berkeley Cognitive Science Report, 10. Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Collins, A. (1988). The cognitive structure of emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Gender Differences in Sensation-Seeking Objective: To examine gender differences in sensation-seeking. Materials: Handout Master 11.3 Procedures: Instruct students to use the handout to survey males and females about their sensationseeking behaviour. After collecting data from several people, students should calculate average sensation-seeking scores for males and females. You may want to build a class discussion around students’ survey results. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: The Physiological Basis of Lie Detection Your students will no doubt have heard of lie detectors and the lie detector test. Unfortunately, many of them will have concluded that the procedure is infallible, or widely used, or an accurate “pipeline to the truth.” A simple demonstration, along with reading the material in the textbook, will help disabuse them of these notions. The equipment needed for this demonstration is a polygraph that can record at least one (and preferably more) physiological responses, such as GSR, heart rate, respiration, or finger pulse volume. Chances are good that someone in your department has (or knows where to find, back in the dusty old storeroom) such a machine. If not, you might ask your colleagues in the Biology or Criminal Justice departments for a loan; at worst, a competent biologist could fairly easily rig up a simple GSR recorder. Ask for two student volunteers to be “suspects” in a murder case. Give each suspect an index card that has either “Not Guilty” written on it or “Guilty—You committed the murder with an ax in the living room.” Instruct each suspect to respond, “I don’t know” to all questions they will be asked. Next, hook up each suspect (one at a time) to the polygraph and allow some time for their activity levels to stabilize. Then administer a guilty-knowledge multiple-choice test in the following form:
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1) Was the murder committed in the:
a) b) c) d)
hallway? living room? dining room? kitchen?
2) Was the murder committed with:
a) b) c) d)
a pipe? a knife? an ax? a gun?
Be sure to mark the polygraph record as each question is asked and answered. Have students inspect the polygraph record and see if they can identify the guilty party, the scene of the crime, and the murder weapon. This demonstration is bound to succeed. If students fail to correctly identify the aspects of the crime, you’ve demonstrated the fallibility of the polygraph technique. If students are accurate, you’ve demonstrated the physiological basis of emotion and the rationale of the polygraph procedure. In either case, you’ll generate questions and discussion amongst your students. Reference: Diekhoff, G. (1993). Demonstrations and activities for Psychology. New York: Macmillan. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Detecting Terrorists at Airports In his article, Paul Ekman discusses the application of his work for the detection of terrorists at airports (Google “How to Spot a Terrorist on the Fly” by Paul Ekman, Washington Post, October 29, 2006). Students should consider potential applications of this scientific strategy, benefits it could bring to our society, and, also, what potential hazards (e.g., to civil liberties) of these advances. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Activity: Positive Psychology By visiting the Positive Psychology Center website at www.psych.upenn.edu/, instructors can find links to a variety of questionnaires associated with positive psychology topics such as happiness, resilience, optimism, and quality of life. Most of the questionnaires are easy to download from the website and they are quick and easy to administer. Many of these questionnaires can be used as an adjunct to the discussion of Maslow’s theory as well as the general concepts of positive psychology. A sample of the questionnaires are listed below:
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Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ) Curiosity and Exploration Inventory (CEI) Gratitude Questionnaire—6 (GQ-6) Inspiration Scale (IS) Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ) Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) Psychological Well-Being Scales Quality of Life Inventory (QOLI) ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Motives Behind Daily Activities Have students list 20 activities they have done in the past 48 hours and then classify each activity by its motive. Sources of motives might include: biological, need for arousal, social needs, selfactualization, need for achievement, intrinsic, or cognitive needs. Use Handout Master 11.4. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Comparison of Theories of Motivation Objective: To increase students’ understanding and retention of information about theories of motivation Materials: Handout Master 11.5 Procedures: Divide the class into small groups. Working together with their notes and textbooks, students should fill in the chart in the handout. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Lookin’ for Love This assignment gives your students experience at spotting some of the antecedents of interpersonal attraction, such as similarity and physical attractiveness, at work in real life. Have your students scan the personal ads of your local newspaper or weekly circular for evidence that everyday laypeople use the antecedents social psychologists have identified as being predictors of interpersonal attraction. The procedure for this brief written assignment can be as informal or elaborate as you’d like to make it. For example, we’ve had success by simply asking students to scan the ads and identify the most common antecedents used (similarity tends to be far and away most common: “I’m XYandZ, looking for same;” “I like this-n-that, hope you do too;” “Are you just like me? Let’s meet”). From there students discuss any patterns that they see, such as gender differences in the qualities advertised by the seeker and/or looked for in a partner, or differences in heterosexual versus homosexual ads, or simply examples of the difference antecedents and what makes them effective. A more elaborate project might involve taking a random sample of ads and content analyzing them for common themes. In the past, we’ve had students voluntarily compute statistics on an entire page of ads, giving frequencies for the number of times similarity, proximity, or physical characteristics were mentioned, by whom, for whom, and in what context. Personal ads are essentially archival data, and as such they can be analyzed with as much or as .. 610
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little sophistication as your students can handle. Regardless of the approach you adopt, have your students look at the Big Picture. Rather than merely listing examples of cute or clever ads, ask them to focus on what these ads reveal about lay conceptions of what works and what doesn’t when looking for love. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Sternberg Triangular Theory of Love Scale Students can review (or take) the Sternberg Triangular Theory of Love Scale presented in Handout 11.3. Students may want to consider the characteristics of relationships based on different combinations of factors (e.g., “fatuous love”), and also discuss why passionate love appears to decline with time. Students may also want to discuss whether current American culture overemphasizes the importance of passion for successful long-term partnerships. Reference: www.psychcentral.com/lib/2007/sternbergs-triangular-theory-of-love-scales/ ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Fill-in-the-Blanks (answers) Copy and distribute Handout Master 11.6 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment. Answers for the fill-in-the-blank activity: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
motivation Extrinsic motivation Instincts Needs drive drive reduction theory primary drives acquired secondary drives Homeostasis need for achievement need for affiliation need for power Stimulus motive Arousal theory sensation seeker incentives Self-actualization
18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.
Peak experiences intrinsic motivation insulin glucogen Obesity Anorexia nervosa Bulimia Leptin emotion common sense theory James-Lange theory Cannon-Bard theory cognitive arousal theory facial feedback hypothesis Cognitive mediational theory Positive Psychology movement
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▼ HANDOUT MASTERS FOR CHAPTER 11: EMOTION AND MOTIVATION ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Handout Master 11.1 Psychological Flow Handout Master 11.2 Display Rules of Emotion Assessment Handout Master 11.3 Gender Differences in Sensation Seeking Handout Master 11.4 Motives Behind Daily Activities Handout Master 11.5 Comparison of Theories of Motivation Handout Master 11.6 Fill-in-the-Blanks Activity
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Handout Master 11.1 Psychological Flow Essential elements: Complete absorption in the activity Merging of action and awareness Loss of self-consciousness A sense of control No goals or rewards external to the activity Effortless movement Factors facilitating flow: Positive mental attitude Confidence Positive thinking High motivation Positive affect Being relaxed Controlling anxiety Enjoying what you are doing Maintaining appropriate focus Staying in the present Very narrow focus Focusing on key points Readiness Well-trained Working hard Being wellprepared
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Factors disrupting flow: Mistakes Inability to maintain focus (interruptions, distractions) Negative mental attitude (negative self-talk; self-doubt; self-critical attitude) Adapted from: Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1991). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper-Collins Perennial. ▼Return to Activity: Psychological Flow ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 11.2 Display Rules for Emotions Assessment Below, you will see a table with four social groups across the top, and a list of emotions down the left side. Please tell us what you think people should do when they feel each of the emotions listed toward someone in each of the four situations when interacting with that person. At the top of the page is a list of seven possible responses for how one may behave in those situations. You may use whatever you deem most appropriate as the basis for your responses. For example, you may use what rules you think your culture has concerning these situations. Or you may use family rules or your own personal rules. Possible responses: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Express the feeling as is with no inhibitions. Express the feeling, but with less intensity than one’s true feelings. Express the feeling, but with more intensity than one’s true feelings. Try to remain neutral; express nothing. Express the feeling, but together with a smile to qualify one’s feelings. Smile only, with no trace of anything else, in order to hide one’s true feelings. Some other response.
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Family
Friends
Colleagues
Strangers
Sadness Anger Shock Contempt Joy Aversion Worry Happiness Disgust Gloomy Surprise Hostility Defiance Fear
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Handout Master 11.3 Gender Differences in Sensation Seeking Circle the choice A or B that better describes your feelings. 1.
A B
I would like a job that requires a lot of traveling. I would prefer a job in one location.
2.
A B
I am invigorated by a brisk, cold day. I can’t wait to get indoors on a cold day.
3.
A B
I get bored seeing the same old faces. I like the comfortable familiarity of everyday friends.
4.
A B
I would prefer living in an ideal society in which everyone is safe, secure, and happy. I would have preferred living in the unsettled days of our history.
5.
A B
I sometimes like to do things that are a little frightening. A sensible person avoids activities that are dangerous.
6.
A B
I would not like to be hypnotized. I would like to have the experience of being hypnotized.
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7.
A B
The most important goal of life is to live it to the fullest and experience as much as possible. The most important goal of life is to find peace and happiness.
8.
A B
I would like to try parachute-jumping. I would never want to try jumping out of a plane, with or without a parachute.
9.
A B
I enter cold water gradually, giving myself time to get used to it. I like to dive or jump right into the ocean or a cold pool.
10.
A B
When I go on a vacation, I prefer the comfort of a good room and bed. When I go on a vacation, I prefer the change of camping out.
11.
A B
I prefer people who are emotionally expressive even if they are a bit unstable. I prefer people who are calm and even-tempered.
12.
A B
A good painting should shock or jolt the senses. A good painting should give one a feeling of peace and security.
13.
A
People who ride motorcycles must have some kind of unconscious need to hurt themselves. I would like to drive or ride a motorcycle.
B
Count one point for each of the following items that you have circled: 1A, 2A, 3A, 4B, 5A, 6B, 7A, 8A, 9B, 10B, 11A, 12A, 13B. Add up your total and compare it with the norms: 0–3 Very low; 4–5 Low; 6–9 Average; 10–11 High; 12–13; Very high.
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Handout Master 11.4 Motives Behind Daily Activities List twenty activities you have done in the past forty-eight hours. Then classify each activity by its motive. Sources of motives might include: biological, need for arousal, social needs, selfactualization, need for achievement, intrinsic, or cognitive needs. Activity
Motive
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10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
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Handout Master 11.5 Comparison of Theories of Motivation Theory Instinct Theories
Main Ideas
Theorists and researchers:
Drive-reduction Theory Theorists and researchers:
Arousal Theory Theorists and researchers:
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Hierarchy of Needs Theorists and researchers:
▼Return to Activity: Comparison of Theories of Motivation ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 11.6 Fill-in-the-Blanks Activity 1. The process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met is known as . 2. is why a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person. 3. are the biologically-determined and innate patterns of behaviour that exist in both people and animals. 4. are the biologically-determined and innate patterns of behaviour that exist in both people and animals. 5. A psychological tension and physical arousal arising when there is a need that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill the need and reduce the tension is called a . 6. The approach to motivation assumes behaviour arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal. 7. Those drives that involve needs of the body such as hunger and thirst are known as . 8. Those drives that are learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval are known as . 9. is the tendency of the body to maintain a steady state. 10. The is a need that involves a strong desire to succeed in attaining goals, not only realistic ones but also challenging ones. 11. The________________ is the need for friendly social interactions and relationships with others. 12. The need to have control or influence over others is called the____________ __________________. 13. is a motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity. 14. is the theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation. 15. A is someone who needs more arousal than the average person. 16. The things that attract or lure people into action are called . 17. is, according to Maslow, the point that is seldom reached at which people have sufficiently satisfied the lower needs and achieved their full human potential. 18. are, according to Maslow, times in a person’s life during which self-actualization is temporarily achieved. 19. The type of motivation in which a person performs an action because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner is called .
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20. A hormone secreted by the pancreas to control the levels of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the body by reducing the level of glucose in the bloodstream is called . 21. A hormone that is secreted by the pancreas to control the levels of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the body by increasing the level of glucose in the bloodstream is called . 22. is a condition in which the body weight of a person is 20% or more over the ideal body weight for that person’s height (actual percentages vary across definitions). 23. is a condition in which a person reduces eating to the point that a weight loss of 15% below the ideal body weight or more occurs. 24. is a condition in which a person develops a cycle of “binging” or overeating enormous amounts of food at one sitting, and “purging” or deliberately vomiting after eating. 25. is a hormone that, when released into the bloodstream, signals the hypothalamus that the body has had enough food and reduces the appetite while increasing the feeling of being full. 26. The “feeling” aspect of consciousness, characterized by a certain physical arousal, a certain behaviour that reveals the emotion to the outside world, and an inner awareness of feelings is called . 27. The______________ _______________ of emotion states that a stimulus leads to an emotion, which then leads to bodily arousal. 28. The states that a physiological reaction leads to the labelling of an emotion. 29. The states that the physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time. 30. Theory of emotion in which both the physical arousal and the labeling of that arousal based on cues from the environment must occur before the emotion is experienced is called the__________ ____________. 31. The theory of emotion that assumes that facial expressions provide feedback to the brain concerning the emotion being expressed, which in turn causes and intensifies the emotion, is called the . 32. ___________ ___________ is the theory of emotion in which a stimulus must be interpreted (appraised) by a person in order to result in a physical response and an emotional reaction. 33. A viewpoint that recommends shifting the focus of psychology away from the negative aspects to a more positive focus on strengths, well-being, and the pursuit of happiness is called the__________________.
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Fill-in-the-Blanks—Words 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
acquired secondary drives anorexia nervosa arousal theory bulimia Cannon-Bard theory cognitive arousal theory cognitive mediational theory common sense theory drive drive reduction theory emotion extrinsic motivation facial feedback hypothesis glucogen homeostasis incentives instincts
18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.
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▼APS: READINGS FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE ▲Return to Table of Contents Current Directions in Introductory Psychology, Second Edition (0-13-714350-8) Edited by Abigail A. Baird, with Michele M. Tugade and Heather B. Veague This new and exciting American Psychological Reader includes timely, cutting-edge articles, giving readers a real-world perspective from a reliable source Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. This reader includes over 20 articles that have been carefully selected and taken from the very accessible Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. Articles discuss today’s most current and pressing issues in introductory psychology and are broken down into these main sections: Scientific Thinking; Nature/Nurture; Consciousness; Individual Differences; and Applications. Section 2: Cognitive Neuroscience 43 Nasir Naqvi, Baba Shiv, Antoine Bechara The Role of Emotion in Decision Making: A Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective. (Vol. 15, No. 5, 2006, pp. 260–264) p. 56 of the APS reader Decision making often occurs in the face of uncertainty about whether one’s choices will lead to benefit or harm. The somatic-marker hypothesis is a neurobiological theory of how decisions are made in the face of uncertain outcome. This theory holds that such decisions are aided by emotions, in the form of bodily states, that are elicited during the deliberation of future consequences and that mark different options for behaviour as being advantageous or disadvantageous. This process involves an interplay between neural systems that elicit emotional/bodily states and neural systems that map these emotional/bodily states. Kevin S. LaBar Beyond Fear: Emotional Memory Mechanisms in the Human Brain. (Vol. 16, No. 4, 2007, pp. 173–177) p. 64 of the APS reader Neurobiological accounts of emotional memory have been derived largely from animal models investigating the encoding and retention of memories for events that signal threat. This literature has implicated the amygdala, a structure in the brain’s temporal lobe, in the learning and consolidation of fear memories. Its role in fear conditioning has been confirmed, but the human amygdala also interacts with cortical regions to mediate other aspects of emotional memory. These include the encoding and consolidation of pleasant and unpleasant arousing events into long-term memory, the narrowing of focus on central emotional information, the retrieval of prior emotional events and contexts, and the subjective experience of recollection and emotional intensity during retrieval. Along with other mechanisms that do not involve the amygdala, these functions ensure that significant life events leave a lasting impression in memory.
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▼ FORTY STUDIES THAT CHANGED PSYCHOLOGY ▲ Return to Table of Contents Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research, 6/e (013603599X) By Roger Hock This unique book closes the gap between psychology textbooks and the research that made them possible by offering a first hand glimpse into 40 of the most famous studies in the history of the field, and subsequent studies that expanded upon each study’s influence. Readers are able to grasp the process and excitement of scientific discovery as they experience an insider’s look at the studies that continue today to be cited most frequently, stirred up the most controversy when they were first published, sparked the most subsequent related research, opened new fields of psychological exploration, and changed most dramatically our knowledge of human behaviour. Studies Examined in Motivation and Emotion: A Sexual Motivation... Masters, W. H., & Johnson, V. E. (1966). Human sexual response. Boston: Little, Brown. I Can See It All Over Your Face! Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1971). Constants across cultures in the face and emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17, 124–129. Life, Change, And Stress Holmes, T. H., & Rahe, R. H. (1967). The Social Readjustment Rating Scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11, 213–218. Thoughts Out Of Tune Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203–210. ▲ Return to Table of Contents
▼ WEB RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents Achievement Abraham Maslow: www.mrdowling.com/ Concise summary of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, with nice graphics. Achievement Motivation: www.liraz.com/ Do you have what it takes to be a successful entrepreneur? Well, do you?! Measure your achievement motivation at this site.
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Maslow Books: The Official Abraham Maslow Publications Site: www.maslow.com Understanding Employee Drives and Motivations: The First Step Towards Motivation at Work www.easytraining.com/ Article by Claire Belilos in which she evaluates employee needs and motives in light of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Eating Eating Disorder Referral and Information Center: www.edreferral.com Information and treatment resources for all forms of eating disorders. Emotion American Polygraph Association: www.polygraph.org This organization provides publication lists and answers to frequently asked questions about polygraphic lie detection. Controlling Anger Before It Controls You: www.apa.org/ A public affairs bulletin from the American Psychological Association. Polygraphy: www.fas.org/ An analysis and review of polygraph analog studies is one of the highlights of this site. If you discuss this aspect of emotion you might ask your students to read the information presented here first, in order to clarify any misconceptions they might have about what a polygraph can and cannot reveal. Positive Psychology: www.positivepsychology.org/ The Positive Psychology Center promotes research, training, education, dissemination, and the application of Positive Psychology. The Pursuit of Happiness: www.davidmyers.org/ Information on The Pursuit of Happiness, a book by social psychologist David G. Myers. Also includes suggestions for a happier life and links to happiness research websites. Interpersonal Attraction Divorce Central: www.divorcecentral.com A mega-site of information about the end of close relationships. Shyness Resources: www.shyness.com Information about being interpersonally shy. ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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12/PERSONALITY TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲ Return to Table of Contents
MODULE 12.1: Contemporary Approaches to Personality ➢ Lecture Guide: Contemporary Approaches to Personality (p. 624) ➢ Resources Available (p. 629) MODULE 12.2: Cultural and Biological Approaches to Personality ➢ Lecture Guide: Cultural and Biological Approaches to Personality (p. 630) ➢ Resources Available (p. 634) MODULE 12.3: Psychodynamic and Humanistic Approaches to Personality ➢ Lecture Guide: Psychodynamic and Humanistic Approaches to Personality (p. 635) ➢ Resources Available (p. 641) FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES ➢ Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 643) ➢ Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 653) ➢ Handout Masters (p. 662) ➢ APS: Readings from the Association of Psychological Science (p. 672) ➢ Forty Studies that Changed Psychology (p. 674) ➢ Web Resources (p. 675)
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LECTURE GUIDE I. MODULE 12.1: CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY (Text p. 457) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology associated with contemporary approaches to personality. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand the behaviourist and social-cognitive views of personality. o A strict behavioural account of personality identifies the stimuli and situational factors that control the various responses that can be elicited. When this perspective is adopted, there is little use of trait terminology, such as neuroticism or conscientiousness, and no reference to cognitive factors such as beliefs or thoughts. The social-cognitive approach to personality also accounts for situational factors and behaviour, but adds a cognitive element that interacts with the environment in such a way that situations, behaviour, and thoughts are determined in reciprocal fashion. ✓ Apply self-report methods to understand your own personality. o Using Figure 12.1 and Table 12.1, students should be able to reflect on whether they would score low, medium, or high on each trait and give specific examples of behaviours or preferences that support their ranking. ✓ Analyze the personality roots of violence and prejudice. o The honesty-humility aspect of the HEXACO model, the Dark Triad of Psychopathy, Machiavellianism and Narcissism, and the third is Right-Wing Authoritarianism. ✓ Analyze the relative roles of personality traits and psychological and physical states in determining behaviour. o The debate over whether personality traits influence behaviour or whether situational factors play a bigger role in behaviour has been ongoing in the field of personality psychology. In reality, both sets of factors are important. Personality traits can be remarkably consistent, yet the situations we find ourselves in can lead to unexpected behaviour. 1) Psychologists have long searched for a theory of personality that would describe and explain how people develop these patterns of behaviours. Personality (p. 458) is a characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving that is unique to each individual, and remains relatively consistent over time and situations.
Idiographic vs. Nomothetic Approaches 1) Some psychologists study personality by using an idiographic approach. Idiographic approach (p. 458) focus on detailed descriptions of individuals and their unique personality characteristics. i)
This approach might involve a detailed study of a serial killer, someone with a rare talent, or an “average” person. ii) Abraham Maslow studied people who lived up to their full potential, and how they thrived and developed to do so. 2) Other psychologists are interested in describing personality in terms that can apply to any member of the population.
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Nomothetic approach (p. 458) examines personality in large groups of people, with the aim of making generalizations about personality structure. i) This approach allows psychologists to ask questions about the “type” of personality traits. ii) This approach typically relies on descriptive labels to identify individuals’ patterns of behaviour. a) For example, shy vs. outgoing, optimistic vs. pessimistic, etc. The Trait Approach 1) According to the trait approach, we can understand individuals—and what makes them alike or sets them apart—based on how well each trait describes that person. Personality traits (p. 459) describe a specific psychological characteristic that makes up part of a person’s personality. Early Trait Research 1) According to the trait approach, we can understand individuals—and what makes them alike or sets them apart—based on how well each trait describes that person. 2) Several decades ago, Allport and Odbert tallied almost 18,000 words that could be used to describe an individual’s physical and psychological attributes. 3) Trait researchers use tests that present a list of trait labels and ask an individual to rate how well the trait describes him or her. 4) Other measures of personality present specific behaviours that represent traits. a) For example, in magazines like Cosmo you might rate your agreement with statements such as “I like to meet new people” to assess how outgoing you are. 5) The Barnum effect occurs when people believe a personality profile describes them well, when it is actually a false test not generated to describe them at all. 6) However, it’s impractical to assess the applicability of so many attributes for every individual. i) Factor analysis groups together related traits into a factor, which comprise broad personality trait labels, such as extraversion. Factor analysis (p. 459) reveals statistical similarities among a wide variety of items. The Five Factor Model 1) Raymond Cattell (1946) used factor analysis to narrow the 18,000 traits down to 16 key personality traits. 2) McCrae and Costa (1987), created a trait-based approach for academic personality research called the Five Factor Model (Figure 12.1). Five Factor Model (FFM) (p. 460)) is a trait-based theory of personality based on the finding that personality can be described using five major dimensions. i)
To understand the Big Five, one must consider the characteristics associated with people who score high and low on each trait.
Openness 1) People who are high in openness (high Os) are the creative and curious type, and are typically more “open” to new ideas, opinions and perspectives. 2) People low in openness (low Os) prefer conventional, systematic ways, and place an emphasis on being rational and logical.
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Conscientiousness 1) Those high in conscientiousness (high Cs) tend to be more organized, efficient, disciplined, punctual, and dependable. 2) Those who score low in conscientiousness (low Cs) are more easy-going, disorganized, and may have difficulty meeting deadlines. Extraversion 1) Extraverts (high Es) enjoy the company of others, are described as outgoing and energetic, and tend to be more assertive, vocal and enthusiastic. 2) Introverts (low E’s) are quiet, prefer solitary activities and become easily overwhelmed with high levels of stimulation. Agreeableness 1) Highly agreeable people (high As) are very friendly, likeable, and tend to be compassionate, empathetic and helpful. 2) (low As) tend to “put themselves first”, and are more opinionated, assertive, unfriendly and uncooperative. Neuroticism 1) More neurotic people (high Ns) tend to be more difficult to deal with, are emotionally sensitive and react more to stressful situations. 2) Less neurotic individuals (low Ns) are typically mentally healthy people who are secure, confident and can easily let go of negative emotions. Beyond the Big Five: The Personality of Evil? 1) Authoritarianism was the first trait associated with fascist type personalities i) Authoritarians are rigidly dogmatic and this about the superiority of us and the inferiority of them. Honesty-Humility 1) Honesty-humility is a part of the HEXACO model of personality by Michael Ashton. HEXACO model of personality (p. 462) is a six-factor theory that generally replicates the five factors of the FFM and adds one additional factor: Honesty-Humility. i) Individuals who score highly on H-H (high HHs) tend to be more sincere, honest and modest. ii) People scoring low on H-H (low HHs) harbor selfish, anti-social and violent tendencies. The Dark Triad The Dark Triad (p. 462) refers to three traits—Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism—describe a person who is socially destructive, aggressive, dishonest, and likely to commit harm in general. i)
Machiavellianism is a tendency to use people and to be manipulative and deceitful. Individuals scoring high in Machiavellianism tend to lack respect for others and focus predominantly on their own self-interest. ii) Psychopathy, on the other hand, is a general tendency toward having shallow emotional responses. Thus, individuals scoring high in psychopathy veer toward highly stimulating activities and tend to feel little empathy for others.
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iii) Narcissism reflects an egotistical preoccupation with self-image and an excessive focus on selfimportance. Right-Wing Authoritarianism 1) In a third line of research, Bob Altemeyer at the University of Manitoba has identified Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA). Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) (p. 463) is a problematic set of personality characteristics that also predisposes people to certain types of violent or anti-social tendencies. i) Obeying orders and deferring to the established authorities in a society; ii) Supporting aggression against those who dissent or differ from the established social order. iii) Believing strongly in maintaining the existing social order (Altemeyer, 1996). Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Right-Wing Authoritarianism at the Group Level 1) What do we know about RWA? i) RWA is a cluster of characteristics that are related to generally harmful tendencies, prejudice, and closed mindedness. 2) How can science determine how RWA affects groups? i) One study divided people into high and low RWA and had them play the Global Change Game. a) Makes decisions about how their region would respond to different scenarios like environmental problems or poverty over 40 simulated Earth years. b) The low RWA group had no wars and downsized their militaries to fund humanitarian projects. c) The RWA group interpreted the actions of others as aggressive and responded in kind. d) Militaries grew and wars ensued, including a nuclear war that killed every creature on the planet. e) The RWA were allowed to ‘start over’ but wound up warring again, constantly suspicious of each other they maintained their militaries and ignored ‘human’ problems. ii) The simulation showed that high vs low RWAs may have different impacts on world politics. 3) Can we critically evaluate this research? i) Low external validity; people know they were really starting a nuclear war. ii) Mostly young university students, may not generalize to the whole population. 4) Why is this relevant? i) The research shows the highly destructive potential of authoritarian personalities. PSYCH @ Test Yourself 1) Go to MyLab and find personality tests online.
Personality Traits over the Life Span Temperaments 1) Within their first few months of life, infants do show the beginnings of personality characteristics. i) Temperament refers to personality-like attributes that appear to be present at birth, and includes such characteristics as activity level, mood, attention span, and distractibility. 2) The temperament styles found in infancy seem to represent an innate, biological substrate upon which personality is built. i) Infant temperament predicts the adult personality traits of neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness.
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3) Although there is consistency between temperament and personality, it does not mean that personality cannot change (Figure 12.2). i) One study tracked participants from age 3 until adulthood. a) Children in this study showed that temperament in childhood is very predictive of behaviour, personality and life outcomes years later.
Is Personality Stable Over Time? 1) Personality processes tend to become self-perpetuating; personality traits that lead to behaviours that receive positive reinforcement are more likely to become stable characteristics of that individual. 2) However, research has also shown that personality can change, particularly in late adolescents and early adulthood.
Personality Traits and States 1) Psychologists also recognize the importance of situational factors and context on individual’s behaviour. i) For example, you may have a friend who is calm and tranquil, yet one day screams at a driver on the road for cutting her off. State (p. 466) is a temporary physical or psychological engagement that influences behaviour. 2) One study asked 77 college students to describe as many situations they might encounter at any given time. i) Their total reached over 7,000. 3) Saucier and colleagues (2007) took these 7,000 situations and reduced them to 4 general aspects of situations that are most likely to influence our behaviour. i) Locations: being at work, school, home, etc. ii) Associations: being with friends, along, or with family. iii) Activities: awake, rushed, studying, etc. iv) Subjective states: mad, sick, drunk, happy, etc.
Behaviourist and Social-Cognitive Perspectives The Behaviourist Perspective 1) Behavioural psychologists (Module 1.2) are less concerned with labeling personality traits and shun the use of self-report inventories to measure personality (Figure 12.3). i) B.F. Skinner believed that personality consists of various response tendencies that occur in different situations. a) For example, if the situation is a small social gathering, your responses might include dominating the conversation, asking questions, or remaining silent depending on what responses have been reinforced or punished in the past. The Social-Cognitive Perspective 2) Albert Bandura’s social-cognitive learning theory built onto this perspective by exploring the dynamics between people, personality, and their environment (Figure 12.3). i) According to this perspective, people actively choose their environments in part because they react different to different situations. a) For example, people who rate low on neuroticism are likely to view the world in a nonthreatening light, whereas those high on neuroticism might hear a honking horn and feel threatened. .. 628
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b) Those who feel threatened are more likely to choose to be in a more comfortable and tranquil environment. Reciprocal Determinism (p. 468) based on the idea that the person and the environment cocreate each other; thus personality is what emerges from the interactions between behaviour, internal (personal) factors, and external (situational) factors, all of which mutually influence each other. 3) Using the social gathering example to compare the two theories: i) The behaviourist account delineates a simple relationship between asking questions (the behaviour) and having a gathering go well (the consequence). ii) According to reciprocal determinism, someone who is outgoing chooses to be in an environment in which there will be others with whom to interact, and has a history of finding the experience rewarding. a) Socializing with others reinforces the behaviours as well as the beliefs and expectations that being with others will be enjoyable. RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 12.1 ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
The Origins of Personality Gender Differences in Personality Allport on Personality Development LPQRT
Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ What Is Personality? ➢ The P. T. Barnum Effect ➢ Personality Collage ➢ Reviewing Approaches to Personality ➢ Critique of Online Personality Tests ➢ Fill-in-the-Blanks Handout Masters ➢ Handout Master 12.6 The GPT (General Personality Test) ➢ Handout Master 12.7 Reviewing Approaches to Personality (Part A) ➢ Handout Master 12.8 Reviewing Approaches to Personality (Part B) ➢ Handout Master 12.9 Fill-in-the-Blanks Web Resources ➢ Electronic Textbook: http://webspace.ship.edu/ ➢ Great Ideas in Personality: www.personalityresearch.org/ ➢ Institute for Behavioural Genetics: http://ibgwww.colorado.edu/ ➢ International Society for the Study of Individual Differences: www.issid.org/ ➢ Personality and Consciousness: www.pandc.ca/ ➢ SPSP: www.spsp.org/ ➢ Cattell Bibliography: www.stthomasu.ca/ ➢ Center for Application of Personality Type: www.capt.org/ .. 629
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➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Gordon Allport Bibliography: www.wynja.com/ Gordon Allport in Brief: http://webspace.ship.edu/ Gordon Allport in Depth: www.psych.westminster.edu Interview with R. B. Cattell: www.eugenics.net Personality Types: www.typelogic.com/ Association for Research in Personality: www.personality-arp.org/ Buros Institute of Mental Measurement: www.unl.edu ERIC Clearinghouse of Tests: www.ericae.net/ Information on Self-Efficacy: www.des.emory.edu Personality Project: www.personality-project.org
II. MODULE 12.2: CULTURAL AND BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY (Text p. 470) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know key terminology associated with cultural and biological approaches to personality. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand how evolutionary theories explain personality. o Evolutionary psychologists speculate that traits such as neuroticism and extraversion evolved because they solved environmental and social problems encountered by our distant ancestors. Although this hypothesis is difficult to test directly, different sources of evidence lend support to it. The widespread occurrence of these personality traits among different species indicates that they are adaptive. Also, modern-day humans use individual differences in personality structure to decide on mating and possibly longterm partner choices. ✓ Apply your knowledge to arrive at accurate conclusions about the influences of biological and cultural factors on personality. o Students should be able to determine the veracity of statements regarding cultural and gender personality characteristics and differences. ✓ Analyze claims that males and females have fundamentally different personalities. o Claims of major gender differences in personality are sometimes made to support popular-book sales. In reality, the general consensus in psychological science is that males and females are more alike than different when it comes to personality. Both, of course, share common personality dimensions. Although females may tend to be, on average, more conscientious and extraverted than males, there is little evidence to support claims that men and women are fundamentally different in personality. ✓ Analyze the genetic basis of personality. Personality traits are highly heritable; identical twins have more similar personalities than fraternal twins or siblings. However, personality is not ‘hard wired’, it emerges as genes interact with the environment.
Culture and Personality 1) Personality psychologists who study other cultures are typically interested in whether there are true cross-cultural differences in personality traits, rather than differences attributable to effects of states or situations on behaviour. i) Most personality studies are conducted on WEIRD people: Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic. ii) For example, the average WEIRD Canadian would have very little in common with an average Mongolian farmer, and would find their culture.
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iii) 96% of psychology studies are conducted WEIRD sample, which make up a mere 12% of the population.
Universals and Differences Across Cultures: The Big Five 1) To find out whether the Big Five traits are truly universal, a large team of psychologists measured Big Five dimensions in more than 17,000 people speaking 28 different languages and inhabiting 56 countries on 6 continents (they did not visit Antarctica). i) Translations of the Big Five personality were validated across cultures. ii) This study found that the WEIRD and the non-WEIRD are quite alike in regards to the basic five personality characteristics. Personality Structure in Different Cultures 1) People of other cultures or nations may have unique personality characteristics that are undetected by the Big Five. i) Most Western studies use Western undergraduate students. ii) Using the Big Five inevitably imposes a structure of personality onto other cultures. 2) Researchers in China have identified 26 new personality traits different from the Big Five. i) These include interpersonal relatedness—which is composed of harmony, tradition, and relationships with others—and dependability.
Comparing Personality Traits Between Nations 1) Table 12.2 shows cultural different in the Big Five Traits. 2) Many of the cultural differences seem puzzling, some even defying cultural stereotypes. i) There may be an explanation for at least some of the cultural differences found in their personality studies. Response styles (p. 472) are characteristic ways of responding to questions. ii) These responses can be influenced by cultural norms. a) Example, in some cultures it is encouraged to speak highly of yourself and your accomplishments, where as other cultures consider the same behaviour rude.
Comparing Personality Traits Within Nations 1) Another way to examine large-scale variation and similarity of personality traits is to compare groups of people living within a single nation; referred to as geographical psychology.
How Genes Affect Personality 1) Psychologists conduct twin studies and employ other research techniques to distinguish genetic and environmental sources of individual differences in personality.
Twin Studies 1) Although the environment contributes to variations in personality, research on the genetic basis of personality consistently shows that genes are responsible for many of the differences we see among individuals. i) Twin studies using the Big Five have found genetic correlations for identical twins are approximately .50 for all five factors. ii) This is significantly higher than the correlations for fraternal twins (about .20). iii) Similar results are found whether the twins are reared together or reared apart (correlations range from .39 to .58).
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Working the Scientific Literacy Model: From Molecules to Personality 1) What do we know about specific genes and personality? i) Scientists have identified genes that code for specific brain chemicals that are related to personality. ii) For example, one gene that codes for serotonin activity has been found on human chromosome 17. a) This gene codes for proteins that transport serotonin molecules within the synapses between nerve cells. b) There are two forms of this gene (it is polymorphic): short copy and long copy. c) Children inheriting short copies from one or both parents are predisposed to anxiety, shyness, and negative emotional reactions in interpersonal situations. 2) How do scientists study genes and personality? i) One method includes comparing responses on self-report questionnaires of personality in people who have inherited different copies of the serotonin transporter gene (Figure 12.5). a) Those who inherit short copies tend to report greater levels of anxiety and neuroticism than those who inherit two long copies. ii) In other study, researchers took a hair sample from participants to get their DNA to determine which combination of serotonin transporter genes they had. a) Then participants completed a task that monitored their attentional focus to pictures of positive (e.g., a smiling infant), negative (a black widow spider), or neutral (a kitchen table) stimuli. b) Those with two short versions of the gene did not avoid looking at the negative images, whereas those with two long copies spent more time looking at positive images. 3) Can we critically evaluate this evidence? i) It is important to note that genes interact with the environment to produce behaviour. a) This research may lead you to think that genes cause behaviour. ii) However, molecularly based genetic work allows the possibility of revealing cause-and-effect links between genes and personality. a) This is something twin studies cannot do. 4) Why is this relevant? i) Genetic studies of personality help us better understand the biological basis of psychological disorders such as anxiety and depression. a) Individuals might be better helped with early detection and treatment.
The Role of Evolution in Personality 1) Humans as a species have personality structures built right into us, providing selective advantages specific to humans. i) However, there are relations to other species and therefore it is expected that we may share some personality traits with other species. Animal Behaviour: The Evolutionary Roots of Personality 1) It turns out that several of the Big Five personality traits have been found in a rich diversity of species—such as hedgehogs, ants, rhinos, and primates. i) For example, scientists have studied one particular species of bird (Parus major) that lives in Europe and Asia. a) One personality type is bold in its exploration of new environments and less responsive to external stimuli. b) The other type is more timid, less exploratory, and more reactive to external stimulation.
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2) In one study, a list of adjectives was taken from the Big Five test and people who were familiar with the chimpanzee subjects rated how well the adjectives applied to each chimp on a 1 to 7 scale. i) Of the Big Five traits, extraversion, conscientiousness, and agreeableness were reliably found in the chimps. 3) Octopuses also show stable individual differences in measures of activity, reactivity, and avoidance.
Why There are So Many Different Personalities: The Evolutionary Explanation 1) The consistent appearance of core personality traits across cultures and species indicates that these traits have been important to survival. i) However, personality is flexible, which allows us to fill diverse social and environmental niches. 2) Evolution involves changes in traits that occur within reproducing populations over many generations; it occurs at the level of populations. i) Therefore, individual differences have traditionally been regarded as evolutionary “noise”. a) One individual within an entire breeding population cannot have much of an effect on how a trait evolves. 3) However, the relationship between personality and evolutions may mean that individual differences are not so random. i) Our personalities guide decisions about with whom we associate, where we choose to go to school, etc. ii) The extravert and the introvert, the neurotic and the tranquil, and the conscientious and the careless gravitate toward the respective niches they best fill.
MYTHS IN MIND: Men Are From Mars, Women Are From Venus 1) Men and women tend to differ in some personality dimensions. However, these differences are often greatly exaggerated. i) This happens especially in the pop psychology industry with such books as Men are from Mars and Women are from Venus. 2) Cross-cultural studies have shown that women generally report higher levels of extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and neuroticism than men. i) However, these differences are small and may be explained by economic factors. 3) Countries showing the largest gender differences in personality also have greater access to resources such as health care, education, and wealth. i) Men and women in countries with fewer social and economic resources tend to be more similar in their self-reported personality scores.
The Brain and Personality 1) According to ancient medicine (circa 400 BC), the body consisted of four humours—including blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. Humourism (p. 478) which explained both physical illnesses and disorders of personality as resulting from imbalances in key fluids in the body. i) For example, too much black bile resulted in melancholy. 2) In the late 1700s, the German doctor Franz Gall developed phrenology. Phrenonology (p. 478) the theory that personality characteristics could be assessed by carefully measuring the shape of the skull. .. 633
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Extraversion and Arousal 1) Hans Eysenck (1967), was a pioneer in linking personality characteristics with specific brain systems. i) He proposed that arousal states of the brain are the basis of extraversion and that the reactivity of the limbic system (the emotional circuits), reticular activating system, and cortex are correlated with extraversion. Arousal theory of extraversion (p. 478) arguing that extraversion is determined by people’s threshold for arousal. Ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) (p. 478) plays a central role in controlling this arousal response. ii) Those who have decreased reactivity in these regions are “underaroused” and will seek out novel social and emotional stimulation. a) In contrast, introverts have higher reactivity within these brain regions and, therefore, seek less stimulation. 2) Another model of brain-personality was proposed by Jeffery Gray who describes two major brain systems for processing rewards and punishment. Behavioural activation system (BAS) (p. 478) is a “GO” system, arousing the person to action in the pursuit of desired goals. i)
This system is responsive to rewards and unresponsive to possible negative consequences. Behavioural inhibition system (BIS) (p. 478) is more of a “danger” system, motivating the person to action in order to avoid punishment or other negative outcomes.
ii) The BIS is associated with more negative emotional responses and avoidance motivation.
RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 12.2 Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ Hippocratic Oafs ➢ Personality—Add Women and Stir! Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Birth Order and Personality ➢ Applying Personality Theories to TV Characters ➢ The Three Faces of Psychology ➢ Comparing Personality Theories (Group Activity) ➢ Analyzing Harry and Sally Handout Masters ➢ Handout Master 12.3 Three Faces of Psychology ➢ Handout Master 12.4 Comparing Personality Theories ➢ Handout Master 12.5 Analyzing Harry and Sally ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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Web Resources ➢ American Psychoanalytic Association: www.apsa.org/ ➢ Freud Museum: www.freud.org.uk/ ➢ Jung Page: www.cgjungpage.org/ ➢ New York Psychoanalytic Institute and Society: www.psychoanalysis.org/
▲ Return to Table of Contents III. MODULE 12.3: PSYCHODYNAMIC AND HUMANISTIC APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY (Text p. 481) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology related to psychodynamic and humanistic approaches to personality. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand how people use defense mechanisms to cope with conflicting thoughts and feelings. o Defense mechanisms become active whenever our unconscious drives come into conflict with the ego and/or the superego. These mechanisms may involve repressing urges, displacing them, or even finding subtle, more acceptable ways of expressing those urges. ✓ Understand the developmental stages Freud used to explain the origins of personality. o To explain personality development according to Freud, we begin with the concept of libido—the id’s energy source for the drives that originate at different focal points of the body from infancy to adolescence. Each of the stages of psychosocial development— oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital—is associated with a unique form of conflict as the ego and superego develop. Failure to resolve the corresponding conflict can result in a fixation. ✓ Apply both psychodynamic and humanistic perspectives to explain personality. o Using Figure 12.10 and Table 12.3, students should be able to read about situations and describe them from Freud’s perspective. Students should also be able to read scenarios and determine how far a person had developed according to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. ✓ Analyze whether projective tests are valid measures of personality. o In this module students learned about projective tests such as the Rorschach inkblot test and the Thematic Apperception Test, which some believe allow psychologists to tap into the unconscious world. Although research does suggest that we process information without being aware of it, projective tests do not appear to be valid ways of accessing what is being processed. ✓ Analyze the strengths and weaknesses of psychodynamic perspectives. o Psychodynamic theories can provide some compelling explanations for human motivation. For example, it is easy to understand how social and moral conflicts arise when couched in terms of a struggle between the id and the superego. At the same time, this approach does not have a lot of scientific support. It is not possible to objectively identify the structure of an individual’s personality; instead, psychodynamic theorists must rely on subjective interpretations. Attempts at developing more objective projective tests have been largely unsuccessful.
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The Psychodynamic Perspective 1) The psychodynamic approach to personality began with Sigmund Freud in the late 1800s. i) He was an Austrian physician interested in how personality is structured, how it functions, and how disorders arise. ii) He has been criticized for many of his theories, his use and advocacy of cocaine, his obsession with sex and using a limited cross-section of the population for sampling (mainly European Victorian women). iii) Because he came from a medical perspective, his studies of personality were largely based on individual cases of people who sought his help for psychological problems. Assumptions of Psychodynamic Theories 1) Personality and behaviour are shaped by forces in consciousness, many of which are hidden from awareness in the unconscious. i) All of our thoughts and feelings are a result of psychological factors which are deeply buries in our unconscious that we have no access to; the “black box” of our mind. Unconscious Processes and Psychodynamics 1) Freud’s theories are based on a model of consciousness separating the different levels of mental life, conscious and unconscious mind. The conscious mind (p. 483) is your current awareness, containing everything you are aware of right now. The unconscious mind (p. 483) is a much more vast and powerful but inaccessible part of your consciousness, operating without your conscious endorsement or will to influence and guide your behaviours. 2) The unconscious houses memories, and experiences as well as preferences and desires, all of which we are cognitively unaware of. i) An iceberg metaphor is often used to illustrate these levels of consciousness (Figure 12.6). ii) Freud also suggested slips of the tongue reflected the desires or perceptions of the unconscious mind, eventually referred to as ‘Freudian slips’. The Structure of Personality 1) Freud hypothesized the human psyche consists of three basic structures: the id, ego, and superego (Figure 12.6). i) These parts operate simultaneously, at times in harmony and other times in conflict. a) Intrapsychic conflict is one of the hallmarks of Freud’s theory. 2) Freud believed the id was fueled by an energy called libido. i) The id motivates people to seek out experiences that bring pleasure (e.g., sex, eating, etc.), with little regard for the appropriateness or consequences of their realization. ii) The id is said to operate according to the pleasure principle, seeking out instant gratification. Id (p. 483) represents a collection of basic biological drives, including those directed toward sex and aggression. 3) The moral composition of the superego is primarily learned from the authority of one’s parents. i) Superego tells us what we ought to do, where the Id tells us what our animal body wants to do. ii) It serves as an inner voice we hear when we shame ourselves for acting inappropriately or lavish praise on ourselves for doing something good. .. 636
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Superego (p. 484) was thought to develop during our upbringing; it is comprised of our values and moral standards. 4) The ego represents the ability to understand that an individual cannot eat, engage in sexual activity, or otherwise give in to the id all the time. i) It is said to operate according to the reality principle, delaying the gratification sought by the id until it is socially appropriate. Ego (p. 484) is the component of personality that keeps the impulses of the id in check. 5) Some argue that Freud had a grim perspective of human personality because he believed we were born with the id (born to be bad), whereas we developed the superego with experience. i) The conflict between the two helps psychoanalysts understand an individual’s personality. ii) What is especially important is uncovering conflicts that are unresolved, which might result in guilt if the superego wins out, or in hostility if the id is victorious. Defense Mechanisms 1) Because Freud’s focus was on mental problems, he focused on the conflicts and experiences that invoke anxiety. i) He worked with his daughter, Anna (another key figure in early psychodynamic psychology) to explain unconscious conflicts and how individuals deal with such conflicts (Table 12.3). Defense Mechanisms (p. 484) are unconscious strategies the ego uses to reduce or avoid anxiety. 2) There is also scientific support for certain defense mechanisms. i) For example, a CEO of a company not hiring a member of an ethnic minority, and the CEO may not admit that the choice was racially motivated by engaging in rationalization. a) This person would convince him/herself that his/her choice was based on seating space rather than ethnicity. ii) Soldiers at war may use humour to reduce the psychological impact of their actions. a) There is strong correlational evidence suggesting that a good sense of humour helps people manage stress. Personality Development: The Psychosexual Stages 1) Freud believed we were born with the id (impulses for gratification) and that the ego and superego aspects of personality develop through a series of stages, which occur mostly in the first five years of life (Table 12.4). i) In each stage, pleasurable sensory experiences are focused in different parts of the body, and the id is driven to experience as much as possible. 2) Those who have trouble transitioning between stages may develop a fixation. Fixation (p. 486) an individual becomes preoccupied with obtaining the pleasure associated with a particular stage. The Oral Stage (0-18 Months) i) During this stage, pleasure is derived from actions involving the mouth. ii) Breastfeeding is the most obvious pleasurable activity at this stage.
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iii) Fixations may result in overindulgence or deprivation from breastfeeding when needed as an infant. iv) Fixations in adulthood may lead to excess eating, drinking, and smoking, or the opposite (avoiding oral stimulation as much as possible). v) If you have trouble with this transition, you may develop an oral fixation later in life, such as biting your nails or excessive gum chewing. The Anal Stage (18 Month-3Years) i) Stimulation relating to bowel movements is the source of pleasure during this stage. ii) Toilet training plays a central role in passage through this stage. iii) Fixation at this stage results in being excessively neat and organized (anal-retentive) or, on the opposite end of the spectrum, a person who becomes sloppy and messy. The Phallic Stage (3-6 Years) i) This is a key stage in psychosexual development, as it is when children begin to show interest in their own genitals. ii) Children in this stage are said to become sexually attracted to the opposite-sexed parent. iii) The male child develops a sense of competition with his father, and then begins to fear that his father will castrate him in the course of competing for affection of the mother (the Oedipal complex). iv) The female fixation manifests itself in what Freud termed penis envy, in which girls are believed to fantasize about having a penis. The Latency Stage (6-13 Years) i) The sexual nature of the libido is deemphasized is this stage, and is focused more on learning, hobbies and friendships. ii) People don’t tend to get fixated at this stage, as personality has mostly been formed at the phallic stage. The Genital Stage i) This stage is marked by the onset of puberty and continues throughout adulthood. ii) Developed capacity for productive work and mature, sexual relationships. iii) Unresolved conflicts at earlier stages of psychosexual development may impede the development of mature sexual relationships at this stage and into adulthood. 1) Modern psychodynamic psychologists generally do not agree that Freud’s stages of psychosexual development are directly applicable to personality development. i) However, clinical psychologists have observed children showing more affection toward the same-sexed parent and aggression toward the opposite-sexed parent. ii) This is reminiscent of the Oedipal complex, although there is no reference to sexual attraction toward the opposite-sexed parent. Exploring the Unconscious with Projective Tests 1) There is a challenge to uncovering something that is, by definition, unavailable to consciousness. 2) Freud employed techniques such as dream analysis; that is, he viewed dreams as direct links to the unconscious mind. i) Because the id does not use language, the conscious mind can make sense of dreams only by interpreting what they symbolize. 3) Modern psychodynamic psychologists have attempted to develop more standardized techniques for probing the unconscious.
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Projective Tests (p. 488) are personality tests in which ambiguous images are presented to an individual to elicit responses that reflect unconscious desires or conflicts. i)
They are called projective because an individual’s description of the image is thought to be a projection of his/her own thoughts and personality. 4) One of the most familiar projective tests is the Rorschach inkblot test (Figure 12.7). Rorschach Inkblot Test (p. 488) subjects are asked to describe what they see on the inkblot, and psychologists attempt to interpret what the subject projects onto the stimulus by using a standardized scoring and interpretation method. 5) Another popular projective test is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) (Figure 12.8). Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) (p. 488) asks respondents to tell a story about a series of 31 pictures involving ambiguous interpersonal situations. i)
For example, a person may be shown a picture of a couple looking at each other with blank expressions and asked to tell a story about the picture. 6) Two particularly important concepts come into play when it comes to evaluating psychological testing: reliability and validity (Module 2.1). i) The reliability of a test refers to how consistently it yields similar results. a) In the case of projective tests, two or more therapists who analyze responses should come up with the same, or very similar, conclusions. ii) The validity of a test refers to how well the test measures what it is intended to measure. a) For example, the figure-drawing test (Figure 12.9) appears to measure a combination of personality, artistic ability, and intelligence. iii) Research often indicates serious limitations regarding the reliability and validity of projective tests. 7) Despite criticisms from some researchers, many therapists still use these tests, although their use appears to be on the decline. i) A survey in the mid-1990s estimated that 43% of clinical psychologists and psychiatrists make frequent use of projective tests. ii) More recently, a survey of school psychologists showed that the TAT and Rorschach were used by 30% and 14% of these professionals, respectively.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Perceiving Others as a Projective Test 1) What do we know about the way people perceive others? i) We have a tendency to make assumptions about what others are like, even when limited information is available. ii) Psychologists suggest our assumptions of others may reflect our own personality. a) For example, people who exhibit the trait Machiavellianism are generally willing and able to manipulate and deceive others to get what they want. b) They are also more likely to see others as being cynical and selfish. iii) In a sense, people project their own personality onto others. 2) How can scientists study how projection relates to personality? i) In one study, researchers had participants rate their own personality according to the Big Five (Module 12.1), narcissism, and symptoms of psychological depression. a) They found a general trend in which people who view themselves positively are likely to view others the same way (they project their personality onto others).
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b) For example, the participants who rated themselves as agreeable (meaning they make an effort to get along with others and avoid conflict) also tended to rate others as conscientious, emotionally stable, and open to new experiences. 3) Can we critically evaluate this research? i) There are a number of limitations to what a psychologist can learn about an individual’s personality from their perceptions of others. a) The correlations are self-ratings and ratings of others are not very large. b) The projection seems to occur only in terms of positive and negative attributes. 4) Why is this relevant? i) Projective tests such as the Rorschach inkblot test and the Thematic Apperception Test are fraught with problems and controversy. a) Modern medical doctors would never use such tests to make any sort of diagnosis. ii) Psychologists need to continue their search for new, objective methods that might reveal meaningful information.
Alternatives to the Psychodynamic Approach Analytical Psychology 1) Swiss psychologist Carl Jung (1875–1961) founded analytical psychology after breaking from Freud professionally and personally. Analytical psychology (p. 490) focuses on the role of unconscious archetypes in personality development. i)
These archetypes were further defined as mental representations of personality figures, relationships, and experiences. ii) Jung believed that there were two main types of the unconscious, personal and collective unconscious. Personal unconscious (p. 490) similar to Freudian unconscious, a vast repository of experiences and patterns absorbed during a person’s life. Collective unconscious (p. 490) is a separate, non-personal realm of the unconscious that holds the collective memories and mythologies of humankind, stretching deep our ancestral past. These memories take the form of archetypes, which are images and symbols that are thought to have universal meaning among all humans. Archetypes (p. 490) are images and symbols that reflect common patterns of experience across all cultures. a) According to Jung, all people have an archetype for a mother or father, and a notion of a God, ex. The Trickster, The Wise Old Man, The Hero, and The Shadow. b) The Shadow archetype represents unwanted aspects of the self that the person is unwilling to acknowledge. The Power of Social Factors 1) Alfred Adler (1870-1937) and Karen Horney (pronounced HORN-eye) (1885-1952) focused less on sexual conflict and more on the role the social environment played in personality development. a) Adler believed people developed an inferiority complex. .. 640
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Inferiority complex (p. 490) the struggle many people have with feelings of inferiority, which stems from experiences of helplessness and powerlessness during childhood. b) Instead of sexual conflicts, Horney viewed interpersonal conflict between children and their parents as important to personality development. c) Also, she rightfully took exception to the notion that females experience penis envy toward males. 2) These divergences from the psychoanalytical approach (as well as others) are due to the limitations in Freud’s theories and work. i) For example, his theory is said to be sexist, pseudoscientific, and overly focused on the dark sides of humanity. ii) His theories are also untestable; they cannot be confirmed or rejected. a) For example, if you denied being sexually attracted to your parent as a child, a Freudian psychoanalyst could say you were just repressing the memories. iii) His work is based on anecdotal evidence of interactions with a relatively small group of people. iv) In his defense, many decades-old scientific theories are often regarded as “pseudoscience” by modern standards. a) He also recognized several important principles still used today, such as the role played by the unconscious and the significance of early experiences in the development of the adult personality. Humanistic Perspectives 1) Carl Rogers was partially responsible for launching the humanistic movement and for ideas still used in modern psychology including the coined person-centred perspective. Person-centred perspective (p. 491) founded on the assumption that people are basically good, and given the right environment their personality will develop fully and normally. 2) Rogers believed that people possess immense inner resources for growth and a desire for selfactualization. Self-actualization (p. 491) which is the drive to grow and fulfill one’s potential. 3) Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) also sought to identify the characteristics of fully functioning, selfactualized people. RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 12.3 Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ Case Study Lecture Launcher ➢ Archetypes ➢ Characteristics of Self-Actualized Persons Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Role-playing the Id, Ego, and Superego ➢ Role-Playing Defense Mechanisms ➢ Review of Freudian Concepts ➢ A Jungian Exploration of the Personal Unconscious
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Handout Masters ➢ Handout Master 12.1 Major Concepts of Psychoanalytic Theory ➢ Handout Master 12.2 Exploring the Personal Unconscious Web Resources ➢ Association of Humanistic Psychology: www.ahpweb.org/aboutahp/whatis.html ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Hippocratic Oafs The Origins of Personality Gender Differences in Personality Personality—Add Women and Stir! Case Study Lecture Launcher Archetypes Characteristics of Self-Actualized Persons Allport on Personality Development LPQRT
▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Hippocratic Oafs Hippocrates’ four-humours theory may be the oldest constitutional theory of personality. Hippocrates (460–377 B.C.) postulated the operation of four fluids or humours within the body, imbalances or excesses of which would have emotional as well as physical consequences. This chart shows the four humours, the condition created by too much of each, and their respective emotions: Humour
Blood
Yellow Bile
Black Bile
Phlegm
Condition
Sanguinity
Biliousness
Melancholia
Phlegmatic
Emotion
Cheerfulness
Anger
Sadness
Lethargy
The Hippocratic theory of personality popularized the practice of bloodletting—opening a vein or applying leeches to “drain off” excessive amounts of the troublesome humour. In medieval Europe, it was common for barber-surgeons (whose professional practice relied on sharp instruments like knives and razors) to advertise their bloodletting services by posting a sign depicting a pale human arm traced with a crimson spiral of blood. (Remember that a largely illiterate culture required signs with pictures rather than words.) The lasting legacy of the bloodletters is the modern barber pole, a highly stylized version of the white arm with the bloody red stripe, advertising the services within. ◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Origins of Personality Henry Thomas Throckmorton was born at 2:06 this morning at Atherton Memorial Hospital. Henry weighs 8 pounds, 2 ounces, and is 22 inches long. He appears to be a healthy and normal human infant. What is the basic nature of human personality? What influences will shape little Henry’s personality? How will his parents influence the development of his personality? Imagine that we have asked these questions of three psychologists, one representing Freud and psychoanalytic psychology, the second representing Skinner and the radical behaviourists, and the third representing Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, and humanistic psychology.
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The Psychoanalytic Perspective Little Henry is basically selfish, pleasure-oriented, and irrational. His personality right now is all id. Later the ego will develop to negotiate between the id and the environment, and the superego will develop to punish him with guilt if he disobeys the rules of his parents and society. He will become civilized, but beneath the facade created by the ego and the superego, the id will continue to generate sexual and aggressive impulses and make demands that society will not tolerate. He is basically irrational because this is part of his human heritage. Many of the motives that direct his behaviour are buried in his unconscious mind, and his thinking will be distorted by his need to disguise his primitive nature and to protect secrets that must be denied and repressed. During the first four years of life, the focus of that all-important need, sexual gratification, will migrate from the mouth to the anus and from the anus to the genitals. The manner in which conflicts related to these erogenous impulses are resolved will have a lasting influence on his personality. His basic personality will be established by the time he is five years old. When Henry is an adult, he may feel that he has free will, but actually his choices were to a great extent made for him by the human genes that carry the instinctual drives for sex and aggression, and by repressed experiences of early childhood. Henry’s parents will influence the development of his personality by the way they handle the three central conflicts of infancy and early childhood. These conflicts involve oral gratification and weaning, anal gratification and toilet training, and the Oedipal situation. In the case of weaning and toilet training, parents must be sensitive to timing and to letting the child deal with these aspects of socialization gradually and with a minimum of parent-child confrontation. During the Oedipal stage, the mother must continue to be loving and affectionate, but she must also avoid sexually stimulating Henry, or behaving toward him in a way that encourages his incestuous desire for her. The father must also be loving and affectionate and sensitive to Henry’s need to identify with him and to introject aspects of the paternal personality. The Behavioural Perspective John Locke said that a human being at birth is a tabula rasa. Little Henry, too, is a blank slate. He is neither good nor bad, intelligent nor stupid, rational nor irrational. What he becomes depends upon what he learns. His “personality” will be shaped by the consequences of his behaviour. He will retain those behaviours that are followed by pleasant consequences. Behaviours that are punished or not rewarded will disappear from his behavioural repertoire. Rational parents are likely to rear rational children because they will reinforce critical and insightful thinking, and criticize or ignore fallacious thinking and unsupported generalizations. There are a few simple rules Henry’s parents should remember as they supervise the development of his personality. One rule is to reward desirable behaviour and ignore or punish undesirable behaviour, avoiding physical punishment except in situations where his behaviour endangers his life. This rule is easy to remember but not easy to apply. Let’s suppose Henry is three years old and has brushed his own teeth. There is a six-inch ribbon of toothpaste on the sink and the mirror and walls are splattered. If a parent praises him for brushing his own teeth, they may be rewarding wastefulness and messiness. If they criticize him for wastefulness and messiness, they may be punishing his effort to brush his own teeth. Another rule is to deliver reinforcement immediately, especially for infants and small children. If time elapses between the behaviour and the consequence, the child will not make the association between them. The last rule is to be consistent. This doesn’t mean that his mother has to say “good boy” every time he says “thank you.” Henry will learn without being continually reinforced. In fact, intermittent reinforcement may make some behaviours more enduring. For example, children are sometimes rewarded for a tantrum in the grocery store to avoid parental embarrassment. The same behaviour is .. 644
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punished or ignored at home where there is no audience. Behaviours that have been partially reinforced in this manner may persist for long periods of time, even after reinforcement has ceased completely. The Humanistic Perspective All human children are born with the motive to be self-actualizing, to be the best they can be and to develop their abilities to the maximum. Henry may be corrupted by society, and his quest for selfactualization may encounter barriers, but he is basically good and basically rational. Freud and his followers have used the sick and distorted personalities of their patients as a basis for generalization about human morality and human rationality. When Henry is 20 or 30 or older, he will not be able to avoid being influenced by his own history, but the human personality is never irrevocably molded. Psychology should get rid of its preoccupation with searching for the roots of anxiety and depression in the client’s past and concentrate on the here and now and the client’s perception of reality. The questions are, “What are the barriers to this person’s selffulfillment?” and “How can the person remove the barriers?” rather than “How did the barriers get there?” Henry will be free to make his own choices in life. Neither primitive impulses nor past learning can be blamed for the choices we make. As he matures, he must begin to take responsibility for his own behaviour. It will be his responsibility to make choices and to find meaning in his life. Probably the most important thing in child-rearing is unconditional positive regard. This doesn’t mean that Henry’s mother should smile at him and pat him on the head when he spits his food at her. Rather, parents should criticize the behaviour, not the child. “I don’t like what you did, but I like you.” Criticism of the child: “You’re stupid, messy, clumsy, selfish, bad, ugly,” shapes a negative selfperception. For some time Henry’s parents will be the most important people in his life, and his selfimage will reflect their positive or negative regard. ◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Gender Differences in Personality Personality can be assessed in a variety of ways, from the musings of Freud to laboratory approaches linking traits and behaviours to the use of scales such as the MMPI, CPI, NEO, or 16PF. Alan Feingold of Yale University recently conducted four meta-analytic reviews of gender differences in personality, drawing both on the vast literature in this area (between 1958 and 1992) and on normative data generated by well-known personality inventories (between 1940 and 1992). In so doing he replicated and extended the findings of earlier reviews of gender differences, such as the work of Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin (1974; discussed in the text in Chapter 16) and Judy Hall (1984; see Chapter 16). Gender differences of note were that men tended to be more assertive than women and tended to have slightly higher self-esteem. Women were higher than men in the areas of trust, extraversion, anxiety, and “tender-mindedness” or nurturance. Feingold found that the magnitude of sex differences did not appreciably differ as a function of age, educational level, years in which the data were collected, or nations (U.S. versus non-U.S.). This suggests some stability to the dimensions measured and probably more so to the measurement process itself. No consistent differences between the sexes were found for traits such as social anxiety, reflectiveness, locus of control, impulsiveness, activity, or orderliness.
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References: Feingold, A. (1994). Gender differences in personality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 429–456. Hall, J. A. (1984). Nonverbal sex differences. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Maccoby, E. E., & Jacklin, C. N. (1974). The psychology of sex differences. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Personality: Add Women and Stir! The topic of personality serves as an excellent base for discussing the feminist perspective within the field of psychology. Torrey (1987) has incorporated a five-phase sequence of sex-integration, proposed by McIntosh, into the psychology of personality. Phase 1: Womenless Psychology. Torrey provides several interesting examples of womenless psychology. For example, only four of the 707 pages of Hall and Lindzey’s text on personality are devoted to a woman’s theory of personality (Karen Horney’s). Sullivan, Murray, McClelland, and Kohlberg based their work on studies of men, although the theories usually are described as universal. Phase 2: Adding Women to Psychology. In this phase, women’s work is included in the field of psychology, but usually within the overall male-oriented paradigm. Karen Horney’s contributions within the psychoanalytic field would represent this phase. Phase 3: Women as Inherently Different and Deviant. Viewing men as the norm and women as special exceptions occurs in Phase 3. Freud’s view of mature female sexuality is used to illustrate the point. Although aware of the sexual role of the clitoris, Freud insisted that mature sexuality is located in the vagina. Regarding research, Torrey notes that when differences did appear, psychologists have usually interpreted them as showing female inferiority. Witkin, for example, described the holistic style of perception he found in his female participants as a liability to thinking analytically, rather than as a capacity for global synthesis (Torrey, 1987, p. 157). Phase 4: Taking the Psychology of Women Seriously. This phase involves the feminist study of women, their development and social rules. Gilligan’s challenge to Kohlberg’s theory represents this stage, as does Homer’s extension of achievement motivation (McClelland). Phase 5: All the Human Experience, Psychology Redefined. A paradigmatic shift would be necessary within psychology to describe the human experience as a discipline. Until extensive work concerning women is accomplished, it will be difficult to envision the changes within the field. Do different theories represent different phases? Are men and women really so different? If so, what are the social, political, and economic implications of personality differences? Since women are becoming the majority in the field of psychology, what impact do you think this will have on the psychology of the twenty-first century?
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◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Case Study Lecture Launcher In 1923, personal tragedy transformed the life of an eighteen-year-old Texan named Howard. This overprotected college freshman had never made a major decision for himself. When a heart attack killed his father, only two years after the death of his mother, Howard suddenly inherited three-fourths of the interest in the family’s lucrative tool company. His uncle and grandparents, who owned the rest of the business, urged Howard to return to school. Despite his reputation as a shy and obedient boy, Howard refused. Within four months, he bought out his relatives’ share in the company. By the time Howard was nineteen, a judge had granted him adult status, giving him full legal control of the milliondollar company (Barlett & Steele, 1979). However, he had no interest in running the family business. Instead, he wanted to become the world’s top aviator and most famous motion picture producer. “Then,” he told his accountant, “I want you to make me the richest man in the world” (Dietrich & Thomas, 1972, p. 73). By the time he was thirty-eight, Howard Hughes was an American legend. He founded the Hughes Aircraft Company, manufacturer of the first spacecraft to land on the moon. He transformed Trans World Airlines into a $500 million empire. He designed and built airplanes for racing, military, and commercial uses. As a pilot, he broke many aviation records, capping his triumphs with a 1938 roundthe-world flight. Ticker-tape parades in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Houston honored his achievement (Drosnin, 1985). However, long before that, when he was only twenty years old, he had already reaped national honors producing several films, among them an Academy Award winner. As head of the RKO film studio, Hughes used his power to fuel the 1950s anticommunist purge in Hollywood. Eventually, Hughes realized his ambition; he became the world’s richest man. Despite his incredible public success, Howard Hughes was a deeply disturbed individual. As his empire expanded, he became increasingly disorganized. He began to focus so excessively on trivial details that he accomplished less and less. He became a recluse, sometimes vanishing for months at a time. Hughes’s mishaps as a pilot and driver caused three deaths. On several occasions Hughes suffered serious head, face, and, perhaps, brain injuries; one near-fatal plane crash resulted in what became a lifetime addiction to codeine (Fowler, 1986). His risk taking extended to the world of finance as well, where he lost over $100 million of taxpayers’, stockholders’, and his own money (Dietrich & Thomas, 1972). As he grew older, Hughes became obsessed with germs. On hearing a rumor that an actress he once dated had a venereal disease, he burned all his clothes, towels, and rugs. Eventually, the only people allowed to see him were members of his “Mormon guard,” an elite cadre of men who never questioned his often bizarre orders. Those orders included instructions to “wash four distinct and separate times, using lots of lather each time from individual bars of soap” (Drosnin, 1985, p. 167). Anything their employer might touch they wrapped in fifty-tissue swaths of Kleenex; each box opened with a clean, unused knife. Paradoxically, Hughes lived in squalor. He rarely wore clothes or washed, never brushed his teeth, and used an unsterilized needle to inject himself with large doses of codeine. He stayed in bed for days at a time. The richest man in the world slowly starved his 6-foot, 4-inch frame to an emaciated 120 pounds.
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Looking to Hughes’s childhood for clues to the paradox of his personality reveals many possible links between his early experiences and their later transformation. Similar to his father, Hughes loved mechanical gadgets. At age three, he started taking pictures with a box camera. He tinkered in his father’s workshop, creating objects out of bits of wire and metal. He was allowed to play in the workshop—as long as he kept it spotless. Hughes’s parents fussed excessively about his health. His quiet, dignified mother devoted herself fulltime to him, taking him to the doctor at the slightest provocation. At fourteen, his parents sent him to a boarding school in Massachusetts. A developing hearing loss isolated him from friendships. The highlight of his stay in the East was a ride with his father in a seaplane that “fired his fascination with airplanes and marked the beginning of a lifelong love affair with aviation, his most enduring passion.” Later, when he went to a California school, Hughes spent much of his time alone, riding his horse in the hills and visiting his Hollywood screenwriter uncle. At his uncle’s Sunday brunches, Hughes met many stars and movie moguls, as did his father, who had an eye for beautiful women. Hughes began to perceive people as objects to be avoided or collected. He would bring teenaged aspiring starlets to Hollywood, put them up in apartments, and, as they waited for stardom, forget all about them (Fowler, 1986). A few years before Hughes’s death, his former barber reflected on the eccentric billionaire’s personality, “I know he has his problems: don’t we all? He just operates a little different from the rest of us. Who’s to say who’s wrong?” (Keats, 1966).
◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Archetypes The best known Jung’s archetypes are the anima/animus and the persona. These denizens of the collective unconscious are not alone, however: ▪
▪
▪ ▪ ▪
The Hero. From world leaders to mythic gods to gargantuan sandwiches, the hero represents someone who rises to the occasion to conquer and vanquish with great might. Often the hero is a relatively weak individual, but one who connects to powerful internal forces. Herein lies a blueprint for the development of one’s own sense of individuality. The Trickster. This archetype is often seen as a collective shadow figure representing the underdeveloped or inferior traits of individuals. In mythology (such as many Native American folktales) the trickster is often dull-witted but someone who typically provides positive outcomes. Great Mother. The Virgin Mary, the Hindu goddess Kali, fertility symbols, Henry Moore sculptures, “Mother Earth,” myths and legends of motherhood...these are all reflections of our archetype of one who ushers us into existence and nurtures us. Spiritual Father. Our image and sense of fathers is tied to spirituality. An obvious link, established well before Jung, is found in many Judeo-Christian religions. Mandala. The archetype of order. Examples of this are plentiful both within and across cultures. Circles, squares, fractal forms, swastikas, wheels, yin-yang, crosses, and numbers are a few examples.
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Transformation. Journeys to the self, whether in mythology, dreams, or symbols, represent transformation. From Diogenes’ search for an honest person to someone’s life-altering revelation, transformation plays a role in human development and growth.
References: Jung, C. G. (1968). Alchemical studies (R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Jung, C. G. (1969). Four archetypes: Mother, rebirth, spirit, trickster (R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Characteristics of Self-Actualized Persons Although for most people self-actualization is only a hope or a goal, something wished for and striven toward, a few appear to achieve it to a large degree. Maslow studied a group of such persons, although he never made it very clear just how he chose his sample and carried out his investigations. He did include both historical personages, such as Beethoven and Lincoln, and persons alive at the time of the study, including Einstein and Eleanor Roosevelt. On the basis of his findings, Maslow formulated a list of 15 characteristics of self-actualized persons. Would you consider yourself “actualized” according to the following standards? 1.
Self-actualized persons perceive reality more effectively than most people do and have more comfortable relations with it. That is, they live close to reality and to nature, can judge others accurately, and can tolerate ambiguity or uncertainty more easily than most people can.
2.
They can accept themselves and their various characteristics with little feeling of guilt or anxiety and, at the same time, can readily accept others.
3.
Self-actualized persons perceive reality more effectively than most people do and have more comfortable relations with it. That is, they live close to reality and to nature, can judge others accurately, and can tolerate ambiguity or uncertainty more easily than most people can.
4.
They can accept themselves and their various characteristics with little feeling of guilt or anxiety and, at the same time, can readily accept others.
5.
They show a great deal of spontaneity in both thought and behaviour, although they seldom show extreme unconventionality.
6.
They are problem-centred, not ego-centred, often devoting themselves to broad social problems as a mission in life.
7.
They have a need for privacy and solitude at times and are capable of looking at life from a detached, objective point of view.
8.
They are relatively independent of their culture and environment but do not flaunt convention just for the sake of being different.
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9.
They are capable of deep appreciation of the basic experiences of life, even of things they have done or seen many times before.
10.
Many of them have had mystic experiences—such as having felt a deep sense of ecstasy, having felt limitless horizons opening to them, having felt very powerful and at the same time very helpless—ending with a conviction that something significant had happened.
11.
They have a deep social interest and identify in a sympathetic way with people in general.
12.
They are capable of very deep, satisfying interpersonal relations, usually with only a few rather than many individuals.
13.
They are democratic in their attitudes toward others, showing respect for all people, regardless of race, creed, income level, etc.
14.
They discriminate clearly between means and ends but often enjoy the means to their ends (“getting there”) more than impatient people.
15.
They have a good sense of humour, tending to be philosophical and nonhostile in their jokes.
16.
They are highly creative, each in his or her own individual way. They have “primary creativeness that comes out of the unconscious” and produces truly original, new discoveries. This shows itself in whatever field the self-actualized person has chosen.
17.
They are resistant to enculturation. That is, although they fit into their culture, they are independent of it and do not blindly comply with all its demands.
With all these characteristics, self-actualized persons are particularly capable of loving and of being loved in the fullest way. Peak experiences of various kinds are characteristic of the self-actualized. These are “moments of highest happiness and fulfillment” and may come, in differing degrees of intensity, during various activities—sexual love, parental experiences, creative activity, aesthetic perceptions, appreciation of nature, or even intense athletic participation. ◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Allport on Personality Development To many people, Gordon Allport’s claim to fame in the personality literature was his compendium of some 18,000 trait terms used to describe people and their personality characteristics. (In fact, some see his contribution as one of pure stamina, to have counted all those words!) Clearly Allport was a seminal figure in both personality and social psychology, and his contributions are well established through his work on prejudice, social cognition, the transmission of rumor, religiosity, the nature of the self, and writings on the history of psychology. What is sometimes lost in these contributions is Allport’s theory of the development of personality. Overshadowed by better-known approaches, such as those of Freud or Erikson, Allport’s ideas in this area have languished somewhat. Nonetheless, he is unique in several respects. First, unlike Freud, Allport argued for a certain core unity to personality; rather than warring id, ego, and superego, Allport thought that with maturation came a unity of interests, traits, biological predispositions, and so on. .. 650
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Second, Allport thought that his stages were somewhat arbitrary. Unlike Erikson or Piaget, he believed that the stages of personality development may occur at different times for different people, and that the development of any single individual would actually be an uninterrupted, continuous process. Finally, Allport thought that personality developed from a foundation of heredity, mainly an infant’s activity level and temperament. Bodily sense is the first stage of development in infancy, followed by self-identity. The child learns what different sensations and experiences are like, and begins to develop a sense of existence as an independent agent. From age 2 to 3 ego-enhancement takes place, characterized by building selfesteem. Ego-extensions, as when a child begins to identify his or her toys, his or her parents, or other personal belongings, mark the next stage. Self-image refers to the process of evaluating our present self and considering future aspirations; children aged 4 to 6 are capable of forming these future goals. From age 6 to 12 the child is a rational agent: solving problems, doing schoolwork, planning activities, and so forth. Rather than a Freudian period of conflicted sexuality and general inner turmoil, Allport saw these years as a time of developing adaptive functions. Propriate striving, beginning in adolescence, is marked by the development of a life ideology or sense of directedness. Finally, adults achieve the status of self as knower, whereby they integrate the previous aspects of development into a unified whole. References: Allport, G. W. (1937). Personality: A psychological interpretation. New York: Henry Holt. Allport, G. W., & Odbert, H. S. (1936). Trait-names: A psycholexical study. Psychological Monographs, 47, No. 211. Cloninger, S. C. (2008). Theories of personality: Understanding persons (5th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. ◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: L P Q R T Raymond Cattell was somewhat unique in advocating a variety of approaches to the study of traits. Some of his contemporaries adopted a strictly statistical approach, others pursued a purely theoretical approach, while others opted for a largely content-based approach to assessment and still others used criterionkeying methods. Although Cattell used factor analysis primarily, he relied on a range of data and a combination of techniques. L-data, or data from a person’s life record, represents the activities and events of people’s daily lives over an extended period. Much like keeping a diary, Cattell’s research participants might report on their social contacts, their states of health, the organizations they’ve joined, mishaps or illnesses experienced, and so on. The key to this approach is to gather lots of evidence from lots of realms over time. Q-data, from questionnaires, represents a more typical personality assessment approach. Here research participants would supply responses to standardized measures, such as the MMPI or Cattell’s own 16PF. Because of the limitations typically associated with questionnaire responses (e.g., response biases, lack of insight or knowledge about the self, social desirability) these data are not used as the sole source of information about a person. Rather, T-data, or data derived from tests, are relied on to supplement Q-data. Here an individual’s personality dimensions are assessed without the person’s knowledge of which aspects of behaviour are being measured, as when direct observation is used or projective techniques are applied.
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This mass of data can then be examined using either R-technique or P-technique factor analysis. R-technique involves analyzing the responses of multiple individuals, primarily to identify clusters of traits or commonalties among behaviours. P-technique involves tracing the strength of traits over a period of time for single individuals. The parallels to idiographic versus nomothetic approaches to understanding behaviour, or between-subjects versus within-subjects experimental designs, are clear. Cattell was an early advocate of unifying these various approaches to understanding people. A brief historical note: Contrary to popular opinion, Raymond Cattell did not inspire the famous Lucky Strike cigarette ad (“Lucky Strike Means Fine Tobacco”). References: Cattell, R. B. (1950). Personality: A systematic, theoretical, and factual study. New York: McGraw- Hill. Cattell, R. B. (1973). Personality and mood by questionnaire. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▼ CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
What Is Personality? Birth Order and Personality Role-playing the Id, Ego, and Superego Role-Playing Defense Mechanisms Review of Freudian Concepts A Jungian Exploration of the Personal Unconscious Applying Personality Theories to TV Characters The Three Faces of Psychology Comparing Personality Theories (Group Activity) Analyzing Harry and Sally The P. T. Barnum Effect Personality Collage Reviewing Approaches to Personality Critique of Online Personality Tests Fill-in-the-Blanks
▲ Return to Table of Contents ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: What Is Personality? Objective: To challenge students to think about the definitions of personality and difficulty of constructing measures of personality. Materials: None Procedure: Two activities are summarized here. In the first activity, students are to write down their own definition of personality. Follow up with a discussion of how their definitions compare with the definition given in your text. The second activity, described by Benjamin (1987), requires students to think about the terms that relate to personality. Narrow down the list of terms to eight major terms; then divide the class into eight groups (this number may be changed to accommodate class size). Assign one of the terms to each of the eight groups, and tell the students to write two test items that they think will measure that characteristic of personality. Tell the students that their items will be used in a personality test composed of 16 questions. After collecting the test items, type the test, and ask students to take it themselves or to give it to two people outside of class. Reference: Benjamin, L. T., Jr. (1987). Personality and personality assessment. In V. P. Makosky, L. G. Whittemore, and A. M. Rogers (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 169–171). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
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◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Birth Order and Personality The work of Frank Sulloway and others suggest that birth order within a family creates a different set of learning experiences for children, and that adult personality tends to differ as a consequence. Students may first take five or so minutes to consider what types of differences might occur as a result of different roles within a family. Then, students can listen to the first three segments (duration total of about 27 minutes) of this interview with Sulloway. Despite its casual tone, the interviewers ask excellent questions and Sulloway explores fascinating issues including the scientific revolution, Darwin, and birth order. Reference: www.paulagordon.com/shows/sulloway/ ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Role-playing the Id, Ego, and Superego Solicit three student volunteers to role play the id, ego, and superego. While these students are outside the classroom deciding which role each will play, have the rest of the class develop a scenario that might cause some ethical/moral difficulty for a college student. Examples may be cheating on a test, cheating on a significant other, going out and partying instead of studying, etc. Once the volunteers have returned, share the scenario with them and have them act out the three parts of one personality. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Role-Playing Defense Mechanisms For a more interactive demonstration of defense mechanisms, try the following exercise suggested by Jack Grieder. Ask for eight volunteers (preferably four men and four women) who are willing to roleplay various defense mechanisms for the class. Assign them (Grieder suggests in mixed-sexed pairs) to portray two defense mechanisms each and send them into the hall to prepare their skits. During that time (about 10 to 15 minutes), list the defense mechanisms on the board and briefly describe each to the class. Call the volunteers back into the class and have them perform their skits. Students in the audience should try to correctly identify the defense mechanism being portrayed in each skit. Discussion should centre on the place of defense mechanisms in personality theory and the role of defense mechanisms in normal functioning. When are defense mechanisms useful? When are they harmful? Which mechanisms are used more than others? Students may also be willing to share personal examples of defense mechanisms they (or someone they know) have used recently. Reference: Grieder, J. J. (1987). Defense mechanisms. In L. T. Benjamin & K. D. Lowman (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (p. 182). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
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◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Review of Freudian Concepts Objective: To help students better understand and retain the major concepts of psychoanalytic theory. Materials: Handout Master 12.1 Procedures: Assign students to groups. Each group should use the textbook and lecture notes to complete the chart. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: A Jungian Exploration of the Personal Unconscious Carl Jung proposed two distinct levels of the unconscious, a collective unconscious (consisting of all the memories and behaviour patterns inherited from past generations) and the personal unconscious (consisting of repressed thoughts, forgotten experiences, and undeveloped ideas). Jung further argued that the personal unconscious contains clusters of emotionally important thoughts called complexes. These complexes—which can be thought of as personally disturbing collections of ideas connected by a common theme—exert a disproportionate amount of influence on our behaviour because the overriding theme of the complex tends to recur over and over again throughout our lives. For example, a person with a “power” complex will spend a disproportionate amount of time on activities either directly or indirectly (symbolically) related the issue or idea of power. Jung felt that it was crucial to identify and deal with complexes because they consumed a great deal of psychic energy and inhibited psychological growth. To study complexes, Jung used word-association tests in which he read patients a list of words and asked them to respond with the first word that came to mind. Besides measuring response time and breathing rate, he also examined subjects’ responses for complex indicators, or factors that indicated the presence of a complex. Hergenhahn (1994) suggests that you can readily demonstrate Jung’s test and notion of complexes by giving students the following word-association test. Ask students to number a blank sheet of paper from 1 to 20, and explain to them that you will read aloud a list of 20 words and that they should respond as quickly as they can with the first word that comes to mind. Then, slowly read the list of 20 words presented on Handout Master 12.2. After you’ve read the list, allow students to score their responses using the list of a number of complex indicators identified by Jung. Students should try to determine whether their responses show any indication of a complex, and if so, they should try to describe the content of the complex. Student volunteers can share their interpretations, and this exercise should stimulate a discussion of the significance of complexes as well as the validity of this kind of test for identifying them. Reference: Hergenhahn, B. R. (1994). An introduction to theories of personality (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
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◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Applying Personality Theories to TV Characters James Polyson suggests an engaging exercise that asks students to apply principles in personality theory to the behaviour of a television character. After giving students an overview of the major personality theories, ask them to think of a potentially interesting TV character to focus on (perhaps a favorite character, or one with a particularly vivid or unique personality). Once they’ve selected a character, they should focus on a specific episode of the TV show that features that character. Then, they should write a short (2 to 3-page) essay in which they first briefly describe the circumstances and plot of the episode, and then devote the remainder of their essay to explaining that character’s behaviour in terms of one of the major personality theories (i.e., psychodynamic, humanistic, trait, or cognitive social-learning). Other guidelines explain to students that (a) they can use more than one theoretical approach if they’d like, (b) that they are not restricted to characters with negative or maladaptive personalities (i.e., “healthy” characters can be interesting, too), and (c) that they should feel free to be creative and original in their application of the theory. Student papers are typically very insightful and thoughtful and tend to cover the gamut of personality theories and character types. Students react very positively to this assignment and indicate that it is a valuable learning experience—not only is it helpful in clarifying some of the more abstract constructs in many personality theories, but it also helps them to see the application of these theories to actual human behaviour. Reference: Polyson, J. (1983). Student essays about TV characters: A tool for understanding personality theories. Teaching of Psychology, 10, 103–104. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: The Three Faces of Psychology Students distinguish among the three main theoretical approaches in personality theory. The student handout for this exercise is included as Handout Master 12.3. Answers: 1. Humanist 2. Psychoanalyst 3. Humanist 4. Behaviourist
5. Psychoanalyst 6. Humanist 7. Behaviourist 8. Psychoanalyst
9. Behaviourist 10. Humanist 11. Behaviourist 12. Psychoanalyst
◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Comparing Personality Theories (Group Activity) One of the goals of having students study various personality theories is to have them understand that both the focus of the theories and their understanding of the origins of personality vary dramatically from one theory to the next. Because of this, two personality theorists studying the same person, but .. 656
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applying different theories, might come to quite different conclusions. Students can have an opportunity to understand these differences more directly by actually analyzing a personality from several different points of view. The easiest way to provide a common personality for analysis is to show a video of a personality. One way to do this is to show a client or simulated client in a therapeutic interview. Another way to do this is to record a half-hour television show or stream an episode. If you do this, you should make sure that you choose a show that has at least one welldeveloped personality portrayed in that episode. A “half-hour” episode will typically take about 22 minutes of class time. The student handout for this exercise is included as Handout Master 12.4. For this exercise, students are asked to work in groups of four or five. Each group is asked to choose a particular personality theory from the following list: Allport’s trait theory McCrae and Costa’s five factor theory Biological theories Social-cultural learning theories Freud’s structural theory Freud’s psychosexual stage theory Humanistic theories Using their textbooks as resources, each group is to prepare a transparency or poster (so they can share their results with the class) that lists the key figures and key terms and concepts associated with each theory. Allow no more than 20 minutes for this phase. Instruct students that they are now going to watch a video of a person whose personality they are to analyze. Instruct the students that they are to focus on the aspects of personality on which their particular theory would focus. They should probably take notes on relevant information during the showing of the video. It will be difficult for students to ignore a “common sense” approach to personality analysis, so it is important to emphasize that they must focus on seeing this personality exclusively from the perspective of the personality theory on which they are working. After you have finished showing the video, give each group 10 to 15 minutes to get their thoughts together concerning the personality analysis. They should write their key points on a transparency or poster for presentation to the class. Students should then make their presentations to the class using their transparencies or posters as visual prompts. The first part of the presentation should present the key points of the theory, without reference to the personality analysis. The second part of the presentation should be their analysis of the video recorded character’s personality according to their chosen perspective. Points that could be expected to be included in student presentations: 1. Key figures (e.g., Freud, Jung, Kagan, etc.) 2. Key terms and concepts within each theory 3. A personality analysis—a description of how someone from a given perspective would describe personality As you wrap up this exercise, it will be useful to briefly compare and contrast the various theories in terms of what aspects of personality they emphasize and how they explain (or don’t explain, as in the case of the trait theories) personality development.
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◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Analyzing Harry and Sally (can be used as group activity) Students apply various concepts in personality theory to three questions. You may choose to progress through this activity as you cover course content, keeping students actively engaged in the lecture material. The student handout for this exercise is included as Handout Master 12.5. Sample/suggested answers: 1. We should not engage in either/or thinking: both Harry and Sally are probably right, because some traits are remarkably stable over time (Harry is noticing these) whereas others can change considerably (Sally is thinking of these). Stable traits include the Big Five (extroversion/introversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience) as well as “trait self- esteem” and certain mannerisms and gestures. But many traits are affected by experiences and situations, including state self-esteem and even some basic temperamental dispositions (e.g., sociability). The best answers will not merely describe situational differences in personality; they will also demonstrate an awareness of how factors such as stress, other people’s responses, various reinforcers and punishers, and role demands can affect these differences. For example, a student might say she is sociable, talkative, and witty with friends but quiet and even shy in the classroom. She might analyze these differences in terms of comfort (she is more at ease with friends, who know her and accept her), fear of censure (which is greater in the classroom), and the presence of an authority figure (the instructor). Or a student might say he is contentious and easily angered at home, where his father often criticizes him and his mother treats him like a child, but is respectful, courteous, and cheerful at his part-time job at a pizza parlor, where his role requires a certain amount of “emotion work.” 2. This item gives students practice in finding reasons for their opinions. For example, a student might prefer the biological approach because there is evidence from studies of temperament and the heritability of adult personality traits to support the approach, and because this perspective can help explain why two individuals growing up in similar environments may be quite unalike, even within the same family. A student may prefer the psychodynamic approach (Freudian or otherwise) because this perspective deals with some of the more difficult aspects of human life, including unconscious motivations, anxiety and guilt, and self-defeating actions. A student may prefer the learning approach because it is testable and it can account for the “consistency paradox.” A student may prefer the humanistic approach because it gives some insight into positive emotions and traits, and provides some guidelines for developing one’s full “potential.” The best answers, however, will acknowledge that each perspective has its strengths and problems, and that the various approaches are not mutually exclusive.
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◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: The P. T. Barnum Effect Copy and distribute the GPT (General Personality Test), which is included as Handout Master 12.6 and ask students to record the degree to which the statements accurately portray their personalities. Then ask them to total their points, yielding a score that represents the goodness of fit of this global personality description to their unique personality. Put a distribution of scores on the board. The scores will range from 12 to 36, with low scores indicating the best fit between the description and a student’s personality. These “personality tests” demonstrate students’ readiness to accept such general statements as accurate descriptions of themselves. The sentences are broad and global, fit for “everyman/woman.” They are similar to the nonspecific descriptions found in horoscopes, rather than deductions from a specific theory of personality. Discuss: Why so many of the students perceived these general statements to be “right on target” for them. Review the three strategies for avoiding the Barnum effect: Beware of all-purpose descriptions that could apply to anyone Beware of your own selective perceptions Resist flattery ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Personality Collage Randy E. Osborne, of Southwest Texas State University, suggests an exercise that not only helps students to explore their personality but also illustrates the differences between the way they view themselves and the way they are viewed by others. Instruct students to create a personality collage that best represents “who they really are.” To form their collage, students should use headlines and clippings from newspapers and magazines, photographs, advertisements, cartoons, and any other material they deem appropriate and paste them onto a half sheet of poster board. Students should then give the other half of the poster board to someone who knows them very well (e.g., a relative, close friend, or relationship partner) and ask that person to create a personality collage that best represents the student. Note that this person should not see the student’s own collage beforehand. When both collages are completed, students are required to compare the two collages and write a short thought paper pondering the similarities and differences. Some issues that Osborne suggests should be addressed in the paper are: What are some of the major themes about yourself that are depicted in your collage? What are the major similarities and differences between your version and your partner’s version? How did the differences make you feel? What have they taught you about yourself and/or your partner that you didn’t already know? Would you want to eliminate these differences? What key elements from the theories discussed in the text or lecture apply to the collages? Finally, Osborne notes that lively class discussions are typically generated by this exercise, as students voluntarily share their reactions to the collages. In one interesting case, Osborne reports that a mother and daughter in his
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class were able to resolve many of the conflicts in their relationship by discussing the discrepancies that surfaced from their mutual collages. Reference: Osborne, R. E. (1994). What do you see when you look at me? What we can learn from the way others see us? Paper presented at the 17th National Institute on the Teaching of Psychology, St. Petersburg Beach.
◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Reviewing Approaches to Personality Objective: To help students organize information about personality theories. Materials: Handout Master 12.7 and Handout Master 12.8. Procedures: Distribute copies of the handouts to students. Either individually or in groups, students should use their textbooks and notes to fill in the tables on the handouts. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Critique of Online Personality Tests Many pop-psychology personality tests are found in popular magazines and also on the Internet. Ask students to search for and take two or three online personality tests, and ask students to critique such tests in a written report as follows: 1) What were the tests designed to measure? 2) What criticisms do you have of the test items? 3) What kind of personality description(s) were offered after completion of the test? Were the descriptions precise and specific or were they general? 4) What are the dangers and benefits of such online tests?
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◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Fill-in-the-Blanks Copy and distribute Handout Master 12.9 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment. Answers for the Fill-in-the-Blanks activity: 1. personality 2. character 3. temperament 4. preconscious 5. conscious 6. unconscious 7. id 8. ego 9. superego 10. fixation 11. oral stage 12. anal stage 13. phallic stage 14. latency stage 15. genital stage 16. Neo-Freudians 17. Jung 18. personal unconscious
19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.
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collective unconscious archetypes Erikson Adler Horney habits Self-efficacy humanistic perspective self-actualization Unconditional positive regard fully functional person Trait theories surface traits five-factor model Behaviour genetics interview halo effect projective tests personality inventory
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▼ HANDOUT MASTERS FOR CHAPTER 12: PERSONALITY ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Handout Master 12.1 Major Concepts of Psychoanalytic Theory Handout Master 12.2 Exploring the Personal Unconscious Handout Master 12.3 Three Faces of Psychology Handout Master 12.4 Comparing Personality Theories Handout Master 12.5 Analyzing Harry and Sally Handout Master 12.6 The GPT (General Personality Test) Handout Master 12.7 Reviewing Approaches to Personality (Part A) Handout Master 12.8 Reviewing Approaches to Personality (Part B) Handout Master 12.9 Fill-in-the-Blanks
▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 12.1 Major Concepts of Psychoanalytic Theory Concept definition Unconscious
Role in personality
Preconscious Conscious Id Ego Superego Defense mechanisms Psychosexual stages
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► Return to Activity: Major Concepts of Psychoanalytic Theory ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 12.2 Exploring the Personal Unconscious Original Word List 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
death to sin money pride journey pity stupid book sad to marry unjust family friend happiness lie anxiety to abuse ridicule pure to beat Jungian Complex Indicators
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
displaying longer-than-average reaction time to a stimulus word repeating the stimulus word back as a response failing to respond at all using expressive bodily reactions, such as laughing, increased breathing rate, or increased conductivity of the skin stammering continuing to respond to a previously used stimulus word reacting meaninglessly (e.g., with made-up words) reacting superficially with a word that sounds like the stimulus word (e.g., die-lie) responding with more than one word misunderstanding the stimulus as some other word
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► Return to Activity: Exploring the Personal Unconscious Original Word List ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 12.3 Three Faces of Psychology Imagine that three psychologists are having lunch together, and that you are eavesdropping on their conversation. There is a psychoanalyst (P), a behaviourist (B), and a humanist (H). Which of the psychologists is most likely to have made each of the following statements? (
)
1. I think people in our profession should put more effort into trying to understand mentally healthy people and prosocial behaviour.
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2. Aggression is a human instinct. Society can control it to some extent, but we will never eliminate aggressive behaviour.
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3. Your student may be under a lot of pressure from his parents, but that is no excuse for cheating. We are responsible for what we do.
(
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4. If you want to understand why she did it, look to the environment for clues instead of at inferred internal forces such as impulses and motives.
(
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5. We humans are products of evolutionary forces that have preserved selfishness, pleasure- seeking, and a tendency to deceive ourselves.
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6. It doesn’t seem to me that you need to dig into a person’s past in order to understand the person’s current problems and concerns.
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7. There aren’t any values inherent in human nature. Values are acquired in the same way we learn to say “please” and “thank you.”
(
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8. If we wanted to improve the character of people in our society, we would need to start when they are very young. By the time a kid is five years old, it’s probably too late.
(
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9. You may think your choice of chili and ice cream for lunch was freely made, but your perception of free choice is an illusion. Choosing chili and ice cream is predictable from the consequences of past behaviour.
(
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10. General laws of behaviour and experience that apply to all people are not very helpful if you want to understand a particular individual.
(
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11. You say people are inherently good, and he says they are inherently pretty bad. I don’t think people are inherently either good or bad.
(
)
12. The sex drive is with us at birth. People just don’t want to believe that infants get sexual pleasure from sucking and exploring anything they get in their hands with their mouths.
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► Return to Activity: The Three Faces of Psychology ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 12.4 Comparing Personality Theories
Step 1:
Form a small group (four or five students). Choose a particular personality theory to work on from the following list: Allport’s trait theory McCrae and Costa’s five factor theory Biological theories Learning theories Freud’s structural theory Freud’s psychosexual stage theory Humanistic theories
Step 2:
Using your textbooks as resources, your group is to prepare a transparency or poster so you can teach the class about your theory. Be sure to include the following information: Name the key figures (people) responsible for your theory. List and explain the key terms and concepts associated with your theory.
Step 3:
Watch the video presented in class. Analyze the main character according to your theory. Try to ignore “common sense” and just focus on seeing the character from the perspective of the theory on which you are working. Take notes on thoughts or behaviours of the character that relate to your theory.
Step 4:
Meet briefly with your group to summarize the main points of your personality analysis of the character on the video. Write the key points of your analysis on a transparency or poster. Prepare to make your presentation of the theory and your personality analysis to the class.
Step 5:
Present your personality theory and your personality analysis of the video recorded character to the class, using your transparencies or posters as visual prompts. The first part of your presentation should present the key points of the theory, without reference to the personality analysis. The second part of the presentation should be your analysis of the video recorded character’s personality according to your chosen perspective.
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► Return to Activity: Comparing Personality Theories (Group Activity) ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 12.5 Analyzing Harry and Sally
1. Harry meets Sally after many years. “Gee, Sally,” he says, “you haven’t changed a bit.” “What are you talking about?” she replies angrily. “I’ve changed a lot.” Who is likely to be right—Harry? Sally? Both? Neither?
2. Even when personality tests indicate that a person has a certain trait, the person’s behaviour may depend greatly on the situation. Describe how your own “personality” (or, if you prefer, that of someone you know well) seems to change according to the situation, and speculate about why these changes occur.
3. Of the approaches to personality discussed in your textbook—the psychodynamic, behaviourist, humanis and trait theoriest—which do you find most persuasive, and why?
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► Return to Activity: Analyzing Harry and Sally ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 12.6 The GPT (General Personality Test)
Indicate the degree to which each of the following sentences reflects your true character. 1/ 2 / 3 Yes/ Sometimes /Never
1/2/3
• You have a strong need for other people to like you and for them to admire you.
1/2/3
• You have a tendency to be critical of yourself.
1/2/3
• You have a great deal of “unused capacity” which you have not turned to your advantage.
1/2/3
• While you have some personality weaknesses, you are generally able to compensate for them.
1/2/3
• Your sexual adjustment has presented some problems for you.
1/2/3
• Disciplined and controlled on the outside, you tend to be worrisome and insecure inside.
1/2/3
• At times you have serious doubts as to whether you have made the right decision or done the right thing.
1/2/3
• You prefer a certain amount of change and variety, and become dissatisfied when hemmed in by restrictions and limitations.
1/2/3
• You pride yourself as being an independent thinker and do not accept others’ opinions without satisfactory proof.
1/2/3
• You have found it unwise to be too frank in revealing yourself to others.
1/2/3
• At times you are extroverted, affable, sociable, while at other times you are introverted, wary, and reserved.
1/2/3
• Some of your aspirations tend to be pretty unrealistic.
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► Return to Activity: The P.T. Barnum Effect ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 12.7 Reviewing Approaches to Personality (Part A) Chart I Compare the personality theories on the basis of the items listed in the left-hand column.
Approach Major Proponent(s)
Psychoanalytic
Core of Personality
Structure of Personality
Developmental View
Behaviour Pathology Caused By:
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► Return to Activity: Reviewing Approaches to Personality ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 12.8 Reviewing Approaches to Personality (Part B) Chart II Compare the personality theories on the basis of the items listed in the left-hand column.
Approach Major Proponent(s)
Trait
Behavioural
Core of Personality
Structure of Personality
Developmental View
Behaviour Pathology Caused By:
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► Return to Activity: Reviewing Approaches to Personality ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 12.9 Fill-in-the-Blanks Activity 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.
The unique and relatively stable ways in which people think, feel, and behave is known as____________. The value judgments of a person’s moral and ethical behaviour are known as . The enduring characteristics with which each person is born are known as their . The level of the mind in which information is available but not currently conscious is called the ____________________. The mind is the level of the mind that is aware of immediate surroundings and perceptions. The is the level of the mind in which thoughts, feelings, memories, and other information are kept that are not easily or voluntarily brought into consciousness. The is the part of the personality present at birth and completely unconscious. The is the part of the personality that develops out of a need to deal with reality, mostly conscious, rational, and logical. The is the part of the personality that acts as a moral centre. A is a disorder in which the person does not fully resolve the conflict in a particular psychosexual stage, resulting in personality traits and behaviour associated with that earlier stage. According to Freud this is the first stage, occurring in the first year of life, in which the mouth is the erogenous zone and weaning is the primary conflict. It is called the . According to Freud, the second stage of personality development, occurring from about 1 to 3 years of age, in which the anus is the erogenous zone and toilet training is the source of conflict is called the_______________________ The third Freudian stage, occurring from about 3 to 6 years of age, in which the child discovers sexual feelings is known as the_________________________. The fourth Freudian stage, occurring during the school years, in which the sexual feelings of the child are repressed while the child develops in other ways is known as the___________________. The final stage of personality development according to Freudian is known as the_____________________________, and sexual feelings reawaken with appropriate targets. _________________were followers of Freud who developed their own competing theories of psychoanalysis. ___________________developed a theory of a collective unconscious. Jung’s name for the unconscious mind as described by Freud is called the_______________________. The______________________is Jung’s name for the memories shared by all members of the human species. Jung’s collective, universal human memories were called__________________. _________________developed a theory based on social rather than sexual relationships, covering the entire life span. _____________________proposed feelings of inferiority as the driving force behind personality and developed birth-order theory.
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23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34.
35. 36. 37.
____________________developed a theory based on basic anxiety and rejected the concept of penis envy. According to behaviourists,______________________are sets of well-learned responses that have become automatic. _________________is the individual’s perception of how effective a behaviour will be in any particular circumstance. The is the “third force” in psychology that focuses on those aspects of personality that make people uniquely human, such as subjective feelings and freedom of choice. The striving to fulfill one’s innate capacities and capabilities is called________________________. __________________________ is positive regard that is given without conditions or strings attached. A______________________________ is a person who is in touch with and trusting of the deepest, innermost urges and feelings. are theories that endeavor to describe the characteristics that make up human personality in an effort to predict future behaviour. Aspects of a personality that can easily be seen by other people in the outward actions of a person are called_________________________. The model of personality traits that describes five basic trait dimensions is called the____________ ________________. is a field of study of the relationship between heredity and personality. The_______________________is a method of personality assessment in which the professional asks questions of the client and allows the client to answer, either in a structured or unstructured fashion. The___________________________is the tendency of an interviewer to allow positive characteristics of a client to influence the assessments of the client’s behaviour and statements. _______________________are personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind. A____________________is a paper-and-pencil or computerized test that consists of statements that require a specific, standardized response from the person taking the test.
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► Return to Activity: Fill-in-the-Blanks ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents Fill-in-the-Blanks—Words 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.
personality Adler anal stage archetypes behaviour genetics character collective unconscious conscious ego Erikson five-factor model fixation fully functional ferson genital stage habits halo effect Horney humanistic perspective id
20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.
interview Jung latency stage neo-Freudians oral stage personal unconscious personality inventory phallic stage preconscious projective tests self-actualization self-efficacy superego surface traits temperament trait theories unconditional positive regard unconscious mind
▼ APS: READINGS FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE ▲ Return to Table of Contents Current Directions in Introductory Psychology, Second Edition (0-13-714350-8) Edited by Abigail A. Baird, with Michele M. Tugade and Heather B. Veague This new and exciting American Psychological Reader includes timely, cutting-edge articles, giving readers a real-world perspective from a reliable source Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. This reader includes over 20 articles that have been carefully selected and taken from the very accessible Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. Articles discuss today’s most current and pressing issues in introductory psychology and are broken down into these main sections: Scientific Thinking; Nature/Nurture; Consciousness; Individual Differences; and Applications. Section 5: Individual Differences p. 159 Timothy W. Smith Personality as Risk and Resilience in Physical Health. (Vol. 15, No. 5, 2006, pp. 227–231) p. 161 of the APS reader Research on the association between personality characteristics and subsequent physical health has produced several consistent findings and identified other tentative relationships. Chronic anger/hostility and neuroticism/negative affectivity are the best established personality risk factors for poor health. Optimism, social dominance, and other traits also appear to influence risk. Several mechanisms have been identified as possibly underlying these effects, but few have been evaluated
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definitively. Future research may be well served by incorporation of concepts and methods from current personality research. Kate Sweeny, Patrick J. Carroll, James A. Shepperd Is Optimism Always Best?: Future Outlooks and Preparedness. (Vol. 15, No. 6, 2006, pp. 302–306) p. 169 of the APS reader Although people generally appear optimistic about the future, they shift from optimism under certain circumstances. Drawing from a recent review of the literature, we describe how both optimism and shifts from optimism serve the common goal of preparedness, which includes a readiness to deal with setbacks and a readiness to take advantage of opportunities. Shifts from optimism occur in response to available information and to the possibility that things may not turn out as hoped. People tend to shift from optimism when feedback is anticipated in the near future, when the outcome is important, when negative outcomes are easily imagined, and when the outcomes are uncontrollable. In addition, people with low self-esteem shift from optimism more readily than do people with high self-esteem. Finally, both optimism and shifts from optimism have unique benefits in terms of preparedness. Mary K. Rothbart Temperament, Development, and Personality. (Vol. 16, No. 4, 2007, pp. 207–212) p. 177 of the APS reader Understanding temperament is central to our understanding of development, and temperament constructs are linked to individual differences in both personality and underlying neural function. In this article, I review findings on the structure of temperament, its relation to the Big Five traits of personality, and its links to development and psychopathology. In addition, I discuss the relation of temperament to conscience, empathy, aggression, and the development of behaviour problems, and describe the relation between effortful control and neural networks of executive attention. Finally, I present research on training executive attention. Richard W. Robins, Kali H. Trzesniewski Self-Esteem Development Across the Lifespan. (Vol. 14, No. 3, 2005, pp. 158–162) p.186 of the APS reader After decades of debate, a consensus is emerging about the way self-esteem develops across the lifespan. On average, self-esteem is relatively high in childhood, drops during adolescence (particularly for girls), rises-gradually throughout adulthood, and then declines sharply in old age. Despite these general age differences, individuals tend to maintain their ordering relative to one another: Individuals who have relatively high self-esteem at one point in time tend to have relatively high self-esteem years later. This type of stability (i.e., rank-order stability) is somewhat lower during childhood and old age than during adulthood, but the overall level of stability is comparable to that found for other personality characteristics. Directions for further research include (a) replication of the basic trajectory using more sophisticated longitudinal designs, (b) identification of the mediating mechanisms underlying self-esteem change, (c) the development of an integrative theoretical model of the lifecourse trajectory of self- esteem. Susan Nolen-Hoeksema Gender Differences in Depression. (Vol. 10, No. 5, 2001, pp. 173–176) p.194 of the APS reader From early adolescence through adulthood, women are twice as likely as men to experience depression. Many different explanations for this gender difference in depression have been offered, but none seems to fully explain it. Recent research has focused on gender differences in stress responses, and in exposure to certain stressors. I review this research and describe how gender differences in stress experiences and stress reactivity may interact to create women’s greater vulnerability to depression. ▲ Return to Table of Contents .. 673
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▼ FORTY STUDIES THAT CHANGED PSYCHOLOGY ▲ Return to Table of Contents Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research, 6/e (013603599X) By Roger Hock This unique book closes the gap between psychology textbooks and the research that made them possible by offering a first-hand glimpse into 40 of the most famous studies in the history of the field, and subsequent studies that expanded upon each study’s influence. Readers are able to grasp the process and excitement of scientific discovery as they experience an insider’s look at the studies that continue today to be cited most frequently, stirred up the most controversy when they were first published, sparked the most subsequent related research, opened new fields of psychological exploration, and changed most dramatically our knowledge of human behaviour. Studies examined in Personality: Are You The Master Of Your Fate? Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80, 1–28. Masculine or Feminine...or Both? Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155–162. Racing Against Your Heart Friedman, M., & Rosenman, R. H. (1959). Association of specific overt behaviour pattern with blood and cardiovascular findings. Journal of the American Medical Association, 169, 1286–1296. The One; The Many Triandis, H., Bontempo, R., Villareal, M., Asai, M., & Lucca, N. (1988). Individualism and collectivism: Cross-cultural perspectives on self-ingroup relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 323–338.
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▼ WEB RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents
General/Comprehensive Sites Electronic Textbook: http://webspace.ship.edu/ Want to learn more about personality, but don’t feel like reading a book? Read a screen instead. Start here to learn more. Great Ideas in Personality: www.personalityresearch.org/ This site provides links to a variety of research programs in attachment theory, basic emotions, behaviour genetics, personality disorders, the five-factor model, psychoanalysis, and much more. Start here when rewriting your personality lecture presentations. Institute for Behavioural Genetics: http://ibgwww.colorado.edu University of Colorado, Boulder, sponsors this institute for the study of behaviour genetics. International Society for the Study of Individual Differences: www.issid.org/ ISSID does what it says. Learn more about this organization with a visit to their website. Personality and Consciousness: www.pandc.ca/ Personality and consciousness. That’s pretty much it. SPSP: www.spsp.org/ Society for Personality and Social Psychology homepage. Useful information about people who do this for a living. Psychodynamic/psychoanalytic theory American Psychoanalytic Association: www.apsa.org/ Freud Museum: www.freud.org.uk/ Got Freud? Get it here. Where else? Jung Page: www.cgjungpage.org/ Jung, Jung, and more Jung. You want Jung, we got Jung. New York Psychoanalytic Institute and Society: www.psychoanalysis.org/ This organization promotes the psychoanalytic perspective in the modern age. Humanistic Psychology Association of Humanistic Psychology: www.ahpweb.org/
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Trait Theories Cattell Bibliography: www.stthomasu.ca A collection of information about the 500 publications of Raymond Cattell. Center for Application of Personality Type: www.capt.org/ Personality types are big business in business. See how typologies get applied in various contexts. Gordon Allport Bibliography: www.wynja.com/ Want to know what Gordon Allport wrote in his lifetime? Want to buy some of it? Check here. Gordon Allport in Brief: http://webspace.ship.edu This site provides a concise overview of Allport’s ideas on personality. Gordon Allport in Depth: www.psych.westminster.edu This site provides a bit more detail about Allport. Interview with R. B. Cattell: www.eugenics.net This site reprints an interview with Raymond Cattell from the Eugenics Bulletin. Personality Types: www.typelogic.com/ TypeLogic offers a summary of personality types, such as those measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. I took it…I’m the Myers-type, not the Briggs-type. Personality Assessment/Testing Association for Research in Personality: www.personality-arp.org/ This group advances the study of personality. Learn more about their operations. Buros Institute of Mental Measurement: www.unl.edu Back when your mentor was young, psychologists used to look in big, dusty books to find information about psychological tests. Now the Buros Institute has made that task much simpler. ERIC Clearinghouse of Tests: www.ericae.net/ This site offers a searchable index of personality tests, scales, measures, assessment devices, and other redundancies. Information about Psychological Tests: www.apa.org Students learning about personality like to take personality tests. Steer them here, first, to learn from APA how to find and evaluate psychological tests. Information on Self-Efficacy: www.des.emory.edu Personality Measurement: www.personality-project.org A wealth of information on measuring personality can be found here. ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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13/ SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲ Return to Table of Contents
MODULE 13.1: The Power of the Situation: Social Influences on Behaviour and Attitudes ➢ Lecture Guide: Social Influences on Behaviour and Attitudes (p. 678) ➢ Resources Available (p. 684) MODULE 13.2: Social Cognition ➢ Lecture Guide: Social Cognition (p. 685) ➢ Resources Available (p. 691) MODULE 13.3: Attitudes, Behaviour, and Effective Communication ➢ Lecture Guide: Helping and Harming Others (p. 692) ➢ Resources Available (p. 696) FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES ➢ Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 697) ➢ Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 710) ➢ Handout Masters (p. 720) ➢ APS: Readings from the Association of Psychological Science (p. 727) ➢ Forty Studies that Changed Psychology (p. 728) ➢ Web Resources (p. 729)
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LECTURE GUIDE I. MODULE 13.1: THE POWER OF THE SITUATION: SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON BEHAVIOUR (Text p. 494) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology associated with social influence. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand why individuals conform to others’ behaviours and thoughts. o At its most basic level, conforming begins with mimicry, in which people simply imitate others’ behaviours. Mimicry seems to help form social bonds and encourages prosocial behaviour. Conformity usually describes the way an individual’s more complex beliefs and behaviours evolve to become like the group’s. This change often happens unconsciously; in fact, we are said to have a bias blind spot that prevents us from seeing how our beliefs are shaped by group membership. ✓ Understand how individuals and groups can influence behaviours. o In addition to conformity, attitudes and behaviours can be changed through persuasion techniques. The two-step procedures of the foot-in-the-door and door-in-the-face techniques are applied by an individual who is intending to persuade or convince another person. In addition, unintentional phenomena exist. For example, in groupthink, the excitement of a group’s progress leads individuals to think alike and to be overconfident in their group’s decisions. ✓ Apply your knowledge of being a passive bystander or active altruist to understand your own likeliness to help. o make clear that you say you are having an emergency and identify a specific person who you want to help you, then tell that person exactly what to do. ✓ Analyze whether people who harm others are fundamentally harmful, mean people or their behaviour is the product of social influences. o The evidence from social psychological research clearly shows that individuals can change their behaviours drastically to fi t a role, to comply with what the rest of the group is doing, and to follow instructions from authority figures. When all of these social influences are in play, it would not be at all unusual for a person to behave much differently—even more cruelly—than the individual ever believed he or she could.
Situational Influence on Behaviour: Mimicry, Norms, and Roles 1) Kurt Lewin suggested that “Behaviour is a function of the person and the environment – B
= f (P,E). To begin our study of social psychology, we must first acknowledge that humans are fundamentally social creatures; with perhaps the biggest part of the equation being the “E” - the social environment. Even the biggest introverts among us are remarkably sensitive to what is socially acceptable or unacceptable. Synchrony and Mimicry 1) We often use other people as a source of information about how to behave. Mimicry (p. 495) taking on for ourselves the behaviours, emotional displays, and facial expressions of others.
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2) Most of the time, it is a completely unconscious activity. i) For example, we whisper when others whisper, we walk slower in the presence of the elderly, and even scratch our heads after seeing someone scratch their head. 3) Mimicry helps people feel reassured and validated by each other, sending the unconsciously processed message to others that you are kind of like them, and more so, that you are paying attention to them in that moment. Norms and Roles Social norms (p. 495) the (usually unwritten) guidelines for how to behave in social contexts. 1) Norms are mostly implicit and emerge naturally in social interactions, although there are plenty of examples to the contrary. i) For example, when you were a child, adults most likely told you how to behave. As an employee, your supervisor may have provided you with a verbal instructions or a policy manual about what is expected. 2) One very important motivator to help us figure out normative behaviour is social approval. 3) Ostracism (p. 496), being ignored or excluded from social contact, is another powerful form of social pressure. 4) While norms are general rules that apply to members of a group, social roles (p. 496) are guidelines that apply to specific positions within the group. 5) The Stanford Prison Experiment of the early 1970s has become a memorable and controversial narrative of how quickly people might adapt to assigned roles. The Stanford Prison Study 1) The Stanford Prison Study, depicts the power that roles have over our behaviour. i) Participants were pre-screened to establish they were psychologically healthy and then were randomly assigned to play the role of either prisoner or prison guard. ii) The role playing began as soon as the prisoners were “arrested” and brought to the basement of the Stanford University psychology building, where they were incarcerated in a made-up prison. iii) The guards were given uniforms and given the task of overseeing the prisoners. a) They soon began to take their jobs very seriously. b) They established rules and issued orders. iv) Some prisoners complied and others resisted. v) As guards enforced the rules, some became abusive, and their behaviours became extreme. a) Some guards had prisoners do push-ups, clean toilets by hand, or spend hours naked in solitary confinement. 2) It is important to realize that this was just role playing, not a real prison with real criminals and guards. i)
Participants were college students with the same general profile in terms of personality, mental health, and intelligence. a) The only thing that separated them was the role they were randomly assigned to. b) Therefore, the differences must have been due to what they believed were the proper behaviours for their assigned roles. ii) The guards either became brutal and callous or simply stood by while others did the dirty work. iii) Most prisoners acquiesced and passively accepted the brutal treatment. a) It is not as though they shrugged it off as a game; many exhibited stress-related symptoms including screaming, crying, and stress-related illnesses.
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3) Although this study was scheduled for two weeks, it was called off after 6 days. i) This study, conducted in 1971, could never be done today. a) It brought to light the need to scrutinize the ethical standards of studies. b) However, much can be learned from this study.
Group Dynamics Social Loafing and Social Facilitation 1) Most students roll their eyes at group projects. i) In part because one student always feels like they did all the work while at least one group member sat by and text messaged his/her friends. 2) Most professors have seen a group of B students put together an outstanding A+ project while another group of B students barely manages to get a C in their group. i) In other words, groups can facilitate work and they can make an individual’s work poorer depending on the situation. Social loafing (p. 497) occurs when an individual puts less effort into working on a task with others. 3) Loafing can occur across all types of group regardless of age, gender, and nationality and in all types of tasks (e.g., rope-pulling, problem solving, and song writing). i) An individual can loaf without realizing it, but it still affects the group. 4) There are a number of situational influences that can potentially turn anyone into a loafer. i) Low efficacy beliefs. a) Loafing may occur if an individual believes she is not capable of doing well. ii) Believing that one’s contributions are not important to the group. a) Loafing tends to occur when an individual cant see how their own input matters to the group, or perhaps that the group would do fine without him. iii) Not caring about the group’s outcome. a) The individual does not personality identify with the group, or feels socially rejected. They may feel that the group is unsuccessful or not important. iv) Feeling like others are not trying very hard. 5) The opposite of these factors will help prevent social loafing, however not all groups have problems with social loafing. Social facilitation (p. 498) occurs when one’s performance is affected by the presence of others. i)
For example, cyclists ride faster when racing against each other than when trying to beat the clock. ii) It appears that being in groups can lead individuals to experience heightened arousal. a) This effect prepares individuals to do well on tasks for which they are confident in their abilities. Conformity 1) Conformity can be found in mimicry. 2) Conformity refers to a change in behaviour to fit in with a group, whether it is intentional or not. 3) One of first scientific studies of conformity was performed by Solomon Asch. i) A participant came into a room where there were five other people. a) These other people were confederates who were told what to say ahead of time. b) This group was meant to be a way of applying social pressure. .. 680
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ii) Everyone was shown three lines and asked which line matched the standard line (Figure 13.1). a) The confederates all purposefully picked the same wrong line. b) The question is whether the participant will conform and pick the line s/he knows is Approximately 75% of these perfectly intelligent participants conformed to the group and gave the wrong answer at least once during the testing. iii) Approximately 25% conformed regularly. iv) After the study, participants said they conformed because they thought they misunderstood the test, thought there was an optical illusion involved, or wanted to avoid making a scene. a) There are a number of reasons why people conform or go against the grain. 4) This experiment showed that conformity can happen through either wrong. Normative influence (p. 498) is the result of social pressure to adopt a group’s perspective in order to be accepted, rather than rejected by the group. Informational influence (p. 499) which occurs when people feel the group is giving them useful information. Groupthink 1) The proverb, two heads are better than one, might not always be true. Groupthink (p. 499) a decision-making problem in which group members avoid arguments and strive for agreement. 2) This is an issue because when everyone avoids arguments, three main problems occur: i) The group often becomes overconfident and gains a sense of excitement about its progress. ii) Group members may minimize or ignore potential problems and risks. iii) They may apply social pressure to members who are not fully in support of the idea in an effort to get them to conform. 3) Some groups are more susceptible to groupthink than others. i) Groupthink is more likely to occur when there is a strong leader who suppresses dissenters and encourages the group to consider few alternative ideas. ii) The more the group members have in common—especially in terms of sociopolitical perspectives—the more likely they are to fall into patterns of groupthink. 4) However, groupthink is not inevitable and does not always lead to bad decisions. 5) However, the presence of an audience does not always guaranteed increased performance. i) As a general rule, it seems that when individuals have mastered a task, the audience helps, whereas for novices, having an audience hurts performance. ii) If individuals are uncertain about their skill, the arousal can turn into nervousness and actually impair performance. a) This might be due to heighted self-awareness.
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To Act or Not to Act: Obedience, the Bystander Effect, and Altruism Obedience to Authority 1) One of the most direct forms of social influence is authority. i) Authority comes from a combination of social roles and social context. a) Individuals tend to obey authority figures such as parents, bosses, and police officers. b) You are also likely to obey your physician who asks you to undress at the office, but not if s/he asked this of you when you bumped into each other at the grocery store. 2) To explore just how far people will go to obey authority figures, psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted what is now known as a classic study on obedience. i) A recruit shows up at the psychologist’s lab. Another man (a confederate) is already there, and the two men draw slips of paper to find out who is the teacher and who will be the learner. a) In all cases, the recruit is assigned to be the teacher. ii) The teacher is told to read a series of word pairs to the learner, who is in a separate room. When given one word, the learner is asked to repeat its pair. a) The learner is hooked up to an electrical shock apparatus. If the learner cannot remember the words, the teacher is to administer an electric shock. iii) Each time the learner gets the answer wrong, the teacher is to go one step higher on the electric shocks. a) Each switch increases the voltage of the shock, all the way up to where it says 450 iv) At the first shock, the learner protests. With each increase in voltage, the learner’s response becomes stronger and stronger. a) He cries out, screams in pain, says his heart is bothering him, demands to leave the study, and eventually falls silent. v) If along the way the teacher becomes concerned about harming the learner, the psychologistexperimenter simply says either “Please continue” or “The experiment requires that you continue. 3) A group of psychiatrists and psychologists made predictions about how far the teacher would go on the voltage meter and what kind of person would go all the way. i) They predicted a small percentage of the population would obey the experimenter’s instructions to continue. ii) Those who went all the way would have psychological problems; they would have to be sadistic or antisocial. 4) Almost everyone in Milgram’s study—more than 75% of the participants—continued administering the shocks past the points where the participant screamed and begged to leave the study. i) 65% continued to increase the shocks until they reached 450 volts—the highest amount possible. ii) However, footage of the participants shows them in distress. a) Many tried to help the learner even as they continued to give the shocks. 5) Social cues and social norms greatly influenced the participants in the Milgram study. i) The experimenter was a scientist in a lab coat in his own lab, so he was an authority figure. a) If the authority figure believed it was acceptable to continue, many participants felt they could continue even though they didn’t want to. ii) If the authority figure didn’t appear as an authority figure, obedience was reduced. a) If the authority figure was dressed in street clothes vs. a lab coat, participants were less likely to obey. b) If there was a second authority figure who expressed concern for the learner, obedience was also greatly reduced.
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iii) When there were one or more confederates acting as a co-teacher, the participants tended to conform. a) When the co-teacher complied with the authority’s request, 92.5% of the participants gave the highest possible shock. b) When two co-teachers refused to comply, only 10% gave the highest possible shock. 6) Much like the Stanford Prison Study, the Milgram study could not be repeated today, due to ethical standards in research. i) However, this study is still referred to today to teach lessons about human behaviour that could never be forgotten. ii) Milgram designed these studies in an attempt to understand atrocities committed during World War II. a) Both situations have clear authority figures built into the social context, complete with uniforms (lab coat versus military) and official locations (university laboratory versus military camp). b) Social influences worked throughout both cases: In Milgram’s studies, the scientist knew what to do; in World War II Germany, propaganda described Jews, intellectual dissidents, and homosexuals as the source of all the suffering in Depression-era Germany. c) Finally, both situations involved social norms’ influence, whether they were in the form of teachers or an entire army.
The Bystander Effect: Situational Influences on Helping Behaviour 1) In 1964, some 40 witnesses watched while Kitty Genovese was brutally attacked and slowly died, even though they could have intervened or called for help. i) The thought of unresponsive witnesses stimulated a new line of research into the bystander effect. Bystander effect (p. 503) describes the counterintuitive finding that the presence of other people actually reduces the likelihood of helping behaviour. 2) Dozens of studies have explored this effect by simulating emergencies. 3) There are different possible explanations for the bystander effect. i) A crowd can freeze bystanders due in part to a sort of stage fright a) People might be worried about doing something that would embarrass themselves. ii) Individuals may look around and see other bystanders not reacting. a) They may wonder if they are misinterpreting the situation. iii) They might experience diffusion of responsibility (Figure 13.2). Diffusion of responsibility (p. 503) the reduced personal responsibility a person feels when more people are present. 4) Factors that may help reverse the bystander effect include: i) Having specific training, such as CPR, lets people feel better equipped to help. ii) Being among friends and family, presumably because the member of the group share various prosocial values. iii) Acting against the anonymity and diffusion of responsibility. a) Ask for help from a specific person and make eye contact as you ask for help so the person cannot deny responsibility. b) Be specific when you ask for help (e.g., say call 911), so the person can spring into action without thinking.
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When People Decide to Act Altruism (p. 504) helping others in need without receiving or expecting reward for doing so. 1) The capacity for empathy—understanding what another’s situation feels like and what its implications might be—is a prerequisite for helping others; the more empathy an individual reports on personality scales, the more likely the person is to help. RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 13.1 ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ Confirmation Bias – The Case of Chupacabras ➢ An Eight-Ball and a Cockroach ➢ Jonestown: A Study in Social Psychology Change ➢ Is This Sexual Harassment? ➢ It’s a Small World After All ➢ Instant Abs! ➢ Political Persuasion ➢ Cognitive Dissonance ➢ A Peg and a Grasshopper Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Social Psychology in the Workplace ➢ Social Psychology in Film ➢ A Conformity Study ➢ Deindividuation ➢ Group Processes ➢ Demonstrating Group Polarization ➢ Sometimes You Gotta Break the Rules ➢ Stanford Prison Study on the Web ➢ Attitudes in Advertising ➢ Inducing Cognitive Dissonance Handout Masters ➢ Handout Master 13.3 Crossword Puzzle Activity ➢ Handout Master 13.4 Fill-in-the-Blanks Activity Web Resources ➢ Brunswik Society: www.albany.edu ➢ Social Cognition and Emotion Lab, Harvard University: www.wjh.harvard.edu ➢ Biography of Kurt Lewin: www.muskingum.edu ➢ Center for the Learning of Group Processes: www.uiowa.edu/ ➢ Psychology Centre: Social and Cultural Psychology: http://psych.athabascau.ca ➢ Social Psychology Network: www.socialpsychology.org/ ➢ Social Psychology Network Topics: www.socialpsychology.org ➢ Society for Judgment and Decision Making: www.sjdm.org/ ➢ SPSP Home Page: www.spsp.org/ ➢ Cognitive Consequences of Forced Compliance: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca ➢ Cults: www.csj.org/
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➢ Group Dynamics Links: https://facultystaff.richmond.edu ➢ Influence at Work: www.influenceatwork.com/ ➢ Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation: The Robber’s Cave Experiment: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca ➢ Obedience, Compliance with Authority: www.as.wvu.edu ➢ Prisoner’s Dilemma: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu ➢ Stanford Prison Experiment: www.prisonexp.org/ ➢ Stanley Milgram Website: www.stanleymilgram.com/ ➢ Advertising Age Magazine: www.adage.com/
II. MODULE 13.2: Social Cognition (Text p. 506) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology associated with social cognition. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand how we form first impressions and how these impressions influence us. o We quickly form impressions, even with only thin slices of behaviour available to us. These impressions can be surprisingly accurate, but in some cases, they may lead to selffulfilling prophecies. ✓ Apply your knowledge of attributions and biases to better understand how you tend to perceive yourself and others. o Students should be able to consider their own behaviour and personality as compared to that of a friend or classmate and reflect on when they use situational and dispositional attributes. ✓ Analyze whether people who commit discriminatory acts are explicitly prejudiced. o Stereotypes can guide behaviour implicitly.
1) One central idea in the field of social-cognitive psychology is that there are two major types of processes in our consciousness. Explicit processes (p. 507) which correspond roughly to “conscious” thought, are deliberative, effortful, relatively slow, and generally under out intentional control. Implicit processes (p. 507) comprise our “unconscious” thoughts; they are intuitive, automatic, effortless, very fast, and operate largely outside of our intentional control. 2) These processes work together and can intertwine to regulate our bodies and affect how we think. i) Explicit processes can influence implicit processes when our beliefs influence how we process information. ii) Implicit processes can influence explicit processes when our automatic tendency is to categorize a person, object or situation into a stereotyped group and allow it to influence our judgments. Dual-process model (p. 507) models of behaviour that account for both implicit and explicit processes.
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Person Perception Person perception (p. 507) refers to the processes by which individuals categorize form judgments about other people.
2) The power of first impressions can be explained by the automatic side of social cognition. i) When we first encounter someone, we have very little information on which to evaluate him or her, so we rely on implicit processing using whatever schemas available. a) The person’s gender, race, and style of dress all activate schemas, and these schemas bring certain traits to mind automatically. Thin Slices of Behaviour 1) Although first impressions are formed very quickly, they are often accurate. Thin slices of behaviour (p. 507) are very small samples of a person’s behaviour. i)
What happens in these situations is we make very rapid, implicit judgments based on these small samples of perceived behaviour. 2) Studies of this process have shown that we can tell a surprisingly large amount about a person given incredibly little information. i) Subjects have been able to successfully determine a male’s sexual orientation at rates greater than chance after viewing his photo for 1/20th of a second. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy and Other Consequences of First Impressions 1) First impressions have the biggest impact on our social behaviours. i) For example, one study asked participants to act as jurors and evaluate evidence against a defendant. a) Participants were less likely to find a defendant guilty when shown a photograph of a person who simply appeared “more trustworthy”. ii) Another study found that 70% election outcomes were made on judgments of how competent candidates’ faces looked. 2) An individual’s impression of others can also lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy. Self-fulfilling prophecy (p. 508) occurs when a first impression (or an expectation) affects one’s behaviour, and then that affects other people’s behaviour, leading one to “confirm” the initial impression or expectation.
i) Examples of self-fulfilling prophecies can be found all around us, from the initial impressions we make about a person’s attitude or personality, to the amount of self-confidence we have. The Self in the Social World 1) It can be very difficult to determine which information or schemas to use when forming impressions of new people. 2) Often we use our own perceptions of self-concepts which tend to have two important consequences. i) One is that we tend to believe that the way we are is the way other people should be. ii) The second is that we have a tendency to split the world into Us and Them, always viewing Us more positively than Them.
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Projecting the Self Onto Others: False Consensus and Naïve Realism 1) We project our self-concept onto the social world. i) We also tend to think that others see the world as we do. False consensus effect (p. 509) the tendency to project a self-concept onto the social world. Naïve realism (p. 509) our perceptions of reality are accurate, that we see things the way they are. Self-Serving Biases and Attributions Self-serving biases (p. 510) which are biased ways of processing self-relevant information to enhance our positive self-evaluation.
1) For example, we tend to take credit for our successes but attribute circumstances, luck or others for our failures.
2) There are two main types of attributions: internal and external (Figure 13.4). Internal attribution (p. 510) (also known as a dispositional attribution), whereby the observer explains the behaviour of an actor in terms of some innate quality of that person.
i) For example, while driving, another driver swerves in front of you and you automatically assume that person is an aggressive jerk. External attribution (p. 510) (also known as a situational attribution), whereby the observer explains the actor’s behaviour as the result of the situational context.
ii) For example, assuming that the other driver had a plausible reason for swerving, or simply made a mistake and didn’t see you in his blind spot.
3) Most behaviours are a complex blend of dispositional and situational factors, however we have a clear bias in the attributions we use to explain other’s behaviours. Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) (p. 510) a tendency to over-emphasize internal (dispositional) attributions and under-emphasize external (situational) factors when explaining other people’s behaviour.
4) The fundamental attribution error is largely a cultural phenomenon. i) We are more likely to see examples of this in individualistic cultures (e.g., the U.S.) than in collectivist cultures (e.g., East Asia), where people are more likely to consider the situation when making attributions. ii) In fact, people from Japan may even exhibit the opposite trend. a) They may attribute successes to the support and assistance from family and peers while downplaying the role of personality, intelligence, or talent.
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Ingroups and Outgroups 1) We tend to use perceptions of our group or social community as the better ingroup, the other group is the worse outgroup. Ingroup (p. 511) groups we feel positively toward and identity with. i)
For example, our family, friends, co-workers, home team, or teammates. Outgroup (p. 511) are those “other” groups that we don’t identify with.
ii) In contrast, your own classmates make up your ingroup and are perceived as having more positive qualities. a) Thus, there is a similarity between the self-serving bias and what we might call the ingroup bias. Ingroup bias (p. 511) as positive biases toward the self get extended to include one’s ingroups, people become motivated to see their ingroups as superior to their outgroups.
Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination Stereotype (p. 512) is a cognitive structure, a set of beliefs about the characteristics that are held by members of a specific social group; these beliefs function as schemas, serving to guide how we process information about our social world.
i) With stereotypes in place, individuals are likely to experience prejudice, which might lead to discrimination. Prejudice (p. 512) is an affective, emotionally laden response to members of outgroups, including holding negative attitudes and making critical judgments of other groups. Discrimination (p. 512) behaviour that disfavours or disadvantages members of a certain social group.
MYTHS IN MIND: Are Only Negative Aspects of Stereotypes Problematic? 1) The first examples that come to mind when stereotyping a group are usually based on negative characteristics. i) However, there are also “well-intentioned” stereotypes. a) When it comes to gender, researchers have distinguished between hostile sexism (negative stereotypes of one or both sexes) and benevolent sexism (positive stereotypes of one or both sexes). 2) Psychologists have pointed out that even well-intended stereotypes place restrictions on an individual’s behaviour. i) For example, there is a dated saying that women are “the fairer sex”. a) Because women are considered “virtuous,” they are held to different sexual standards than men, and they may be seen as dependent on men for money and protection. b) Further, women may be hindered in careers that call for assertive and sometimes aggressive behaviours (e.g., running a major corporation) because the “fairer sex” stereotype is pervasive in the organization. .. 688
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Prejudice in a Politically Correct World? 1) Norms have changed as to what is acceptable. i) Outgroups and prejudice still not a thing of the past. ii) There is a legacy of racial prejudice in the U.S., despite the victories of the civil rights movement. a) Currently, we see Muslims in the post-9/11 world stereotyped as terrorists. b) Non-white cultural groups face higher incarceration rates than whites. 2) Over 30 years of records of police encounters show that police use more aggressive techniques on minority suspects than White suspects. i) In fact, Black suspects have historically been five times more likely to die in police confrontations than White suspects. 3) In sum, even if one abhors prejudice, he or she may implicitly hold the stereotypes that lead to prejudice and discrimination. i) Even stereotypes that sound nice on the surface can simply cover up subtle forms of discrimination. PSYCH @ The Law Enforcement Academy 1) Researchers have used video-game-like tasks to put participants in situations where they had to decide to shoot or not shoot. i) These are split second decisions, much like the IAT. ii) In these video simulations, a figure will suddenly appear, perhaps holding a weapon or perhaps just wielding a cell phone. a) It turns out that the split second of indecision in the IAT corresponds to more mistaken shootings of the innocent Black people than the innocent Whites. 2) It is easy to imagine the stress of a real confrontation, combined with the complexity of a real-world situation, leads to an even higher chance of a mistaken shooting occurring. i) For example, in 1999, four New York City plainclothes police officers were patrolling a Bronx neighbourhood in search of a rape suspect when they saw a lone man behaving suspiciously. a) The man ducked into a vestibule of an apartment building, reaching for the door with one hand and putting the other into his pocket. b) Officers feared he was reaching for a gun. One officer opened fire on the man, and the other three followed, firing a total of 41 shots, 19 of which hit the man and killed him on the spot. c) The victim was a peaceful, friendly, and unarmed 24-year-old named Amadou Diallo from Guinea, West Africa. 3) To combat any implicit influence of race on an officer’s decision to shoot, most law enforcement agencies require extended training of their employees. i) Other programs use a combination of walkthrough sets, where cardboard figures suddenly appear, and other situations with actors, some of whom are armed with foam pellet guns. ii) The data show that extensive training works for police officers. a) Even student volunteers in the lab can be trained to reduce shooting errors through such means. Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Explicit Versus Implicit Measures of Prejudice 1) What do we know about measuring prejudice? i) Some people may conceal their prejudice to be politically correct and others may harbour prejudice but not realize it. a) To help measure each of these possibilities, psychologists have distinguished between measures of explicit and implicit prejudice. b) Measuring implicit prejudice is trickier. .. 689
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2) How can science study implicit prejudice? i) One means of measuring implicit prejudice is the Implicit Associations Test (IAT). Implicit Associations Test (IAT) (p. 514) measures how fast people can respond to images or words flashed on a computer screen (figure 13.5).
a) In round 1, one key represents two ideas: Caucasians and positive words (e.g., peace) and the other key represents: Black individuals and negative words (e.g., pain or war).
b) With these associations, it takes an average of 800 milliseconds (four-fifths of a second) to press the correct button. c) Round 2 rearranges the associations: White and bad vs. Black and good. d) In this situation, subjects took 1,015 milliseconds to press the correct button, or more than one-fifth of a second longer than in round 1. ii) Researchers reason that our racial schemas associate more negativity with Blacks than with Whites, which would explain why it takes people longer to respond to Black/positive than Black/negative pairings. a) Thus, even if those associations are implicit—even if the individual is not aware of those associations—they still affect the participants’ responses. 3) Can we critically evaluate this evidence? i) Although the IAT produces reliable results, some psychologists question the validity. a) Its developers point to the repeated findings that show consistent trends indicating favoritism toward the ingroup and bias against the outgroup. b) Others argue the IAT is actually measuring what an individual knows about stereotypes rather than what he or she believes is true. ii) However, just knowing about a stereotypes doesn’t mean an individual believes it, uses it to judge people (prejudice), or uses the stereotype to discriminate. 4) Why is this relevant? i) The IAT has fostered a great deal of research and has been applied to at least a dozen forms of stereotyping, including stereotypes of social classes, sexual orientation, and fraternity and sorority members. ii) The results of these test suggest that implicit prejudice is more prevalent than what people are willing to express in explicit tests. iii) The IAT has also been used in clinical settings to predict how much alcohol someone is likely to consume, even when explicit measures fail to do so. Improving Intergroup Relations 1) Best supported approach may be related to the contact hypothesis, that is, that having contact with an ‘outgroup’ helps overcome prejudice. Contact hypothesis (p. 516) which predicts that social contact between members of different groups is extremely important to overcoming prejudice.
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 13.2 ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ Robbers’ Cave ➢ Racism Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Headbands and Stereotypes Handout Masters ➢ Handout Master 13.2 Headbands and Stereotypes Web Resources ➢ Anti-Defamation League Online: www.adl.org/ ➢ GLAAD: www.glaad.org/ ➢ Hate Crimes Prevention Center: www.civilrights.org ➢ Latin American Network: http://info.lanic.utexas.edu/ ➢ Prejudice and Discrimination: www.colorado.edu ➢ The Prejudice Institute: www.prejudiceinstitute.org/ ➢ Sexual Prejudice: Understanding Homophobia and Heterosexism: http://psychology.ucdavis.edu ➢ Stereotype-Breaking Actions: www.colorado.edu ➢ Stereotypes Online: www.hanksville.org
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III. MODULE 13.3: ATTITUDES, BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION (Text p. 518) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology in research on attitudes, behaviour, and effective communication. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand how behaviours influence attitudes in terms of cognitive dissonance theory. o When people hold conflict cognitions this is known as cognitive dissonance; they have to change a belief in order to make things align, which often means changing attitudes and behaviour. ✓ Apply your knowledge of cognitive dissonance to see how well your beliefs match your behaviours. o You must start with solid convincing facts, personalize the message and directly engage the listener. ✓ Analyze the difficulties communicators face in trying to convince the public to take action on important social and political issues. o Climate is psychologically distant, the information related to climate change is complex, and people are uncertain about research; it has been difficult to find a way to make the information seem ‘certain’ to the public.
Changing People’s Behaviour 1) The four most common approaches to changing public behaviour on a large scale include technological, legal, economic, and social. i) Technological approaches attempt to make desired behaviours easy and undesirable behaviours more difficult. ii) Legal approaches focus on policy changes and laws to encourage positive behaviour and discourage negative behaviour. iii) Economic approach focuses on financial incentives and penalties. iv) Social approach uses information and communication to raise awareness, educate people and create positive organizations to encourage change.
Persuasion: Changing Attitudes Through Communication 1) There are many important principles underlying effective communication. Elaboration likelihood model (ELM) (p. 519) a dual-process model of persuasion that predicts whether factual information or other types of information will be most influential. i)
Information can appeal to people through two general routes, central and peripheral. Central route to persuasion (p. 519) it focuses on facts, logic, and the content of a message in order to persuade.
ii) If the message is compelling, they will be convinced and internalize the message as their own beliefs, creating a strong and long-lasting belief.
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2) Often times, people don’t pay sufficient attention to the content. Peripheral route to persuasion (p. 519) focuses on features of the issue or presentation that are not factual. i)
For example, the attractiveness of the messenger, or the number of total arguments made.
Using the Central Route Effectively 1) Make sure you have the facts on your side and your audience play close attention to your arguments. i) Two key factors to work with: motivation and opportunity. a) Central route is most reliable when people are motivated about the topic. b) When they have sufficient time and freedom from distraction. c) When the information is not overwhelming or complex to their level of knowledge.
Make it Personal 1) Make it so the listener can identify with the topic. Construal-level theory (p. 520) which describes how information affects us differently depending on our psychological distance from the information. 2) Make it seem relevant to their value system, close to home, time and space. i) Demonstrate how consequences or outcomes affects the audience themselves, or their social group.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The Identifiable Victim Effect 1) What do we know about communicating about tragedy? Identifiable victim effect (p. 521) describes how people are more powerfully moved to action by the story of a single suffering person than by information about a whole group of people.
2) How can science explain the identifiable victim effect? i) Scientists argue for a dual process model. Experiential system (p. 522) operates more implicitly, quickly and intuitively and is predominantly emotional. Analytic system (p. 522) operates more at the explicit level of consciousness, is slower and more methodical, and uses logic and discursive thinking. (i.e., reasoning using language) to try to understand reality.
3) Can we critically evaluate this research? i) It is context dependent; some statistics can be moving, some stories can be moving, depending on the situations.
ii) We don’t know the long-term impacts of statistics vs individual stories.
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4) Why is this relevant? i) The challenge of motivating people to take action on some major societal issues like climate change speaks to its relevance. Value Appeals 1) Researchers have uncovered three major value frames relevant in environmental discussions. i) Biospheric values emphasize perspectives and values of other species and ecosystems. ii) Social-altruistic values emphasize the perspectives and consequences experienced by other people. iii) Egoistic values focus on self-enhancement, personal success and ‘happiness’. Preaching or Flip-Flopping: One Sided vs Two Sided Messages 1) Arguments can become more persuasive if you acknowledge opposing arguments. i) Providing a two-sided message makes you seem more trustworthy and honest. ii) Also, allows you to shoot down opposing arguments to help your audience resist them in the future. Attitude inoculation (p. 523) a strategy for strengthening attitudes and making them more resistant to change by first exposing people to a weak counter-argument and then refuting that argument. Clarity and Complexity in the Central Route 1) Another key factor that can easily derail communication is the message’s complexity. If your arguments are overly technical or convoluted or use specialized language, these can activate a chain reaction. 2) Confusion and cognitive challenge triggers negative emotion, which triggers a drop in motivation and an increase in time required for comprehension, and eventually an individual’s shift to-ward the peripheral route.
Using the Peripheral Route Effectively 1) Effective communication cannot ignore the peripheral route, and social psychology research has found several powerful factors of influence. Authority 1) The use of experts or authority figures can help enhance the message impact. i) Even people who may appear to be experts but really have no actual authority can prove to be effective. Liking 1) We tend to believe and trust in those individuals that we like. i) This can include attractiveness. Social Validation 1) We use the behaviour of others to guide us, saying things like ‘polls indicate that more people do X’ can actually change what people do, making them choose to do X.
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Reciprocity 1) All cultures instill the norm of giving back when someone gives something to you. 2) Used in a two-step method called the door in the face technique. Door-in-the-face technique (p. 524) which involves asking for something relatively big, then following with a request for something relatively small. Consistency 1) There is an old salesperson’s trick called the foot-in-the-door technique. i) To the travelling salesmen of a few decades ago, literally getting one’s foot in the door meant that a homeowner could not shut you out. Foot-in-the-door technique (p. 524) involves making a simple request followed by a more substantial request. The Attitude-Behaviour Feedback Loop 1) Our actions, beliefs, and attitudes are dynamically related. i) Sometimes a state of tension can exist between to thoughts or beliefs. Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive dissonance (p. 525) occurs when we hold inconsistent beliefs, this creates a kind of aversive inner tension, or “dissonance”; we are then motivated to reduce this tension in whatever way we can. 1) The psychological study of cognitive dissonance can be traced back to a fascinating, true story described by Leon Festinger and colleagues (1956). i) Marian Keech, a stay-at-home mother in Chicago, experienced a number of premonitions she described as secret messages from the planet Clarion. a) The beings from Clarion were trying to warn her of impending doom; apparently there was to be a huge flood on December 21, 1954, that would wipe out life on Earth. b) Convinced of the validity of this prophecy, Mrs. Keech and her followers gave away their possessions, quit their jobs, and made other preparations for the coming event. c) If they listened to the Clarions, they would be contacted at midnight on the eve of the disaster, then whisked away in a spaceship and saved from the peril that lay ahead. ii) The group gathered on the night of December 20th and waited for contact from an alien. a) At first, they thought the clock was wrong when no contact came at midnight. b) At 4:45am the group realized no aliens were coming. iii) Instead of being embarrassed, Mrs. Keech had another revelation that God had been so moved by their efforts the He decided to spare the world and called off the flood. a) They turned the evidence to refute their claim into evidence they were right. b) Mrs. Keech and many of her followers reduced the cognitive dissonance through justification of effort, telling themselves that their efforts were justified because those efforts prevented the flood.
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Attitudes and Actions 1) There are a number of ways that cognitive dissonance reduction can affect attitudes. i) With regard to climate change and environmental, the hope for many years has been the foot in the door approach. a) By getting the public to adopt the easy beahviour, the hope is to strengthen proenvironmental attitutes. b) This spillover effect has been the approach to environmental behavioural change. ii) In other cases, an individual may completely change his or her attitude to avoid tension. a) Other may engage in denial of responsibility. An individual maintains the same attitude about the action, but changes his belief about his own role in the action, saying I had no choice or I was forced to do it.
RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 13.3 ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ Who Are More Helpful, Men or Women? ➢ Fairness, Rightness, Chimpness Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Dear Diary: I Feel Ostracized Web Resources ➢ Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence: www.colorado.edu ➢ Sociology Links: Group Conflict: www.sociosite.net/ ➢ Help the Homeless: www.earthsystems.org ➢ Internet Nonprofit Center: www.idealist.org
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▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Confirmation Bias – The Case of Chupacabras An Eight-Ball and a Cockroach Jonestown: A Study in Social Psychology Change Is This Sexual Harassment? It’s a Small World After All Who Are More Helpful, Men or Women? Fairness, Rightness, Chimpness Instant Abs! Political Persuasion Cognitive Dissonance A Peg and a Grasshopper Robbers’ Cave Racism
▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Confirmation Bias — The Case of Chupacabras People tend to be strongly influenced by their previous beliefs, and their perceptions are often skewed to confirm these beliefs. For example, if you believe that women are worse drivers than men, you may tend to notice more traffic offenses committed by women than men — thus confirming your bias. The mythical phenomenon of “el chupacabra” — (translated, “the goat sucker”) is a fantastic illustration of confirmation bias and a good setup story for a lecture. The chupacabra is what amounts to an urban legend, and it gets its name from its reported habit of attacking and drinking the blood of livestock, especially goats. It is described as a hairless creature the size of a small bear, with sharp claws and fangs. It also supposedly has a row of spines down its back. Many believers think chupacabras are from outer space. It was first “spotted” in 1990 in Puerto Rico. Since then, “sightings” have occurred in Texas, Maine, and even Russia. In documented cases in Texas, purported chupacabras were determined to be coyotes with extreme sarcoptic mange, which causes the coyotes to become hairless, emaciated, and turns their skin bluish (another descriptor of chupacabras). So, as with hypochondria (where every little twinge is hard evidence for a brain tumor), every unexplained death of a livestock animal is blamed on the chupacabra! (It couldn’t possibly by anything else…) Moreover, in areas where chupacabra lore is especially deep-seated, any unfamiliar animal seen out of the corner of the eye is probably a chupacabra (!). Given the available evidence, “chupacabras” appear to in fact, be wild dogs or diseased coyotes. Although not as sensational as a blood-sucking space alien vampire-lizard, this is certainly more parsimonious an explanation. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: An Eight-Ball and a Cockroach What do an eight-ball and a cockroach have in common? Social facilitation. What do social facilitation and social inhibition have in common? Robert Zajonc. These riddles may sound bizarre, but there is a theme that connects them. It’s the story of social facilitation, a cornerstone of social psychology. Norman Triplett is reported to have conducted the first social psychology experiment in 1897 on a topic of some concern to social psychologists: What happens to an individual’s behaviour when other people are watching it transpire? Triplett thought that task performance should be improved (i.e., the presence of others makes us do better at the task), and demonstrated it through his observations of racing cyclists and children reeling in fishing line. Social facilitation, as this effect came to be called, seemed entrenched in .. 697
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social psychology... until Floyd Allport came along. Gordon’s older brother, among others, promoted the idea of social inhibition, or that the presence of others should hinder the task performance of an individual. In short, social facilitation and social inhibition were at loggerheads for much of the ensuing history of social psychology... until Robert Zajonc came along. Zajonc proposed that arousal was the mechanism underlying both facilitation and inhibition. The presence of other people is arousing, because of evaluation apprehension, audience effects, and so on. What we do with that heightened arousal, however, is a function of the task at hand. If the task is well-learned, dominant, easy, or something we’re good at, the arousal produced by the presence of others should cause us to do better at the task, thus producing a social facilitation effect. However, if the task is novel, difficult, poorly learned, or not high in our repertoire, the arousal produced by the presence of others should cause us to perform the task worse, thus producing a social inhibition effect. Zajonc was instrumental in synthesizing these competing viewpoints. But what about the eight-ball? In a novel extension of this theory, James Michaels and his colleagues examined social facilitation in the poolroom. Players in a college student union were identified as either above average (making at least twothirds of their shots) or below average (making no more than one-third of their shots) by a team of raters. The research team of four students then walked to the table to watch the players shoot. In the presence of others the above average players improved their performance, moving from about 70 percent of their shots made (when not observed) to about 80 percent; social facilitation was at work. Those players who were below average suffered the effects of social inhibition. Their accuracy dropped from about 36 percent to 24 percent of shots made when a crowd was watching. So where do the cockroaches figure in? In probably the most novel extension of all, Zajonc demonstrated that facilitation and inhibition were not limited to humans. He placed cockroaches on either runways (a simple task) or in mazes (a complex task) and measured their running speed when either alone or in the presence of a gallery of other roaches. Supporting previous research, the presence of other roaches did indeed facilitate performance on the runway task whereas it hampered performance in the mazes. This same effect has been demonstrated in other species, suggesting that an arousal-based explanation is correct. Now, if only the roaches would get off the pool table. References: Michaels, J. W., Blommel, J. M., Brocato, R. M., Linkous, R. A., & Rowe, J. S. (1982). Social facilitation and inhibition in natural setting. Replications in Social Psychology, 2, 21-24. Zajonc, R. B., Heingartner, A., & Herman, E. M. (1969). Social enhancement and impairment of performance in the cockroach, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13, 82-92. Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Social facilitation in cockroaches. In E. C. Simmel, R. A. Hoppe, & G. A. Milton (Eds.), Social facilitation and imitative behaviour. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Jonestown: A Study in Social Psychology Change In 1978 over 900 people died at the People’s Temple of Jonestown in Guyana. At the urging of Jim Jones, the founder of the church who had led his followers from the United States to this isolated settlement in South America, parents poisoned their children and then themselves. Afterward one question was voiced repeatedly: How could 900 people be induced to commit suicide? As Neal Osherow points out, the events at Jonestown can be understood in terms of basic social-psychological concepts. As Stanley Milgram’s research has shown, people will perform extreme acts under the instructions of an authority figure, particularly when no one else rebels. In Jonestown dissent was severely punished, both .. 698
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physically and through public humiliation. Because of informers, no one felt free to voice complaints to anyone else. This served to isolate people and to promote the feeling that no one else had doubts. Also, the members had been asked to commit less extreme acts in the past, followed by demands that were gradually increased. This “foot in the door” technique (Freedman & Fraser, 1966) contributes to compliance and to self-justification of that compliance. Jim Jones also utilized excellent techniques of persuasion. Members were gradually indoctrinated through long sermons and taught to distrust contradictory views, while at the same time outside information was reduced. Moreover, a jargon developed that masked the true meaning of statements. These factors, coupled with the prohibition of dissent, resulted in members blaming apparent discrepancies on their own inadequacy rather than on that of the church or Jim Jones. One of the most puzzling aspects of this case was that many of the church members had no desire to leave, believed in Jim Jones to the end, and committed suicide quite willingly. As Jeanne Mills, a defector from the Temple, writes, “I am faced with an unanswerable question: ‘If the church was so bad, why did you and your family stay so long?’ “This possibility can be answered through the concept of cognitive dissonance. As their participation expanded, members were required to sacrifice personal property and family relationships and to experience a host of undesirable events. Making such sacrifices would be irrational if the church and Jim Jones were bad. To reconcile the dissonance between the sacrifice and the worth of the church, members maintained the attitude that the church was good. As the sacrifices increased, so did their belief in the church. By the time Jim Jones called for mass suicide, many members were totally committed to him and the church, so their obedience was not too surprising. Although the events of Jonestown provide a wealth of examples of conformity, compliance, and obedience, they may seem somewhat remote to your students. After all, many of the people in your classes may not have been born when the 1978 events took place. To bring the principles behind the events to the present, discuss how groups such as the Branch Davidians near Waco, Texas, the religious cultists who met their deaths in Switzerland in 1995, the mass suicide of the Heaven’s Gate cult, or the members of the Japanese sect Aum Shinrikyo might have operated under similar conditions. References: Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Freedman, J. L., & Fraser, S. C. (1966). Compliance without pressure: The foot-in-the-door technique. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 195–202. Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioural study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 371–378. Mills, J. (1979). Six years with God. New York: A & W Publishers. Osherow, N. (1984). Making sense of the nonsensical: An analysis of Jonestown. In E. Aronson (Ed.), Reading about the Social Animal, 4th ed. New York: Freeman.
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Is This Sexual Harassment? A discussion of leadership unfortunately brings with it a discussion of when leadership fails. Robin Warshaw, writing in Exec magazine, presents several cases brought before public hearing examiners. Share these with your students and use them as a basis for discussing the definition and identification of sexual harassment and its relation to leadership and group processes. Case 1: Several employees of the Securities and Exchange Commission, including supervisors, were having romantic affairs with one another. This included holding frequent parties and leaving the office during the day to go drinking. A female attorney who did not participate in these activities claimed that she was harassed by the environment in which she had to work, and additionally charged that women who had affairs with male supervisors were rewarded with promotions and bonuses. The woman admitted that no one had pressured her for sex, nor had she been denied any promotions because she didn’t participate in the activities of the others. Ruling and Analysis: A judge ruled that although the woman was not harassed on a quid pro quo basis, the SEC office was nonetheless an offensive work environment. She was awarded back pay, a promotion, and her choice of two jobs. Although socializing at the office routinely takes place, the Carnival of the Senses set up in the SEC office went beyond the bounds of typical social interaction. Case 2: A severe snowstorm sent workers at a Virginia corporation home early. A female wordprocessing technician needed a ride, and a male engineer (for whom she’d done some work) readily offered to take her in his four-wheel drive vehicle. When they arrived at her apartment the man entered with her and, according to him, only kissed her. The woman charged that he tried to kiss and fondle her, despite her protestations. She complained to her employer, who reprimanded the man and warned him that he would be fired if he did anything like that in the future. Ruling and Analysis: Was this simply a case of a clumsy but mild-intentioned man looking for companionship? Doubtful. The woman’s attorneys demonstrated in court that the corporation had received similar complaints about similar behaviour involving this man. The employer made an out-ofcourt settlement after the court ruled that the company had a legal responsibility to prevent such actions from happening. According to Louise Fitzgerald of the University of Illinois at Champaign, this type of predatory unwanted attention is common; 15% of working women in one of Fitzgerald’s research studies had been the object of unwanted kissing, grabbing, touching, or fondling. Case 3: Obscene cartoons depicting a female coworker (by name) engaged in various sex acts were posted in the men’s room of her office building. These remained in the public bathroom for a week, even after the company’s chief executive had seen them. They were removed only after he learned that the woman was upset about the cartoons. Ruling and Analysis: The court determined that the cartoons were “highly offensive” and an impediment to the woman’s dealing “with fellow employees and clients in a professional manner.” The matter could have been helped had the cartoons been taken down immediately, but male allies of women are often rare in work settings. Men may feel they are breaking ranks or not being “one of the boys.” This particular situation was made worse by the company’s chief executive’s ignorance and inaction. The employer paid the woman’s full salary and psychiatric bills until she found a new job. Reference: Warshaw, R. (1993). Is this sexual harassment? Exec, Summer, 62–65. .. 700
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: It’s a Small World After All Most students and professors recognize Stanley Milgram’s name in connection with his famous studies of obedience. Few realize, however, that Milgram was responsible for exploring a number of other fascinating social phenomena. These include conformity (confederates staring upward at nothing), psychological maps, the lost-letter technique of attitude measurement (stamped envelopes addressed to Medical Research Associates versus Friends of the Communist Party), intrusion into waiting lines, television’s effects on aggression (including a study manipulating the nationally seen drama Medical Center), and an exploration of cyranoids (humans carefully trained to parrot surreptitious messages from others). Among the many creative avenues Milgram pursued is the small world problem. Building on the earlier work of Ithiel de Sola Pool and others, Milgram posed a simple question: Given any two people in the world, what are the odds that they will know each other? The mathematics of answering this question quickly reveal a related question: If Person X and Person Y do not know each other directly, how many intermediate links in an acquaintance network would it take to bring the two together? That is, X may not know Y, but Person X knows Person Z, who in turn knows Person Q, who in turn knows Person W, who in turn knows Person C, and C knows Person Y quite well. When most people are posed this question, they assume that the links between X and Y must be very great or, to put it another way, the chances must be quite slim that X and Y can be linked easily. (As an aside, Milgram also found that most people believed very few others were capable of following orders encouraging destructive obedience; folk wisdom has not fared well in Milgram’s research!) To put the question to experimental test, Milgram asked a group of women and men from all walks of life to try to pass a message to a target person, someone living in the United States and chosen arbitrarily. Participants were instructed to transmit the message to someone else who was more likely to know the target than did the participant. This process would be repeated (always among people who knew each other on a first- name basis) until the message was received by the target. Milgram found that the number of links required to accomplish this task typically varied between 3 and 10, with a median of 5.5. That is, on the average it took about 6 links to move a message between two previously unacquainted people. The mechanics of this phenomenon involve a dizzying array of variables—the social circles one moves in, intuition about who might best know the target person, willingness to cooperate in transmitting the message, racial or cohort differences, and so on. But the results are clear and quite counterintuitive: Despite our far-flung, fast-paced culture, it really is a small world. The small world problem has since inspired mathematicians, sociologists, linguists, and epidemiologists to investigate its parameters, and even served as the theme for the play Six Degrees of Separation. References: Kochen, M. (Ed.) (1989). The small world. Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex. Korte, C., & Milgram, S. (1970). Acquaintance networks between racial groups: Application of the small world method. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 15, 101–108. Milgram, S. (1992). The individual in a social world (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Travers, J., & Milgram, S. (1969). An experimental study of the small world problem. Sociometry, 32, 425–443.
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▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Who Are More Helpful, Men or Women? Eagly and Crowley (1986) performed a meta-analysis of the literature on helping behaviour, focusing specifically on gender differences. Most students hold the stereotype of the “helpful, giving, nurturing female,” and therefore assume that women will be more likely to help someone else in a social situation. However, we must always use Occam’s razor to critically evaluate such beliefs, and in this case, the best way to do that is to examine the results of empirical studies. You may choose to start your lecture with the question, “Who is more helpful, men or women?” A summary of the factors and findings is provided below. •
•
•
In nearly every study that had been conducted, men were shown to be more helpful. o Men are more likely to help when they feel competent to do so (i.e., they will help change a tire when they know how to do so). o Given equal competence, women still tend not to be as helpful. Men are much more likely to help women than other men. Women have the same rate of helping both men and women. o Men are especially apt to help a woman if there are onlookers present! ▪ Pressure to “do the right thing” is high in these situations Women are much more helpful to people with which they are in close relationships.
▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Fairness, Rightness, Chimpness The “glue” that binds societies together is an implicit sense of equity, fairness, and rightness in our social dealings. The norm of reciprocity, for example, says that we should repay a favor with a favor, and can be found in sayings such as “one hand washes the other” or “you scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.” The truth bias leads us to assume that most people are telling the truth most of the time. Social exchange theory is based on the notion that maximizing joint payoffs or having equitable reward-cost ratios is desirable. More generally, we expect people to honor a standard of being fair in their dealings with us and with others. Research at Emory University suggests that these conceptions of fairness might have a genetic basis to them. Sarah F. Brosnan and Frans B. M. de Waal studied capuchin monkeys who were housed in pairs, and who had been trained to trade pebbles for pieces of food. If one monkey received a grape in exchange for her pebble, but the cagemate received a less-desirable piece of cucumber, the underbenefited monkey would often refuse to eat the cucumber or turn over her pebble in exchange, both of which are unusual behaviours for monkeys. Moreover, emphatic body language (such as tossing the pebble or cucumber to the floor) would accompany this stonewalling. And, to really get the monkey’s goat (to twist a metaphor), the underbenefited monkey would go particularly nutty if she saw her cagemate receive a grape without having to trade in a pebble for it. Oh, the inequity of it all! What’s going on here? Brosnan and de Waal argue that monkeys have an implicit sense of fairness, and that they react demonstrably when their expectations of fairness are violated. Pebble for food: A deal’s a deal. But a crummy old cucumber, or even the receipt of a reward without payment of a pebble...man, .. 702
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that ain’t right! The fact that monkeys can convey their umbrage at this situation suggests a genetic basis for this sense of equity. Although schooling, socialization, and family modeling can shape the behaviour, finding vestiges of it in nonhuman social primates raises the question of origins, and an interesting one at that. There is a genetic virtue to selfishness—it helps keep genes in the gene pool. But there may be a benefit, genetic in origin, to sharing equitably with one’s fellows. Reference: Wade, N. (September 18, 2003). Genetic basis to fairness, study hints. New York Times, A21.
▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Instant Abs! A fun way to illustrate the pseudoscience behind marketing is to invent a TV infomercial (or perhaps use one that actually airs on cable TV) that promises something utterly unattainable and that uses the marketing techniques described in Table 13.3. Excitedly describe your infomercial to your students, with all of the details – what is promoted, how convincing it was, and how you are thinking seriously about making three easy payments of only $99.95 in order to start benefiting immediately! Even if the students suspect you are being facetious, that’s fine. The point, of course, is to elicit suspicion (such as should be elicited by those infomercials). There is an endless supply of ideas for such a scheme, but my favorite would probably involve some crazy new device that purports to yield rock-hard abdominal muscles if you use it for 5 seconds a day. The discussion following your little act should touch upon many aspects of the use of pseudoscience in marketing. Remember to remind your students that, although your example may have sounded VERY far-fetched, it probably wasn’t much different from REAL infomercials that are aired on a daily basis. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Political Persuasion Many writers criticize political campaigns for lacking substance and censure politicians for using cynical and manipulative strategies to influence public attitudes. Some of the strategies of persuasion used in political campaigns that violate principles of critical thinking are as follows: •
Politicians may use the “Big Lie” strategy, figuring that if they repeat a claim often enough (20 times a day on TV), people will accept it as true. For example, a candidate may claim to be the “environmental candidate” even if his or her record on the environment is dismal.
•
Politicians may spend more time boasting of the endorsements of celebrities than in explaining their ideas, because they know people often do not separate the person from the message. They may also exploit the principles of classical conditioning by associating themselves with cherished symbols (they visit a flag factory, take a ride in a tank, kiss a baby).
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Politicians may avoid defining the real problem, substituting trivial issues (flag burning) for substantive ones, such as inequality of opportunity and homelessness.
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Politicians may tell the audience what they want to hear, praising the contributions of the working people when addressing a union meeting and those of business and industry when addressing management groups.
•
Politicians often fail to define their terms. Instead, they speak in vague generalities designed to provoke a gut-level response (they are for “change,” “better education,” and “family values,” for example, and against “waste,” “unemployment”, and “crime”). They fall back on slogans, such as “a thousand points of light” or “a kinder, gentler America” that make people feel good but lack substance.
•
Oversimplification is a standard feature of politics, which emphasizes us vs. them thinking. For example, our party is good and theirs is bad. Deficit spending is due to the behaviour of legislators of the other political party. The nation’s problems are due entirely to unfair trade policies of other nations, the policies of the 1960s or 1980s, or whatever.
•
Politicians are masters at making self-serving attributions (which may be required, to some extent, by their role). “If something goes wrong when we are in charge, the situation is responsible, but when the other party is in charge, it’s because they’re stupid jerks.”
•
Politicians often engage in black and white thinking, e.g., democracy is good, communism is evil. They may try to imbue certain labels with negative connotations, e.g., invest the word liberal or conservative with sinister connotations (“He’s a card-carrying member of the ACLU”).
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Politicians often take advantage of the just-world hypothesis and blame the victim, claiming that if poor people, for example, are in trouble, the reason is not social or governmental policies; poor people must deserve it.
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Politicians do not worry about obvious contradictions. They try to convince the voters that the nation can spend more, tax less, and balance the national budget.
•
Politicians exploit people’s difficulty with tolerating uncertainty by promising peace and prosperity if they are elected.
▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Cognitive Dissonance A high school girl believed the use of drugs to be physically harmful and morally wrong. She was invited to a party given by a group from her class that she admired. Other people at the party were using cocaine and drinking wine and, because she wanted to be accepted by the group, she decided she should do what the others were doing. The next day she was tense and uncomfortable because she had done something that she believed to be wrong. She was suffering from cognitive dissonance. The theory of cognitive dissonance was proposed in the 1950s by psychologist Leon Festinger. It is a very simple theory, but one applicable to an enormous range of situations. Cognitive dissonance is defined as a state of tension that exists when two (or more) cognitions are psychologically inconsistent, with that inconsistency creating tension. Festinger considered tension motivating because when tension occurs, there is a motive to reduce or eliminate it. Cognition is a broad term that includes perception, .. 704
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reasoning, beliefs, values, and attitudes, or any form of knowledge or knowing. “Psychologically inconsistent” means that the individual possessing the cognitions perceives them to be incompatible or in conflict. This is the Achilles heel of the theory, because psychological inconsistency is subjective; it cannot be directly observed and measured. Dissonance sometimes occurs after making a decision that is irrevocable, or that would be very difficult to reverse. Suppose a high school senior has narrowed his choice of colleges to two, both equally attractive. He has to make a decision and choose one of the schools. When he chooses one, he has to give up the things he likes about the other. What are the dissonant cognitions? I chose school A, therefore I have to give up all things I liked about school B. What does he do to reduce the dissonance? He accentuates the positive aspects of school A and the negative aspects of school B. He may decide that the things he liked about school B are not really important. Two students have identical new cars. One student’s car was a gift from her parents while the other student had saved for several years to buy her car, doing without things she would like to have in order to accumulate the money for the car. A well-known automotive magazine assigns the car its “lemon of the year award,” claiming that the car is unsafe and undependable, and that it is poorly engineered and designed. Which student is likely to feel more uncomfortable about the magazine’s negative evaluation of the car? Obviously, the student who had to save money to buy it. What are her dissonant cognitions? “I spent my savings for this car. The car is a lemon.” What can she do to reduce the dissonance? She can discredit the magazine and the database that was used for the evaluation. She can also remind herself of the things she likes about the car. For most of us, there are things we would like to have that we cannot. When the desire for something that is very important to us, we may have dissonant cognitions that make us tense and unhappy. For example, suppose you are in love with a person who does not love you. What are the dissonant cognitions? “I would like to have a serious relationship with Lucy. Lucy doesn’t love me.” What do people do to reduce the dissonance in this type of situation? One method is the “sour grapes” approach. “Lucy isn’t so great after all. She is bowlegged and chews with her mouth open.” The expensive sweater is not practical and the sports car that is so appealing is the type of car driven by people who are too status-conscious. The group that did not ask you to join is composed of snobs that you would not want to associate with anyway. Jenny and Jack are both in danger of failing a course. The instructor gives a take-home exam that students must sign, declaring that they did not receive help from another person. Both Jenny and Jack have friends who took the course and made good grades, and who could help them, and both feel that cheating is wrong. Jenny gives in to temptation and gets help from her friend, gets a good grade on the final, passes the course, but now she suffers from cognitive dissonance. What are Jenny’s dissonant cognitions? “I think it is wrong to cheat. I cheated.” How will she reduce the dissonance? She will probably not feel as strongly about cheating. She may also belittle the amount of help she got from the friend, telling herself that she did most of the work, and that she would have passed the course without the help of the friend. Jack did not succumb to the temptation of getting his friend to help him. He made a poor grade on the final and failed the course. He may have some dissonance, too. What are Jack’s dissonant cognitions? “If I had cheated I would have passed the course. I didn’t cheat.” What will he do to reduce his dissonance? Jack is likely to become more strongly opposed to cheating than before. He may feel badly about failing, but will feel good about his integrity and strength of his convictions.
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These next applications are similar to dissonance due to the investment of time, money, or effort, but in these cases, the person gets little or nothing in exchange for the investment. If we give money to a charity, we convince ourselves that it is a worthy cause. If we work for a political candidate, we convince ourselves that the candidate is a good and competent person. If we paint our room, we convince ourselves that we have made a big improvement. If we gave money to a charity we didn’t trust, worked for a candidate who is a scoundrel, or made the room dingy by painting it, our time, money, or effort would have been wasted, and our self-esteem would suffer because we did something stupid, so we seek to justify our behaviour by convincing ourselves that our time, money, or effort served a good cause. In 1978, nine hundred members of the People’s Temple in Guyana fed a poisonous drink to their children, drank it themselves, and lay down on the ground to die. People were attracted to the Temple’s charismatic leader, Jim Jones, and were initially drawn to his meetings in San Francisco by Jones’ emotional message of love and hope. Small demands were made on new members, like giving one percent of their incomes and giving one night a week to a cause. At this point, dissonance due to inadequate justification could occur. The dissonant cognitions were, “I’m giving of my time and money. Why am I doing this?” Was giving time and money justified based on belief in the cause? As the commitment to the cause increased, Jones began to ask for more money and more time, until the members had given all they owned to the Temple and were neglecting family and other responsibilities to serve the Temple. Once individuals were thoroughly committed to Jones and the People’s Temple, another aspect of cognitive dissonance was likely to become evident, that due to inconsistency between commitment and information. Before the People’s Temple moved from San Francisco to an isolated area in Guyana, criticism of Jones and his group began to appear in the media. Suppose you were a committed member of his group, and you heard criticism of the group or its leader. You may have had the dissonant cognitions: “I have given all I have to the Temple. The media claim that our leader is an insincere, evil person.” The first cognition is irrevocable, and leaving the group would be economically and psychologically difficult. The easiest way to reduce the dissonance would be to deny the adverse information and to denigrate the source. Little by little the people of the People’s Temple were firmly entrapped. The account of the recruitment, commitment, and death of the followers of the People’s Temple provides a powerful example of some of the concepts of social psychology, such as persuasion, conformity, and obedience, as well as cognitive dissonance. The account could also be analyzed in terms of the failure in critical thinking made by the people whose faulty reasoning paved the way for their death in the jungles of Guyana. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: A Peg and a Grasshopper What do a peg and a grasshopper have in common? Cognitive dissonance. Two classic studies will illuminate dissonance theory further. Leon Festinger and James M. Carlsmith provided one of the first—and one of the best—demonstrations of the induced compliance paradigm for studying cognitive dissonance. Seventy-one college men reported for a two-hour experiment on “measures of performance.” With little fanfare the participants were asked to use one hand to remove 12 spools from a tray, and then refill it. This mundane task lasted about half an hour, only to be followed by an equally mundane task. Participants were presented with .. 706
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an array of 48 pegs sunk into a board, and asked to move each of the pegs a quarter-turn at a time, until they were returned to their original position. After half an hour of this, all participants were quite bored, frustrated, and in a fairly negative mood: precisely the condition Festinger and Carlsmith wanted them in. All participants were then told that there was a second part to the study. At this point, they were informed, a confederate usually came in to convince the next waiting subject of how fun, exciting, and interesting the tasks were. The participants are told that, unfortunately, this person hadn’t shown up today, and so they were asked if they would be willing to do this job. Half the participants were told they would be paid $1 for their help, whereas the remainder were to be given $20 for their assistance. All participants agreed to help, conveyed the information to the waiting subject, and, as they were leaving, their attitudes toward the experiment were measured. In keeping with the predictions of dissonance theory, those participants who had been paid $1 reported enjoying the task much more than those who had been paid $20. Given that their behaviour could not be revoked, and that $1 was an insufficient justification for telling the lie, the only option available to reduce dissonance was to bring their attitudes in line with their behaviour. Phil Zimbardo and his colleagues extended this work on induced compliance in a novel way. ROTC members, military reservists, and college students took part in a study of novel foods. Cast as a study relevant to the “new mobile military,” participants were informed that the study sought to determine liking for fried grasshoppers. The procedures and information were delivered in one of two ways. In the “Mr. Nice” condition, the experimenter warmly greeted the participants and appeared sensitive to their needs, and interacted well with his coworkers. “Mr. Nasty,” on the other hand, was gruff and surly, and he berated his assistants. Although many participants ate at least one grasshopper, those in the “Mr. Nasty” condition professed much greater liking for grasshoppers as food. The dissonance produced between disliking grasshoppers and eating them could not be reduced by recourse to the experimenter; after all, he was a jerk. The only avenue available to the participants was to bring their attitudes in line with their behaviour. References: Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203–210. Zimbardo, P. G., Weisenberg, M., Firestone, I., & Levy, B. (1965). Communicator effectiveness in producing public conformity and private attitude change. Journal of Personality, 33, 233–255. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Robbers’ Cave A nice way to introduce students to the sensitive topics of prejudice and discrimination is to discuss the classic “Robbers’ Cave” study by Sherif (1966), who used the confines of a summer camp to convincingly demonstrate prejudice among 11- and 12-year-old boys. Perhaps more importantly, Sherif was able to reduce the prejudice by having the boys work together toward a common goal. A short version of the story follows. In the study by Sherif (1966), a summer camp at Robbers’ Cave, Oklahoma for 11- and 12-year-old boys was conducted in which the camp counselors were actually experimenters in a study of prejudice. The boys were divided into two groups, each living in separate cabins. The groups had sports .. 707
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competitions, treasure hunts, and other activities for a variety of prizes. With each successive competition, the feelings of animosity between the groups became more intense. The boys began to hang up threatening posters in common areas, taunted each other, and even began throwing apples at each others’ cabins. All the while, the counselors neither condoned nor prohibited the hostility. Then, they stopped the competitions and began to set common goals for the two groups. For example, they had the two groups work together to fix a leaky water pipe that supplied the camp. In another instance, they pool their “treasure” money to rent a movie that both groups wanted to see. Additionally, both groups pitched in to pull a truck out of the mud. Near the end of the camp, most of the campers had become fast friends. There were a few holdouts, however. After critical evaluation, the results of this study suggest that competition often leads to hostility, whereas working together to achieve a common goal promotes friendship. Critical Thinking Question for Students: How might you implement the findings from the Robbers’ Cave study into everyday life in order to promote good relations between different groups? (The groups could be at a university, at a place of work, or perhaps from different cultures.) ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Racism Overt Racism: Under the banner of the “white man’s burden,” colonialists exploited the resources of black Africa. In addition, American Indians were deprived of their land, liberty, and ecological niche in the United States by newly-arrived European immigrants whose desires for wealth, homesteads, and new frontiers were in conflict with the “menace of the red savages.” The “yellow peril” was another slogan to set people’s thinking against Americans of Asian ancestry. After exhausting their usefulness as labourers on the railroads, in mines, and in other manual jobs, the labour groups mounted campaigns to deport the Chinese, to deprive both them and Japanese immigrants of the rights and privileges of American citizenship. Over 100,000 Japanese Americans were put into concentration camps in the western states at the start of World War II. Their property was sold at a small return, and millions of dollars of their money were held by the government and used by American bankers for thirty years without any interest. Nothing comparable was done to those of German or Italian ancestry. When a group becomes the target of prejudice and discrimination, it is socially segregated, preventing normal interchange and destroying or blocking channels of communication. This isolation, in turn, allows rumors and stereotypes to go unchecked, fantasies to surface and grow, and the perceived “strangeness” of the group to increase over time. The isolation of Native Americans on reservations and the racially segregated housing patterns in our cities increase the alienation between groups and prevent both realitychecks and casual interaction. Covert Racism: The public opinion poll is one way of assessing the extent of racism in a society. If you can believe what people say, negative stereotyping and hostile attitudes of whites toward blacks in the United States are decreasing. Americans seem to be changing their attitudes about racial integration.
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Many Americans of all races, while almost wholly opposed to busing to achieve integration, favor the changing of school boundaries to achieve a more heterogeneous racial mix (31%) or the creation of housing for low-income people in middle-class neighbourhoods (18%). However, nearly one in five of those surveyed did not endorse any plan for desegregation. Attitudes often are not readily translated into behaviour. Are overt expressions of prejudice diminishing or merely being suppressed? Measures of covert racial prejudice use content analysis of public media to discern if the same old attitudes are still present, but under wraps. One study deserves to be highlighted for the subtle form of covert racism it reveals, so subtle that you have probably been exposed to it and never realized its impact on your thinking. A blind psychology professor, Raymond Rainville, found that while listening to live broadcasts of professional football games, he was able to identify the race of the players even though it was never mentioned. Rainville reasoned that the white announcers were communicating messages about basic racial differences, perhaps at an unconscious level. Transcripts of the televised commentaries of sixteen NFL games were analyzed according to a variety of content categories. The researchers compared descriptions of a black and a white player of the same position who had comparable performance statistics, such as running backs O. J. Simpson and Larry Csonka. Players were designated as “Smith” or “Jones,” and names of teams, teammates, and cities were disguised. Three independent raters were able to identify each player correctly as black or white on eleven of twenty-five rating categories. All differences found were favourable to whites and unfavorable to blacks. Whites were significantly more often: (a) recipients of sympathy, positive focus, and play-related praise, (b) described as perpetrators of aggression, and (c) credited with positive cognitive and physical attributes. Blacks were more often described as: (a) being the recipients of aggression and (b) having a negative, nonprofessional record, such as problems in college or with police. All of these players were exceptional athletes. Yet, the white players were described as active causal agents on the field and the black players as passive objects moved by external forces. ▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▼ CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Social Psychology in the Workplace Social Psychology in Film A Conformity Study Deindividuation Group Processes Demonstrating Group Polarization Sometimes You Gotta Break the Rules Stanford Prison Study on the Web Dear Diary: I Feel Ostracized Assess the Violence in Children’s Cartoons Attitudes in Advertising Inducing Cognitive Dissonance Headbands and Stereotypes Crossword Puzzle Fill-in-the-Blanks
▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Social Psychology in the Workplace Ask students to respond to the following scenario: You are a manager in a fast food restaurant who is waiting for a prospective employee to come in for an interview. The scheduled time for the interview, 10:00 A.M., was 10 minutes ago, and the prospect has not called. What are you thinking? After some discussion, continue the scenario: The applicant arrives after another 10 minutes have passed. He explains that he overslept and had to change flat tire before coming to the interview. His hair is uncombed, and he looks as if he hasn’t shaved in a couple of days. He is wearing a T-shirt, grease-stained jeans, and flip-flops. You notice that his feet are dirty. Halfway through the interview, he lights a cigarette. How likely is it that you will hire him? Most students will say that they wouldn’t consider hiring someone who behaved in this manner. Challenge them by pointing out that they (in their role as the manager) have no evidence of how the applicant will perform on the job. When they offer attributions about the applicant’s behaviour, classify them as situational (e.g., his jeans are dirty from changing the flat tire) or dispositional (e.g., he doesn’t care about the manager’s impression of him). Use this discussion to emphasize the practical utility of social psychology.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Social Psychology in Film There are a number of films that contain many of the major social psychological themes. As a fun and enlightening paper assignment, ask students to apply social psychological concepts from the text and lecture to any one of the terrific films suggested below. •
Defending Your Life (1991). Meryl Streep and Albert Brooks star in this hilarious comedy as two recently deceased souls who are called upon to defend their lives in order to be sent to heaven. Attribution theory, social comparison, and interpersonal attraction are central social psychological principles in this film (Paramount; 112 min).
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Europa, Europa (1983). A foreign film (based on a true story) about a 13-year-old Jewish boy’s fight to escape from the Nazis during World War II. Highly acclaimed and highly engrossing. Prejudice and discrimination, attitude change, and cognitive dissonance are a few of the many relevant concepts (Orion; 115 min).
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Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner (1967). Spencer Tracy, Katherine Hepburn, Sydney Poitier, and Katherine Houghton star in this academy award-winning film about interracial dating. When an African-American man is invited by an upper class white woman to her politically liberal family home, her parents discover that it isn’t always easy to “practice what you preach.” Impression formation, attitude change, stereotypes, and prejudice play a central role in this excellent film. A must see (Columbia/TriStar; 108 min).
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Lords of Discipline (1986). Davis Keith stars in this engaging drama that chronicles the operations of a secret society within a young men’s military academy. Conformity and obedience, hostility and aggression, and intergroup conflict are central social psychological principles in this film, among others (Paramount; 116 min).
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Twelve Angry Men (1957). Henry Fonda stars in this tense, compelling courtroom drama in which jurors must decide the fate of a boy accused of murdering his father. As the lone notguilty vote in a seemingly cut-and-dry case, he gradually and methodically builds a case to win over the other jurors. This engrossing film provides excellent coverage of conformity, attitude change, and group decision-making (MGM/UA; 93 min).
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Boyz in the Hood (1991). John Singleton directed Cuba Gooding, Jr. and Laurance Fishburne in this emotionally charged portrayal of a father’s attempt to keep his oldest son out of trouble in South Central Los Angeles. This insightful film painfully yet clearly depicts the poverty, crime, and gangs that come with living in the inner city, and in doing so humanizes for the rest of us the struggle faced by the young urban poor. It also effectively shows diversity within the tough African-American neighbourhood, as we see examples of people trying, with honor and dignity, to make a better life for themselves. As a thought-provoking assignment, ask your students to watch this film (perhaps again; many will have already seen it) and to write a paper relating it to the concepts discussed in class. In addition, students should try to make some kind of larger statement about the societal-level factors influencing this community. What kind of attributions do students make for the struggles of the urban poor? Can they identify any of the structural conditions that may prevent young Black males from “making it” (e.g., a long history of discrimination; living in constant fear of the threat of violence; lack of economic
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opportunities)? Would they describe these young men’s sense of ethnic identity as positive or negative? What kinds of role models are available in this subculture? (Columbia/TriStar; 112 min) ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: A Conformity Study Objective: To provide students with an opportunity to participate in a conformity study. Materials: None Procedures: Before class, ask a few students to serve as your confederates. Tell them that, at the beginning of class, you will say that you can’t remember the number of the social psychology chapter. One of your confederates should then say the wrong number, and the others should agree with him/her. Instruct the confederates to confidently insist they are right even when other students argue with them. Note how many students go along with the confederates and how many actually look at the textbook to check on the chapter number. Further, note how many look in the book but still don’t argue with the confederates. After a few minutes, “debrief” the students about the experiment and discuss why some challenged the confederates with evidence while others did not. Expand the discussion to include ideas about how an individual who claims to be authoritative can exploit conformity in an audience s/he hopes to influence. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Deindividuation David Dodd describes a highly effective and entertaining exercise that illustrates the concept of deindividuation discussed in the text. According to Dodd, the object of this exercise is to demonstrate that even normal, well-adjusted college students are capable of deviant, antisocial behaviour given the right situational conditions (e.g., feelings of anonymity and nonresponsibility). Have your students respond anonymously to the following question: “If you could be totally invisible for 24 hours and were completely assured that you would not be detected or held responsible for your actions, what would you do?” Ask students to record their responses on a blank sheet of paper (they should disguise their handwriting by printing neatly) and to fold their papers before turning them in. Collect students’ answers and randomly select several to read aloud. At this point, students will react excitedly in anticipation of the results. Indeed, laughter usually erupts as common themes emerge, including criminal acts (“rob a bank” is often the single most popular response), sexual acts, and spying or eavesdropping. Although occasional charitable responses (e.g., resolving wars, ending world hunger) are revealed, antisocial acts typical outnumber prosocial ones. Dodd also likes to point out to his classes that the average number of antisocial responses given by his college students (36%) is no different than the number of antisocial responses given by inmates at a maximum security prison where he once taught. Reference: Dodd, D. (1985). Robbers in the classroom: A deindividuation exercise. Teaching of Psychology, 12, 89–91. .. 712
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Group Processes Gardner (1980) proposed an activity that can be used to demonstrate several of the principles related to group processes and decision making described in the text. After randomly dividing the class into groups of five or six students each, instruct the groups to take a few minutes and select a leader. Next, distribute the problem scenario described by Gardner (reproduced in Handout Master 13.2), and go over the basic problem and instructions with the groups. After the groups have had sufficient time to arrive at their solution, lead the class in a discussion focusing on characteristics of group processes and decision making by having them analyze how their groups arrived at a decision. As part of your discussion, group members should explore how they selected a group leader (e.g., Was the leader taskoriented or relationship-oriented?); how difficult it was to make a decision; whether everyone agreed with the final decision or whether there were conformity pressures added; whether there was any evidence of group polarization or Groupthink; and how the group arrived at its final decision (e.g., Did a few individuals dominate the discussion? Were concessions made?). Reference: Gardner, R. M. (1980). Exercises for general psychology. Minneapolis, MN: Burgess Publishing. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Demonstrating Group Polarization Peter Gray (1993) suggests a simple exercise that readily demonstrates the group polarization effect. Before lecturing on group decision-making, have your students declare on a Likert scale how strongly they agree or disagree with some statement or idea (Gray suggests the idea that the next exam should be essay rather than multiple choice). Collect the responses and divide students into like-minded groups for a short, 5-minute discussion. After the group discussion, have students rate their agreement with the proposition again on the same Likert scale. The results should be consistent with group polarization: those who initially agreed should agree more strongly after group discussion, and those who initially disagreed should disagree even more strongly after group discussion. According to Gray, asking your students to speculate about the causes of the effect should generate the same explanations generated by psychologists over the years (i.e., that members are exposed to new, persuasive arguments, and that members gradually take a more extreme position in order to be viewed positively by others). An added benefit is that, in addition to learning the group polarization effect in a memorable way, students learn that they can successfully “think like psychologists” in generating plausible explanations for observed events. Reference: Gray, P. (1993). Engaging students’ intellects: The immersion approach to critical thinking in psychological instruction. Teaching of Psychology, 20, 68–74.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Sometimes You Gotta Break the Rules Social norms are the invisible glue that keeps societies together. As implicit rules for social behaviour, norms are really only noticed when they are violated. This assignment asks your students to do just that: Break a social norm that everyone typically obeys. Explain to students that they should observe a variety of social norms in action for a few days, then choose one to violate. They should break the norm several times, rather than once, and in a variety of settings involving different people. Examples of some norm violations are: sitting right next to a stranger in an otherwise empty movie theater; violating gender roles, such as a man wearing a dress; raising both hands simultaneously to ask a professor a question; looking at other riders rather than the floor numbers in an elevator; singing out loud in public; conspicuously taking more than the maximum number of items to the grocery express check-out lane; impinging on someone’s personal space; asking a stranger to take her or his seat on the bus; being excessively helpful or excessively disclosive in response to a stranger’s simple request. Be clear about some ground rules. First, students should not do anything illegal, unethical, dangerous, or obnoxious; pointless antics that waste other people’s time or money, or that might be threatening to others, are not allowed. Second, students should give a clear definition of what the norm is, and how their behaviour would violate it; there are lots of bizarre behaviours students could perform, but many of them would not violate any implicit social rule. Third, students may want to run their ideas by you before they engage in the behaviour, to get an objective opinion about the first two points. In their written reports on this project students should address these questions: What were the reactions of other people as you broke the norm? How did you feel as you broke the norm? What function does the norm serve in society? How does it keep interaction flowing smoothly? What might have happened if you violated this norm in a different culture or subculture? ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Stanford Prison Study on the Web For this assignment, instruct students to go online to the following Web page: www.prisonexp.org/ Once there, instruct students to take a tour through the slide show, which shows actual footage of the Stanford Prison study. When finished, they should click on <Discussion Questions> and answer the following questions in a written report: #2, #4, #11 [focus on only 1 of the sub-options], and #13. You may choose other questions at your discretion. This is a great homework assignment, and students tend to respond well to the experience.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Dear Diary: I Feel Ostracized The text’s discussion of cultural diversity describes how it can be awkward and confusing to be out of one’s own culture or to interpret the behaviour of a person from another culture. In such situations, feelings of acculturation stress or even ostracism are not uncommon. Halonen (1986) describes a writing exercise that helps students achieve a deeper understanding of ostracism by taking another person’s perspective. After describing the idea of the cultural mainstream, ask students to think about a time they felt ostracized, a time they themselves were outside of the mainstream (e.g., not being invited to a party, having a poor complexion, being chosen last for a team sport). Then, ask students to write a journal entry that reflects the experience of ostracism—but not from their own perspective. Instead, they should choose someone else (it can be a friend or relative, someone famous, or even a hypothetical person) and write about that person’s experience as though it were their own (i.e., they should write in the first person). Although students are not to write about their own specific experiences, they should feel free to use the energy and feelings of their own experience to explore the emotional reaction of another person. Reference: Halonen, J. S. (1986). Teaching critical thinking in psychology. Milwaukee: Alverno Productions. From a suggestion by Arlene Kuchenbecker.
▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Assess the Violence in Children’s Cartoons Objective: To illustrate the level and intensity of violence depicted in cartoons for children. Materials: Handout Master 13.1 Procedure: This is best presented in your discussion of television as a socializing agent. Students should be asked to watch a children’s cartoon. Ask them to count the number of acts of violence and record them on Handout Master 12.6. Clearly, you must define what constitutes a violent act; consider explicit versus implicit acts. Some of the older cartoons are just as violent as the cartoons of today. At the end of each cartoon, determine the number of acts of violence committed per minute. Reference: Vandendorpe, M. (1987). Television as teacher: Studying the media’s message. In V. P. Makosky, L. G. Whittemore, & A. M. Rogers (Eds.). Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 101–102). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Attitudes in Advertising Objective: To analyze the components of public service announcements in the context of the dimensions of an attitude. Materials: Video or audio recordings of five public service announcements. Procedure: This activity works well with students working in groups. Ask them to analyze the extent to which the announcements appeal to the listener’s intellect or cognitions, their emotions or feelings, and their physical actions. Those that appeal to our intellect usually emphasize facts (e.g., “Smoking kills more than 400,000 people each year.”). Emotional appeals will stress fear, excitement, and fun associated with the product (e.g., “Nothing compares to the satisfaction you feel when you have helped someone learn to read.”). If an announcement appeals to our actions then we are urged to exhibit a behaviour (e.g., “Call this number if you want to help” or “Call this number if you want help to quit smoking.”). Reference: Kasschau, R. A. (1981). Attitude change and advertisements. In L. Benjamin, Jr. & K. Lowman (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 1). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Inducing Cognitive Dissonance Carkenord and Bullington (1993) suggest a simple exercise that helps students better understand the phenomenon of cognitive dissonance by experiencing it first-hand in class. In this exercise, cognitive dissonance is induced by comparing students’ attitudes and behaviours on a variety of social issues. Prior to your discussion of cognitive dissonance, draw a 5-point Likert scale on the board ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. Then, ask students to take out a blank piece of paper and to indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree with a series of statements that you will read aloud (by writing a number from 1 to 5 corresponding to the scale). Carkenord and Bullington suggest using the following statements: 1. 2. 3. 4.
World hunger is a serious problem that needs attention. Our country needs to address the growing number of homeless. The right to vote is one of the most valuable rights of American citizens. Our government should spend less money on nuclear weapons and more on helping citizens better their lives.
Then, ask students to turn their papers over and to answer the next series of questions by responding “Yes” or “No” according to whether they “perform the behaviour on a regular basis.” This series of behavioural questions corresponds to the previous attitudinal items:
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1. Do you personally do anything to lessen world hunger (e.g., donate money or food or write your representative)? 2. Do you personally do anything to help the homeless (e.g., volunteer at a homeless shelter or donate money)? 3. Did you vote in the last election for which you were eligible? 4. Do you personally convey your feelings to the government (e.g., by writing your representative or by participating in protests/marches)? After students have completed both series of questions, have them back to Side 1 and ask them (by a show of hands) how many agreed or strongly agreed with attitudinal Item 1. Next, ask them to turn their papers over and to raise their hands if they responded “Yes” to the corresponding behavioural item. Repeat this process for all four questions. Students generally get the point of this exercise very quickly. In most cases, a majority of students will agree with or show positive attitudes toward the issue, but only a small minority will actually report behaviour consistent with those attitudes. Carkenord and Bullington suggest that the discussion should focus on (a) how these inconsistencies made students feel, (b) formal definitions for consonance and dissonance, (c) research on cognitive dissonance (including Festinger and Carlsmith’s famous study), and (d) strategies for reducing dissonance. Reference: Carkenord, D. M., & Bullington, J. (1993). Bringing cognitive dissonance to the classroom. Teaching of Psychology, 20, 41–43. ▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Headbands and Stereotypes Objective: To help students learn the impact of stereotypes and the effect of how others see us. Materials: Headbands made from construction paper with names written on them—see Handout Master 13.2 for ideas. Procedure: Randomly distribute the headbands to students; if you have a small class, you could give each student a headband. In large classes, you should select a small group to participate while other students do another activity or put the large class into groups in which one or two members wear the headbands. Those who wear the headbands should not know what they say. As you distribute the headbands, caution students not to look at them. The class is told to treat those wearing headbands as the label on the headband reads. Those wearing headbands must try to figure what their headbands are labelled.
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Crossword Puzzle Copy and distribute Handout Master 13.4 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment. Answers for the crossword puzzle: Across 2. technique for getting a commitment from a person and then raising the cost of that commitment. Low ball 3. kind of thinking that occurs when people place more importance on maintaining group cohesiveness than on assessing the facts of the problem with which the group is concerned. Groupthink 4. changing one’s behaviour as a result of other people directing or asking for the change. compliance 5. behaviour intended to hurt or destroy another person. Aggression 7. a set of characteristics that people believe are shared by all members of a particular social category. stereotype 11. changing one’s behaviour at the command of an authority figure. obedience 13. prosocial behaviour that is done with no expectation of reward and may involve the risk of harm to oneself. altruism 14. the process of explaining one’s own behaviour and the behaviour of others. attribution 15. any group of people with a particular religious or philosophical set of beliefs and identity. cult 16. negative attitude held by a person about the members of a particular social group. prejudice Down 1. type of love consisting of intimacy and commitment. companionate 6. the process by which one person tries to change the belief, opinion, position, or course of action of another person through argument, pleading, or explanation. persuasion 8. physical or geographical nearness. proximity 9. changing one’s own behaviour to match that of other people. Conformity 10. a tendency to respond positively or negatively toward a certain person, object, idea, or situation. attitude 12. treating people differently because of prejudice toward the social group to which they belong. discrimination 17. type of love consisting of intimacy and passion. Romantic
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▼ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Fill-in-the-Blanks Copy and distribute Handout Master 13.4 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment.
Answers for the fill-in-the-blank activity: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
social psychology Social influence Conformity groupthink consumer psychology Compliance Foot-in-the-door technique door-in-the-face technique norm of reciprocity lowball technique obedience social facilitation social loafing Attitude emotional (affective), cognitive, behavioural persuasion social cognition primacy effect
19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.
stereotype attribution fundamental attribution theory prejudice discrimination scapegoating Social identity social comparison self-fulfilling prophesy jigsaw classroom Proximity Love Aggression Social role prosocial behaviour altruistic behaviour bystander effect Diffusion of responsibility
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▼ HANDOUT MASTERS FOR CHAPTER 13: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Handout Master 13.1 Assess the Violence in Children’s Cartoons Handout Master 13.2 Headbands and Stereotypes Handout Master 13.3 Crossword Puzzle Activity Handout Master 13.4 Fill-in-the-Blanks Activity
▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 13.1 Assess the Violence in Children’s Cartoons Violent Act Tally Name of Cartoon:_____________________
Length:_________________________
Characters:
_____________________
_______________________________
_____________________
_______________________________
Implicit Acts
Explicit Acts
Total: ______________________________
Total: __________________________
Acts Per Minute: _____________________
Acts Per Minute: _________________
Name of Cartoon:_____________________
Length:_________________________
Characters:
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_______________________________
_____________________
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Implicit Acts
Explicit Acts
Total: ______________________________ Acts Per Minute: _____________________
Total: __________________________ Acts Per Minute: _________________
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► Return to Activity: Assess the Violence in Children’s Cartoons ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 13.2 Headbands and Stereotypes Ideas for Headbands Labels
Boss
Comic
Blonde
Quiet
Hot-tempered
Diseased
Chinese
Farmer
Minister
Insignificant
Wealthy
New Ager
Arab
Retarded
Gang member
Feminist
Athletic
Nerd
Scientist
Writer
Hispanic
Irish
American
Military
Psychologist
Japanese
Black
Odd
White
AIDS patient
Teacher
Drug addict
Mechanic
Murderer
Grandparent
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Handout Master 13.3 Crossword Puzzle Activity Chapter 13: Social Psychology
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Across 2. technique for getting a commitment from a person and then raising the cost of that commitment. 3. kind of thinking that occurs when people place more importance on maintaining group cohesiveness than on assessing the facts of the problem with which the group is concerned. 5. changing one’s behaviour as a result of other people directing or asking for the change. 6. behaviour intended to hurt or destroy another person. 7. a set of characteristics that people believe are shared by all members of a particular social category. 11. changing one’s behaviour at the command of an authority figure. 13. prosocial behaviour that is done with no expectation of reward and may involve the risk of harm to oneself. 14. the process of explaining one’s own behaviour and the behaviour of others. 15. any group of people with a particular religious or philosophical set of beliefs and identity. 16. negative attitude held by a person about the members of a particular social group. Down 1. type of love consisting of intimacy and passion. 6. the process by which one person tries to change the belief, opinion, position, or course of action of another person through argument, pleading, or explanation. 8. physical or geographical nearness. 9. changing one’s own behaviour to match that of other people. 10. a tendency to respond positively or negatively toward a certain person, object, idea, or situation. 12. treating people differently because of prejudice toward the social group to which they belong. 17. type of love consisting of intimacy and commitment.
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► Return to Activity: Crossword Puzzle ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 13.4 Fill-in-the-Blanks Activity 1. 2. 3. 4.
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.
The scientific study of how a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviour are influenced by the real, imagined, or implied presence of others is called_______________________. __________________ is the process through which the real or implied presence of others can directly or indirectly influence the thoughts, feelings, and behaviour of an individual. ______________ is the process of changing one’s own behaviour to match that of other people. The kind of thinking that occurs when people place more importance on maintaining group cohesiveness than on assessing the facts of the problem with which the group is concerned is called _____________________. The branch of psychology that studies the habits of consumers in the marketplace, including compliance is known as______________________. is the changing one’s behaviour as a result of other people directing or asking for the change.____________________. is asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment. ____________________. Asking for a large commitment and being refused, and then asking for a smaller commitment is known as___________________. The assumption that if someone does something for a person, that person should do something for the other in return is called the_________________________. The_________________ is getting a commitment from a person and then raising the cost of that commitment. The changing one’s behaviour at the command of an authority figure is called___________________. ________________________ is the tendency for the presence of other people to have a positive impact on the performance of an easy task. The tendency for people to put less effort into a simple task when working with others on that task is called___________________________. ___________________ is a tendency to respond positively or negatively toward a certain person, object, idea, or situation. There are three components to an attitude:_____________________ and _____________. The process by which one person tries to change the belief, opinion, position, or course of action of another person through argument, pleading, or explanation is known as____________________. The mental processes that people use to make sense of the social world around them are called _________________________. The very first impression one has about a person that tends to persist even in the face of evidence to the contrary is known as the__________________________. A set of characteristics that people believe is shared by all members of a particular social category is known as a_________________________. The process of explaining one’s own behaviour and the behaviour of others is called____________ _________________. ______________ is the tendency to overestimate the influence of internal factors in determining behaviour while underestimating situational factors.
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22. 23. 24. 25.
26. 27. 28.
29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.
The negative attitude held by a person about the members of a particular social group is called a___________________. When you treat people differently because of prejudice toward the social group to which they belong it is called____________________. The tendency to direct prejudice and discrimination at out-group members who have little social power or influence is frequently known as________________________. is the part of the self-concept including one’s view of self as a member of a particular social category. ___________________________. The comparison of oneself to others in ways that raise one’s self-esteem is called______________ _______________. _______________________ is the tendency of one’s expectations to affect one’s behaviour in such a way as to make the expectation more likely to occur. The educational technique in which each individual is given only part of the information needed to solve a problem, causing the separate individuals to be forced to work together to find the solution is called the__________________________. _______________ is physical or geographical nearness. A strong affection for another person due to kinship, personal ties, sexual attraction, admiration, or common interests is called________________________. _______________ is a behaviour intended to hurt or destroy another person. ________________ is the pattern of behaviour that is expected of a person who is in a particular social position. A socially desirable behaviour that benefits others is called a_____________________. A prosocial behaviour that is done with no expectation of reward and may involve the risk of harm to oneself is known as_________________________. _____________________ refers to the effect that the presence of other people has on the decision to help or not help, with help becoming less likely as the number of bystanders increases. _______________ occurs when a person fails to take responsibility for actions or for inaction because of the presence of other people who are seen to share the responsibility.
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Fill-in-the-Blanks—Words 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
aggression altruistic behaviour attitude attribution bystander effect compliance conformity consumer psychology diffusion of responsibility discrimination door-in-the-face technique emotional (affective), cognitive, behavioural foot-in-the-door technique fundamental attribution theory groupthink jigsaw classroom love lowball technique
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19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.
norm of reciprocity obedience persuasion prejudice primacy effect prosocial behaviour proximity scapegoating self-fulfilling prophesy social cognition social comparison social facilitation social identity social influence social loafing social psychology social role stereotype
Chapter 13: Social Psychology
▼ APS: READINGS FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE ▲ Return to Table of Contents Current Directions in Introductory Psychology, Second Edition (0-13-714350-8) Edited by Abigail A. Baird, with Michele M. Tugade and Heather B. Veague This new and exciting American Psychological Reader includes timely, cutting-edge articles, giving readers a real-world perspective from a reliable source Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. This reader includes over 20 articles that have been carefully selected and taken from the very accessible Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. Articles discuss today’s most current and pressing issues in introductory psychology and are broken down into these main sections: Scientific Thinking; Nature/Nurture; Consciousness; Individual Differences; and Applications. Section 6: Social Psychology 201 Nicholas L. Carnagey, Craig A. Anderson, Bruce D. Bartholow Media Violence and Social Neuroscience: New Questions and New Opportunities. (Vol. 16, No. 4, 2007, pp. 178–182) p. 203 in the APS reader Decades of research have demonstrated that exposure to violence on television can cause increases in aggression. The recent emergence of violent video games has raised new questions regarding the effects of violent media. The General Aggression Model (GAM) predicts that exposure to violent media increases aggressive behaviour through one of three primary pathways (arousal, cognitions, and affect). Past psychophysiological research has supported GAM but has been limited to examining arousalrelated variables. Recent advances in social neuroscience have opened the door to investigations of exposure to violent media on cognitive and affective components and their neurocognitive underpinnings. Neuroscience tools have the potential to provide answers to the new questions posed by recent advances in media technology. Rebecca S. Bigler, Lynn S. Liben Developmental Intergroup Theory: Explaining and Reducing Children’s Social Stereotyping and Prejudice. (Vol. 16, No. 3, 2007, pp. 162–166) p. 211 in the APS reader Social stereotyping and prejudice are intriguing phenomena from the standpoint of theory and, in addition, constitute pressing societal problems. Because stereotyping and prejudice emerge in early childhood, developmental research on causal mechanisms is critical for understanding and controlling stereotyping and prejudice. Such work forms the basis of a new theoretical model, developmental intergroup theory (DIT), which addresses the causal ingredients of stereotyping and prejudice. The work suggests that biases may be largely under environmental control and thus might be shaped via educational, social, and legal policies. John A. Bargh, Erin L. Williams The Automaticity of Social Life. (Vol. 15, No. 1, 2006, pp. 1–4) p. 220 in the APS reader Much of social life is experienced through mental processes that are not intended and about which one is fairly oblivious. These processes are automatically triggered by features of the immediate social environment, such as the group memberships of other people, the qualities of their behaviour, and features of social situations (e.g., norms, one’s relative power). Recent research has shown these nonconscious influences to extend beyond the perception and interpretation of the social world to the actual guidance, over extended time periods, of one’s important goal pursuits and social interactions.
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B. Keith Payne Weapon Bias: Split-Second Decisions and Unintended Stereotyping. (Vol. 15, No. 6, 2006, pp. 287–291) p. 228 in the APS reader Race stereotypes can lead people to claim to see a weapon where there is none. Split-second decisions magnify the bias by limiting people’s ability to control responses. Such a bias could have important consequences for decision making by police officers and other authorities interacting with racial minorities. The bias requires no intentional racial animus, occurring even for those who are actively trying to avoid it. This research thus raises difficult questions about intent and responsibility for racially biased errors. Bella M. DePaulo, Wendy L. Morris The Unrecognized Stereotyping and Discrimination against Singles. (Vol. 15, No. 5, 2006, pp. 251–254) p. 237 in the APS reader A widespread form of bias has slipped under our cultural and academic radar. People who are single are targets of singlism: negative stereotypes and discrimination. Compared to married or coupled people, who are often described in very positive terms, singles are assumed to be immature, maladjusted, and self-centred. Although the perceived differences between people who have and have not married are large, the actual differences are not. Moreover, there is currently scant recognition that singlism exists, and when singlism is acknowledged, it is often accepted as legitimate. ▼ FORTY STUDIES THAT CHANGED PSYCHOLOGY ▲ Return to Table of Contents Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research, 6/e (013603599X) By Roger Hock This unique book closes the gap between psychology textbooks and the research that made them possible by offering a first hand glimpse into 40 of the most famous studies in the history of the field, and subsequent studies that expanded upon each study’s influence. Readers are able to grasp the process and excitement of scientific discovery as they experience an insider’s look at the studies that continue today to be cited most frequently, stirred up the most controversy when they were first published, sparked the most subsequent related research, opened new fields of psychological exploration, and changed most dramatically our knowledge of human behaviour. Studies Examined in Social Psychology: A PRISON BY ANY OTHER NAME . . . Zimbardo, P.G. (1972). The pathology of imprisonment. Society, 9(6). 4–8. The Power Of Conformity Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 193(5), 31–35. To Help Or Not To Help Darley, J. M., & Latané, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 377–383.
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Obey At Any Cost? Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioural study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 371–378.
▼ WEB RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents Aggression and Violence Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence: www.colorado.edu A clearinghouse of
information about this topic. Sociology Links: Group Conflict: www.sociosite.net/ A different perspective on groups and group conflict. Attitudes Advertising Age Magazine: www.adage.com/ The leading publication for the advertising industry.
Impression Formation and Attributions Brunswik Society: www.albany.edu This group takes its cue from Egon Brunswik, an influential researcher in social judgment, social perception, and decision-making. Social Cognition and Emotion Lab, Harvard University: www.wjh.harvard.edu Daniel Gilbert’s laboratory website provides information about cognitive busyness, person perception, and research on affective forecasting (people’s ability to anticipate how their emotions will affect their behaviour). Prejudice and Discrimination Anti-Defamation League Online: www.adl.org/ Homepage of this organization dedicated to eliminating prejudice and discrimination. GLAAD: www.glaad.org/ Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation homepage. Hate Crimes Prevention Center: www.civilrights.org Information about stopping hate crimes. Latin American Network: http://info.lanic.utexas.edu/ Links to topics relevant to the experiences of Latin Americans.
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Prejudice and Discrimination: www.colorado.edu Website of the International Online Training Program on Intractable Conflict, with links to information about specific conflicts. The Prejudice Institute: www.prejudiceinstitute.org/ A resource for information on prejudice, discrimination, and ethnoviolence. Sexual Prejudice: Understanding Homophobia and Heterosexism: http://psychology.ucdavis.edu Stereotype-Breaking Actions: www.colorado.edu This Web page, created by the International Online Training Program on Intractable Conflict, discusses ways to break stereotypes. Stereotypes Online: www.hanksville.org A collection of links to stereotypical and questionable images online. Prosocial Behaviour Help the Homeless: www.earthsystems.org This site offers 54 ways to help the homeless using practical, effective solutions. Internet Nonprofit Center: www.idealist.org Search for various nonprofit organizations at this mega-site. Social Influence Cognitive Consequences of Forced Compliance: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Festinger/index.htm A reprint of the classic (1959) paper by Leon Festinger and James M. Carlsmith, originally published in the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203–210, presented on the Web as part of the “Classics in the History of Psychology” series maintained by Christopher D. Green. Cults: www.csj.org/ Information about anti-cult organizations and ways to resist social influence. Group Dynamics Links: https://facultystaff.richmond.edu This page is maintained by social psychologist Don Forsyth, and provides a variety of information about group behaviour. Influence at Work: www.influenceatwork.com/ A firm specializing in applying social influence research in work environments. Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation: The Robber’s Cave Experiment: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca A reprint of the book by Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood, and Sherif (1954/1961) presented on the Web as part of the “Classics in the History of Psychology” series maintained by Christopher D. Green.
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Obedience, Compliance with Authority: www.as.wvu.edu/ Extensive PowerPoint presentation on this topic, with sequences on Milgram’s experiment and related phenomena. Presented by Steve Booth-Butterfield at West Virginia University. Prisoner’s Dilemma: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu You can play the prisoner’s dilemma game at this website; gain insight into the workings of competition and cooperation. Stanford Prison Experiment: www.prisonexp.org/ Detailed account, with pictures, of the Prison Experiment. Stanley Milgram Website: www.stanleymilgram.com/ Super Sites and Tutorials Biography of Kurt Lewin: www.muskingum.edu Information about this important founder of modern social psychology. Center for the Learning of Group Processes: www.uiowa.edu This sociology site may provide insight into different approaches to studying group behaviour. Psychology Centre: Social and Cultural Psychology: http://server.bmod.athabascau.ca Social psychology in a cultural context is the focus of this website. Social Psychology Network: www.socialpsychology.org/ This could easily be the only resource you’ll ever need for information about social psychology on the Internet. Scott Plous has done an incredible job of assembling more resources than you can visit in a week. Highly recommended. Social Psychology Network Topics: www.socialpsychology.org Social Psychology Network links by subtopic. Actually, SPN also has links for Introductory Psychology, I/O psychology, and other topics, so exploring the ones on this page is only the beginning. Society for Judgment and Decision Making: www.sjdm.org/ Homepage of this society whose members study the many aspects of decision-making. SPSP Home Page: www.spsp.org/ Home page of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, an official organization of social psychologists ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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14/ HEALTH, STRESS, AND COPING TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲ Return to Table of Contents
MODULE 14.1: Behaviour and Health ➢ Lecture Guide: Behaviour and Health (p. 733) ➢ Resources Available (p. 739) MODULE 14.2: Stress and Illness ➢ Lecture Guide: Stress and Illness (p. 740) ➢ Resources Available (p. 746) MODULE 14.3: Coping and Well-Being ➢ Lecture Guide: Coping and Well-Being (p. 747) ➢ Resources Available (p. 752) FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES ➢ Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 753) ➢ Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 764) ➢ Handout Masters (p. 775) ➢ APS: Readings from the Association of Psychological Science (p. 787) ➢ Web Resources (p. 788)
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LECTURE GUIDE I. MODULE 14.1 BEHAVIOUR AND HEALTH (Text p. 530) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology related to health psychology. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand how genetic and environmental factors influence obesity. o Twin and adoption studies indicate that inheritance plays a strong role as a risk factor for obesity (or, for that matter, as a predictor of healthy body weight). Furthermore, environmental influences on weight gain are abundant. Cultural, family, and socioeconomic factors influence activity levels and diet, even in very subtle ways, such as through social contagion. ✓ Apply your beliefs about obesity to better understand sources of prejudice and stereotyping. o Review efforts of advertisers to deter smoking, now use Google Image to look at cigarette packs from different countries. How does the packaging different from Canadian cigarette packaging? ✓ Analyze whether media depictions of smoking affect smoking in adolescents. o Correlational trends certainly show that smoking in popular movies is positively related to smoking among adolescents (e.g., increased exposure is related to increased incidence of smoking). Controlled laboratory studies suggest a cause-and-effect relationship exists between identification with story protagonists who smoke and smoking behaviour by young viewers.
Smoking 1) The life expectancy of the average smoker is between 7 and 14 years shorter than that of a nonsmoker, with 21%of all deaths in Canada over the past decade due to smoking related illness. i) Health problems include lung, mouth, and throat cancer; heart disease; and pulmonary diseases (e.g., emphysema) (Table 14.1). a) Despite the costs to one’s healthy, 19.8% (5.8 million) Canadians smoke. Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Media Exposure and Smoking 1) What do we know about media influences on smoking? i) Each day approximately 250 adolescents in Canada try their first cigarette, and many go on to become full-time smokers. a) Whether they become a smoker is influenced by family and local culture, personality characteristics, and socioeconomic status. b) People may smoke because this behaviour is associated with certain traits or societal roles, such as attractiveness, rebelliousness, and individualism. ii) One influential factor health psychologists study is smoking in movies and entertainment. a) Although smoking in films has declined over the past decade, there are still numerous popular movies in which the characters smoke. 2) How can science help us analyze the effects of smoking in the movies? a) In one study, researchers conducted a random-digit-dialing survey of 6522 U.S. adolescents from all major geographic regions and socioeconomic groups. b) The adolescents reported their age and indicated whether they smoked, and were asked to identify whether they had seen specific popular movies that featured smoking.
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c) The more exposure teens had to these movies, the more likely they were to have tried smoking. d) This relation persisted even after controlling for socioeconomic status, personality, and parental and peer influences on smoking. e) However, this study only shows us the correlation; it does not tell us why the correlation exists. ii) An experimental study suggests that how people identify with smokers may influence their decision to smoke. a) Adolescents who had positive responses to a protagonist who smoked were much more likely to associate smoking with their own identities. b) This correlation was observed in adolescents who already smoked and those who did not. 3) Can we critically evaluate this evidence? i) It is very difficult to establish that watching movie stars smoke causes adolescents to smoke. ii) For example, researchers tracked the amount of smoking featured in popular movies from 1990 to 2007. a) They found that as the smoking in movies rose, smoking among adolescents increased after a short period of time. b) When smoking in movies decreased, a decline in adolescent smoking followed. iii) However, multiple explanations could explain such correlations. a) It could be that people who are already willing to smoke are more attracted to movies that feature smoking. 4) Why is this relevant? i) Cigarette-related illness imposes a major societal burden in terms of lost work productivity and rising health care costs. a) There are serious concerns about the health and well-being of those who start smoking at an early age. ii) Movies are just one influence, but they are easier to control than other factors, such as peer pressure. a) Group such as Physicians for a Smoke-free Canada argue against smoking in movies. iii) On a positive note, smoking rates have declined steadily over the 1990s and early 2000s. Efforts to prevent smoking 1) Smoking has been banned in many public places (e.g., restaurants) to help reduce the risks posed by secondhand smoke exposure. i) Steep taxes are also in place on tobacco products as a deterrent. 2) In the 1990s several countries added written warning to cigarette packaging. i) Unfortunately, they had very little effect. 3) Added images to the packages that were more effective and also educational. 4) Image based warnings now used in more than 30 countries. i) Research suggests they are memorable and have an effect. 5) A new issue that health officials face now is with e-cigarettes or “vaping”, which is not as bad as smoking, but is still not a healthy habit. 6) Smoking has shown a gradual decline from the 1990s and 2000s with rates dropping by about 6%.
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Obesity 1) The lifestyle changes that students face during college affect physical health. i) Many have heard of the “freshman 15”, that most first year students put on 15 pounds, but research shows students actually average an extra 6 pounds (or 2.7 kg). a) This is most likely due to increased food intake, decreased physical activity, and, for many students, increased levels of alcohol consumption. ii) Six pounds (or 2.7 kg) is not a lot of weight, but the habits formed can be hard to break. Defining Healthy Weights and Obesity 1) BMI is used to screen people for weight categories that indicate whether they are considered normal weight, underweight, overweight, or obese. Body Mass Index (BMI) (p. 534) is a statistic commonly used for estimating a healthy body weight given an individual’s height. 2) Weight is gained because of a positive energy balance, meaning that too many calories come in and not enough are expended. i) However, some people seem to be able to eat massive amounts of food and not gain weight. a) This is due to genetic, neurological, and environmental variables. Genetics and Body Weight 1) Twin, family, and adoption studies all suggest that genes account for between 50% and 90% of the variation in body weight. 2) Some researchers suggest that genes contribute to development of a set point. i) That is, your initial set point is controlled by genetic mechanisms, but your actual weight can be modified by environmental factors (e.g., how much you eat). Set point (p. 534) a hypothesized mechanism that serves to maintain body weight around a physiologically programmed level. ii) The set point is a relatively small range encompassing 10% to 20% of one’s weight. iii) According to this theory, if an individual gains 10% of his body weight (e.g., going from 150 to 165 pounds) his set point would make a corresponding shift upward—the body acts as though its normal weight is now the larger 165 pounds or 68 to 75 kg. a) Metabolism slows correspondingly, such that this person now requires additional energy expenditure to take the weight off. b) This process also explains why people can shed excess weight relatively easily, but find it overwhelmingly difficult to continue losing weight once they reach an initial weight goal. 3) Set point theory has a long tradition in nutrition, but its validity is challenged by research suggesting that weight gain and loss are unrelated to a physiological set point. i) Rather, it appears that physical activity is a stronger determinant of who succeeds at losing weight and keeping it off. a) People who gain weight expend less energy in their normal day-to-day activities, making it difficult to lose weight.
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The Sedentary Lifestyle 1) Modern conveniences have reduced the amount of physical activity required of most people. i) Many jobs involve very little physical activity. ii) Home entertainment has evolved into activities that include sitting and snacking (e.g., TV, video games). 2) Research on the relationship between obesity and amount of hours/week watching TV have found that as the hours increase so do obesity rates (Figure 14.2). i) Home entertainment has evolved into activities that include sitting and snacking (e.g., TV, video games). 3) Research on the relationship between obesity and amount of hours/week watching TV have found that as the hours increase so do obesity rates (Figure 14.2). i) In contrast, hours in front of a computer screen showed much less of a correlation with obesity. ii) Perhaps because computer tasks require the use of the mouse and keyboard and therefore you are less likely to snack while using a computer, but more likely to snack while watching TV. 4) Many children are indoctrinated into this lifestyle, contributing to the drastically rising childhood obesity rates. i) This leads to an even greater variety of sedentary activities. a) Researchers have found that the amount of time that children spend playing video games is positively correlated with levels of obesity. b) Some remain optimistic about video games that involve physical activity, but these options claim only a small proportion of the overall market. Social Factors 1) What children eat is largely based on what their parents provide and allow them to eat. i) Eating patterns developed in childhood are generally carried through into adulthood. 2) Media has also been found to influence eating. i) After watching a commercial for buttery microwave popcorn, you might be tempted to rummage through your pantry to your own last bag of popcorn. a) If you don’t have any popcorn, you are still more likely to snack on something. ii) Children who see food commercials while watching a 30-minute cartoon program consume 45% more snack food than do children who view nonfood commercials. a) The researchers estimated that this difference could lead to an additional 10 pounds of extra weight gained each year. 3) Corporations who sell unhealthy food are well aware of these trends in advertising and use it to promote their products, often targeting children. Psychology and Weight Loss 1) The first step to a healthy mind set to approach weight loss is to think critically about weight loss options. i) The need to be effectively motivated to change behaviours so you eat fewer calories and get more exercise. 2) In order to keep the weight off people must be aware of food cues. i) The restraint involved in dieting, specifically eating unhealthy foods, actually makes those foods more reinforcing in the end.
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Psychosocial Influences on Health 1) The environments where we work, live, and play and the people with whom we interact influence both our physical and mental health. i) Consider the neighbourhood in most cities; some are wealthy and safe, others are poor and have higher crime rates. Poverty and Discrimination 1) People who live in affluent communities enjoy better access to health care, have a greater sense of control over their environment, and have the resources needed to maintain the lifestyle they want. i) Others lack this sense of control and live in circumstances that compromise their health. a) Those in poverty experience discrimination and other social stressors, which leads to higher rates of depression, anxiety, and other mental health problems. ii) Health problems are magnified by stress. a) Heart disease is prevalent in socioeconomically disadvantage populations. iii) Those in poverty also tend to have poorer diets. 2) Discrimination is another stressor that can compromise both physical and mental health. i) It is uncontrollable and unpredictable. a) This can lead to people constantly being on “alert”. ii) Being a target of prejudice and discrimination is linked to increased blood pressure, heart rate, and secretions of stress hormones. a) Over time, this can compromise physical health. b) For example, when individuals perceive they are target of racism, their blood pressure remains elevated throughout the day, and it recovers poorly during sleep. iii) Targets of discrimination are at a greater risk for engaging in unhealthy behaviours (e.g., smoking and substance abuse). iv) One only needs to perceive being a target (vs. actually being a target) to put the body on sustained alert against threats, which can have negative long-term effects (Module 14.2). Family and Social Environment 1) Our close, interpersonal relationships have a major impact on health. i) Chronic social isolation is as great a mortality risk as smoking, obesity, and high blood pressure. Social resilience (p. 537) the ability to keep positive relationships and to endure and recover from social isolation and life stressors.
ii) This can protect people from negative health consequences of loneliness and social isolation. 2) Married couples tend to live longer and have better mental and physical health than do unmarried adults. a) Married couples enjoy the benefits of social support, combined resources, and they tend to have better health habits. 3) However, men appear to enjoy greater health benefits in heterosexual marriages. i) Unmarried women have a 50% higher mortality rate than do married women. a) Unmarried men have a 250% higher mortality. b) A possible reason for this difference is the greater role that women take in recognizing and supporting healthy behaviours in others.
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4) Marriage can also be a considerable source of stress. i) Married couples who are experiencing ongoing problems with their relationship are more depressed and suffer from greater incidences of physical illness than happily married couples. ii) Children’s emotional and physical health can also be affected during a divorce. a) Younger children are especially affected by problematic periods of a marriage. b) Adolescents are at a slightly higher risk of engaging in delinquent behaviours. c) However, high-quality parenting during marital discord can help offset these negative effects on children. Social Contagion 1) Many of our health and lifestyle choices are influenced by what others around us are doing, both positive and negative habits. i) This trend can be seen with smoking—either starting or quitting, or running a half-marathon. Social Contagion (p. 538) the often subtle, unintentional spreading of a behaviour as a result of social interactions. 2) The National Heart Institute began this ongoing study in 1948 to track 15,000 residents of Framingham, Massachusetts. i) Participants made regular visits to their doctors, who recorded important health statistics such as heart rate, body weight, and other standard physical measures. ii) Scientists began to notice clusters of people becoming increasingly similar in certain characteristics. a) This included body weight increases or decreases, starting or quitting smoking, and even levels of happiness. iii) It turns out that the groups who showed similar patterns in their health statistics were also friends with one another.
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 14.1 Lecture Launchers ➢ A Sense of Control Can Aid Recovery ➢ The Amazing Power of Prayer ➢ Adhering to Medical Advice Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Relaxation Response ➢ Lifestyle Awareness Triangle ➢ Culture and Health ➢ Crossword Puzzle ➢ Fill-in-the-Blanks Handout Masters ➢ Handout Master 14.8 Crossword Puzzle Activity ➢ Handout Master 14.9 Fill-in-the-Blanks Activity Web Resources ➢ Stress Management Resources: http://mentalhealth.about.com ➢ Stress Reduction Techniques: www.mindtools.com ➢ Laughing Out Loud to Good Health: http://library.thinkquest.org ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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II. MODULE 14.2: STRESS AND ILLNESS (Text p. 540) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology associated with stress and illness. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand the physiological reactions that occur under stress. o When a person encounters a stressor, the hypothalamus stimulates the sympathetic nervous system to act, triggering the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla. This reaction is often referred to as the fight-or-flight response. Another part of the stress response system is the HPA axis, in which the hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland to release hormones that in turn stimulate the adrenal cortex to release cortisol, which prepares the body to deal with stressful situations. ✓ Understand how the immune system is connected to stress responses. o Cortisol suppresses the immune system, leaving people more vulnerable to illness and slowing recovery time from illness and injury. ✓ Apply a measure of stressful events to your own experiences. o Students should be able to complete the college student life stressor inventory in Table 14.2 and compare their scores to a larger sample of college students. ✓ Analyze the claim that ulcers are caused by stress. o Ulcers are damaged areas of the digestive tract often caused by infection with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori. Stress and other factors, such as diet and alcohol consumption, can worsen the condition of ulcers, but stress alone does not cause them.
1) Stress refers to both events (stressors) and experiences in response to these events (the stress response). i) Stress can come from acute events (e.g., giving a speech) as well as chronic events (e.g., marital problems, illness). Stress (p. 541) is a psychological and physiological reaction that occurs when perceived demands exceed existing resources to meet those demands. What Causes Stress 1) In an attempt to understand why and how people differ, psychologists Lazarus and Folkman (1984) developed a cognitive appraisal theory of stress. Appraisal (p. 541) refers to the cognitive act of assessing and evaluating the potential threat and demands of an event.
i) The appraisal occurs in two steps (Figure 14.3). a) Individual perceives the potential threat, beginning the primary appraisal (“is this a threat”). b) If the answer is no, then no stress will be experienced. If the answer is yes, they will experience a physiological reaction as well as an emotional response. c) As these responses unfold the secondary appraisal begins, as the individual must determine how they will cope with the stressor.
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2) Psychologists have actually ranked stressful events according to their magnitude, as can be seen in the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) (Table 14.2). i) This scale includes positive and negative events. a) For example, the highest-stress events include death of a spouse and divorce, whereas holidays and traffic tickets are at the lower end of the spectrum. b) According to the developers of the scale, the more points one accumulates, the greater the chance of becoming ill. ii) Certain stress events tend to be age specific, which has resulted in stress inventories developed for college students (Table 14.2). Stress and Performance 1) Stress is typically viewed as a negative factor, however, some stress can actually be beneficial to motivation and performance. i) Research on performance has found that too much stress can hinder performance, however, too little stress can also lead to a sub-optimal performance as well (Figure 14.4). ii) The link between stress and performance can also vary with the task difficulty, with easier tasks responding well to more stress, whereas stress may harm performance in complex tasks. Individual zone of optimal functioning (IZOF) (p. 543) a range of emotional intensity in which he or she is most likely to perform at his or her best. iii) Sport psychologist find that if athletes are too anxious, or not anxious enough they will not perform at their optimal level.
Physiology of Stress 1) We tend to have a general response to stress, regardless of the type of stress. i) Walter Cannon described this as a fight-or-flight response. Fight-or-flight response (p. 543) a set of physiological changes that occur in response to psychological or physical threats. 2) Hans Selye (1956) looked beyond the immediate fight-or-flight response and saw a larger pattern of responding to stress he termed GAS. General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) (p. 543) a theory of stress responses involving stages of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. i)
A stressful event (e.g., a shock if you are an animal, a quiz if you are a student) elicits an alarm reaction. a) Alarm consists of your recognition of the threat and the physiological reactions that accompany it. ii) The second part of the adaptive response, resistance, occurs as the stressful event continues. a) This is characterized by coping with the event (freezing for the rat, and for you gathering your thoughts and mentally preparing for the quiz). iii) The final stage of GAS is exhaustion. a) The experience depletes your physical resources and your physiological response declines (see Figure 14.5).
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The Stress Pathways 1) The sensations of stress (e.g., racing heart, sweaty palms, stomach in knots) are the result of activity in the autonomic pathway, which originates in the brain and extends to the body where you feel stress the most. i) The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system, which includes the autonomic nervous system (ANS) (Module 3.3). ii) In response to stress, the hypothalamus stimulates the sympathetic nervous system, which then causes the inner part of adrenal glands (known as the adrenal medulla) to release epinephrine and norepinephrine, which then trigger bodily changes associated with the fight-or-flight response (Figure 14.6). 2) Another physiological system involved in the stress response is the HPA axis. Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis (p. 545) a neural and endocrine circuit that provides communication between the nervous system (the hypothalamus) and the endocrine system (pituitary and adrenal glands). i)
The sympathetic nervous system (through the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine) and the HPA axis (through the release of cortisol) function to prepare us to respond to stress. Cortisol (p. 545) a hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex (the outer part of the adrenal gland) that prepares the body to respond to stressful circumstances.
a) When you perceive that you are in a stressful situation, the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland to release cortisol. b) This hormone in turn stimulates the release of cortisol. c) Cortisol may stimulate increased energy stores or lead to decreased inflammation. 3) Both the sympathetic nervous system and the HPA axis function to prepare us to respond to stress. Oxytocin: To Tend and Befriend 1) Sometimes stress can also lead people to seek out close contact and social support. i) This phenomenon which tends to be found more in women then in men, is called the tend and befriend response. a) This reaction may be promoted by the release of oxytocin. Oxytocin (p. 545) a stress-sensitive hormone that is typically associated with maternal bonding and social relationships. 2) Oxytocin influences social bonding in both males and females, but women seem to rely more on this adaptation to cope with stress. i) From an evolutionary standpoint, the responsibility to avoid harm and protect and care for offspring under stressful circumstances has survival advantages over fighting or running away.
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Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Hormones, Relationships and Health 1) What do we know about hormones, relationships and health? i) Weddings, holidays, and family reunions can bring great joy, but can also be very stressful. ii) Friendships and romantic relationships can also bring negative stress when there is conflict or when individuals feel misunderstood or disregarded. a) This stress can affect performance at work or school as well as how the body responds to illness or injury. iii) Two hormones, oxytocin and vasopressin, are involved in social behaviour and bonding. a) Oxytocin is a stress-sensitive hormone that is typically associated with maternal bonding and social relationships (as discussed above). b) People with high vasopressin levels also tend to report better relationship quality with their spouses. c) Both hormones also interact with the immune system to reduce inflammation. 2) How can scientists study connections between hormones, relationships and health? i) A common way for measuring immunity and health is to see how quickly people recover from a minor wound. ii) In one study, the effect of marital stress on wound healing was tested in a group of 37 married couples. a) Each couple was asked to sit alone together and complete a series of marital interaction tasks, including a discussion of the history of their marriage and a task in which both spouses were instructed to discuss something they wished to change about themselves. b) These interactions were video recorded and the researchers also took blood draws to measure oxytocin and vasopressin levels. c) Each participant was given a minor wound, a suction blister, with a medical vacuum pump. d) Couples who engaged their partner with positive responses (e.g., acceptance and support) had higher levels of oxytocin and vasopressin (Figure 14.7). e) Those who responded with hostility, withdrawal, and distress had lower levels. f) In addition, the suction blister wounds healed more quickly over an 8-day period in individuals with high oxytocin and vasopressin levels. iii) In another experiment, married couples were given either an intranasal solution of oxytocin or a placebo. a) The couples then engaged in discussion about conflict within their marriage. b) Those who received the oxytocin showed more positive, constructive behaviour. c) Cortisol levels from saliva samples indicated that those in the oxytocin group had lower levels of this stress hormone. 3) Can we critically evaluate this evidence? i) We must be careful to avoid oversimplifying what these results mean. ii) Scientists are still in the early stages of learning how oxytocin and vasopressin affect social behaviour in humans and how they relate to immune function. a) We should not go out and buy homeopathic oxytocin remedies that claim to make us better in love, marriage, sex and so on. 4) Why is this relevant? i) Current procedures for healing physical injury focus on repair to damaged areas and preventing infection. a) It appears that managing psychological stress is also important for facilitating recovery from wounds.
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Stress, Immunity, and Illness 1) The immune system, which is responsible for protecting the body against infectious disease, has numerous connections with the nervous system, including the stress response. Psychoneuroimmunology (p. 547) is the study of the relationship between immune system and nervous system functioning. i)
For example, many students get sick during or shortly after finals. a) In one study, medical students provided blood samples during the term and again during the final exam period. b) Analysis of these blood samples showed reduced immune responses during the high-stress period at the end of the term. ii) The stress-illness relationship is complex as research has found that acute stress responses tend to active the immune system, where chromic exposure to stress causes suppression of the immune system. Stress, Personality and Heart Disease 1) High stress levels appear to put people at greater risk for developing coronary heart disease. Coronary heart disease (p. 547) a condition in which plaques form in the blood vessels that supply the heart with blood and oxygen, resulting in restricted blood flow. i)
One study followed 12,000 healthy males over nine years and found those who experienced chronic stress with family or work were 30% more likely to die from coronary heart disease. 2) Coronary heart disease begins when injury and infection damage the arteries of the heart. i) This damage triggers the inflammatory response by the immune system—white blood cells travel to affected areas in an attempt to repair the damaged tissue. a) Stress causes an increased release of those molecules that cause the inflammation. ii) These cells gather cholesterol and form dangerous plaques, which can rupture, break off, and block blood flow. 3) Our stress responses are affected by our personalities. i) This finding was made by two cardiologists Friedman and Rosenman (1959), they found that people who were prone to stress had pooerer physical health. ii) They identified two subsets of these patients, one Type A which describes these high stress tendencies. Type A personality (p. 548) describes people who tend to be impatient and worry about time, and are easily angered, competitive, and highly motivated. Type B personality (p. 548) describes people who are more laid back and characterized by a patient, easygoing, and relaxed disposition.
iii) Type As are far more likely to have heart attacks than are Type Bs. a) However, the correlation between levels of Type A characteristics and coronary heart disease is only moderate, suggesting other factors are at play. b) For example, people who have a Type A personality are more likely to drink large quantities of alcohol, smoke, and sleep less.
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iv) Some behavioural scientists and physicians believe that more specific qualities of one’s personality increase risks of health problems. a) For example, people who are prone to hostility and anger are at greater risk for developing coronary heart disease. b) Other personality characteristics linked to coronary heart disease include anxiety and depression. MYTHS IN MIND: Stress and Ulcers 1) There is a myth that those under extreme stress, such as police officers or air traffic controllers, develop ulcers. i) These are open sores in the lining of the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. 2) In actuality, most ulcers are caused by a bacterium, Helicobacter pylori, which can cause inflammation of the lining of various regions of the digestive tract. i) This bacterium is rather common, and 10% to 15 % of people exposed to it will develop an ulcer resulting from inflammation. 3) Thus, stress does not cause ulcers, but it can worsen the symptoms and slow healing. i) Smoking, alcohol, pain relievers and a poor diet—anything that can irritate the digestive system— also increases problems associated with ulcers. a) These factors are also related to stress. Stress, Food, and Drugs 1) Research has shown that people are drawn to sweet and fatty foods when they are stressed. i) In a study comparing low-status female monkeys to high status female monkeys, research found that the low status ate more banana-flavored pellets than the high status. a) Similar results were found when monkeys had the opportunity to self-administer cocaine, with the subordinate monkeys using cocaine more than the dominate (who presumably had less stress). ii) Most scientists agree that food and drugs influence the brain’s dopamine system, suggesting that chronic stress may suppress the reward system. a) Eating rewarding foods, or taking drugs that stimulate the dopamine reward system increases activity back to normal levels. iii) Eating fatty and sugary foods provides the body with extra calories in anticipation of mobilizing the body to deal with stressors. Stress, the Brain and Disease 1) Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which suppresses the immune systems ability to fight off any infection. 2) Retroviral therapies have increased health and quality of life for these patients, however HIV positive patients need regular vaccinations, and it had been found that stress impedes the body’s ability to respond to these treatments. i) High levels of stress have also been found to worsen the condition of the various illnesses associated with AIDS. 3) Research found links between psychosocial factors and cancer progression, suggesting that norepinepherine (a primary neurotransmitter associated with stress) supports cancer growth, and cortisol magnifies this effect.
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 14.2 Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ What Is the Purpose of Stress? ➢ Health and Hassles ➢ “The Stress Hormone Cascade” Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Fill-in-the-Blank Task ➢ Students’ Daily Hassles ➢ The Many Faces of Stress Handout Masters ➢ Handout Master 14.1 Students’ Daily Hassles ➢ Handout Master 14.2 The Many Faces of Stress Web Resources ➢ Health Education: www.teachhealth.com ➢ Health Psychology: www.health-psych.org/ ➢ Health Psychology & Rehabilitation: www.healthpsych.com/ ➢ HealthPsychology.net: www.healthpsychology.net/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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III. MODULE 14.3: COPING AND WELL-BEING (Text p. 551) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology associated with coping and well-being. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand how control over the environment influences coping and outlook. o Psychologists have discovered that people (and dogs) become more willing to allow unpleasant events to occur if they are exposed to a pattern of learning that their behaviour brings no change. Having at least some degree of control helps people with coping and outlook. When control is threatened, people use compensatory responses, such as detecting order within random images. ✓ Understand positive and negative styles of coping. o Whether someone copes using a positive or negative style is related to personality (e.g., optimism versus pessimism). Positive coping includes the concept of resilience—the ability to recover from adversity, and even benefit from the experience, as is the case with post-traumatic growth. Coping via negative affectivity and pessimism can have both psychological and physiological disadvantages. ✓ Apply your knowledge of the beneficial effects of optimism to help you reframe stressful situations as positive opportunities. o Students should be able to confidently answer the questions posed on page 621 in a positive and negative way and assess how they felt after creating each response of the text. ✓ Analyze whether activities such as relaxation techniques and meditation actually help people cope with stress and problems. o Meditation and other relaxation methods have been found to be quite effective in reducing stress. Meditation has also shown to be effective in reducing blood pressure, in turn, reduces the potential for long-term problems with hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Although some training and practice may be necessary, these techniques are by no means inaccessible. Coping Coping (p. 552) refers to the processes used to manage demands, stress, and conflict. 1) The type of coping approach we use will most likely depend on the situation. i) For example, we might take a problem-solving approach to deal with our massive amounts of debt or use emotional coping to deal with a loss of a loved one. a) However, the two methods are often combined as well. Positive Coping Strategies 1) One field of psychology focuses on what makes people thrive, even in the face of extreme stress. Positive Psychology (p. 552) uses scientific methods to study human strengths and potential. 2) Positive psychology has identified a number of adaptive and constructive coping methods.
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Optimism and Pessimism Optimism (p. 552) is the tendency to have a favourable, constructive view on situations and to expect positive outcomes. Pessimism (p. 552) the tendency to have a negative perception of life and expect negative outcomes. Pessimistic Explanatory Style (p. 553) the tendency to interpret and explain negative events as internally based (i.e. as being due to the person rather than to an external situation) and as a constant, stable quality. 1) Optimistic first-year college students tend to adjust better than those who are pessimistic. i) Optimistic students experienced lower levels of stress and depression and were proactive in seeking out peers for support and companionship. 2) People who are optimistic in the face of adversity are better able to approach problems from various angles and come up with constructive solutions. 3) Optimists are better protected against coronary heart disease (vs. pessimists) and tend to have quicker recovery times following surgery. Negative affectivity (p. 553) the tendency to respond to problems with a pattern of anxiety, hostility, anger, guilt or nervousness. 4) Negative emotions make it difficult for individuals to identify the appropriate coping strategy for a given problem. Resilience 1) Coping is also influenced by one’s ability to bounce back from stressful events. Resilience (p. 554) the ability to effectively recover from illness or adversity. i)
Financial and social resources, opportunities for rest and relaxation, and other positive life circumstances contribute to resiliency. a) However, those lacking such factors can still be resilient. ii) Personality and emotional characteristics are also important contributors to resiliency. a) For example, Victor Frankl was an influential physician and therapist and early- mid-20thcentury Austrian psychiatrist. b) He and his family were forced into concentration camps during WWII. c) Frankl helped other cope and find resiliency even in the bleakest of conditions. d) Even after his wife and parents were deported to other camps and murdered, he continued helping others cope and find solace. 2) Frankl’s story is also an example of post-traumatic growth. Post-Traumatic Growth (p. 554) the capacity to grow and experience long-term positive effects in response to negative events. i)
This is often experienced by those who have endured automobile accidents, sexual and physical assault, combat, and severe illness. ii) Individuals who experience posttraumatic growth often report feeling a greater sense of vulnerability, yet over time develop an increased inner strength. iii) They also report finding greater meaning and depth in their relationships, a greater sense of appreciation for what they have, and an increased sense of spirituality. .. 748
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iv) Post-traumatic growth usually occurs with post-traumatic stress; not as an alternative reaction. a) Clinicians help facilitate the growth process as well as assist the individual in finding interpersonal and social resources needed for healing. Meditation and Relaxation 1) Relaxation and meditation techniques are designed to calm emotional responses as well as physiological reactions to stress. Meditation (p. 554) is any procedure that involves a shift in consciousness to a state in which an individual is highly focused, aware, and in control of mental processes. i)
Meditation comes in two general varieties: a) Mindfulness, which involves attending to all thoughts, sensations, and feelings without attempting to judge or control them. b) Concentrative, in which the individual focuses on a specific thought or sensation, such as an image or a repeated sound. Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) (p. 555) is a structured relaxation program based on elements of mindfulness meditation.
ii) Meditation is most effective when done in a quiet environment, in a relaxed position (not so relaxed that one falls asleep), and when the person remains passive except for mindfulness activity or focusing attention. a) Meta-analysis research suggests that meditation is very effective in reducing blood pressure. b) This, in turn, reduces the potential for long-term problems with hypertension and cardiovascular disease. iii) A complex form of meditation called integrated mind-body training (IMBT) was developed from traditional Chinese medicine and studied with brain scans. a) This method involves bodily interaction with thinking and emotion. b) This accounts for the heightened sense of relaxation experienced while meditating versus just using simple relaxation techniques. PSYCH @ Church 1) Numerous studies have found that people who are very religious and are actively engaged with religious practices do live a bit longer than do people who are less religious or nonreligious. i) This includes any combination of religious practices, depending on the specific nature of the faith: prayer, meditation, religious counseling, and social support from family and congregations. 2) However, these results are only correlational and so we must consider alternative results. i) For example, increased longevity is probably related to the greater self-control and self-regulation that are characteristic of many religious belief systems. a) Many religions also tend to have negative views on criminal activity, drug abuse, and risky sexual behaviour. 3) How one uses religion to cope also affects well-being. i) Those who use positive aspects of religion tend to show greater well-being and lower levels of depression. a) This includes viewing stressor with benevolence or collaborating with others in solving problems. ii) Those who adopt negative appraisals of their problems tend to have higher levels of depression. a) They might believe their problems are a result of God’s punishment.
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Exercise 1) There are obvious physiological benefits to exercise, however exercise has short-term benefits on mental function as well. i) For example, researchers in Germany asked college student participants either to do all-out sprints, to jog, or to do nothing. a) Those who sprinted were able to learn 20% more items on a vocabulary list. b) Participants were randomly assigned, so the difference is most likely due to a physiological process associated with the intense exercise. c) The researchers discovered that the students who did intense exercising had increased levels of dopamine, epinephrine, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) (p. 557) a protein in the nervous system that promotes survival, growth, and formation of new synapses. ii) Additional studies, which college students, also shows that cardiovascular exercise provides immediate benefits in cognitive processing speed. a) However, sedentary adults between 60 and 85 years of age show improved brain functioning and cognitive performance when they take up a weekly exercise program. 2) Exercise has also shown to have long-term effects on cognitive functioning. i) Findings from long-term studies indicate that a lifestyle that includes regular exercise helps preserve cognitive function and brain systems. ii) People who are at genetic risk for developing Alzheimer’s disease and who show cognitive impairments can slow the rate of memory decline by exercising. iii) Along with increasing levels of BDNF, exercise also supports the development of new nerve cells in the hippocampus, a critical area for memory and cognitive activity. Perceived Control 1) The most stressful circumstances are the ones that people have little to no control over. i) Examples include children in abuse homes and natural disasters. 2) Laboratory experiments have demonstrated the negative impact that a lack of control has on health and behaviour. i) A classic example comes from work on avoidance learning in dogs conducted in the 1960s by Martin Seligman and his colleagues (Figure 14.9). a) Dogs were placed in a chamber with an electric grid on the floor of one side, where the shock was delivered, and a panel that the dogs could jump over to reach a “safe” zone where there was no shock. b) Some dogs learned that if a tone preceded the shock, they could jump to the safe zone and avoid the shock. c) Another group of dogs was conditioned to the tone paired with a shock, but they could not jump to the safe zone. d) These dogs were then place in the avoidance chamber, but when they heard the tone they did not try to escape the shock; they would lie down, whine, and appear resigned to receive the shock. Learned Helplessness (p. 558) an acquired suppression of avoidance or escape behaviour in response to unpleasant, uncontrollable circumstances. 3) Learned helplessness has been offered as an explanation for how people with depression tend to view the world. i) They tend to believe their action have no influence on external events, and that their environment and circumstances dictate outcomes. .. 750
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a) Related to Seligman’s work, humans and some nonhuman species will simply endure pain rather than initiate ways to avoid or escape it. Working Scientific Literacy Model: Compensatory Control and Health 1) What do we know about how people cope with seemingly random events? i) The idea that randomness dictates worldly events can create anxiety in people. a) Even those who believe that randomness is the rule might still try to find the meaning of life, as if events are determined by the will of individuals or God. b) In other words, they try to give a sense of order to the randomness. Compensatory Control (p. 558) psychological strategies people use to preserve a sense of nonrandom order when personal control is compromised. ii) For example, people who are skeptical of any divine purpose in the world may change their view in the wake of personal or societal tragedy. 2) How can scientists study compensatory control? i) It appears that when people feel that their sense of control is undermined, they compensate by heightening their search for structure in the world, to the point of calling upon their imagination. a) For example, people become increasingly willing to believe in superstitious rituals and to endorse conspiracy theories when their sense of control is diminished. ii) One study had participants identify which symbol on a screen correctly represented the concept the computer had chosen (e.g., colour of the symbol, its shape, etc.). a) The computer provided correct feedback for half of the participants and random feedback for others (sometimes told them they were right when wrong and vice versa). b) As expected, the participants in the random condition reported a lower sense of control. c) Next, participants viewed pictures in which one had a hidden image of a horse and the other did not (Figure 14.10). d) Participants in both conditions reported seeing faintly drawn figures, such as the horse; however, those who reported lowered self-control were more likely to report seeing patterns within completely random images. 3) Can we critically evaluate this evidence? i) Real-world lack of control (e.g., natural disaster) is obviously much different from that created in a laboratory in the previous experiment. a) Natural disasters or a loss of a job have far greater consequences. b) Therefore, there is a limit to the generalizability of the results. ii) In real-world events, people are more likely to believe in a divine force, which help buffer them from random events. 4) Why is this relevant? i) Having a sense of control greatly affects how we think about and interpret the world, which can affect our well-being. a) Those who believe they can predict and influence events and outcomes tend to have improved physical and mental health. b) For example, patients about to undergo medical procedures have reduced anxiety if they are fully informed about the procedure before it occurs. ii) People may also compensate for their lack of control by performing superstitious rituals, which can provide a sense of at least partial control over outcomes. a) This can be seen in athletes as well as those with OCD. iii) Some will choose to do nothing, as Seligman and Maier discovered in their studies of learned helplessness. iv) One’s need for control and order can manifest itself as beliefs about God as well as a greater likelihood of defending social and political institutions that can offer control. .. 751
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RECOMMENDED RESOURCES FOR MODULE 14.3 Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ Environmental Stressors ➢ Stress Due to Work Overload...and Underload ➢ A Burdened Heart ➢ Talk to Me ➢ The Control Process Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ In-Class Stress Induction ➢ Immune System Terms ➢ A Stressful Story ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
What Is the Purpose of Stress? Health and Hassles Environmental Stressors Stress Due to Work Overload...and Underload “The Stress Hormone Cascade” A Burdened Heart Talk to Me The Control Process A Sense of Control Can Aid Recovery The Amazing Power of Prayer Adhering to Medical Advice
▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: What Is the Purpose of Stress? By asking your students this question, you can explore not only their thoughts on the topic, but also explain to them why stress exists. Strictly speaking, the stress response exists for the purpose of survival. When we experience stress, our sympathetic nervous systems activate, blood pressure and heart rate increase, and often we begin to sweat. These physiological reactions prepare us for “fight or flight.” Our bodies are at optimal physical performance and alertness levels, and we are therefore optimized for survival in a physically challenging situation. Sometimes we use this physiological activation to our advantage: Consider a champion weightlifter who, prior to lifting an extremely heavy weight, “pumps himself up.” By doing this, the weightlifter is attempting behaviourally to elicit a stress response from his brain and body in order to achieve the highest level of physical performance possible. With regard to the stress response, most of us are not faced with challenging, potentially life-threatening situations on a daily basis. However, we are capable of generating large amounts of psychological stress (that don’t require physical action)—and the physiological response is the same. So, the problem with psychological stress, really, is that we create it with our minds, and our bodies produce the necessary fuel to react physically, but we don’t (or can’t) react physically. The health consequences of this cycle are potentially hazardous, as the materials (e.g., glucocorticoids) generated by the body during the stress response lead to many cardiovascular maladies, including atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis. Additionally, chronic stress can lead to insomnia, weight gain, and overall suppression of immune function. A discussion of these points should lead students to consider critically the somewhat paradoxical existence of stress in modern man. ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Health and Hassles A group of psychologists at the University of California at Berkeley reasoned that perhaps it is not the big life changes or events that affect us adversely; maybe it is the multitude of hassles that irritate and frustrate us every day. For example, a negative event like divorce results in numerous hassles for both parties. Each member of the divorced couple may now have to do everyday activities that the other member used to take care of. Positive events can cause hassles too. Christmas is a busy time for many people: you need a new dress or shirt for a party, the stores are crowded when you go to shop for gifts, traffic moves more slowly than usual and you are in more of a hurry than usual, relatives try your patience, and you eat and drink too much. .. 753
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The hassles that come with special events or major life changes are not isolated; they are added to the burden of hassles we already have, and our autonomic nervous system can keep us in a state of high arousal, exhausting the body’s resources. We get a headache, a cold, the flu, our skin erupts, or our digestive system gets nervous and confused. Hassles are a fact of life, and even without major life events they can accumulate and threaten our health. But, some people can handle life’s big and little problems better than others. Research has suggested that the following affect our ability to deal with both major life events and hassles: 1. How we perceive events. What is a petty annoyance for one person can be a crisis for another. You have word processed a term paper. Another user of the computer inadvertently erases it. One person will take the attitude that “crying over spilled milk” will not help, and rewrites the paper with a minimum of stress. Another person’s first reaction is anger: find out who did it and get even. This person will have to redo the paper too, but as he sits at the computer, his lingering anger causes him to make mistakes, and making mistakes adds to his frustration. 2. Our style of coping. The text discusses successful ways of coping with hassles and the stress they can produce. These include taking a problem-solving approach to the hassles, rethinking and reappraising the problem, and learning to accept it when this is indicated. If you spilled raspberry jam on your new white sweater, then a problem-solving approach is to look for ways to remove the stain. Reappraisal might involve telling yourself that it is only a sweater and that worse things can happen. If the stain cannot be removed, then you accept the fact that the sweater will never be the same again and go on with your life. You can also get angry at yourself, the raspberry jam, or the manufacturer of the sweater. You can exaggerate your fondness for the sweater and its importance to your wardrobe. You can brood about it and grieve over your stained sweater for days. 3. Our personality. Research suggests that there are several personality traits that help us cope with hassles and the stress that can accompany them. One of these is having an internal locus of control, feeling that we can deal with life’s problems. Another is to see life as a challenge to be mastered rather than a conspiracy to defeat us. Hassles go with being human. We cannot avoid them. We can, however, reduce them. ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Environmental Stressors Environmental psychology highlights the impact of the environment, both physical and social, on people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. Environmental psychologists examine the physical and psychological consequences of every aspect of our environment, including sound and noise. Our ears are constantly assaulted by jackhammers, jet airplanes, motorcycles, lawn mowers, chain saws, snowmobiles, and blaring radios. What effect does this noise have on our psychological state? Research suggests that loud noise impairs the ability to think and work, even when people think they have adjusted to it. Children in elementary schools that were beneath the flight path for Los Angeles International Airport were compared with children in quieter classrooms. The two groups were matched in age, ethnicity, race, and social class. Children in the noisy schools had higher blood pressure, were more distractible, and had more difficulty with puzzles and math problems than children in quieter schools. Children raised in .. 754
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noisy environments also have trouble learning how to discriminate between irrelevant noise and a relevant task. They either tune out too much in the environment or cannot tune out enough. Studies also show that noise contributes to cardiovascular problems, ulcers, irritability, fatigue, and aggressiveness, probably due to overstimulation of the autonomic nervous system. Continuous noise can even have an effect on hearing. Many college students have already suffered significant hearing loss in the high-frequency range; their hearing resembles that of people more than twice their age. You might ask students to describe how the noise they experience on a day-to-day basis affects them. They may mention things like the frustration and stress they feel when trying to study while a dorm neighbour throws a wild party. Are some students better able to concentrate in a noisy environment than others? Some may report that they like to study in a noisy environment. A writer friend once told me that he does his best work while sitting in a McDonald’s restaurant! How would you explain that? ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Stress Due to Work Overload ... and Underload A Case of Job Overload Stan was a counselor in a community mental health centre in the Midwest for three years. When he started working there, he was a 23-year-old who described himself as an “eager, open-minded, caring person.” He chose this job in order to serve others who were unable to make it on their own without a little help from a friendly therapist. At first, the job was challenging and rewarding. Stan was intervening in crisis situations to give advice, guidance, and emotional support to many clients in distress. There were rape victims, abused spouses, suicidal callers, depressed aged, alienated youth, and a host of others who just could not cope any longer with life’s demands. But the initial glow of his job dimmed as the clients began to overwhelm Stan with their seemingly endless complaints, hurts, and fears. They were getting to him. He was too personally involved, not able to detach his emotional concern from his professional obligation. He began drinking heavily after work and taking tranquilizers to relax enough to go to sleep each night. Headaches became frequent, his blood pressure shot up, and his sick-leave time was used to its limit. Stan developed an ulcer that required medication and a change in diet. His once outgoing personality became marked by its somber, cynical, and easily irritated nature. He was no longer any fun for his family or friends to be with, so they avoided him. Stan had underestimated the emotional strain of caring for others day in and day out. His case load was more than he could handle adequately. The paperwork, red tape, and lack of support from the staff added frustration to his escalating emotional overload. When he was successful, the clients never returned to say “thanks”; other problem persons just filled their vacant folders. Stan reacted to this stressful situation at many levels. His body rebelled with assorted symptoms of distress, including headaches, high blood pressure, and ulcers. He tried to suppress his agitation, anxiety, and anger by abusing drugs and alcohol. His outlook on life and his self-esteem spiraled downward. He gave too much at the office and so had little left to share with loved ones at home. In turn, they withdrew some of the social support Stan needed. For a while, the only exit out of his dilemma was marked “suicide.” Fortunately, he rejected that alternative as too final. He did not have enough energy and resources to try to change the structure of the job, so in desperation he took the other exit marked “escape.” He went back to school, .. 755
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completed his Ph.D., and now is happily working as a consultant on problems of job stress and constructive ways of overcoming it. Job Underload and Stress If overload does not get you, underload might. People are not ever bored to death by their jobs, but there is good evidence that they can be “bored to sickness.” Researchers at the Institute for Social Research of the University of Michigan found that boring jobs are hardest on health (Caplan et al., 1975). In this study of over 2000 males in 23 different occupations, the researchers found that general working conditions (hours worked, quantitative workload) had less effect on job dissatisfaction than personal factors such as opportunities to use one’s skills and to participate in decision making. As job dissatisfaction increases, so do anxiety, depression, irritation, and psychosomatic illnesses. Assembly-line workers have boring jobs, but ones that do not involve long hours, unwanted overtime, much concentration, or responsibility. They report the most dissatisfaction with their jobs and show the greatest stress-related disorders. By contrast, family physicians who work the most hours per week (an average of 55), with much demand for their free time, mental concentration, and personal responsibility are most satisfied with their jobs. They also have the fewest somatic complaints or other stress effects of any occupation studied. The ratings of the boredom levels of 15 of these occupations are given in the table below, with a rating of 100 indicating “average boredom.” Boredom Ratings Assembler (work paced by machine) Forklift-truck driver Assembler (working at own pace) Monitor of continuous flow goods Accountant Engineer Computer programmer Electronic technician White-collar supervisor Scientist Administrator Police Officer Air-traffic controller (large airport) Professor Physician
207 170 160 122 107 100 96 87 72 66 66 63 59 49 48
But perhaps not having a job when you want one is worse than having a stress-producing one. When health statistics are related to economic cycles over a 127-year period in the United States, it can be shown that increased deaths follow periods of economic depression two to four years later. This research points up the importance of the political, economic, and social context of behaviour. For further information on job burnout or job boredom, see: Caplan, R. D., Cobb, S., French, J. R. P., Van Harrison, R., & Pinneau, R. (1975). Job demands and worker health: Main effects and occupational differences. Washington, DC: National Institutes for Occupational Safety and Health. Maslach, C. (1982). Burnout: The cost of caring. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
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▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: “The Stress Hormone Cascade” Read the following passage aloud in class – students should gain a deeper appreciation of the often subtle effects that the brain can have on the stress response via hormones. The glands that secrete hormones involved in the stress response are passive – the brain is in control of the surges of chemicals that change our physiology, thought patterns, and eventually our behaviour. The brain can experience or think of something stressful and activate components of the stress response hormonally. The so-called hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal gland circuit (or axis) has been studied extensively by researchers, and its role in stress is paramount. Two hormones vital to the stress response, epinephrine and norepinephrine, are released by the sympathetic nervous system. Another important class of hormones involved in the stress response is called glucocorticoids. Glucocorticoids are steroid hormones secreted by the adrenal gland. Ironically, the adrenal gland is under control of hormones… those secreted by the brain. When something stressful happens, or you think a stressful thought, the hypothalamus secretes an array of releasing hormones into the hypothalamic-pituitary circulatory system that gets the ball rolling. ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: A Burdened Heart An example relevant to health psychology can illuminate the problem of inferring causality from correlation. For quite some time it’s been known in the medical community that a link exists between depression and heart disease. For example, large epidemiological surveys typically find that 1-1/2 to 3% of the population is depressed at any given time. Among patients with heart disease, however, the rate is closer to 18%. Similarly, about 1 in 6 people in the general population has an episode of major depression during their lifetimes, compared to about 50% of people with heart disease. Finally, a Canadian study revealed that of 222 patients who had suffered heart attacks, those who were depressed were four times as likely to die within the next 6 months. Amassing this evidence is one thing, but explaining it is quite another. One possibility is that heart disease is the result of biochemical changes that take place in depressed people, such as the secretion of stress hormones. An alternative explanation is that people who are depressed lack the cognitive, motivational, or emotional wherewithal to look after their health or take medications, leaving them more vulnerable to heart diseases such as arrhythmias or heart attacks. A large-scale study by William Eaton at the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health suggests that the causal arrow points from depression to heart disease, but with a few stops along the way. Eaton and his colleagues studied 1551 people in the Baltimore area who were free from heart disease in 1981. Those who were depressed were four times as likely to have a heart attack in the next 14 years, compared to those who were not depressed. In fact, depression was as strong a predictor of heart disease as was elevated levels of blood cholesterol. The physiological changes that take place in depressed people seem to be the culprits. For example, depressed people’s hearts beat faster, their heart rate does not adjust well to changes in activities, and they tend to have elevated blood pressure—these factors in combination produce stress on the heart. Moreover, many depressed people are in a state of hyperarousal due to the secretion of cortisol: They sleep less, eat less, and although they feel mopey and lethargic, their fight-or- flight system is set on .. 757
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high. Cortisol also prompts the accumulation of abdominal fat, which in turn elevates the risk of heart disease. In sum, the well-known biochemical changes that take place in depression can increase a person’s vulnerability to heart disease. What’s called for is a study demonstrating that therapeutic interventions can reduce the risk of heart disease among depressed people. Such a study has begun, sponsored by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Its results could help make sense of this potentially deadly correlation. Reference: Kolata, G. (February 16, 1997). Heartsick, sick heart: Deciphering the link. Austin AmericanStatesman, J1, J5. ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Talk to Me Jamie Pennebaker, of the University of Texas at Austin, has published numerous studies exploring the benefits of confiding in others. A clear picture has emerged: Confession is good for mind, body, and probably, soul. Pennebaker and his colleagues Janice Kiecolt-Glaser and Ronald Glaser (1988) asked students to write about either traumatic events in their lives (preferably, stressors that they had not previously discussed with others) or trivial topics for four consecutive days. Prior to the experiment the research participants provided self-reports of their mood, and blood pressure, heart rate, and immunological assays were also collected. These same dependent measures were collected after the writing project, and the assays were also collected 6 weeks after the experiment. The researchers found that the experimental group indeed wrote about rather consequential topics, although they did not enjoy immediate benefits of confession; after writing these participants reported feeling worse than did the control group. However, longer-term benefits were noted. Although measures of autonomic arousal did not distinguish the two groups, students who had confided made fewer subsequent visits to the campus health centre and had better immunological functioning than did members of the control group. Moreover, greater improvement in immunological functioning was found for those participants who wrote about previously undisclosed events rather than stressful events that had previously been discussed with others. Similar benefits were enjoyed by spouses of suicide and accidental-death victims. Pennebaker and Robin O’Heeron (1984) asked nineteen spouses to complete surveys regarding their health and coping one year after their partners’ deaths. Results showed that the more these volunteers had discussed their spouse’s death with friends and loved ones, and the less they had ruminated on the tragic events, the fewer the health problems they reported. Importantly, this effect did not depend on the number of friends the spouses reported having. Rather than being a function of the availability of social support, these benefits seem to be a function of confession. What produces these benefits? Inhibition is hard work. The act of not confiding or ruminating on an aversive event is physiologically taxing and mentally stressful. Over time, the cumulative stress placed on the body increases the long-term probability of stress-related illness. Confiding, talking, and writing about an event, on the other hand, provides meaning and a new understanding. By organizing and assimilating the experience, a person may become habituated to the event and gradually dull the sharp edges of the experience; over time the information can be cognitively consolidated much like other, less traumatic memories. Language itself may help in this regard. When called upon to summarize a traumatic event in words, language forces a certain structure; the relatively slow process of writing, sequencing and temporal .. 758
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organization. What were previously harrowing images are often reduced to a comparatively small set of words. Finally, confession helps to externalize an event. By writing in a diary or confiding to a friend we are able to distance ourselves somewhat from a traumatic event. Once the memory of an event has been committed to paper there is less need to mentally rehearse the event, and thus it is robbed of some of its power to torment us. ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Control Process Discuss different strategies for dealing with stress, focusing on direct coping, defensive coping, and defense mechanisms. A broader approach to understanding people’s reactions to stress involves understanding their sense of control. Here we examine specific control strategies and their effects on adjustment to stressful events, as outlined by Susan Fiske and Shelley Taylor. ▪
Behaviour control. This strategy involves taking concrete steps to reduce the unpleasantness of a negative event. For example, if your next-door neighbour insists on playing his Wayne Newton albums at maximum volume, you might shut the doors and windows or forcibly turn down the volume knob on his stereo. This kind of very direct control will typically alleviate the stress associated with the aversive event. However, actual (or perceived) behaviour control can also help reduce stress prior to the anxiety-provoking event, or at least increase tolerance of the event when it occurs.
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Cognitive control. Cognitive control means thinking about the unpleasant event differently or reevaluating the nonaversive aspects of the event. This strategy seems to help adjustment at all levels of the event; prior, during, and after.
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Decision control. Being able to make decisions about the onset, timing, or type of aversive event can be helpful if the outcomes of the decision are favourable. If the results of the decision are unfavourable, the effects on adjustment are unclear. For example, someone who is able to select between two types of root canals may enjoy improved adjustment after the success of the procedure (and, presumably, the decision to elect that procedure).
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Information control. The goal here is to gather information about a potentially stressful event, such as the sensations likely to be experienced, the duration or timing of the event, or its cause. For example, a debtor preparing for a tax audit might seek as much information as possible about the procedures, questions asked, documents required, and so forth. Information about sensations (“Will it hurt?”) and procedures (“What comes next?”) reliably reduce stress, although information about causes has equivocal effects.
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Retrospective control. This strategy involves believing that one could have controlled an aversive event that has already happened. For example, a robbery victim may replay the events of the crime to identify what went wrong (“I shouldn’t have been there”) or what could have prevented it (“I should know better than to flash my $100 bills in public”). Presumably this reflection confers a sense of control to the individual that should work against the event’s recurrence; however, the few experiments examining this strategy have been equivocal.
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Secondary control. This technique involves aligning one’s behaviour with the environment, rather than trying to bring the environment under one’s control. “Riding it out,” “Going with the flow,” “Joining rather than beating,” or placing oneself in the hands of experts typify this approach. When direct control is not possible, this strategy may help to improve adjustment.
Reference: Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social cognition (2nd ed).
▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: A Sense of Control Can Aid Recovery If emotions can make you sick, if a belief that you will die can kill you (as in voodoo deaths), and if a sugar pill that you believe is a powerful drug can take away your pain, can a belief that you can bring about your own recovery help you to recover? Even with acceptance of the role of emotional factors in both illness and recovery, the assumption has persisted that emotional factors work on an unconscious level and because of this, they are not subject to voluntary control. Most of us still see illness as something that happens to us. Dr. Carl Simonton, chief of radiation at Travis Air Force Base, questioned this assumption. He was impressed by demonstrations that people could learn to control autonomic processes through biofeedback and had observed that some cancer patients sent home to die were still alive and active years later, with no other explanation than statements like: “I can’t die till my son graduates from college” or “They need me too much at work.” After intensive study of many psychological techniques in which visual imagery was a central component, Simonton was ready in 1971 to try his hypothesis that cancer patients could participate intentionally in their own recovery. His first candidate was a 61-year-old man with a throat cancer so advanced he could barely swallow and had trouble breathing. His weight had dropped from 130 to 98 pounds. He had less than a 5 percent chance of surviving five years, and the doctors feared that radiation therapy might make him more miserable without affecting his cancer. Dr. Simonton explained to the patient how he could influence the course of his disease and instructed him to set aside three short periods a day for relaxing all parts of his body and then imagining his cancer being attacked by millions of tiny energy bullets from the radiation, that would hit all the cells but damage only the confused, weakened cancer cells. Then the patient was to visualize the body’s white blood cells swarming over the cancer cells and carrying off the dead and dying ones, flushing them out through the liver and kidneys while the cancer got smaller. The results were dramatic. There were almost no negative reactions to the radiation, the patient was able to start eating again halfway through the treatment, and two months later there was no sign of cancer. At last check, six years later, the patient was healthy and fully active. Though not all cases have been so successful, Dr. Simonton has continued to supplement physical therapy with relaxation, imagery, and other processes. He and his wife, a motivational research psychologist, have established the Cancer Counseling Center in Dallas, Texas.
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The Simontons believe that we are all exposed to many carcinogens and that everyone produces abnormal cells from time to time, but that normally, our immunological defenses prevent cancer from developing. However, the functioning of the immune system is known to be impaired by chronic stress or following experiences of extreme loss, including loss of meaning in life. Many patients report such an experience of loss about a year and a half before the onset of their cancer. By encouraging patients to realize that their emotions could have had a role in inducing the cancer, the Simontons encourage them to believe that they can participate in their recovery. Patients in this way regain confidence that they can control what happens to them. Confidence, optimism, and a sense of control, in turn, are related to better functioning of the immune system. Similarly, Dr. Bernie Siegel states that before he can help patients suffering from various kinds of lifethreatening illness, he must first learn about their attitudes towards themselves and their disease. He suggests that because patients’ emotions and attitudes may not be fully accessible to consciousness, he begins his work by exploring the patients’ answers to the following four questions: 1. Do you want to live to be a hundred? (This question leads patients into a discussion of their misconceptions about aging and the level of responsibility they are willing to take for their own self care) 2. What happened to you in the year or two before your illness? (With this question, patients usually identify the major stressors in their lives as well as their manner of coping with them) 3. What does the illness mean to you? (This question leads patients to contextualize the illness within their lives. In their telling of its meaning, it becomes possible to understand their position in relation to the illness, their own lives, and other people. Often, responses to this question reveal the characteristics of efficacy expectations, locus of control, and the presence or absence of existential guilt—whether or not they feel a deep engagement in the process of living) 4. Why did you need this illness? (This is perhaps the most sensitive of the questions in that it may be misunderstood as a form of “blaming the victim.” However, the point here is that illness often gives people permission for things that they often do not otherwise believe they deserve. This question is intended to help patients realize that the emotional needs met by the illness are all valid. With this realization, patients may then seek to meet those needs in other ways) Before concluding this discussion of the power of the mind to influence the course of disease, it is important also to pose the question of the limits of such power. New insights into ways we can participate in our own recovery from life-threatening illness are ultimately out of balance if we do not also consider the need to examine our attitudes towards death. Reference: Siegel, B.S. (1986) Love, medicine & miracles. New York: Harper & Row.
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▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Amazing Power of Prayer A fascinating body of research has recently emerged on a phenomenon that has long been ridiculed by the “logic” of science: the power of prayer. Of course, many indigenous health practitioners (not to mention Christian Scientists) have stolidly held that prayer has healing powers, but that has long been dismissed by the empiricists. Over the past few years, though, rigorous research studies have found that prayer does, in fact, appear to have health benefits, even when those affected don’t know they are being prayed for! Apparently, this research has been going on for over 20 years, both with non-human organisms and with humans. In a fertilization study in Seoul, Korea during 1998 and 1999, 199 women similar in age and fertility factors were randomly assigned to either a prayer group or a control group. None of the women knew they were being prayed for, but the women in the prayer group had twice as many pregnancies as those in the control group. In another study, 150 patients in the southern United States were undergoing a procedure for heart problems. They were randomly assigned to one of five groups—the first (control group) received standard therapy, and the other four were “noetic” (non-medical) groups: stress relaxation, imagery, touch therapy, and off-site prayer. Patients in the control (standard therapy) group and the off-site prayer group were double-blinded with regard to the patients, their family, and the staff. Although the results showed no statistically significant differences among the groups, the noetic groups as a whole had fewer complications after surgery than the standard treatment group (although the standard treatment group had no mortality at six months compared with one death in the prayer group and slightly higher deaths in the other three noetic groups), and of the four noetic groups, the “off-site intercessory prayer” group had the lowest complication rates, both short-term and long-term. In a personal e-mail, the primary investigator, Dr. Mitchell Krucoff, noted that this was a small group in what is considered “the Bible Belt” of the United States, and he plans to do a larger study with a more diverse group. Nonetheless, these preliminary findings are certainly exciting. These studies suggest that not only is that old Yiddish saying (“It vouldn’t hurt”) plausible, but, in fact, like chicken soup, it seems that we’re actually finding prayer—even without the patient knowing—can really help. References: Davis, J. (2001, Nov. 6). People who are prayed for fare better. WebMD-The Power of Prayer in Medicine, www.webmd.com/balance/news/20011106/power-of-prayer-in-medicine. Krucoff, M. W., Crater, S. W., Green, C. L., Maas, A. C., Seskevich, J. E., Lane, J. D., Loeffler, K. A., Morris, K., Bashore, T. M., & Koenig, H. C. (2001). Integrative noetic therapies as adjuncts to percutaneous intervention during unstable coronary syndromes: Monitoring and Actualization of Noetic Training (MANTRA) feasibility pilot. American Heart Journal, 142, 760–767.
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▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Adhering to Medical Advice One factor that positively influences health is locating a doctor with whom you are able to communicate. Communication, however, is only the first step. Assuming that the doctor’s advice is accurate, you must also follow that advice. Research indicates that the rate of adherence to medical advice averages only about 50%, with somewhat higher rates associated with treatments that are designed to cure as opposed to prevent an illness. These rates are relatively consistent regardless of whether the situation involves keeping an appointment with a doctor, taking medication, or staying on a dietary or exercise regimen. Three general factors influence adherence to medical advice: characteristics of the disease and treatment, the person, and the relationship with medical personnel. Low adherence rates are often associated with treatments of long duration, more complex treatments (e.g., requiring a number of different medications), and negative interactions with medical personnel (e.g., poor communication, delays in getting an appointment, and delays in the waiting room). Increased rates of adherence are often related to a personal perception of the severity of the illness, strong social support, a personal belief in the efficacy of the treatment, clear, specific information from medical personnel about the illness and the reasons for a particular treatment regimen, and personal characteristics of medical personnel such as friendliness, warmth, and a caring attitude. Finally, adherence does not seem to be related to disease severity as defined solely by medical personnel, severity of treatment side effects, personality traits, and demographic characteristics (at least when measured independently) such as age, gender, race, or educational level. Cognitive-behavioural techniques seem to be the most effective in increasing adherence. For example, strategies such as prompts to remind patients, tailoring the regimen to the individual’s daily habits and activities, a graduated implementation of the regimen, and a contingency contract between the patient and medical personnel help to boost adherence. References: Brannon, L., & Feist, J. (1992). Health psychology: An introduction to behaviour and health (2nd ed). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Taylor, S. E. (1995). Health psychology (3rd ed). New York: Random House. Adapted from Instructor’s Resource Manual for Psychology 5th edition (2007) by S. F. Davis and J. J. Palladino. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. ▼Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▼ CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Fill-in-the-Blank Task Students’ Daily Hassles The Many Faces of Stress In-Class Stress Induction Immune System Terms A Stressful Story Evaluating Self-Help Books What’s Your Coping Style? Identifying Defense Mechanisms Thinking Critically about Stress Relaxation Response Lifestyle Awareness Triangle Culture and Health Crossword Puzzle Fill-in-the-Blanks
▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Fill-in-the-Blank Task A fun and revealing activity for students to participate in is a simple fill-in-the-blank task. Have students take out a clean sheet of paper and write the following partial sentences down: 1) I get very stressed out when . 2) I think it is silly that people get stressed out when 3) The most stressful thing that has happened to me today is
. .
This activity should yield insight into what students typically find stressful, and also should make explicit the extreme variability in what causes stress among students. In fact, some students may find silly (see question #2) what others find very stressful. This activity offers a nice introduction into the seemingly uncomplicated (but in truth complicated) world of the psychology of stress. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Students’ Daily Hassles Objective: To determine students’ hassles. Materials: Handout Master 14.1 Procedure: Allow students to work in groups to generate a list of hassles that are present in their lives using Handout Master 14.1. Students should be as specific as possible in identifying the hassle. Next, ask students to rank order the hassles in terms of importance to them.
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▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: The Many Faces of Stress (Group Activity) Psychological stress is a general term that refers to experiences that threaten our ability to cope. Depending on the specific situation, we refer to the stress we are feeling by another term, such as fear or apprehension, anxiety, depression, frustration, or conflict. Using Handout Master 14.2, “The Many Faces of Stress,” explore this topic with your students, working as a whole class or in small groups to generate examples that illustrate the varied sources and experiences of stress. Suggested answers are given below. Fear or apprehension: The stress experienced by a person who is facing a situation that is dangerous or potentially dangerous. A person scheduled for major surgery. A soldier going into battle. A teenager concerned that her parents will discover she is using crack. Anxiety: The stress experienced by a person who has an unrealistic fear, vague apprehensions about the future, or disturbing memories. A person who worries constantly about getting cancer. An “A” student who worries about failing courses. A person who is certain that something terrible will happen during the trip she is planning. A person who has survived an airplane crash in which many died. A person who was molested as a child or raped as an adult. Depression: The stress experienced by someone who has suffered a loss, who perceives him/herself to be helpless, hopeless, or a failure, or who has a physical problem or handicap. A person who has experienced the death of a loved one. A person whose wife or husband initiated a divorce. A person who perceived that she did not get a job she wanted because she is incompetent or unattractive. A woman who feels she cannot leave an abusive husband because she has never supported herself and has no place to go. A person who has had a leg amputated as a result of accident or illness. An adolescent who has an unsightly and persistent skin problem. Frustration: Stress that a person experiences when there is an obstacle or obstacles that prevent achievement of a goal. A hungry person who cannot get the package of potato chips open. The supervisor who cannot meet quotas because of the absenteeism and incompetence of the people who work for her. A person caught in a traffic jam. Conflict: Stress experienced when a person must choose between alternatives that are equal or nearly equal in attractiveness or unattractiveness. A student choosing a major. A man who must sell either his home or his business to pay debts. A young woman who will have to give up her job and move if she decides to marry Harry. .. 765
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Guilt: Stress experienced as a result of thoughts or behaviour that are inconsistent with one’s self-image or as a result of surviving or succeeding when others died or failed. A person who has abused his wife or his infant child. A person who wishes her father would die so she could inherit money. A soldier who has survived a battle in which his best friend died. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: In-Class Stress Induction Usually by this time in the semester (Chapter 16), you and your students have settled into relatively predictable patterns of behaviour. Stress, of course, usually involves something unpredictable and somewhat uncontrollable. What I have done (with much success) in the past to induce some acute stress in my students is to announce (on the first day of lecture for “stress & health”) that, although there is no mention of one in the syllabus, “we are going to have a pop quiz today.” It is crucial that you set this up properly: What I have done is to announce to the class my deep personal disappointment in the fact that I had a couple of students come to my office the previous week and question the necessity of actually reading the book for study purposes. “So, because I have emphasized the text as a necessary, excellent resource, I feel like I have no other choice but to assess whether you have been reading it. Again, I know that there aren’t any pop quizzes listed on the syllabus, but I don’t believe I really have any other choice.” AT THIS POINT, YOU MAY OBSERVE STUDENTS STARTING TO GET PRETTY NERVOUS (TURNING RED IN SOME CASES). “This quiz is only 10 questions, multiple choice, and I have decided that it will count as an exam toward your final grade. For most of you, this will be extremely easy, because it deals with material in the book that we are scheduled to talk about today – so, no doubt, you have read the appropriate sections in the book. Take out a clean sheet of paper, and put all other materials on the floor. I will present the questions on the PowerPoint, and remember, keep your eyes on your own paper.” PAUSE FOR A FEW SECONDS. THEN SWITCH TO THE NEXT SLIDE OF THE POWERPOINT PRESENTATION, WHICH SHOULD READ SOMETHING TO THE EFFECT OF, “I’M ONLY KIDDING!!” You will probably hear a large sigh of relief, followed by laughter. Take cover, because some students will probably wad up their “quiz” paper, and throw it at you. This demonstration leads nicely into a discussion of Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome, as students will have probably experienced the “alarm” and “resistance” stages.
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▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Immune System Terms Objective: To help students understand the components of the immune system and their roles in fighting disease. Materials: Handout Master 14.3. Procedure: Distribute the handout to students and have them complete the form, listing the definitions and roles of the components of the immune system. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: A Stressful Story Students apply what is known about the mind-body relationship to an example of a stressed businessman. The student handout for this exercise is included as Handout Master 14.4. Answers are listed below. Answers: 1-d, 2-a, 3-c, 4-e
▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Evaluating Self-Help Books This assignment, which calls for students to review and evaluate a popular self-help book of their choice, serves three primary purposes: (a) it gives students an opportunity to gather information about some area of concern in their lives, (b) it allows them to apply principles of health and well-being from the text and lecture, and (c) it encourages them to take a critical look at the burgeoning field of “bibliotherapy.” Students should begin by browsing the local bookstore and selecting a self-help book of interest to them. Those who haven’t already spent some time in the self-help section of the bookstore may be surprised at the number and variety of books available. Many books are relevant to self-improvement and tell readers “How To” do just about anything, such as lose weight, quit smoking, eat a healthier diet, be more assertive, get along with others, have higher self-esteem, become more organized, and so on. Others suggest they can help readers cope with any number of problems, including depression, anxiety, stress, phobias, codependency, a relationship breakup, and grief, to name a few. Because some of these topics are more sensitive than others, you should advise students not to choose a topic that is uncomfortable for them, and you should also assure them that you will keep their papers confidential and anonymous. Students should begin their paper by reviewing the author’s general theoretical stance as well as the basic techniques or strategies suggested in the book. They should then evaluate the author’s advice in terms of their own experience. Did the book provide an accurate basis for self-diagnosis and for checking your progress? Were the techniques in the book clearly articulated and easy to follow? In general, how useful was the book in terms of solving the target problem? Students should also include in their paper a discussion of any principles from the text or lecture that are applied in the book. Finally, students should step back and evaluate the book from a scientific perspective. Does the author offer any empirical support to substantiate his or her claims? Has the book been tested in a clinical setting? In general, how accurate do the claims made in the title or content of the book appear to be? .. 767
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Randy Smith, in his critical look at bibliotherapy, notes that although self-help books have their advantages (e.g., consumers can be educated about psychotherapy; in some cases potential problems can be prevented) and disadvantages (e.g., people can improperly diagnose their conditions, or become discouraged if the book fails to solve the problem), their biggest problem is often a lack of scientific evidence to support the authors’ claims. Nonetheless, it is likely that not all self-help books are a waste of time, just as not all selfhelp books are beneficial. After the papers are turned in, conduct a class discussion exploring some of the issues mentioned above. Hopefully, some students will be willing to share their experiences (both positive and negative) and shed some light on this timely topic. Reference: Smith, R. A. (1995). Challenging your preconceptions: Thinking critically about psychology. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: What’s Your Coping Style? Students identify the style of coping used by a group of captives being held by terrorists. The student handout for this exercise is included as Handout Master 14.5. Suggested answers are given below. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Margaret: After rethinking the issue, she is using denial. Frank: The situation is being directly attacked with a problem-focused strategy. Joe: Social comparison follows reappraisal (rethinking). Tony: The problem is being attacked with an emotion-focused strategy. Joan: A healthy structure is being employed to live with the problem (acceptance).
▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Identifying Defense Mechanisms Although students intuitively understand the Freudian defense mechanisms used in defensive coping, they often have trouble distinguishing among them in practice. Handout Master 14.6 contains several realworld examples that illustrate the nine defense mechanisms discussed in the text: denial, repression, projection, identification, regression, intellectualization, reaction formation, displacement, and sublimation. After you have reviewed these defense mechanisms in class, test your students’ ability to apply what they’ve learned by having them complete the exercise in Handout Master 14-6. Be sure to go over the correct answers with students, which are presented below. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
A H D I C F A C I H
(Reaction Formation) (Displacement) (Identification) (Sublimation) (Projection) (Intellectualization) (Denial) (Projection) (Sublimation) (Displacement)
11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. .. 768
I B A H C E G D B E
(Sublimation) (Repression) (Denial) (Displacement) (Projection) (Regression) (Reaction Formation) (Identification) (Repression) (Regression)
Chapter 14: Health, Stress, and Coping
▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Thinking Critically about Stress (Group Activity) Students apply their understanding of the causes of stress to three questions. The student handout for this exercise is included as Handout Master 14.7. Suggested answers are given below. 1. Answers should show that the student understands the relationship between cognition and stress, such as: • Being put on hold when you call a business or a government agency can be annoying. It might be less stressful if you pause to consider the alternative (a busy signal), remind yourself that you are in line to get a real live person on the line, and interpret the time spent as an opportunity to relax, work that crossword puzzle you keep by the phone, do some stretching exercises, or clip or file your nails. • Driving behind a slow driver is another common daily hassle. It might help to ask yourself why you are in such a hurry, or remind yourself that slow drivers, too, need to be able to shop for groceries, visit friends, or go to the doctor (perhaps your grandparents are among those slow drivers). 2. Good things about stress include: • In reasonable doses, stress may motivate us to do things we should do that require effort, such as study for exams, resolve a relationship problem, decide where to live. • Stress may send a signal that some aspect of one’s life is not working or is destructive and needs to be re-examined: a relationship, a career choice, the circle of friends one has chosen. • Stress may protect us from fatigue or exhaustion by warning us that we are doing more than we can handle and need to rearrange our priorities. • Stress can produce the arousal and provide the endurance required to deal with emergencies or threatening situations. • A certain amount of stress can make you feel alive and fully engaged, rather than apathetic and bored. • Some worthwhile goals in life cannot be achieved without experiencing stress. As Selye suggested, this kind of stress is probably not as harmful as the stress of a boring, meaningless, aimless existence. • Surviving stressful experiences may make us stronger and better able to deal with the inevitable problems of life. 3. a) Life was more stressful when my grandparents were adults because: • During the 1930s, people had to deal with the Great Depression that was far more serious and longer-lasting than more recent economic downturns. People were sometimes out of work for years, and the entire economic structure of the country was threatened. • For ethnic minorities, life was especially hard; in the South, lynching of blacks was tolerated and legal segregation prevailed. In other parts of the country, too, bigotry and defacto segregation were common. • Most gay people felt forced to remain “in the closet” and homophobia was socially acceptable. • During World War II, many young people lost their lives, families lost loved ones, and the continued existence of Western democracies was at stake. • Two generations ago, career and job opportunities for women were far more limited than they are today. Women had few legal rights; in many places, women could not legally own property, even their own personal belongings. • Divorce was not as socially acceptable as it is today, and many people felt they had to stay in stultifying or violent marriages. • Reliable birth control was far less accessible (although condoms did exist), and it was hard to practice family planning. .. 769
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b) Life is more stressful now because: • Urbanization has brought higher crime rates (higher in the U.S. than in any other industrialized nation), the loss of neighbourhood ties, and a faster, more frenetic pace of life than most people experienced two generations ago. • Today, young people worry that they will not achieve the standard of living enjoyed by their own parents. • Enormous health costs and an educational system in crisis promote worry and insecurity about the future. • In many cities, racial and ethnic tensions are high. • High housing costs mean that many people cannot live near their work and must spend many hours a week fighting traffic. • Parents worry about finding decent and affordable child care, which is often not available. • Consumerism has produced dissatisfaction and a belief that one must continue on a fast-track, working harder and earning more. • AIDS is epidemic, and unprotected sex has become dangerous and potentially fatal. • Some observers argue that increased mobility and the breakdown of communal ties and responsibilities have left people without a sense of meaning in their lives—and that is stressful. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Relaxation Response The relaxation response as proposed by Herbert Benson requires that four basic components be in place. 1. A comfortable position to sit in. Lying down may promote sleep. 2. Something that keeps the mind focused to prevent it from wandering. A word or a sound is helpful. 3. A quiet calm environment without distractions. 4. A calm attitude. Once this has been introduced to the students, give the students instructions that include the following: a) Keep your eyes closed. b) Sit quietly and listen to the “mind focusing sound.” c) Begin by relaxing your body, one area at a time. This “mind focusing sound” may be your voice as you guide the students through the exercise. d) Individuals will relax at their own pace. It may be necessary to go back to a particular area. Allow the students to make that decision. Make sure that you give the students that option.
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When they have “relaxed” for a few minutes, have them stand up and stretch. Once they have sat back down, have them talk about the experience. Many of the students will likely report feeling very calm and relaxed. A few students may report nothing. This is a subjective report. Some may report a reduce heart rate. You may want to have students check their heart rate before the exercise and immediately thereafter. Reference: Benson, H. (1975). The relaxation response. New York: William Morrow. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Lifestyle Awareness Triangle Gary Piggrem suggests having students draw a “lifestyle triangle” to help them visualize the stress in their lives. The three sides of the triangle should represent (a) school and/or work, (b) leisure/recreational activities, and (c) relationships with others. The length of each side should accurately reflect the amount of time and energy spent on this aspect, so that longer sides represent more time and energy expended. Ask your students to draw two lifestyle triangles, one representing their ideal triangle (i.e., how they wished their triangle looked), and one representing their actual triangle (i.e., the way it really looks). In general, bigger discrepancies between the two triangles reflect greater perceived stress experienced by students. Piggrem notes that sometimes the school/work side of a triangle is so long that the other sides can’t possibly connect with each other! Discuss with students the implications of the triangles they have drawn (perhaps volunteers would be willing to share their depictions) and brainstorm ways that they can change their behaviour so that their actual triangle can become more like their ideal triangle—which should ultimately reduce some of the stress in their lives. Reference: Piggrem, G. (1994). Instructor’s manual for Abnormal psychology in a changing world (2nd ed.) by J. S. Nevid, S. A. Rathus, and B. Greene. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Culture and Health Many of the health attitudes and behaviours taken for granted in the United States are less common in other countries. For example, the city of Los Angeles recently enacted a ban on smoking in restaurants, and several other cities are following suit. This would no doubt seem bizarre in many European countries, where the general concept of “smoking sections” and “no smoking sections” in public places has yet to be appreciated. Similarly, because many fitness-conscious Americans are concerned with getting an optimal level of exercise, it is not uncommon (particularly in the early morning and late afternoon) to see men and women jogging around parks, lakes, and on neighbourhood streets throughout the United States. In other parts of the world, however, jogging American tourists—especially females—are occasionally greeted with quizzical looks, as if to say, “What are you running from?”
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It is clear, then, that culture plays an important role in health behaviour (see Triandis, 1994, for a review). Differences in life expectancy, which can range from 40 to 50 years in underdeveloped or poor countries to 70 to 80 years in developed or rich countries, can be traced to cultural differences in diet, levels of stress, access to health care, and relationships with others. Interestingly, not all health outcomes favour rich or industrialized countries. Many poorer countries have better diets (and lower rates of heart disease) than richer countries, since affluence is related to the consumption of meat and other fatty foods. Even among industrialized countries there are important differences. For example, life expectancy is higher in Scandinavian countries than in the United States (because of greater access to health care), and rates of alcoholism and stress are both lower in collectivist countries (e.g., Japan), in which people depend on others and have a large family support network, than they are in individualistic countries (e.g., the United States), which emphasize individualism and self-reliance over dependence on others. Ask your students to share their experiences as travelers or as members of another culture regarding the diversity of health attitudes and health practices. Use examples of smoking, alcohol, regular exercise, consumption of high cholesterol or fatty foods, preventive health care, attitudes toward leisure time and vacation, and relationships with others. What types of cultural norms might be driving these various practices? What role does the media play in shaping general health attitudes? Reference: Triandis, H. C. (1994). Culture and social behaviour. New York: McGraw-Hill.
▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Crossword Puzzle Copy and distribute Handout Master 14.8 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment.
Answers for the crossword puzzle: Across 4. negative changes in thoughts, emotions, and behaviour as a result of prolonged stress or frustration. burnout 6. psychological experience of being pulled toward or drawn to two or more desires or goals, only one of which may be attained. conflict 8. psychological defense mechanism in which emotional reactions and behavioural responses are shifted to targets that are more available or less threatening than the original target. displacement 10. people who expect positive outcomes. optimists 12. leaving the presence of a stressor, either literally or by a psychological withdrawal into fantasy, drug abuse, or apathy. escape 17. psychological defense mechanism in which the person invents acceptable excuses for unacceptable behaviour. rationalization 19. events that cause a stress reaction. stressors 20. psychological defense mechanism in which unacceptable or threatening impulses or feelings are seen as originating with someone else, usually the target of the impulses or feelings. projection 21. psychological defense mechanism in which the person refuses to consciously remember a threatening or unacceptable event, instead pushing those events into the unconscious mind. repression 24. an unpredictable, large-scale event that creates a tremendous need to adapt and adjust as well as overwhelming feelings of threat. catastrophe
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Down 1. defense mechanism in which a person tries to become like someone else to deal with anxiety. identification 2. people who expect negative outcomes. pessimists 3. the effect of positive events, or the optimal amount of stress that people need to promote health and well-being. eustress 5. the study of the effects of psychological factors such as stress, emotions, thoughts, and behaviour on the immune system. psychoneuroimmunology 7. the effect of unpleasant and undesirable stressors. distress 9. mental series of exercises meant to refocus attention and achieve a trance-like state of consciousness. meditation 11. psychological defense mechanism in which the person refuses to acknowledge or recognize a threatening situation. denial 13. the psychological experience produced by urgent demands or expectations for a person’s behaviour that come from an outside source. pressure 14. the psychological experience produced by the blocking of a desired goal or fulfillment of a perceived need. frustration 15. the term used to describe the physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioural responses to events that are appraised threatening or challenging. stress 16. the three stages of the body’s physiological reaction to stress, including alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. GAS 18. actions meant to harm or destroy. aggression 22. the daily annoyances of everyday life. hassles 23. psychological defense mechanism in which a person falls back on child-like patterns of responding in reaction to stressful situations. regression 25. channeling socially unacceptable impulses and urges into socially acceptable behaviour. sublimination
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▼Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Fill-in-the-Blanks Copy and distribute Handout Master 14.9 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment.
Answers for the fill-in-the-blank activity: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
Stress stressor Eustress distress primary appraisal Secondary appraisal catastrophe PTSD hassle Pressure Frustration Conflict General Adaptation Syndrome immune system Psychoneuroimmunology Type A
17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.
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Type B Type C hardy optimist pessimist burnout acculturative stress coping strategies Problem focused Emotion focused defense mechanisms repression displacement compensation meditation
Chapter 14: Health, Stress, and Coping
▼ HANDOUT MASTERS FOR CHAPTER 14: HEALTH, STRESS, AND COPING ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Handout Master 14.1 Students’ Daily Hassles Handout Master 14.2 The Many Faces of Stress Handout Master 14.3 Immune System Terms Handout Master 14.4 A Stressful Story Handout Master 14.5 What’s Your Coping Style? Handout Master 14.6 Identifying Defense Mechanisms Handout Master 14.7 Thinking Critically about Stress Handout Master 14.8 Crossword Puzzle Activity Handout Master 14.9 Fill-in-the-Blanks Activity
▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 14.1 Students’ Daily Hassles List the hassles you must cope with in your daily life. Group them in the following categories: • household/living arrangement hassles • time pressure hassles • inner concern hassles • health hassles • environmental hassles • family hassles
• financial responsibility hassles • work hassles • school hassles • future/security hassles • social hassles • other hassles
Rank each hassle on a scale of 1 to 10 (1 = least important; 10 = most important). Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
Rank 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40.
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► Return to Activity: Students’ Daily Hassles ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 14.2 The Many Faces of Stress Give examples that illustrate the following sources and experiences of stress. Fear or apprehension: The stress experienced by a person who is facing a situation that is dangerous or potentially dangerous.
Anxiety: The stress experienced by a person who has an unrealistic fear, vague apprehensions about the future, or disturbing memories.
Depression: The stress experienced by someone who has suffered a loss, who perceives him/herself to be helpless, hopeless, or a failure, or who has a physical problem or handicap.
Frustration: Stress that a person experiences when there is an obstacle or obstacles that prevent achievement of a goal.
Conflict: Stress experienced when a person must choose between alternatives that are equal or nearly equal in attractiveness or unattractiveness.
Guilt: Stress experienced as a result of thoughts or behaviour that are inconsistent with one’s self-image or as a result of surviving or succeeding when others died or failed.
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► Return to Activity: The Many Faces of Stress (Group Activity) ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 14.3 Immune System Terms Term Lymphocyte
Definition
Role in disease
T cell
B cell
Antibody
Antigen
Helper cells
Killer cells
Macrophages
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► Return to Activity: Immune System Terms ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 14.4 A Stressful Story Paul Butters is a 47-year-old businessman who is a vice president of a large New York City firm. He commutes to work, which is a 75-minute trip each way. His job keeps him busy: he puts in between 10 and 12 hours of work each day, and often has to work on weekends. He finds himself under a great deal of pressure at the office. He is overweight, gets very little exercise, smokes a pack and a half of cigarettes a day, and some people say that he is a borderline alcoholic. Last month, his wife died in an auto accident; they had been married 23 years. Paul has taken her death extremely hard, and has been unable to work effectively since she died. 1. Paul is a prime candidate for: a. coronary heart disease. b. cancer. c. immune system complications. d. all of the above. 2. In terms of Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome, Paul is probably undergoing: a. alarm reaction. b. the stage of resistance. c. the stage of exhaustion. d. Paul is probably not experiencing any aspect of the syndrome. 3. Paul went to the doctor recently for his annual check-up. The doctor told him that he needs to lose some weight and that he needs to quit smoking. Paul tries to quit, but each time he does, he feels an overwhelming urge for a cigarette. When he smokes one, he feels a tremendous sense of relief; he decides that he just cannot quit at this time. Paul’s decision to keep smoking was heavily influenced by which of the following principles: a. extinction b. cognitive reappraisal c. negative reinforcement. d. positive reinforcement 4. If Paul decided to see a therapist, and you were that therapist, you might advise him to: a. think about making a career change. b. seek out social support, if he has not already. c. start walking more to get some aerobic exercise. d. learn how to relax in stressful situations. e. learn how to use cognitive appraisal in dealing with the current stressors in his life.
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► Return to Activity: A Stressful Story ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 14.5 What’s Your Coping Style?
The active, constructive efforts employed to manage stress are called coping strategies. People can manage stress by attacking its source, by rethinking their initial evaluation, or by accepting events and trying to reduce their consequences. Assume the group of people below has been held captive by terrorists for several years. For each description, indicate whether acceptance, rethinking, or attack is being used as a coping strategy. Identify the specific strategy.
1. Over time, Margaret has decided her captors have no bad intentions and just need to make a basic philosophic point.
2. Frank believes escape would be difficult but not impossible. He keeps formulating escape plans and explaining them to the others, hoping for one that is reasonable.
3. Joe believes this disaster has a bright side. Had another terrorist group taken them, they would be tortured as well as held captive.
4. Like Frank, Tony believes escape is possible, but only if the terrorists unexpectedly slip up. His goal is to remain as calm as possible and look for an opportunity. He refuses to waste energy and lose hope by developing or considering unrealistic escape plans.
5. Joan believes the group will remain in captivity virtually forever. Her goal is to eat as regularly as possible, combat inactivity through exercise, and converse about what they might do once freedom finally comes.
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► Return to Activity: What’s Your Coping Style? ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 14.6 Identifying Defense Mechanisms
Instructions: Identify the defense mechanism illustrated in the following examples by placing the appropriate letter in the blank next to each item. Use the following code.
A. Denial B. Repression C. Projection D. Identification E. Regression
F. Intellectualization G. Reaction Formation H. Displacement I. Sublimation
1. Mark never stops ranting about the dangers of pornography. He gives endless examples of smut he has seen in movies and on television, and spends a lot of time hanging around porno houses to get even more examples. 2. Chad always teases and annoys his kid brother Nathan after he himself is bullied and picked on by his older brother Sam. 3. Although verbally and physically abused by his cell guard, Shane actually admires his captor and even imitates him on occasion. 4. Judy, who has always been aggressive and fiercely competitive, becomes captain of her college soccer team. 5. Diane, who keeps accusing Sam of being in love with her, probably has secret desires for Sam. 6. Theresa, who has recently been diagnosed with cancer, spends all of her time in the library becoming an expert in cancer research. 7. Despite overwhelming evidence and a murder conviction, Jay’s mother refused to believe that her son could actually take the life of another human being. 8. Brett, who is extremely hard to convince in arguments, complains that all of his friends are stubborn. 9. Even as a child Lisa was always impulsive and engaged in risky behaviour. Perhaps not surprisingly, she grew up to become a famous race car driver. 10. Roger, a major league pitcher, often “beans” (i.e., hits with a pitch) the next batter after someone has hit a home run against him.
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11. After an unsuccessful attempt at a sexual relationship, Pete began devoting most of his energies toward church activities. 12. Wendy was embarrassed because, somehow, she kept forgetting to keep her appointments with the dentist. 13. Amanda broke off her relationship with Jack, but Jack still talks and acts as if they are still dating. 14. After her new baby sister came home from the hospital, her parents discovered that Susie had dismembered her favourite doll. 15. Amy, who has had many extramarital affairs, begins to accuse her husband Dan of being unfaithful. 16. Larry began wetting his pants again after the birth of his baby brother. 17. Todd, who is unsure about his own sexuality, frequently make homophobic and gay-bashing remarks. 18. Brad’s father acts like a big shot around town because Brad is the star quarterback of his high school football team. 19. Two years after breaking off his relationship with Julie, Rick fails to even recognize her at a cocktail party. 20. At the first sign of any problems or trouble in his life, Bill immediately runs to his parents to bail him out.
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► Return to Activity: Identifying Defense Mechanisms ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 14.7 Thinking Critically about Stress 1. Our perceptions and interpretations of events help determine how stressful these events are for us. Describe two daily hassles that often annoy, frustrate, or irritate you, and include how altering your perceptions or interpretations might reduce their stressfulness.
2. Stress is not all bad. What do you think is good about stress? (List at least two things.)
3. Certain kinds of stressors change from one generation to another. a) Give three reasons for concluding that life was more stressful when your grandparents were young adults than it is now. b) Then, give three reasons for concluding that, on the contrary, life is more stressful today.
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Chapter 14: Health, Stress, and Coping
► Return to Activity: Thinking Critically about Stress (Group Activity) ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 14.8 Crossword Puzzle Activity Chapter 14: Stress, Coping, and Health
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Across 4. negative changes in thoughts, emotions, and behaviour as a result of prolonged stress or frustration. 6. psychological experience of being pulled toward or drawn to two or more desires or goals, only one of which may be attained. 8. psychological defense mechanism in which emotional reactions and behavioural responses are shifted to targets that are more available or less threatening than the original target. 10. people who expect positive outcomes. 12. leaving the presence of a stressor, either literally or by a psychological withdrawal into fantasy, drug abuse, or apathy. 17. psychological defense mechanism in which the person invents acceptable excuses for unacceptable behaviour. 19. events that cause a stress reaction. 20. psychological defense mechanism in which unacceptable or threatening impulses or feelings are seen as originating with someone else, usually the target of the impulses or feelings. 21. psychological defense mechanism in which the person refuses to consciously remember a threatening or unacceptable event, instead pushing those events into the unconscious mind. 24. an unpredictable, large-scale event that creates a tremendous need to adapt and adjust as well as overwhelming feelings of threat. Down 1. defense mechanism in which a person tries to become like someone else to deal with anxiety. 2. people who expect negative outcomes. 3. the effect of positive events, or the optimal amount of stress that people need to promote health and well-being. 5. the study of the effects of psychological factors such as stress, emotions, thoughts, and behaviour on the immune system. 7. the effect of unpleasant and undesirable stressors. 9. mental series of exercises meant to refocus attention and achieve a trance-like state of consciousness. 11. psychological defense mechanism in which the person refuses to acknowledge or recognize a threatening situation. 13. the psychological experience produced by urgent demands or expectations for a person’s behaviour that come from an outside source. 14. the psychological experience produced by the blocking of a desired goal or fulfillment of a perceived need. 15. the term used to describe the physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioural responses to events that are appraised threatening or challenging. 16. the three stages of the body’s physiological reaction to stress, including alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. 18. actions meant to harm or destroy. 22. the daily annoyances of everyday life. 23. psychological defense mechanism in which a person falls back on child-like patterns of responding in reaction to stressful situations. 25. channelling socially unacceptable impulses and urges into socially acceptable behaviour.
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► Return to Activity: Crossword Puzzle ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 14.9 Fill-in-the-Blanks Activity 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6. 7. 8.
9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.
is the term used to describe the physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioural responses to events that are appraised as threatening or challenging. An event that can cause a stress reaction is called a . is the effect of positive events, or the optimal amount of stress that people need to promote health and well-being. The effect of unpleasant and undesirable stressors is known as . The first step in assessing a stress is known as , which involves estimating the severity of a stressor and classifying it as either a threat or a challenge. is the second step in assessing a threat, which involves estimating the resources available to the person for coping with the stressor. A is an unpredictable, large-scale event that creates a tremendous need to adapt and adjust as well as overwhelming feelings of threat. A disorder resulting from exposure to a major stressor, with symptoms of anxiety, nightmares, poor sleep, reliving the event, and concentration problems, lasting for more than one month is known as . A is an annoyance in everyday life. is the psychological experience produced by urgent demands or expectations for a person’s behaviour that come from an outside source. is the psychological experience produced by the blocking of a desired goal or fulfillment of a perceived need. is the psychological experience of being pulled toward or drawn to two or more desires or goals, only one of which may be attained. The three stages of the body’s physiological reaction to stress, including alarm, resistance, and exhaustion is called the ______________ __________ or GAS. The system of cells, organs, and chemicals of the body that responds to attacks from diseases, infections, and injuries is known as the . is the study of the effects of psychological factors such as stress, emotions, thoughts, and behaviour on the immune system. personality is a person who is ambitious, time conscious, extremely hardworking, and tends to have high levels of hostility and anger as well as being easily annoyed. personality is a person who is relaxed and laid-back, less driven and competitive than Type A, and slow to anger. personality is a pleasant but repressed person, who tends to internalize his or her anger and anxiety and who finds expressing emotions difficult. The personality is a person who seems to thrive on stress but lacks the anger and hostility of the Type A personality A/An is someone who always expects positive outcomes. A/An is someone who always expects negative outcomes. Negative changes in thoughts, emotions, and behaviour as a result of prolonged stress or frustration is called .
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23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.
29. 30. 31.
The stress resulting from the need to change and adapt a person’s ways to the majority culture is called . Actions that people can take to master, tolerate, reduce, or minimize the effects of stressors are called . coping strategies try to eliminate the source of a stress or reduce its impact through direct actions. coping strategies change the impact of a stressor by changing the emotional reaction to the stressor. The unconscious distortions of a person’s perception of reality that reduce stress and anxiety are called . A psychological defense mechanism in which the person refuses to consciously remember a threatening or unacceptable event, instead pushing those events into the unconscious mind, is called . is redirecting feelings from a threatening target to a less threatening one. The defense mechanism in which a person makes up for inferiorities in one area by becoming superior in another area is called . A mental series of exercises meant to refocus attention and achieve a trancelike state of consciousness is called .
► Return to Activity: Fill-in-the-Blanks ▼Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents Fill-in-the-Blanks—Words 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.
acculturative stress burnout catastrophe compensation conflict coping strategies cefense mechanisms cisplacement cistress emotion focused eustress frustration General Adaptation Syndrome hardy hassle immune system
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meditation optimists pessimists pressure primary appraisal problem focused psychoneuroimmunology PTSD repression secondary appraisal stress stressor Type A Type B Type C
Chapter 14: Health, Stress, and Coping
▼ APS: READINGS FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE ▲ Return to Table of Contents Current Directions in Introductory Psychology, Second Edition (0-13-714350-8) Edited by Abigail A. Baird, with Michele M. Tugade and Heather B. Veague This new and exciting American Psychological Reader includes timely, cutting-edge articles, giving readers a real-world perspective from a reliable source Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. This reader includes over 20 articles that have been carefully selected and taken from the very accessible Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. Articles discuss today’s most current and pressing issues in introductory psychology and are broken down into these main sections: Scientific Thinking; Nature/Nurture; Consciousness; Individual Differences; and Applications. Section 3: Health Psychology: Body and Brain Barbara B. Sherwin Does Estrogen Protect Against Cognitive Aging in Women? (Vol. 16, No. 5, 2007, pp. 275–279) p. 93 of the APS reader Although there is evidence from randomized controlled trials that estrogen therapy protects against aspects of cognitive decline that occur with normal aging in women, findings from the Women’s Health Initiative Memory Study and from some cross-sectional and longitudinal studies failed to find neuroprotective effects of estrogen in older women. There is growing empirical support for the critical-period hypothesis, formulated in the attempt to resolve these discrepancies. It holds that estrogen therapy has protective effects on verbal memory and on working memory only when it is initiated closely in time to menopause, whereas starting treatment many years following menopause does not protect and may even be harmful. Supporting evidence for this hypothesis from basic neuroscience and from animal and human studies is evaluated for its ability to explain the inconsistencies and to describe the conditions under which estrogen may protect cognitive function in aging women. Sheldon Cohen, Sarah D. Pressman Positive Affect and Health. (Vol. 15, No. 3, 2006, pp. 122–125) p. 101 of the APS reader Negative affective styles such as anxiety, depression, and hostility have long been accepted as predictors of increased risk for illness and mortality. In contrast, positive affective styles have been relatively ignored in the health literature. Here we highlight consistent patterns of research associating trait positive affect (PA) and physical health. The evidence we review suggests an association of trait PA and lower morbidity and decreased symptoms and pain. PA is also associated with increased longevity among community-dwelling elderly. The association of PA and survival among those with serious illness is less clear and suggests the possibility that PA may be harmful in some situations. We conclude by raising conceptual and methodological reservations about this literature and suggesting directions for future research. Nancy Frasure-Smith, François Lespérance Depression and Coronary Heart Disease: Complex Synergism of Mind, Body, and Environment. (Vol. 14, No. 1, 2005, pp. 39–43) p. 109 of the APS reader Beyond depression’s impact on life quality, it is associated with both the incidence of coronary heart disease (CHD) and its prognosis. Depression is three times more common in CHD patients than in the general community. It is independently associated with at least a doubling in risk of subsequent cardiac events. Studies also show that it may precede the development of clinically evident CHD by many years. The mechanisms linking depression and CHD are currently unknown and likely to be complex. In addition to behavioural factors, changes in autonomic regulation, vascular disease of the
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brain, subchronic inflammation, reduced omega-3 free fatty acid levels, and enhanced platelet responsiveness may all be involved. Only one large clinical trial has attempted to alter CHD prognosis by treating depression. It succeeded in producing a small, but significant reduction in depression symptoms, but had no impact on subsequent CHD events. While debate continues about the causal relationship between CHD and depression, the best treatment strategy to improve prognosis in depressed CHD patients remains intensive modification of standard CHD risk factors in combination with treatment of depression to improve life quality. Paul Ekman, Richard J. Davidson, Matthieu Ricard, B. Alan Wallace Buddhist and Psychological Perspectives on Emotions and Well-Being. (Vol. 14, No. 2, 2005, pp. 59–63) p. 117 of the APS reader Stimulated by a recent meeting between Western psychologists and the Dalai Lama on the topic of destructive emotions, we report on two issues: the achievement of enduring happiness, what Tibetan Buddhists call sukha, and the nature of afflictive and nonafflictive emotional states and traits. A Buddhist perspective on these issues is presented, along with discussion of the challenges the Buddhist view raises for empirical research and theory. ▲ Return to Table of Contents
▼ WEB RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents General/Comprehensive Avoiding Burnout: www.mindtools.com Information about burnout and how to avoid it, from MindTools.com Job Stress Network: www.workhealth.org/ MUST SEE SITE!!! Comprehensive site devoted to information about job strain and workplace stress, by the nonprofit organization Center for Social Epidemiology. Many updated links! National Center for PTSD: www.ptsd.va.gov/ A useful site for information about this specific condition. Stress Management Resources: http://mentalhealth.about.com Links to activities designed to reduce stress and worry. Try the “How to Calm Down in Under a Minute” link. Stress Reduction Techniques: www.mindtools.com Tips on stress reduction from MindTools.com, and links to additional information on this topic. Health American Cancer Society: www.cancer.org/ The ACS offers news releases, smoking and breast cancer networks, publications, and addresses of local offices.
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American Heart Association: www.americanheart.org/ AHA offers news, risk-assessment tests, addresses for local offices, a heart and stroke guide, and other information. HealthFinder: www.healthfinder.gov Resources for questions about health and health maintenance. Laughing Out Loud to Good Health: http://library.thinkquest.org A site dedicated to the philosophy that laughter is the best medicine. National Center for Health Statistics: www.cdc.gov/nchs/ Provides news, health statistics, answers to frequently asked questions, and links to other health sites. Health Psychology Health Education: www.teachhealth.com Stress, depression, anxiety, drug use, and sleep problems are just some of the topics you’ll find here. Health Psychology: www.health-psych.org/ Official website of Division 38 of the American Psychological Association. Health Psychology & Rehabilitation: www.healthpsych.com/ MUST SEE SITE!!! Information, research, viewpoints, and practical suggestions about the practice of health psychology. Very comprehensive. HealthPsychology.net: www.healthpsychology.net/ Health Psychology and Behavioural Medicine Network. Contains a nice, categorized list of other online resources. ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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15/ PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲ Return to Table of Contents
MODULE 15.1: Defining and Classifying Psychological Disorders ➢ Lecture Guide: Defining and Classifying Psychological Disorders (p. 791) ➢ Resources Available (p. 795) MODULE 15.2: Personality and Dissociative Disorders ➢ Lecture Guide: Personality and Dissociative Disorders (p. 796) ➢ Resources Available (p. 802) MODULE 15.3: Anxiety, Depressive, and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders ➢ Lecture Guide: Anxiety and Mood Disorders (p. 803) ➢ Resources Available (p. 810) MODULE 15.4: Schizophrenia ➢ Lecture Guide: Schizophrenia (p. 811) ➢ Resources Available (p. 816) FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES ➢ Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 817) ➢ Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 831) ➢ Handout Masters (p. 837) ➢ APS: Readings from the Association of Psychological Science (p. 847) ➢ Forty Studies that Changed Psychology (p. 848) ➢ Web Resources (p. 849)
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LECTURE GUIDE I. MODULE 15.1: DEFINING AND CLASSIFYING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS (Text p. 563) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology associated with defining and classifying psychological disorders. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand the advantages and criticisms associated with the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). o Many people get most of their information about psychological disorders from fiction or sensationalized events in the news; so it is important to make distinctions between the psychological concept of a disorder and the legal concept of insanity. Most people with psychological disorders are not considered insane; in fact, only a small minority of people ever could be. Within the legal system, individuals may be declared insane if they were unable to tell right from wrong when they committed an offense. This designation in no way provides a diagnosis of any specific type of mental disorder. ✓ Apply your knowledge of the mental disorders defence to decide if defendants are criminally responsible for their actions. o Using Table 15.2, students should be able to complete a scale about their attitudes toward mental illness and reflect on their scores in comparison to a larger sample. ✓ Analyze whether the benefits of labeling psychological disorders outweigh the disadvantages. o To evaluate the importance of the DSM 5’s labels, it would be helpful to consider their functions. They organize large amounts of information—about symptoms, causes, and outcomes— into terminology that mental health professionals can work with. From a practical point of view, this system meets the requirements of the insurance companies that pay for psychological services. One downside to this process is that once the label is applied, people have the tendency to misinterpret behaviours that are perfectly normal.
Abnormal psychology (p. 564) is the psychological study of mental illness. Maladaptive (p. 564) meaning that one’s thoughts, feelings or behaviours cause distress to oneself or others, impair day-to-day functioning, or increase the risk of injury or harm to oneself or others.
Classifying Psychological Disorders 1) As science began to overtake religious domination, mental illness shifted from demonic possession to physical illness. Asylums (p. 564) residential facilities for the mentally ill. Early Classification Systems 1) At the beginning of the 1800s, most mental illnesses were classified as being mania (which included symptoms such as hallucinations and excessive energy) and melancholia (which included depression and anxiety). 2) Given that physicians often treated both psychiatric and neurological cases, it is not surprising that most mental illnesses were diagnosed in the same way as physical illnesses. 3) Psychiatry at this time adopted the medical model.
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Medical model (p. 564) which sees psychological conditions through the same lens as Western medicine tends to see physical conditions—as sets of symptoms, causes, and outcomes, with treatments aimed at changing physiological processes in order to alleviate symptoms. 4) Through this lens, psychological disorders such as depression, anxiety disorders, or autism can be approached in the same manner as conventional medicine would approach diabetes or cancer. 5) In the late 1800s we meet one of the most important psychiatrists in the history of medicine: Emil Kraepelin. i) Kraepelin created data cards for each of the patients under his care in order to track how the patients’ mental illnesses progressed over time. ii) By testing large numbers of individuals, he was able to see which symptoms seemed to occur together (e.g., depression and anxiety). He was also able to tell which disorders were curable and which ones were more likely to get worse over time. iii) The importance of observations such as Kraepelin’s along with the emergence of experimental psychology research in the early 20th century, pushed the treatment of mental illness into a more prominent position in medicine.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) 1) To diagnose psychological disorders, psychologists and psychiatrists developed a guide originally called the “Statistical Manual for the Use of Institutions for the Insane”. 2) Building on this system, and the World Health Organization’s International Statistical Classification of Disease, the American Psychological Association (APA) created the DSM. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM) (p. 565) A standardized manual to aid in the diagnosis of disorders. i) The original edition included a description of 106 different mental disorders. ii) Its purpose was to provide mental health workers with a reliable method for diagnosis to ensure consistency for all hospitals and institutions. 3) The new DSM 5 was published in 2013 and was controversial. i) Now has separate categories for different disorders. ii) Many were reorganized or renamed, now consisting of almost 4 times as many disorders. iii) Some critics argue that the new manual is designed to benefit pharmaceutical companies a) Easier to get a diagnosis therefore easier to turn to the medication for that diagnosis. 4) The DSM-5 describes three pieces of information for each disorder. i) A set of symptoms and number of symptoms that must be met for a diagnosis. ii) The etiology. iii) A prognosis or prediction of how the symptoms will persist or change over time. Challenges with Classifying Psychological Disorders 1) There are still a number of problems associated with determining whether someone does or does not have a mental illness. Some of these problems are directly related to the DSM-5, whereas others are more philosophical in nature.
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What is Maladaptive Behaviour? 1) One major problem in mental health deals with how to reliably identify mental disorders. 2) The key criterion used by psychologists is examining maladaptive behaviours. 3) The American Psychiatric Association provides criteria to identify abnormal, with some behaviours meeting criteria, but don’t always indicate mental illness. i) Heavy drug users and people with psychopathic tendencies may not think they have a problem. ii) Family members may be concerned about involvement in new relationships, or may disapprove of body modifications like tattoos or piercings. iii) Mourning the loss of a loved one or having a religious conversion may interfere with day-today activities. iv) Activists may get arrested protesting government actions and extreme sport enthusiasts may risk death or injury out of passion for the sport. Critiquing the DSM 1) The central criticism is regarding the ability to measure psychological disorders, which is done through a highly subjective process in the DSM. 2) To help make it more objective, specific symptom lists are provided, however this didn’t entirely solve the problem. i) A clinician still has to subjectively decide if a client displays each symptom, and whether it is severe enough to meet criteria. ii) Different disorders often share common symptoms and therefore different doctors may make different diagnoses. iii) In order to receive a diagnosis a client must has a certain number of the listed symptoms, e.g., 5/9 symptoms will get you the diagnosis, however 4/9 will not which leaves opportunity for error and inaccuracy. 3) Some argue that the DSM 5 gives ‘more labels’ which can be problematic as it can lead to over diagnosis. i) ADHD is an example of an easy label with a medical fix. ii) One solution to the criticisms of the DSM in general may be to develop more biological indicators, such as genetic markers, that could objectively diagnosis illness. The Power of a Diagnosis 1) The subjective nature of a diagnosis can alter a person’s life. i) The possible outcomes for receiving a diagnosis or not are too high. ii) Based on an individual’s behaviour, life challenges, experiences and resulting symptoms shown, and not to mention the clinician’s personal biases and ways of interpreting things, a person could meet the criteria of a number of different diagnoses. iii) Following that is the label that alone can change the way a person is viewed by others.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Culture and Diagnosing Mental Disorders 1) What do we know about culture and diagnosing mental disorders? Culture-bound syndromes (p. 568) expressions of distress that are recognized across a given culture but that tend not to appear outside of that culture. 2) How can science explain the effect of culture on diagnosing mental disorders? i) A number of studies have found that the rates of common disorders like anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia differ across cultures.
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ii) For example, the rates of anxiety disorders (discussed in Module15.3) can vary by up to three times depending upon where one lives. iii) There are also cultural differences in the willingness to seek help for disorders, which can influence how open a patient will be with a clinician and thus the accuracy of the resulting diagnosis. 3) Can we critically evaluate this information? i) The DSM-5 now includes the Cultural Formulation Interview, a supplement aimed at helping clinicians collect additional information about cultural factors that could influence diagnoses. ii) Research has shown that this interview can improve the accuracy of diagnoses such as schizophrenia and can improve overall clinical outcomes of non-Caucasian patients. 4) Why is this relevant? i) Understanding how culture influences the development and appearance of various psychological disorders will improve the accuracy of diagnoses. ii) If psychologists and psychiatrists can continue to improve their cultural awareness, it will allow them to over-come one of the major challenges of diagnosing psychological disorders.
Applications of Psychological Diagnoses 1) Being able to reliably diagnose particular disorders is a central and ongoing challenge to the mental health fields, and has an impact on problems that range from getting individuals the treatment they need to assessing criminal responsibility in the legal system. Psychological Diagnoses in the Classroom: ADHD 1) Given that the frontal lobes of the brain, which serve to inhibit many behaviours don’t fully develop until the early 20s, it is easy to see why children some-times “act out.” Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (p. 569) a developmental disorder in which children show inappropriate levels of hyper-activity and impulsivity while also having problems maintaining their attention to people or activities. 2) The DSM-5 states that an individual must have a mini-mum of six symptoms of inattention (i.e., failing to pay attention) or six symptoms of hyperactivity/impulsivity in order for someone to receive a diagnosis of ADHD. 3) Some critics have noted that since ADHD was added to the DSM-III in 1980, diagnoses have skyrocketed. 4) Estimates of the prevalence of ADHD range from the most common rate of 3% to 5% up to 16%. 5) Critics also charge that many children are being medicated for disruptive activity that is still within the normal range of childhood behaviour. Psychological Diagnoses in the Courtroom: The Mental Disorder Defence 1) Lack of diagnostic accuracy plays a role in the criminal justice system. 2) An accused can claim ‘mental disorder defence’ which is the new term for the ‘insanity defence’, originating from the M’Naghten rule. Mental disorder defence (p. 570) claims that the defendant was in such an extreme, abnormal state of mind when commiting the crime that he or she could not discern that the actions were legally or morally wrong.
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3) Two different Canadian cases demonstrate the use of this defence with different outcomes. i) Elaine Campione of Barrie, ON drowned her two children in the bathtub while she was going through a custody battle with her ex-husband. a) Her lawyers used the defence but the crown countered that her particular disorder did not prevent her from knowing right from wrong. ii) Nerlin Sarmiento of Edmonton, AB drowned her son in a bathtub during a depressive episode that was part of her Bipolar disorder. a) Her lawyers used the defence and the court decided that she was not criminally responsible and was sentenced to psychiatric treatment.
RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 15.1 Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ What is “Barbaric?” ➢ Mental Illness as Myth ➢ Art and Mental Illness ➢ Parameters of Mental Illness ➢ Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Mental Illness ➢ Uncommon Psychiatric Syndromes ➢ Disorders of Physical Symptoms Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Abnormal Behaviour in the College Student ➢ What Is Abnormal? ➢ Trick or Treat—Using Costumes to Portray a Psychological Disorder ➢ Reviewing Perspectives ➢ Crossword Puzzle ➢ Fill-in-the-Blanks Handout Masters ➢ Handout Master 15.1 Deviant Behaviour ➢ Handout Master 15.2 What Is Abnormal? ➢ Handout Master 15.4 Perspectives on Abnormal Behaviour ➢ Handout Master 15.5 Crossword Puzzle Activity ➢ Handout Master 15.6 Fill-in-the-Blanks Activity ➢ Handout Master 15.7 Summary of Major DSM-IV Categories Web Resources ➢ Art Brut: www.artbrut.com/ ➢ Internet Mental Health: www.mentalhealth.com/ ➢ Mental Health Net: www.mhnet.org/disorders/ ➢ Symptoms of Mental Illness: www.psychcentral.com/disorders/ ➢ Teaching Clinical Psychology: http://www-usr.rider.edu/ ➢ National Alliance on Mental Health (NAMI): www.nami.org ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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II. MODULE 15.2 PERSONALITY AND DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS (Text p. 572) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology associated with personality and dissociative disorders. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand how different types of personality disorders can affect interpersonal relationships. o Dissociation can be explained in everyday phenomena such as daydreaming. However, a dissociative disorder may occur when mind, body. And surroundings are severely and chronically separated, such as in purported cases of dissociative identity disorder. ✓ Apply your knowledge of antisocial personality disorder to identify which maladaptive behaviour is consistent with each disorder. o Students should be able to identify biological, psychological, and social factors associated with antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy. ✓ Analyze the status of dissociative identity disorder as a legitimate diagnosis. o The lack of a physical basis for the disorder and its unusual rate and patterns of diagnosis rightly bring about skepticism. For example, diagnoses of DID increased dramatically after a film depicted a purported case of DID. Ensure that your evaluation (of any condition, not just DID) is not biased by fictional or sensationalized accounts you have seen or read. However, it is also important to remember that many of the mental disorders for which we have a greater understanding were at one time considered mysterious and controversial. Personality disorders (p. 572) particularly unusual patterns of behaviour (relative to one’s cultural context) that are maladaptive, distressing to oneself or others, and resistant to change. Cluster A Personality Disorders: Odd and Eccentric Behaviours 1) The general theme of Cluster A personality disorders is that the individual tends to perceive and interpret the world in an abnormal—and usually inaccurate—way. They also tend to express their thoughts in a manner that makes it difficult for them to form close social relationships. Paranoid Personality Disorder Paranoid personality disorder (PDP) (p. 573) individuals are consistently preoccupied by the belief that other people are attempting to harm or deceive them; they often react with anger to these imagined social or physical threats. 1) People with PDP are suspicious of others even when there is no justification for these suspicions. As a result of these distorted perceptions of other people’s intentions, people with PDP have a difficult time forming close relationships. 2) This tendency can form a vicious circle of repeated negative social interactions and negative thought processes (see Figure 15.2). 3) The DSM-5 indicates that approximately 2% to 4% of the population has some form of PDP, although little is known about the genes involved with this disorder. 4) From a biological standpoint, neuroimaging studies have found that people with PDP show faster neural responses to auditory stimuli than a matched control group. They also have larger levels of stress hormones in their cerebrospinal fluid, the liquid substance found in the ventricles and sinuses of the brain.
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Schizoid Personality Disorder Schizoid personality disorder (SPD) (p. 573) an individual is socially detached; he or she does not desire close relationships, including being part of a family, and takes little pleasure in most activities. 1) Individuals with this personality disorder tend to appear cold and aloof. They do not express many emotions and, when they do, these expressions are less intense than is normal. 2) Many people with SPD feel so distant from people that they wonder if other people notice them at all. In a first-person account of his adolescent schizoid personality disorder, British researcher Peter Chadwick recounted a story of being stunned—and oddly pleased—when a car stopped for him at a crosswalk. It reminded him that other people really did notice that he existed. Schizotypal Personality Disorder Schizotypal personality disorder (SPD) (p. 574) which consists of both a discomfort with close relationships as well as unusual or eccentric thoughts and behaviours. 1) Individuals with this personality disorder tend to be suspicious and superstitious. They frequently get lost in their own thoughts and imagine connections between thoughts and events that do not really exist. 2) People with this illness also tend to express their thoughts using abstract and strangely formed sentences. 3) It is possible that the strange manner of speaking found in many people with schizotypal personality disorder is associated with the smaller size of the superior temporal gyrus. 4) Problems during pregnancy—particularly exposure to the flu virus during week 23 of prenatal development—has also been associated with later schizotypal development in males. 5) Psychological trauma and chronic stress have also been linked with this disorder.
Cluster B Personality Disorders: Dramatic and Erratic Behaviours Borderline Personality Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) (p. 575) which is characterized by intense extremes between positive and negative emotions, an unstable sense of self, impulsivity, and difficult social relationships. 1) Each of the characteristics of BPD seems to be connected to a tendency to think in all-or-none terms. a) For example, a person with BPD may fall in love quickly, professing deep commitment and affection, but just as quickly become disgusted by someone’s imperfections. i) Friends, family, colleagues, and public figures can also be idealized and despised in the same way. ii) Fear of abandonment can lead to risky sexual behaviours in an attempt to form relationships. iii) People with BPD may have a hard time understanding that there are bound to be conflicts in any relationship.
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Narcissistic Personality Narcissistic personality disorders (NPD) (p. 575) is characterized by an inflated sense of selfimportance and an excessive need for attention and admiration, as well as intense self-doubt and fear of abandonment. 1) In fact, people with NPD are known to manipulate and arrange their relationships to make sure their own needs are met, no matter the toll it takes on others. i) They often lack empathy. 2) Narcissistic students are more likely to engage in academic dishonesty. i) Their sense of entitlement and specialness allows them to cheat without feeling any guilt or remorse. Histrionic Personality Histrionic personality disorder (HPD) (p. 575) is characterized by excessive attention seeking and dramatic behaviour. 1) “Histrionic” comes from a Latin word meaning “like an actor or like a theatrical performance”. 2) People who have HPD are typically very successful at drawing people in with flirtatiousness, provocative sexuality, and flattery. i) However, they are simply playing the roles they believe are necessary to be the centre of attention. ii) Thus, people with HPD are characterized by extreme shallowness and emotional immaturity. Antisocial Personality Disorder Antisocial personality disorder (APD) (p. 576) is given to individuals who have a profound lack of empathy or emotional connection with others, a disregard for others’ rights or preferences, and a tendency toward imposing their own desires, often violently, onto others regardless of the consequences for other people or, often when younger, animals. 1) APD tends to be highly resistant to treatment, in part because individuals with APD are not alarmed or distressed by their actions (although others frequently are), and they are thus rarely, if ever, motivated to change. 2) Adults with APD and children with conduct disorders (often a precursor to APD) have difficulty learning tasks that require decision making and following complex rules. 3) Studies reveal that cognitive factors and underlying brain systems are involved in personality disorders. 4) Troubled homes and communities can contribute to the development of antisocial personality disorder as well.
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Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The Criminal Psychopath 1) What do we know about antisocial psychopaths? i) Approximately 15% to 20% of people with APD would also be diagnosed with psychopathy. ii) Psychopaths are frequently diagnosed using the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCLR; Hare, 2003), a 20-item checklist on which an assessor decides the degree to which a patient matches different characteristics. iii) The PCL-R breaks down into two main factors. a) The Interpersonal/Emotional factor contains items such as “superficial charm,” “pathological lying,” “lack of empathy,” and “lack of guilt.” b) The Social Deviance factor contains items such as “need for stimulation,” “impulsivity,” “poor behavioural controls,” and “early behavioural problems.” 2) How can science explain psychopaths’ behaviour? i) Researchers have discovered that psychopaths are under-reactive to stress. For example, a flash of light, a loud sound, or the sudden appearance of an angry face will startle most people. In contrast, psychopaths show very weak startle responses when exposed to unpleasant stimuli. ii) In one study, researchers recorded the electrical signals of the eyeblink muscles while presenting disturbing images to a group of male prisoners from an American jail and a control group (i.e., without a psychological disorder) (see Figure15.3). iii) Psychopaths show very little amygdala activity in these situations. Additional impairments occur as a result of problems associated with the frontal lobes. The frontal lobes have connections that allow them to reduce the activity of the amygdala and other emotionrelated brain images. iv) As a result, they have trouble regulating their emotional responses (see Figure15.4). 3) Can we critically evaluate this information? i) A neuroimaging experiment using prisoners in Germany, 14 of whom were psychopaths and 14 of whom weren’t, provides an eerie window into the mind of the psychopath. ii) Results indicated that both psychopaths and non-psychopaths answered almost all of the items correctly. There was a large difference in the neural activity that was occurring while they were responding, however. The criminals who were not psychopaths showed increased brain activity in brain areas related to empathy, indicating that they were mentally taking the perspective of the characters in the study. 4) Why is this relevant? i) Psychopaths, and people with APD in general, tend to be highly resistant to psychological therapies, making it even more critical to understand the underlying biological processes. ii) Antisocial patterns are often detectable during childhood and adolescence, which are critical periods of brain development. iii) If a system of early diagnosis and treatment could be instituted, it might be possible to more effectively intervene before the person develops the full manifestation of the disorder, and before they commit any harm.
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Cluster C Personality Disorders: Anxious and Fearful Behaviours Avoidant Personality Disorder Avoidant personality disorder (AvPD) (p. 578) individuals avoid social interactions, including those at school or work, because they feel inadequate and are deeply afraid of being rejected. 1) People with AvPD tend to avoid trying new things because they are afraid of embarrassing themselves. They also tend to focus on any criticism they might receive, even if it is quite minor. 2) In some cases, people with AvPD will try to protect themselves against the pain of rejection by trying to avoid experiencing emotions altogether. To do this, they avoid forming social bonds. 3) The amygdala is one of the structures believed to be involved in this disorder. Researchers have found that the amygdala showed larger responses in AvPD participants than in healthy controls when they were asked to judge the emotionality of negative social stimuli. Importantly, the size of the amygdala response during the study was positively correlated with their anxiety levels (i.e., as amygdala activity increased, so did self-reported anxiety).
Dependent Personality Disorder Dependent personality disorder (DPD) (p. 578) individuals with this disorder have an excessive need to be taken care of, often requiring frequent assurance from others and help with everyday decision-making. 1) People with DPD have difficulty starting projects on their own because they lack confidence. They are also so afraid of being abandoned that they tend to avoid disagreeing with others. 2) There are some similarities between DPD and AvPD. The fear of being rejected dominates the lives of people with these disorders. 3) What separates the two conditions is that people with AvPD tend to avoid social relationships so that they will not experience rejection, whereas individuals with DPD become excessively clingy to people in their social network because they are afraid of being rejected. Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) (p. 578) a disorder in which individuals are perfectionists who are unusually focused on details, organization, and productivity; these individuals also tend to avoid spending money or throwing out old, worthless objects. 1) OCPD is not just being organized instead, it involves a maladaptive focus on details that causes distress in their lives. 2) People with OCPD often fail to delegate tasks and refuse help from others because they feel that other people will not produce “perfect” work. 3) OCPD also involves stingy spending habits with a focus on saving money and not throwing away old items. As in their work life, the focus here is on control. If they control money now, they will be prepared if a catastrophe occurs at a later time. 4) There have been relatively few studies of the biology underlying OCPD. However, Italian researchers performing research on Parkinson’s disease, noted that OCPD occurred in 40% of their patients (see Figure15.5). No other personality disorder exceeded 10%. This result suggests that this disorder is related to the neurotransmitter dopamine.
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Dissociative Identity Disorder 1) Almost everyone has experienced a dissociative experience—a sense of separation between you and your surroundings. i) For example, have you ever driven on a familiar route and suddenly realize you drive past your turn five minutes ago? a) Maybe you’ve been reading a book or playing a game and you were totally unaware of what was going on around you. ii) These are normal experiences, but those with extreme cases may be diagnosed with dissociative disorder. What is Dissociative Identity Disorder? Dissociative disorder (p. 579) a category of mental disorders characterized by a split between a person’s conscious awareness and their feeling, cognition, memory, and identity. 1) Probably the most familiar member of this category is dissociative identity disorder (DID), also referred to as multiple personality disorder. Dissociative identity disorder (DID) or multiple personality disorder (p. 579) A disorder in which a person experiences a split in identity such that they feel different aspects of themselves as though they were separated from each other. This can be severe enough that the person constructs entirely separate personalities, only one of which will generally be in control at a time. 2) Dissociative disorders, such as DID, are thought to be brought on by extreme stress. 3) Most cases of DID do include reports of a stressful event or series of events that precipitated the onset of the condition. Is Dissociative Identity Disorder “Real?” 1) DID is a very rare condition affecting only about 1% of all psychiatric patients. 2) DID is very difficult to test for, which has raised a lot of skepticism by some. i) One approach to testing for DID is to check for memory dissociations between alter identities. ii) In one study patients viewed words and pictures and were tested for recall either when they were experiencing the same alter as when they learned, or when they were experiencing a different alter. iii) The results suggested that some types of learning do not transfer between alters. iv) However, a physical cause or symptom of the disorder has yet to be identified. v) Skeptics of DID note that it may have it origins more in the context of therapy, rather than being a response to trauma. a) In 1970, there were 79 documented cases of DID. b) This number grew to 6,000 in 1986. c) By 1998, the number had risen to more than 40,000.
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 15.2 Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ What Really Predicts DID? Web Resources ➢ MPD Booklist: http://mpbooks.artefact.org.nz/ ➢ Multiple Personality Disorder: www.skepdic.com/ ➢ The Price of Bad Memories: http://faculty.washington.edu/ ➢ Antisocial Personality Disorder: www.mentalhealth.com/ ➢ Crime Times: www.crimetimes.org/ ➢ Personality Disorder Test: www.4degreez.com/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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III. MODULE 15.3: ANXIETY, OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE, AND DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS (Text p. 582) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology related to anxiety, obsessive-compulsive, and depressive disorders. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand the different types of anxiety disorders. o Although anxiety disorders share many similarities in symptoms, they differ in terms of what brings about the symptoms and the intensity of the symptoms. The cues that trigger anxiety range widely: In generalized anxiety disorder, just about anything may cause anxiety; in specific phobias, an individual fears only certain objects. Likewise, the intensity can range from near-constant worrying to the brief periods of highly intense anxiety in phobias and panic disorder. ✓ Understand how anxiety or depressive disorders can be self-perpetuating. o Both depression and anxiety are characterized by a vicious cycle: With anxiety, anxious thoughts can lead to physiological arousal; physiological arousal can lead to escape and avoidance to get rid of the immediate fear, which in turn reinforces the anxious thoughts. In depression, a similar pattern can occur with depressed thoughts, self-blame, and social withdrawal. ✓ Apply your knowledge of anxiety, obsessive-compulsive, and depressive disorders in order to identify which behavioural symptoms are associated with each disorder. o Students should be able to identify at least five warning signs for suicide and the number of the suicide helpline. ✓ Analyze whether maladaptive aspects of specific phobias might arise from perfectly normal, healthy behaviours. o To analyze this issue, we need to examine the specific symptoms that occur in someone who has a phobia and is showing an adaptive response (fear, anxiety) but to an inappropriate stimulus or situation. It is perfectly reasonable and healthy to be cautious about heights, for example, in the sense that falls can be dangerous, even life-threatening. This reaction is maladaptive only when the fear response is so intense or out of context that it interferes with daily life. Imagine a house painter who cannot climb a ladder or scaffold; unless he overcomes his fear (or finds very short houses to work on), he will have to make major adjustments to accommodate his fear.
Anxiety Disorders 1) Anxiety disorders are one of the most frequently diagnosed disorders, affecting more than 40 million Americans ages 18 and older. Anxiety Disorders (p. 583) are a category of disorders involving fear of nervousness that is excessive, irrational, and maladaptive. i)
Everyone experiences feelings of anxiety, which is based on a normal physiological and psychological response to stressful events known as the fight-or-flight response. a) Feelings include a racing heart, increased respiration, sweaty hands, and a knot in the stomach.
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b) The changes reflect a shift in energy from non-emergency tasks (e.g., digestion) toward fighting or fleeing. c) This is an adaptive response common to all mammals. ii) However, as discussed in Module 14.2, these responses become maladaptive when they go beyond typical psychological responses. Varieties of Anxiety Disorders 1) The primary symptoms of all anxiety disorders include the basic feelings of anxiety. i) What separates anxiety disorders from other forms of anxiety is a combination of an unjustifiable degree, duration, and source of anxiety. a) These experiences create distress for the individual and interfere with normal daily functioning at work, at school, and in personal relationships. 2) Those with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) generalize their anxiety to just about anything. Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) (p. 583) involves frequently elevated levels of anxiety, generally from the normal challenges and stresses of everyday life. i) Those with GAD, like other anxiety disorders, have trouble concentrating and sleeping. ii) However, those with GAD struggle to identify the specific reasons for why they are anxious. iii) The anxiety people feel with GAD doesn’t seem to go away, even if the issue is resolved. a) Instead, the anxiety is redirected to the next problem or issue. 3) Major life changes commonly precede the onset of GAD. i) However, not all factors contributing to GAD are clear. 4) Panic disorders are shorter in duration and more intense in comparison to GAD. Panic disorder (p. 584) is an anxiety disorder marked by occasional episodes of sudden, very intense fear. i)
The key feature of this disorder is panic attacks—brief moments of extreme anxiety that include a rush of physical activity paired with frightening thoughts. a) A panic attack escalates when the fear of death causes increased physical arousal, and the increased physical symptoms feed the frightening thoughts. b) These attacks rarely go on for more than 10 minutes, after which the person returns to a more relaxed state. Panic attack (p. 584) brief moments of extreme anxiety that include a rush of physical activity paired with frightening thoughts.
5) People with panic disorder often develop an intense fear that the panic with strike again. Agoraphobia (p. 584) an intense fear of having a panic attack in public; as a result of this fear, the individual may begin to avoid public settings and increasingly isolate him or herself. i)
The individual may begin to avoid public settings so as to avoid the embarrassment and trauma of a panic attack. a) In its most extreme forms, agoraphobia leads an individual to stay inside his or her home almost permanently.
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Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Specific Phobias 1) In contrast to GAD, where an individual’s anxiety can be applied to just about any situation, individuals can have more specific fears (Table 15.3). Phobia (p. 584) is a severe, irrational fear of a very specific object or situation. Specific phobias (p. 584) involve an intense fear of an object, activity, or organism. i) Specific phobias include fears of specific animals, heights, thunder, blood, or injections. 2) What do we know about specific phobias? i) Phobias are developed through unpleasant or frightening experiences. a) For example, someone who is bitten by a dog might develop a phobia of dogs. b) However, not all who are bitten will develop a phobia. ii) We may be biologically predisposed to fear some objects more than others. a) Most phobias are of objects and situations that we may need to fear for survival (e.g., heights and snakes). 3) How can science explain why some people are more likely than others to develop specific phobias? i) Using mice, scientists showed that certain types of fears can be genetically influenced. a) Researchers tested a strain of mice for fear conditioning and ranked them from least to most easily conditioned. b) They classically conditioned the mice with a tone and a shock. c) Those who froze the longest (mice show fear by freezing in place), where the most fearful and vice versa. ii) The most fearful mice were allowed to breed with each other across four generations and the same was done with the least fearful mice. a) Fear responses became more and more distinct, with the third and fourth generations being very different from each other (Figure 15.7). 4) Can we critically evaluate this information? i) There is no indication from this particular study that the human genome also codes for fear conditioning. ii) This research might also lead you to believe that humans have developed biological tendencies to fear dangerous things in general, but that is not the case. a) The objects and situations people tend to fear have been a part of human experience for thousands of years. b) This would explain why so many people rapidly develop phobias related to threats of our ancestors (e.g., snakes or spiders), whereas relatively few people develop phobias about other potential dangers (e.g., guns). 5) Why is this relevant? i) Knowing that some phobias may have a genetic component, professionals might not treat all phobias the same way. ii) By isolating genetic tendencies and determining how they affect the nervous system, researchers will be able to develop more specialized forms of treatments for phobias and other anxiety disorders.
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Social Phobia Social anxiety disorder (p. 586) is a very strong fear of being judged by others or being embarrassed or humiliated in public. 1) Someone with a social anxiety disorder can go out in public, but prefers familiar places and routines and will avoid many other situations because anxiety levels are too high. i) For example, a student might show up to class right as it begins so that s/he doesn’t have to have awkward conversations in the hall. a) Or worse, be the only one not having a conversation. ii) S/he may be very hungry, but won’t go to the cafeteria because his/her roommate isn’t around and s/he cannot sit with strangers (especially without the roommate). a) So s/he gets a snack out of the vending machine and sits quietly behind the library. We all may do such things from time to time, but do you shape your life around such events? Is it maladaptive? Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) 1) Other anxiety disorders are trademarked by intrusive thoughts and repetitive behaviours (Table 15.4). i) The caudate region of the brain seems to be responsible for stifling inappropriate impulses. a) The compulsive behaviours that people with OCD engage in are thought to be a way of asserting control over this problem. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) (p. 586) is a disorder characterized by unwanted, inappropriate, and persistent thoughts (obsessions), and engaging in repetitive, often quite ritualistic behaviours (compulsions). 2) Although some young children develop OCD symptoms after exposure to bacterial streptococcal infections, OCD doesn’t usually strike until young adulthood. 3) All of us have had unwanted thoughts stuck in our head (e.g., a song), but obsessions are generally inappropriate thoughts that can last for months or years. i) For example, a persona might imagine picking up germs from everything s/he touches or blurting out forbidden sexual feelings to a co-worker. a) Ignoring these thoughts only make them worse. b) To get a sense of relief, the person seeks socially acceptable ways of relieving such tensions, such as being friendly with the co-worker or sending anonymous messages. 4) Compulsive behaviours often arise from specific obsessions. i) For example, someone who is obsessively worried about starting a fire might develop checking behaviours. a) Before leaving the house, s/he might check that all the lamps and appliances are unplugged. b) S/he might make rounds a couple of time to make sure everything is unplugged and move the cords two feet from the outlets. c) To make sure a light switch isn’t stuck halfway between on and off, s/he may turn the light on and off seven times, with one final hard turn off.
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OCD and the Brain 1) The fact that OCD often involves a specific, repeated action suggests that the biology underlying this mental illness is different from that of anxiety disorders. 2) Early studies suggested that OCD was due to a smaller orbito-frontal cortex (the part of the frontal lobes just above the eyes). The orbitofrontal cortex is involved indecision making, the basal ganglia are involved with movement and reward, and the thalamus is involved with taking in sensory information. 3) More recent explanations for OCD built upon this earlier work and attempted to explain some of the cognitive symptoms that often accompany OCD, such as problems with working memory and attentional control (see Figure 15.8).
Mood Disorders 1) Mood disorders, such as bipolar disorder and depression, are particularly common, affecting nearly 10% of adults in Canada and the USA. i) Due to biopsychosocial factors, rates of depression are twice as high among women than men and three times as high among people living in poverty. ii) Twin studies suggest an underlying genetic risk for developing major depression. Characteristics of Major Depression 1) We have all felt sad or depressed at some time, but clinical depression can be very severe and occurs even when there are no events or circumstances we would associate with a depressed mood. Major depression (p. 587) is a disorder marked by prolonged periods of sadness, feelings of worthlessness and hopelessness, social withdrawal, and cognitive and physical sluggishness. 2) Major depression involves more than just feeling sad for a long period of time. i) Cognition becomes depressed as well. a) Therefore, individuals have difficulty concentrating and making decisions while memories shift toward unpleasant and unhappy events. ii) Physiologically, affected individuals may be lethargic and sleepy, yet experience insomnia. iii) Individuals may experience a change in appetite and the onset of digestive problems (e.g., constipation). Cognitive Aspects of Depression 1) Depression affects cognition as well as emotion. i) Depressed people begin the emphasize negative, self-critical thoughts, they develop a characteristic depressive or pessimistic explanatory style. 2) Those suffering from depression often develop a depressive explanatory style, in which the person explains life with three qualities: internal, stable, and global (Figure 15.9). a) Internal personal attributions: I’m so stupid, it’s all my fault, I’m worthless. b) Stable attributions: It’s always going to be this way; things will never change. c) Global attributions: This applies to everything, not just the current situation.
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Genetic Vulnerability to Depression 1) Twin studies suggest an underlying genetic risk for developing major depression (see Figure 15.10). 2) Additionally, behavioural genetics researchers have found that people who inherit two copies of the short version of the 5-HTT gene are at greater risk for developing depression, whereas those who inherit two long copies are at a far lower risk. 3) But what is critical here is not just which genes are inherited, but also how much stress people experience. As the number of major stressful life events increases, those who inherit two copies of the short version of this gene are far more likely to develop depression, whereas those who inherit two long copies are buffered from depression (see Figure 15.11). Diathesis-stress model (p. 489) the interaction between a genetic predisposition for a disorder and life stress. Biological Aspects of Depression 1) Brain imaging has identified two primary regions related to depression. i) The amygdala, which is involved with immediate responses to emotional stimuli (see Module 11.4). The amygdala also stimulates the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, a system involved with stress responses (see Module 14.2 and Figure 15.12). ii) The medial (middle) part of the prefrontal cortex. Individuals with abnormally high activity in this brain area are more prone to rumination. As a result, these individuals will continue to think about negative events, even when it would be better to move on to a different line of thinking. 2) Various neurotransmitters, especially serotonin, dopamine and norepinepherine, are involved in depression. i) People with depression typically have lower serotonin levels. Sociocultural and Environmental Influences on Mood Disorders 1) Some socioeconomic and environmental factors leave some individuals more vulnerable to mood disorders. i) Just living in a specific neighbourhood can be a risk factor for three main reasons: a) Poor neighbourhoods are associated with higher daily stress levels due to substandard housing and facilities and increased crime rates. b) People living in these neighbourhoods are more vulnerable to stressors such as unemployment because they often lack connections, mentors, and role models. c) Disrupted social ties are more prevalent in poor neighbourhoods due to high-turnover rates (do not know neighbours, so take less interests in one another’s well-being). Bipolar Disorder 1) Bipolar disorder involves depression at one end and mania (an extremely energized, positive mode) at the other end. Bipolar disorder (p. 592) (formerly referred to as manic depression) is characterized by extreme highs and lows in mood, motivation, and energy. i) This disorder occurs a third as often as depression. ii) Individuals’ manic episodes can vary in length and duration. a) Some people experience only a few manic episodes in their lives, whereas others go through manias several times each year. iii) Some are known as “rapid cyclers” and experience very abrupt mood swings, sometimes within hours. .. 808
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Suicide 1) Recent statistics rank suicide as the 2nd most frequent cause of death in Canada. i) Suicide is four times more likely among males than females. ii) Although many believe adolescents are at greatest risk, suicide is highest among the elderly (nearly 60% higher than teens). 2) There are a number of signs and risk factors associated with depression (Table 15.5). i) Among persons in their teens and early 20s, the most significant risk factors are: a) Mood disorders, recent and extremely stressful life events, a family history of mood disorders (with or without suicide), easy access to a lethal means of suicide (most significantly, firearms), and the presence of these factors in conjunction with substance abuse. ii) For younger individuals, being the victim of bullying and ostracism is a risk factor. a) However, it is a greater concern when youth are both the victims and the perpetrators of bullying. iii) Individuals may express despair and hopelessness. a) “I just want to give up; Nothing matters anymore; They’ll be sorry when I’m gone”. iv) Other signs include giving away personal possessions, suddenly withdrawing from work or school, crying spells, or obtaining a means of committing the act.
PSYCH @ The Suicide Helpline 1) The first helplines where religious based and emphasized empathy and active listening. i) However, this doesn’t meet the needs of all callers. 2) It turns out that good crisis telephone responders use both styles, depending on the circumstances. i) First-time callers tend to benefit more from an active listener, who will be nonjudgmental, compassionate, and reflective. ii) Repeat callers also need compassion, but tend to benefit more if the listener engages in problem-solving strategies.
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RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 15.3 Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ Anxiety and Adaptation ➢ Impulse Control Disorders ➢ Suicide: Fact and Fiction ➢ Identifying Individuals Who May Be Suicidal Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Dare to Be Perfect—A Road to Self-Defeat Handout Masters ➢ Handout Master 15.3 The Perfectionism Scale Web Resources ➢ Answers to Your Questions About Panic Disorder: www.apa.org/ ➢ Anxiety Disorders Association of America (ADAA): www.adda.org ➢ Obsessive Compulsive Foundation: www.ocfoundation.org/ ➢ OCD: www.mentalhealth.com/ ➢ Reliving Trauma: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: www.nimh.nih.gov/ ➢ Bipolar Disorder: www.nimh.nih.gov ➢ Depression: www.nimh.nih.gov/ ➢ Dysthymic Disorder: www.mentalhealth.com/ ➢ New Understanding of Suicide: www.abc.net.au/ ➢ Rates of Suicidal Deaths in Specific Age Groups, by Race and Sex—United States, 1995: www.suicidepreventtriangle.org/ ➢ The SPT Assessment: www.suicidepreventtriangle.org/ ➢ Suicide and Suicide Prevention: www.psycom.net/ ➢ Suicide Awareness\Voices of Education (SA\VE): www.save.org/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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IV. MODULE 15.4 SCHIZOPHRENIA (Text p. 595) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives ✓ Know the key terminology associated with schizophrenia. o See the bold, italicized terms below. ✓ Understand how different neurotransmitters affect individuals with schizophrenia. o Part of how we can explain schizophrenia is by identifying the neurotransmitter chemicals that are affected by the disorder. Individuals with schizophrenia have overactive receptors for the neurotransmitter dopamine. The excess dopamine may be involved in producing the positive symptoms (e.g., hallucinations), but not the negative symptoms (e.g., flattened affect). Glutamate appears to be underactive in brain regions, including the hippocampus and the frontal cortex. ✓ Understand the genetic and environmental contributions to schizophrenia. o The neurodevelopmental hypothesis claims that at least some neurological abnormalities are present at birth, although it does not state to what degree these abnormalities are genetic or environmental. Nevertheless, some research suggests that prenatal exposure to the flu or to significant amounts of stress hormones are all risk factors for this type of mental illness. Genetics seem to play a role, as twin studies show that if one identical twin has schizophrenia, the other has a 50% chance of developing the disorder—a substantial increase over the 1% occurrence rate in the general population. ✓ Apply your knowledge to identify key features of schizophrenia. o Students should be able to read an individual’s symptoms and identify which form of schizophrenia they most closely match. ✓ Analyze claims that schizophrenia is related to genius or violent behaviour. o Some high-profile cases highlight people with schizophrenia who are intellectually brilliant. In reality, however, research tells us that the average intelligence of people with schizophrenia is not much different from those of the general population; in fact, it is a little bit lower than the norm. Similarly, the belief that schizophrenia leads to violence derives from a small group of high-profile examples. In truth, there does not seem to be increased risk of violence associated with schizophrenia. Those with mental illness are actually more likely to be victims of crime.
Symptoms and Types of Schizophrenia Schizophrenia (p. 596) refers to a brain disease that causes the person to experience significant breaks from reality, a lack of integration of thoughts and emotions, and problems with attention and memory. 1) Symptoms begin to occur and escalate gradually and can go unnoticed for a long time. Stages of Schizophrenia 1) Typically there are three distinct phases that occur in sequence; Prodronal, active and residual. Prodromal phase (p. 596) people may become easily confused and have difficulty organizing their thoughts, they may lose interest and begin to withdraw from friends and family, and they may lose their normal motivations, withdraw from life, and spend increasing amounts of time alone, often deeply engrossed in their own thoughts.
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Active phase (p. 596) people typically experience delusional thoughts, hallucinations, or disorganized patterns of thoughts, emotions and behaviour. Residual phase (p. 596) people’s predominant symptoms have disappeared or lessened considerably, and they may simply be withdrawn, have trouble concentrating, and generally lack motivation. 2) Some people cycle through the stages a couple of times in their life, where others may cycle repeatedly, with the severity of withdraw in residual phase increase with more episodes and normal function decreasing. 3) Symptoms are most pronounced in the active phase. Symptoms of Schizophrenia 1) Schizophrenia is associated with a number of different symptoms classified as positive and negative categories versus using subtypes. i) Positive symptoms involve the presence of maladaptive behaviour. ii) Negative symptoms include absent or flat emotional reactions as well as lack of speech and motivation. Positive Symptoms (p. 596) refer to the presence of maladaptive behaviours, such as confused and paranoid thinking, and inappropriate emotional reactions. Negative Symptoms (p. 596) involve the absence of adaptive behaviour, such as absent or flat emotional reactions, lack of interacting with others in a social setting, and lack of motivation. 2) Common positive symptoms are the presence of hallucinations and delusions. Hallucinations (p. 596) are alterations in perception, such that a person hears, sees, smells, feels, or tastes something that does not actually exist, except in that person’s own mind. Delusions (p. 596) beliefs that are not based on or well integrated with reality. i)
For example, a person with schizophrenia may have a delusion of grandeur, believing that he is famous, or that they have a divine purpose. Disorganized bahviour (p. 597) the considerable difficulty people with schizophrenia may have completing the tasks of everyday life.
3) Other cognitive symptoms can include low-level physiological responses like excessive eye blinking in response to stimulation, to more complex skills like low-test scores. 4) Working memory is impaired most likely due to significant neurological decline found in patients with schizophrenia. a) This likely explains, in part, the disorganized thoughts and speech characteristic of schizophrenia. 5) Social interaction is difficult for many people with schizophrenia.
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6) They have difficulty reasoning about social situations and show relatively poor social adjustment. i) Their emotional expressions and ability to react to the emotions of others may be impaired. a) For example, people with schizophrenia may have a neutral masklike expression on their faces, and show little responses to smiles or other expressions from others. b) Prefrontal cortex functioning is decreased in those with schizophrenia. Common Sub-Types of Schizophrenia 1) Other symptoms cluster into different patterns, which professionals subtype into the following disorders: Paranoid schizophrenia (p. 598) symptoms include delusional beliefs that one is being followed, watched, or persecuted, and may also include delusions of grandeur or the belief that one has some secret, insight, power or some other characteristic that makes one particularly special. Disorganized schizophrenia (p. 598) symptoms include thoughts, speech, behaviour, and emotion that are poorly integrated and incoherent. People with disorganized schizophrenia may also show inappropriate, unpredictable mannerisms. Catatonic schizophrenia (p. 598) symptoms include episodes in which a person remains mute and immobile—sometimes in bizarre positions—for extended periods. Individuals may also exhibit repetitive, purposeless movements. Myths in Mind: Schizophrenia is Not a Sign of Violence or Genius 1) There are a number of myths surrounding schizophrenia. i) Some people believe the disorder involves a “split personality”, but that is actually dissociative identity disorder (DID) (Module 15.2). ii) Other’s believe “madness” goes along with genius. iii) There is also a belief that those with schizophrenia are dangerous. 2) One reason these myths persist is due to high profile cases: i) Ted Kaczynski, known as the “Unabomber”, was a math genius sent mail bombs to prominent researchers at various universities. ii) John Nash is another math genius who peacefully works at Princeton University. a) The film A Beautiful Mind is based on his life story. 3) However, most people with schizophrenia score slightly below average on IQ tests. 4) Also, few individuals with schizophrenia commit offenses even approaching the level of violence committed by Kaczynski. i) Violence that is committed is usually fueled by substance abuse and other factors unrelated to the illness. ii) It is more likely that people with mental illness will be victims of crime—up to 11 times more likely than non-mentally ill people.
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Explaining Schizophrenia Genetics 1) Studies using twin, adoption, and family history methods have shown that as genetic relatedness increases, the chance that a relative of a person with schizophrenia will also develop the disorder increases (Figure 15.13). i) For example, if one identical twin has schizophrenia, the other twin has a 25% to 50% chance of developing it. ii) Dizygotic (fraternal) twins have a 10% to 17% chance. 2) Data from the Human Genome Project have provided researchers with a powerful tool in their search for the genes linked with schizophrenia. i) A recent study of 37,000 people with schizophrenia and 113,000 control participants identified 108 genes that are associated with this disorder. ii) However, this study revealed that a number of these genes were also associated with other psychological disorders, suggesting that some genes are related to neurodevelopmental impairments in general while others may be related to specific disorders. Schizophrenia and the Nervous System 1) One very noticeable difference between individuals with schizophrenia and individuals without schizophrenia is apparent in the size of the brain ventricles. i) This is the fluid-filled spaces occurring within the core of the brain. ii) People with schizophrenia have ventricular spaces that are 20% to 30% larger (Figure 15.14). a) These larger spaces correspond to a loss of brain matter. iii) The volume of the entire brain is reduced by roughly 2% in those with schizophrenia. a) The reduced volume can be seen in structures such as the amygdala and hippocampus. b) These anatomical changes do not cause schizophrenia; they just tend to occur in people with the disorder. 2) The brains of those with schizophrenia also appear to operate differently. i) They tend to have a lower level of activity in their frontal lobes. a) Those with a long history of the illness show decreased activity when they are at a resting state or when their frontal lobes are activated by cognitive tasks. b) This includes decreased activity in the amygdala and hippocampal regions. 3) Neurotransmitters also play a role in schizophrenia. i) Individuals with schizophrenia have overactive receptors for the neurotransmitter dopamine. a) The excess dopamine may be involved in producing the positive symptoms (e.g., hallucinations), but not the negative symptoms (e.g., flattened affect). ii) Glutamate appears to be underactive in brain regions, including the hippocampus and the frontal cortex. a) Glutamate receptor activity is also inhibited by the drug PCP (angel dust), which in high doses can cause symptoms that mirror those of schizophrenia.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The Neurodevelopmental Hypothesis 1) What do we know about the neurodevelopmental hypothesis? i) Biopsychosocial factors begin to influence behaviour before birth. Neurodevelopmental Hypothesis (p. 600) the adult manifestation of what we call “schizophrenia” is the outgrowth of disrupted neurological development early in the person’s life.
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ii) This hypothesis suggests that schizophrenics are more likely to have been born in winter months. a) The cold weather leaves 2nd trimester fetuses at higher risk for flu, which can have an effect on brain development during that time. 2) How can science test the neurodevelopmental hypothesis? i) The developmental emphasis of the hypothesis gains strength from behavioural evidence collected during childhood and adolescence. a) For example, psychologists noticed “warning signs” in the home videos of those who developed schizophrenia. b) As infants and children, these individuals showed unusual motor patterns primarily on the left side of the body, such as jerky, repeated, and unnecessary arm movements. c) Siblings who did not have schizophrenia did not show these motor patterns. ii) In adolescence, psychologists can detect the schizophrenia prodrome, a collection of characteristics that resemble mild forms of schizophrenia symptoms. a) A teenage may become increasingly socially withdrawn and have some difficulty with depression and anxiety. b) The most telling and perplexing problem involves hallucinations and delusions, but the person does not fully believe them. c) For example, a teen might say, “I seem to keep hearing my mother calling my name before I fall asleep, even when I know she isn’t home. It is strange …” 3) Can we critically evaluate this information? i) Unusual body movements do not mean that a child will develop schizophrenia. a) However, it is one pattern that might reflect neurological abnormalities. b) It also lends support to the hypothesis that vulnerability to schizophrenia is present at birth. c) Although it is common for adolescents to report at least one symptom, those who report all of them are at a greatly increased risk for schizophrenia. 4) Why is this relevant? i) The earlier we catch schizophrenia, the earlier we can start treatments. ii) In recent years, a number of attempts to prevent schizophrenia from developing in high-risk populations have been made, but have not proved effective. Environmental and Social Influences on Schizophrenia 1) Certain events can increase the risk of developing schizophrenia. i) For example, if a mother experienced malnutrition during pregnancy, there was an increased likelihood of the child developing schizophrenia. ii) Head injuries occurring prior to age 10 also put people who are genetically vulnerable to schizophrenia at greater risk for developing the disorder. 2) Being raised in an urban environment, where psychosocial stressors are more abundant, puts individuals at greater risk for developing schizophrenia. i) This includes poverty, unemployment, discrimination, divorce, and death of a loved one. 3) The progression of the disease it linked to psychosocial factors. i) People from families high in emotional expressiveness (critical and controlling) are three or four times more likely to experience a relapse. ii) The link could be causal or correlational.
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Culture and Schizophrenia 1) There are cultural differences in how schizophrenia is perceived. i) Anglo-Americans tend to focus on the mental experiences of the disorder, such as disorganized thinking and emotions. a) They tend to view mental disorders as separate from other types of illness. ii) Mexican Americans focus more on how schizophrenia affects the body, such as by producing tension or tiredness. a) They conceive of the disorder as another other form of illness. iii) What we believe is schizophrenia, the Swahili of Tanzania see as a sign that spirits have invaded the body. RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 15.4 Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ➢ Thought Disorders and Delusions ➢ Digging for the Roots of Schizophrenia Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ➢ Abnormal Psychology in Literature: The Eden Express ➢ Abnormal Psychology in Film Web Resources ➢ Dr. Rosemary F. Rodgers: www.tapping.org/ ➢ Maurizio Baldini’s Story: www.mentalhealth.com/ ➢ Schizophrenia: www.mentalhealth.com/ ➢ Schizophrenia—Adrift in an Anchorless Reality: www.mentalhealth.com/ ➢ Schizophrenia: A Handbook for Families: www.schizophrenia.com/ ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
What Is “Barbaric?” Mental Illness as Myth Art and Mental Illness Parameters of Mental Illness Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Mental Illness Uncommon Psychiatric Syndromes Disorders of Physical Symptoms Anxiety and Adaptation Impulse Control Disorders Suicide: Fact and Fiction Identifying Individuals Who May Be Suicidal Thought Disorders and Delusions Digging for the Roots of Schizophrenia
▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: What Is “Barbaric?” The text describes the history of “treatment” as the logical consequence of particular conceptions of the mind and mental illness. According to data reported by the Treatment Advocacy Center, “In 1976, the New York City Police Department took approximately 1000 ‘emotionally disturbed persons’ to hospitals for psychiatric evaluation. By 1998, this number had increased to 24,787.” Clearly, seriously ill persons are going untreated with an alarming frequency. Students may want to consider what contemporary American policy with respect to the mentally ill implies about our assumptions regarding the brain, mind, and illness. In particular, you might ask students to contrast issues of free will and the dualist notion of mental functioning with current scientific, more deterministic views of the human mind. ◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Mental Illness as Myth Two categories of mental illness were applied to many slaves during the early years of the nineteenth century. Drapetomania was seen in the uncontrollable urge to escape from slavery, while the symptoms of dysathesia aethiopica were seen in the destruction of property on the plantation, disobedience, refusals to work, and fighting back when being beaten. While we might experience a flash of anger or a wave of guilt upon learning of such cruel and self-serving uses of psychiatric diagnosis, most psychiatrists assume that such foolishness is a thing of the past. Whatever our particular cultural background, we often share a belief in progress, and often seem quite certain in the faith that science, particularly medical science, is leading us out of such ignorance. After all, as the authors note, for diagnostic categories to be included in the Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), they must now meet a set of solid scientific criteria. It is against such faith in the progress of medical science that Thomas Szasz (1961/1967) spoke nearly thirty years ago. His book, The Myth of Mental Illness, spelled out a fundamental challenge to the medical mode of conceptualizing and treating psychological distress. Szasz wrote that labelling people as ill harms them, for it assigns them the social role of a “patient” who must wait upon the ministrations .. 817
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of doctors and mental health professionals. The harm here, according to Szasz, is that it distracts people (and not just the “patients”) from taking responsible action in addressing the social causes of their problems. Szasz is not alone in this critique. Social constructionists, feminists, and existential-phenomenological psychologists, as well as family therapists each articulate critiques of the “myth” of mental illness. What is mythic is the way of seeing psychological distress through the lens of the medical model, viewing distress as disease and not recognizing that way of seeing as a particular way of constructing its meaning. Thus, according to this critique, the problem is not simply one of clarifying the empirically verifiable categories of mental disorders. This critique challenges the medicalization of psychological distress and dysfunctions in living. For example, according to this critique, the problem with the diagnoses of drapetomania and dysathesia aethiopica is not simply that these are fallacious, culturally biased, and politically oppressive diagnostic categories. It is more fundamental than that. It is the problem of making sense out of individuals’ “abnormal” behaviour (violating cultural norms) in terms of a disturbance “within” the individual rather than as a function of the intolerable social conditions in which that individual lives. Laura Brown (1992) captures this line of critique when she writes: Basic questions, such as that of whether what we call “psychopathology” or “mental illness” is in fact that, or some other phenomenon, for example, manifestations of cultural inequities or social injustice, are barely addressed or actively ignored by the mainstream of thinking regarding psychopathology. Sickness or dysfunction is assumed to be within the person; the health of the social norms is rarely questioned. Syndromes that might constitute a normative, if not frankly normal response to abnormal events in the social and interpersonal environment, continue to be construed as forms of psychopathology if their manifestations bring a person into psychotherapy (p. 213). Viewing psychological distress and/or abnormal behaviours as mental illness blinds us to the interpersonal and socio-political circumstances that may in fact be the source of distress or abnormality. For family therapists, it is not the “identified patient” who is in need of their care, but the network of family relationships within which the “patient” lives and out of which their distress emerges that needs care. This issue can be brought home to students by considering the recent media attention given to depression. Due to the successes of the new anti-depressant medications in the alleviation of mood problems, depression is most often described as an illness. Like many other medical problems, according to this line of reasoning, depression can be treated successfully with medication. It is important to point out to students that when medication alone is used in the treatment of depression, repeated episodes are far more likely. Medications do not change behaviours. Nor do they give individuals an opportunity to explore and make the needed changes in the relational and societal contexts in which the depression occurs. References: Brown, L. (1992). A feminist critique of the personality disorders. In M. Ballou & L. Brown, (eds.). Personality and psychopathology: Feminist reappraisals. New York: Guilford Press. Szasz, T. (1961/1967). The myth of mental illness. New York: Dell Delta.
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◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Art and Mental Illness The link between creativity and madness has piqued the imagination of scholars, artists, and laypeople alike. There has been a spate of research and popular books exploring this presumed fine line. However, another aspect of this link seems to increasingly vie for popular attention. Outsider art, or art produced by people on the fringes of society, has become the “hot ticket” among critics and collectors within recent years. The term “outsider art” has been broadly applied to works produced by transients, the criminally insane, and the mentally ill; art that can be found primarily in thrift stores; art produced in isolation and discovered only upon the artist’s death; art that at one time would have qualified as a “primitive” style (e.g., the work of Grandma Moses); as well as work that typically conveys a singular, often idiosyncratic view of mundane subjects. (This multiplicity of definitions no doubt reflects the premium and price tag currently put on this type of work. Where the “outside” boundary lies is often determined by a buyer and seller.) In this regard, the work of Rev. Howard Finster (who painted the cover of the Talking Heads album Little Creatures) or anything done on velvet (from Elvis to large-eyed weeping children to clowns) would qualify. Better-known examples would include Munch’s The Scream, Louis Wain’s famous paintings of cats (which grew more bizarre as his schizophrenia progressed), or much of the work of Van Gogh. At one time, however, “outsider art” referred exclusively to the works of the mentally ill (inter alios, the criminally insane). Art brut, or art of the insane, actually has enjoyed popularity for a number of decades in underground circles. The paintings of convicted serial killer John Wayne Gacy, for example, were quietly acquired by various collectors before his execution. (After his death, a single collector acquired all he could for the express purpose of publicly destroying them.) There have also been exhibitions of such work in several respected galleries, as well as a collection housed at the Musée de l’Art Brut in Lausanne. Without arguing its merits or value, it is nonetheless fascinating to study art brut for what it reveals about the psychological state of the person producing it. In some instances, it easily reflects the turmoil experienced by a moderately depressed person or someone suffering from an anxiety disorder. In other cases it is art that is unusual, yet doesn’t seem to map onto a tidy diagnosis. At the Landers Clinic in Gugging, Austria, for example, there is an artists’ wing dedicated exclusively to a handful of patients. These painters and a sole poet have produced artwork that has been shown worldwide and has been acquired by collectors for handsome prices. (All profits are maintained in trust funds for the artists.) In the opinion of the ward’s director, Johann Feilacher, had these patients not become ill they nonetheless would have been talented artists. In this sense, art brut becomes the work of artists who happen to be mentally ill, rather than a mentally ill person’s artistic products. The many meanings of art brut discussed in this lecture suggestion can be shared with your students to stimulate discussion. You might address the link between creativity and madness, explore the definition of what constitutes art brut, or discuss the therapeutic and diagnostic value of having patients express themselves in this way. If possible, share with your students some of this work. A convenient source of art produced by the mentally ill is Schizophrenia Bulletin. Each issue of this journal features cover artwork and brief commentary by a schizophrenic patient.
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References: Prinzhorn (1995). Artistry of the mentally ill. New York: Springer-Verlag. Staff (1994, November/December). When out is in. Psychology Today, p. 15. Theoz, M. (1976). Art brut. New York: Rizzoli Press. Tuchman, M. (1992). Parallel visions: Modern artists and outsider art (LACMA Exhibition). Princeton University Press. Weiss, A. S. (1992). Shattered forms: Art brut, phantasms, modernism. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. Weinberg, S. (1995, August 6). Portraits of the mental patient as inspired artist. The New York Times Magazine, pp. 42–43. ◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Parameters of Mental Illness A research team at the University of Michigan conducted the National Comorbidity Study, the first study to administer a structured psychiatric interview on a national scale. The study revealed that nearly one- half of all Americans between the ages of 15 and 54 have experienced an episode of psychiatric disorder at some time in their lives. Moreover, 30 percent of them have experienced a disorder within the past year. Altogether, about 5.2 million Americans account for 90 percent of all episodes of severe mental illness each year. Comorbidity, or the clustering of psychiatric illnesses in a single person, presents a challenge to accurate diagnosis and treatment. Because a single individual may present aspects of several disorders, it may be difficult to simultaneously and effectively identify or treat them all. Comorbidity was definitely revealed in the survey. Fifty-six percent of people with a history of one psychiatric disturbance also showed a range of other disorders. The survey revealed some surprising findings as well. For example, blacks have a lower incidence of anxiety and substance abuse than whites, even though blacks typically face generally inferior financial and economic conditions. Also, perhaps counterintuitively, it was found that Americans living in rural areas were just as likely as their urban fellows to suffer from either year-long or lifetime psychiatric disorders. The survey also found other demographic trends: • • • •
The rates of almost all psychiatric disorders decline with increasing income and education. An exception is lifelong substance abuse, which tends to be significantly higher among the middle- education group. People between the ages of 25 and 34 experience the highest overall rates of mental illness. Beyond that range, rates of mental illness tend to decline with age. Seventeen percent of the population has experienced one or more episodes of major depression at some point in their lives. Women seem to suffer from anxiety disorders and affective disorders, whereas men show higher rates of substance abuse and antisocial disorders. Lifelong substance abuse disorders and lifelong antisocial personality disorders also tended to be highest in the West, whereas lifelong anxiety disorders were highest in the Northeast.
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Although one sixth of the population suffers from one or more lifetime psychiatric disorders, only 40 percent ever receive psychiatric care.
Reference: Staff (1994, July/August). The culture of distress. Psychology Today, pp. 14–15.
◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Mental Illness At various times we have been said to be living in the “Age of Anxiety,” the “Age of Alienation,” or the “Age of Insanity.” These descriptions are more figural than literal, meant to capture the spirit of a particular time. But their underlying theme contains a particular bias. In most cases, these “Ages of Whatever” are meant to describe the conditions in developed, Westernized societies. A more provocative question is this: How do approaches to and descriptions or rates of Psychological Disorders compare across societies? Researchers are beginning to address this topic more enthusiastically; Thomas Oltmanns and Bob Emery have discussed two studies that provide some interesting comparisons. Jane Murphy, a Harvard anthropologist, lived with the Inuit of Alaska and the Yoruba of tropical Nigeria during the 1970s. She collected reports from native healers among the Yoruba and from a key Inuit informant about the lives of the respective, relatively small cultures. Particular attention was devoted to descriptions of Psychological Disorders. Both cultures recognized behaviours as “crazy,” such as hearing voices when no one is nearby, talking in peculiar ways that don’t make sense to others, or behaving in bizarre or erratic ways. The parallels with the Western notion of schizophrenia are obvious and striking. However, some of these descriptions could also be applied to the behaviour of shamans within these cultures. Both the Inuit and the Yoruba distinguish between the “craziness” of the shaman and the behaviours just described. In the case of the shaman, it is a controlled or purposeful “craziness;” the shaman is able to voluntarily control his actions and direct them toward a particular goal (e.g., healing a sick member of the group). A more recent study was initiated by the World Health Organization. Some 1200 hospitalized psychiatric patients in nine countries (Columbia, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, England, India, Nigeria, Taiwan, Russia, and the United States) were studied. In each setting, the frequency of schizophrenia was approximately the same, despite obvious cultural differences (i.e., developing nations, such as India or Nigeria, versus developed countries, such as Denmark or the U.S.). Like Murphy’s earlier study, the WHO study found some cross-cultural variation in the description, behaviours, and subtypes used to define schizophrenia. These studies suggest that rather than being a Westernized concept, severe forms of mental illness (such as schizophrenia) have some cross-cultural commonality to them.
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References: Jablensky, A., Sartorius, N., Ernberg, G., Anker, M., Korten, A., Cooper, J. E., Day, R., & Bertelsen, A. (1992). Schizophrenia: Manifestations, incidence, and course in different cultures: A World Health Organization ten-country study. Psychological Medicine, Monograph Supplement 20, 1–97. Murphy, J. M. (1976). Psychiatric labeling in cross-cultural perspective. Science. Oltmanns, T. F., & Emery, R. E. (2007). Abnormal psychology (5th ed). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education.
◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Uncommon Psychiatric Syndromes After presenting an overview of the major DSM-IV classes of disorders and the specific disorders that represent them, your students may be interested to hear about more unusual cases of mental disturbances. David Enoch and Sir William Trethowan (1991) published a handbook of psychiatric disorders that are at the outposts of mental disturbance. Although some of them are increasingly discussed in textbooks and the popular press (e.g., Tourette’s syndrome) and others border on anthropological and social analyses (e.g., possession and exorcism), many are worth presenting to illustrate the extremes of psychopathology. Capgras’s Syndrome In 1923 Capgras and Reboul-Lachaux described a syndrome in which a patient believes that a person close to him or her has been replaced by an exact double. The syndrome typically accompanies other functional psychoses (such as schizophrenia or affective disorders), although it tends to be the dominating feature. In such cases the misidentification is quite specific; the patient acknowledges the striking resemblance of a loved one but insists the person is a duplicate. The syndrome is also seen in concert with some organic disorders, where it is characterized by more confusion about the misidentification. To date there has been no reliable link between experiencing Capgras’s syndrome and being a devotee of the science fiction classic Invasion of the Body Snatchers. Capgras’s syndrome is often placed in a family of Delusional Misidentification Syndromes that includes other similar disorders. For example, the illusion of Fregoli (named for a famous stage actor and presented by Courbon and Fail in 1927) finds the patient convinced that his or her persecutors are changing faces, so that the person’s spouse, doctor, coworker, or mail carrier are alternately presented as the same one person. Courbon also described the illusion of intermetamorphosis in which a patient believes that those in his or her surroundings are changing from one to another: Bob becomes Mitch, Mitch becomes Roger, and Roger becomes Bob. The subjective doubles syndrome involves a patient’s conviction that others have been transformed into the patient; this was described by Christadoulou in 1978. Finally, reduplicative paramnesia, described by Pick in 1903 and regarded as a neurological syndrome, involves the perception that a physical location has been duplicated. Ekbom’s Syndrome Ekbom’s syndrome, or delusional parasitosis, refers to patients who suffer delusions of infestation. Those afflicted believe quite certainly that lice, maggots, insects, or other small vermin are living on them, in their skin, or in some cases in their bodies.
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Although reference is made to delusional parasitosis during the late 1800s, Ekbom first thoroughly described the manifestations of the delusion in 1937. By most accounts, the syndrome is very rare: One study estimated that three cases were seen in 1,869 psychiatric admissions over 18-1/2 years. Among those suffering from it, however, it appears to be rather intractable once established. Munchausen Syndrome Munchausen syndrome by proxy has received increasing attention by practitioners and researchers as a form of child endangerment. It involves a caregiver’s persistent fabrication of medical symptoms and signs in the person cared for (typically a mother/child relationship), leading to illness, endangerment, and unnecessary invasive or hazardous treatments. Munchausen syndrome itself refers to such behaviour in a single individual. The patient is usually admitted to a hospital presenting some acute illness that has a dramatic but plausible origin. It is subsequently discovered that the history is riddled with falsehoods, and that the patient has similarly deceived the staff of several other hospitals. Patients often discharge themselves against medical advice, often after arguing about a course of treatment or after some medical intervention has been initiated. The key elements in both of these manifestations are the presence of physical symptoms that are selfinduced (or other-induced, in the case of proxy), and pathological lying reminiscent of Baron Munchausen, a renowned teller of tall tales. Some illustrative cases include: • • • •
Acute abdominal disturbances: A young nurse swallowed a dinner fork on six separate occasions to necessitate gastrostomy each time; she eventually died as a result of this practice. Hemorraghic disturbances: Patients have pricked their fingers and contaminated the wounds with urine, or used an animal spleen to simulate a blood clot in the mouth. Neurological disturbances: Some patients have undergone craniotomy or prefrontal leucotomy as a result of their presentations. Respiratory disturbances: Some patients have inserted needles into their chests; others have ingested infected sputum from other patients.
Other patients repeatedly swallow safety pins or needles; some self-inflict stab wounds or purposely irritate scabs and blisters to prevent healing and promote infection. ◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Disorders of Physical Symptoms Chhean Im, a survivor of Cambodia’s savage Khmer Rouge, is almost totally blind, and yet, physically, there is nothing wrong with her eyes. Chhean Im’s family was murdered, and she then spent years in a labor camp, where she was starved and beaten. One day, she was forced to watch a brutal killing, and when she stopped crying, several days later, she was blind. Today, Chhean Im lives in Los Angeles, one of about 150 other refugees who have lost most or all of their sight. Organically, nothing is wrong with their vision. The mystery, say Patricia Rozee and Gretchen Van Boemel (1989), who have been successfully treating these victims, lies inside a mind that says: “I’m sick of the death. I don’t want to see. I don’t want to deal with this anymore.”
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When people like Chhean Im develop physical symptoms for which no organic reason can be found, they are said to have a somatoform disorder that has the form of a physical disorder (somato refers to the body) but no demonstrable medical cause. Symptoms include becoming blind, deaf, paralyzed, numb, or having inexplicable pain. One kind of somatoform problem is conversion disorder, in which a physical symptom expresses a psychological conflict or need. For example, someone terrified of hurting another in a rage might develop a “paralyzed” arm. Another kind of somatoform disorder is hypochondria, an unrealistic fear of disease. Everyone occasionally has odd symptoms; everyone occasionally interprets them as a certain sign of a dread disease. But hypochondriacs exaggerate normal physical sensations, taking them as evidence of serious illness. They are preoccupied with normal bodily functions, such as heartbeat, elimination, and occasional coughs. Some hypochondriacs are obsessed about their bodies; some are phobic about developing a specific disease; some are convinced they are already ill. Their fears persist in spite of constant reassurance, which is why hypochondriacs often go from doctor to doctor, trying to confirm their fears. In diagnosing somatoform disorders, clinicians look for symptoms that are inconsistent with known physical diseases or with basic anatomy: a “paralyzed” leg that otherwise shows normal motor reflexes, “blindness” in an eye that has normal pupillary responses, symptoms that vanish during hypnosis, or symptoms that are not anatomically possible. Are people who have these symptoms faking? Many clinicians regard somatoform disorders as expressions of unconscious conflicts that are out of our control. In contrast, they say, malingering is a conscious, voluntary effort to use or invent a physical symptom for an ulterior motive: to get out of work, to get drugs, to get sympathy. The social use of physical symptoms may be a conscious process or unconscious self-deception. People with somatoform disorders have typically been rewarded in some way for having physical complaints. One study found that hypochondriacs have learned to use the excuse of poor health to justify unsatisfactory performance. When they believe that they are being evaluated and that poor health will excuse poor scores, hypochondriacs report more physical symptoms than they do when they think they are not being evaluated (Smith, Snyder, & Perkins, 1983). Many factors influence a person’s likelihood of observing, worrying about, and reporting physical symptoms. These include expectations and attitudes about the nature of disease; sensitivity to pain; anxiety that amplifies the intensity of pain; low self-esteem and morale; and cultural background, which affects whether a person learns to “keep a stiff upper lip” or notice and talk about every little twinge of discomfort (Pennebaker, 1982). Hypochondria provides another good illustration of the problems of diagnosis, the role of community standards in defining normality, and the risks of oversimplified thinking. It is easy to see what is wrong with the hypochondriac who worries too much about every bodily sensation. But why do not we label the person at the other extreme, the one who pays too little attention to symptoms, even dangerous ones? Furthermore, we do not think it odd if a woman weighs herself once a day or if a man works out daily to have “perfect” muscles; why then is it a disorder if a person checks his or her tongue daily for signs of tongue cancer? Where, in short, is the line between hypochondriacal attention to the body and healthy concern? References: Pennebaker, J. W. (1982). The psychology of physical symptoms. New York: Springer-Verlag. Rozee, P. D., & Van Boemel, G. (1989). The psychological effects of war trauma and abuse on older Cambodian refugee women. Women & Therapy, 8, 23–50. Smith, T., Snyder, C. R., & Perkins, S. C. (1983). The self-serving function of hypochondriacal complaints: Physical symptoms as self-handicapping strategies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 787–797.
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◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Anxiety and Adaptation The text states that specific phobias of animals decrease after childhood. In contrast to the increased heart rate associated with most phobias, blood-injury phobia is associated with a decrease in heart-rate; presumably, this parasympathetic reaction once enabled humans to conserve blood following injury. Ask students to consider the possible adaptive value of specific phobias during human evolutionary history; they may also speculate about why such fears could be of greater value during childhood, and how the nature of common fears (e.g., the dark, heights, spiders, animals) are consistent with the phenomenon of prepared learning.
◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Impulse Control Disorders “Self-control disorders” can encompass a range of pathologies, from eating disorders to criminal acts to aggressive outbursts. A better-defined subset of this classification is impulse control disorders, which are characterized by three essential features: an inability to not act on impulses that are harmful to the actor or to others; a compelling pressure to act experienced just before the behaviour takes place; and a sense of pleasure or gratification upon completing the behaviour. Several well-known, and a few more obscure, disorders meet these criteria. •
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Kleptomania. This disorder is characterized by a desire to steal, rather than by a desire to acquire. Kleptomaniacs are less interested in what they steal than in the act itself. Although most laypeople have heard of this disorder and would think it somewhat prevalent, it is most often seen clinically in the context of other disorders. This suggests that kleptomania may be a symptom of some other disorder, one that is perhaps biologically based. Evidence supporting this conclusion is that Prozac, which increased serotonin activity, has been found to be helpful is treating kleptomania. Pathological gambling. When does the neighbourhood poker game turn pathological? When Lenny has one too many beers and starts to belly dance on the table. Besides that, though, “Lotto fever,” being obsessed with “hitting it big” at the track, entering every office football pool, or playing the dollar slots for nine straight hours in Vegas may be signs of an impulsecontrol disorder. Pathological gambling is debilitating financially, psychologically, and interpersonally. Betting becomes the focus of existence for these gamblers, which in turn becomes financially draining when the big wins turn to big losses, which places stress on family and loved ones. The prevalence of drinking, smoking, eating disorders, and suicide attempts among spouses of pathological gamblers has been estimated to be inordinately high. Pathological gambling is usually associated with the presence of other disorders, such as narcissistic, antisocial, or aggressive personality disorders; low tolerance for boredom; and proneness to addiction. Treatment usually follows a behaviourist approach, relying on aversive therapy or imaginal desensitization.
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Trichotillomania. This rare disorder involves an irresistible urge to pull out one’s hair. Beyond a simple eyebrow pluck or desire for electrolysis, people with trichotillomania acquire bald patches, lost eyelashes, missing armpit or pubic hair, and in extreme cases may swallow the hair after pulling it out, leading to a range of other harmful consequences. This disorder may be linked to obsessive-compulsive disorder, although trichotillomaniacs tend to suffer from other disorders, such as mood, anxiety, eating, or substance abuse disorders. Behavioural treatments seem effective in reducing the frequency of hair pulling. Pyromania. This impulse control disorder refers to the compelling and intense desire to prepare, start, or watch fires. It is a relatively rare disorder; even among fire starters, only 2% to 3% would be considered pyromaniacs. The disorder often gets its start in childhood, and although it has been linked to sexual paraphilias, there has been little systematic research exploring this connection. Pyromania is seen in conjunction with other disorders, however. David Berkowitz, the Son of Sam serial killer, set more than 2,000 fires in New York City during the 1970s. Intermittent explosive disorder. This disorder is characterized by sudden, brief bouts of extreme rage. Like most impulse-control disorders, the difficulty lies in suppressing a common inclination. Many of us feel enraged from time to time, but we are able to control our tempers or channel our aggressive impulses elsewhere. Biological origins of intermittent explosive disorder seem most likely. Serotonin, insulin, and norepinephrine deficits have all been implicated, and a link to epilepsy is being explored. Sexual impulsivity. Frequent and indiscriminate sexual activity is the hallmark of this disorder. People who are sexually impulsive often come from family backgrounds where excessive guilt, sexual abuse, or restrictive attitudes toward sex predominated. One pathological reaction to this environment would be sexual aversion; sexual impulsivity may be a reaction at the opposite extreme.
Reference: Halgin, R. P., & Whitbourne, S. K. (1994). Abnormal psychology: The human experience of psychological disorders. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace. ◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Suicide: Fact and Fiction Ask students to consider the major suicide risk factors in Table 15.10 from the perspective of the Interpersonal, Behavioural, Cognitive and Learned Helplessness perspectives, with particular emphasis on the strong role hopelessness seems to play. For example, why would homosexuality, unemployment, recent loss of a loved one, old age, and recent discharge from a hospital, all predict increased risk for suicide? Students may want to contrast these real risk factors (and the suicide myths in Table 15.9) with “information” presented in popular media treatments of suicide.
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◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Identifying Individuals Who May Be Suicidal Explain to students that individuals with mood disorders are at high risk for suicide. Just one of the many tragedies of suicide is that many people will respond with disbelief, saying that the person “seemed just fine.” There have been attempts to try to predict suicide using personality tests like the MMPI; these predictions are often incorrect (Clopton, Post, & Lande, 1983). Even if some effective, scientific, predictive measure was available, the general public might not know about it or, worse yet, might be unable to recall it. Patterson, Dohn, and Patterson (1983) have devised an acronym to summarize the risk factors of suicide: SAD PERSONS. S: A: D: P: E: R: S: O: N: S:
Sex⎯Females are more likely to attempt suicide, but males are more often successful. Age⎯Young and old people are more likely to attempt suicide. Depression⎯Depression is often a precipitant in suicide. Previous attempt⎯A history of suicide attempts increases the risk for suicide in the future. Ethanol abuse⎯Abuse of alcohol is found in some who commit suicide. Rational thought⎯Not thinking clearly or rationally is a risk factor. Social supports lacking⎯Not having people to talk to and confide in increases the risk. Organized plan⎯A person who has a concrete, organized plan is more likely to attempt suicide. No spouse⎯Single people are at higher risk than married people. Sickness⎯Being ill puts people at high risk. References: Clopton, J. R., Post, R. D., & Lande, J. (1983). Identification of suicide attempters by means of MMPI profiles. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 39, 868–871. Patterson, W. M., Dohn, H., & Patterson, G. A. (1983). Evaluation of suicidal patients: The SAD PERSONS scale. Psychometrics, 24, 343–349.
◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: What Really Predicts DID? Many students are familiar with the concept of “multiple personalities,” but far fewer are aware of the controversial nature of the diagnosis. In particular, the text mentions that some claim that at least 90% of those diagnosed with DID were severely abused in childhood, yet not all studies reporting this link obtained objective verification. Using the “Great Fourfold Table of Life,” ask students to consider how belief in this correlation could create the illusion that such a link does, in fact, exist. That is, once a correlation is assumed to exist, persons might tend to seek out, notice, remember and overestimate the frequency of expectancy-confirming instances relative to the many instances (as indicated in the text) in which persons were abused, but developed another disorder, developed DID in the absence of abuse, or were not abused and developed other disorders. If severe abuse is a true predictor of DID, the frequency of their co-occurrence should be distinctive.
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◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Thought Disorders and Delusions Delusional or disordered thought is a hallmark of many forms of mental illness, especially schizophrenia. Some of the more common delusions (false beliefs that are inconsistent with the thinker’s background or level of intelligence) and thought disorders (disrupted patterns of cognition, language, or logic) have been summarized by Richard Halgin and Susan Whitbourne. Delusions • Persecution. The belief that another person or group is trying to harm the individual or his or her loved ones. An example might be believing that General Motors is maintaining a file on your activities and is plotting to destroy your homestead. • Grandeur. These delusions can be either specific or somewhat vague. For example, believing that you are Abraham Lincoln is a rather focused delusion, whereas believing that you are someone who has been preordained to play an important role in history is more diffuse. Delusions of grandeur in general involve an exaggerated view of one’s own importance. • Somatic. These beliefs involve a preoccupation with one’s body, especially that some disease or disorder is present. Mistakenly believing that tapeworms are gnawing away your stomach lining would be a somatic delusion. (Compare with Ekbom’s psychosis, discussed earlier.) • Nihilism. The delusion that the world, others, and/or oneself is nonexistent. A spooky sense of unreality or believing that one is “living in a dream” often accompanies this delusion. • Reference. Delusions of reference are beliefs that the behaviours of others or certain events have been targeted specifically toward oneself. Believing that the storyline of The O.C. has been taken (literally) from your own life would be an example. • Thought broadcasting. The notion that one’s thoughts are being broadcast to everyone in the vicinity. For example, you might believe that your mental rehearsal of your grocery list can be heard by your coworkers around you. • Thought insertion. The idea that thoughts are being inserted into one’s mind by outside forces. David Berkowitz, the Son of Sam, reportedly believed that his thoughts were being implanted in his mind by his neighbour’s dog. Thought Disorders • Incoherence. This thought disturbance is probably the best known among laypeople. Incoherence involves speech that is incomprehensible or lacking in meaning and structure, such as saying, “The sheep are on the roof because twelve is New Jersey” when asked one’s name. • Flight of ideas. Here speech is intelligible, but marked by a fast pace and rapid acceleration, often with abrupt changes of topic. Flight of ideas has the quality of a speaker ready to burst forth with a spew of sentences. • Loosening of associations. A cognitive disruption characterized by an illogical, unfocused, or vague train of thought. When asked how you are feeling, replying “Healthy, wealthy, and wise. Three wise men run the bank, you know; they have the wealth of nations” might be an example. • Neologisms. The invention of new words or distortion of existing ones, often to match some selfperceived meaning. Describing the “wretchedivism” of your “tetramatic” lifestyle would be an example.
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• •
•
Clanging. In this thought disorder, the sounds of words, rather than their meaning, determines the content of one’s speech. For example, you might respond, “The note in the till, by the goat eating swill, sank the boat on the hill” when asked how you arrived at the psychiatric clinic. Circumstantiality. Speech filled with unnecessary, tedious, and inconsequential detail, leading to rambling descriptions of events or responses to questions. It’s late at night, now, when I’m trying to think of an example of this, although this morning when I woke up I felt as though today would be a productive day of writing. While I was eating my Cap’n Crunch, as a matter of fact, that thought occurred to me. Especially when I was pouring my milk, which is always nonfat. I try to cut down on my fat intake wherever possible. I think the milk came from Safeway, but I can’t remember. Anyway, by now you get the idea.... Perseveration. Not clanging, but clinging to the same idea, word, phrase, or sound repeatedly. “I must stop writing. I must stop writing. I have to finish this. I must stop writing. I have to finish this writing. I must stop” would be an example.
Reference: Halgin, R. P., & Whitbourne, S. K. (1994). Abnormal psychology: The human experience of psychological disorders. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace. ◄ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Digging for the Roots of Schizophrenia It is estimated that one person out of 100 either has chronic schizophrenia or has had one or more acute episodes of schizophrenia. This rate of incidence seems to be fairly constant from society to society and it is believed by some to have persisted over centuries of time. Some types of schizophrenia provide the stereotype that people associate with “insanity,” “madness,” or “lunacy.” Untreated schizophrenics can be unrestrained in their behaviour, discarding clothing, attacking others for no apparent reason, urinating and defecating in inappropriate places, and masturbating in the presence of others. They may hear voices and have delusions of grandeur and persecution. They may maintain a bizarre posture for hours or days. They may speak in a language that cannot be understood, or withdraw so completely that they go for long periods without speaking. Their emotional responses can be grossly inappropriate: laughing at death and tragedy and crying when good fortune occurs. To this day the cause of schizophrenia is not known. Scientists may be getting closer to an answer, but if the lesson of history is heeded, they will be cautious before claiming that the culprit has been identified. Others before have thought they had the answer to the riddle of schizophrenia only to have their explanations rejected. The first evidence of efforts to treat mental illness, probably schizophrenia, was discovered by archaeologists. The archaeologists found skulls that had holes bored into them. This ancient “remedy” is called trephining. We do not know what effect this treatment was supposed to have. Perhaps it was to relieve pressure or to allow the brain to cool off. During the era of Greek dominance of the ancient world, physicians came to look more toward biological causes of psychological disorders. Hippocrates suggested that disorders result from an imbalance of body fluids, and prescribed rest in tranquil surroundings and good food. This was an enlightened view, inasmuch as the world at the time generally favoured the idea of demonic possession. You may recall Biblical accounts of Christ having “cast out demons.”
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After the fall of Rome and the onset of the Dark Ages, the idea of demonic possession prevailed as the explanation for schizophrenia and other severe psychological disorders. Treatment was aimed at making the schizophrenic’s body a very uncomfortable place for the demon to live. The patient was fed dreadful concoctions, chilled, and physically abused to encourage the demon to move out. Beginning late in the Middle Ages and into the 17th century, the demonic possession explanation evolved into the witchcraft theory. An important difference between these views is that in demonic possession, the demon was believed to move in uninvited; witchcraft was the result of an intentional transaction with the forces of evil. The Pope issued a papal brief in 1484 in which he exhorted the clergy of Europe to leave no stone unturned in the detection of witches. In the document, he quoted Exodus 22:18, “Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live.” Thousands of mentally ill people, probably primarily schizophrenics, were tortured and killed in the 16th and 17th centuries and the idea that psychological disorders represent punishment by God or deliberate association with the devil persisted into the 19th century. Through the effort of enlightened and humane individuals, mistreatment of the mentally ill diminished in the 19th century. When Kraepelin published the first classification of psychological disorders in 1883, he attributed what we now call schizophrenia to disturbed metabolism. Explanation had returned to the Greek idea of biological causes. Freud stressed the view that psychological disorders are rooted in psychosexual causes. He thought schizophrenia was a drastic regression to childhood modes of thought and behaviour as a defense against unbearable conflict. He did not think psychoanalysis was very effective in the treatment of schizophrenia. During the Victorian era (approximately 1840 to 1900) and into the 20th century, there was a popular belief that schizophrenia was brought on by masturbation. This idea was refuted by G. Stanley Hall, the founder of developmental psychology, but he claimed that masturbation can result in premature baldness and several other problems. We are now into the 20th century, the age of rational thought and scientific progress, and the search for the roots of schizophrenia continues. In 1935, Nolan Lewis, a psychiatrist, reviewed 1800 research reports that had been written since 1920. His article led to the conclusion that almost anything that can be weighed or measured has been suggested as the cause of schizophrenia. Proposed explanations included the following: carbohydrate metabolism, muscle fatigue, tooth decay, abnormality of the spinal fluid, blood vessel rigidity, and iodine in the brain. These hypotheses were often inspired by comparing hospitalized schizophrenics with normal controls. Most of the differences found in this type of study were later attributed to prolonged residence in a mental institution. In our “enlightened” century, tens of thousands of schizophrenics were permanently brain damaged as a result of psychosurgery. The physician who first prescribed and perfected the prefrontal lobotomy (Moniz) was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1949 for his work. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) was rather dangerous at that time, but it was used in conjunction with and as an alternative to psychosurgery, even though there was little or no evidence that it was effective in the treatment of schizophrenia. A breakthrough in the treatment of schizophrenia came in the late 1950s. It was noted that a drug given to French soldiers in the Indochina War had a side effect of calming severely wounded soldiers. The physician who noted this was instrumental in having the drug tested to treat schizophrenia, and it worked. It dramatically reduced symptoms of schizophrenia in the majority, but not all, of schizophrenics.
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▼ CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Abnormal Behaviour in the College Student What Is Abnormal? Trick or Treat—Using Costumes to Portray a Psychological Disorder Dare to Be Perfect—A Road to Self-Defeat Abnormal Psychology in Literature: The Eden Express Abnormal Psychology in Film Reviewing Perspectives Crossword Puzzle Fill-in-the-Blanks
▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Abnormal Behaviour in the College Student Objective: To help students learn more about how people respond to individuals who behave abnormally. Materials: Handout Master 15.1 Procedure: Assign students to engage in a public act of deviant behaviour. Emphasize that the act cannot be illegal, dangerous (to the student, an observer, or the public), or against school rules. Since the students have just had your lecture on defining abnormality, they should have a good idea of the types of behaviours you are expecting. Have the students go in pairs, one as the “deviant” and one as an observer who will take notes on the reactions of others in the environment. Ask the students to reverse these roles. Tell the students to concentrate on their feelings as they behave abnormally, and ask the observer to concentrate on the reactions of others. Divide students into groups to compare their observations; have students use Handout Master 15.1 to report on their experiences. Conclusion: Students should be better able to empathize with individuals who suffer from serious mental disorders such as schizophrenia. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: What Is Abnormal? Objective: To expose students to the problem of identifying normal and abnormal behaviour in a series of vignettes Materials: Handout Master 15.2 Procedure: This activity may be done by students in groups or individually. Give each student a copy of Handout Master 15.2. For each item, the students should indicate whether they believe the behaviour described is normal or abnormal. After the handout has been completed, ask your students to identify the criterion they used to determine abnormality. The identification of abnormal behaviour is a difficult task. One must consider context, culture, and era among other criteria. For example, item 12 states, “Luke often urinates on the street.” A clear case of abnormal behaviour, right? What if Luke is a golden retriever? What about Alana in item 4? Does it matter if Alana is Muslim and living in Saudi Arabia? .. 831
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◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Trick or Treat—Using Costumes to Portray a Psychological Disorder Halonen (1986) suggests an entertaining but educational way to explore student’s understanding of psychological disorder. For this exercise, ask students to volunteer to come to the next class in a costume that will nonverbally portray a disorder discussed in the text or lecture. Then, during that class period (preferably sometime near Halloween, if you can swing it), all students participate in trying to diagnose the disorders. Clever examples reported by Halonen include a narcissist (e.g., a student strapped to a full- length mirror) and a hypochondriac (e.g., a student carrying a medicine chest). A benefit of this exercise is that students learn about the disorders not only by diagnosing them, but also in trying to accurately portray them. Because of the deviant nature of the assignment, Halonen suggests making this an optional exercise, perhaps by awarding bonus points for successful portrayals. Reference: Halonen, J. S. (1986). Teaching critical thinking in psychology. Milwaukee: Alverno Productions. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Dare to Be Perfect—A Road to Self-Defeat As an attention-getter, ask students to complete the Perfectionism Scale (Handout Master 15.3), which can be distributed to students as they enter the classroom. Once completed, instruct each student to calculate his or her score by adding up the scores on all items, noting that plus numbers and minus numbers cancel each other out. A score of +20 –20
= =
high perfectionism nonperfectionism.
About half the population can be expected to score between +2 and +16, indicating varying degrees of perfectionism. Setting unrealistic and unattainable goals may contribute to mood disorders such as depression. Perfectionists are individuals who set personal standards so high that they cannot attain them. Perfectionism is related to poor self-control, low self-esteem, poor health, and a variety of mood disorders such as depression and loneliness. David Burns (Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy. New York: New American Library, 1981) identifies three types of mental distortions common among perfectionists: All-or-none thinking. Overgeneralization. The use of “should” statements.
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Thus, when perfectionists fail, they do not engage in constructive self-evaluation, but rather engage in nonproductive self-deprecation. Burns links the inefficiency and defeatism of perfectionism to learned helplessness, and suggests that children learn to fear failure and to overvalue success as a result of their interactions with perfectionist parents. These are parents who dichotomize positive and negative emotional consequences of the child’s successes and failures. A lecture on perfectionism enables the instructor to link depression and other mood disorders to selfconcept, child-rearing values, need for achievement, and fear of failure. The combined impact of these topics should have immediate relevance to college students, who routinely are in situations that challenge their immediate course goals as well as their long-range vocational plans and life goals. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Abnormal Psychology in Literature: The Eden Express Michael Gorman (1984) suggests that Mark Vonnegut’s The Eden Express (an autobiographical account of the author’s schizophrenic breakdown) provides an excellent opportunity for students to apply abnormal psychology principles from the text and lecture to a real case study. After your students have read the book, ask them to write a paper describing the cause and cure of Vonnegut’s schizophrenia in terms of the different theoretical perspectives of psychological disorder. Gorman notes that although Vonnegut himself attributes his illness to biomedical factors, there is also evidence to support behavioural, humanistic, and psychoanalytic theories if one looks hard enough. Importantly, in trying to apply the different perspectives, students should learn the relative strengths and weaknesses of each perspective and also acknowledge the importance of multiple perspectives in explaining complex behaviour. References: Gorman, M. E. (1984). Using the Eden Express to teach introductory psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 11, 39–40. Vonnegut, M. (1975). The Eden Express. New York: Bantam Books. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Abnormal Psychology in Film Abnormal behaviour is a consistently popular subject for feature films; practically every disorder ever discovered has been portrayed at one time or another. For this assignment, ask students to write a paper analyzing a character’s illness in terms of the theoretical perspectives (e.g., biological, psychoanalytic, cognitive-behavioural, biopsychosocial) presented in the text. Students should include in their paper a description of the character’s diagnosis in terms of the DSM-IV and a discussion of which perspective of mental illness best explains the development of the character’s symptoms. If applicable, students should describe any treatment received by the character and also comment on whether they would recommend a similar or different treatment. All of the films suggested below contain excellent depictions of psychological disorder and should make good choices for this assignment. Note that a few of the films are also noteworthy for their portrayal of the therapeutic process; thus, these are listed in the next chapter as well.
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• Henry: Portrait of a Serial Killer (1990). Michael Rooker stars in this fascinating but grisly look into the life of a serial killer (loosely based on real-life Texas murderer Henry Lee Lucas). This unpleasant movie, although not exploitative, depicts several scenes of rapes and murders and includes the gruesome reactions of Henry and his roommate. This movie is not for everyone, and should most certainly be optional. Nonetheless, if you think your students can stomach the violence, they will get some incredible insights into the workings of the mind of an individual with antisocial personality disorder (MPI; 90 min). • Clean, Shaven (1995). Peter Greene stars in this haunting, disturbing look at the world through the eyes of a schizophrenic. Writer/director Lodge Kerrigan masterfully captures the disorientation, confusion, and paranoia of the protagonist’s world as he searches fitfully for his daughter. Along the way we share his frustrations at simple tasks such as making a sandwich or pouring sugar in his coffee. We also witness his self-mutilation as he tries to pry a misperceived transmitter/receiver set from his scalp and thumb. A good film for generating discussion. (Orion Home Video; 80 min). • One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest (1975). Jack Nicholson stars in this moving drama as Randall P. McMurphy, a rebellious prisoner who stirs things up in a mental hospital after his transfer there. In going head to head with the authoritarian Nurse Ratchet, he revives the spirit of the other patients who have been browbeaten into submission by the institution. Although somewhat dated and stereotypical, this surprisingly entertaining film portrays a wide variety of deviant behaviour and also highlights controversial therapeutic techniques (e.g., prefrontal lobotomy, electroconvulsive therapy), depicts the often inhumane conditions in mental institutions, and contains fascinating character studies of McMurphy and the other patients (HBO; 129 min). [Note: This film could also be assigned in the personality chapter as a fascinating case study of the character of sane misfit McMurphy.] • Sybil (1977). Sally Field won an Emmy for her performance in this made-for-TV drama that depicts the story of a woman with 17 different personalities. Although at times disturbing, it convincingly portrays the relatively rare condition of multiple personality disorder (also referred to as “dissociative identity disorder”). Importantly, it depicts Sybil’s adoption of different personalities as an adaptive response to an unbearably abusive childhood, and in doing so provides valuable insights into a unique therapeutic relationship (CBS/Fox; 122 min). Based on the book by Flor Schreiber. References: Kesey, K. (1975). One flew over the cuckoo’s nest. New York: New American Library. Schreiber, F. (1974). Sybil. New York: Warner. Chrisler, J. C. (1990). Novels as case-study materials for psychology students. Teaching of Psychology, 17, 55–57.
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◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Reviewing Perspectives Objective: To help students understand and retain information about perspectives on abnormal behaviour Materials: Handout Master 15.4 Procedures: Students should use the text and their lecture notes to fill in the chart. They can do so individually or in groups. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Crossword Puzzle Copy and distribute Handout Master 15.5 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment.
Answers for the crossword puzzle: Across 10. false sensory perceptions, such as hearing voices that do not really exist. hallucinations 11. disorders in which the main symptom is excessive or unrealistic anxiety and fearfulness. anxiety 17. somatoform disorder in which the person is terrified of being sick and worries constantly, going to doctors repeatedly, and becoming preoccupied with every sensation of the body. hypochondriasis 18. a state of immobility. catatonia 19. in psychology, an emotional reaction. affect 20. fear of being in a small, enclosed space. claustrophobia 21. the break away from an ability to perceive what is real and what is fantasy. psychotic 22. false beliefs held by a person who refuses to accept evidence of their falseness. delusions 23. type of schizophrenia in which behaviour is bizarre and childish and thinking, speech, and motor actions are very disordered. disorganized Down 1. the tendency to interpret a single negative event as a never-ending pattern of defeat and failure. overgeneralization 2. severe disorder in which the person suffers from disordered thinking, bizarre behaviour, hallucinations, and is unable to distinguish between fantasy and reality. schizophrenia 3. severe mood swings between major depressive episodes and manic episodes. bipolar 4. an irrational, persistent fear of an object, situation, or social activity. phobia 5. cutting holes in the skull of a living person. trephining 6. term referring to someone with antisocial personality disorder. sociopath 7. type of schizophrenia in which the person suffers from delusions of persecution, grandeur, and jealousy, together with hallucinations. paranoid 8. disorder that consists of mood swings from moderate depression to hypomania and lasts two years or more. cyclothymia 9. anything that does not allow a person to function within or adapt to the stresses and everyday demands of life. maladaptive
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12. having the quality of excessive excitement, energy, and elation or irritability. Manic 15. fear of being in a place or situation from which escape is difficult or impossible. Agoraphobia 14. a moderate depression that lasts for two years or more and is typically a reaction to some external stressor. dysthymia 15. fear of heights. acrophobia 16. the study of abnormal behaviour. psychopathology ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Fill-in-the-Blanks Copy and distribute Handout Master 15.6 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment. Answers for the Fill-in-the-Blanks activity: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.
trepanning Hippocrates psychopathology psychological disorder maladaptive biological Psychoanalytical theorists behaviourists Cognitive theorists Cultural relativity culture-bound syndromes Diagnostic and Statistical Manual depression anxiety phobia agoraphobia obsessive-compulsive disorder panic disorder Generalized anxiety disorder somatoform disorder psychosomatic disorder Hypochorondriasis
23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43.
conversion disorder dissociative amnesia Dissociative fugue Dissociative identity disorder affect cyclothymia major depression Bipolar disorder mania schizophrenia psychotic positive symptoms negative symptoms hallucinations delusions disorganized paranoid Personality Disorder Antisocial personality disorder Borderline personality disorder Seasonal affective disorder
◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▼ HANDOUT MASTERS FOR CHAPTER 13: PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢
Handout Master 15.1 Deviant Behaviour Handout Master 15.2 What Is Abnormal? Handout Master 15.3 The Perfectionism Scale Handout Master 15.4 Perspectives on Abnormal Behaviour Handout Master 15.5 Crossword Puzzle Activity Handout Master 15.6 Fill-in-the-Blanks Activity Handout Master 15.7 Summary of Major DSM-IV Categories
▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 15.1 Deviant Behaviour 1.
Describe the deviant behaviour you chose to engage in:
2.
What is it that makes you define this behaviour as abnormal or deviant? Are there circumstances under which it would be normal?
3.
Where did you engage in this behaviour?
4.
How many people observed you?
5.
What were their reactions?
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6.
How did you feel as you engaged in this behaviour? How did you feel when you observed the reactions of others?
► Return to Activity: Abnormal Behaviour in the College Student ◄ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 15.2 What Is Abnormal? After each of the descriptions below place an “A” (for abnormal) or an “N” (for normal) based on your analysis of each person. Then, after a class discussion of the criteria for abnormality, indicate which criterion (or criteria) applies to each item. 1. Henry, the editor of a medium-size city’s only newspaper, does not believe that women are capable of serving on the editorial board. He has decided not to promote Karen, a wellqualified veteran of the staff, to the board. 2. Terry has been having terrible nightmares at least three times a week from which he wakes up shaking and sweating. 3. Vanda has visions and hallucinations that she often uses to guide her important decisions.
4. Alana always covers her face when she goes out in public. 5. Tanya hears voices speaking only to her whenever she turns on television, but she is not upset about it. 6. Sam is afraid of snakes. 7. Sally is vaguely dissatisfied because she feels that she is not living up to her potential.
8. Sandy has been plotting to assassinate the governor the next time she appears locally.
9. Even though public transportation is easily accessible, Tom drives to work during a summer ozone alert when the mayor has asked people to use their cars as little as possible.___________ 10. Mary continues to be very upset about her sister’s death, even though the accident that killed her happened two years ago. She still wears dark mourning clothes and cries almost every day whenever she thinks of her sister.
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11. Harry is so fearful of crowds that he can no longer ride the bus to work. 12. Luke often urinates on the street.
► Return to Activity: What Is Abnormal? ◄ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 15.3 The Perfectionism Scale Decide how much you agree with each statement, using the following scale: +2 +1 0 –1 –2
= = = = =
I agree very much I agree somewhat I feel neutral about this I disagree slightly I disagree strongly
Fill in the blank preceding each statement with the number that best describes how you think most of the time. Be sure to choose only one answer for each attitude. There are no “right” or “wrong” answers, so try to respond according to the way you usually feel and behave.
1.
If I don’t set the highest standards for myself, I am likely to end up a second-rate person.
2.
People will probably think less of me if I make a mistake.
3.
If I cannot do something really well, there is little point in doing it at all.
4.
I should be upset if I make a mistake.
5.
If I try hard enough, I should be able to excel at anything I attempt.
6.
It is shameful for me to display weaknesses or foolish behaviour.
7.
I shouldn’t have to repeat the same mistake many times.
8.
An average performance is bound to be unsatisfying to me.
9.
Failure at something important means I’m less of a person.
10.
If I scold myself for failing to live up to my expectations, it will help me to do better in the future.
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► Return to Activity: Dare to Be Perfect—A Road to Self-Defeat ◄ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents
Handout Master 15.4 Perspectives on Abnormal Behaviour Definition of Perspective Biological
View of Abnormal Behaviour Causes:
Treatments:
Biopsychosocial
Causes:
Treatments:
Psychodynamic
Causes:
Treatments:
Learning
Causes:
Treatments:
Cognitive
Causes:
Treatments:
Humanistic
Causes:
Treatments:
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Handout Master 15.5 Crossword Puzzle Activity
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Across 10. false sensory perceptions, such as hearing voices that do not really exist. 11. disorders in which the main symptom is excessive or unrealistic anxiety and fearfulness. 17. somatoform disorder in which the person is terrified of being sick and worries constantly, going to doctors repeatedly, and becoming preoccupied with every sensation of the body. 18. a state of immobility. 19. in psychology, an emotional reaction. 20. fear of being in a small, enclosed space. 21. the break away from an ability to perceive what is real and what is fantasy. 22. false beliefs held by a person who refuses to accept evidence of their falseness. 23. type of schizophrenia in which behaviour is bizarre and childish and thinking, speech, and motor actions are very disordered. Down 1. the tendency to interpret a single negative event as a never-ending pattern of defeat and failure. 2. severe disorder in which the person suffers from disordered thinking, bizarre behaviour, hallucinations, and is unable to distinguish between fantasy and reality. 3. severe mood swings between major depressive episodes and manic episodes. 4. an irrational, persistent fear of an object, situation, or social activity. 5. cutting holes in the skull of a living person. 6. term referring to someone with antisocial personality disorder. 7. type of schizophrenia in which the person suffers from delusions of persecution, grandeur, and jealousy, together with hallucinations. 8. disorder that consists of mood swings from moderate depression to hypomania and lasts two years or more. 9. anything that does not allow a person to function within or adapt to the stresses and everyday demands of life. 12. having the quality of excessive excitement, energy, and elation or irritability. 15. fear of being in a place or situation from which escape is difficult or impossible. 14. a moderate depression that lasts for two years or more and is typically a reaction to some external stressor. 15. fear of heights. 16. the study of abnormal behaviour.
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Handout Master 15.6 Fill-in-the-Blanks Activity
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.
In ancient times holes were cut in an ill person’s head to let out evil spirits in a process called ________________. believed that mental illness came from an imbalance in the body’s four humours. The study of abnormal behaviour is called__________________. A pattern of behaviour that causes people significant distress, causes them to harm others, or harms their ability to function in daily life is called a_________________. Anything that does not allow a person to function within or adapt to the stresses and everyday demands of life is called________________. The model explains behaviour as caused by biological changes in the chemical, structural, or genetic systems of the body. assume that abnormal behaviour stems from repressed conflicts and urges that are fighting to become conscious. Abnormal behaviour is seen as learned by____________________. see abnormal behaviour as coming from irrational beliefs and illogical patterns of thought. is the need to consider the unique characteristics of the culture in which behaviour takes place. Disorders found only in particular cultures are known as . A manual of psychological disorders and their symptoms is called the__________ One of the most common psychological disorders worldwide is . Disorders in which the main symptoms are excessive or unrealistic anxiety and fearfulness are called disorders. A is an irrational, persistent fear of an object, situation, or social activity. The fear of being in a place or situation from which escape is difficult or impossible is called __________________. The disorder in which intruding, recurring thoughts or obsessions create anxiety that is relieved by performing a repetitive, ritualistic behaviour (compulsion) is called . A person is said to have a when panic attacks occur frequently enough to cause the person difficulty in adjusting to daily life. __________ ____________ is a disorder in which a person has feelings of dread and impending doom along with physical symptoms of stress, which lasts six months or more. A is a disorder that takes the form of bodily illnesses and symptoms but for which there are no real physical disorders. A is a disorder in which psychological stress causes a real physical disorder or illness. is a somatoform disorder in which the person is terrified of being sick and worries constantly, going to doctors repeatedly, and becoming preoccupied with every sensation of the body.
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23.
24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32.
33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43.
The somatoform disorder in which the person experiences a specific symptom in the somatic nervous system’s functioning, such as paralysis, numbness, or blindness, for which there is no physical cause is called . A loss of memory for personal information, either partial or complete, is known as _______________. is traveling away from familiar surroundings with amnesia for the trip and possible amnesia for personal information. ___________ ___________ is a disorder occurring when a person seems to have two or more distinct personalities within one body. In psychology, an emotional reaction is called the . A disorder that consists of mood swings from moderate depression to hypomania and lasts two years or more is called . A is severe depression that comes on suddenly and seems to have no external cause. is severe mood swings between major depressive episodes and manic episodes. When an individual has excessive excitement, energy, and elation or irritability, it is known as ________________. A severe disorder in which the person suffers from disordered thinking, bizarre behaviour, hallucinations, and is unable to distinguish between fantasy and reality is called__________. When someone does not have the ability to perceive what is real and what is fantasy, we say they are___________________. The of schizophrenia are excesses of behaviour or occur in addition to normal behaviour; hallucinations, delusions, and distorted thinking. The of schizophrenia are lacks of behaviours or less-than-normal behaviour like poor speech or loss of affect. False sensory perceptions, such as hearing voices that do not really exist, are called . False beliefs held by a person who refuses to accept evidence of their falseness are called______ _______________. The type of schizophrenia in which behaviour is bizarre and childish and thinking, speech, and motor actions are very disordered is called schizophrenia. The type of schizophrenia in which the person suffers from delusions of persecution, grandeur, and jealousy, together with hallucinations is called schizophrenia. A disorder in which a person adopts a persistent, rigid, and maladaptive pattern of behaviour that interferes with normal social interactions is a . _________ __________ is a disorder in which a person has no morals or conscience and often behaves in an impulsive manner without regard for the consequences of that behaviour. ___________ ________ is a maladaptive personality pattern in which the person is moody, unstable, lacks a clear sense of identity, and often clings to others. _______________________ is a mood disorder caused by the body’s reaction to low levels of sunlight in the winter months.
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Fill-in-the-Blanks—Words 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.
affect agoraphobia antisocial personality disorder anxiety behaviourists biological bipolar disorder borderline personality disorder cognitive theorists conversion disorder cultural relativity culture-bound syndromes cyclothymia delusions depression Diagnostic and Statistical Manual disorganized dissociative amnesia dissociative fugue dissociative identity disorder generalized anxiety disorder hallucinations
23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43.
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Hippocrates hypochorondriasis major depression maladaptive mania negative symptoms obsessive-compulsive disorder panic disorder paranoid personality disorder phobia positive symptoms psychoanalytical theorists psychological disorder psychopathology psychosomatic disorder psychotic schizophrenia seasonal affective disorder somatoform disorder Trepanning
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Handout Master 15.7 Summary of Major DSM-IV Categories
Type of disorder Disorders usually first diagnosed in infancy, childhood, or adolescence
Subtype (examples) mental retardation; attention deficit with hyperactivity; separation anxiety; eating disorders; gender identity disorder
Delirium, dementia, amnesia, and other cognitive disorders Substance-related disorders
Alzheimer’s disease
Schizophrenic and other psychotic disorders Delusional disorders Mood disorders Anxiety disorders Somatoform disorders Dissociative disorders Sexual disorders and gender identity disorders Impulse control disorders Personality disorders Sleep disorders Eating disorders Adjustment disorders
alcohol abuse and dependence; drug abuse and dependence; nicotine dependence schizophrenia (one of five varieties) paranoia (one of six varieties) depression; bipolar disorders phobias; panic disorder; obsessive-compulsive disorder; generalized anxiety disorder conversion disorder (hysterical neurosis); hypochondriasis psychogenic amnesia; fugue; dissociative identity disorder paraphilias; sexual dysfunctions pathological gambling; pyromania; kleptomania schizoid; histrionic; paranoid; narcissistic; compulsive; antisocial; passive-aggressive insomnia anorexia; bulimia adjustment disorder
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▼ APS: READINGS FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE ▲ Return to Table of Contents Current Directions in Introductory Psychology, Second Edition (0-13-714350-8) Edited by Abigail A. Baird, with Michele M. Tugade and Heather B. Veague This new and exciting American Psychological Reader includes timely, cutting-edge articles, giving readers a real-world perspective from a reliable source Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. This reader includes over 20 articles that have been carefully selected and taken from the very accessible Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. Articles discuss today’s most current and pressing issues in introductory psychology and are broken down into these main sections: Scientific Thinking; Nature/Nurture; Consciousness; Individual Differences; and Applications. From the section on Clinical Psychology: Investigation and Interpretation Barry L. Jacobs Depression: The Brain Finally Gets Into the Act. (Vol. 13, No. 3, 2004, pp. 103–106) p. 129 of the APS reader The theory of clinical depression presented here integrates etiological factors, changes in specific structural and cellular substrates, ensuing symptomatology, and treatment and prevention. According to this theory, important etiological factors, such as stress, can suppress the production of new neurons in the adult human brain, thereby precipitating or maintaining a depressive episode. Most current treatments for depression are known to elevate brain serotonin neurotransmission, and such increases in serotonin have been shown to significantly augment the ongoing rate of neurogenesis, providing the neural substrate for new cognitions to be formed, and thereby facilitating recovery from the depressive episode. This theory also points to treatments that augment neurogenesis as new therapeutic opportunities. Morton Ann Gernsbacher, Michelle Dawson, H. Hill Goldsmith Three Reasons Not to Believe in an Autism Epidemic. (Vol. 14, No. 2, 2005, pp. 55–58) p.136 of the APS reader According to some lay groups, the nation is experiencing an autism epidemic—a rapid escalation in the prevalence of autism for unknown reasons. However, no sound scientific evidence indicates that the increasing number of diagnosed cases of autism arises from anything other than purposely broadened diagnostic criteria, coupled with deliberately greater public awareness and intentionally improved case finding. Why is the public perception so disconnected from the scientific evidence? In this article, we review three primary sources of misunderstanding: lack of awareness about the changing diagnostic criteria, uncritical acceptance of a conclusion illogically drawn in a California-based study, and inattention to a crucial feature of the “child count” data reported annually by the U.S. Department of Education.
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▼ FORTY STUDIES THAT CHANGED PSYCHOLOGY ▲ Return to Table of Contents Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research, 6/e (013603599X) By Roger Hock This unique book closes the gap between psychology textbooks and the research that made them possible by offering a first hand glimpse into 40 of the most famous studies in the history of the field, and subsequent studies that expanded upon each study’s influence. Readers are able to grasp the process and excitement of scientific discovery as they experience an insider’s look at the studies that continue today to be cited most frequently, stirred up the most controversy when they were first published, sparked the most subsequent related research, opened new fields of psychological exploration, and changed most dramatically our knowledge of human behaviour. Psychopathology Who’s Crazy Here, Anyway? Rosenhan, D. L. (1973). On being sane in insane places. Science, 179, 250–258. Learning to be Depressed Seligman, M. E. P., & Maier, S. F. (1967). Failure to escape traumatic shock. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74, 1–9. Crowding into the Behavioural Sink Calhoun, J. B. (1962). Population density and social pathology. Scientific American, 206(3), 139–148. ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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▼ WEB RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents Art Brut: www.artbrut.com/ Supersites A collection of art by the mentally ill. Not sponsored by Mr. Arthur Brut Internet Mental Health: www.mentalhealth.com/ Links related to Abnormal Psychology Mental Health Net: www.mhnet.org/disorders/ Comprehensive descriptions of the symptoms and treatment of mental disorders are presented here. Brush up on your DSM-IV categories and information about a variety of conditions as you prepare your classroom discussions. National Alliance on Mental Health (NAMI): www.nami.org From its inception in 1979, NAMI has been dedicated to improving the lives of individuals and families affected by mental illness. Symptoms of Mental Illness: www.psychcentral.com/ The symptoms and treatments of various mental disorders are summarized. Teaching Clinical Psychology: http://www-usr.rider.edu/ Resources for teaching about abnormal psychology, disorders, and treatment. Anxiety Disorders Answers to Your Questions About Panic Disorder: www.apa.org/ Information prepared by the American Psychological Association. Anxiety Disorders Association of America (ADAA): www.adda.org Comprehensive site related to anxiety disorders. Obsessive Compulsive Foundation: www.ocfoundation.org/ Information about the disorder and links to related sites. OCD: www.mentalhealth.com/ Check this site for information about OCD. Reliving Trauma: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: www.nimh.nih.gov/ Information from the National Institute of Mental Health. Dissociative Disorders and Somatoform Disorders MPD Booklist: http://mpbooks.artefact.org.nz/ A collection of links to books and other writings about multiple personality disorder.
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Multiple Personality Disorder: www.skepdic.com/ In this essay, Robert Todd Carroll takes a skeptical look at a controversial diagnosis for the Skeptic’s Dictionary. The Price of Bad Memories: http://faculty.washington.edu/ Article by Elizabeth Loftus on false memories and multiple personality disorder, originally published in Skeptical Inquirer (1998), 22, pp. 23–24. Mood Disorders Bipolar Disorder: www.nimh.nih.gov/ Informative text on bipolar disorder prepared by the National Institute of Mental Health. Depression: www.nimh.nih.gov/ An online brochure prepared by the National Institute of Mental Health. Dysthymic Disorder: www.mentalhealth.com/ Links to information and online articles on dysthymic disorder from Internet Mental Health. Personality Disorders Antisocial Personality Disorder: www.mentalhealth.com/ Links to information on this topic, from Internet Mental Health. Go to this page, then choose “Antisocial Personality” from the list on the left side of the page. Crime Times: www.crimetimes.org/ (Research Reviews and Information on Biological Causes of Violent, Criminal, and Psychopathic Behaviour)—links to resources on this topic. Personality Disorder Test: www.4degreez.com/ Take this test to (maybe) find out if you have a personality disorder. Schizophrenia Demonic Possession: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/ Learn more about this once-popular view of mental illness. Dr. Rosemary F. Rodgers: www.tapping.org/ Dr. Rodgers has been diagnosed as a paranoid schizophrenic, yet she believes that she is simply experiencing a normal response to stress. Her letters are presented on this site. Maurizio Baldini’s Story: www.mentalhealth.com/ Written for Internet Mental Health, August 1995, first-person account of the author’s experiences with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia: www.mentalhealth.com/ Description, diagnostic criteria, and links to further information brought to you by Internet Mental Health.
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Schizophrenia—Adrift in an Anchorless Reality: www.mentalhealth.com/ Janice C. Jordan’s story of her own illness, originally published in Schizophrenia Bulletin, Volume 21, No. 3, 1995, presented on the Web by Internet Mental Health. Schizophrenia: A Handbook for Families: www.schizophrenia.com/ Extensive, well-organized information on schizophrenia, published by Health Canada in cooperation with the Schizophrenia Society of Canada, presented on the Schizophrenia Home Page—information about schizophrenia and extensive links to related resources. Suicide New Understanding of Suicide: www.abc.net.au/ Craig, O. (Researcher). (1995). Quantum. Rates of Suicidal Deaths in Specific Age Groups, by Race and Sex—United States, 1995: www.suicidepreventtriangle.org/ Data presented in tabular form, by the Suicide Prevention Triangle. The SPT Assessment: www.suicidepreventtriangle.org/ A self-assessment tool designed to assess suicide risk, provides online feedback about your risk for suicide, presented by the Suicide Prevention Triangle. Suicide and Suicide Prevention: www.psycom.net/ Links related to this topic from Dr. Ivan’s Depression Central. Suicide Awareness Voices of Education (SAVE): www.save.org/ Links to information about suicide and its relation to depression. ▲ Return to Table of Contents
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