Lives Across Cultures Cross-Cultural Human Development, 6th edition Harry W Gardiner Instructor Manu by Ace Test Banks

Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank for

Lives Across Cultures Cross-Cultural Human Development Sixth Edition Harry W. Gardiner, Ph.D University of Wisconsin-La Crosse and Alexina Chai, M.A. Columbia University

CONTENTS

Preface

Chapter 1

Introduction to Cross-Cultural Human Development

Chapter 2

Theories and Methodology

Chapter 3

Culture and Socialization

Chapter 4

The Family in Cultural Context

Chapter 5

Culture, Language, and Cognition

Chapter 6

Culture, Self, and Personality

Chapter 7

Culture and Social Behavior

110

Chapter 8

Culture and Issues of Gender and Sexuality

126

Chapter 9

Culture, Health, and Illness

143

Chapter 10

Future Trends and Applications

162

Additional Resources

178

Preface This Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank has been prepared by Harry W. Gardiner and Alexina Chai for use with Lives Across Cultures: Cross-Cultural Human Development, 6th Edition by Harry W. Gardiner (Allyn & Bacon, 2017). The Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank is designed to assist the instructor in teaching a course in cross-cultural human development or in adding culturally sensitive material to a variety of courses in psychology, sociology, anthropology, or any related social science field. Each of the ten chapters is closely coordinated with the chapters in the textbook Lives Across Cultures, containing chapter outlines and objectives along with suggestions for lecture topics that expand on material presented in the book, as well as a wide variety of activities designed to actively involve students in the learning process. Since we believe students are intrinsically interested in cultural differences and similarities, and will remember best by observing actual behavior, we have included a large selection of annotated audiovisual materials (films and videotapes). Like the material in the text, these films and videos focus on cultures spread throughout the world. When Harry Gardiner designed and taught his first course in Cross-Cultural Human Development several years ago, he built the course around an excellent series of crosscultural videos titled “Childhood” created by PBS. The series consists of six videos: “Great Expectations,” “Louder than Words,” “Love’s Labors,” “In the Land of Giants,” “Life’s Lessons,” “Among Equals,” and “In the House of Tomorrow.” While this series may no longer be available, a new series (“Worlds of Childhood”) consisting of twenty-four, 30minute video programs (based on and expanded from the original series) is available from

GPN, P. O. Box 80669, Lincoln, Nebraska 68501-0669 or by calling 1-800-228-4630 for information. Like the original series, “Worlds of Childhood” focuses on twelve families living on five continents and provides an interdisciplinary approach and an ecological perspective. Programs examine issues such as parenting, language development, sibling rivalry, child labor, peers, gender roles and the development of self, and the handling of stress and relates these to their cultural contexts. Each chapter contains fifteen multiple choice and three short answer essay questions designed not only to test students’ understanding of the material but also to provide additional cultural information. Since some instructors may be new to the field of cross-cultural psychology, we have provided a list of journals that contain cross-cultural material and which the instructor might find useful in the preparation of lectures. Additionally, we have included Internet resources. It is our sincere hope that you will find this Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank useful and we welcome any suggestions you might have for improving it. Feel free to contact the author by e-mail at the address listed in the book.

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Chapter Outline What Is Cross-Cultural Human Development? Cross-Cultural Human Development and the Other Social Sciences Some Important Themes A Cross-Cultural Perspective GOALS for the Field An Ecological Model The Developmental Niche A Developmental Orientation A Chronological-Within-Topics Approach Another Piece of the Puzzle: The Human Genome Project Practical Applications Overview of the Book Some Cross-Cultural Teasers Summary: Introduction to Cross-Cultural Human development Study Questions

Chapter Objectives

Explain what is meant by the term cross-cultural human development. Demonstrate a familiarity with the important themes presented in this chapter, including the cross-cultural perspective, ecological model, developmental niche, developmental orientation, and chronological-within-topics approach.

Comment on the four goals set forth for the field of cross-cultural psychology. Explain why the author emphasizes a practical application approach to the subject. Using the development niche model, describe your own development and that of other members of your family.

Suggested Lecture Topics

2.1 .

Visual Anthropology

Film and photography have long been used in social science research to collect data during participant observation. In addition to the researcher’s subjective experience and recollection, recorded images and sounds are considered a valuable data source. Visual anthropology, a young subfield of cultural anthropology, examines and creates visual representations of culture. This includes ethnographic films that document the lives of individuals and groups in society. These documentaries then serve as the source of study of the culture documented. With modern technology, researchers have been able to record more and better information.

A class session discussing the evolution of social science research through technological innovations can lead into exploration of further questions: Has technology increased “cultural contamination” in anthropological research, or is technology less intrusive than human involvement? How has the role of researcher changed as a result of technological advances? What is the difference between an ethnographic documentary and a TV reality show? What are the ethics behind using technology in participant observation?

J. Ruby (1996). Visual Anthropology. David Levinson and Melvin Ember (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, (4), New York: Henry Holt and Company, pp. 1345–1351.

I. Barbash and L. Taylor (1997). Cross-cultural Filmmaking: A Handbook for Making Documentary and Ethnographic Films and Videos. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.

Society of Visual Anthropology http://societyforvisualanthropology.org/

2.2

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Development Lev Vygotsky’s theory is not as well-known as that of Jean Piaget. However, in recent years, the theory has begun to attract the attention of many developmentalists who have begun to modify their ideas on cognitive development to include some of Vygotsky’s concepts. A lecture, comparing and contrasting the two approaches to cognitive development, supplemented by the videos recommended below, would assist students in better understanding this approach. Among the points an instructor might want to stress are Vygotsky’s use of the zone of proximal development, his focus on a shared social system among individuals, and the critical contribution he sees language making to cognitive development. Material from the chapter can be used to support Vygotsky’s sociohistorical approach, in which an individual’s behavior is adapted to a unique environmental context, while the context is structured in ways that further support expression of specific behaviors.

M. Cole (1996). Cultural Psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

A. Kozulin (1990). Vygotsky’s Psychology: A Biography of Ideas. NY: Harvester Wheatsheaf.

J. Valsiner (1996). One hundred years: A constructive jubilee celebration for Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget. Culture & Psychology, Vol. 2 (3), 243–245.

R. Van der Veer (1996). The concept of culture in Vygotsky’s thinking. Culture & Psychology, Vol. 2 (3), 247–263.

L. S. Vygotsky (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Miller, J. G. (1997). Cultural conceptions of duty: Implications for motivation and morality. In D. Munro, J. E. Schumaker, & S. C. Carr (Eds.), Motivation and Culture. New York: Routledge. (pp. 178–192).

2.3

The Researcher and the Method A fundamental method of anthropological research is participant observation. This method requires the researcher to live within the community being studied for an extended period of time (often a year or a complete seasonal cycle). In addition to speaking the local language, administering surveys, and recording interviews, the anthropologist usually takes on a particular role within the society and becomes a participating member of the group to the greatest extent possible. For example,

anthropologists have become fictive kin members (accepted as a family member in a household), apprentice shaman, or “cultural brokers,” acting as liaisons between the community and government administrators. This research method can be psychologically demanding for the researcher, and occasionally a project must be modified or abandoned. Cognizant of these difficulties, Margaret Mead once recommended that prior to fieldwork, the anthropologist should undergo psychotherapy. Several well-known researchers have published personal narratives of the psychological and physical demands of this method. A lecture discussing the “personal psychology” aspects of this kind of intensive experience and the effect of the researcher’s temperament and personality on the type and quality of the research done would help students appreciate the special nature of this method. Some of the better-known works on this topic are listed here. https://assessment.trinity.duke.edu/documents/ParticipantObservationFieldGuide.pdf An online guide describing the method and procedure. Interesting and informative.

B. Malinowski (1967). A Diary in the Strict Sense of the Term. New York, Harcourt, Brace & World.

Morelli, G. A., & Ivey-Henry, P. (2004, March–June). Field work: More than just a trip to the field. Cross-Cultural Psychology Bulletin, 38 (1–2), 10–17.

B. G. Anderson (1990). First Fieldwork: The Misadventures of an Anthropologist. Prospect Heights, Ill. Waveland Press.

P. Golde (Ed.) (1986). Women in the Field: Anthropological Experiences. Berkeley: University of California Press.

H. G. De Soto & N. Dudwick (Eds.). (2000). Fieldwork Dilemmas: Anthropologists in Postsocialist States. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.

P. R. DeVita (Ed.) (2000). Stumbling Toward Truth: Anthropologists at Work. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.

Van de Vijver, F. J. R. & Leung, K. (2000). Methodological issues in psychological research on culture. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31, 33–51.

Student Activities 1.

In order for students to experience cultural variations in the workings of Piaget’s theory, arrange for members of the class to observe school-age children performing several conservation tasks in a multicultural environment, for example, a school attended by children of varying ethnic backgrounds. Have several children of different ages perform tasks involving conservation of substance, length, number, liquid, and/or area. Ask students to share their observations with the class, comparing their findings with those discussed in this chapter or in the chapter by Pierre Dasen in Lonner & Malpass’ Psychology and Culture.

Students often think that learning is confined to the classroom. An activity that allows them to connect what happens in class with real-life experience is for them to develop a portfolio containing a collection of their semester work, perhaps as a “research log” of the class experience. Entries should consist of out-of-class exercises and reflections on observations made about specific course content as they relate to a better understanding of cross-cultural human development. Occasional oral reports can be given on their findings and reactions to individual and group exercises. Portfolios can be randomly evaluated or on a regular schedule as described in the instructor’s syllabus, and may serve as foundation for collective class projects.

Your city may host one or more ethnic folk festivals each year, such as a Chinese New Year celebration, a Greek food festival, or an Oktoberfest. Have students team up in groups of three or four to work as a multidisciplinary research team to study such an event. One student could take the role of cross-cultural psychologist and collect data about the role of the children of the community in the festival or its importance to them. Another student could act as the team’s sociologist and gather information about the integration of different social institutions in producing the event. Another student could be the team’s ethnographer and record specific rituals or dances performed, perhaps by using ethnographic film methodology, if allowed to. Prior to the event, have the team discuss their separate methods and foci. After the event, have the teams combine their data and analyses into a coherent, comprehensive presentation to the class on the festival as a whole.

Audiovisual Materials Piaget’s Developmental Theory: An Overview (1989, Davidson Films, 30 min.). Piaget’s .

theory of cognitive development is presented using archival footage of Piaget himself along with David Elkind demonstrating several Piagetian tasks and interviewing children about their performance.

Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory: An Introduction (1994, Davidson Films, 28 min.). This program provides a biographical sketch of the life of Lev Vygotsky, along with clear illustrations of concepts central to his work.

Moral Development (1977, RMI Media Productions, 28 min.). Discusses moral reasoning and socialization theory; Kohlberg’s six stages of moral reasoning; experiences that are likely to encourage the development of higher stages of moral reasoning.

The Developing Person (2003, Insight Media, 30 min.). This video provides a history of the scientific study of human development, beginning with Locke and Rousseau. It includes Piaget, Erikson, Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model, psychoanalytic theory, learning theory, behaviorism, cognitive theory, and the life span perspective.

Things to Do and Think About 1.

Consider your own development and how your developmental niche was established. What are some of the characteristics of your ecological system, and how did they contribute to the person you are today? In what ways were they different for each of your parents or for your older or younger siblings? You may find it interesting to discuss this with a friend and compare and contrast your development up to this point

in your lives and consider how it might change in the future. 2.

After reviewing Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, try to teach or coach another person (friend, sibling, teammate) to learn a new skill by providing guidance, or scaffolding, to move through the zone of proximal development. To obtain optimal results, focus your instruction on that person’s potential rather than his level of actual development (i.e., teach him a completely new skill, like juggling, eating with chopsticks, or knitting, rather than improve a skill he already has).

Begin a journal to create your own “autobiography” on your cultural development. Jot down examples from your own life where you think the concepts from each chapter have influenced your development. Follow along Maddi Skelton’s life through the vignettes at the end of each chapter for ideas.

Test Questions: Multiple Choice

The theories of Piaget, Kohlberg, and Erikson are considered to be traditional or mainstream psychological theories that focus on the individual. Examples of interactionist theories, as discussed in the text, are those of a. Mead, Benedict, and Whiting. b. Freud, Horney, and Jung. c. Bronfenbrenner, Super and Harkness, and Vygotsky. d. Gilligan, Matsumoto, and Gardiner.

Answer: C Topic/Concept: Theories of development

Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Bronfenbrenner, in his ecological model, divides the environment into several nested systems. The system which recognizes the interrelation between settings, or the “linkages and processes taking place between two or more settings containing the developing person” is the a. exosystem. b. macrosystem. c. mesosystem. d. microsystem.

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Theories of development Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Understand

In Bronfenbrenner’s model, the most complex system, which consists of customs, values, and laws in a given individual’s culture is the a. exosystem. b. macrosystem. c. mesosystem. d. microsystem.

Answer: b

Topic/Concept: Theories of development Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Mohammed, a high school exchange student, has just arrived from Malaysia to live with his host family in California. Mohammed attends a varsity volleyball game at his new school. At first, he seems puzzled about the rules of the game. However, as it progresses, he smiles and says, “This game is just like sepak takaru back home, only we play it with a ball made from bamboo and we can use our head and feet to volley the ball back and forth across the net.” Mohammed’s ability to adjust or modify his scheme of volleyball to fit his scheme of sepak takaru is an example of a. adaptation. b. accommodation. c. equilibration. d. assimilation.

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Theories of development: Piaget’s theory of cognitive development Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Understand

Foo May May is assisting her three-year-old son, Alex, to build a tower out of Lego blocks. At first, Alex needs lots of help. However, as he becomes more confident, his mother steps back and allows him to build on his own. The distance between what

Alex can do on his own and the potential level of development he might attain given help or assistance from his mother refers to Vygotsky’s a. zone of proximal development. b. zone of greatest assistance development. c. zone of cephalo development. d. zone of least assistance development. Answer: a Topic/Concept: Theories of development Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development has been criticized for its limitations across various cultures and ecological settings because a. the study took place in the nineteenth century. b. moral development and reasoning cannot be studied. c. the original study was sex biased (only male subjects). d. the findings were not valid.

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Theories of development Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Analyze

Dybdahl’s research among Somali mothers and their children described the specific

components of the developmental niche of the inhabitants of Mogadishu. The first component of their developmental niche includes a. their totemic belief system and expectations about development. b. the child’s informal education. c. their nomadic way of life, with its emphasis on the extended family and clan. d. the psychology of the child’s caretakers, which is characterized by both traditionalism and modernism. Answer: c Topic/Concept: Theories of development: Developmental niche Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Based on research on Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, which type of attitude would be most common among adolescents and adults? a. I follow rules in order to maintain social order. b. I do the “right thing” because I am afraid of punishment. c. I follow self-chosen ethical principles that I believe are universal. d. I obey rules in order to receive rewards.

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Theories of development Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Analyze

Piaget asserts that normal cognitive growth passes through the following four stages: a. infancy, toddler, child, adult. b. infancy, early childhood, assimilation, accommodation. c. birth, childhood, adolescence, adult. d. infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence.

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Theories of development Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

10.

If a research finding is considered “objective,” it is fundamentally a. unbiased. b. valid. c. replicable. d. reliable.

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Methodology on cross-cultural human development Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

11.

Margaret wants to study displays of justice and fairness in trial settings crossculturally, using what Matsumoto has called the “bottom-up approach.” One method she could use in order to do this is to

a. devise a theory of what constitutes a just decision, then observe trials in several societies and see how well the theory applies. b. hold “mock trials” in different communities and observe people’s behavior. c. attempt to become an active participant observer (i.e., juror) in at least two different cultures. d. observe and record people’s behavior during a trial in one culture, then do the same in a different culture and compare the two. Answer: d Topic/Concept: Methodology in cross-cultural human development Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Evaluate

12.

According to Super and Harkness, there are several methods that are suitable for studying components of the developmental niche. They include a. participant observation, diaries, and ethnographic interviews. b. quasi-experimentation, controlled experimentation, and structured questioning. c. controlled experimentation, spot observations, and longitudinal data. d. none of the above are suitable methods.

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Methodology on cross-cultural human development Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

13.

The narrative method of conducting research involves a. measuring and comparing an aspect of individual behavior from at least two cultural groups. b. translating materials. c. reviewing a variety of narrative materials including stories (oral or written), diaries, letters, and so on, and their analysis. d. talking with people.

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Methodology in cross-cultural human development Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

14.

Translating material from one language to another to achieve linguistic equivalence is called a

the hologeitic approach.

b. the back ideographic method. c. the ethnographic language approach. d. back translation. Answer: d Topic/Concept: Methodology in cross-cultural human development Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

15.

Bronfenbrenner2019s nested concept of the ecological system has been depicted as a. Russian wooden checker pieces. b. Russian porcelain decorated circles. c.

Russian matryoshka dolls.

d. Russian Cossack dolls. Answer: c Topic/Concept: Theories in cross-cultural human development Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Test Questions: Short Answer Essay 1.

Discuss Piaget’s processes of assimilation and accommodation in the context of understanding new experiences. How might these concepts play out for someone traveling to a new cultural environment?

Topic/Concept: Theories of development: Piaget’s theory of cognitive development Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Evaluate 2.

Jamal is seven years old and lives with his five brothers and two sisters in the town of Kuantan, in the state of Pahang, Malaysia. For the past four years, Jamal has been learning the skills of kite flying from his father, Ahmah Shah, who has won first place in several regional, state, and national competitions. Explain how scaffolding could be used to guide Jamal’s skill level through Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development.

Topic/Concept: Theories of development: Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of development Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Apply 3.

You are an anthropologist returning to your university after completing an eighteenmonth long field project in Kotonu, Benin, West Africa. Your focus of study was the “foodways” of the local population. You observed changes that occur when families stop growing their own fruits and vegetables in their traditional, multigenerational garden plot and begin to buy canned and processed foods from the market. For example, in the past, the entire household would share the garden work together. You noticed that the nutritional quality of the native diet has declined since grandmother was a girl. What are some of the possible consequences of your findings on the developmental niche? How might your findings be useful to a policy-making agency such as the World Health Organization or an aid agency such as CARE?

Topic/Concept: Methodology on cross-cultural human development Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Evaluate

Chapter 3 CULTURE AND SOCIALIZATION Chapter Outline

Ecological Context What Is Socialization? Ecological Model and the Developmental Niche Some Cultural Variations in the Socialization of Behavior Pregnancy, Prenatal Development, and Birth Infancy

Sleeping Feeding Crying Childhood Formal versus Informal Learning Adolescence Rites of Passage Adulthood Late Adulthood Cultural Views of Aging Summary: Culture and Socialization Study Questions

Developmental Analysis

Chapter Objectives

Define the term socialization and explain its importance to understanding cross-cultural human development.

List and discuss the three components of the developmental niche and give examples from your own experience.

Comment on some cultural differences in the socialization of infants’ basic needs, for example, sleep, feeding, and crying.

Explain what is meant by rites of passage and describe the role they play in adolescent identity. Show an understanding of Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory and discuss his psychosocial crises as they apply to each stage of the life span.

Suggested Lecture Topics

3.1

The Universal Experience of Being Different It is sometimes difficult for students to recognize the role that culture has played, and continues to play, in their socialization. In their book, Psychology and Culture, Lonner and Malpass (on pages 7–9) give examples of the role culture played in their early lives. The statement is made that “Probably everyone who reads this chapter will be

able to recount stories that are similar to the one just given....” They illustrate this point by presenting six ways in which individuals express the “universal experience of being different.” These include very short, well written, personal accounts by individuals of different ethnic backgrounds including “The African American: A Duality Dilemma?,” “The Experience of Being a Hispanic in the United States,” “Being Asian in North America,” “The American Indian: A Psychological Overview,” “Continuing Encounters with Hong Kong,” and “First Experiences in Thailand.” The instructor can use these readings to illustrate the widespread effects of socialization, perhaps referring to experiences in his or her own life that are different from those discussed. This provides an excellent lead-in to the first student activity mentioned below. W. J. Lonner & R. Malpass. (1994). Psychology and Culture. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Segall, Marshall H., Dasen, P. R., Berry, J. W., & Poortinga, Y. H. (1999). Human Behavior in Global Perspective (2nd Ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Chapter 7. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/disability/. Students may find this discussion of being different as a result of a disability interesting.

3.2

Ecological Views of Socialization Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model may not be easy for all students to understand the first time they encounter it. The instructor may want to devote one or two lectures to explaining its various components. One way of making it interesting is to give a fuller account of the material presented in Box 3.1, which summarizes Hendry’s ecological view of Japanese socialization. Another approach students might find interesting is to view the recommended video titled 42 Up, which follows (in documentary style) a

cross-section of British children when they are seven, fourteen, twenty-one, twentyeight, thirty-five, and forty-two. Students should gain a better understanding of the important role played by socialization, ecological settings, and the developmental niche by observing these concepts in terms of real people’s lives. This should lead to a lively discussion. J. Hendry (1993). Becoming Japanese: The arenas and agents of socialization. In R. W. Wozniak (Ed.), Worlds of Childhood Reader (pp. 34–47). New York: Harper Collins.

3.3.

Cultural Rites of Passage It has frequently been stated that adolescents in North America and other Western countries sometimes have difficulty establishing an identity and making the transition to adulthood due, in part, to a lack of rites of passage. The two references listed below are good sources for preparation of a lecture on the role played by rites of passage in the lives of adolescents. Students could then compare their experiences with the examples given by the instructor. C. H. Delaney. (1995). Rites of passage in adolescence. Adolescence, 30, 891–897. J. Loughery. (1995). Into the Widening World: International Coming-of-Age Stories. New York: Persea Books. https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/13-amazing-coming-of-age-traditions-fromaround-the world.

Student Activities

Using the material presented in the first suggested lecture topic, have students think of some of the ways in which they have been made to feel different in terms of culture (broadly defined) and tell “their stories” and how these experiences have helped them understand how culture affects and influences development. If they need to be prompted to think of examples, the instructor can mention the experience of being a woman in a male-dominated world, a rural person coming to the “big city” to attend college (or a person moving from a large metropolitan area to a small rural setting), and being a non athlete on the floor of a residence hall populated primarily by athletes (“jocks”).

After reading about the distinction between informal and formal learning, students could interview an international student to discover what experiences they have had that fall into each of these categories. They can then compare their experiences looking for similarities and differences that can be explained by material presented in the text.

This activity is designed to provide students with an understanding of Erikson’s psychosocial crises during adulthood. The instructor can divide the class into three groups and have each focus on a different period, for example, early, middle, and late adulthood. If possible, the groups should talk with two adults—one from their own culture and one from a different culture (foreign-born faculty might be willing to help). Interviewers should use material from the book to determine how these adults are dealing with Erikson’s crises and whether culture plays a role in their view of adulthood.

Audiovisual Materials

Bathing Babies in Three Cultures (1952, Center for Media Services, 9 min.). A short, but interesting, comparison of bathing practices in the Sepik River in New Guinea, in an American bathroom, and in a mountain village of Bali in Indonesia.

Apache Girl’s Rite of Passage (National Geographic). In New Mexico, the Mescalero Apache reservation prepares for a coming-of-age ritual for thirteen-year-old Dachina Cohise. Over the span of four days, she and other young Apache girls will pass through ancient rites of strength, endurance, and character that will make them women. video.nationalgeographic.com/video/us-apachegirl-pp.

Monday’s Girls (1993, California Newsreel, 49 min.). Ngozi Omwurah, an Anglo-Nigerian film director, presents a traditional “initiation rite” through the contrasting experiences of a woman from a rural village and another from the city.

Erik Erikson: A Life’s Work (1991, Davidson Films, 38 min.). This program combines archival materials and new footage to introduce students to fundamentals of Erikson’s theory and the relationship among genetics, cultural influences, and unique personal experiences in shaping individual human lives.

42: Forty Two Up (1998, British, 139 min.). Extremely interesting documentary beginning with interviews of a group of seven-year olds from a cross-section of British society, and continuing as they turn fourteen, twenty-one, twenty-eight, thirty-five, and forty-two. Can be

easily tied into discussions of the effects of socialization, ecological settings, the developmental niche, and changes across the life span.

The Children of Ireland (2001, GPN EduVentura Media, 30 min.). This video shows the socialization of children as they move from the family to early childhood programs in the Republic of Ireland.

Childhood. Part 5. Life’s Lessons (60 min., PBS/Ambrose Video). This video uses examples from various cultures to examine the “5-to-7 shift” when children move from home into the school, factory, or field, and explores the role of schools in socializing children for future roles.

Preschool in Three Cultures (Fourth Wave Productions, c1989. 58 min). Looks at a day in the life at three preschools and shows early socialization into cultures via teaching style and content, conflict resolutions, lesson objectives, lunch, options, and structure. Filmed by researchers. Contents: Introduction (4 min.); Day at Komatsudani (Japan) (23 min.); Day at Dong-Feng (China) (16 min.); Day at St. Timothy’s (United States) (15 min.).

Things to Do and Think About

Using the material in this chapter, show how the concepts of the developmental niche and ecological system apply to your own development. Think of examples from your own childhood or adolescence that illustrate the various points made by Super and

Harkness and by Bronfenbrenner. 2. Borrow a video or DVD from your school, public library, or other source that focuses on life in a culture different from your own. View it in terms of the concepts discussed in this chapter (e.g., the ecological model, cultural beliefs, and developmental niche). Make a list of some of the behaviors and values the society sees as important and indicate how these are socialized by that culture. If available, programs in the Nova and National Geographic television series are good choices for this activity. 3.

Read several selections from Into the Widening World (mentioned in the “Further Readings” section). Write your own fictionalized coming of age story based on a critical incident from your adolescent experience. The story should be between three and five pages in length.

Test Questions: Multiple Choice 1.

Studies involving pregnant women have shown that “socialization begins before birth.” Which of the following examples illustrates this finding? a. Reading to the unborn child is correlated with earlier language acquisition. b. Mothers’ prenatal talk to the female or male fetus reflects gender stereotypes. c. Playing classical music to the unborn child slows its heartbeat. d. Mother’s alcohol consumption during pregnancy is related to mental retardation in the newborn.

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Ecological context Difficulty Level: Easy

Skill Level: Understand

Which of the following best illustrates the skills acquired though informal learning, rather than formal schooling? a. Somali children accurately memorize the placement of familiar objects, but make errors in memorizing the placement of unfamiliar objects. b. Bilingual children accurately address monolingual children in the appropriate language. c. Street children in Brazil accurately perform mathematical calculations in daily life, but make errors when solving math problems on paper. d. All of the above.

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Childhood: Formal versus informal learning Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

As discussed in the text, co-sleeping is a. several siblings sleeping in the same bed. b. a child sleeping in the bed with the parent. c. a husband and wife sleeping in the same bed. d. one or more children sleeping in the bed with the grandparent.

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Infancy: Sleep

Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

The term guided participation, compared to other theories of socialization, emphasized the fact that have/has a great impact on a child’s socialization. a. parents b. the child (him- or herself) c. one’s ethnic group d. the media

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Ecological context: What is socialization? Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Immigrants and children of immigrants experience a unique shift in the ecological system and developmental niche, influencing their socialization in relation to their culture of origin and their new culture. Overall, the socialized values of secondgeneration immigrants most closely resemble the values of a. the same generation of nonimmigrants in their new culture. b. first-generation immigrants (their parents) in their new culture. c. the same generation in their original culture. d. the previous generation of nonimmigrants.

Answer: b

Topic/Concept: Ecological context Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Several factors influence whether a baby is breast-fed or bottle-fed. Some studies have suggested that long-term breastfeeding a. increases the risk of infant mortality. b. reduces the risk of type 2 diabetes in mothers. c. halts cognitive development in babies. d. all of the above

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Infancy: feeding Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Consuela and her parents emigrated from Argentina to Canada when she was 14. When at home, she obeys her parents and conforms to the traditional role of the oldest girl in the family. When at school or with her friends, she explores new activities such as acting and playing softball, sometimes against the wishes of her parents. Consuela’s situation illustrates the concept of a. acculturation. b. acculturative stress. c. socialization dissonance.

d. socialization ambiguity. Answer: a Topic/Concept: Adolescence Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Apply

Greg, who lives in the United States, is twenty-seven years old. He has been in college for several years and cannot decide on a major. In Erikson’s terms, he has not established an identity, but rather is in a state of a. disillusionment. b. anomie. c. role confusion. d. despair.

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Adolescence Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

According to Erik Erikson, individuals pass through eight stages in which a “crisis” occurs. As the crisis is resolved, a virtue is achieved. a. psychological b. psychosexual c. psychosocial

d. psychohistorical Answer: c Topic/Concept: Adolescence Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

10.

Two major developmental theorists who are discussed in the text attribute significant developmental changes to the years of adulthood. They are Erikson and a. Hall. b. Kohler. c. Vygotsky. d. Piaget.

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Adulthood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

11.

According to the text, parents play a primary role in the assignment of settings and routines for sleep. Harkness and Super reported that in the Kipsigis (Kenyan) study (1995), after the birth of a younger child, the next-to-youngest child a. no longer sleeps at the mother’s front but rather at her back. b. no longer sleeps with the mother and other siblings. c. begins to sleep with the older siblings, not with the mother.

d. sleeps with the newborn, but not with the mother or older siblings. Answer: a Topic/Concept: Infancy Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

12.

Ramao is eighteen months old and lives with his five older brothers and two sisters in a small village two miles east of Honduras. He enjoys crawling away from his mother’s lap and charging into his pile of toy blocks. According to Erikson, Ramao is in the stage of a. trust versus mistrust. b. autonomy versus shame and doubt. c. initiative versus guilt. d. industry versus inferiority.

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Infancy Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

13.

Based on the textbook author’s interpretation of Erikson’s theory, which of the following types of people would be unlikely to resolve the intimacy versus isolation crisis in a positive way? a. a Catholic nun

b. a Catholic priest c. a Buddhist monk d. none of the above; any of these people could resolve the crisis in a positive way Answer: d Topic/Concept: Adolescence Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Evaluate

14.

Aziz is learning how to build kites in Indonesia. He has been observing his grandfather spin the batik cloth that is used to make the kite and helping him to construct the bamboo poles that hold the kite together. According to Cushner, this kind of learning is known as a. formal learning. b. informal learning. c. ritualized learning. d. freestyle learning.

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Childhood: Formal versus informal learning Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Understand and apply

15.

An experience common to many Native American tribes in North America involves adolescent males being taken into a “sweat lodge” where a medicine man helps purify

their body and spirit. According to the authors, this rite of passage is known as a. ancestry quest. b. vision quest. c. cleansing quest. d. earth quest. Answer: b Topic/Concept: Adolescence: Rites of passage Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Test Questions: Short Answer Essay 1.

As a cross-cultural psychologist, you are interested in comparing variations in cultural sleeping arrangements in Costa Rica and North America. Using the research findings reported by Super and Harkness, from their work among the Kipsigis farming families in the highlands of rural Kenya, discuss some of the differences you might expect to find in these two societies using Lerner’s developmental contextual theory.

Topic/Concept: Ecological context Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Evaluate 2.

Chapter 3 discussed rites of passage that mark the transition from childhood to adolescence. Describe rites of passage in two cultures. Discuss how these rites aid in identity formation (Erikson’s concept).

Topic/Concept: Ecological context Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Analyze 3.

As the principal of a private high school in Ayer, Massachusetts, you are preparing your annual report for the school board and parents. In your report, you wish to address growing concerns over poor math and science skills. Based on the reading in Chapter 3, discuss how the socialization aspect of informal learning may contribute to better math and science skills. Give examples of informal contexts in which math and science skills are used.

Topic/Concept: Ecological context Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Evaluate

Chapter 4 THE FAMILY IN CULTURAL CONTEXT Chapter Outline Ecological Context Cultural Variations in the Family Life Cycle Mate Selection Marriage and Other Long-Term Relationships The Birth Process Across Cultures The Ecology of Birth The Transition to Parenthood Infancy Parental Belief Systems Mothering Fathering Adolescence The Ecological Model and Adolescence Cross-Cultural Differences in Adolescent Peer Relationships Adulthood and Aging Grandparenthood Caring for the Elderly The Changing Context of Families Summary Study Questions Developmental Analysis

Chapter Objectives

Recognize and be able to comment on cultural variations in the family life cycle, including mate selection and marriage.

Discuss the ecology of birth, focusing on similarities and differences in the Yucatan, Holland, Sweden, and the United States.

Define and give examples of parental belief systems from different cultures. Consider adolescence from the ecological model with particular emphasis on cross-cultural differences in peer relationships.

Discuss the changing context of families and comment on cultural approaches to grandparenting and caring for the elderly.

Suggested Lecture Topics

4.1

Cultural Factors in Mate Selection What we look for in a long-term partner, how we select our mate from among all the possible choices, and the ceremonies that legalize a marriage are usually interesting to many students. The instructor can organize one or more lectures on any of these topics. One approach would be to provide additional information on the Buss (1994) study of mate preferences in thirty-seven cultures. This could be followed up with a panel of

international students discussing dating and marriage customs in their cultures, including comments on arranged marriages, the use of go-betweens, and “bride’s price.” Additional material could be presented on marriage ceremonies in different parts of the world, for example, North America, Southeast Asia, Africa, and South America.

D. M. Buss (1994). The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating. New York: Basic Books. D. M. Buss. Mate preferences in 37 cultures. In W. J. Lonner & R. Malpass (Eds.), Psychology and Culture (pp. 197–201). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. E. Hatfield & R. L. Rapson (1996). Love & Sex: Cross-Cultural Perspectives. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. E. Hatfield & S. Sprecher (1995). Men’s and women’s mate preferences in marital partners in the United States, Russia, and Japan. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 26, 728–750. https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/fighting-fear/201304/why-some-people-cantfind-anyone-marry. Students may relate to some of the experiences described here and it could provide a topic for class discussion.

4.2

Cultural Differences in Birthing Practices One of the most distinctive features of a culture is the way it prepares for and carries out the process of childbirth. Building on the extensive discussion of this topic in Chapter 9, the instructor can show the first video in the “Childhood” series (“Great

Expectations”) showing births in Sao Paolo, Moscow, New York City, and in the rainforest of the Cameroon. Students can be asked to comment on differences in the birthing practices shown in the video and to explain how they may have been influenced by social and technological forces in each society. This can lead to a discussion of the role played by one’s ecological system and developmental niche.

B. Jordan (1993). Birth in Four Cultures (4th ed.). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. R. W. Wertz & D. C. Wertz (1979). Lying-in: A History of Childbirth in America. New York: Schocken.

4.3

Parents’ Cultural Belief Systems As pointed out throughout this book, parents in every culture develop shared ideas about the nature of children, their developmental processes, and the meaning of their behaviors. These ideas, strongly influenced by the cultural context, are entwined with other factors including time and place, meaning of self, family, and parenthood. In a recent book, Harkness and Super (1996) discuss the concept of parental belief systems and their relationship to the developmental niche. Any of a number of chapters in this edited book could form the basis of one or more lectures on this timely topic. The instructor could begin with Diana Baumrind’s early work on parenting styles (authoritarian, democratic or authoritative, and permissive), move on to Harkness and Super, and finish with an interesting study by Chao demonstrating that many of Baumrind’s characteristics fail to adequately describe the Chinese approach to childrearing and discipline. Finally, Student Activity 3 could be used as a practical

follow-up to this lecture.

D. Baumrind (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology Monographs, 1, 1–103. R. K. Chao (1994). Beyond parental control and authoritarian parenting style: Understanding Chinese parenting through the cultural notion of training. Child Development, 65, 1111–1119. S. Harkness & C. Super (Eds.) (1996). Parents’ Cultural Belief Systems. New York: Guilford Press. Segall, M. H., Dasen, P. R., Berry, J. W., & Poortinga, Y. H. (1999). Human Behavior in Global Perspective (2nd Ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Kagitçibasi. Ç. (1996). Family and Human Development Across Cultures: A View from the Other Side. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum. S. Harkness & C. Super (2002). Culture and parenting. In M. Bornstein (Ed.) Handbook of Parenting: Vol. 2: Biology and Ecology of Parenting (2nd ed.) (pp. 253– 280). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Pub. https://aifs.gov.au/publications/differential-parenting-children-diverse-culturalbac/introduction. A report about differential childrearing practices in multicultural Australia.

Student Activities 1.

Students seem to enjoy discussions that revolve around dating and relationships. There are at least two ways in which the instructor might approach this topic. First, locate a

copy of the article on marriage preferences in thirty-seven cultures by Buss and his colleagues (Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1990, 21, 5–47). Make a list of the traits considered important by men and women in mate selection. Pass these out and have students rank them in terms of their preferences. When these are compared with the scores reported in the article, a good deal of discussion should follow, especially when one takes note of gender differences within the class. A second approach could consist of an exercise in which students study personal ads and analyze which traits are listed as desirable in a potential partner and which traits are advertised by the searching party. Compare the results to the research results by Buss et al. 2.

Have students review the material in Chapter 4 on various forms of long-term relationships. Divide the class into the four categories: (1) monogamy—two people of either gender; (2) polygyny—one man married to more than one woman; (3) polyandry—one woman married to more than one man, and (4) group marriage— several women and men intermarried. Remaining students can be assigned the roles of children in the various families. Have each group go to a corner of the room and spend about 30 minutes working out their relationships in conversation and actions. Each group may role-play daily decision-making scenarios such as: Who cooks dinner? Who talks to the local government about neighborhood concerns? Who takes the children to bed? Who decides about a family purchase? At the end of this time, bring everyone back together to discuss the experience and their views on the type of marriage in which they were involved. This is guaranteed to provoke lively discussion.

Following the lecture suggestion 4.3 on parental cultural belief systems, have students discuss what they believe to be their own parents’ belief system. What did they like

about it? What did they dislike about it? Do they believe their grandparents passed on similar beliefs to their parents or did their parents make modifications? Did they see changes as they were growing up and additional siblings were added to the family? If they have a family one day, what kind of belief system do they think they will develop? Will it be different from their parents? It might be interesting to expand the discussion by showing a film such as The Joy Luck Club (or excerpts from it or a variety of other films) and discussing the culturally different parental beliefs portrayed. 4.

Chapter 4 contains a section not found in many books—grandparenthood. It discusses a variety of attitudes toward this role in the life span and compares what we know about grandparents in Japan, China, and the United States. Have students discuss the following questions: What is your image of grandparents? If you have several living grandparents, are their styles different, for example, remote, compassionate, or involved? If you are fortunate enough to have a multicultural mix in your class, or have students whose grandparents are immigrants, this can engender a variety of opinions.

You can supplement the previous activity with the following exercise: Place students in pairs and ask them to interview their own grandparents or those of a classmate or friend. Questions should focus on what it was like growing up in their respective culture, how they viewed their grandparents, and how they view their own grandparenthood. Do these views coincide with the views explored in the previous activity (#4)? Students may also want to get permission to videotape their interviews and possibly collect and edit them in the form of an oral history or ethnographic documentary similar to those discussed in the methodology chapter (Chapter 2). A recording of this type could become an item in the portfolio suggested earlier and,

possibly, a resource when teaching future sections of the course. 6.

Cultures differ significantly in terms of the way they care for their elderly. Many of the differences are related to the individualism/collectivism dimension and family structure (nuclear versus extended). If available, the instructor can initiate discussion of this topic by showing the Family and Intergenerational Relationships video mentioned below. This can be followed by a discussion of how various cultures treat their elderly and how students would want to be treated when they reach this last stage of their own lives. References can be made to the portrayal of the elderly on television, in films, and in culture.

Audiovisual Materials

Arranged (215). An exclusive video series where viewers can follow three couples—Ragini and Veeral, Maria and Christian, and Meghan and Josh—as they take over the cameras to document themselves, capturing the moments that make up their modern arranged marriages. Can be viewed online at www.fyi.tv/shows/arranged/season-1.

Bali Beyond the Postcard (1993, Filmmakers Library, 60 min.). Examines the lives of four generations of individuals in a Balinese family and the transmission of important family facts and skills from elders to children.

Family and Intergenerational Relationships (1993, Insight Media, 60 min.). A look at the family roles of the elderly and how elders help to maintain and pass on family traditions and culture. Includes a discussion of relationships with spouses and with grandchildren, along with .

the satisfactions and stresses of caring for partners or parents who are ill and dying.

N!ai: Story of a !Kung Woman (1980, Documentary Educational Resources, 59 min.). According to anthropologists, this is one of the best ethnographic film records, documenting thirty years in the life of a !Kung woman from early childhood as a hunter/gatherer in Namibia’s Kalahari Desert to adult life on a government-run reserve.

The Joy Luck Club (1994, Hollywood Pictures, 139 min.). Fascinating portrait of four Chinese women, their American-born daughters, and their relationships among them and various extended family members. Provides an excellent basis for discussions of cultural differences in parenting, grandparenting, elder care, and views of achievement.

Bride and Prejudice (2004, Miramax Films, 111 min.). This feature film is a creative twist on Jane Austen’s classic story about finding love, Pride and Prejudice. It brings together two people from opposite ends of the earth, where East meets West in a riot of color, comedy, and sincere emotion.

Things to Do and Think About

Think about the discussion devoted to cultural variations in grandparenting and consider the following questions: What is your image of grandparents? If you have several living grandparents, are their styles different? What might account for different grandparenting styles? Would you consider your grandparents’ style as remote (a

symbolic figure, geographically or emotionally distant), companionate (affectionate, seen frequently, sharing activities), or involved (helping with child care, giving advice, sometimes playing the role of substitute parent)? Talk with someone from another culture and compare your grandparent experiences. (For an interesting discussion of the grandparenting styles mentioned above, see the book by Cherlin and Furstenberg, 1986, cited in the reference section.) 2.

In this chapter, we commented on the Japanese characters for man, woman, mother, father, and parenting and pointed out that the distinctions notable among these characters raise several as yet unanswered questions regarding these roles. Take some time to reflect on the following questions and how you might answer them: Are mothering, fathering, and parenting distinct roles? Are birthing and nurturing unique aspects of the mother’s role? Are support and family control assigned to the father’s role? Is parenting different from mothering and fathering?

Talk with your parents and grandparents about dating and courtship practices when they were adolescents or young adults. If you don’t already know, have them tell you how they first met and what the reactions of their parents were to the announcement that they wanted to marry. After you have done this, find someone from another culture and discuss similarities and differences in dating and marriage customs. Try to view these from your own ecological setting.

Test Questions: Multiple Choice

In Buss’ (1994) study of mate preferences in thirty-seven cultures, he found that four

qualities were highly valued by both women and men across cultures. These qualities included a. kindness and good health. b. attractiveness and intelligence. c. chastity and intelligence. d. exciting personality and social status. Answer: a Topic/Concept: Ecological context: Mate selection Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Gomez is a male who lives in Chile and is married to Maria, Elizabeth, and Martha at the same time. Nehoma is a female living in South Korea, where she is married to Kuai Lo, Liang Mui, and Ying Shi. According to the text, Gomez’s marriage is an example of

while Nehoma’s is an example of

a. polyandry; polygyny b. polygyny; polyandry c. polymonogamy; polygamy d. polygamy; polymonogamy Answer: b Topic/Concept: Ecological context Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Arranged marriages tend to be quite a. stable. b. unstable. c. about as stable as other marriages. d. common around the world.

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Ecological context Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

In Japan, a ceremonial betrothal gift that usually comes in the form of money is presented by the bride- and groom-to-be, through a go-between, or to the bride-to-be’s household. This gift is known as a. yuinou. b. hataka. c. yumachi. d. watashi.

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Ecological context Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

The word “Islam” means a. peace above all other concerns. b. belief in the one God. c. one family of God’s children. d. submission to the will of God.

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Ecological context Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

According to Smith (1995), the study of grandparenting presents unique challenges and can be more difficult than the study of parenting, because a. there are more varieties of grandparents than parents. b. one studies three generations instead of two. c. historical and generational aspects play a greater role. d. all of the above

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Adulthood and aging Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Brigitte Jordan, in her study of birth in four cultures, observed the following about giving birth in the Yucatan:

a. The father-to-be must not be present during either labor or birth. b. The mother-to-be gives birth by herself, after receiving some training from an older female relative. c. Prior to the birth, both a witch doctor and the entire village bless the mother-to-be. d. The mother-to-be is encouraged to lie in the same hammock in which she sleeps each night. Answer: d Topic/Concept: The birth process across cultures Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

In MacDorman and Singh’s (1998) study comparing births attended by nurse-midwives and births attended by physicians, the results indicated that a. nurse-midwife-attended births led to better birth outcomes. b. physician-attended births led to better birth outcomes. c. nurse-midwife-attended births led to lower infant mortality and higher risk of lowbirth weight infants. d. physician-attended births led to lower infant mortality and higher risk of low-birth weight infants.

Answer: a Topic/Concept: The birth process across cultures Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

When comparing Kenyan mothers with American mothers, Richmen et al. (1988) observed that a. Kenyans engage in more soothing physical contact with their infants than do Americans. b. Kenyans engage in more eye contact with their infants than do Americans. c. Kenyans engage in more “rough play” with their infants than do Americans. d. Kenyans talk to their infants more than do Americans.

Answer: a Topic/Concept: The transition to parenthood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

10.

“Allomothering” means a. childrearing provided by the father. b. childrearing provided by an older sibling. c. shared mothering; many women provide parenting. d. lack of mothering; the child is neglected.

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Infancy and childhood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

11.

In Schlegel and Barry’s (1991) cross-cultural study of 186 cultures on adolescent issues, the results indicated that a. passage into adolescence is easier for girls than for boys. b. boys are more competitive than girls; this sex difference appears to be innate. c. adolescent social behavior cannot be predicted from behavior in earlier childhood. d. none of the above

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Adolescence Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

12.

Stevenson, Chen, and Lee’s (1992) research on grandparenting uncovered the concept of the “outside grandchild.” An “outside grandchild,” from the point of view of the grandparent, is a. one’s step-grandchild. b. one’s grand niece or grand nephew. c. one’s daughter’s children. d. one’s great-grandchildren.

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Infancy and childhood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

13.

According to Gardiner (1996), in Japanese, parenting is represented by three characters literally translated as “to stand,” “a tree,” and “to watch,” which when combined can be interpreted as a. protecting a developing child. b. feeding a hungry child. c. watching over a growing child. d. teaching a curious child.

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Infancy and childhood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

14.

Researchers have become increasingly interested in the effects fathering has on the development of children. Flouri (2005) found that father involvement a. protected daughters against marriage. b. was associated with low risk for delinquency in sons. c. was associated with homelessness in sons. d. was associated with higher divorce rates.

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Infancy and childhood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

15.

In the United States, the “sandwich generation” is the generation that a.

often must provide care for younger and older generations.

is misunderstood by and alienated from both younger and older generations.

has less traditional values than both younger and older generations.

has a higher divorce rate than both younger and older generations.

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Adulthood and aging Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Test Questions: Short Answer Essay

In Chapter 4, we were introduced to Buss’ extensive research project carried out on marriage partner selection in thirty-seven cultures. More than 10,000 individuals responded to a survey that required them to rank a variety of desirable traits that men and women look for when selecting a mate. Have students first review these findings, which places chastity high in terms of preference, and then have them compare and contrast the ecocultural surroundings and the developmental niche of three of the cultures investigated, and explain why chastity was considered important in some cultures but not in others.

Topic/Concept: Ecological context: Cultural variations in the life cycle Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Evaluate .

Anthropologists have found that long-term relationships take many forms. For example, in some cultures, it is customary for one man to be married to several women at the same time, while in others, it is normal for one woman to be married to several men. Have students design a cross-cultural study that would compare various types of long-term relationships discussed in the chapter.

Topic/Concept: Ecological context Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Evaluate

Tell students to imagine they are preparing for a class presentation on the topic of cultural variations in birth practices. Have them review the findings reported by Brigitte Jordan in her classic investigation of childbirth in four cultures. Have students prepare 2–3 slides illustrating distinct differences in how birth is viewed in the Yucatan, Holland, Sweden, and the United States. Finally, have them include three questions that you might pose to the students that would stimulate discussion of the ecological aspects of childbirth.

Topic/Concept: Ecological context Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Evaluate

Chapter 5 CULTURE, LANGUAGE, AND COGNITION Chapter Outline Ecological Context: The Language-Cognition-Culture Link Infancy Early Cognitive Development in Cultural Contexts Language Acquisition Early Second-Language Acquisition and Bilingualism Childhood Stages of Knowing and Learning Language Skills and Language Socialization Adolescence Formal Operational Thinking Adulthood Reasoning and Decision-Making Late Adulthood Intelligence and Cognitive Aging Language and Communication in Later Life Summary Study Questions Developmental Analysis

Chapter Objectives

Define the term cognition and give examples of how knowledge acquisition, perception, recognition, reasoning, and judgment differ in Western and non-Western cultures. Discuss the relationship between culture, cognition, and language. Describe the Sapir-Whorf (“linguistic relativity”) hypothesis. Identify explanatory strengths and weaknesses. Identify examples of Vygotsky’s contextualist approach during language acquisition and the importance of scaffolding in parent–infant interaction. Identify examples of dialectical thought and adaptive logic in early adulthood and discuss how each might be conceptualized and measured in different ecocultural systems. Distinguish between fluid and crystallized intelligence, and comment on cultural variations in the way wisdom and experience are viewed in terms of different societies’ unique developmental niches.

Suggested Lecture Topics

5.1.

The Language-Cognition-Culture Link Our use of language affects, and is affected by, the rest of our culture. Since the 1920s, ethnolinguists have focused on the relationship between language and culture, when Edward Sapir first formulated the problem, and later when his student, Benjamin Whorf, developed the theory that language shapes culture and worldview. The SapirWhorf hypothesis is significant as the first ethnolinguistic model to attempt an explanation of the relationship between language and culture. It has been challenged by subsequent researchers, who provide evidence to support the view that language also reflects our cultural reality. A lecture discussing this “chicken or egg?” problem

in the development of language and culture studies would provide students with a historical background on the subject of linguistic relativism and illustrate the processes involved in developing useful explanatory models in science. J. B. Carroll (Ed.) (1956). Language, Thought and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. M. Mathiot (Ed.) (1979). Ethnolinguistics: Boas, Sapir and Whorf Revisited. The Hague: Mouton.

5.2

Cultural Variations in Cognitive Development Using material contained in Chapter 5, an instructor can compare and contrast cultural differences in cognitive development across the life span or focus on a specific period, for example, infancy, childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, or middle and later adulthood. Topics might include parent–child play interactions, language development, formal operational thinking among adolescents and adults, conceptualization of fluid and crystallized intelligence, or cultural views of wisdom. P. B. Baltes (1993). The aging mind: potential and limits. Gerontologist, 33, 580–594. U. Bronfenbrenner (1993). The ecology of cognitive development: Research models and furtive findings. In R. H. Wozniak & K. W. Fisher (Eds.), Development in Context: Acting and Thinking in Specific Environments. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. B. Rogoff & P. Chavajah (1995). What’s become of research on the cultural basis of cognitive development? American Psychologist, 50, 859–873.

Student Activities

In order for students to experience cultural variations in the workings of Piaget’s theory, arrange for members of the class to observe school-age children performing several conservation tasks in a multicultural environment (e.g., a school attended by children of varying ethnic backgrounds). Have several children of different ages perform tasks involving conservation of substance, length, number, liquid, and/or area. Ask students to share their observations with the class, comparing their findings with those discussed in this chapter or in the chapter by Pierre Dasen in Lonner & Malpass’ Psychology and Culture.

Students learn best by becoming actively involved in class projects. Divide the class into pairs. One will be the teacher, the other the learner. The object is for teachers to use three different types of instructions to teach a simple skill like juggling three balls, swinging a golf club, serving a volleyball, or kicking a bamboo ball in Sepak Takarau (the Malaysian sport mentioned in the book). One teaching scenario includes only verbal instructions and feedback from the teacher; the second consists only of nonverbal instruction and feedback; the third scenario utilizes both. Upon completion of the task, have students report on what they were able to achieve and how the process relates to Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of development.

A panel discussion on formal and informal schooling makes a wonderful activity, especially when panel members represent a variety of different ethnic, religious, and cultural backgrounds. Such a panel could be composed of international students attending your school or participating in a local high school exchange program. Panelists could be asked to briefly describe their cultures and the ways in which they

were taught a variety of skills (How did they learn to play their favorite sport? To write and read? To drive? To cook?) in formal or informal settings by teachers, parents, grandparents, or others. Have members of the class prepare some questions in advance so they can actively participate in the activity.

Audiovisual Materials

Discovering the Human Language: Colorless Green Ideas (1995, South Carolina ETV. Equinox Films, 55 min.). Presenters Noam Chomsky, Frederick Newmeyer, Lila Gleitman, George A. Miller, and Lewis Thomas explore the power and limitations of language, the achievements of the expression of abstract concepts, and the ability to say entirely new things and have them understood. Discusses words, sentences, and universal grammar.

From the Heart of the World: The Elder Brothers’ Warning (1991, BBC-TV in association with the Goldsmith Foundation. New York, NY: Mystic Fire Video, 87 min.). Deep in the mountains of Colombia, the Kogi tribe, descendants of an ancient Tairona priesthood, call themselves the Elder Brothers of the human race, and are convinced that we, the Younger Brothers, will soon destroy the balance of life on Earth. They believe that the only hope is for us to change our ways, and have set out to teach us what they know about the balance of mankind, nature, and the spiritual world.

Playing and Learning (2003, Insight Media, 30 min.). This video explores how play is used by two- to five-year olds to develop cognitive abilities. It depicts how adult interactions with

young children aid learning by way of guided participation and scaffolding. Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories are presented.

The Children of Italy (2003, GPN EduVentura Media, 30 min.). This program depicts the early educational system in Italy. Infant-toddler centers and preschools are presented. Interviews are conducted with teachers, administrators, parents, and children. The viewer sees the degree of involvement parents have in their childrens’ education.

Language and Culture (2011. YouTube). An inspirational look at how language and culture transcend boundaries of individual perception and understanding. Three people share their stories of travel and cultural discovery through language. Traveling abroad is a humbling experience, one they value and chose to share with the rest of the world.

Things to Do and Think About 1.

Return to the opening vignettes and identify the major developmental principles discussed in the chapter. Explain how these apply to the lives of Deratu and Maria.

Now that you understand the basic nature of cognitive processes and the factors that influence them (e.g., one’s ecological systems, developmental niche, and sociocultural orientation), think of how you might use this knowledge to improve your understanding of your own and other cultures.

Sesame Street is one of the most successful and widely watched children’s television programs in the United States, having several international versions in different countries. Watch one or two episodes and identify developmental principles discussed in Chapter 5 and cultural values unique to Western and non-Western societies. Indicate

in what ways these values differ.

Test Questions: Multiple Choice 1.

In reviews of cross-cultural research on Piaget’s sensorimotor stage of development, Dasen and Heron (1981) and Werner (1979) conclude that a. in many African cultures, children develop object permanence earlier than they do in most Western cultures. b. in many Western cultures, children develop object permanence earlier than they do in most African cultures. c. in many cultures, children do NOT experience a sensorimotor stage. d. in sensorimotor development, there are more similarities across cultures than there are differences.

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Infancy Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Understand

Shlomo and Eriya, both eight years old, are riding in the school bus playing computer crossword puzzles in both Japanese and English. As they switch back and forth from Japanese to English, their laughter gives way to other classmates wanting to join in on the fun. By the time they arrive at school, the children have solved most of the puzzles. According to Vygotsky, children’s attempts to organize and internalize their thoughts by verbalizing them in front of others is known as

a. talking to learn. b. cognitive dialectics. c. thinking to talk. d. linguistic interactionism. Answer: a Topic/Concept: Infancy Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Understand

Jeremy, Simone, and Emily are working collaboratively to solve their fifth grade geometry problems. Their teacher, Ms. Greta, stays after class to help them with the first five. While providing hints for solving the remaining ten, the three students are required to complete the rest on their own. The contextualist approach to learning in which temporary support or guidance is provided by Ms. Greta is referred to as a. architecting. b. scaffolding. c. scripting. d. platforming.

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

At twenty-one, Sergio and Marcus have been working for the past thirteen years in an apprenticeship to learn the tailoring trade at their family’s business in Portugal. In addition to becoming excellent tailors, they have also learned to balance their subjective views of the business with the social and historical traditions of the Portuguese culture.According to the text, this ability is known as a. adaptive logic. b. dialectic thought. c. integrated cognition. d. affective reasoning.

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Aldrich is a nineteen-year-old college sophomore writing a term paper on the topic of honesty. At first, he believes in the saying that “honesty is always the best policy” and gathers substantial evidence in support of this statement. However, as his research progresses, he begins to consider an opposing viewpoint that proposes, in some cases, that “honesty can prove to be harmful and even destructive.” Aldrich’s ability to synthesize these two opposing positions on a given issue represents a new level of cognitive flexibility in early adulthood known as a. adaptive logic. b. dialectical thinking.

c. bimodal thought. d. ideological cognition. Answer: b Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Apply

The belief that language ability is “hard-wired” into the human brain (innate) is associated with which of the following famous theorists? a. Benjamin Whorf b. Lev Vygotsky c. Noam Chomsky d. Jean Piaget

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Based on the most recent research, which of the following statements about learning a second language is MOST correct? a. A clear “critical period” exists for learning a second language. b. Although there is no consistent evidence for a “critical period” for second language acquisition, it does appear that “younger is better.”

c. There is no clear relationship between age and ability to learn a second language. d. Early second-language learners have more native-like pronunciation but take longer to learn the language than do adult learners. Answer: b Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Easy to moderate Skill Level: Understand and apply

Twenty-five-year-old Lay Hoon took a battery of intelligence tests for admission into the Royal Hong Kong Air Force Academy and scored slightly above average. She was tested again twenty years later, and her performance on the tests nearly doubled. According to the text, Horn and his colleagues would attribute this increase to a. an increase in fluid intelligence. b. an increase in crystallized intelligence. c. an increase in both fluid and crystallized intelligence. d. an increase in concentration and reaction time.

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Late adulthood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

The notion that accumulated experience is associated with wisdom was investigated by Smith and Baltes (1990). In their research, they found that of 240 German respondents

a. only 11 percent scored in the “wise” category and those meeting the criteria for wisdom were not necessarily older. b. nearly 89 percent scored in the “wise” category and those meeting the criteria for wisdom were indeed older. c. about half scored in the “wise” category and those meeting the criteria for wisdom were not necessarily older. d. about half scored in the “wise” category and those meeting the criteria for wisdom were indeed older. Answer: a Topic/Concept: Late adulthood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

10.

One example of socialization through language is described in the study of Portuguese, English-, and Mandarin-speaking children and their use of quantifiers such as “all” and “each.” The researchers found that a. the Mandarin speakers never learned to distinguish between the two quantifiers. b. all three groups of children were able to distinguish between the two quantifiers at around six years of age. c. the Portuguese and Mandarin speakers learned to distinguish between the two quantifiers earlier than the English speakers. d. the English speakers learned to distinguish between the two quantifiers earlier than the Portuguese and Mandarin speakers.

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

11.

Languages that are comprised of both logographs and phonetic symbols, such as Mandarin, affect the literacy patterns of native speakers in the following way: a. Chinese first graders are able to easily figure out vocabulary words they had not yet been taught. b. Chinese first graders learn to break down words into sounds. c. Chinese first graders are able to read almost all the words they are taught, but very few of the words not yet taught. d. Literacy patterns of Chinese first graders are much like those of English-speaking first graders.

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

12.

In cultures in which speed of thought, speech, and decision-making are indicators of high intelligence, older speakers are often at a disadvantage. This “communication predicament” can result in a. diminished self-esteem.

b. social withdrawal. c. decline in communicative competence. d. all of the above Answer: d Topic/Concept: Late adulthood Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Understand

13.

Based on cross-cultural research of Piaget’s preoperational and concrete operational stages of development, we can conclude that a. in many cultures, children do not experience a preoperational stage. b. in most cultures, children do not experience a concrete operational stage. c. attainment of conservation occurs at almost the same age across all cultures studied so far. d. age of attainment of conservation can vary by several years (2–6 years, or more) across cultures.

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Adolescence Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

14.

Piaget’s stage of “formal operational thinking” has been the subject of many years of cross-cultural research. This body of research has revealed that

a. this developmental stage is found to occur in the vast majority of the societies studied. b. individuals in many societies never exhibit this type of thinking. c. formal operational thinking is determined entirely by culture rather than individual experience. d. all adolescents and adults in Western technological cultures display formal operational thinking. Answer: b Topic/Concept: Adolescence Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

15.

The “linguistic relativity hypothesis” originally addressed the question: a. “Is language shaped by the ecological surroundings in which it is spoken?” b. “Do people who speak different languages experience their world differently?” c. “Does an individual’s cognitive development progress relative to language development?” d. “Is cognitive development enhanced in children who learn multiple languages?”

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Test Questions: Short Answer Essay

In the vignettes, at the beginning of Chapter 5, we were introduced to Deratu, who is eleven years old. She does not attend school but helps her mother with cooking, household chores, and takes care of her younger brothers and sisters. Like many young girls her age in her rural Ethiopian village, most of what Deratu has learned has been shaped by her mother, who has taught her practical lessons in successful daily living. At the same time, Maria, who is nearly twelve years old, lives in Sao Paulo, Brazil, where she attends public school, enjoys learning different languages, and solving mathematical problems. Consider the interaction among the physical, cognitive, and sociocultural dimensions of human development and compare and contrast the lives of Deratu and Maria.

Topic/Concept: Ecological context Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Analyze 2.

Discuss the differences between fluid and crystallized intelligence and comment on how Western and non-Western cultures appear to differentially value age, wisdom, and experience. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages involved in emphasizing youth over age and what are some implications of these differences in light of cross-cultural research that compares cognitive performance in young adults with senior citizens?

Topic/Concept: Ecological context .

Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Evaluate

Chapter 6 CULTURE, SELF, AND PERSONALITY

Chapter Outline

Ecological Context: Temperament, Personality, and Self Temperament and Heritability of Traits The Self: Some Cultural Perspectives Infancy Temperament, Ecological Systems, and the Developmental Niche Temperament and “Goodness of Fit” Childhood The Emerging Self-Concept Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy Adolescence Identity Formation Social Identity Formation Adulthood A Time of Stability and Change Late Adulthood Personality Changes in Senescence or Illness The “Aging” Self Summary Study Questions Developmental Analysis

Chapter Objectives

Explain the interaction between temperament and environment using the concepts of the developmental niche and goodness of fit. Distinguish among different cultural constructions of person and self as described in the chapter. Describe independent and interdependent conceptions of self as they relate to the larger cultural dimension of individualism/collectivism.

Critically evaluate the cross-cultural validity of Erikson’s ideas on identity formation. Describe different interpretations of the (apparently) universal pattern of adult development in regard to the Big Five personality traits.

Suggested Lecture Topics

6.1. National Character and Its Application in Today’s Business World Clark (1990) provides a useful overview of approaches to the study of national character and relates them to issues of international marketing and business strategies. The instructor can use the suggestions presented in this article to stimulate discussion about the types of marketing (e.g., advertising) that might be appropriately used in different countries. Students might find it interesting to compare and contrast advertisements appearing in a variety of international magazines (see student activity #1). Finally, some discussion might be devoted to the following question: Is national

character in the eye of the beholder (stereotype) or is it the result of different experiences in different contexts (goodness of fit)? 6.2

Understanding Another Culture Present students with some background related to the Balinese concept of tekonyms. First, have them write a page or two describing their activities during the past weekend. Then have them rewrite the account using the Balinese tekonyms when referring to themselves and other persons in their stories. Divide the class into small groups and have them share their new stories. Discussion should focus on their impressions of how the descriptions of events and their impressions of the people in the stories differ. The instructor can then help students relate their impressions to cultural views of the person and aspects of the ecological system.

6.3

Parental Behavior and Children’s Temperament Parental behavior is a central aspect of a child’s ecological system. It is shaped by general cultural expectations and norms and also influenced by the characteristics and behaviors of the individual child. Rohner (1994) provides a thoughtful description and discussion of the relationship between parental behavior and a child’s perception of these behaviors. The research reported in this chapter and the questions raised by the author can serve as a foundation for a lecture and discussion focusing on the unique developmental niche experienced by individual children where parental behavior and child temperament and other characteristics influence each other. The lecture can be supplemented by Student Activity 4 below.

R. P. Rohner (1994). Patterns of parenting: The warmth dimension in worldwide

perspective. In W. J. Lonner & Roy Malpass (Eds.), Psychology and Culture. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Student Activities 1.

Have students go to the library and make copies of advertisements appearing in several different international magazines or newspapers. These ads should all promote similar products, that is, washing detergent, toothpaste, clothes (hats, shoes, shirts), or television sets or other items. Ask students to describe the ways in which the visual aspects of these ads are similar and different. Is there anything in the content or style of these ads that might represent stereotypes about each society’s cultural character? For instance, are French ads particularly sensual or sexy? Are British ads stuffy and serious? What about ads from the Middle East or Asia?

Divide the class into small groups of two or three students and have them interview women (of different ethnic or cultural backgrounds, if possible) about their infant children. Questions should focus on mothers’ descriptions of their children’s temperament or personality, what they consider “easy” or “difficult” children to be like, and whether or not they consider their children to be one or the other. If students are able to interview mothers from different cultural backgrounds or within different ecological systems (e.g., working mothers versus stay at home mothers), they are likely to find differences in how they view their children and what they consider to be “easy” and “difficult” temperament traits. Have students present their findings to the class, comparing and contrasting cultures where possible.

Ask students to read a story that takes place in a culture other than their own, and give

consideration to the following questions: What is the main character like? Describe three distinct patterns of behavior or personality traits typical of this character. What salient elements of the individual’s ecological system are described in the story? What are some of the major cultural values presented in this story? What are some of the characteristics of relationships with family and friends? Is there any information on the rules or policies that shape the community? Finally, have students analyze the main character’s personality and discuss which aspects of the individual’s personality appear to be a direct result of living in a specific ecological system. Reading children’s books from different cultures is a good choice for this activity. 4.

Have students ask their mothers or fathers to describe their temperament when they were young children. Were they anxious, calm, content, demanding, irregular in daily patterns, outgoing, happy, etc.? Then have them think about their parents’ parenting style as they remember it. Were they warm and affectionate? Did they praise good behavior? Did they criticize bad behavior? Did they hug and kiss their children? Did they allow independent exploration of the environment? Were they lenient or strict? Using the concept of the developmental niche, have students discuss how their temperament and their parents’ behavior may have influenced each other.

Audiovisual Materials

A Great Wall (1986, Pacific Arts Video, 100 min.). A humorous view of culture clash, as a Chinese-American family travels to China to visit relatives. Focuses on the family’s adolescent son as he faces issues related to ethnic identity, cultural norms, and definition of

self.

Zelig (1983, Orion Pictures and Warner Brothers, 79 min.). Woody Allen’s “documentary” on Zelig, the man without a personality, who fits into any environment. This amusing video could provide several interesting situations leading to a lively discussion of the concept of “goodness of fit.”

Mistaken Identity (1992, PBS Video, 60 min.). From the series, Millennium: Tribal Wisdom and the Modern World. Presented by anthropologist David Maybury-Lewis. Who are you? Where does your individual identity begin and end? While Western societies strive to answer these questions through a biological view—conception, birth, adolescence, maturity, and death—tribal cultures define identity by the myths and rituals of their society, by who rears them, and by an organic continuum to which they belong.

Identity Crisis (2005, Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 60 min.). This video reveals the psychological and emotional development of 25 five-year-olds. The children express their feelings about self-worth and future expectations. These feelings appear to be closely related to their skin color, gender, socioeconomic class, presence or absence of either parent, and other factors. The video has a great emotional impact and provokes thought regarding the nature versus nurture issue.

Things to Do and Think About

Write the question “Who am I?” at the top of a blank sheet of paper. Reflect about yourself for a moment, then write down twenty statements, each beginning with “I am…” that describes yourself. Review your statements and sort them according to content. Which statements describe unique personal attributes, such as personal appearance or personality traits? Which statements reflect relationships with others, such as family roles and associations with peers? Which statements reflect memberships in groups or organizations, such as nationality, religion, or scouting? After reviewing these statements, assess the extent to which your self-concept is “independent” or “interdependent.” Considering the discussion of culture and self in this chapter, which statements would you most likely not find in the self-descriptions of people of different culture backgrounds? Can you think of statements you might find instead?

In the popular science fiction television series, Star Trek: The Next Generation, the crew of the starship Enterprise repeatedly encounters an alien civilization called the “Borg.” Although this society appears to consist of individual entities that are half human and half machine in their appearance, the Borg society is a true collective. All individuals share the same pool of knowledge, thoughts, and experiences. If an individual Borg experiences a new situation, the information is immediately distributed to all other “individuals” in the society. In this way, every member of the culture shares the experience of the one Borg as if it were their own experience. An individual Borg member does not think of itself as an individual nor does it have a sense of individual self. It only thinks of itself in relation to the larger collective. It does not have a

personal name and refers to itself as “we” rather than “I.” Imagine you are a crosscultural psychologist on the “Enterprise” and your mission is to explore the psychological and social dynamics of this alien society. In particular, you are interested in the issue of self and identity, since this seems to be a striking attribute of this particular culture. You plan to examine how the Borg self differs from the human self. How would you go about doing this research? Which methods would you use? What difficulties might you anticipate in conducting your research? How do you think your knowledge about cultural differences on Earth could aid you in your research? What results do you expect to find? 3.

Arrange a visit with your parents, grandparents, or an older acquaintance that would be willing to tell you about their lives. Ask them to tell you about important events that they feel changed their lives. Ask them how old they were at the time and how their life changed as a result of each event. Ask them what was expected of them at certain ages (17, 21, 25, 30, 35, 45, 55, etc.) Plot out the person’s life events and transitions and consider the following questions: How many of the events were normative—events that might be expected at that age? How many were uniquely individual events (e.g., accidents, personal achievements)? Did the person follow a normative pattern, or were they generally unaffected by cultural expectations? Did the person follow the normative pattern expected of their gender or their culture, or did this person choose a different reference group?

Test Questions: Multiple Choice

According to the book, research on identical and fraternal twins has shown that approximately a.

25–30

40–50

60–70

100

percent of variation in temperament is the result of genetics.

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Ecological context Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

A good example of characteristics associated with the concept of “relational self” is a. phobia. b. frugality. c. sociability. d. conscientiousness.

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Infancy Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Characteristics considered typical of a “difficult” child vary from one culture to another. For example, Nanta of the Masai tribe would consider a quiet and shy infant “difficult” to care for in her society. In Japan, Akiko considers her demanding, highly energetic, son “difficult.” This cultural difference can best be explained by which of the following? a. heritability b. cultural character c. goodness-of-fit d. adaptability

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Infancy Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Apply

In research in the West Indies, in which black and white preschoolers were presented with black dolls and white dolls, Gopaul-McNichol (1995) found that a. both black and white preschoolers preferred the white doll. b. white preschoolers preferred the white doll; black preschoolers preferred the black doll. c. white preschoolers preferred the white doll; black preschoolers had no clear preference. d. neither black nor white preschoolers had clear preferences for either doll.

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Adolescence: Social identity formation Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

The ability to adjust the self-concept in response to changing ecological conditions, and preserving a positive self-concept in older age is described as a. self-assimilation. b. identity balance. c. self-integrity. d. self-accommodation.

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Adolescence Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Understand

Cross-cultural researchers have shown that adolescents in some cultures struggle more with the stage of identity formation than do others. Which factor makes this transition from adolescent identity to adult identity easier? a. clearly defined roles b. a large variety of social roles from which to choose c. social support from one’s family d. social support from one’s peers

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Adolescence Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

“Self-efficacy” is best defined as a. one’s sense of self-esteem and personal power. b. the general sense of one’s ability to master tasks and to direct one’s behavior toward a goal. c. the belief that one is competent is most areas of social behavior. d. the belief that one has accomplished more than his or her peers in the area of competence that one most values (academics, athletics, etc.).

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

The relationship between collectivism and interdependent self-concept, as well as individualism and independent self-concept, is a good example of a. the interaction of the microsystem and the individual. b. the interaction of the macrosystem and the individual. c. the interaction of the microsystem and the exosystem. d. the interaction of the mesosystem and the exosystem.

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Adolescence Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Various researchers have found cultural differences in self-esteem among children. One of the possible explanations discussed in the text is a. differences in educational systems. b. differences in cultural character. c. differences in temperament. d. differences in child-rearing practices.

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

10.

As discussed in the text, Jensen has conducted research on globalization and its effects on development in East Indians. Jensen’s research focused on a. adolescents’ attitudes toward arranged marriage. b. the elderly and their perceptions of sexual behavior among young adults. c. the elderly and their attitudes about religions in other cultures. d. young adults and their perceptions of female beauty.

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Adolescence Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Understand

11.

Melissa would be characterized as a “difficult child” in terms of Thomas and Chess’ classification system of infant temperament in the United States. She is most likely to show which of the following characteristics? a. lack of intense emotions b. irregular sleeping patterns c. low activity level d. regular eating patterns

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Infancy Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

12.

Clifford Geertz found that people in Bali most frequently use tekonyms as a way of referring to themselves and other people. Which of the following is an example of a tekonym? a. My mother’s daughter will move to the city soon. b. I will move to the city soon. c. The young college student will move to the city soon.

d. My sister will move to the city soon. Answer: a Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Understand

13.

Akira, a Japanese adolescent, and Carl, from the United States, both responded to the question “Who am I?” by writing down as many answers as possible. Carl’s selfdescription is more likely to include which of the following? a. “I am a good friend to others.” b. “I am my parents’ second child.” c. “I am smart.” d. “I am as good a student as my best friend.”

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Adolescent Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Apply

14.

Which of the following Big Five personality factors tends to decrease with age, across a variety of cultures? a. neuroticism b. conscientiousness c. agreeableness

d. extraversion Answer: d Topic/Concept: Adulthood Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Understand

15.

Which of the following statements about the origin of the Big Five personality traits is true? a. The Big Five traits were originally identified in China. b. Researchers used a lexical approach (investigating natural language) to identify the Big Five traits. c. Researchers explored famous literature across the world to identify traits that are frequently used to describe fictional characters. d. The Big Five traits are more valid in Eastern cultures than in Western cultures.

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Adulthood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Test Questions: Short Answer Essay

The Tuareg people of the Sahara are seasonal nomads with a need to survive in harsh climates. Tuareg mothers do not approve of infants who are dependent and demand a lot of attention, whereas in Japan, mothers encourage closeness and respond

immediately when children show anxiety. Explain these differences by using the concept of “goodness-of-fit.”

Topic/Concept: Infancy Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Analyze 2.

Ai has just moved from Korea (a collectivist culture) to Scotland (an individualistic culture). Although she has a good job, friendly colleagues, and some friends, she has a difficult time adjusting. Explain the challenges she may experience with regard to her self-concept during this transition.

Topic/Concept: Adulthood Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Analyze 3.

Describe changes in Big Five personality traits that tend to occur with aging. Provide two explanations for these changes. Topic/Concept: Adulthood Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Analyze

Chapter7 CULTURE AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR Chapter Outline Ecological Context Infancy Child–Caretaker Relationships and Attachment Patterns The Secure-Base Hypothesis The Sensitivity Hypothesis Moderators of Attachment and Social Development Childhood Peer Culture and Social Relationships Moral Development and Prosocial Orientation Cultural Influences on Caring and Justice Orientation Aggression Adolescence Family and Peer Influences on Adolescent Social Behavior Cultural Influences on Adolescent Social Behavior Adulthood Work and Leisure in Middle Adulthood Sport as a Social Phenomenon Late Adulthood Attachment, Social Support, and Well-Being in Later Adulthood Summary

Study Questions Developmental Analysis

Chapter Objectives Show an understanding of early attachment and the general conditions of infant environment as a basis for social development. Conceptualize patterns of social relationships throughout the life span as changing aspects of the ecological system in which social development takes place. Compare and contrast theories of social development (e.g., psychosocial development and moral development) and discuss their cultural implications. Demonstrate an understanding of the underlying cultural factors that lead to different values applied to social behavior. Comment on cultural influences on parent–child relationships.

Suggested Lecture Topics

7.1

Cultural Differences in Classroom Settings and Teaching Styles

Beginning at increasingly younger ages, the classroom becomes a central part of a child’s developing ecological system. Cultures differ significantly in the methods they use to teach their children and the settings in which teaching takes place. Shimahara provides an intriguing look at differences in teaching styles in Japan and the United States. After briefly describing these differences in a short lecture, the instructor can

divide the class into two groups and set up classroom settings in which teaching methods can be experienced as they would be in Japanese and North American classrooms. A discussion focusing on the advantages and disadvantages of each could follow the experience. N. K. Shimahara (1995). Learning to Teach in Two Cultures: Japan and the United States. (Reference Books in International Education, Vol. 27). New York: Garland Publishing. 7.2

Cooperative Versus Competitive Learning and Performance

Following a brief description of cooperative and competitive learning strategies, the instructor can divide students into several small groups (four or five students per group). Select a short problem-solving task (e.g., solving five scrambled words, crossword puzzle, creating a unique contraption such as a dog walking machine). Instruct one group (or set of groups) to work on the task cooperatively (sharing ideas, praising each other for good suggestions, presenting a collective decision). Instruct the other group (or set of groups) to solve the task individually and present the project of the person who finished first as the representative group project. How do students in different groups describe their experience? Which group did better? Which group is more satisfied with the overall outcome? Discuss the cooperative versus competitive condition as an aspect of the ecological system in which performance takes place.

7.3

Social Relationships and Changing Work Settings Many universities have established online courses in which students learn at home

without much direct interaction with teachers or classmates. If your school has courses such as these, you can describe this type of course in class and ask students to report on their experiences in these courses. In addition, some work environments now have little or no social interaction (e.g., “telecommuting”). The instructor can discuss the potential consequences of changing work settings for social development in adulthood.

Student Activities 1.

Show the Iron and Silk video or DVD, which is available in many video rental stores, and have students answer the following questions: What makes Mark Salzman such a good cross-cultural learner? What is it about his attitude that allows him to enter another culture as different from his as the Chinese and actually make it his own? If you were Mark Salzman, what aspects of American culture and society would you most like to present to your Chinese students? What artifacts of American culture would you take with you to China (or any other culture) to show to others?

In North American society, sporting activities are generally characterized by competition in which performance is evaluated in terms of winners and losers. At the same time, these cultures also consider participation in sports to be a valuable tool in the development of social skills, such as cooperation and following rules. To assume that sports can do both of these at the same time appears to be a contradiction. Have students observe a sporting event on campus, paying particular attention to athletes’ behavior during their performance as well as during the time they are “sitting on the bench.” Students should also observe the behavior of coaches and spectators. They

should record both competitive and cooperative social behaviors (a checklist can be developed for this purpose) and discuss in class how they may be guided by different cultural values.

Have students talk with an older adult they know fairly well (grandparent, other relative, or neighbor) and draw a sociogram of that person’s social network. How many people do they talk to daily, weekly, and monthly? Are they satisfied with these social contacts? What would they change and how would they do it? Have the older person draw his or her ideal social network. How does it differ from the actual one? Relate this to the book by having students speculate about cultural influences that determine an older person’s social network and distinguish it from the ideal network.

Audiovisual Materials

Iron and Silk (1991, 92 min.). Mark Salzman, a 1982 Yale graduate in Chinese language and literature, plays himself in a wonderful film documenting his experiences as a teacher and avid student of China. A unique example of how captivating the study of another culture can be.

Ishi the Last Yahi (1993, University of California, 57 min.). Interesting documentary examining the life of Ishi, “the last wild Indian in North America,” and his people, the Yahis. After appearing suddenly in 1911, and being studied by a young anthropologist (Alfred Kroeber), Ishi spent the rest of his life at San Francisco’s Museum of Anthropology teaching about Yahi traditions.

Title IX and Women in Sports: What’s Wrong with This Picture? (1999, 56 min.). PBS Home Video. Athletic programs at several schools are in disarray in the wake of Title IX, which is designed to insure that no person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in or be denied benefits of any education program or activity receiving federal financial assistance. Broadcaster and columnist Larry Elder speaks with athletes, coaches, educators, federal officials, civil rights activists and others to find out what seems to have gone wrong and how to fix it.

Adolescent and Adult Development (2001, Insight Media, 30 min.). This video highlights Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory. The role of peer relationships in adolescent development is explored. Adulthood events which are presented include professional growth and loss of a partner.

Mary Ainsworth: Attachment and the Growth of Love (2005, Davidson Films, 38 min.). This video presents biographical information about Ainsworth, including Bowlby’s, Harlow’s and Lorenz’s influences on her work. Also included is footage of Ainsworth’s observational studies in Uganda in 1955, the Strange Situation Test, and the Adult Attachment Interview.

Bend It Like Beckham (2002, DVD, 113 min.). The story of a teenage girl who is more interested in playing soccer than learning to cook and finding a husband, over the objections of her traditional Indian family. Ultimately, she has to decide whether to live life on her terms or act in accordance with her parents’ wishes. This coming-of-age tale is also an intriguing look at Indian culture in England.

Things to Do and Think About 1.

Play, games, and peer culture are important elements of the developmental niche during childhood. Make a list of some of the games you played when you were between about four to seven years of age. Which underlying values, beliefs, skills or norms did these games involve and reinforce? How would the rules or the way in which these games were played change if they were played in cultures with different values, beliefs and norms (e.g., among Chinese or !Kung children)?

Consider Corsaro and Eder’s (1990) discussion of peer culture in this chapter. Which of the three themes of childhood peer culture did your childhood games address? Given the importance of play and games for social development in childhood, the advent of computers raises some interesting psychological issues. In industrialized countries, children spend more and more time interacting with computers and other electronic media. Which aspects of peer culture are affected by such technological trends? Which aspects of social development may be affected? What are some potential benefits of such technological changes?

Do you perform better under pressure? Some people do and others do not. In this chapter, we discussed the issue of competition versus cooperation. Think about the advantages and disadvantages of growing up in a competitive educational setting in contrast to a cooperative one. In which do you think you would learn more? Are there limits to healthy competition? When does competition become stressful?

Test Questions: Multiple Choice

When Silvio’s mother leaves the room and he is alone with a stranger, Silvio does not seem to get too upset. When his mother returns, the boy looks at her but continues his play. Silvio’s behavior is indicative of which attachment style? a. secure b. anxious c. anxious-resistant d. anxious-avoidant

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Ecological Context: Infancy Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Early attachment studies were conducted with: a. African infants b. European immigrants c. American infants d. monkeys

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Ecological context Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand .

Corsaro and Eder propose several themes that characterize peer culture in childhood. Chapter 8 discusses how play and games sometimes reflect these themes. Which of the following games does NOT reflect one of the three themes? a. building a sand castle by oneself b. playing cops and robbers c. playing “frogs” with other children in the village d. playing soccer on an organized team

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Analyze

The “strange situation test” is used to measure a. aggression. b. infant attachment. c. moral reasoning. d. preferences in play.

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Ecological context: Infancy Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

While moral reasoning in Western cultures is predominantly guided by a justice orientation, many other cultures prefer a caring orientation. Which of the following represents a caring morality? a. “It is wrong to steal.” b. “He stole from his company and the law requires him to be punished.” c. “Everyone who steals deserves to be punished, because if everyone did it, the world would be in chaos. One would expect a good father to be a role model for his children.” d. “A thief is a bad role model.”

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Analyze

Durbin et al. (1993) found that adolescents with authoritative parents tended to choose which of the following types of peer groups? a. peers groups composed of people a few years older than themselves b. peer groups that conform to the norms their parents value c. peer groups that do NOT endorse the values of their parents d. adolescents with authoritative parents tend to be too independent to choose peer groups

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Adolescence

Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Apply

Adolescents’ prosocial and antisocial behavior is influenced by many factors. According to the text, which of the following has been described as a strong predictor of adolescent social behavior? a. academic performance b. parent and peer role models c. self-esteem d. genetic influences

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Adolescence Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Apply

Francois has tried to get vacation time approved but his request has been denied twice. On one occasion, he missed a deadline. The second time, he forgot to inform his immediate supervisor about the request. The work values in Francois’ company would likely be classified by Hofstede as a. high collectivistic. b. high individualistic. c. high uncertainty avoidant. d. low uncertainty avoidant.

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Adulthood Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Analyze

At Inger’s work place it is common for the president of the company to join employees for lunch in the lounge. She makes an effort to have personal conversations with all employees. With regard to work-related values, Inger’s company would likely be classified as a. high uncertainty avoidant. b. low uncertainty avoidant. c. high power distant. d. low power distant.

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Adulthood Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Analyze

10.

In research comparing the French to North Americans (Antonucci, 1990), which of the following aspects of social relationships has emerged as most conducive to well-being in later adulthood? a. autonomy and independence b. continued care by family members

c. reciprocal social relationships d. high number of social relationships Answer: c Topic/Concept: Late Adulthood Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Analyze

11.

As described in the text, one of the most aggressive societies in the world is the a. Pygmies of Africa b. Yanomano of Brazil and Venezuela c. Blackfoot of North America d. Inuit of the North American Arctic

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Childhood: Aggression Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

12.

Mei-Ling works at the Kowloon branch of the post office in Hong Kong. Her work environment would best be described as “collectivist.” According to the hypothesis that leisure activities represent values that are not represented in the workplace, Mei-Ling’s favorite leisure activity most likely involves a. going to the movies with friends. b. organizing events.

c. reading. d. attending discussion groups. Answer: c Topic/Concept: Adulthood Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Analyze

13.

Which of the following countries or cultures is considered most “feminine” in terms of work culture? a. Scandinavian countries b. Japan c. Austria d. Mediterranean countries

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Adulthood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

14.

Twelve-month-old Miranda accompanies her mother to work at a small fabric store every day. Sometimes her mother needs to leave the store for a few minutes to fetch an item for a customer, leaving Miranda alone with the stranger. Generally, the girl is not afraid of the stranger, but eagerly runs to hug her mother when she returns. Miranda’s attachment style would be classified as

a. securely attached. b. anxious-resistant. c. anxious-avoidant. d. ambiguous. Answer: a Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Analyze

15.

In his study of Argentinean soccer and its cultural value, Archetti (1999) drew which of the following conclusions? a. Argentinean soccer represents the cultural values of independence from the British. b. Argentinean soccer represents cultural values of masculinity. c. Argentinean soccer may be viewed as an expression of solidarity with the British. d. Argentinean soccer expresses the unity of the country.

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Adulthood: Sport Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Test Questions: Short Answer Essay

Discuss the “secure base” and sensitivity of the mother and how each of these affects

infant attachment. For each of these concepts, provide an example from a specific culture.

Topic/Concept: Ecological context: Infancy Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Analyze 2.

Discuss how peer groups in adolescence reflect and promote cultural values. Give examples to support your answer.

Topic/Concept: Adolescence Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Analyze 3.

Discuss several examples of how professional sports can reinforce cultural values in a particular society. Examples might include: Sumo in Japan, soccer in Great Britain, and football in America. Include an assessment of sports programs in secondary and college educational settings and their importance in the socialization process.

Topic/Concept: Adulthood: Sport Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Evaluate

Chapter 8 CULTURE AND ISSUES OF GENDER AND SEXUALITY Chapter Outline Ecological Context: Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Difference Biological Perspectives Evolutionary Perspectives Socialization and Learning Perspectives Infancy Sex Preference and Sex Ratio at Birth Childhood Gender Socialization Cultural Influences on Female and Male Socialization Gender Relationships in Childhood Adolescence Markers of Sexual Maturation Gender, Sexuality, and Cultural Taboos Adulthood Status and the Division of Labor Within the Family Division of Labor in the Work Force Gender Relations in Social Status and Public Policy Later Adulthood The Experience of Menopause Divorce and Widowhood

Gender Roles and Status in Old Age Summary Study Questions Developmental Analysis

Chapter Objectives

Define and distinguish between the terms sex and gender.

Compare and contrast different theoretical perspectives on gender differences in relation to their inclusion of culture.

Apply the ecological systems perspective to gender role socialization. Demonstrate an understanding of gender roles as part of an ecological system.

Interpret social relationships between the two genders from cultural and developmental perspectives.

Suggested Lecture Topics

8.1

Language and Gender Some languages ascribe gender to nouns (e.g., Spanish, German, and French). Select a random sample of nouns from a dictionary. Present these words to the class and have

students determine if they are associated with specific attributes of one gender or the other. When this task has been completed, have the class discuss whether those with a more gendered language fall in the more masculine realm. Follow this with a discussion of language (specifically the linguistic relativity hypothesis discussed in Chapter 5) as an important aspect of the ecological system in which women and men grow up. 8.2

China and the One Child Policy Since 1980, the Chinese government has attempted to control population growth through the establishment of a one child per family policy (although there are exceptions in provinces such as Guangxi, where minorities may have two children). According to some critics, this policy has led to many social and economic changes (e.g., selective abortions and girl infanticide). A discussion of these controversial issues may help students further understand the far-reaching consequences for the ecological systems in which Chinese women and men grow up.

T. Hesketh., L. Lu, and Z. Wei Xing (2005). The Effect of China’s One-Child Family Policy after 25 Years. New England Journal of Medicine 353, (11), 1171–1176.

C. Xiangming (1985). The one-child policy, modernization, and the extended Chinese family. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 47, 193–202.

M. Dalsimer (1987). The implications of the new agricultural and one-child family policies for rural Chinese women. Feminist Studies, 13, 583–607.

8.3

Gender Variants According to anthropologist Serena Nanda, the Euro-American proclivity for categorizing concepts into binary opposites (“either-or” thinking), forms the basis for our attitudes towards sex and gender. One is either male or female, man or woman, homosexual or heterosexual. However, many cultures allow for a third or even fourth gender, such as the Native American gender variant, “two-spirit” (formerly, berdache), the Hindu Indian hijira and sadhin genders and similarly documented variations in Polynesia, Thailand, and the Philippines. Individuals who occupy these gender variant roles in their societies often perform specialized tasks or are considered to possess ritual powers. How would these gender variant roles be explained from an ecological systems or developmental niche approach?

W. L. Williams (1993). Amazons of America: female gender variance. In C. B. Brettell and C. Sargent (Eds.) Gender in Cross-Culture Perspective. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

S. Nanda (2000). Gender Diversity: Cross-Cultural Variations. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.

Student Activities 1.

Have students select three cultures from different parts of the world. These should be cultures with which they have some familiarity (through traveling, reading, or personal

contact). Ask them to make a list of five to ten adjectives that describe their impressions of the men and women in that culture. Then have them answer the following questions: What are the differences? What are the similarities? Are women and men more similar in some cultures than in others? Are the differences between genders equally pronounced in different cultures? Can they apply any of the theories of gender differences discussed in Chapter 7 to explain their findings?

This activity involves setting up a short interview with a focus on conceptions of gender. Have students arrange to talk with children under the age of 10 (e.g., younger siblings, nieces or nephews, children of families they know). Sample questions might include the following: Are girls different than boys? If so, in what ways? Do boys and girls play different games? If so, why? Are there “girl games” that boys play? Are there “boy games” that girls play? What do girls and boys do together? Do you prefer playing with girls or boys? Why? The instructor can have students review their answers and discuss any cultural conceptions related to gender and gender relations that may be represented in these answers.

Students are often fascinated by differences in wedding customs and rituals in different cultures. Give them an assignment to go to the library or to the Internet and locate information on this topic. Have them describe the customs and rituals they find particularly noteworthy. What do these customs say about the relationship between husband and wife, and about the meaning of being a married woman or man in specific

societies? 4.

Division of labor between the genders is found in most cultures and represents one aspect of gender roles and gender role stereotypes. How much, and in what ways, does one’s occupation or work activity influence other aspects of one’s life? In what ways do gender stereotyped occupations influence people’s lives? Have students interview several women and men in traditional and non-traditional occupations, as well as a woman and a man in the same occupation. How do they describe a typical day? Who does the household chores? If they have children, who takes care of them? Do the interviewees have more female or male friends?

Audiovisual Materials

Guardians of the Flute (1999, Filmmakers Library, 50 min.). Discusses the Sambia people, a warlike tribe in the mountains of New Guinea, whose secret rituals of initiation are aimed at making their warriors courageous and bold. The most secret part of the initiation are the sexual rites, which are described here by several initiates. Based on Guardians of the Flutes by Gilbert Herdt.

The Wedding Camels (1980, University of California Extension, 108 min.). An amusing and informative documentary focusing on a forthcoming marriage between the daughter of one of Turkana’s leading senior men and one of his friends and age-mates. In spite of close ties between the two men, wedding negotiations over the bride wealth encounter serious difficulties.

Kumekucha: Women of Tanzania (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 28 min.). In this video, Tanzanian women, who commonly raise and provide for their children and see their husbands as problems and burdens, speak frankly about a society in which there appears to be a “total absence of romantic love, sex is hardly an issue, and women find their strength in mutual support.”

Masai Women (1974, Films Incorporated, Chicago, IL, 52 min.). An ethnographic view of Masai culture, focusing on Masai girls and their preparation for marriage and adult life. A revealing interview with an older Masai woman lends insight to women’s feelings about polygamy and their inability to own property.

Women and Islam (1993, Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 30 min.). A detailed look at the role of Islamic women. Using historical and contemporary examples, discussion focuses on issues of marriage and women’s rights within the family.

Diversity and Multiple Identities (2005, Insight Media, 50 min.) Gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals from diverse ethnic groups discuss their psychosocial adjustment and positive identity formation.

Boys Don’t Cry (1999, DVD, 118 min.). Fox Searchlight Pictures. The story of the life of Brandon Teena, a transgendered teen who preferred life in a male identity until it was discovered he was born biologically female. Award-winning Canadian film, based on a true story.

Things to Do and Think About

Ask four people who are older than you and four people who are younger than you to draw their picture of the “ideal” woman or man. What do these pictures show? Are they similar within the same generation? Are they similar across generations? Can you identify beliefs about gender-specific roles that are prevalent in your culture? Compare those with the beliefs of other cultures described in the chapter.

Think about certain conventions of dress and decoration for women and men in different societies: for women, high heels in European and North American cultures, the veil in the Middle East, the sari in India; for men, long pants in Europe, the yarmulke in Jewish culture, elaborate scarring in some African cultures. How do these customs relate to beliefs about women and men in different cultures? How are they a part of the ecological system that influences the development of men and women?

Test Questions: Multiple Choice

Alfonso is quick to forgive his son when he is mischievous, saying “boys will be boys.” His daughter, on the other hand, is frequently disciplined for minor offenses. Alfonso clearly favors the a. socialization b. evolutionary

explanation for gender differences in behavior.

c. biological d. ecological Answer: c Topic/Concept: Ecological Context: Theoretical perspectives on gender differences Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Research suggests that the preference for same-sex playmates is a. present in North America and Europe only. b. universal. c. present in Asian cultures only. d. present in African cultures only.

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

According to the text, “acquired behavioral and psychological aspects of being a woman or man” defines which of the following terms? a. gender ideal b. sex c. gender d. sex adaptation

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Childhood: Gender Socialization Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

According to the text, the single most all-encompassing theoretical model to explain sex and gender differences in society is a. the biological model, which considers gendered behavior a result of underlying biological and physiological processes. b. the evolutionary model, which describes gendered behavior as a result of evolutionary adaptation. c. the socialization and learning model, in which gendered behavior is learned by the individual within a specific sociocultural context. d. not any one of the above perspectives.

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Gibbons and Stiles, in their studies of the “ideal woman” and “ideal man” in different societies, found which of the following connections between “feminine” and “masculine” values and gender role ideals? a. Men were portrayed in less traditional roles in masculine cultures.

b. Women were portrayed in less traditional roles in masculine cultures. c. Both women and men were portrayed in traditional roles in masculine cultures. d. Both women and men were portrayed in traditional roles in feminine cultures. Answer: c Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Jessica and Jarrat grew up experiencing traditional gender role socialization, which promoted stereotypical gender role behavior. According to Williams and Best’s research on gender role stereotypes in different cultures, Jessica and Jarrat will have acquired these gender stereotypes by

years of age.

a. three b. six c. eight d. twelve Answer: c Topic/Concept: Childhood: Gender Socialization Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Which cultural area has the most liberal laws concerning sexual behavior? a. North America

b. Scandinavia c. South America d. Latin America Answer: b Topic/Concept: Adolescence Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

The Confucian virtue, the Rule of Three Obediences, in Korea, means obedience to a. parents, grandparents, and parents-in-law. b. God, parents, and teachers. c. parents, husbands, and the State. d. fathers, husbands, and sons.

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Cultural Perspectives on Gender Role Socialization Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Although more women are working outside the home, childrearing remains the most important aspect’s of _________ lives. a. Korean women’s b. Japanese women’s c. Islamic women’s

d. Indian women’s Answer: b Topic/Concept: Cultural perspectives on Gender Role Socialization Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

10.

Underlying cultural values are believed to influence what people look for in a love relationship. For example, Juran, who lives in a culture that emphasizes collectivism, considers the ideal relationship to be one characterized by a. friendship and caring for each other. b. mutual attraction and passion. c. long-term commitment. d. independence.

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Adulthood Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Analyze

11.

According to traditional Hindu beliefs, a. neither men nor women are permitted to remarry after widowhood. b. a man may divorce a woman by declaring “I divorce thee” to the woman. c. women are allowed to remarry after divorce. d. widowhood for women carries a social stigma.

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Later Adulthood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

12.

Modernization and changes in the different levels of the ecological system in formerly traditional societies have brought changes in gender roles across generations, making them more similar to those in “westernized” cultures. Researchers who examined the modernization of the Tiriki in Kenya and the Irigwe in Nigeria have observed that a. female elders have lost status in their communities. b. young men have lost status in their communities. c. young women have gained status in their communities. d. all of the above are true

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Later Adulthood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

13.

Gender relations in playgroups; a. are usually segregated by gender b. segregated by gender for part of the time c. contain both boys and girls d. can be any of the above

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

14.

Which of the following attitudes is consistent with teachings of the Quran? a. Women are naturally inferior to men. b. Divorce is encouraged for men and disallowed for women. c. Divorce is disallowed for both sexes. d. Marriage is an equal partnership between husband and wife.

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Cultural Perspectives on Gender-Role Socialization Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

15.

Irina is a supervisor in a Russian paper factory. At home, she is also in charge of the household chores and child care. When she is with her husband, Sergej, and their friends, Irina lets him take charge, make decisions, and talk on her behalf. This seemingly contradictory behavior is most likely explained by which of the following? a. Gender differences in temperament. b. Irina has not acquired the appropriate gender role of her culture. c. There are different norms for gender role behavior on the micro- and exosystem level.

d. Sergei has not acquired the appropriate gender role of his culture. Answer: c Topic/Concept: Later Adulthood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Test Questions: Short Answer Essay 1.

Discuss why the attempt to clearly classify all individuals into two mutually exclusive categories of sex and two of gender is considered artificial by some researchers.

Topic/Concept: Ecological Context: Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Differences Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Analyze 2.

Comment on how feminine or masculine behavioral norms may permeate all levels of an individual’s ecological system. Give examples to support your answer.

Topic/Concept: Ecological Context Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Analyze 3.

Researchers who study the traditional cultures of Africa argue that modernization has altered the gender roles of several generations. Describe what changes accompany modernization and how they affect older and younger women and men on different levels of their ecological system.

Topic/Concept: Ecological Context Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Analyze

Chapter 9 CULTURE, HEALTH, AND ILLNESS Chapter Outline Ecological Context: Cultural Concepts of Health and Healing Culture-Bound Syndromes Medical Diagnosis Across Cultures Illness, Stress, and Coping Infancy and Childhood Risks to Infant Health Childhood Childhood Obesity Childhood Mental Health Ecological Influences on Early Coping Behavior Adolescence Eating Disorders Culture and Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) Early and Middle Adulthood Mental Health Issues Acculturation and Adaptation Late Adulthood Disease and Premature Aging Cultural Views on Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease Coping with Chronic Illness in Older Age

The “Good Death” Summary Study Questions Developmental Analysis

Chapter Objectives

Define the term health, and provide examples of how cultural beliefs and traditions affect the delivery of health care in Western and non-Western cultures.

Define culture-bound syndrome and explain the reciprocal process that exists between cultural beliefs and the methods used to diagnose and treat physical and psychological disorders.

Distinguish between emic and etic aspects of health and culture and discuss the relative importance of Beardsley and Pedersen’s notion that in order for diagnosis to be valid and useful, each culture’s delicate balance of ecological systems and developmental niche need to be considered when diagnosing and treating illness.

Discuss research devoted to the relationship between culture and depression, schizophrenia, and Alzheimer’s.

Discuss research devoted to the relationship between culture and such common public health issues as childhood mental health, eating disorders, STDs, depression, schizophrenia and

dementia.

Suggested Lecture Topics

9.1

Cultural Beliefs and Health Cultural orientation partially determines an individual’s perception of physical and mental health, for example, what is considered normal and healthy behavior in one culture may be viewed as abnormal and unhealthy in another. In order for students to understand the reciprocal relationship among cultural beliefs, traditions, and health, it would be beneficial to illustrate how each level of the ecological system affects a given health professional’s method of diagnosing and treating illness. For example, the instructor could show how the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem of the Sabahan in East Malaysia all contribute towards a bomoh’s practice of using spiritual incantations to reverse a charm that is causing an individual’s depression or somatic discomfort. The bomoh’s approach to healing is inextricably tied to the Sabahan’s attitudes and beliefs about what “healthy” means. Following this, have students conduct their own library research and report to the class on how two different cultures vary in their approaches to the diagnosis and treatment of physical or psychological disorders.

U. Bronfenbrenner (1993). Ecological systems theory. In R. K. Wozniak & K. W. Fischer (Eds.), Development in Context. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

U. Bronfenbrenner (1979). The Ecology of Human Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

H. M. Van der Ploeg (1992). Psychotraumatic Stress: Treatment in the Netherlands. In U. P. Gielen, L. L. Adler, & N. A. Milgram (Eds.) (1992), Psychology in International Perspective: 50 Years of the International Council of Psychologists. Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger.

S. Kazarian & D. R. Evans (Eds.) (2001). Handbook of Cultural Health Psychology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

9.2

The Potential for Misdiagnosis In Chapter 9, the author discusses the potential for misdiagnosis when judgments made about illnesses in one culture are applied insensitively to another culture. For example, Lisa Beardsley (1994) outlines four reasons for misdiagnosis. To begin this lecture, have students read and discuss the Beardsley and Manson articles listed below. To help them understand this important issue, have them apply Beardsley’s reasons for misdiagnosis to a common illness diagnosed in many Western countries, and compare the physical and psychological manifestations associated with this illness in a nonWestern culture. For example, since many students will be familiar with the DSM-IV, have them examine the clinical symptoms associated with depression or paranoid schizophrenia as diagnosed and treated in the United States, including the use of psychoactive drugs. Then, discuss the relevancy of utilizing these criteria to diagnose

and treat these conditions among the Aborigines of Australia. Follow up by generating a list of possible consequences that may occur as a result of misinterpretation.

L. M. Beardsley (1994). Medical diagnosis and treatment across cultures. In W. J. Lonner & R. Malpass (Eds.), Psychology and Culture. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

S. M. Manson (1994). Culture and depression: Discovering variations in the experience of illness. In W. J. Lonner & R. Malpass (Eds.), Psychology and Culture. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

J. Draguns (1990). Applications of cross cultural psychology in the field of mental health. In R. W. Brislin (Ed.), Applied Cross Cultural Psychology. Newbury Park: Sage.

9.3

Growing Up Too Fast

For many traditional college age students, the life stressors associated with adolescence are all too familiar. Using the material in Chapter 9, an interesting lecture would be to relate David Elkind’s notion of the “hurried child” with the physical and psychological dynamics associated with eating disorders in many Western cultures. Have students consider the following questions: Do highly industrialized societies force children to grow up too soon and too fast? What relationship does this have to the desire of many adolescents and young adults to have the perfect body? What role

does the media play in fashioning this individualistic “hurried culture” and how does it contribute to the health risks associated with anorexia nervosa and bulimia? How does a society’s push to be independent and autonomous early in the life span correlate with stress-related disorders from trying compulsively to fit in and be recognized by peers and loved ones? What are some additional health concerns related to the hurried child syndrome? What evidence is there from the chapter that suggests traditional, simple, and collectivist cultures produce fewer cases of eating disorders? How can this be attributed to each culture’s ecological system and developmental niche?

G. H. Elder, J. Modell, & R. D. Parke (Eds.) (1993). Children in Time and Place. New York: Cambridge University Press.

F. Herchinger (1992). Fateful Choices. New York: Hill & Wang.

F. Elkin & G. Handel (1989). The Child & Society: The Process of Socialization (5th ed.). New York: Random House.

D. Elkind (1991). All Grown Up & No Place to Go. Reading: Addison-Wesley.

D. Elkind (1997). The Hurried Child. Reading: Addison-Wesley.

9.4

Fadiman’s book explores the clash between a small county hospital in California and a refugee family from Laos over the care of a Hmong child diagnosed with severe

epilepsy. It is a compelling story about the child, her parents, western doctors, and the collision of two cultures. The book could be assigned for the purpose of discussion in class and/or as material for a final course paper. A. Fadiman (1997). The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.

Student Activities

Students often have difficulty applying the emic and etic distinction to research methodology and psychological testing. To begin, have them read and discuss Lisa Beardsley’s explanation for misdiagnosis in Chapter 9. Emphasize the importance of understanding that when standardized tests and diagnostic instruments are designed to measure physical or psychological illness within a specific culture, it is erroneous to assume those same culture-specific values and diagnostic criteria will hold true in other cultures. In order for students to experience this first hand, obtain a complete or abridged version of a traditional test, for example, the MMPI, TAT, or Rorschach Inkblot test. Divide the class into groups and have them look at the items and comment on how appropriate or inappropriate they might be for someone from a different culture. For example, on the first two pages of the MMPI, they are likely to notice the numerous “I” statements. Direct their attention to the fact that most of the items are better suited for individuals from highly industrialized, individualistic cultures such as the United States or Canada. Point out how difficult it would be for someone from a traditionally collective culture, for example, Thailand or Malaysia, to answer these items. Obviously, this activity will work best in a multicultural classroom. However, even in a

homogeneous setting, it is beneficial for students to see the importance of judging the validity of standardized tests and diagnostic instruments within the cultural context in which they were intended.

For students to gain an understanding of the health risks associated with eating disorders, the instructor can put forth the following scenario: The college or university health services department is sponsoring a campaign to increase awareness of eating disorders on campus. You have been notified that among the activities planned are talks by a public health nurse and a clinical psychologist. They would like your help in organizing an additional guest speaker to address some cross-cultural issues related to eating disorders. Based on the students’ reading of Chapter 9, have them decide who should present this talk and what should be included in the presentation. Divide them into groups of three and have them prepare the introductory comments, including specific points to be covered by the guest speaker.

As discussed in Chapter 9, mental illness is interpreted differently in different cultures. To equip students with an accurate understanding of some of the cultural clashes that occur when diagnosing and treating psychological disorders, obtain a copy of the DSMIV for them to see what the clinical symptoms are for major depression and bipolar disorder. Arrange to have a Native American medicine man or a Southeast Asian clan leader address the class on their cultural views of these two disorders as well as any others. Quite often such presentations can be arranged through local or regional YMCA branches. Following this, have students organize, conduct, and videotape several cultural simulations that involve role playing in which a counselor is trying to diagnose

and treat major depression among clients from different ethnic or cultural backgrounds. If students are to better incorporate the views of the guest speakers with their understanding of the guidelines noted in the DSM-IV, they should become familiar with additional work on counseling across cultures. In this regard, there are some very good supplementary readings on this issue by Paul Pedersen which can be found in the reference section of the Lives Across Cultures book.

Audiovisual Materials

Street Children of Africa (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 52 min.). A touching but shocking view of the fears and dreams, familial ties, and sense of “home” among street children of West Africa: Mamadou, the runaway; Malik, the gang leader; Suleiman, the shoeshine boy; Modu, the child-beggar.

The Amish: Not to be Modern (1990, MPI Films, 57 min.). This film documents life within the Amish culture. Photographed in Ohio, it captures daily experiences in Amish communities, showing the rejection of modern technology, the preservation of rural traditions, people’s strong religious beliefs, and focuses on how the simple Amish lifestyle fosters a healthy sense of family.

Dialogues with Madwomen (1993, Women Make Movies, 90 min.). Captures the experiences of seven women who have experienced the dark side of the imagination—multiple personality, manic-depression, schizophrenia, euphoria. Portrays the gendered criteria for diagnosing

mental health.

Confronting Racial Difference: Three Approaches to Multicultural Counseling and Therapy. (2004, Insight Media, 90 min.). This program presents psychodynamic, existential-humanistic, and cognitive-behavioral therapy techniques, and explains how to use these techniques with clients from diverse multicultural backgrounds. Unintentional racism is discussed.

Things to Do and Think About

It is common practice for infants raised in North America and other Western societies to sleep in separate beds and separate rooms from their parents. Yet in many other cultures, children sleep with their mothers (and often fathers) for the first few years of life. Think about the advantages and disadvantages of these different sleeping arrangements, considering health and physical development.

Sexually transmitted diseases occur in most countries and are prevalent among adolescents and young adults. Using the examples in this chapter, discuss how sexual taboos may influence the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of STDs in different cultures. How might these cultural differences affect the work of teachers, counselors, and medical professionals?

Test Questions: Multiple Choice

The condition “amok,” found in native Puerto Rican and Navajo cultures, is characterized by a. social withdrawal and paralyzing fear. b. violent or aggressive outbursts and often amnesia. c. binge eating followed by intense exercise. d. agitated depression.

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Ecological Concepts: Cultural Concepts of Health and healing Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Over the past two weeks, Normiah has been having bad headaches and periodic bouts of depression. Her family has noticed her apathetic attitude and sudden lack of energy and have decided to seek a bomoh for help. According to the text, a bomoh is a . a. medicine man b. village leader c. counselor d. religious advisor

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Ecological Context Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Dr. Schultz is conducting a cross-cultural study to determine the incidence of anorexia nervosa in three countries—Thailand, Japan, and the United States. She wants to know if young adults suffering from this disorder experience a common distorted body image. The extent of anorexia nervosa within each of these three countries would be an example of an

characteristic, whereas the distorted body image hypothesis

linking all three countries together would be an example of an

characteristic.

a. emic; etic b. etic; emic c. enculturation; acculturation d. acculturation; enculturation Answer: a Topic/Concept: Ecological Context Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Analyze

Cook, in his comparative study of illness beliefs among adult Chinese, Indian, and Angloceltic Canadians, found that each ethnic group interpreted the causes and treatment differently depending on a. geographical orientation, generation, and age. b. caste, social position, and wisdom. c. religious affiliation, family size, and age. d. educational level, parents’ social status in the community, and geographical

orientation.

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Ecological Context Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Agents such as chemicals or diseases, which may cause malformation of developing embryos, are called a. teratogens. b. neurosubdils. c. myelinogens. d. degenerations.

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Infancy Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

The culture-specific disorder “nervios,” found in Ecuador, includes symptoms similar to a. dissociative fugue. b. schizophrenia. c. panic disorder. d. depression.

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Ecological Context Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Research findings reported by Werner and her colleagues in Hawaii indicate that premature infants who made the greatest progress tended to grow up in families with a. lots of physical stimulation. b. substantial food supplements. c. sufficient education. d. indigenous values and beliefs.

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Infancy Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Beth and Michael are the parents of three children. While all three children appear to be in good physical condition and demonstrate sound intellectual skills, they have shown significant delay in social abilities. The school counselor suggests that Beth and Michael might be putting too much pressure on the children to grow up too fast, too soon. David Elkind refers to this as the a. gifted b. forgotten

child syndrome.

c. hurried d. quick-minded Answer: c Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

In the study of human development, the concept “Storm and Stress” was coined by , the father of modern adolescent psychology, who described adolescence as a period of frequent mood swings. a. Sigmund Freud b. Eric Erikson c. G. Stanley Hall d. Abraham Maslow

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Adolescence Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

10.

Obesity is defined as weight that is a. 33% above normal body weight. b. 25% above normal body weight. c. 20% above normal body weight.

d. 15% above normal body weight. Answer: c Topic/Concept: Childhood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

11.

In studies of children and adolescents and how they cope with daily stressors (e.g., conflict with family, school problems), Hampel (2006) found that a. younger and healthier children coped better than both older children and children with chronic illness. b. children with chronic illness coped better than healthy children. c. healthy children coped better than children with chronic illness. d. older children coped better than younger children.

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Ecological Context Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

12.

Views of death and dying vary across cultures and religions. Yet, there are striking similarities in how individuals imagine their desirable or “good” death. These similarities include: a. a sudden death, without warning. b. dying for a higher cause or the benefit of others.

c. dying in the company of friends and without pain. d. dying after a long time of preparation. Answer: c Topic/Concept: Later Adulthood Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

13.

Infants who suffer malnutrition experience negative physical and cognitive effects. These effects are most likely reversible when the children are placed in environments which provide a. nutritional supplements. b. older siblings as role models. c. physical stimulation and social interaction. d. all of the above

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Infancy Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Understand

14.

In the last decade, the World Health Organization conducted research on schizophrenic patients in over twenty countries. The results indicated that a. schizophrenia occurs most commonly in industrialized countries and prognosis is better in developing countries.

b. schizophrenia occurs in nearly all countries and prognosis is better in developing countries. c. schizophrenia occurs most commonly in industrialized countries and prognosis is better in industrialized countries. d. schizophrenia occurs in nearly all countries and prognosis is better in industrialized countries. Answer: b Topic/Concept: Adulthood Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Understand

15.

There are several instances of culture-bound illnesses described in the chapter that involve men displaying anxiety symptoms that are believed to result from the loss or diminution of their genitalia or sexual power. Examples of these include: a. “stolen genitals” in Peru, koro in China, dhat in Finland. b. “receding genitals” in Costa Rica, koro in China, dhat in Pakistan. c. “missing genitals” in Nigeria, koro in China, dhat in India. d. “blackened genitals” in Madagascar, koro in China, dhat in Iran.

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Culture-bound Syndromes and Psychological Disorders Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Analyze

Test Questions: Short Answer Essay

Various people have different perspectives on what it means to be “ill” or “healthy.” Use the ecological model and the developmental niche to compare and contrast the responses to minor and major illnesses. Comment on the reciprocal nature of parents’ care for childrens’ illnesses and how children, in turn, respond to their parents’ approach to healing. Also consider access to healthcare and progress of medical science from one generation to the next.

Topic/Concept: Ecological Context Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Evaluate 2.

As a cross-cultural psychologist who is interested in comparing the health care services for the elderly in Asia and the United States, establish three hypotheses that you would expect to confirm in an observational study that investigates how families care for the elderly who suffer from Alzheimer’s disease. Be sure to justify each hypothesis with appropriate material covered in Chapter 9.

Topic/Concept: Later Adulthood Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Evaluate

Chapter 10 FUTURE TRENDS AND APPLICATIONS Chapter Outline Looking Back: A Review of Major Themes and Theories Ecological Model Developmental Niche Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Where Do We Go From Here? Thoughts and Challenges for the Future Summary

Chapter Objectives

Show an understanding of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model by applying it to one’s own development.

Discuss the developmental niche concept and give examples of its various components.

Compare and contrast Vygotsky’s sociocultural historical theory and Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory.

Comment critically on the theories of Kohlberg and Erikson and how these theories might be

made more attractive to cross-cultural researchers.

Discuss why the author stresses the need for conducting more comparative cross-cultural studies in human development. Describe one or more recent examples of this type of research as outlined in “Thoughts and Challenges for the Future.”

Suggested Lecture Topics

10.1

Cultural Simulations Simulation games provide a more direct way of exploring intercultural experiences. Two games suitable for use in class are listed below. These simulations give students the opportunity to explore their own behaviors and reactions in a setting that resembles intercultural encounters. These experiential exercises may also serve as basis for a discussion of intercultural interaction and behavior. The instructor may want to prepare some lecture material that will introduce students to the concept of simulation before carrying out the exercises.

J. S. Neves (1992). Upside down: A cross-cultural experiential exercise. Simulation and Gaming, 23, 370–375.

D. K. Gabriel (1983). Sumah, an intercultural game. Simulation and Games, 14, 241– 242.

Bafa Bafa. Classic simulation of individualist-competitive (Anglo-Western) versus collectivist-familist (e.g., Latin American) cultures. The game requires a group of at least 16 people who are divided into two cultural groups. After learning to perform their respective cultures, the groups exchange visitors and try to interpret each others’ cultural practices. Requires about 75 minutes and two trainers. The game can be purchased from Simulation Training Systems (www.simulationtrainingsystems.com).

Smith, P. B. & Bond, M. H. (1998). Social Psychology Across Cultures. London: Prentice Hall (pp. 306–323).

10.2

Professional Activities in Cross-Cultural Psychology

The instructor may find it valuable to discuss professional activities other than teaching, such as publishing, attending conferences, and participating in professional organizations. Use the list of professional organizations, journals, and websites listed at the end of the book to provide examples in the context of cross-cultural research.

Cushner, K., & Brislin, R. W. (1996). Intercultural Interactions: A Practical Guide (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

10.3

Acculturation and Adaptation

One important practical application of the study of human development cross-

culturally is in the areas of acculturation (cultural change that occurs in response to extended first-hand contacts between two or more previously autonomous groups) and adaptation. The latter is a term borrowed originally from biology. It refers to the changes in gene frequencies resulting from selective pressures being placed upon a population by environmental factors. These changes result in a greater fitness of the population to its ecological niche. Global communication systems bring exposure to Western culture and product marketing to previously remote societies. As a result of this exposure, people everywhere are acculturated to European and North American beliefs and values. At the same time, the constant migration of people throughout the world means that more and more individuals will have first hand experience of a culture other than their culture of origin than at any other point in history. To one extent or another, those people must adapt to the new culture, regardless of the amount of time they spend there, or whether they chose to migrate or were forced to leave their country as refugees. Several studies have explored the ways in which people are acculturated and adapt (Liebkind, 1996; Altrocchi and Altrocchi, 1995; Ying and Liese, 1994). The instructor can use these studies as background for a lecture on the psychological aspects of immigration and discuss how international students on their own campus adapt to their new ecological and social context. Data gathered by students who undertake Activity #4 below can contribute to this discussion.

J. Altrocchi, & L. Altrocchi (1995). Polyfaceted psychological acculturation in Cook Islanders. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 26(3), 426–440.

K. Liebkind (1996). Acculturation and stress: Vietnamese refugees in Finland. .

Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27(2), 161–180.

Y. Ying, & L.H. Liese (1994). Initial adjustment of Taiwanese students to the United States: The impact of post-arrival variables. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 25(4), 466–477.

Berry, J.W., Poortinga, Y.H., Segall, M.H., & Dasen, P.R. (1992). Cross-Cultural Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ch. 11. Acculturation and culture contact. Ch. 12. Ethnic groups and minorities. (pp. 271–314). RR GN502.C76 (1127455)

Student Activities

Have students speculate about areas of future research that may result from the critical discussion in Chapter 10 and write a draft proposal for a research study that would make a contribution to cross-cultural developmental research.

Ask students to select one of the major theories discussed in this chapter and go back to the chapter in which it was first introduced and review it. Ask them to provide a critical evaluation of the theory they have chosen outside of its cultural context by finding examples that illustrate its cultural relativity.

Audiovisual Materials

On Old Age II: A Conversation with Joan Erikson at 92 (1995, Davidson Films, 31 min.). Erik Erikson’s widow discusses her husband’s eight life cycle stages, proposes a new ninth stage, and suggests ways to deal with the physical and emotional needs of the frail elderly.

Doubles: Japan and America’s Intercultural Children (1992, Doubles Film Library, 58 min.). A fascinating documentary about ethnicity featuring people born of mixed parentage in Japan and America speaking from a variety of perspectives and different generations.

Things to Do and Think About

Just like the scientific theories discussed in this chapter and throughout the book, all of us have our own theories about people and events. These “personal theories” are also rooted in the ecological system in which we grew up. In intercultural encounters, these theories may not always work and may need to be re-evaluated outside of the context in which they have been experienced. Even if you have not traveled outside the United States, you may have had opportunities to encounter other cultures. Join (or attend) one

of the cultural organizations or clubs on campus. You may want to coordinate your efforts with a classmate. Keep a journal of your experiences and try to answer the following questions: What were their expectations, theories, or attitudes going into the meetings? Did these change by the second or third meeting? How did you modify your behavior, if at all, to adapt to an intercultural setting?

Select a cultural institution that plays a major role in your society (e.g., church, sports, military, mass media). Write a short essay describing how this institution is a part of the different levels of your ecological system and how it helped to shape your development.

Test Questions: Multiple Choice

Darrell and Shawn are reviewing the major themes of the text in preparation for their final exam. Darrell asks Shawn, “What do you call Bronfenbrenner’s theory that focuses on the reciprocal relationship among children, their parents, family members, and their connection with cultural traditions?” Shawn’s reply should be a. the developmental niche. b. the ecological model. c. the cultural syndromes. d. the sociocultural theory.

Answer: b Topic/Concept: Looking Back: A Review of Major Themes and Theories

Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

In the opening vignettes to Chapter 10, Michel’s beliefs about God and religion establish his world views and devotional outlook while Phyllidia’s extended family help maintain her social and cultural traditions. Both of these represent examples of Bronfenbrenner’s a. microsystem. b. mesosystem. c. exosystem. d. macrosystem.

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Ecological Model Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Analyze

Jamal Ismail grew up in a small kompong (village) in Malaysia. His unique social setting, and the quality of child care he received from his extended family, helped to shape his deep devotion to Islam. Jason Marks, on the other hand, was raised in Howell, Michigan. Raised as an only child, his single mother took primary responsibility for instilling into him strong moral values and a genuine love for the arts. In reviewing the two major themes of the text, both Jamal’s and Jason’s situations represent examples of Super and Harkness’ concept of

a. the ecological model. b. the developmental niche. c. cultural syndromes. d. none of the above Answer: b Topic/Concept: Developmental Niche Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

As a behavioral scientist, Byron is monitoring his three-year-old son’s development. Of particular interest is the relationship between several contributing variables: family history, social and cultural factors, and his cognitive development. According to the text, Byron is providing a contextual approach to the study of cognitive development. This approach was given prominence by a. Bronfenbrenner. b. Super and Harkness. c. Erikson. d. Vygotsky.

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Model Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Analyze

Several researchers have studied concepts considered unique to specific cultures (e.g., amae in Japan). Upon further examination, research suggests that similar behavior has been observed, or may have its equivalent, throughout other countries as well. These findings would provide an example of an research, may be shown to be an

or culture-specific concept that, with further

or universal/culture-general concept.

a. ecocultural; exosystemic b. assimilation; accommodation c. emic; etic d. etic; emic Answer: d Topic/Concept: Review of Major Themes and Theories Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Analyze

According to Vygotsky, a child’s mental abilities develop as a result of participation in collaborative activities with more skilled peers or adults. Consequently, it is the social interaction and

that provide the foundation for cognitive development.

a. cultural context b. family environment c. quality of care giving d. macrosystem Answer: a Topic/Concept: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Model

Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Understand

The text discusses some of the challenges in conducting cross-cultural research. Fons van de Vijver asserts that the field must develop “tailor made” methodologies for crosscultural research. The following would support advancements in this arena: a. draw on experiences from various branches of ecology b. publish guidelines for the appropriate design and carrying out of cross-cultural research c. encourage closer interdisciplinary cooperation and sharing of ideas with colleagues in sociology and anthropology d. all of the above

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Where Do We Go from here? Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Analyze

In the final chapter of “Lives Across Cultures” Gardiner predicts that future theories of human development will a. focus on limited and specific facets of development. b. describe, explain, understand, and predict all aspects of an individual’s development. c. consider culture simultaneously as a dependent and independent variable. d. lack consistency in definitions, approaches, and methodology.

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Where Do We Go from here? Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Kohlberg’s definition of moral maturity has been criticized for its basis on general principles of justice. Haan et al. (1985) instead proposed that moral reasoning is the result of understanding the interdependence of self and others that occurs in social interactions. Haan also suggests that moral reasoning may take on different forms in different cultures due to the wide variations in what is considered a need, desire, strength, or weakness. Thus, Haan’s model incorporates the

nature of morality.

a. judicial b. universal c. discriminatory d. interactional Answer: d Topic/Concept: Review of Major Themes and Theories Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Analyze

10.

The emerging field of developmental neuroscience examines how and are linked in the development of human behavior. a. infancy; adulthood

b. culture; biology c. art; science d. psychology; culture Answer: b Topic/Concept: Where Do We Go From here? Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Analyze

11.

Noordin, Richard, and Ibrahim are all fifteen years old and each is experiencing a developmental crisis. Through their family traditions and association with their friends at school, they are trying to answer the same question: “Who am I and what am I supposed to be?” According to Erikson, all three are going through the crisis of a. trust versus mistrust. b. autonomy versus shame and doubt. c. industry versus inferiority. d. identity versus role confusion.

Answer: d Topic/Concept: Review of major Themes and Theories Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Understand

12.

One of the suggestions for future research in culture and psychology presented in Chapter 10 includes the study of those areas of the world that have received little

attention. This includes the “MENA” area. MENA stands for: a. Middle European/North Atlantic. b. Middle Eastern/North African. c. Mediterranean/North African. d. Middle Eastern/North Asian. Answer: b Topic/Concept: Where Do We Go From here? Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

13.

Hoghughi and Long (2004) assess the current status of parenting around the world and discuss possible trends affecting parents and children in the 21st century. These include: a. economic inflation. b. decreasing divorce rates. c. advances in genetic engineering. d. global warming.

Answer: c Topic/Concept: Where Do We Go From here? Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

14.

Research done by Cantor et al. (1985, 1987) uses the concept of “life-tasks” to study

life span changes among American undergraduates. This concept is useful in crosscultural studies because a. it can be easily quantified and statistically analyzed. b. it is a scientifically-generated theme that is based on universal experiences. c. it is a self-generated theme based upon people’s culture-specific experiences. d. it makes for a more etic approach to collecting data. Answer: c Topic/Concept: Where Do We Go From here? Difficulty Level: Easy/Moderate Skill Level: Understand

15.

A “mental program” as defined by Hofstede (2001) is a. a value developed within the family during the years of early childhood containing elements of national culture. b. a schema developed in early childhood which leads to stereotyping. c. a simple sentence that captures cultural norms from the point of view of natives. d. none of the above

Answer: a Topic/Concept: Where Do We Go From Here? Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand

Test Questions: Short Answer Essay

Sharon is seven years old and is in the first grade at Saint Martin’s Elementary School in East Detroit. She is working with her teacher, Ms. Johnson, to put together a puzzle that helps teach the alphabet. Based on what you have learned in Chapter 10, use the theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, Erikson, and Kohlberg to explain the accomplishments Sharon might make or exhibit with this task in cognitive development. Topic/Concept: Review of Major Themes and Theories Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Evaluate

You have been hired to lead a team of researchers to conduct a longitudinal study that will compare the cognitive development of five sets of identical twins from two different cultures. Based on your understanding of Chapter 10, select two cultures and then decide on what questions you will ask that incorporate one or more of the levels in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model and the components of Super and Harkness’ developmental niche, to monitor the cognitive changes taking place in the twins over a ten-year period. Topic/Concept: Review of Major themes and Theories Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Evaluate

Suzanne Johnson is a first-year law student at odds with one of her colleagues over a

particular case in mock trial. She feels strongly that the Heavy Metals Manufacturing Company, Inc. owes their line employees compensation for ailments that may have resulted from exposure to particular chemicals in their line of work. The opposing counsel in the mock trial argues that, since the workers signed a “no-fault” release when they were hired, the right thing to do is to honor their contract and forego compensation. Based on Gilligan’s critique of Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning, how might Ms. Johnson best construct an argument in response to her counterpart’s defense? Topic/Concept: Review of major themes and Theories Difficulty Level: Moderate/difficult Skill Level: Analyze

Additional Resources Journals Containing Cross-Cultural Studies The following is a partial list of journals and other sources, available in many college and university libraries that publish articles, book reviews, and other material useful for teaching courses with a focus on cross-cultural behavior.

Acta Psychologica Acta Sociologica Adolescence American Anthropologist American Behavioral Scientist

American Journal of Sociology American Sociological Review Anthropological Quarterly Asia Asian Survey Canadian Journal of Psychology Child Development Cross-Cultural Psychology Bulletin Cross-Cultural Research Culture and Psychology Critique of Anthropology Cultural Dynamics Cultures Current Anthropology Current Sociology Developmental Psychology Dissertation Abstracts International Ethnology European Journal of Social Psychology Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences Human Organization Indian Journal of Psychology

International Journal of Psychology Japanese Journal of Psychology Journal of Anthropological Research Journal of Applied Social Psychology Journal of Asian & African Studies Journal of Asian Studies Journal of Black Psychology Journal of Contemporary Asia Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology Journal of Ethnic Studies Journal of Gender, Culture and Health Journal of General Psychology Journal of Material Culture Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Journal of Psychology Journal of Social Psychology Perceptual & Motor Skills Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin Psychologia Psychological Reports Psychology of Women Quarterly Reviews in Anthropology

Sex Roles Sociology World Psychology

Internet Resources http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~culture/readings.htm This unique and expanding collection of readings in culture and psychology is free to professors, students, and others throughout the world. The articles, written by noted scholars, may supplement lectures in various courses.

http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html World Fact Book. Snapshot of the world, including country profiles, population statistics, geography.

http://www.culturalsavvy.com Group of global specialists provide country reports, articles, tips, and helpful links mainly about countries in the Pacific Rim.

http://www.culture-source.de A bibliography of Intercultural Communication. Extensive search resource on intercultural communications publications.

http://www.ippf.org/

Discusses global issues of family planning and reproductive health.

http://www.kinderstart.com/familydynamics/multiculturalfamilies.html Links and resources addressing issues related to raising children and growing up in a multicultural family.

http://www.learnaboutcultures.com Provides general cross-cultural information. Has a very entertaining “Culture Quiz” for about 20 countries and cultures.

http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/links/langcult/ Links for foreign language teaching and learning, linguistics, multiculturalism and specific languages and cultures.

http://www.sci.fi/~signal/ One of world’s largest and oldest mail advertising publications for pen pals, collectors, correspondence clubs, mail traders. Also includes global information such as World News, World Comics, World Facts, and World Music.

http://www.ualberta.ca/~slis/guides/canthro/anthro.htm This subject guide is designed to help the user by reducing the mass of social and cultural anthropology resources that exist on the Internet to a manageable level of complexity. It is arranged alphabetically and separated into different areas of social and cultural anthropology to

guide the user to their topic of interest.

http://www.webdopresse.ch/fr_pays.asp?nav=anglais Provides links to online newspapers from over 200 countries.

http://www.worldwide.edu/ WorldWide Classroom (WWC) is an international consortium of schools which offer intercultural and educational programs, and welcomes international visitors. These programs include: Study Abroad, University Study, Adult Enrichment, Foreign Language Immersion, Teacher Workshops, Executive Courses, Teen Camps, Volunteerism, Internships, Cultural, Craft and Heritage Programs.

Professional Organizations American Anthropological Association (AAA) http://www.aaanet.org/

American Psychological Association (APA)—Division 52: International Psychology http://www.apa.org/about/division/div52.html

American Sociological Association (ASA)—Section: Sociology of Culture http://www.asanet.org/sections/culture.html

American Sociological Association (ASA)—Section: Comparative and Historical

Sociology http://www.asanet.org/sections/comphist.html

Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) http://www.cpa.ca/

Center for World Indigenous Studies (CWIS) http://www.cwis.org/

Cultural Studies Association of Australasia (CSAA) http://www.staff.vu.edu.au/CSAA/index.html

International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP) http://www.iaccp.org/

Society for Applied Anthropology (SFAA) http://www.sfaa.net/

Society for Cross-Cultural Research (SCCR) http://www.sccr.org

Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI) http://www.spssi.org/index.html