Personality Theory and Research An International Perspective, Canadian Edition Test Bank

Personality Theory and Research An International Perspective, Canadian Edition By

Gordon L. Flett

Test Bank to Accompany Flett/Personality Theory and Research

Chapter 1: Personality – An Introduction Multiple Choice 1. Which of the following descriptions seems to be the most important characteristic of personality? a. Unidimensional b. Specific c. Similarity d. Stable Answer: d Page: 4 Level of difficulty: medium 2. The word personality comes from the Latin word “persona,” meaning: a. that which one truly is. b. the evil side of people. c. character mask. d. soul.

Answer: c Page: 5 Level of difficulty: easy 3. The scope of personality research includes things that apply to all but which of the following: a. all animals. b. all people. c. defined groups of people. d. specific people.

Answer: a Page: 5 Level of difficulty: easy 4. Which of the following is not one of the major levels of personality inquiry? a. Universals b. Cultural differences c. Group differences d. Specific individuals Answer: b Page: 5 Level of difficulty: medium 5. Which of the following is not one of the main objectives of personality research? a. Explanation b. Description c. Prediction d. Causation Answer: d Page: 6 Level of difficulty: medium 6. The question “What are the key features of personality?” best fits under which of the following goals of personality research? a. Causation b. Description c. Explanation d. Prediction Answer: b Page: 6 Level of difficulty: medium

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7. The question “Will the personality characteristics prove to be stable over time?” best fits which of the following goals of personality research? a. Causation b. Description c. Explanation d. Prediction Answer: d Page: 6 Level of difficulty: easy 8. What approach involves gathering a small amount of data on a large group of people to identify general themes? a. Idiographic approach b. Nomothetic approach c. Personologist approach d. Social learning approach Answer: b Page: 7 Level of difficulty: easy 9. What approach involves gathering a large amount of data on a small number of people? a. Idiographic approach b. Nomothetic approach c. Personologist approach d. Social learning approach Answer: a Page: 8 Level of difficulty: easy 10. Which well-known personologist was concerned with understanding the entire person? a. Gordon Allport b. Sigmund Freud c. Douglas Jackson d. Jerry Wiggins Answer: a Page: 7 Level of difficulty: easy 11. What approach reflects a greater focus on the pattern or structure that exists within the individual? a. Idiographic approach b. Nomothetic approach c. Personologist approach d. Morphogenic approach Answer: d Page: 8 Level of difficulty: medium 12. Who emphasized the importance of temporal factors in personality research? a. Kluckhohn b. Barnum c. Sternberg d. Revelle Answer: d Page: 9 Level of difficulty: easy

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13. Which of the following statements best describes personality research? a. Personality is about common sense. b. Personality development reflects only a few influences. c. Personality is a science. d. Personality is based on conjecture.

Answer: c Page: 10 Level of difficulty: easy 14. The ________ refers to the tendency for people to accept personality feedback provided to them as accurate, even though the feedback is general and vague. a. Kluckhohn effect b. Barnum effect c. Sternberg effect d. Revelle effect Answer: b Page: 13 Level of difficulty: medium 15. Contemporary views maintain that personality is due to: a. internal factors. b. external factors. c. multiple factors. d. temperament.

Answer: c Page: 14 Level of difficulty: medium

16. Which of the following researchers emphasized the importance of the link between culture and personality? a. Kluckhohn b. Barnum c. Sternberg d. Revelle Answer: a Page: 15 Level of difficulty: easy 17. Personality can be expressed by individual differences in: a. emotions. b. cognitions. c. social tendencies. d. all the above.

Answer: d Page: 18 Level of difficulty: medium 18. Which of the following levels best depicts trait hostility as being associated with a cynical perception of other people? a. Affective b. Behavioural c. Cognitive d. Motivational Answer: c Page: 19 Level of difficulty: dificult

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19. Which of the following levels best depicts trait hostility as characterized by elevated levels of arousal and malevolent motives? a. Affective b. Behavioural c. Cognitive d. Motivational Answer: d Page: 19 Level of difficulty: difficult 20. Personality has consequences for: a. the individual. b. social relationships. c. society. d. all the above.

Answer: d Page: 19 Level of difficulty: easy 21. With respect to the applied perspectives in space flight, favourable characteristics of astronauts have been referred to as the: a. right stuff personality. b. positive personality. c. analogue personality. d. positive interpersonal orientation.

Answer: a Page: 21 Level of difficulty: easy 22. The “right stuff” personality includes: a. high levels of competitiveness. b. high levels of mastery orientation. c. low levels of positive interpersonal orientation. d. high levels of task focus.

Answer: d Page: 21 Level of difficulty: medium 23. The “wrong stuff” personality includes: a. high levels of competitiveness. b. low levels of aggressiveness. c. low levels of hostility. d. high levels of task focus.

Answer: a Page: 21 Level of difficulty: medium Short Answer/Essay 24. What is personality?

Level of difficulty: easy Suggested answer, p. 4: Personality refers to relatively stable individual differences that are believed to be present early in life and involves characteristics that generalize across time and across situations.

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25. Identify and define the main goals of personality research.

Level of difficulty: easy Suggested answer, p. 6: Personality research is essentially guided by three main objectives: description, explanation, and prediction. The first goal is to describe personality differences as completely as possible, such as key features, and their relation. The second goal is to explain personality differences in terms of their origin, and why some people share certain characteristic and others do not.

The third goal is concerned with making predictions about personality on what is currently known about personality, such as the stability of certain factors across time.

26. Explain the importance of temporal factors in personality.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 9: While personality is relatively stable over time, it is important to note that there may be some temporal changes that can affect behaviour. Revelle has recognized the importance of temporal factors in personality research. For example, if researchers are interested in personality and arousal level, it is crucial to recognize diurnal variability factors. This would impact assessment methods at different times of the day.

27. Why is the study of personality a science?

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 10: Science is essentially any systematically organized body of knowledge about a specific subject. In this case, the study of personality is indeed science—social science. While a basic study might involve a simple questionnaire or survey, this does constitute data collection and analysis. A more obvious example of personality as a science is current research on the biological determinants of personality. Some researchers are interested in personality differences and related neuropsychological differences involving brain structure and brain activity. Taken together, the field of personality research relies extensively on empirical research findings, derived from experimental and correlational studies.

28. Discuss the importance of culture and personality.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 15: Clyde Kluckhohn recognized the importance of the interrelationship between culture and personality. It is important to note that culture is a part of personality and should not be equated to it. Recent developments in the field of personality include the growth of research on personality from a cross-cultural perspective, and most likely will continue to grow in the future. It still has to be determined which aspect of culture is important to a particular personality phenomenon, and there should be a focus on both description and explanation.

For example, cultural group differences can be explained into evoked culture, transmitted culture, and genetic variation.

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Chapter 2: Units of Personality – Types versus Traits Multiple Choice 1. Categorizing someone as either a pessimist or an optimist reflects a(n): a. trait approach. b. type approach. c. ambivertic approach. d. psychoanalytic approach.

Answer: b Page: 28 Level of difficulty: medium 2. Categorizing someone as somewhat extroverted or a lot extroverted reflects a(n): a. trait approach. b. type approach. c. ambivertic approach. d. psychoanalytic approach.

Answer: a Page: 28 Level of difficulty: medium 3. Which of the following individuals focused on somatotypes? a. Child b. Galen c. Hippocrates d. Sheldon Answer: d Page: 28 Level of difficulty: easy 4. Which early Greek individual was concerned with linking temperament with bodily humours? a. Aristotle b. Plato c. Hippocrates d. Socrates Answer: c Page: 28 Level of difficulty: easy 5. Constitutional psychology refers to: a. psychoanalysis of politicians. b. the link between personality and physical attributes. c. discrete categories that differ qualitatively from each other. d. discrete categories that differ quantitatively from each other.

Answer: b Page: 29 Level of difficulty: medium 6. Which of the following best characterizes the somatotype mesomorph? a. Does not withstand pain easily. b. Withstands pain easily and willingly. c. Gets to sleep easily. d. Lacks real desire for strenuous physical exercise.

Answer: b Page: 30 Level of difficulty: medium

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7. Which of the following best characterizes the somatotype endomorph? a. Does not withstand pain easily. b. Withstands pain easily and willingly. c. Gets to sleep easily. d. Lacks real desire for strenuous physical exercise.

Answer: c Page: 30 Level of difficulty: medium 8. Which of the following best characterizes the somatotype ectomorph? a. Does not withstand pain easily. b. Withstands pain easily and willingly. c. Gets to sleep easily. d. Lacks real desire for strenuous physical exercise.

Answer: a Page: 30 Level of difficulty: medium 9. What is the primary somatotype characterizing viscerotonia? a. Ectomorph b. Endomorph c. Mesomorph d. Taxomorph Answer: b Page: 30 Level of difficulty: medium 10. What is the term given to the complex statistical approach used to test for personality types or discrete categories in general? a. Ambivertonomy. b. Somatometrics. c. Mode. d. Taxometrics.

Answer: d Page: 31 Level of difficulty: medium 11. A person’s degree of impulse control is referred to as: a. Ego control. b. Ego resiliency. c. Superego control. d. Superego resiliency.

Answer: a Page: 34 Level of difficulty: easy 12. The term ambivert refers to: a. The complex statistical approach used to test for personality types. b. An identified category. c. In statistics, the number that occurs the most times. d. Characteristics of both introversion and extroversion.

Answer: d Page: 31 Level of difficulty: easy 13. Who suggested that personality types could be represented graphically as if they were the north, south, east, and west points on a compass? a. Sheldon

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b. Mead c. Eysenck d. Allport Answer: b

Page: 32

Level of difficulty: easy

14. In subsequent analysis of Eysenck’s work on cross-national personality perspectives, which country was found to score higher in mean levels of extroversion? a. Nigeria b. Canada c. China d. Iran Answer: a Page: 33 Level of difficulty: easy 15. The ability to alter behaviours according to situational demands is referred to as: a. ego control. b. ego resiliency. c. superego control. d. superego resiliency.

Answer: b Page: 34 Level of difficulty: easy 16. Ego control refers to: a. The ability to alter behaviours according to situational demands. b. The complete suppression of impulses. c. The control of impulses, including emotional and motivational tendencies. d. The moralistic management of inherent drives.

Answer: c Page: 34 Level of difficulty: medium 17. A major characteristic of the resilient personality type is: a. respectful. b. tense. c. hostile. d. irritable.

Answer: a Page: 35 Level of difficulty: easy 18. A major characteristic of the undercontrolling personality type is: a. respectful. b. introverted. c. hostile. d. intelligent.

Answer: c Page: 35 Level of difficulty: easy 19. A major characteristic of the overcontrolling personality type is: a. respectful. b. introverted. c. hostile. d. intelligent.

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Answer: b

Page: 35

Level of difficulty: easy

20. Who is generally referred to as the father of personality trait psychology? a. Sheldon b. Mead c. Eysenck d. Allport Answer: d Page: 38 Level of difficulty: easy 21. According to Allport, which of the following involves an explanatory account of a more fundamental and deeper disposition? a. Phenotypical disposition b. Cardinal disposition c. Genotypical disposition d. Central disposition.

Answer: c Page: 40 Level of difficulty: medium 22. According to Allport, which of the following involves describing behaviour in a situation in the here and now? a. Phenotypical disposition b. Cardinal disposition c. Genotypical disposition d. Central disposition.

Answer: a Page: 40 Level of difficulty: medium 23. Walter Mischel argued that: a. Each person has unique traits and common traits. b. Traits are dynamic and discriminative. c. Traits are poor predictors of behaviours in situations. d. Traits are good predictors of behaviours in situations.

Answer: c Page: 43 Level of difficulty: medium 24. The impact of situational factors and their role in contributing to differences in behaviour is referred to as: a. situational construct. b. situationism. c. personality coefficient. d. situational impact.

Answer: b Page: 43 Level of difficulty: medium 25. Interactionism is the view that: a. differences in behaviour often reflect the interaction of personality traits and situational factors. b. differences in behaviour often reflect the interaction of personality traits and personality types.

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c. differences in behaviour often reflect the interaction of the personality coefficient and the situation coefficient. d. differences in behaviour often reflect the interaction of genotypical dispositions.

Answer: a Page: 45 Level of difficulty: medium 26. Which of the following individuals was a leading proponent of interactionism? a. Mischel b. Allport c. Ozer d. Endler Answer: d Page: 45 Level of difficulty: easy 27. Reciprocal interactionism models: a. focus on how situations influence people’s behaviours. b. focus on how behaviours influence situations. c. focus on how both the person and situation can influence each other. d. focus on how behaviours change across changes in different situations.

Answer: c Page: 45 Level of difficulty: medium 28. State anxiety: a. refers to a person’s baseline level of anxiety. b. refers to how anxious one usually feels. c. refers to the current feeling of anxiety. d. is the same as dynamic anxiety.

Answer: c Page: 46 Level of difficulty: easy 29. The ________ approach requires research participants to describe their personality characteristics in terms of their usual personality characteristics. a. metatrait b. trait relevance c. interactionist d. maximal Answer: d Page: 48 Level of difficulty: medium 30. Traits that are highly relevant to the individual are referred to as: a. metatraits. b. maximal traits. c. supertraits. d. lexical traits.

Answer: a Page: 49 Level of difficulty: medium 31. The degree to which a trait is consequential in influencing an individual’s thought, affect, and behaviour best describes: a. traitedness. b. trait relevance. c. trait reliability.

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d. super-traitedness.

Answer: b Page: 49

Level of difficulty: medium

32. Which of the following would not typically be expected to be included in the assessment of metatraits? a. Behavioural measures b. Self-reports c. Same-trait variability evaluation d. Speed of responding to trait-related stimuli Answer: a Page: 49 Level of difficulty: medium 33. Traits that capture the major proportion of variance in behaviour are: a. metatraits. b. maximal traits. c. supertraits. d. lexical traits.

Answer: c Page: 50 Level of difficulty: easy 34. The major proponent of a hierarchical model of personality was: a. Mischel. b. Allport. c. Endler. d. Eysenck.

Answer: d Page: 51 Level of difficulty: easy 35. In Eysenck’s model, the dimension that encompasses second-level traits such as anxious, depressed, and tense, is termed: a. extroversion- introversion. b. neuroticism-emotional stability. c. psychoticism-superego. d. agreeableness-antagonism.

Answer: b Page: 51 Level of difficulty: easy 36. In Eysenck’s model, the dimension which encompasses second-level traits such as sociable, lively, and active, is termed: a. Extroversion- introversion. b. Neuroticism-emotional stability. c. Psychoticism-superego. d. Agreeableness-antagonism.

Answer: a Page: 51 Level of difficulty: easy 37. Eysenck postulated that criminal personality is characterized by high levels of psychoticism, extroversion, and neuroticism. This is known as: a. NEO-P-R. b. conditionability. c. the EPQ model.

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d. the PEN model.

Answer: d Page: 53

Level of difficulty: easy

38. Which of the following is not one of the five factors? a. Neuroticism b. Extroversion c. Psychoticism d. Agreeableness Answer: c Page: 54 Level of difficulty: easy 39. What does the Big Two refer to? a. Alpha/beta b. Extroversion/introversion c. Neuroticism/psychoticism d. Agreeableness/antagonism Answer: a Page: 55 Level of difficulty: easy 40. Research on academic procrastination revealed that: a. procrastination was associated with low levels of conscientiousness and low levels of neuroticism. b. procrastination was associated with high levels of conscientiousness and high levels of neuroticism. c. procrastination was associated with high levels of conscientiousness and low levels of neuroticism. d. procrastination was associated with low levels of conscientiousness and high levels of neuroticism.

Answer: d Page: 56 Level of difficulty: easy 41. Research that follows an ________ approach involves exporting supposed universal findings and applying them to specific cultures. a. etic b. emic c. ethnic d. indigenous Answer: a Page: 60 Level of difficulty: easy 42. Research that follows a(n) ________ approach involves establishing and identifying culture-specific factors. a. etic b. emic c. ethnic d. lexical Answer: b Page: 60 Level of difficulty: medium 43. Critics of the five-factor model most obviously question which of the following clinical applications?

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a. Depression b. Psychopathology c. Anxiety d. Sociology Answer: b Page: 61

Level of difficulty: medium

44. Who created the Supernumerary Personality Inventory? a. Saucier b. Allport c. Paunonen d. Cattell Answer: c Page: 62 Level of difficulty: easy 45. Cattell underscored the importance of the “totality of human behaviour.” The term that best captures this is: a. personality construct. b. personality sphere. c. Supertrait. d. metatrait.

Answer: b Page: 64 Level of difficulty: medium 46. The locus of control construct refers to: a. differences in internal versus external control of reinforcement. b. differences in internal versus external control of punishment. c. differences in traits across cultures. d. differences in traits across individuals.

Answer: a Page: 65 Level of difficulty: difficult 47. Which of the following personality theorists coined the term locus of control? a. Eysenck b. Allport c. Endler d. Rotter Answer: d Page: 65 Level of difficulty: easy 48. In studying locus of control from the cultural perspective of Asians relative to Americans, evidence indicates that: a. Asians tend to have scores that suggest an internal locus of control. b. Asians tend to have scores that suggest an external locus of control. c. Asians tend to have scores that suggest a balance between internal and external locus of control. d. The evidence is not clear about the locus of control of Asians relative to Americans.

Answer: b Page: 67 Level of difficulty: medium

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49. ________ analyses indicate that locus of control scores have become increasingly more external over the past several decades. a. Etic b. Emic c. Cohort d. Factor Answer: c Page: 68 Level of difficulty: medium 50. Research on locus of control in predicting depression suggests: a. locus of control can interact with desire for control to predict help-seeking behaviour. b. locus of control does not interact with desire for control to predict help-seeking behaviour. c. students with a high need for control but an internal locus of control were more likely to experience suicidal thoughts. d. students with a high need for control but an external locus of control were not more likely to experience suicidal thoughts.

Answer: a Page: 69 Level of difficulty: medium Short Answer/Essay 51. Identify and discuss the three somatotypes postulated by Sheldon.

Level of difficulty: easy Suggested answer, p. 29: The three somatotypes postulated by Sheldon are ectomorph, mesomorph, and endomorph. People characterized by ectomorphy are thought to be socially restrained and in need of privacy. People characterized by mesomorphy include physical assertion and high activity level. People characterized by endomorphy are believed to have a love of relaxation and comfort.

52. What have we learned from anthropological research on personality?

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 31: The work of anthropologists resulted in attempts to characterize the personality of nations (i.e., national characters). There has been agreement on personality stereotypes about nations but there is little evidence of actual personality differences.

53. Discuss the findings of the study by Robins et al. on personality types.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 35: Answers can include a variety of relevant characteristics.

Robins et al. posited the existence of three personality types: resilient, overcontrolling, and undercontrolling. A major characteristic of the resilient personality type is respectfulness. A major characteristic of the undercontrolling personality type is hostility. A major characteristic of the overcontrolling personality type is introversion.

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54. As related to Allport’s conceptualization of traits, discuss the differences between phenotypical and genotypical personal dispositions.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 39: A phenotypical disposition is involved when the focus is on describing behaviour in a situation in the here and now. A genotypical disposition is an explanatory account of a more fundamental and deeper disposition (i.e., a person’s core).

55. Identify Walter Mischel’s contributions to the personality field.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 42: Mischel argued that traits are poor predictors of behaviours in situations. He noted that changes in situations result in changes in behaviour and that these behavioural changes are not in keeping with the presumed stability of personality traits and associated behaviours.

56. Discuss the trait-situation interaction in personality research.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 45: Students are expected to discuss Endler’s interactionism approach. This approach views that differences in behaviour often reflect the interaction of personality traits and situational factors. For example, reciprocal interactionism models allow for the possibility that not only does the situation have an influence on the person, but the person can also have an influence on the situation. In other words, we can select or change the situation by behaving in a particular way.

57. Describe the five factors of personality on the NEO-PI-R. Ensure to include examples.

Level of difficulty: easy Suggested answer, p. 54: Students are expected to list and give examples according to Table 2.3: The five factors of personality on the NEO-PI-R are: Neuroticism Extroversion/introversion Openness to experience Agreeableness/antagonism Conscientiousness 58. Discuss the five-factor model across cultures.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 61: Regarding the five-factor model across cultures, certain factors and personality processes involve broad themes that may be universal. However, certain factors of significance will exist in specific cultures, and any attempt to describe and predict someone’s behaviour in such a culture must also place substantial importance on

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these indigenous characteristics. In sum, this model does not capture indigenous traits of significance across cultures.

59. Identify some of the limitations of the five-factor model.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 61: Some limitations of the five-factor model include: The five-factor model is perhaps too broad, and more narrow and specific traits can account for a significant degree of variability in outcome variables. This model does not capture indigenous traits of significance across cultures. The five-factor model has been criticized for being descriptive rather than explanatory. Also, this model has limited clinical utility when it comes to psychopathology.

60. Describe the locus of control construct.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 65: Locus of control refers to differences in internal versus external control of reinforcement. This concept focuses on people who feel a sense of control over the reinforcements in their lives versus those people who feel that control over reinforcements is outside of themselves.

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Chapter 3: The Development of Personality Multiple Choice 1. Which of the following is true about personality development? a. Personality development reflects multiple influences that operate across the lifespan. b. Individual differences are not typically detected shortly after babies are born. c. Type A research in children can be detected among one- and two year olds. d. Personality traits are generally not stable across an individual’s lifespan.

Answer: a Page: 75 Level of difficulty: medium 2. The “Little Five” refers to: a. a modification of the five-factor model. b. a test of the five-factor model in young people. c. the main researchers in the five-factor model. d. the five principles of personality theories in children.

Answer: b Page: 76 Level of difficulty: easy 3. Of the following elements, which one is not reliably detectable in children? a. Extroversion b. Introversion c. Neuroticism d. Openness Answer: d Page: 76 Level of difficulty: easy 4. Research on trait dimensions across cultures reveals: a. Dutch parents, relative to Chinese parents, gave a greater emphasis to conscientiousness. b. Dutch parents, relative to Chinese parents, gave a greater emphasis to agreeableness. c. Chinese parents, relative to Dutch parents, gave a greater emphasis to conscientiousness. d. Chinese parents, relative to Dutch parents, gave a greater emphasis to agreeableness.

Answer: c Page: 77 Level of difficulty: medium 5. The ________ is a tool developed by Eysenck to assess personality dimensions in children. a. Little Five b. Child 5-FF c. EPQ-J d. NEO-PI-R Answer: c Page: 78 Level of difficulty: easy 6. Collective research with the EPQ-J has revealed low reliability with which of the following? a. Extroversion b. Introversion c. Neuroticism d. Psychoticism Answer: d Page: 78 Level of difficulty: easy 7. Who was the first to question whether personality is stable or changing?

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a. James b. Eysenck c. Costa d. McCrae Answer: a

Page: 78

Level of difficulty: easy

8. The ________ hypothesis denotes that personality gradually changes. a. plasticity b. plaster c. accentuation d. impostor Answer: a Page: 78 Level of difficulty: easy 9. The ________ hypothesis denotes that personality is enduring. a. plasticity b. plaster c. accentuation d. impostor Answer: b Page: 78 Level of difficulty: easy 10. William James favoured which of the following personality hypotheses? a. Plasticity hypothesis b. Plaster hypothesis c. Accentuation hypothesis d. Impostor hypothesis Answer: b Page: 79 Level of difficulty: easy 11. McCrae and Costa were proponents of which of the following hypotheses? a. Plasticity hypothesis b. Plaster hypothesis c. Accentuation hypothesis d. Impostor hypothesis Answer: b Page: 79 Level of difficulty: easy 12. According to James, at which age is personality essentially set? a. 10 b. 20 c. 30 d. 40 Answer: c Page: 79 Level of difficulty: easy 13. According to Caspi and Bem, which of the following is not usually presented as a factor that promotes personality stability? a. Age b. Genetic c. Reactive

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d. Evocative Answer: a

Page: 79

Level of difficulty: medium

14. A longitudinal investigation of the same sample of participants over time is referred to as: a. mean-level stability. b. stability quotient analysis. c. dynamic stability. d. meta-analysis.

Answer: a Page: 79 Level of difficulty: easy 15. The main statistic in assessing relative stability by the correlations between scores when a sample of participants is retested at subsequent time intervals is referred to as the: a. mean-level quotient. b. stability quotient. c. dynamic stability correlation. d. test-retest correlation.

Answer: d Page: 80 Level of difficulty: medium 16. The measure used where the focus is on comparing one variable with another, and the level of one variable limits the possible values of the other variable is referred to as: a. mean-level stability. b. stability quotient analysis. c. dynamic stability. d. ipsative stability.

Answer: d Page: 80 Level of difficulty: medium 17. According to meta-analysis, at what age does the rank-order consistency of personality traits over time plateau? a. 10–20 b. 20–30 c. 30–50 d. 50–70 Answer: d Page: 80 Level of difficulty: medium 18. The predictability of individual differences over time in fluctuations in interpersonal variability is termed: a. mean-level stability. b. stability quotient analysis. c. dynamic stability. d. ipsative stability.

Answer: c Page: 81 Level of difficulty: medium 19. Related to the concept of dynamic stability, ________ refers to the amount of variability that a person has around their mean score on an interpersonal dimension. a. flux b. pulse

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c. spin d. accentuation Answer: a Page: 81

Level of difficulty: medium

20. Related to the concept of dynamic stability, ________ refers to the individual differences in the overall extremity of interpersonal behaviours. a. flux b. pulse c. spin d. accentuation Answer: b Page: 82 Level of difficulty: easy 21. Related to the concept of dynamic stability, ________ refers to the individual differences in the use of different interpersonal styles. a. flux b. pulse c. spin d. accentuation Answer: c Page: 82 Level of difficulty: medium 22. The greatest personality change occurs during: a. childhood. b. adolescence. c. early adulthood. d. late adulthood.

Answer: c Page: 83 Level of difficulty: easy 23. Who suggested that personality should be seen as the sum of individual differences in temperament and character? a. James b. Eysenck c. Costa d. Valliant Answer: d Page: 84 Level of difficulty: easy 24. As a way of accounting for the role of life experiences in personality changes, Elder and Caspi postulated the: a. plasticity principle. b. plaster hypothesis. c. accentuation principle. d. impostor hypothesis.

Answer: c Page: 85 Level of difficulty: medium 25. A person’s unobservable constitution, or inherited potential, is referred to as: a. concordance. b. heritability.

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c. phenotype. d. genotype.

Answer: d

Page: 87

Level of difficulty: medium

26. A person’s expression of potential based on life experience is referred to as: a. concordance. b. heritability. c. phenotype. d. genotype.

Answer: c Page: 87 Level of difficulty: medium 27. The proportion of phenotypic variation in a sample or population that is attributable to genetic factors is called: a. concordance. b. heritability. c. phenotype. d. genotype.

Answer: b Page: 87 Level of difficulty: medium 28. The role of genetics in contributing to a specific behaviour is called: a. concordance. b. heritability. c. phenotype. d. genotype.

Answer: a Page: 87 Level of difficulty: easy 29. Related to heritability, about ________ of the variance in traits reflects genetic factors. a. 30% b. 40% c. 50% d. 60% Answer: c Page: 88 Level of difficulty: medium 30. Which of the following statements best characterizes genetic and environmental influences on personality development? a. Environmental factors play a relatively weak role. b. Environmental factors play a relatively important role. c. Genetic factors play a strong role. d. Both genetic and environmental factors play an integrative role.

Answer: d Page: 91 Level of difficulty: medium 31. Temperament is best defined as: a. constitutionally based differences in reactivity and self-regulation. b. individual differences in lifestyle and life choices. c. the capacity for gratitude and forgiveness. d. the totality of human behaviour.

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Answer: a

Page: 92

Level of difficulty: easy

32. According to Thomas and Chess, a difficult child: a. is active, irritable, and slow to adapt. b. tends to be inactive, moody, slow to adapt, and resist cuddling. c. has a positive mood, and is quite open. d. may display passive forms of resistance.

Answer: a Page: 92 Level of difficulty: medium 33. According to Thomas and Chess, an easy child: a. is active, irritable, and slow to adapt. b. tends to be inactive, moody, slow to adapt, and resist cuddling. c. has a positive mood, and is quite open. d. may display passive forms of resistance.

Answer: c Page: 92 Level of difficulty: medium 34. According to Thomas and Chess, a slow-to-warm-up child: a. is active, irritable, and slow to adapt. b. tends to be inactive, moody, slow to adapt, and resist cuddling. c. has a positive mood, and is quite open. d. often reacts vigorously and negatively towards change.

Answer: b Page: 94 Level of difficulty: medium 35. Which of the following is not identified as a dimension on the Behavioural Style Observational System? a. Mood b. Activity level c. Adaptability d. Hostility Answer: d Page: 95 Level of difficulty: easy 36. Overall, dimensions of temperament are ________ over time. a. highly stable b. unstable c. moderately stable d. Cannot say; more research is needed regarding dimensions of temperament.

Answer: c Page: 95 Level of difficulty: medium 37. ________ is an accepted temperament dimension that is linked with low sociability. a. Mood b. Activity level c. Adaptability d. Behavioural inhibition Answer: d Page: 97 Level of difficulty: medium

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38. Which personality researcher emphasized that differences in temperament should be seen within the context of situational factors and psychological and physiological states? a. Strelau b. Kagan c. Baumrind d. Karp Answer: a Page: 99 Level of difficulty: easy 39. Which personality researcher identified the three major parenting styles? a. Strelau b. Kagan c. Baumrind d. Karp Answer: c Page: 100 Level of difficulty: easy 40. Which of the following is not identified by Baumrind as one of the main parenting styles? a. Authoritative b. Emotionally involved c. Authoritarian d. Permissive Answer: b Page: 100 Level of difficulty: medium 41. ________ is usually associated with maladaptive parenting. a. Introversion b. Openness c. Neuroticism d. Agreeableness Answer: c Page: 102 Level of difficulty: easy 42. Authoritative parents tend to be high in: a. extroversion and openness b. extroversion and neuroticism c. neuroticism and openness d. neuroticism and agreeableness Answer: a Page: 103 Level of difficulty: easy 43. Less optimal parenting is associated with: a. high extroversion. b. low neuroticism. c. high neuroticism. d. high agreeableness.

Answer: c Page: 105 Level of difficulty: medium 44. A mode of parenting among Chinese parents that focuses on training is referred to as: a. Guan b. Self-efficacy

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c. Collectivism d. Kibishii Answer: a Page: 109

Level of difficulty: easy

45. Pessimistic beliefs about the world and other people is termed: a. Type A personality. b. Type B personality. c. cynical hostility. d. cynical antagonism.

Answer: c Page: 113 Level of difficulty: medium 46. Which of the following statements best characterizes Type A behaviour in children? a. Type A behaviour is not detectable in children. b. Type A behaviour in adulthood is not adequately predicted from childhood. c. Type A behaviour is best predicted from familial factors. d. Type A behaviour has a biological component.

Answer: d Page: 112 Level of difficulty: medium Short Answer/Essay 47. Explain the significance of the Little Five.

Level of difficulty: easy Suggested answer, p. 76: This term connotes the test of the five-factor model in young people. Studies by John et al. confirmed the existence of the five factors and two others identified as irritability and activity in children. The latter two are thought to reflect temperament.

48. Is personality stable?

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 78: This question was first posed by William James in 1890. He discussed the issue of personal character in terms of whether it is plastic and changing (referred to as the plasticity hypothesis) or is like plaster and enduring (referred to as the plaster hypothesis). Overall there seems to be a moderate degree of stability in personality over time. Meta-analysis research indicates consistency of traits over time, peaking among 50- to 70- year olds.

Stability exists because people tend to be proactive in seeking out or evoking situations that fit their personalities.

49. Discuss Valliant’s contributions to personality stability.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 84: Valliant suggested that personality should be seen as the sum of individual differences in temperament and character. Character is reflected in lifestyle and life choices, including health habits and the selection of a mate. He noted that temperament does not change significantly, but character can change as influence by the environment and developmental maturation. Valliant also identified four qualities that are resiliency factors that enhance long-term outcomes (as given on p.85).

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50. What is the accentuation principle?

Level of difficulty: easy Suggested answer, p. 85: As a way of accounting for the role of life experiences in personality changes, Elder and Caspi postulated this principle. They believe that the experience of life stressors tends to increase the stability of personality traits over time because people tend to respond to life stress via familiar tendencies.

51. Discuss the roles of genetic and environmental factors in personality development.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 86: Overall, both genetic and environmental factors play an integrative role. Some identical twins have remarkable similarities even when reared apart. However, other cases illustrate differences among identical twins raised together. This issue is framed under the greater topic of nature and nurture. Students can frame their answers around specific examples of differential treatment by parents.

52. What is temperament? Identify the major temperament dimensions.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 96: Temperament can be defined as constitutionally based differences in reactivity and selfregulation. It reflects how behaviours are expressed, and differences in temperament are believed to be biologically based. In this context, there are three types of children: easy, difficult, and slow to warm-up. The easy child is even-tempered, has a positive mood, and is quite open. The difficult child is active, irritable, and slow to adapt. The slow to warm-up child tends to be inactive, moody, slow to adapt, and resist cuddling.

53. Define behavioural inhibition.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 97: Behavioural inhibition is an accepted temperament dimension that is closely linked with shyness and low sociability. It is thought that this may be due to differences in emotionality that reflect brain structures and processes (e.g., right frontal asymmetry).

54. Explain the three parenting styles as identified by Baumrind.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 100: The authoritative approach is the most adaptive through discipline in conjunction with reason and warmth. The authoritarian approach can lead to negative outcomes in children. These parents tend to be restrictive, punitive, and overcontrolling. The permissive approach is also associated with negative outcomes in children. Parents tend to show little involvement and may seem disinterested in their children.

55. Describe the concept of gender schemas.

Level of difficulty: difficult

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Suggested answer, p. 106: Gender schemas are cognitive categories that people have as a means of thinking about themselves and others in terms of gender and gender-related characteristics. A highly developed gender schema results in cognitive attunement to factors that distinguish masculinity and femininity.

56. What is the role of culture in personality development?

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 107: Cultural factors are associated with personality differences. The most extensive focus culture’s role is Hofstedt’s distinction between idiographic and collectivist cultures. He further identified two major dimensions: individualism and collectivism. His work indicates that people are more integrated and cohesive in a collectivist society. Typically, individualism prevails in Western cultures and collectivism prevails in less well-developed Eastern cultures. Student should note that there is a continual need to evaluate a culture’s characteristics and recognize heterogeneity that may exist within a culture.

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Chapter 4: Personality Research Methods and Assessment Issues Multiple Choice 1. A variable that is manipulated in an experiment is called the: a. dependent variable. b. independent variable. c. interaction variable. d. mediator variable.

Answer: b Page: 120 Level of difficulty: easy 2. A variable that is measured in an experiment is called the: a. Dependent variable. b. Independent variable. c. Interaction variable. d. Mediator variable.

Answer: a Page: 120 Level of difficulty: easy 3. Where one level of the variable is applied to subset of the experimental participants, but a different level is applied to another subset, the variable is called the: a. dependent variable. b. independent variable. c. interaction variable. d. manipulated variable.

Answer: d Page: 120 Level of difficulty: easy 4. ________ is a key part of experiments that are designed to make inferences about cause and effect relations. a. Experimental condition b. Repeated measures c. Random assignment d. Order effects Answer: c Page: 121 Level of difficulty: easy 5. When one level of an independent variable is applied to some study participants but not others, it is a(n): a. dependent variable. b. within-subject variable. c. interaction variable. d. between-subjects variable.

Answer: d Page: 121 Level of difficulty: medium 6. A ________ design refers to when a person is measured each time after being exposed to two or more levels of an independent variable. a. experimental measures b. repeated measures c. random measures

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d. between subjects Answer: b Page: 121

Level of difficulty: medium

7. A potential problem with a repeated measures study may involve the order in which the conditions are experienced. This refers to: a. order effects. b. order bias. c. hierarchical effects. d. hierarchical bias.

Answer: a Page: 121 Level of difficulty: medium 8. Classification variables that are not manipulated are called: a. dependent variables. b. within-subject variables. c. subject variables. d. between-subjects variables.

Answer: c Page: 121 Level of difficulty: medium 9. When the effect of an independent variable is influenced by the level of another independent variable, it is called a(n): a. order effect b. mediator effect c. interaction (or moderator) effect d. hierarchical effect Answer: c Page: 122 Level of difficulty: medium 10. The link between variables due to a mutual link with another intervening variable results in: a. order effects. b. mediator effects. c. interaction effects. d. hierarchical effects.

Answer: b Page: 122 Level of difficulty: medium 11. In a(n) ________ model, two variables make independent and significant contributions in predicting an outcome variable. a. cause-effect b. moderator c. interaction d. additive Answer: d Page: 124 Level of difficulty: medium 12. Participants in experiments often wish to be seen favourably and try to act in accordance with the experimenter’s hypotheses. This relates to the concept of: a. specificity. b. external reliability. c. generalizability.

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d. demand characteristics.

Answer: d Page: 126

Level of difficulty: medium

13. The greatest limitation of experimental research is that it is low in: a. external validity. b. internal validity. c. external reliability. d. internal reliability.

Answer: a Page: 126 Level of difficulty: easy 14. If external validity is a problem, then an experiment is said to be low in: a. specificity. b. external reliability. c. generalizability. d. demand characteristics.

Answer: c Page: 126 Level of difficulty: easy 15. When a number that has been measured and counted is not an accurate reflection of the true value, then this is referred to as: a. regression to the mean. b. measurement error. c. directionality issue. d. correlational error.

Answer: b Page: 129 Level of difficulty: medium 16. ________ implies that extreme scores, upon retest, become more reflective of the actual mean for the overall sample as a whole. a. Measurement resolution b. Directionality fix c. Regression to the mean d. Correlational manipulation Answer: c Page: 129 Level of difficulty: medium 17. A ________ exists when there is a linear relationship between variables, such that as one variable increases, the other variable tends to increase as well. a. positive correlation b. negative correlation c. correlational increase d. directionality increase Answer: a Page: 130 Level of difficulty: easy 18. A ________ exists when there is a linear relationship between variables, such that as one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease to a corresponding degree. a. positive correlation b. negative correlation c. correlational decrease

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d. directionality decrease Answer: b Page: 130

Level of difficulty: easy

19. Correlational values can range from: a. 0 to 1. b. 1 to 10. c. –1 to +1. d. –10 to +10.

Answer: c Page: 130 Level of difficulty: easy 20. The most common statistical test to evaluate the magnitude of a correlation is the: a. regression to the mean. b. directionality coefficient. c. pearson product-moment correlation. d. correlation factor.

Answer: c Page: 130 Level of difficulty: easy 21. The fact that correlation research cannot tell us which variable comes first when two variables are significantly correlated refers to the: a. directionality issue. b. correlational issue. c. linear debate. d. measurement problem.

Answer: a Page: 131 Level of difficulty: medium 22. A significant limitation of correlational research is that assumptions cannot be made about: a. relationships. b. associations. c. causality. d. linearity.

Answer: c Page: 131 Level of difficulty: easy 23. Of the following, which is the least used type of study in the field? a. Experiments b. Self-reports c. Correlation d. Cross-sectional Answer: a Page: 134 Level of difficulty: easy 24. Most personality studies are ________ and use a one-time assessment of a large sample of students. a. experimental b. longitudinal c. non-linear d. cross-sectional Answer: d Page: 134 Level of difficulty: medium

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25. Close-ended scales in which the scale content has already been determined is called: a. longitudinal assessments. b. cross-sectional assessments. c. structured assessments. d. unstructured assessments.

Answer: c Page: 135 Level of difficulty: easy 26. Open-ended scales in which people generate their responses is called: a. longitudinal assessments b. cross-sectional assessments c. structured assessments d. unstructured assessments Answer: d Page: 135 Level of difficulty: easy 27. The tendency to create a positive impression in the eyes of other people is referred to as: a. self-enhancement. b. social impression bias. c. self-deception phenomenon. d. social desirability response bias.

Answer: d Page: 137 Level of difficulty: easy 28. In order to evaluate impression management, who created the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding? a. Kruger b. Block c. Paulhus d. Carlson Answer: c Page: 137 Level of difficulty: easy 29. A safe bet to enhance reliability and validity of assessment is to use multiple measures. This is referred to as: a. methodological pluralism. b. multimethod assessment. c. multiple method approach. d. multistructured assessment.

Answer: a Page: 143 Level of difficulty: medium 30. Parental reports of child personality features are often: a. accurate. b. inaccurate. c. reliable. d. valid.

Answer: b Page: 144 Level of difficulty: easy

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31. An abstract concept that reflects the need for personality measure to stem from a theory is called: a. internal consistency. b. construct validity. c. content validity. d. aggregation.

Answer: b Page: 146 Level of difficulty: medium 32. Who emphasized the sequential system of test construction? a. Jackson b. Block c. Paulhus d. Carlson Answer: a Page: 148 Level of difficulty: easy 33. The level of homogeneity is assessed with what type of reliability? a. Internal consistency b. External consistency c. Differential reliability index d. Nomological network Answer: a Page: 149 Level of difficulty: medium 34. ________ reflects the consistency of measurement. a. Internal validity b. External validity c. Reliability d. The nomological network Answer: c Page: 149 Level of difficulty: medium 35. Who was responsible for introducing the alpha coefficient? a. Jackson b. Block c. Cronbach d. Burisch Answer: c Page: 149 Level of difficulty: easy 36. The stability of test scores over time is referred to as: a. internal consistency. b. test-retest reliability. c. differential reliability index. d. nomological reliability.

Answer: b Page: 149 Level of difficulty: easy 37. The ________ is based on the degree of intercorrelations among scale items. a. alpha coefficient b. test-retest reliability

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c. differential reliability index d. nomological reliability Answer: a Page: 149 Level of difficulty: easy 38. A measure that has breadth because it has items that fully assess the personality construct in question is said to have: a. construct validity. b. face validity. c. criterion validity. d. content validity.

Answer: d Page: 151 Level of difficulty: medium 39. A test item that simply seems relevant for measuring the personality construct in question is said to have: a. construct validity b. face validity c. criterion validity d. content validity Answer: b Page: 151 Level of difficulty: easy 40. ________ occurs when a measure assesses in reality what it purports to measure. a. Reliability b. Consistency c. Validity d. Concurrency Answer: c Page: 151 Level of difficulty: easy 41. If a personality scale is unrelated to a measure with which it theoretically should not be correlated, it is said to have: a. discriminant validity. b. face validity. c. criterion validity. d. content validity.

Answer: a Page: 151 Level of difficulty: medium 42. In order to evaluate concurrent and discriminant validity, what technique is used? a. Ecological factor analysis b. Multitrait-multimethod matrix c. Aggregation sampling d. Experience sampling Answer: b Page: 151 Level of difficulty: medium 43. In order to increase the ecological validity of psychological research, what technique is used? a. Ecological factor analysis b. Confirmatory factor analysis c. Aggregation sampling

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d. Experience sampling Answer: d Page: 152

Level of difficulty: medium

44. According to cross-cultural research, conceptual meaning must be addressed. This is referred to as: a. conceptual understanding. b. conceptual equivalence. c. conceptual uniformity. d. cultural standardization.

Answer: b Page: 153 Level of difficulty: medium Short Answer/Essay 45. Differentiate between an independent and a dependent variable.

Level of difficulty: easy Suggested answer, p. 120: A variable that is manipulated in an experiment is called the independent variable, whereas a variable that is measured in an experiment is called the dependent variable.

46. Discuss the significance of using random assignment.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 121: Random assignment is a key part of experiments that are designed to make inferences about cause and effect. For example, participants should be allocated randomly to either the subgroup receiving reward or the one receiving punishment. This minimizes any additional variables that might influence behaviour.

47. Explain the differences between moderator and mediator effects.

Level of difficulty: easy Suggested answer, p. 122: A mediator effect is also known as an interaction effect. This means that when the effect of an independent variable is influenced by the level of another independent variable. The link between variables due to a mutual link with another intervening variable results in mediator effects.

48. What are some limitations of experimental research?

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 125: Experiments suffer from key limitations, including the concerns about whether the results of laboratory studies are artificial and low in generalizability to real-life settings. This is referred to as external validity. Demand characteristics influence participants in experiments who wish to be seen in a favourable light and try to act in accordance with the experimenter’s hypothesis.

49. Describe the differences between a positive and negative correlation.

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With a positive correlation, two measures are associated such that as one increases, the other tends to increase as well. With a negative correlation, two measures are associated such that as one increases, the other tends to decrease. Correlation values can range from -1 to +1, referred to as the Pearson product-moment correlation (r).

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 130: 50. List some representative items from Paulhus’s impression management and self-deception scales.

Level of difficulty: easy Suggested answer, p. 137 (see Table 4.1): Impression management – I always pick up litter on the street.

Self-deception (enhancement) – Many people think that I am exceptional.

Self-deception (denial) – I never regret my decisions.

51. What are some issues that should be considered when collecting data via the Internet?

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 146: Collecting data via the Internet does have advantages, such as being able to collect data from a more diverse sample and the ease of providing random questions. Some disadvantages include its restrictive nature of using individuals with computer access and ethical concerns about informed consent. As well, certain measures cannot be used in Internet research because these measures are copyrighted, and the copyright owners are not likely to make these available for on-line use.

52. Identify Jackson’s four principles as part of the sequential system of test construction.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p.148: Jackson’s four principles essential to personality test development are: (1) the importance of psychological theory; (2) the need to suppress response style variance; (3) the importance of scale homogeneity and generalizability; and (4) the importance of establishing convergent and discriminant validity at the start of test construction.

53. Discuss four types of validity in personality assessment.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 150: Students can present any four of the eight types of validity in Table 4.3.

54. Highlight some of the major issues when examining personality assessment from a cross cultural perspective.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 153: The main issues centre on content of measure and the conceptualizations that are reflected in personality scale development. The same general personality construct in one culture may have a different meaning in another culture (e.g., dependency). Cross-national differences in response styles also exist (e.g., social desirability response bias). Personality researchers also

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need to be aware of language issues (e.g., language equivalency) to make sure that meaning is preserved across scales and measures.

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Chapter 5: Psychodynamic Theories Multiple Choice 1. The most famous psychodynamic theorist is: a. Jung b. Freud c. Dora d. Adler Answer: b Page: 161 Level of difficulty: easy 2. What reflects the dynamic interplay of factors inside the self and is amenable to introspection? a. Id b. Superego c. Ego d. Psyche Answer: d Page: 162 Level of difficulty: medium 3. The id is unconscious and operates according to the: a. ego. b. superego. c. pleasure principle. d. thanatos complex.

Answer: c Page: 162 Level of difficulty: easy 4. The most primitive and least rational part of our selves is the: a. id. b. ego. c. superego. d. eros.

Answer: a Page: 161 Level of difficulty: easy 5. The ________ is mostly conscious and addresses the demands of the environment. a. id b. ego c. superego d. electra complex Answer: b Page: 163 Level of difficulty: medium 6. Which component of the psyche is the moral part of personality? a. Id b. Ego c. Superego d. Electra complex Answer: c Page: 163 Level of difficulty: medium

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7. Freud maintained that personality development involves working through a series of ________, each of which requires resolving a particular conflict. a. introspective phases b. wish fulfillments c. latency phases d. psychosexual stages Answer: d Page: 166 Level of difficulty: medium 8. According to Freud, what occurs when the developing child experiences too much or too little gratification at a particular age? a. Fixation b. Denial c. Projection d. Introjection Answer: a Page: 166 Level of difficulty: easy 9. Which of the following is not one of the psychosexual stages? a. Oral b. Oedipal c. Anal d. Genital Answer: b Page: 166 Level of difficulty: easy 10. The first stage in Freud’s psychosexual stages is the a. oral b. oedipal c. anal d. genital Answer: a Page: 166 Level of difficulty: easy

stage.

11. The final stage in Freud’s psychosexual stages is the a. oral b. oedipal c. anal d. genital Answer: d Page: 167 Level of difficulty: easy

stage.

12. The Electra complex normally occurs during which stage? a. Anal b. Genital c. Phallic d. Oral Answer: c Page: 167 Level of difficulty: medium 13. An unconscious strategy that helps the ego by warding off anxiety is referred to as a(n): a. anxiolytic mechanism.

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b. defense mechanism. c. projective technique. d. latency displacement.

Answer: b Page: 168

Level of difficulty: medium

14. If the id is predominant, then ________ anxiety is experienced. a. id b. realistic c. moral d. neurotic Answer: d Page: 168 Level of difficulty: easy 15. If the ego is in control, then ________ anxiety is experienced. a. ego b. realistic c. moral d. neurotic Answer: b Page: 168 Level of difficulty: easy 16. If the superego is in control, then ________ anxiety is experienced. a. superego b. realistic c. moral d. neurotic Answer: c Page: 168 Level of difficulty: easy 17. Refusing to recognize objective events in conscious awareness is called: a. denial. b. displacement. c. projection. d. repression.

Answer: a Page: 169 Level of difficulty: medium 18. A child who was sexually abused and is unable to remember the abuse. This is an example of: a. denial. b. displacement. c. repression. d. regression.

Answer: c Page: 169 Level of difficulty: medium 19. You yell at your partner because of your frustration with your boss. This is an example of: a. denial. b. displacement. c. repression. d. regression.

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Answer: b

Page: 169

Level of difficulty: medium

20. Retreating to an earlier stage when life was presumably simpler is called: a. denial. b. displacement. c. projection. d. regression.

Answer: d Page: 170 Level of difficulty: medium 21. Which of the following is generally not recognized as a major limitation of Freud’s work? a. Reliance on case studies b. Scientific basis c. Unconscious processes d. Patronizing view of women Answer: c Page: 173 Level of difficulty: easy 22. While Carl Jung admired many aspects of Freud’s work, he was most troubled with Freud’s views on: a. dream analysis. b. psychosexual energy. c. unconscious processes. d. projective techniques.

Answer: b Page: 175 Level of difficulty: medium 23. Who coined the term collective unconscious? a. Freud b. Jung c. Horney d. Adler Answer: b Page: 176 Level of difficulty: easy 24. According to Jung, what accounts for individual uniqueness? a. Ego b. Personal unconscious c. Collective unconscious d. Archetypes Answer: b Page: 176 Level of difficulty: easy 25. According to Jung, what accounts for similarities across people? a. Collective ego b. Cooperative unconscious c. Collective unconscious d. Archetypal unconscious Answer: c Page: 176 Level of difficulty: easy 26. Symbols that reflect our instincts and how they are expressed are called:

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a. archetypes. b. petroglyphs. c. collective complexes. d. cryptograms.

Answer: a Page: 176

Level of difficulty: medium

27. The most central archetype is the: a. anima/animus. b. shadow. c. thanatos. d. Mandala.

Answer: d Page: 176 Level of difficulty: easy 28. The ________ archetype refers to a dark side of personality that is in all of us. a. Mandala b. shadow c. anima d. androgyny Answer: b Page: 177 Level of difficulty: easy 29. Which of the following is not one of the four psychological functions posited by Jung? a. Compassion b. Sensing c. Intuition d. Feeling Answer: a Page: 179 Level of difficulty: easy 30. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is a personality measure based on the theories of: a. Freud. b. Jung. c. Adler. d. Horney.

Answer: b Page: 180 Level of difficulty: easy 31. Which of the following is generally not recognized as a major limitation of Jung’s work? a. Universal archetypes b. Scientific basis c. Cultural influences d. Patronizing view of women Answer: c Page: 181 Level of difficulty: medium 32. The movement of individual psychology is associated with: a. Freud. b. Jung. c. Adler. d. Horney.

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Answer: c

Page: 182

Level of difficulty: easy

33. The sense of not measuring up to expectations and not being on par with other people is called the: a. Oedipus complex. b. inferiority complex. c. archetypal complex. d. defense complex.

Answer: b Page: 183 Level of difficulty: medium 34. According to Alderian analysis, the Unabomber suffered from a profound lack of: a. personal unconscious. b. superiority complex. c. social interest. d. styles of life.

Answer: c Page: 186 Level of difficulty: easy 35. Adler maintained that first-born children are: a. spoiled. b. highly conservative. c. rebellious. d. socially disinterested.

Answer: b Page: 186 Level of difficulty: easy 36. Research indicates ________ objective link between birth order and personality. a. a high b. a moderate c. little d. no Answer: c Page: 189 Level of difficulty: easy 37. Which of the following is generally recognized as a major limitation of Adler’s work? a. Subjectivity b. Inferiority complex c. Social interest d. Parental influences Answer: a Page: 189 Level of difficulty: medium 38. In her work, Horney emphasized the important role of: a. psychosexual stages b. birth order c. culture d. biological factors Answer: c Page: 190 Level of difficulty: easy 39. Horney felt that human nature was:

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a. modifiable. b. fixed. c. inherently bad. d. biologically based.

Answer: a Page: 191

Level of difficulty: medium

40. A fear of helplessness and worries about possible abandonment is called: a. basic neurosis. b. fundamental neurosis. c. basic anxiety. d. fundamental anxiety.

Answer: c Page: 191 Level of difficulty: easy 41. Conflict ensues from the simultaneous desires to move toward, against, and away from others. This statement best reflects the thinking of: a. Freud. b. Jung. c. Adler. d. Horney.

Answer: d Page: 192 Level of difficulty: easy 42. A psychoanalytic technique that involves telling whatever thoughts come into mind while in a state of relaxation is: a. free association. b. introspection. c. word association. d. thematic apperception.

Answer: a Page: 197 Level of difficulty: medium 43. Psychodynamic assessment techniques that uncover the unconscious are called ________ tests. a. introspective b. introjective c. projective d. self-effacing Answer: c Page: 197 Level of difficulty: medium 44. What does the expression “the royal road to the unconscious” refer to? a. Free association b. Dream analysis c. Projection d. Thematic apperception Answer: b Page: 197 Level of difficulty: medium 45. The symbols or images in a dream are referred to as _____ a. projective

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b. symbolic c. latent d. manifest Answer: d

Page: 198

Level of difficulty: medium

46. The deeper meaning or significance of a dream is referred to as ________ content. a. projective b. symbolic c. latent d. manifest Answer: c Page: 198 Level of difficulty: easy 47. What projective test requires the respondent to tell stories when presented with images that depict various scenes? a. Rorschach Test b. Thematic Apperception Test c. Manifest Content Test d. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Answer: b Page: 199 Level of difficulty: easy 48. What projective test requires the respondent to list as many things when viewing ambiguous stimuli? a. Rorschach Test b. Thematic Apperception Test c. Manifest Content Test d. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Answer: a Page: 199 Level of difficulty: easy Short Answer/Essay 49. What seems to be the central tenet of psychoanalyst theorists?

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 160: Psychoanalyst theorists tend to emphasize internal and unconscious motives and drives that interact dynamically to influence our behaviours. They place stock in the introspective method, an analysis of internal thoughts and images.

50. What analogy did Freud use for the structure of the psyche?

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 161: Freud used an iceberg analogy to convey his belief that about 10% is above the water in conscious awareness, but the other 90% of personality is below the surface in the form of the unconscious or preconscious.

51. Discuss the significance of the major components of the psyche as presented by Freud.

Level of difficulty: easy Suggested answer, p. 163:

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According to Freud, our psyche (mind and self) is composed of the: Id – the least rational part of our selves; is unconscious, and operates according to the pleasure principle—seeks pleasure and immediate gratification without concern for the consequences Ego – mostly, but not entirely conscious; main purpose is to address the demands of the environment and reality; considers environmental contingencies and challenges; operates according to the reality principle Superego – the moral part of personality; it requires us to act according to accepted societal standards, rules, and principles; operates according to the perfection principle—we act perfectly to meet societal dictates 52. Briefly describe the major limitations of Freud’s contributions.

Level of difficulty: easy Suggested answer, p. 172: While Freud continues to have a lasting influence on the personality field, much of his work has been criticized. These include the reliance on case studies, the scientific basis of psychoanalysis, and his patronizing view of women.

53. Distinguish between the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 176: For Jung, the personal unconscious reflects individual uniqueness and is composed of complexes that represent personal conflicts and tensions. The collective unconscious accounts for similarities across people, and is composed of genetically-inherited archetypes.

54. Of Jung’s eight psychological types, describe the extroverted rational type.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 180: See Table 5.2 on p.180.

Extroverted Rational Type: Extroverted Thinking Type • Objective thinking about stimuli in the environment; more common in men than women Extroverted Feeling Type • Feelings used as a guide to external life realities; more common among women than men 55. Discuss two major contributions of Alfred Adler.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 182–190: Alfred Adler’s contributions included: 1. Inferiority complex – the feeling of not measuring up to expectations and not being equal with others 2. Styles of life – forms of individual expression derived from early life difficulties and the ways individuals strives to achieve goals 3. Social interest – grows out of a person’s ability to master three basic tasks of life: work, love, and social interaction

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4. Birth order – Adler maintained that the order in which a person is born among siblings, or if a person is an only child, affects that person’s personality. For example, first-born children are too willing to bow to authority in an attempt to placate their parents.

56. Identify the major limitations of Adler’s work.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 189: While Adler made some significant contributions to personality theory, there are some criticisms to be noted. Adler was quite subjective and was greatly influenced by his own personal experiences. A good example of this includes his views on birth order. Also, his theories are relatively narrow and lack comprehensiveness. For example, he failed to fully explain the types, expression, and motives associated with inferiority complexes.

57. Identify Horney’s thoughts on the importance of culture.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 190: One of Horney’s main tenets is that individual differences in personality and psychic disturbances can be traced back to cultural factors. Horney took issue with Freud’s emphasis on the biological determinants of behaviour and his disregard of cultural and societal influences. She acknowledged that there are widespread differences between cultures and the definition of normalcy varies across cultures and within cultures as things change over time.

58. Discuss two psychodynamic assessment techniques.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 197: Answers need to state that psychodynamic assessment techniques are based on the projection hypothesis, which is the notion that unconscious themes will emerge. Some techniques include: Dream analysis – proponents of this technique believed that with our defences relaxed during sleep, our unconscious conflicts can be expressed through the themes inherent in our dreams.

Rorschach Inkblot Test – a projective test that involves presenting respondents with inkblots and having them list as many things as they can see in these ambiguous stimuli. Even given the same stimuli, individuals tend to report different things. It is believed that aspects of their personality are revealed through the images they perceive in the inkblots.

Thematic Apperception Test – this test requires the respondent to tell stories based on black and white photographs that depict various scenes.

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Chapter 6: Motivational Theories and Psychological Needs Multiple Choice 1. Who is responsible for coining the term personology? a. Freud b. Horney c. Murray d. Jackson Answer: c Page: 206 Level of difficulty: easy 2. According to Murray, ________ accounts for overly rigid behaviours that persist over time. a. psychological needs b. the unconscious c. the viscerogenic system d. the habit system Answer: d Page: 206 Level of difficulty: medium 3. According to Murray, what is responsible for fantasies, faith, and creativeness? a. The id b. The subconscious c. The press d. The ego Answer: a Page: 206 Level of difficulty: easy 4. Murray believed that one of the goals of the ________ is to inhibit anti-social tendencies. a. superego b. ego c. viscerogenic system d. habit system Answer: a Page: 207 Level of difficulty: easy 5. Murray acknowledged the importance of environmental factors in shaping behaviour. The actual situation as it objectively exists is called: a. thema. b. alpha press. c. beta press. d. primary press.

Answer: b Page: 208 Level of difficulty: medium 6. Murray acknowledged the importance of environmental factors in shaping behaviour. The perceived situation is called: a. thema. b. alpha press. c. beta press. d. primary press.

Answer: c Page: 208 Level of difficulty: medium

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7. The combination of environmental and personality factors that shape behaviour is termed: a. thema. b. alpha press. c. beta press. d. primary press.

Answer: a Page: 208 Level of difficulty: medium 8. Physiological needs are referred to as ________ needs. a. alpha b. beta c. primary d. secondary Answer: c Page: 211 Level of difficulty: easy 9. Psychological needs are referred to as ________ needs. a. alpha b. beta c. primary d. secondary Answer: d Page: 211 Level of difficulty: easy 10. Physiological needs are also referred to as ________ needs. a. viscerogenic b. alpha c. beta d. secondary Answer: a Page: 211 Level of difficulty: easy 11. Viscerogenic needs include: a. order and retention. b. affiliation and nurturance. c. air and water. d. superiority and recognition.

Answer: a Page: 211 Level of difficulty: easy 12. Which of the following is generally recognized as a limitation of Murray’s work? a. TAT b. An interaction approach c. Violation of ethics d. Patronizing view of women Answer: c Page: 219 Level of difficulty: medium 13. The ________ is a projective measure in which people’s needs are revealed by the content of the stories they tell in response to depicted scenes. a. The Adjective Check List

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b. Personality Research Form c. Edwards Personality Preference Schedule d. Thematic Apperception Test Answer: d Page: 220 Level of difficulty: medium 14. The TAT appears to suffer from low: a. internal validity. b. external validity. c. test-retest reliability. d. rank-order stability.

Answer: c Page: 224 Level of difficulty: easy 15. A limitation of the Edwards Personality Preference Schedule is that it: a. biases scores. b. doesn’t measure needs. c. has low concurrent validity with NEO-PI-R scores. d. cannot be used in counseling situations.

Answer: a Page: 225 Level of difficulty: medium 16. The ________ uses a forced-choice approach. a. Adjective Check List b. Personality Research Form c. Edwards Personality Preference Schedule d. Thematic Apperception Test Answer: c Page: 225 Level of difficulty: easy 17. Which of the following tests of psychological needs seems to measure the degree to which a person has a creative personality? a. The Adjective Check List b. The Personality Research Form c. Edwards Personality Preference Schedule d. Thematic Apperception Test Answer: a Page: 225 Level of difficulty: easy 18. Which of the following tests seems to be the most promising measure designed to tap the needs outlined by Murray? a. The Adjective Check List b. The Personality Research Form c. Edwards Personality Preference Schedule d. Thematic Apperception Test Answer: b Page: 227 Level of difficulty: easy 19. Which of the following tests has increased our understanding of individual differences in psychological needs from a broad cross-cultural perspective? a. The Adjective Check List b. The Personality Research Form

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c. Edwards Personality Preference Schedule d. Thematic Apperception Test Answer: b Page: 228 Level of difficulty: easy 20. The leading theorist in achievement motivation is: a. Horney. b. Murray. c. McClelland. d. Jackson.

Answer: c Page: 229 Level of difficulty: easy 21. The drive and determination that a person has to attain goals is termed: a. achievement motivation. b. self-construction. c. affiliation motivation. d. need set.

Answer: a Page: 229 Level of difficulty: medium 22. In assessing the achievement motive, McClelland examined: a. behaviours. b. fantasies. c. the Personality Research Form . d. object relations.

Answer: b Page: 229 Level of difficulty: easy 23. McClelland argued that ________ motives were best studied through fantasies and projective tests rather than studying actual behaviour. a. implicit b. explicit c. biological d. psychological Answer: a Page: 229 Level of difficulty: easy 24. People with high achievement motivation prefer tasks of ________ difficulty. a. low b. moderate c. high d. very high Answer: b Page: 232 Level of difficulty: easy 25. The need to be with other people is termed: a. achievement motivation. b. social desire. c. affiliation motivation. d. need set.

Answer: c Page: 232 Level of difficulty: medium

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26. Affiliation motivation can be measured with the: a. Adjective Check List. b. Personality Research Form. c. Thematic Apperception Test. d. Interpersonal Orientation Scale.

Answer: d Page: 233 Level of difficulty: easy 27. The need to have an impact on people, places, and objects is known as: a. achievement motivation. b. affiliation motivation. c. a secondary need. d. effectance.

Answer: d Page: 234 Level of difficulty: easy 28. People who need power are likely to: a. have low levels of aggression. b. drink moderate amounts of alcohol. c. avoid gambling, d. incorporate methods of persuasion.

Answer: d Page: 235 Level of difficulty: medium 29. According to research on the need for power, which of the following statements is most accurate? a. Men are lower than females in the need for power. b. Men are higher than females in the need for power. c. Men and women are approximately the same in the need for power. d. The data is not clear.

Answer: c Page: 237 Level of difficulty: medium 30. Idiographic, goal-directed units that represent what the person is typically trying to do defines: a. the need for power. b. affiliation motivation. c. achievement motivation. d. personal strivings.

Answer: d Page: 238 Level of difficulty: medium 31. The leading theorist in personal strivings is: a. Horney. b. Murray. c. McClelland. d. Emmons.

Answer: d Page: 238 Level of difficulty: medium 32. The statement “Make my mother proud of me” represents:

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a. the strivings of a person high in intimacy motivation. b. the strivings of a person high in power motivation. c. the strivings of a person high in achievement motivation. d. the strivings of a person high in effectance motivation.

Answer: a Page: 239 Level of difficulty: easy 33. The statement “Be assertive when I feel violated or taken advantage of” represents: a. the strivings of a person high in intimacy motivation. b. the strivings of a person high in power motivation. c. the strivings of a person high in achievement motivation. d. the strivings of a person high in effectance motivation.

Answer: b Page: 239 Level of difficulty: easy 34. The statement “Be successful in everything I do” represents: a. the strivings of a person high in intimacy motivation. b. the strivings of a person high in power motivation. c. the strivings of a person high in achievement motivation. d. the strivings of a person high in effectance motivation.

Answer: c Page: 239 Level of difficulty: easy 35. Studies of personal strivings and binge drinking showed that students with greater achievement strivings reported ________ alcohol-related problems when compared to students with fewer achievement strivings. a. higher b. much higher c. fewer d. the same Answer: c Page: 240 Level of difficulty: medium 36. Studies of personal strivings and binge drinking showed that students preoccupied with selfpresentational strivings involving their image reported ________ alcohol-related problems when compared to other students. a. higher b. lower c. much lower d. the same Answer: a Page: 240 Level of difficulty: medium 37. Personal projects are described as a: a. low-level construct. b. mid-level construct. c. high-level construct. d. distal trait.

Answer: b Page: 240 Level of difficulty: easy 38. Personal strivings are described as a:

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a. low-level construct. b. mid-level construct. c. high-level construct. d. distal trait.

Answer: b Page: 240

Level of difficulty: easy

39. Which of the following is not included as a motive in the personal projects taxonomy? a. Acquire b. Cure c. Avert d. Keep Answer: c Page: 240 Level of difficulty: easy 40. What personal projects category does the example “Exercise to get a new partner” fit into? a. Acquire b. Cure c. Prevent d. Keep Answer: a Page: 241 Level of difficulty: easy 41. What personal projects category does the example “Floss three times a day to avoid tooth decay” fit in to? a. Acquire b. Cure c. Prevent d. Keep Answer: c Page: 241 Level of difficulty: easy 42. What personal projects category does the example “Exercise to improve poor heart condition” fit into? a. Acquire b. Cure c. Prevent d. Keep Answer: b Page: 241 Level of difficulty: easy 43. What personal projects category does the goal “Avoid negative condition” fit into? a. Acquire b. Cure c. Prevent d. Keep Answer: c Page: 241 Level of difficulty: easy Short Answer/Essay 44. Discuss Henry Murray’s major contributions to the personality field.

Level of difficulty: difficult

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Suggested answer, p. 206: Murray believed in basic psychoanalytical concepts such as the id, ego, and superego, although they served slightly different functions than described by Freud. In addition to recognizing the role biology, he also saw the importance of the environment in influencing behaviour (e.g., situational factors). Murray promoted a multiform methods that involved assessing people with many measures to get a clear sense of the whole person. Lastly, Murray is known primarily for his emphasis on psychological needs. These were distinguished by whether they are physiological (primary) or psychological (secondary).

45. Describe the concept of press.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 208: Murray recognized the importance of the environment in influencing behaviour (e.g., situational factors). The concept of press reflects the situation, either the objective situation (alpha press) or the perceived situation (beta press). Themas reflect the combination of person factors and situational press to produce regularities in behaviour.

46. What is a need?

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 209: According to Murray, a need is a construct (a convenient fiction) or hypothetical concept that stands for a force in the brain region—a force which organizes perception, apperception (expectation), intellection, conation, and action in such a way as to transform in a certain direction an existing, unsatisfying situation. Needs are broken up into 1) primary (or physiological) needs that are necessary for survival and relate to internal bodily processes and 2) secondary (or psychological) needs. The latter are secondary because they reflect emotional and psychological concerns. Behaviours are directed by motives and drives inside people.

47. Describe the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

Level of difficulty: easy Suggested answer, p. 220: The TAT is a projective measure in which people’s needs are revealed by the content of the stories they tell in response to depicted scenes. Concerns have been raised about the reliability and validity of the TAT; in particular, it seems to suffer from low test-retest reliability.

48. Identify two non-projective measures of psychological needs.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 224: One non-projective measures of psychological needs is the Edwards Personality Preference Schedule, which is widely used in clinical and counselling situations, and uses a forcedchoice approach based on 135 distinct statements Another measure is the Adjective Check List, which consists of 300 adjectives that are used to describe the self or other people. It contains a number of unique scales, for example, it can measure the degree to which a person has a creative personality. Another measure is the Personality Research Form, which reflects

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the construct validation approach and contains 20 scales of psychological needs. It has increased our understanding of individual differences in psychological needs from a broad cross-cultural perspective.

49. Identify McCelland’s major contributions.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 229: McCelland is the leading theorist on achievement motivation. He argued that motives were best studied through fantasies and projective techniques rather than by studying actual behaviour. He went on to emphasize that motives are influenced by experiences and that cultures vary in the experiences provided. McCelland concluded that when it comes to achievement motivation, cultures are more similar than they are different.

50. What is affiliation motivation? Describe Hill’s four dimensions that make up the need for affiliation.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 233: The affiliation motive is the need to be with other people. Much contemporary research has focused on intimacy motivation. Hill created a self-report measure known as the Interpersonal Orientation Scale. The four dimensions are: attention, positive stimulation, social comparison, and emotional support.

51. Define the need for power. What are some characteristics of people that have a need for power?

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 234: The need for power is a need to have an impact on others or the world at large. People who need power are more likely to engage in action that reflects their focus on power attainment.

Power has been linked to high levels of aggression, gambling, and greater persuasiveness.

Also, the need for power is associated with heavy drinking.

52. What are personal strivings?

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 238: Personal strivings have been described by Emmons as idiographic, goal-directed units that represent what the person is typically trying to do. These reflect our personality traits and other personal characteristics.

53. Describe the four motives of the personal projects taxonomy.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 241 (see Table 6.4): Table 6.4 A Taxonomy of Personal Projects Categories Project Category Acquire

Goal Obtain positive

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Example Exercise to get a new

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Cure Prevent

Keep

outcome Remove negative condition Avoid negative condition Avoid losing positive condition

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partner Exercise to improve poor heart condition Floss three times a day to avoid tooth decay Compliment and show caring for

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Chapter 7: Humanistic Theories and Self-Actualization Multiple Choice 1. The theory that focuses on the development of the entire organism is: a. Organistic theory b. Motive theory c. Positive psychology d. Effectance theory Answer: a Page: 246 Level of difficulty: easy 2. Self-actualization is a continuous and unrelenting striving to develop one’s: a. Motivational needs b. Character c. Full potential d. Inherent predisposition Answer: c Page: 246 Level of difficulty: medium 3. Humanists believe that people are: a. Self-actualized. b. Superior to other animals. c. Focused on past experience. d. Inherently good.

Answer: d Page: 247 Level of difficulty: easy 4. According to humanist theory, openness refers to: a. Believing in the good of all people. b. Living in the here and now. c. Agreeableness. d. Preoccupation with the future.

Answer: b Page: 247 Level of difficulty: medium 5. The view that we are ultimately responsible for what happens to us is called: a. Personal responsibility b. Self-determination c. Humanistic psychology d. Organistic psychology Answer: a Page: 248 Level of difficulty: easy 6. Humanistic theorists emphasize ________ and establishing a sense of personal responsibility. a. Free will b. Self-determination c. Learning from past experience d. An organistic approach Answer: b Page: 248 Level of difficulty: medium

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7. The movement within psychology that focuses on factors that maximize well-being and self-satisfaction is: a. Humanistic psychology b. Adjustment psychology c. Psychodynamic psychology d. Positive psychology Answer: d Page: 248 Level of difficulty: medium 8. According to Maslow, neurosis can be regarded as a: a. Growth conflict b. Organistic disease c. Needs conflict d. Deficiency disease Answer: d Page: 249 Level of difficulty: medium 9. According to Maslow, behaviour is motivated by deficiency motives and ________. a. Basic needs b. Higher needs c. Growth motives d. Social influence Answer: c Page: 249 Level of difficulty: difficult 10. Maslow created the concept of: a. The phenomenal field b. The need for self-regard c. The hierarchy of needs d. The fully functioning person Answer: c Page: 250 Level of difficulty: medium 11. Lower needs: a. Reflect growth motives b. Reflect deficiency motives c. Reflect both growth motives deficiency motives d. Are independent of both growth motives deficiency motives Answer: b Page: 251 Level of difficulty: medium 12. In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which of the following levels is higher than belonging and love? a. Safety b. Esteem c. Physiological needs d. B-values Answer: b Page: 251 Level of difficulty: difficult 13. In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which of the following levels is lower than selfactualization?

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a. Safety b. Esteem c. Physiological needs d. All the above Answer: d Page: 251

Level of difficulty: easy

14. Upper level needs emphasize: a. Self-completion and self-development b. A final static endpoint c. Deficiency motives d. Health and safety motives Answer: a Page: 253 Level of difficulty: easy 15. Self-actualization involves transcending the: a. Superego b. Id c. Ego d. Spiritual self Answer: c Page: 253 Level of difficulty: medium 16. Which of the following is not a characteristic of healthy self-actualized people? a. Increased spontaneity b. Increased enculturation c. Increase in problem-centering d. Greatly increased creativeness Answer: b Page: 254 Level of difficulty: difficult 17. According to Maslow, which of the following individuals would most likely not have attained self-actualization? a. Albert Einstein b. Abraham Lincoln c. Thomas Jefferson d. Elvis Presley Answer: d Page: 254 Level of difficulty: medium 18. Moments of feeling heavenly is referred to as having: a. Peak experiences b. Peak actualization c. Mindfulness d. Hierarchical awareness Answer: a Page: 255 Level of difficulty: difficult 19. Peak experiences are: a. Ultimate emotional encounters b. Universal tendencies c. Moments void of fear and self-doubt

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d. Equated with B-values Answer: c Page: 255

Level of difficulty: medium

20. Maslow defined the Jonah complex as a: a. Fear of belongingness b. Fear of greatness c. Integral part of the self-actualization process d. Fear of insignificance Answer: b Page: 258 Level of difficulty: medium 21. A fear of our own destiny is referred to as the: a. Jonah complex b. Vipassana conflict c. Metapathologic complex d. Desacralizing tendency Answer: a Page: 258 Level of difficulty: difficult 22. Meta-motivations are also known as: a. B-values b. C-values c. Alpha needs d. Peak experiences Answer: a Page: 259 Level of difficulty: easy 23. Metapathologies can result from a failure to realize ________. a. Peak experiences b. Self-actualization c. B-values d. Ego defenses Answer: c Page: 259 Level of difficulty: medium 24. Maslow believed that studying personality meant looking at the ________ person. a. Self-actualized b. Fully functioning c. Desacralized d. Whole Answer: d Page: 261 Level of difficulty: medium 25. Which of the following is not included as a criticism of Maslow’s work? a. The role of culture b. The sequence of hierarchy stages c. The progression to self-actualization d. The characteristics of self-actualization Answer: d Page: 263 Level of difficulty: medium 26. The perceptual field of awareness and cognition is referred to as:

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a. Self-regard b. The phenomenal field c. The hierarchical field d. Self-actualization Answer: b Page: 266

Level of difficulty: medium

27. According to Rogers, the self is a: a. Segment of the phenomenal field b. Static gestalt c. Dynamic process d. Non-determinant of behaviour Answer: c Page: 267 Level of difficulty: difficult 28. Rogers created the concept of: a. The phenomenal tendency b. Meta-motivations c. The hierarchy of needs d. The fully functioning person Answer: d Page: 269 Level of difficulty: easy 29. The primary threat to self-regard is: a. Conditional regard b. Conditions of worth c. Phenomenal fields d. Organismic valuing process Answer: b Page: 267 Level of difficulty: medium 30. The receipt of positive feedback and love from significant others in our life is termed: a. Unconditional positive regard b. Conditions of worth c. Phenomenal fields d. Organismic valuing process Answer: a Page: 268 Level of difficulty: medium 31. Rogers used the ________ to evaluate the degree of overlap between the actual self and ideal self. a. Organismic valuing analysis b. Q-sort technique c. Introspective technique d. Guttman scale analysis Answer: b Page: 268 Level of difficulty: easy 32. The antidote of conditions of worth is to experience: a. Unconditional positive regard b. Peak conditions c. Phenomenal fields

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d. Organismic valuing process Answer: a Page: 268 Level of difficulty: difficult 33. According to Rogers, psychological problems are due to: a. Dysfunctional brain neurochemistry b. Dysfunctional positive regard c. A discrepancy between the actual self and the ideal self d. Changes in the phenomenal field Answer: c Page: 268 Level of difficulty: easy 34. An inherent tendency of the organism to develop all of its capacities in ways which serve to maintain or enhance the organism is referred to as: a. Self-regard b. Unconditional positive regard c. Self-actualization d. The actualizing tendency Answer: d Page: 269 Level of difficulty: medium 35. According to Rogers, when the needs for positive regard and self-actualization are satisfied, it is then possible for an individual to become: a. Fully functioning b. Self-actualized c. Organismically valued d. Self-aware Answer: a Page: 269 Level of difficulty: easy 36. The actualizing tendency has four main characteristics. Which of the following is not one of them? a. It is active b. It is non-directional c. It is organismic d. It is selective Answer: b Page: 269 Level of difficulty: medium 37. Subception refers to: a. Masks in terms of “false fronts” b. Awareness of conflicting self-perceptions c. The ability of a fully functioning person to ignore feedback d. Constructs that are not consciously available Answer: b Page: 269 Level of difficulty: difficult 38. The PCI was developed to assess: a. Self-actualization b. Cognitive dissonance c. Perfectionism d. Conditions of worth

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Answer: c

Page: 270

Level of difficulty: difficult

39. Which of the following researchers categorized self-worth contingencies? a. Crocker b. Watts c. Rogers d. Maslow Answer: a Page: 271 Level of difficulty: medium 40. In client-centered therapy, the therapist’s main task is to be ________. a. Sympathetic b. Directive c. Insightful d. Empathetic Answer: d Page: 272 Level of difficulty: easy 41. In client-centred therapy, Rogers believed that success comes from: a. The therapist being sympathetic. b. The therapist being directive. c. The client realizing his or her own goals and needs. d. The client realizing the therapist’s interpretations.

Answer: c Page: 273 Level of difficulty: easy 42. Conditions of acceptance and non-judging is associated with: a. Perfectionism Cognitions Therapy b. Client-centered therapy c. Contingencies of Self-Worth Approach d. Fixed Role Therapy Answer: b Page: 273 Level of difficulty: medium 43. One of the most salient criticisms of Rogers’ theory relates to: a. The client-centered approach b. Unconditional positive regard c. The actualizing tendency d. Cultural differences Answer: d Page: 277 Level of difficulty: difficult 44. It seems that the most useful measure of self-actualization is the: a. Short Index of Self- Actualization b. Personal Orientation Inventory c. Personal Orientation Dimensions d. Self-Actualization Identity Inventory Answer: a Page: 279 Level of difficulty: difficult 45. Which of the following items on the SI is not indicative of a self-actualized person? a. I feel free to be angry at those I love.

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b. It is better to be yourself than be popular. c. I fear failure. d. I am loved because I give love.

Answer: c Page: 279 Level of difficulty: medium 46. Which of the following items on the SI is indicative of a self-actualized person? a. I feel that I must do what others expect of me. b. I don’t accept my own weaknesses. c. I fear failure. d. I am loved because I give love.

Answer: d Page: 279 Level of difficulty: easy 47. Which of the following researchers has advanced theories on psychological wellbeing? a. Crocker b. Ryff c. Rogers d. Maslow Answer: b Page: 281 Level of difficulty: easy 48. According to Ryff’s research on well-being, autonomy refers to: a. Evaluation according to personal standards b. The self as growing and expanding c. Defined goals d. Trusting relationships with others Answer: a Page: 281 Level of difficulty: difficult 49. “With time, I have gained a lot of insight about my life that has made me a stronger, more capable person.” According to Ryff’s research on well-being, this statement best corresponds to: a. Autonomy b. Personal growth c. Purpose in life d. Self-acceptance Answer: b Page: 281 Level of difficulty: difficult Short Answer/Essay 50. What do humanists believe?

Level of difficulty: easy Suggested answer, p. 248: Humanists believe people are inherently good and capable of great things. They recognize our capacity for growth and our need to realize our full potential.

51. List the needs (in order) within Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. (p.251) Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 251:

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Physiological, safety, belonging and love, esteem, self-actualization Refer to Figure 7.1, page 251.

52. What is self-actualization? What are five characteristics of healthy, self-actualized people?

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 253: Self-actualization involves transcending the ego that involves actualizing one’s potential and feeling closer to one’s actual being. It is considered a state or process rather than an endpoint.

Refer to the detailed list in Table 7.1, page 254.

53. Discuss Maslow’s views on personality.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 261:

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Maslow believed that studying personality meant looking at the whole person.

Personality is composed of multiple personality syndromes. Any one behaviour is the end product of multiple personality syndromes as well as the influences of the immediate situation and culture.

54. Describe the criticisms of Maslow’s work.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 262-265: The sequence of stages in Maslow’s hierarchy has been questioned and has not been consistently supported in subsequent research studies. Also, his theory has been criticized for being culture-bound, and does not address gender differences.

55. Define the “self” according to Carl Rogers.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 267: The self is a segment of the phenomenal field that forms over time and eventually becomes a distinguishable entity by itself. It is the basic factor in the formation of personality and in the determination of behaviour.

Note: The student can include some variation of Rogers’ quote on page 267.

56. What is the actualizing tendency?

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 269: An inherent tendency of the organism to develop all of its capacities in ways which serve to maintain or enhance the organism. There are 4 main characteristics: (1) it is organismic; (2) it is an active process; (3) it is directional; and (4) it is selective.

57. Describe the basis of client-centred therapy.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 272: In client-centered therapy, the therapist’s main task is to be non-directive and assist the client in his or her voyage of personal discovery. The therapist must be warm, genuine, and empathetic. Rogers believed that success comes from the client realizing his or her own goals and needs.

58. Discuss some of the shortcomings of Roger’s theory.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 277: Concerns have been raised about the generalizability for his techniques. One of the major criticisms of Roger’s theory is based on culture. The notion that there is a universal need for positive self-regard has been challenged (i.e. does not apply to all cultures).

59. Discuss the contributions of humanistic perspectives on well-being.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 281:

Chapter 7-10

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The viewpoints of Maslow and Rogers provided much of the impetus for the current positive psychology movement, as well as interest in well-being. For example, Ryff and colleagues have advanced the research on individual differences in psychological well-being. Well-being is a complex construct with six factors that combine to form an overall higher-order construct. These factors are: autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relationships with other, purpose in life, and selfacceptance.

Chapter 7-11

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Chapter 8: Behavioural and Learning Theories Multiple Choice 1. The first prominent behaviourist was: a. Skinner b. Watson c. Rotter d. Pavlov Answer: b Page: 288 Level of difficulty: medium 2. The process of classical conditioning was described by: a. Skinner b. Watson c. Rotter d. Pavlov Answer: d Page: 289 Level of difficulty: easy 3. In Pavlov’s experiments, the meat powder was the: a. Learning stimulus b. Unconditioned stimulus c. Conditioned stimulus d. Training stimulus Answer: b Page: 289 Level of difficulty: easy 4. In Pavlov’s experiments, the bell was the: a. Learning stimulus b. Unconditioned stimulus c. Conditioned stimulus d. Training stimulus Answer: c Page: 289 Level of difficulty: medium 5. It is thought that the experience of reinforcement leads to changes in ________. a. Flooding b. Dopamine c. The amygdala d. Extinction Answer: b Page: 291 Level of difficulty: medium 6. The statement that psychology should focus on observable actions rather than cognitions and internal stimuli was proposed by: a. Skinner b. Watson c. Rotter d. Pavlov Answer: b Page: 293 Level of difficulty: medium

Chapter 8-1

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7. According to Watson, which of the following was most important in determining behaviour? a. Environment b. Genetics c. Cognitions d. Temperament Answer: a Page: 293 Level of difficulty: medium 8. Watson’s views have been characterized as: a. Environmental conditioning b. Classical conditioning c. Moderate behaviourism d. Radical behaviourism Answer: d Page: 293 Level of difficulty: easy 9. Which of the following cases demonstrated the importance of learning conditions for Watson? a. Pavlov’s dogs b. Operant conditioning in pigeons c. Little Albert d. Bobo doll Answer: c Page: 294 Level of difficulty: easy 10. According to Watson, personality is: a. The end product of our habit system b. Based on genetics c. Ever-changing d. Fixed by the age of 20 Answer: a Page: 295 Level of difficulty: difficult 11. Attempting to reduce a behaviour by pairing it with a highly noxious stimulus is referred to as: a. Covert sensitization b. Exposure therapy c. Systematic desensitization d. Aversion therapy Answer: d Page: 299 Level of difficulty: difficult 12. Making a rat-phobic patient touch a rat illustrates: a. Covert sensitization b. Exposure therapy c. Systematic desensitization d. Aversion therapy Answer: b Page: 299 Level of difficulty: medium

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13. Eysenck’s ________ highlights differences in the speed and strength of excitation and inhibition. a. Postulate of individual differences b. Typological postulate c. Behavioural approach system d. Behavioural inhibition system Answer: a Page: 300 Level of difficulty: medium 14. According to Gray, which of the following accounts for differences in impulsivity? a. Postulate of individual differences b. Typological postulate c. Behavioural approach system d. Behavioural inhibition system Answer: c Page: 301 Level of difficulty: medium 15. According to Gray, which of the following accounts for differences in anxiety? a. Postulate of individual differences b. Typological postulate c. Behavioural approach system d. Behavioural inhibition system Answer: d Page: 301 Level of difficulty: medium 16. The notion that behaviour that is followed by positive outcomes is repeated refers to: a. Thorndike’s law b. Law of effect c. Classical conditioning d. S-R learning Answer: b Page: 303 Level of difficulty: easy 17. The roots of operant conditioning were laid by: a. Watson b. Pavlov c. Thorndike d. Skinner Answer: c Page: 303 Level of difficulty: medium 18. Another name for operant conditioning is: a. Pavlovian learning b. Instrumental conditioning c. Classical conditioning d. Observational learning Answer: b Page: 303 Level of difficulty: easy 19. Who popularized operant conditioning? a. Watson b. Pavlov

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c. Thorndike d. Skinner Answer: d

Page: 304

Level of difficulty: medium

20. S-R learning refers to: a. Skinner-reinforcement conditioning b. Stimulus-response paired learning c. Schedules of reinforcement d. Shaping-reinforcement learning Answer: b Page: 304 Level of difficulty: easy 21. Increasing the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated due to the occurrence of pleasurable outcomes after the behaviour has been expressed is called: a. Positive reinforcement b. Negative reinforcement c. Positive punishment d. Negative punishment Answer: a Page:304 Level of difficulty: medium 22. Increasing the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated due to the termination of an unpleasurable event is called: a. Positive reinforcement b. Negative reinforcement c. Positive punishment d. Negative punishment Answer: b Page: 304 Level of difficulty: medium 23. A ________ reinforcer is something that has inherently rewarding properties in its ability to reduce a drive state. a. Secondary b. Tertiary c. Main d. Primary Answer: d Page: 304 Level of difficulty: medium 24. A ________ reinforcer has acquired rewarding properties through association with other reinforcers. a. Secondary b. Tertiary c. Main d. Primary Answer: a Page: 305 Level of difficulty: medium 25. What term is given to the provision of rewards in a gradual sequence to responses that are successive approximations? a. Discriminative exposure

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b. Tertiary exposure c. Shaping d. Secondary reinforcement Answer: c Page: 305

Level of difficulty: medium

26. When the number of responses occurring between one reinforced response and the other reinforced response is held constant, this is termed: a. Fixed ratio schedule b. Fixed interval schedule c. Variable ratio schedule d. Variable interval schedule Answer: a Page: 306 Level of difficulty: medium 27. When the amount of time between reinforced responses is held constant, this is termed: a. Fixed ratio schedule b. Fixed interval schedule c. Variable ratio schedule d. Variable interval schedule Answer: b Page: 306 Level of difficulty: medium 28. ________ grants rewards on only certain trials following certain responses. a. Fixed ratio schedule b. Scheduled reinforcement c. Variable ratio schedule d. Partial reinforcement Answer: d Page: 307 Level of difficulty: difficult 29. Skinner suggested that personality is: a. Based on an individual’s unique history of reinforcement b. Based on genetics c. Ever-changing d. Fixed by the age of 20 Answer: a Page: 308 Level of difficulty: medium 30. Skinner suggested that culture can be equated with: a. Genetic influences b. History of reinforcement c. Behavioural repertoires d. The social environment Answer: d Page: 309 Level of difficulty: difficult 31. For Skinner, the crucial importance of psychology centered on: a. The study of the self b. Biological determinants of behaviour c. The study of behaviour and its consequences

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d. The study of psychological needs Answer: c Page: 311 Level of difficulty: medium 32. Social learning theory was first proclaimed by: a. Skinner and Watson b. Pavlov and Thorndike c. Dollard and Milller d. Rotter and Bandura Answer: c Page: 311 Level of difficulty: easy 33. Cultural differences in emotional expression is accounted for by: a. Social learning theory b. Display rules c. Masking d. Imitation Answer: b Page: 312 Level of difficulty: difficult 34. There are times in life when we are faced with two opposing options. We sometimes simultaneously want to be with someone and yet want to be away from them. This is referred to as: a. Approach-avoidance conflict b. Approach-approach conflict c. Avoidance-avoidance conflict d. Frustration- aggression conflict Answer: a Page: 312 Level of difficulty: easy 35. ________ is a broad process that reflects drives, cues, responses, and reinforcements. a. Expectancy b. Social cognitive theory c. Copying d. Social learning Answer: d Page: 315 Level of difficulty: medium 36. Who coined the term behaviour potential? a. Dollard and Miller b. Rotter c. Bandura d. Skinner Answer: b Page: 316 Level of difficulty: medium 37. The degree of the person’s preference for that reinforcement to occur if the possibility of occurrence of all alternatives were equal is termed: a. Needs b. Expectancy c. Behaviour potential d. Reinforcement value

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Answer: d

Page: 317

Level of difficulty: medium

38. The behaviour potential is a joint function of: a. Expectancy and reinforcement b. Needs and self-efficacy c. Reinforcement and needs d. Needs and expectancy Answer: a Page: 317 Level of difficulty: difficult 39. According to Rotter, the need to be considered competent in a social or occupational activity illustrates: a. Love and affection b. Self-esteem c. Recognition-status d. Respect-independence Answer: c Page:318 Level of difficulty: difficult 40. Which of the following theorists formed social cognitive theory? a. Bandura b. Dollard and Miller c. Rotter d. Skinner Answer: a Page: 318 Level of difficulty: easy 41. Bandura’s social cognitive theory is that behaviours that make up our personality are obtained via: a. Operant conditioning and classical conditioning b. Imitative learning and classical conditioning c. Observational learning and operant conditioning d. Imitative learning and operant conditioning Answer: c Page: 319 Level of difficulty: medium 42. The Bobo doll study measured: a. Reinforcement value b. Needs c. Expectancy d. Aggression Answer: d Page: 319 Level of difficulty: medium 43. Research by ________ points to the possible role of the learning of aggression as a result of exposure to violence in television. a. Rotter b. Bandura c. Dollard and Miller d. Skinner Answer: b Page: 319 Level of difficulty: medium

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44. Bandura showed that children are more likely to imitate models who are seen as: a. Authoritative and aggressive b. Kind and gentle c. Powerful and likeable d. Stringent but authoritative Answer: c Page: 320 Level of difficulty: difficult 45. An individual’s sense that he or she is capable or incapable of something is termed: a. Self-esteem b. Self-efficacy c. Self-actualization d. Self-regulation Answer: b Page: 323 Level of difficulty: medium 46. The concept of self-efficacy was first emphasized by: a. Rotter b. Dollard and Miller c. Skinner d. Bandura Answer: d Page: 323 Level of difficulty: easy 47. ________ is the process of taking personal control over thoughts and actions through various means, including self-rewards and self-punishments. a. Self-determinism b. Self-efficacy c. Self-actualization d. Self-regulation Answer: d Page: 323 Level of difficulty: medium 48. The constant interaction of a person’s characteristics and behaviours with the environment is referred to as: a. Reciprocal determinism b. Tri-linear causation c. Interactive determinism d. Systematic triadic causation Answer: a Page: 324 Level of difficulty: easy 49. Triadic reciprocal causation is also referred to as: a. Systematic Bandurian causation b. Tri-linear causation c. Reciprocal determinism d. Interactive determinism Answer: c Page: 324 Level of difficulty: medium 50. Perhaps the most striking finding of Eron’s 1987 investigation was:

Chapter 8-8

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a. The age that aggression is learned b. The role of reciprocal determinism in aggression c. Gender differences in aggressive behaviour d. The long-term persistence of aggressive behaviour Answer: d Page: 327 Level of difficulty: difficult

Short Answer/Essay 51. Discuss Pavlov’s contributions to personality theory.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 289: While he didn’t directly posit a personality theory per se, he outlined how behaviours can develop. In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus acquires the ability to elicit a conditioned response by being paired with and immediately preceding an unconditioned stimulus. Further, his observations about the personality differences among his dogs provided the impetus for research on personality and conditioning by Eysenck.

52. What were Watson’s views on personality?

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 295: Watson’s radical behaviourism focused on only observable actions and not cognitions hidden inside the person. He felt that personality really did not exist in that environmental contingencies could shape the person into anything or anybody.

Watson believed that personality was the end product of our habit system and is essentially fixed by the age of 30.

53. Discuss at least three applied behavioural treatment of clinical dysfunctions.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 299: Some applied behavioural treatments of clinical dysfunctions include: Aversion therapy – an attempt to reduce a behaviour by pairing it with a highly noxious stimuli (e.g. pairing deviant sexual fantasies with a punishing stimuli, such as a painful self-administered electric shock).

Covert sensitization – requires the individual to simply imagine becoming extremely ill as a result of the behaviour the individual wants to remove (e.g. a problem drinker imagining becoming extremely ill as a result of drinking).

Exposure therapy – exposing the person to the object or situation associated with the anxiety disorder (e.g. in the form of phobias, making a snake-phobic patient touch a snake).

Systematic desensitization – requires a person to imagine frightening events in a fear hierarchy while being relaxed (e.g. a person with a fear of elevators, could imagine approaching and getting on an elevator and then the door closing).

54. Describe Eysenck’s views on personality and conditioning.

Level of difficulty: medium

Chapter 8-9

Test Bank to Accompany Flett/Personality Theory and Research

Suggested answer, p. 300: As he stated, Eysenck felt that “Human beings differ with respect to the speed at which excitation and inhibition are produced, the strength of excitation and inhibition produced, and the speed at which inhibition is dissipated. These differences are properties of the physical structures involved in making stimulus-connections.”

(Eysenck, 1957, p.114) 55. What is operant conditioning?

Level of difficulty: easy Suggested answer, p. 304: Popularized by Skinner, operant conditioning is the use of positive or negative consequences to modify voluntary behaviour. The term ‘operant’ refers to the person operating on the environment through his or her actions.

56. Discuss the two different types of reinforcement.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 304: Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a response being repeated when a stimulus is presented. Positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated due to the occurrence of pleasurable outcomes after the behaviour has been expressed. Negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated due to the termination of an unpleasurable event.

57. What was Skinner’s view on personality?

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 308: Like other behaviourists, Skinner had little interest in personality. Individual differences primarily reflect individual learning histories and rewards contingencies.

Evolutionary and genetic influences also play a role.

58. Rotter’s social learning theory is centred on five basic concepts. Discuss these.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 316: The five basic concepts of Rotter’s social learning theory are: Behaviour potential – the potential of a behaviour occurring in a situation as a function of a reinforcement or set of reinforcements Expectancy – the probability held by the individual that a particular reinforcement will occur as a function of a specific behaviour on his part in a specific situation or situations (Rotter, Chance, & Phares, 1972, p.12) Reinforcement value – the degree of the person’s preference for that reinforcement to occur if the possibility of all alternatives were equal (Rotter, 1960) Psychological situations – situations provide a range of cues that, in turn, activate the various expectancies that reinforcement will follow specific behaviours Needs – a construct that accounts for the directionality of behaviour; there are six needs, that all have interpersonal emphasis: recognition-status, protectiondependency, dominance, independence, love/affection, physical comfort

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59. Describe Bandura’s social learning theory.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 319: Bandura’s social cognitive theory maintains that behaviours that make up our personality are obtained via observational learning and operant conditioning.

Learning involves trial and error via rewards and punishments as well as imitation of others. His research is synonymous with the classic Bobo doll study, looking at observational learning in children.

60. What is self-efficacy?

Level of difficulty: easy Suggested answer, p. 323: Self-efficacy is the individual’s sense that he or she is capable of something (high efficacy) or incapable of something (low efficacy).

Chapter 8-11

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Chapter 9: Cognitive Theories and Cognitive Factors Multiple Choice 1. Psychologically meaningful cognitive categories are called: a. Corollaries b. Constructs c. Attributions d. Expectancies Answer: b Page: 336 Level of difficulty: easy 2. Constructs are: a. psychologically meaningful cognitive categories b. a statement that follows readily from a theory c. causal explanations to understand why an event occurred d. a theoretical assertion Answer: a Page: 336 Level of difficulty: easy 3. Personal Construct Theory is associated with: a. Bandura b. Adams-Webber c. Lewin d. Kelly Answer: d Page: 336 Level of difficulty: easy 4. A ________ construct is similar to repression in that current events have made the previously accessible construct now forgotten. a. Personal b. Suspended c. Submerged d. Preverbal Answer: b Page: 336 Level of difficulty: moderate 5. A ________ construct is one in which parts are not available for conscious reflection or verbalization. a. Personal b. Suspended c. Submerged d. Preverbal Answer: c Page: 336 Level of difficulty: moderate 6. Kelly viewed the person as a(n) ________ who is motivated to understand life events. a. Scientist b. Traveler c. Actor d. Behaviourist Answer: a Page: 337 Level of difficulty: moderate Chapter 9-1

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7. Constructive alternativism refers to: a. How people can have different interpretations of the same event. b. Causal explanations to understand why an event occurred. c. Taking personal control over thoughts and actions through various means, including self-rewards and self-punishments. d. The constant interaction of a person’s characteristics and behaviours with the environment.

Answer: a Page: 338 Level of difficulty: difficult 8. The concept that is concerned with how people can have different interpretations of the same event is termed: a. Corollaries b. Attributions c. Expectancies d. Constructive alternativism Answer: d Page: 338 Level of difficulty: difficult 9. A(n) ________ is a statement that follows readily from a theory. a. Corollary b. Construct c. Attribution d. Expectancy Answer: a Page: 338 Level of difficulty: easy 10. A corollary is: a. a meaningful cognitive category b. a statement that follows readily from a theory c. a causal explanation to understand why an event occurred d. a theoretical assertion Answer: b Page: 338 Level of difficulty: moderate 11. The ________ corollary is that a person anticipates events by construing their replications. a. Fundamental b. Individuality c. Organization d. Construction Answer: d Page: 339 Level of difficulty: moderate 12. To account for those times when the person seems to be acting in a manner that is consistent with his or her previous behaviour, Kelly identified the: a. Fragmentation corollary b. Individuality corollary c. Organization corollary d. Construction corollary Chapter 9-2

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Answer: a

Page: 340

Level of difficulty: difficult

13. Which of the following constructs has been provided to best explain the Unabomber’s behaviour? a. Inferiority vs. superiority b. Overcontrol vs. need for revenge c. Oversocialization vs. need for autonomy d. Left-wing vs. right-wing thinking Answer: c Page: 342 Level of difficulty: difficult 14. Jack Adams-Webber has conducted research on the concept of: a. Corollaries b. Personal constructs c. Attributions d. Cognitive complexity Answer: d Page: 343 Level of difficulty: easy 15. A cognitive complexity is: a. The structure and interrelations of cognitions b. The actual content of cognitions c. The theme of cognitions d. The partitioning of cognitions Answer: a Page: 343 Level of difficulty: difficult 16. To Kelly a ‘role’ is: a. A psychological process and ongoing pattern of behaviour that reflects a person’s understanding of the ways of thinking of those people the person is associated with. b. The structure and interrelations of cognitive processing. c. Our entire psychological field and all the events experienced d. A plan for reducing the conflict among different goals that are seeking expression at the same time Answer: a Page: 344 Level of difficulty: moderate 17. ________ allows the client to identify the constructs of other people in his or her life. a. Client-centered therapy b. Fixed-role therapy c. Role construct repertory therapy d. Dynamic constructivist therapy Answer: b Page: 344 Level of difficulty: easy 18. Cattell postulated that behaviour often reflects the interaction of: a. Personality and life roles b. Reinforcement values and the environment c. Culture and subjective reality d. Cognitions and attributions Chapter 9-3

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Answer: a

Page: 346

Level of difficulty: difficult

19. Which of the following is an idiographic measure of personal constructs? a. Role Construct Repertory Test b. Personal Construct Grid Index c. Dynamic Constructivist Scale d. The Abbreviated Need for Cognition Scale Answer: a Page: 348 Level of difficulty: moderate 20. Which of the following programs have been created to reduce subjectivity and maximize the degree of objectivity in identifying personal constructs? a. REPGRID b. OMNIGRID c. CONSTRUCT-REP d. AUTOGRID Answer: b Page: 352 Level of difficulty: difficult 21. One major criticism of Kelly’s work is that: a. It promoted a focus on the unique individual b. It failed to influence a cognitive theories c. It failed to examine personality from a developmental perspective d. Fixed role therapy failed to provide adequate effectiveness Answer: c Page: 353 Level of difficulty: difficult 22. Who based his theories on Gestalt? a. Lewin b. Bandura c. Kelly d. Witkin Answer: a Page: 354 Level of difficulty: easy 23. Lewin’s primary focus on personality was based on: a. Personal constructs b. Unity of consciousness c. Totality d. Field dependence Answer: c Page: 354 Level of difficulty: easy 24. The term Gestalt means: a. Constituent parts b. Dynamic flow c. Interdependence d. Coherent whole Answer: d Page: 354

Level of difficulty: easy

25. Life space refers to: Chapter 9-4

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a. An entire set of personal constructs b. Unity of consciousness c. Totality of field dependence d. All the factors that have an impact on a person Answer: d Page: 355 Level of difficulty: moderate 26. According to Lewin, ________ is an inner drive caused by tension. a. Force b. Field c. Life space d. Expectancy Answer: a Page: 357 Level of difficulty: moderate 27. According to Lewin, important changes occur in personality structure over time.

Which of the following key changes best exemplifies organization of life space with advancing age? a. Differentiation b. Integration c. Complexity d. Expansion Answer: a Page: 357 Level of difficulty: difficult 28. Remembering that you will have to do something in the future is termed: a. Episodic memory b. Autobiographical memory c. Flashbulb memory d. Prospective memory Answer: a Page: 358 Level of difficulty: easy 29. People have better autobiographical memory if they are high in ________. a. Episodic emotion b. Affect intensity c. Field dependence d. Neuroticism Answer: b Page: 359 Level of difficulty: difficult 30. According to Witkin, field-dependent people: a. Are more global in their perceptual and cognitive functioning b. Are focused on specific details and are relatively uninfluenced by the surrounding context c. Have greater psychological differentiation d. Have better autobiographical memory for past events Answer: a Page: 361 Level of difficulty: moderate 31. According to Witkin, field-independent people: a. Are more global in their perceptual and cognitive functioning Chapter 9-5

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b. Are focused on specific details and are relatively uninfluenced by the surrounding context c. Rely on internal sensations within themselves d. Have better autobiographical memory for past events Answer: b Page: 361 Level of difficulty: moderate 32. Witkin described three tests to measure field-dependence versus independence.

Which of the following is not one of them? a. The Rod and Frame Test b. The Embedded Figures Test c. The Body Adjustment Test d. Role Construct Repertory Test Answer: d Page: 362 Level of difficulty: difficult 33. An internal cognitive structure that contains knowledge about concepts, objects, and events is called a(n): a. Construct b. Field c. Schema d. Attribution Answer: c Page: 363 Level of difficulty: easy 34. A schema is: a. An internal cognitive structure that contains knowledge about concepts, objects, and events. b. All the factors that have an impact on a person. c. A plan for reducing the conflict among different goals that are seeking expression at the same time. d. A causal explanation to understand why an event occurred.

Answer: a Page: 363 Level of difficulty: moderate 35. From a cultural frame perspective, there are cases in which people report changes in how they see the world as a function of shifting between cultural settings. This is referred to as: a. Dynamic constructivist approach b. Bicultural schematic approach c. Cultural identity style d. Cultural attribution style Answer: a Page: 365 Level of difficulty: difficult 36. Research on personality correlates shows that high need for cognition is associated with: a. Low levels of general self-esteem b. Low levels of social self-esteem c. Elevated levels social self-esteem d. Elevated levels of neuroticism Chapter 9-6

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Answer: c

Page: 367

Level of difficulty: difficult

37. An attribution is: a. An internal cognitive structure that contains knowledge about concepts, objects, and events. b. All the factors that have an impact on a person. c. A plan for reducing the conflict among different goals that are seeking expression at the same time. d. A causal explanation to understand why an event occurred.

Answer: d Page: 367 Level of difficulty: easy 38. A causal explanation to understand why an event occurred is referred to as a(n): a. Construct b. Attribution c. Field d. Schema Answer: b Page: 367 Level of difficulty: easy 39. Attributions are most likely when we experience: a. Positive events that are unexpected. b. Positive events that are unexpected. c. Negative events that are unexpected. d. Negative events that are unexpected.

Answer: d Page: 367 Level of difficulty: moderate 40. The term ________ refers to an aspect of personality that involves the characteristic way that people tend to explain events. a. Attributional style b. Descriptive style c. Field-dependent style d. Field-independent style Answer: a Page: 368 Level of difficulty: easy 41. Another term for a attributional style is: a. Descriptive style b. Explanatory style c. Field-dependent style d. Field-independent style Answer: b Page: 368 Level of difficulty: easy 42. Positive events are more likely to be attributed to internal causes reflecting the self, and negative events are attributed to external causes. This illustrates the: a. Positive attributional style b. Attributional complexity style c. Self-serving attribution bias d. Attributional homeostasis Chapter 9-7

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Answer: c

Page: 370

Level of difficulty: difficult

43. Attributional complexity refers to: a. The tendency of positive events being more likely to be attributed to internal causes reflecting the self. b. The tendency of negative events being attributed to external causes outside the self. c. A plan for reducing the complex conflicts among different goals that are seeking expression at the same time. d. The tendency to make attributions to two or more causes when presented with an environmental outcome that requires explanation.

Answer: d Page: 372 Level of difficulty: moderate 44. I have thought a lot about how the different parts of my personality influence other parts. This statement best describes which of the following attributional dimensions? a. Motivational component b. Presence of meta-cognition c. Inferring complex internal attributions d. Use of a temporal dimension Answer: c Page: 373 Level of difficulty: difficult 45. I really enjoy analyzing the reasons or causes for people’s behaviour. This statement best describes which of the following attributional dimensions? a. Motivational component b. Presence of meta-cognition c. Inferring complex external attributions d. Use of a temporal dimension Answer: a Page: 373 Level of difficulty: difficult 46. Mild and moderate depression is associated with: a. Moderate attributional complexity b. Low attributional complexity c. High attributional complexity d. Mild attributional complexity Answer: c Page: 374 Level of difficulty: moderate 47. Extreme depression is associated with: a. Moderate attributional complexity b. Low attributional complexity c. High attributional complexity d. Mild attributional complexity Answer: b Page: 374 Level of difficulty: moderate 48. An unwillingness to adapt by making even slight changes to one’s thoughts or behaviours is called: a. Cognitive complexity Chapter 9-8

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b. Cognitive diathesis c. Cognitive bias d. Cognitive rigidity Answer: d Page: 375

Level of difficulty: easy

49. Individual differences in cognitive rigidity are: a. Stable and long-lasting b. Associated with neuroticism c. Relatively stable with momentary fluxes d. Associated with low levels of compulsivity Answer: a Page: 376 Level of difficulty: moderate 50. Research on cognitive rigidity has found: a. No link with mental illness. b. A strong link with mental retardation. c. A negative association with intelligence. d. No gender differences.

Answer: c Page: 376 Level of difficulty: difficult Short Answer/Essay 51. Define Kelly’s constructs.

Level of difficulty: easy Suggested answer, p. 336: Constructs are psychologically meaningful cognitive categories. They are unique and personal. People differ in how they see the world because there are differences in personal constructs. According to Kelly, these are bipolar with two different poles (emergent and implicit). He referred to preverbal, submerged, and suspended constructs.

52. Define a corollary and provide three examples.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 338–340: A corollary is a statement that follows readily or easily from a theory. Kelly identified several that derive from his fundamental postulate.

Construction corollary – a person anticipates events by construing their replications.

The construction corollary reflects Kelly’s notion that our constructs exist, in part, because they help us to predict what will happen in the future; the anticipation here is tied to the anticipation of real events, not hypothetical or imagined ones (Kelly, 1955).

Individuality corollary – accounts for the differences between people; i.e., persons differ from each other in their construction of events. This included Kelly’s observation that individuality stems, in part, from differences in cultural experiences.

Organization corollary – each person characteristically evolves a construction system that includes ordinal relationships between constructs. This system is created due to the person’s desire to easily anticipate and understand future events.

Chapter 9-9

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Dichotomy corollary – a person’s construction system is composed of a finite number of dichotomous constructs. Each theme is represented by endpoints of a dichotomy, and sometimes, but not always, the endpoints are polar opposites. The inclusion of the notion of a dichotomy is one aspect that distinguishes the term “construct” from the term “concept.”

Choice corollary – a person selects the option in a dichotomized corollary that is anticipated to provide the best possibility for extending and defining the construct system. Implicit here is the notion that the poles of a construct may have very different properties and associated characteristics.

Range corollary – describes a construct that is convenient for anticipating a finite range of events.

Experience corollary – reflects the change in the construction system as a person successively construes the replication of events. Given the experience corollary, the personal constructs we have in childhood may be quite different than the ones we have in adulthood. Whether this is the case, however, depends in part on the modulation corollary and the permeability of our constructs.

Modulation corollary – involves the evolution of the construction system; it is the notion that variation in the construction system is limited by the permeability of the constructs in the construction system; that is, to what extent new elements are assimilated (permeable) or not assimilated (impermeable).

Fragmentation corollary – acknowledges that a person can simultaneously use two or more construction subsystems even though these subsystems may seem logically incompatible. Kelly (1955) felt that the fragmentation corollary was necessary to account for those times when the person seems to be acting in a manner that is inconsistent with her or his previous behaviour.

Commonality corollary – accounts for similarities between people. People will have similar psychological processes and perceptions to the extent that they rely on similar constructions of experience. According to Kelly, this corollary has implications for how culture is interpreted. For Kelly, similarities among people are due, in part, to culture, and culture reflects the tendency for a group of people to construe their experiences in the same way.

Sociality corollary – to reflect the fact that being from the same culture is not enough to ensure social harmony; this corollary involves the idea that a person may play a role in a social process involving one or more other people to the extent that he or she is able to accurately construe the construction processes of other people. It is not essential to see the world in the same way; what is essential, according to Kelly, is to understand how the world is perceived by someone else.

53. Explain the premise behind fixed role therapy.

Level of difficulty: easy Suggested answer, p. 344: Fixed role therapy was designed to enable people to develop new constructs and modify old constructs by trying out new roles and experiences. It allows the client to identify the constructs of other people in his or her life.

54. Describe a practical application of role construct repertory grids.

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Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 351: Role construct repertory grids can be used in any of the following areas: a. Assessing psychopathy in adolescence b. Evaluating business–information technology alignment to ensure IT goals outlined in a business plan are actually reflected in the IT deployment c. Facilitating personnel decisions in the business sector 55. Discuss some of the criticisms of Kelly’s work.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 353: While Kelly deserves credit for providing one of the first substantial cognitive theories of personality, there are a few shortcomings that have been identified. His theory focused on the structure of personality and had little input on the content of personality. Another major criticism of Kelly’s work is that it failed to examine personality from a developmental perspective.

56. How did Kurt Lewin influence the field of personality?

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 354: Although Lewin’s major contributions were in social psychology, he made important advances in the personality field. For example, his primary focus on personality was based on unity and wholeness (i.e., Gestalt) rather than constituent parts of a person.

Lewin argued that behaviour reflects the person and the situation.

57. Discuss the relevance of Witkin’s work.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 361: Field-dependence versus field-independence is a personality style first identified by Herman Witkin. Field-dependent people are described as being global in their perceptual and cognitive functioning, while field-independent people are focused on specific details and are relatively uninfluenced by the surrounding context. Witkin described this style as a continuous personality dimension rather than a type.

58. What is the link between attributional style and depression?

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 369: Attributional models of depression suggest a sense of helplessness becomes hopelessness when a person is characterized by depressive predictive certainly. That is, negative future events are unavoidable and absolutely certain to occur.

59. Give three dimensions of attributional complexity. Give an example of each one.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 373: Fletcher (1986) identified the following dimensions of attributional complexity:

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Dimension Motivational component Preference for complex explanation Presence of metacognition The causal importance of social interactions Inferring complex internal attributions Inferring complex external attributions Use of a temporal dimension

Sample Item I really enjoy analyzing the reasons or causes for people’s behaviour.

I have found that the causes for people’s behaviours are usually complex rather than simple.

I give little thought to how my thinking works in the process of understanding or explaining people’s behaviours (reversed item).

I believe that to understand a person you need to understand the people who that person has close contact with.

I have thought a lot about how the different parts of my personality influence other parts.

When I try to explain other people’s behaviour I concentrate on the person and don’t worry too much about all the external factors that might be affecting them (reversed item).

When I analyze a person’s behaviour I often find the causes form a chain that goes back in time, sometimes for years.

60. What is cognitive rigidity? Describe some of the major findings of recent research on cognitive rigidity.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 375–376: Cognitive rigidity is an unwillingness to adapt by making even slight changes to one’s thoughts or behaviours.

The following are recent conclusions about rigidity and behaviour by Schultz and Searlman (2002): a. There is a curvilinear association between age and rigidity. It seems that rigidity decreases between the ages of 5 to 18, and then levels of rigidity are fairly stable between the ages of 18 to 60. However, after the age of 60, there is a linear increase in rigidity. b. There is a positive link between rigidity and authoritarianism, but the association between authoritarianism and rigidity becomes stronger during periods of stress. c. There is a negative association between cognitive rigidity and intelligence. d. No firm link has been established between rigidity and mental retardation. e. Men are significantly higher in rigidity than are women. f. As indicated, obsessive–compulsive symptoms are linked with rigidity. g. People with schizophrenia, relative to non-schizophrenic controls and nonschizophrenic siblings, have higher levels of cognitive rigidity, and this significant difference becomes lower in magnitude but is still evident even when medication is provided.

Chapter 9-12

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Chapter 10: Interpersonal Theories and Interpersonal Styles Multiple Choice 1. Sullivan regarded personality as: a. relatively enduring and shaped by interpersonal relationships b. shaped primarily by biological factors c. inconsistent over time due to progress through psychosexual stages d. easily influenced by new experiences Answer: a Page: 383 Level of difficulty: medium 2. The idea that other people influence our emotions and we in turn influence their emotions is the: a. theorem of reciprocal emotions b. interpersonal circumplex c. interpersonal affective loop d. projective hypothesis Answer: a Page: 384 Level of difficulty: easy 3. This theorist was an only child who was very isolated and lonely during his childhood. He grew up to develop an interpersonal theory of personality, and in his writings he stated that social interaction with siblings was so important that only children have little hope of attaining full personality development. The name of this theorist is_______________ a. Eysenck b. Sullivan c. B.F. Skinner d. Bandura Answer: b Page: 384 Level of difficulty: medium 4. According to Sullivan, the _______________is the unknown and unintegrated aspects of ourselves that are often repressed. a. shadow. b. blind spot. c. not me d. stranger me Answer: c Page: 386 Level of difficulty: easy 5. Sullivan's concept of _______________provided the early theoretical basis for contemporary research on the self and cognitive processing of interpersonal information in the self in relation to others. a. attributions. b. five factor theory c. attachment d. personifications Answer: d Page: 386 Level of difficulty: difficult

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6. According to Sullivan, ___________are formed early in life and are used as a guide that assists us with the perception of current relationships, and influences our perceptions of the self, others, and the self in relationships. a. attachments b. personifications c. expectations d. schemas Answer: b Page: 386 Level of difficulty: medium 7. Sullivan has been criticized for providing a theory that: a. is abstract and difficult to test via empirical research. b. is so specific that it has a very narrow application. c. is overly focused on observable behaviour. d. focuses too much on cognitive factors while ignoring emotional aspects of human functioning.

Answer: a Page: 387 Level of difficulty: medium 8. Sullivan deserves credit for: a. being the first personality theorist to consider cognitive factors b. being the first personality theorist to break away from orthodox Freudian theory c. setting the stage for subsequent work on agency and communion d. being among the first in his time to provide a personality theory that is highly testable.

Answer: c Page: 387 Level of difficulty: medium 9. Following on the heels of Timothy Leary, Carson introduced the complementarity principle.

According to the complementarity principle: a. some people bring out the best qualities in others. b. opposites attract and bring out the less developed sides of each other. c. the specific type of interpersonal behaviour expressed by one person will elicit the polar opposite behaviour from another person. d. interpersonal behaviour expressed by one person will trigger very similar behaviour from the other person Answer: c Page: 388 Level of difficulty: medium 10. Justin has noticed that he acts submissively only when he is with his friend Andrew, who is highly domineering. a. Justin would score high on Hegleson’s measure of unmitigated communion. b. Justin’s behaviour is consistent with Carson’s complementarity principle. c. Justin has low self-esteem. d. Justin exhibits unmitigated agency when with Andrew.

Answer: b Page: 389 Level of difficulty: difficult 11. According to David Bakan, a high degree of ______________ reflects nurturance, warmth, solidarity and unity with other people; a low degree of ____________ involves dissociation, remoteness, and perhaps coldness. a. agency/communion b. agency/agency

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c. communion/communion d. communion/agency Answer: c Page: 389

Level of difficulty: medium

12. Tony is a workaholic who is arrogant, dictatorial, selfish, and self-promoting. According to Helgeson and Fritz, Tony’s behaviour represents: a. unmitigated agency. b. social dominance orientation. c. unmitigated communion. d. authoritarianism.

Answer: a Page: 389 Level of difficulty: difficult 13. Marissa is highly nurturing, and always sacrifices her own needs for others. Robert works long hours and is described by others as boastful, egotistical, greedy, and hostile. According to research by Helgeson and Fritz, Marisa is at risk of _________________ and Robert is at risk of ____________________________. a. depression/burnout b. low social support and poor health/low social support and poor health. c. resentment/loneliness d. cancer/heart disease Answer: b Page: 389 Level of difficulty: difficult 14. On the interpersonal circumplex, Tammy received seven scores near the outside perimeter.

This result suggests an interpersonal style that is: a. intense, rigid, and inflexible. b. bold and flamboyant. c. easy-going and happy-go-lucky. d. odd and socially isolated.

Answer: a Page: 391 Level of difficulty: difficult 15. The Interpersonal Adjective Scales and the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems are typically used to assess: a. agency. b. authoritarianism. c. the interpersonal circumplex. d. social dominance orientation.

Answer: c Page: 390-391 Level of difficulty: easy 16. Gallo, Smith and Cox, used a circumplex measure that is based on interpersonal messages involved in social interactions. They found that: a. people with lower SES saw their environments as high in hostility and low in friendliness. b. people with chronic health problems saw their environments as high in dangerousness. c. people with higher SES were more dominant. d. only children scored in the average range on popularity.

Answer: a Page: 393 Level of difficulty: medium

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17. Research using the interpersonal circumplex has found all but the following: a. other-oriented perfectionism was associated with dominance and hostility. b. socially prescribed perfectionism in women was associated with a variety of interpersonal problems c. socially prescribed perfectionists had an interpersonal style suggesting a high degree of dependency d. other-oriented perfectionists were better liked than those low in other-oriented perfectionism Answer: d Page: 393 Level of difficulty: medium 18. The ___________________________ can be used to measure individuals, samples of participants, or situations. a. Interpersonal Relationship Inventory b. Multidimensional Perfectionism scale c. Interpersonal Circumplex d. MACH-IV scale Answer: c Page: 394 Level of difficulty: medium 19. In the first season of the reality show Survivor, Richard Hatch won the contest (and one million dollars) by being deceitful and manipulative. Hatch is considered to be high in the personality construct of: a. authoritarianism. b. fascism. c. Machiavellianism. d. egotism.

Answer: c Page: 394-395 Level of difficulty: easy 20. _________________ is correlated with low agreeableness, cynicism, hypercompetitiveness, alienation, and antisocial behaviour. People who are high in this attribute are especially successful at manipulation in face-to-face situations. a. Egotism b. Fascism c. Authoritarianism d. Machiavellianism Answer: d Page: 396 Level of difficulty: easy 21. According to Paulhus and colleagues, the dark triad consists of: a. Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy. b. Authoritarianism, fascism, and egotism. c. Depression, anxiety, and sadness. d. Machiavellianism, toughness, and rage.

Answer: a Page: 396 Level of difficulty: medium 22. The concept of Machiavellianism has been criticized on the grounds that: a. there are psychometric problems with the MACH-IV scale. b. there are few practical applications of the concept. c. the concept has been unfairly applied to children.

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d. it has poor predictive validity.

Answer: a Page: 397

Level of difficulty: medium

23. Machiavellian children: a. are highly distressed. b. are popular and regarded as socially skilled even though they bully other children. c. bully other children and are disliked d. exist, but in such low numbers that it is difficult to find enough to study them.

Answer: b Page: 397 Level of difficulty: difficult 24. ________________individuals are domineering, tough-minded, anti-democratic, and see the world in black and white terms. a. Machiavellian b. Authoritarian c. Agentic d. High social dominance orientation Answer: b Page: 398 Level of difficulty: easy 25. Jill is a university student who is conventional and superstitious. People find her to be highly judgemental and punitive towards homosexuals, members of minority ethnic groups, people with a history of mental illness, and anyone else who meets with her disapproval.

After an incident in which her intolerance got her into trouble with university authorities, she was given the choice of attending counselling or being suspended from school. Jill found the idea of self examination to be so repugnant that she refused counselling, even knowing that her refusal would result in suspension from the university. Jill exhibits the characteristics of someone who is high in _______________. a. Machiavellianism. b. authoritarianism. c. agency. d. social dominance orientation.

Answer: b Page: 399 Level of difficulty: medium 26. Research on the authoritarianism construct has been criticized for all of the following except: a. structural flaws in existing measures of authoritarianism. b. lack of objectivity. c. lack of correspondence between scores on self report measures of authoritarianism and authoritarian behaviour. d. being blind to the political and social ramifications of authoritarianism.

Answer: d Page: 400 Level of difficulty: medium 27. Suzanne is high in social dominance orientation. Others are likely to perceive her as: a. friendly but incompetent. b. more concerned with being popular than people who are low in social dominance orientation c. less agreeable, less nurturant, and more prejudiced than people who are low on social dominance orientation d. popular, but overbearing in social situations.

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Answer: c

Page: 403

Level of difficulty: medium

28. Altemyer uses the term ________________to describe people who are extremely high on social dominance orientation and right-wing authoritarianism. a. fascists b. double highs c. socially dominant authoritarians d. ambiverts Answer: b Page: 404 Level of difficulty: easy 29. The Strange Situation study is used to study: a. infant attachment styles. b. infant reactions to events that violate the laws of physics. c. infant reactions to having a stranger in the house. d. mothers’ reactions to being separated from their infant children.

Answer: a Page: 407 Level of difficulty: easy 30. When left alone with a stranger, one-year-old Thomas displays little emotion. When his mother returns, Thomas barely seems to notice. Thomas’s attachment style is probably: a. secure b. anxious c. avoidant d. disorganized Answer: c Page: 406 Level of difficulty: medium 31. Being exposed to chaotic and abusive environments is associated with a/an ______________ attachment style. a. avoidant b. secure c. disorganized d. anxious Answer: c Page: 406 Level of difficulty: medium 32. A Canadian meta analysis concluded that attachment security: a. is inversely related to maternal mental health variables. b. appears to be a function of infant temperament. c. is related to high levels marital satisfaction, and low levels of stress and depression in mothers. d. could not be linked to any of the variables considered in the research Answer: c Page: 406 Level of difficulty: easy 33. When his mother left him alone in a room with a stranger, one year-old Carlos was very upset and cried for a long time. When she returned, Carlos clung to his mother and cried some more. Research findings in the attachment field suggest that Carlos: ____________________________. a. probably experienced a major traumatic event in infancy, such as being in a car accident. b. probably has a difficult temperament.

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c. has probably been exposed to unresponsive parenting. d. acted like a typical one-year-old infant.

Answer: c Page: 406 Level of difficulty: difficult 34. In a longitudinal study, attachment style was assessed at age one. Eighteen years later, it was found that: a. avoidant attachment style was unrelated to later adjustment. b. paradoxically, secure attachment style was associated with social difficulties and mood disorders in the teenage years. c. insecure attachment was associated with subsequent anxiety disorders. d. attachment style was related to school performance only.

Answer: c Page: 407 Level of difficulty: easy 35. It has been found that individuals with both an insecure attachment style and history of childhood maltreatment are particularly at risk for social and emotional problems. Many of their difficulties can be traced to: a. cognitive deficits. b. physical consequences of abuse. c. a highly negative view of the self. d. inability to trust others.

Answer: c Page: 407 Level of difficulty: medium 36. Based on data from 1,000 children assessed in the Strange Situation, Fraley and Spieker concluded that: a. the variability in attachment style is more in keeping with a dimensional model than with a categorical model b. the stability of attachment style over time is more in keeping with a categorical model than with a dimensional model. c. there is equal support for the use of dimensional and categorical models of attachment. d. neither categorical nor dimensional models of attachment are supported by the research Answer: a Page: 408 Level of difficulty: difficult 37. Waters and colleagues assessed one-year-old infants in the Strange Situation and followed up with interviews 20 years later. _______ of the participants received the same attachment style classification at the follow-up interview. a. 72% b. 11% c. 40% d. 95% Answer: a Page: 409 Level of difficulty: medium 38. Research evidence indicates that changes in attachment security over time were related to: a. random chance factors. b. psychometric shortcomings of the measures used to assess attachment security. c. the experience of negative and in some cases traumatic life events, such as parental divorce or sexual abuse.

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d. positive experiences in adolescence that allowed individuals to overcome early difficulties.

Answer: c Page: 409 Level of difficulty: easy 39. A problem for research in the attachment field is that: a. attachment theory is highly abstract and does not lend itself well to testing. b. research on attachment theory has few implications for life outside the laboratory. c. the AAI measure of attachment is not correlated with self-report measures. d. attachment style has poor stability over time.

Answer: c Page: 410 Level of difficulty: easy 40. The Bartholomew model includes these attachment styles: a. dismissing, fearful, secure, preoccupied b. avoidant, fearful, secure, preoccupied c. dismissing, fearful, secure, worried d. avoidant, anxious, secure, preoccupied Answer: a Page: 411 Level of difficulty: medium 41. All but one of the following statements about the Bartholomew and Horowitz Relationship Questionnaire are correct. Identify the one statement that is false. a. It identifies four attachment styles. b. It allows for both categorical and dimensional ratings. c. It distinguishes between dismissive and fearful avoidance. d. It is used with both children and adults.

Answer: d Page: 412 Level of difficulty: difficult 42. Results from a study of individuals who were either in or within the near vicinity of the World Trade Center during the September 11, 2001 attack indicated that: a. the only people who reported significant symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) seven months after the attacks were those with attachment difficulties b. 18 months after the attack, people with a secure attachment style exhibited signs of psychological growth c. attachment style and adjustment after the attack were unrelated d. paradoxically, individuals with an anxious attachment style coped better than individuals who were securely attached Answer: b Page: 412 Level of difficulty: medium 43. Based on findings from a longitudinal study of individuals who survived the attack on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, it appears that: a. people with a dismissive attachment orientation put on a front and hide their emotional problems from others. b. attachment style appears to be unrelated to psychological symptoms after a highly traumatic experience. c. most fearful attached individuals experienced an increase in psychological symptoms 18 months after the attack. d. there was no evidence that any individuals experienced personal growth stemming from their experience on September 11.

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Answer: a

Page: 413

Level of difficulty: difficult

44. According to the Bartholomew model of attachment, people with a dismissive attachment have a__________________________________ a. positive model of self and negative model of others b. positive model of self and positive model of others c. negative model of self and negative model of others d. negative model of self and positive model of others Answer: a Page: 414 Level of difficulty: medium 45. According to the Bartholomew model of romantic attachment, people with preoccupied attachment have a________________________________ a. positive model of self and negative model of others. b. positive model of self and positive model of others. c. negative model of self and negative model of others. d. negative model of self and positive model of others.

Answer: d Page: 414 Level of difficulty: medium 46. Several common problems with research on personality and close relationships have been identified. Identify the statement below that is NOT considered to be a problem in this area. a. About one third of studies focused on data from only one member of the couple. b. Much of the research in this area has been largely atheoretical. c. The majority of studies in this area are cross-sectional and based on self-report. d. Research findings allow us to predict with some certainty which couples are going to have extreme difficulties Answer: d Page: 418-419 Level of difficulty: easy 47. Identify the statement about personality factors and relationship adjustment that is false. a. Research findings indicate that negative attributions to a partner’s personality may play a causal role in increasing marital distress. b. Negative affectivity and trait neuroticism predict dissatisfaction. c. Negative emotionality is associated with relationship difficulties and dissatisfaction. d. Research findings indicate that perfectionism is one of the strongest predictors of relationship dissatisfaction.

Answer: d Page: 420-423 Level of difficulty: difficult 48. One of the factors below is NOT considered to be a predictor of violence in relationships.

Identify this factor. a. Preoccupied attachment style b. Impulsivity c. Alcohol abuse d. Five-factor similarity Answer: d Page: 423-426 Level of difficulty: easy

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49. Robert speaks with pride about having extremely high standards. He believes that others expect “no less than my best” and he expects the same of others in return. The research suggests that: a. Robert’s beliefs put his marriage at risk. b. Robert’s beliefs are only one small factor contributing to the success of his marriage, and should have little impact, positive or negative c. Robert’s beliefs and expectations are likely to bring out the best in Robert and others, and have a positive effect on his marriage. d. None of the above.

Answer: a Page: 421-422 Level of difficulty: medium 50. The most recent version of _______________________ therapy emphasizes adult attachment styles in relationships. a. person-centred b. emotion-focused couples therapy (EFT) c. attachment d. cognitive interpersonal Answer: b Page: 427 Level of difficulty: medium

Short Answer/Essay 51. Define Sullivan’s distinctions between the ‘good me’, ‘the bad me’, the ‘not me’ and how these concepts develop.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 386: • These distinctions develop as a result of feedback received from and pressures of the socialization process • The bad me – a result of anxiety following negative reactions from significant others • The not me – the unknown and unintegrated aspects of ourselves that are often repressed.

• The good me – a constructed self-system designed to stop attention to the bad me in order to decrease anxiety.

52. Define agency, unmitigated agency, communion, and unmitigated communion.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 388 & 389: • Agency – an achievement orientation and the need to have an instrumental impact on outcomes. People high in agency are more likely to be dominant and have a drive to establish a status. People low in agency are more likely to be passive, weak, and submissive.

• Unmitigated agency – also known as excessive agency. Described as a focus on the self to the exclusion of others. It includes attributes such as arrogant, boastful, cynical, egoistical, greedy, hostile, and self-promoting.

• Communion – involves connecting with others and establishing interdependencies. High levels of communion are evident when people are nurturing, warm, and have a solid union with other people. People low in communion are more remote and dissociating in their interactions with others and may even be perceived as cold.

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•

Unmitigated communion – also known as excessive communion. There is a large focus on others to the exclusion of the self. It involves always placing others needs ahead of your own and always being in service to other people.

53. Describe what a circumplex is and how the variables are related to each other in a circumplex (i.e. the strength and direction of the correlations). Name two octants in the Interpersonal Circumplex and their opposing octants.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 389 & 390: • A circumplex is a configuration of variables that are related to each other in a circle or diamond shape. When variables are beside each other, the correlations between them should be fairly strong and positive, whereas variables that are across the circle or diamond from each other are more likely to have strong negative correlations. Variables that are at 90 degrees from each other tend to be uncorrelated.

• Interpersonal Circumplex variables: a) Ambitious-dominant vs. lazy-submissive b) Gregarious-extroverted vs. aloof-introverted c) Warm-agreeable vs. cold quarrelsome d) Unassuming-ingenuous vs. arrogant-calculating 54. Define Machiavellianism and provide some examples of machiavellian behaviours.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 394 & 395: • Machiavellianism is a tough-minded orientation that it is acceptable to take advantage of other people and use flattery for personal gain.

• People high in this construct are willing to deceive and manipulate others.

• People high in Machiavellianism are often described as cold, domineering, deceitful, suspicious, practical, and exploitive.

55. Define the authoritarian personality and give an example of a historical person or celebrity that you would characterize as being high in authoritarianism. Identify the traits that make this person authoritarian. What is the difference between authoritarianism and social dominance?

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 397, 398, 403 • People high in authoritarianism are domineering, anti-democratic, and tough-minded and are willing to follow leaders who endorse the view that some people are simply better than others and deserve the opportunity to lead other people.

• They often do not have much interpersonal warmth and see the world in all-or-none terms.

• They tend to categorize people according to group memberships.

• An example of a historical figure is Hitler.

Social dominance prevails mostly when there is competition. It still involves a preference for superiority over others but mostly when it comes to competing with another group.

56. Describe Mary Ainsworth’s four infant attachment styles.

Level of difficulty: medium

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Suggested answer, p. 405 & 406: • Securely attached – this infant shows little distress and interacts well with strangers knowing that their mother will return.

• Anxiously attached – this infant becomes distressed when the mother leaves the room. They can be described as clingy, overly dependent, and prone to feelings of separation anxiety.

• Avoidant attachment – this infant shows little emotion when the mother leaves and shows little reaction upon her return. They can be described as withdrawn and socially isolated.

• Disorganized attachment – infants seem totally confused by their surroundings.

57. Bartholomew developed an attachment style model for adult romantic relationships. List the four different attachment styles and what kinds of cognitive representations these people have about themselves (i.e. positive/negative view of themselves and others). Identify a shortcoming of this model.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 410: • Secure – positive views about the self and others • Preoccupied – negative view of the self but a positive view of others (can be clingy) • Fearful – negative view of self and others • Dismissing – positive view of the self but a negative view of others Criticisms: • Preoccupied people often lack a positive model of others. The models of the self seem to have more impact than the models of other people.

• Research often uses different measures which does not allow for comparisons across studies.

58. Describe the concept of assortative mating.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 418: Assortative mating is the tendency to select someone similar to the self. People with similar personalities will be more drawn to each other than to people with very different personalities.

Research has supported link between two people who have similar ages, political and religious values, and moderate similarity in education and intelligence.

59. What are the top three factors that are most important in a good relationship? Explain the roles of neuroticism and of perfectionism in relationships.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 419, 420, and 421: Top factors important in a good relationship as reported by men and women are physical attractiveness, similarity (for men), reciprocity (for women), and warmth.

Neuroticism – When either the man or woman is high in neuroticism it appears to cause dissatisfaction and marital conflict and often leads to marriage termination Perfectionism – people high in perfectionism tend to demand perfection from their significant others which often leads to relational problems, depression, and reports of low marital adjustment.

60. Describe the relationship between personality and attachment styles with relationship violence.

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Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 423-425: • Low levels of agreeableness and emotional stability predict alcohol abuse, physical and verbal abuse.

• Impulsivity is also a significant predictor of partner violence.

• Anti-social and aggressive personality style through childhood is a risk factor contributing to violence and substance abuse.

• Men with preoccupied and fearful attachment styles engaged in more psychological and physical abuse.

• There is a strong association between aggressive tendencies and preoccupied attachment style.

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Chapter 11: Personality Theory and the Self-Concept Multiple Choice 1. William James’s components of the self-concept include: a. the ideal self, the actual self, the ought self. b. the bad me, the good me, the not me. c. the material me, the social me, the spiritual me. d. the actual me, the public me, the private me.

Answer: c Page: 432 Level of difficulty: easy 2. Mark Leary’s sociometer theory suggests that: a. self-esteem is determined by the number of an individual’s successes divided by the number of the individual’s aims and expectations. b. self-esteem is directly related to the quality of our interactions and sense of positive relations with others. c. the factors that determine self-esteem are unique for every individual. d. self-esteem is determined by the match between an individual’s actual self and ideal self.

Answer: b Page: 433 Level of difficulty: easy 3. Our sense of self depends on the reactions of other people, and how other people treat us. The reactions we receive from others are incorporated into our sense of self. This statement refers to: a. Charles Cooley’s looking glass self. b. William James’ description of the self concept. c. the reaction of an insecure person who pays too much attention to what others think. d. Mark Leary’s conception of the self concept.

Answer: a Page: 434–435 Level of difficulty: easy 4. The term “reflected appraisal” refers to: a. self appraisal. b. the persons perception of other people’s appraisal. c. actual appraisal. d. hidden appraisal.

Answer: b Page: 435 Level of difficulty: easy 5. In Gergen’s experiment on the looking glass self: a. being the recipient of positive reinforcement from the experimenter led to higher levels of selfesteem. b. positive reinforcement increased self-esteem only in the ingratiation condition. c. positive reinforcement increased self-esteem only in the accurate impression condition. d. self-esteem was unaffected by the experimenter’s feedback.

Answer: a Page: 435 Level of difficulty: difficult 6. According to George Herbert Mead, symbolic interactionism theory is concerned with: a. our perception of the treatment we receive from others. b. the actual treatment we receive from others.

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c. how the treatment we receive from others shapes our self-concept. d. All of the above Answer: a Page: 435 Level of difficulty: medium 7. Meta-accuracy: a. is the term for our ability to “size up” other people. b. is the term for our ability to predict how people will react to different social situations. c. is the term for how accurate we are in our sense of how other people view us. d. None of the above Answer: c Page: 436 Level of difficulty: medium 8. Erikson’s stage theory: a. encompasses the life span, while Freud’s stages of development end at the beginning of adulthood. b. ignores the role of culture. c. focuses on the superego rather than the ego. d. includes four psychosexual stages.

Answer: a Page: 438 Level of difficulty: medium 9. The crisis in Erikson’s first stage of development is: a. autonomy versus shame and doubt. b. initiative versus guilt. c. trust versus mistrust. d. intimacy versus isolation.

Answer: c Page: 439 Level of difficulty: easy 10. We say that there is an identity deficit when the person ______________________, whereas in an identity conflict, ________________________. a. has a distorted sense of self; two or more aspects of the self are in opposition to each other. b. two or more aspects of the self are in opposition to each other; the person has no sense of self. c. seeks to establish a single identity; has two or more different personalities. d. seeks to establish a desired identity; two or more aspects of the self are in conflict with each other.

Answer: d Page: 440 Level of difficulty: medium 11. Which of the following is not a strength of Erikson’s model? a. Erikson’s model considers cultural factors. b. The model focuses on personality across the lifespan. c. Most concepts in Erikson’s model readily lend themselves to empirical evaluation. d. Those who study his work find it to be meaningful and personally relevant.

Answer: c Page: 443 Level of difficulty: medium 12. When Tim was 10 years old, he decided he wanted to be a lawyer, and to the delight of his parents, he never wavered from that decision. By the age of 25, Tim was called to the bar (became a lawyer). According to James Marcia, Tim has attained the ego identity status of: a. foreclosure.

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b. identity achievement. c. identity diffusion. d. moratorium.

Answer: a Page: 444

Level of difficulty: difficult

13. When she first started university, Brittany planned to be a systems engineer. After two years she switched from engineering to psychology. Brittany is now 25 years old and is enrolled in a graduate program in clinical psychology. Although the program is challenging, and she sometimes envies the lifestyles of her friends who are already working, Brittany knows that she is on the right career path. Brittany is probably in the ego identity status of ______________. a. foreclosure. b. identity achievement. c. identity diffusion. d. moratorium.

Answer: b Page: 445 Level of difficulty: medium 14. According to Marcia, ________________is associated with low neuroticism, high conscientiousness, and extroversion. a. foreclosure. b. identity diffusion. c. moratorium. d. identity achievement.

Answer: d Page: 444 Level of difficulty: easy 15. According to _________________ theory, people strive actively to confirm their sense of self, and desire a sense of predictability and control. a. self-enhancement b. self-verification c. self-consistency d. self-presentation Answer: b Page: 446 Level of difficulty: medium 16. In the movie Catch Me If You Can, which is based on a true story, a con man named Frank Abagnale Jr. would dress up in a pilot’s uniform not only to pass bad cheques, but also to improve his mood when he felt lonely, insecure, and depressed. According to Abagnale, the uniform brought him respect and dignity, and helped him to overcome feelings of uselessness and dejection. In addition to financial gain, Abagnale’s motive(s) for wearing a pilot’s uniform addressed the need for: a. self-presentation and self-enhancement. b. self- presentation and self-verification. c. self-improvement and self-enhancement. d. self-improvement and self-consistency.

Answer: a Page: 447 Level of difficulty: difficult 17. When he got back a statistics test, Doug compared his grades with the grades of other

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students. Festinger calls this: a. social-verification. b. self-improvement. c. self-verification. d. social-differentiation.

Answer: a Page: 447

Level of difficulty: difficult

18. In the example above, Doug sought out students who typically received similar grades to make the comparison. Doug appears to be motivated by a goal of: a. accurate self-verification. b. self-enhancement. c. self-improvement. d. accurate-self evaluation.

Answer: d Page: 448 Level of difficulty: medium 19. In a research paradigm, participants are given adjectives describing personal traits, and are asked to indicate if these words apply to themselves. A standard finding is that subjects are quicker to remember self-referent words when later tested on a word recognition test. This is known as the: a. self-description effect. b. self-encoding test. c. self- reference effect. d. self-relevant effect.

Answer: c Page: 449 Level of difficulty: medium 20. People from countries like Japan typically engage in self-enhancement in ways that emphasize ________________, and people from individualistic countries like the United States typically engage in self enhancement that emphasizes ________________. a. their connectedness to others; their personal traits. b. financial success; collectivistic values. c. their differences from others; their efforts at self-improvement. d. personal traits; personal traits.

Answer: a Page: 450 Level of difficulty: medium 21. When Carol was worried that her boyfriend had lost interest in her, her views about social issues became more extreme. McGregor at al. would say that Carol’s behaviour is an example of _____________________ a. opinionated reasoning. b. self-enhancement. c. self-verification. d. compensatory conviction.

Answer: d Page: 450 Level of difficulty: difficult 22. _______________ is a form of repression that serves the defensive function of keeping unwanted thoughts about the self out of conscious awareness. a. compensatory conviction

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b. self-enhancement c. self-verification d. self-complexity Answer: a Page: 450

Level of difficulty: medium

23. According to Linville, _____________ is an important buffer against stress, in that it reduces vulnerability to maladjustment. a. compensatory conviction. b. self-complexity. c. social comparison. d. self reference.

Answer: b Page: 451 Level of difficulty: medium 24. Vincent’s self-concept is relatively straightforward. He thinks of himself as a stockbroker, son, and collector of comic books. His friend Jim’s self-concept is more complex. Although Jim’s job as a lawyer is important to him, Jim has many other interests and responsibilities.

Jim’s self concept encompasses but is not limited to his work as a lawyer, being a parent to his two children, being part of a closely-knit network of friends, his volunteer work in a neighbourhood association, his role as treasurer of a radio-controlled airplane club, and so forth. Coincidentally, Vincent and Jim lose their jobs at the same time. According to Linville, we would expect that: a. Jim will be more distressed by his job loss than Vincent, because losing his job also interferes with Jim’s ability to fulfill the role of being a provider for his children. b. Jim will be more distressed by his job loss than Vincent, because Jim’s self-concept requires him to fulfill many roles, and Vincent’s self-concept does not. c. Vincent is likely to be more distressed than Jim, because Vincent’s self-concept is more heavily invested in work than is the case for Jim. d. We have no way of predicting who will be more distressed by the loss of a job.

Answer: c Page: 451 Level of difficulty: difficult 25. The spontaneous self-concept: a. is primarily concerned with self-esteem. b. is assessed by a measure that has an individual indicate which of a long list of adjectives applies to him or herself. c. is multifaceted, with at least seven components d. is not useful in research about the self-concept because it is too subjective.

Answer: c Page: 452 Level of difficulty: difficult 26. According to the distinctiveness hypothesis: a. individuals are disproportionately more likely to spontaneously mention any unique factors they may possess when describing themselves. b. people want to fit in, and will attempt to minimize characteristics that set them apart from others. c. all people are unique in their own way. d. people with distinctive characteristics have higher than average self-esteem.

Answer: a Page: 452 Level of difficulty: medium

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27. Identify the statement about possible selves (Markus and Nurius) that is incorrect: a. People who focus on their positive possible self become anxious that they will not be able to fulfill their own expectations. b. People who are cognitively preoccupied with the feared possible self will be highly anxious. c. People who are preoccupied with the negative possible self may be motivated to take steps to make sure that this possible self does not actually occur. d. People with a desirable possible self will be motivated to perform behaviours and conduct themselves in ways that help them achieve this goal.

Answer: a Page: 453 Level of difficulty: difficult 28. E. Tory Higgin’s work on self discrepancy theory considers: a. the feared possible self and the desirable possible self. b. the feared possible self, the desirable possible self, and the discrepancies between them. c. the ideal self, the actual self, and the ought self. d. the idealized and actual self Answer: c Page: 454 Level of difficulty: difficult 29. Courtney has a large discrepancy between her actual self and ought self. According to E. Tory Higgins, we would expect that Courtney would: a. experience depression. b. experience anxiety. c. experience anxiety only if she developed health difficulties. d. experience anxiety and depression.

Answer: b Page: 454-455 Level of difficulty: difficult 30. In a study comparing idiographic and nomothetic measures of appearance related discrepancies it was found that: a. idiographic and nomothetic measures are equivalent. b. idiographic measures are more accurate than nomothetic measures. c. nomothetic measures are more accurate than idiographic measures. d. nomothetic and idiographic measures can yield substantially different results.

Answer: d Page: 455 Level of difficulty: medium 31. Findings on self-discrepancy theory indicate that: a. self discrepancies are generally stable over time. b. self ideal discrepancies are related to postpartum depression. c. the magnitude of the perceived discrepancy between a person’s actual and ideal appearance is a predictor of eating disorder symptoms. d. all of the above.

Answer: d Page: 456-457 Level of difficulty: easy 32. One criticism of E. Tory Higgins’s work on self-discrepancy theory (SDT) is that: a. the theory is presented in such abstract terms that it cannot be tested. b. the theory lacks applied value. c. the empirical distinction between ought and ideal selves is quite blurry.

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d. SDT pathologizes minority group members.

Answer: c Page: 456 Level of difficulty: medium 33. Findings on self-esteem indicate that: a. self-esteem rises in childhood and falls in adulthood. b. self-esteem increases through adulthood and then drops in elderly participants. c. self-esteem is highly variable, and no general trends were observed. d. females have higher self-esteem than males.

Answer: b Page: 458 Level of difficulty: easy 34. In their work on the culture of self worth, Twenge and Campbell report that: a. there has been a steady increase in overall levels of self-esteem across generations. b. levels of depression have steadily declined in successive generations. c. the culture of self-worth has paid off in societal improvements. d. All of the above.

Answer: a Page: 458-459 Level of difficulty: medium 35. Self competence: a. is similar to Bandura’s concept of self efficacy. b. involves a perceived sense of social worth. c. reflects positive or negative evaluations of the self and related feelings of self-worth that stem from internalized social standards of appropriateness. d. is negatively correlated with self-worth.

Answer: a Page: 459 Level of difficulty: easy 36. Identify the case example that illustrates the concept of paradoxical self-esteem. a. Anthony has high self-liking and high self-competence, despite very poor performance in school. b. Marta, who is well-liked by her co-workers and successful in her job has high self-esteem. c. Connie has been fired from several jobs and has few friends. She is low in self-liking and selfcompetence. d. Caitlin has low self-liking, high self-competence, and is a highly successful orthopedic surgeon.

Answer: d Page: 460 Level of difficulty: difficult 37. _________________ involves automatic evaluations and reactions to the self that occur outside of conscious awareness. a. Explicit self-esteem b. Self-endorsement c. Implicit self-esteem d. Self-verification Answer: c Page: 460 Level of difficulty: easy 38. Recent evidence suggests_________________ correlations between implicit and explicit self-esteem. a. small but significant positive

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b. large positive c. non-significant d. large negative Answer: a

Page: 461

Level of difficulty: medium

39. Sean is high in defensive self-esteem. We can expect that: a. Sean has high implicit self-esteem and low explicit self-esteem. b. Sean has low implicit self-esteem and high explicit self-esteem. c. Sean’s self esteem is strongly tied in to his changing circumstances. d. A and C above Answer: b Page: 462 Level of difficulty: medium 40. _________________ is the self worth that a person derives from being a part of social organizations. a. mattering b. social self-esteem c. collective self-esteem d. group self-esteem Answer: c Page: 462 Level of difficulty: easy 41. In the Shavelson et al. hierarchical model of self-esteem, the general self-concept is composed of: a. academic, social, emotional, and physical self-concepts. b. occupational, relational, and psychological self-concepts. c. family, work, and friendship self-concepts. d. intellectual, psychological, social, and biological self-concepts.

Answer: a Page: 464 Level of difficulty: medium 42. In a study of different domains of the self-concept, Pliner et al. found that for visitors to the Ontario Science Centre: a. concerns related to physical appearance are more central and important to the self- concepts of males than females throughout the lifespan. b. concerns related to physical appearance are more central and important to the self- concepts of males than females in adolescence, but in adulthood these concerns become more important to females relative to males. c. throughout the lifespan, concerns related to physical appearance are more central and important to the self-concepts of females than males . d. concerns related to physical appearance are more central and important to the self- concepts of females than males from childhood to middle age, but in old age these concerns become more important to males than females.

Answer: c Page: 465 Level of difficulty: easy 43. According to a top-down model of self-worth: a. We first develop a sense of self-worth in specific domains, and eventually form a generalized sense of self-worth. b. We first develop a generalized sense of self-worth, and then develop a sense of self-worth in

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specific domains. c. Our generalized sense of self-worth is unrelated to our sense of self-worth in specific domains. d. None of the above Answer: b Page: 465-466 Level of difficulty: medium 44. In regards to state and trait self-esteem: a. Trait self-esteem is our typical level of self-esteem, whereas state self-esteem is how we feel about ourselves in the moment. b. State self-esteem is our typical level of self-esteem, whereas trait self-esteem is how we feel about ourselves in particular situations. c. The distinctions between the two forms of self-esteem do not hold up in research. d. Researchers are able to assess state self-esteem accurately, but reliability ratings for trait selfesteem are so low that most in the field consider them to be useless.

Answer: a Page: 466 Level of difficulty: medium 45. In ______________________ people are aware of themselves as a social object. a. private self-consciousness b. personal self-consciousness c. social self-consciousness d. public self-consciousness Answer: d Page: 468 Level of difficulty: medium 46. ____________________ has led to the development of the sound Princess, which is used by Japanese women to mask the sounds made in public washrooms. a. Private self-consciousness b. Objective self-awareness c. Public self-consciousness d. Personal self-awareness Answer: c Page: 468 Level of difficulty: medium 47. According to the self-absorption paradox, a. people who are preoccupied with thoughts of themselves come across as having excessively high self-esteem, but actually have low self esteem. b. people who have a tendency to be absorbed in thoughts about themselves also are equally capable of being fully absorbed by their thoughts about others. c. self-focused attention seems beneficial to self-understanding, but too much attention on the self can also be highly maladaptive. d. throughout history, individuals who are high in self-absorption have created great works of art that have brought pleasure to millions of people.

Answer: c Page: 469 Level of difficulty: medium 48. Lisa is high in self-monitoring. We would expect all but the following of Lisa: a. She is good at learning what is expected in different social situations. b. She is good at shaping her behaviour to fit the situation. c. She has good self control over her emotions. d. She acts consistently across a range of situations.

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Answer: d

Page: 470

Level of difficulty: easy

49.____________________ is a self-defeating form of behaviour designed to protect the self by generating excuses. a. Self-monitoring b. Self-disabling c. Self-handicapping d. Self-efficacy reduction Answer: c Page: 473-476 Level of difficulty: easy 50. High levels of self-handicapping are associated with all but the following: a. Positive evaluations by others b. High levels of socially prescribed perfectionism c. Low self-esteem d. More stress before an exam and poorer exam performance Answer: a Page: 475 Level of difficulty: medium

Short Answer/Essay 51. Outline William James’ three components of the self concept.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 432 & 433: The material me: our face level material possession such as the home and family environment The social me: one’s awareness of his/her identity in the eyes of others. One individual may have many different “social me’s.” For example, someone you know at school might perceive you differently than someone from your family.

The spiritual me: this is a vague concept. It is the awareness of our mental processes in terms of our subjective sense of thoughts and feelings. “The substance of each person’s soul”.

52. Describe four of the eight stages from Erikson’s psychosocial development model. Identify the conflict from each and the resolution that must be achieved in order to move onto the next stage.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 439: Conflict Trust vs. Mistrust Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Initiative vs. Guilt Industry vs. Inferiority Identity vs. Role Confusion Intimacy vs. Isolation Generativity vs. Stagnation Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Age Birth to 18 months 1.5 to 3 years old 3 to 6 years old 6 to 12 years old 12 to 18 years old 18 to 40 years old 40 to 65 years old 65 to 80 years old

Resolution Hope Will Purpose Competence Fidelity Love Care Wisdom

53. Describe two different expressions of generativity, and identify some predisposing factors to

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an individual being generative.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 442: Generativity is the willingness to engage in acts to promote the well-being of younger generation in order to promote the long-term survival of the species. Some expressions of generativity include parents raising and taking care of children and school teachers mentoring.

Long-term predictors of generativity include a warm family background, good peer group relationships, having a mentor, and being high in openness and extroversion.

54. Outline Marcia’s four levels of ego identity status.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 444: Identity achievement – refers to the successful completion of finding one’s identity. This would be similar to the successful completion of Erikson’s psychosocial stages. It is predicted by low neuroticism and high conscientiousness and extroversion.

Moratorium – this is the stage where the current status of one’s identity is maintained and not growing. People in this stage are in a sort of “identity crisis” period and are striving to make personal commitments but these commitments tend to be vague. This person often seems internally preoccupied and bewildered. It is predicted by high neuroticism, low agreeableness, and low conscientiousness.

Foreclosure – at this stage, the person has a clear expression of commitment but has not yet experienced a meaningful identity crisis. The person at this stage may still be working on their parents goals and may not have established their own goals yet. This stage involves an acceptance of authoritarian beliefs and rigidity of beliefs with an overidealization of the family.

Identity diffusion – this is the “worst-case scenario” because people have developed insecure attachments and tend to distance themselves from their parents. People in this stage are highly vulnerable and reactive to attempts by other people to manipulate their self-esteem. It is predicted by high neuroticism, low agreeableness, and low conscientiousness.

55. Name and describe three of the five motives that can guide the self-concept.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 446-447: Motives that guide self-concept include: Accurate self-evaluation – for people who are uncertain about their characteristics, opinions, and abilities. The motive is used to actively confirm a sense of self in order to foster a sense of predictability and control.

Accurate self-consistency – involves a desire to preserve a sense of continuity and unity in their self-systems. For example, people who have a highly negative view of themselves and are prone to depression will prefer negative feedback in order to maintain a consistent stable self-view.

Self-enhancement – focuses on improving how one feels about oneself. This motive operates the most extensively.

Self-improvement – self criticism may motivate people to find a sense of self. This can be seen sometimes as a motive for perfection. This motive is dominant in the Japanese culture.

Self-presentation – people represent an idealized self-image as a form of impression management that may not reflect their true self. People may put on a “front” in order to create a particular social impression.

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56. Give three examples of the differences in the self-concept across individualistic and collectivistic cultures.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 448-450: Individualistic 0-20% self concept statements have social references More likely to remember stores where they are the centre of attention More likely to engage in egocentric projection (personal issues projected onto other people) Show faster recognition of self-relevant words More likely to have constant inner self across situations Collectivistic 30-50% self concept statements have social references More social responses when defining the self More reference to family affiliations and ethnic group More likely to have 3rd person autobiographical memories (not the centre of attention) More likely to engage in relational projection (how you would be reacted to by others. E.g. embarrassing a family member) Show slower recognition of self-relevant words More likely to report differences in inner self across situations More likely to think of themselves in ways that highlight their connections to others 57. Define self-complexity and self-concept clarity. Why are each important?

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 450-451: Self-complexity – self knowledge can be categorized into a few categories involving the self while other people organize self-knowledge into several categories. It is an important buffer against stress. People low in self-complexity are more at risk if a self-concept domain fails to be true because they have only categorized the self into a few categories.

Self-concept clarity – the degree of certainty and lack of ambiguity that people have regarding their self concepts. People with low self-esteem have less self concept clarity. Their personality ratings are more variable over time. There is less correspondence between self conceptions and actual behaviour.

58. Explain the three representations of the self as defined by the self-discrepancy theory and the implications of what might occur when there is a large gap between two of these representations.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 454: Actual self – attributes that a person actually has Ideal self – attributes that a person would ideally posses in a best-case scenario Ought self – attributes that a person should possess based on social or cultural expectations Carl Rogers said that psychological distress is deep routed in the awareness of the gap between ideal selves and actual selves.

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The discrepancy between actual and ideal self can predict individual differences in levels of depression.

The discrepancy between actual and ought self predicts individual differences in levels of anxiety.

59. Describe the differences between implicit and explicit self-esteem. How is each measured?

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 460-461: Explicit self-esteem – conscious evaluations of the self. It may be related to one’s self-concept.

This can be evaluated by verbally describing one’s self-esteem or through self report scales.

Implicit self-esteem – automatic evaluations and reactions to the self that are outside of conscious awareness. This can be measured using a reaction time measure that involves sorting words into self-related, positive, and negative categories.

Self-esteem is measured by the speed of responding when self and positive words are paired together. It can also be measured with the Initials Task where someone with high self-esteem would give higher ratings to their own initials over other letters in the alphabet.

60. List some characteristics of low self monitors and of high self monitors.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 469-471: High self monitors: o good at reading situational prompts and interpersonal cues and adjusting behaviour in accordance with those cues o make good actors o for some, high self-monitoring is an overcompensation for perceived deficits in the self such as lacking a clear sense of self identity. o are concerned about self-presentation o are good at learning what is expected in social situations o have good control over their emotions o are unpredictable and changeable in behaviour and attitudes Low self monitors o relate to different people in the same way o have consistent personal standards; behave in an ethically consistent manner o are moralistic o value own independence and autonomy o appear straightforward and candid when dealing with people o are emotionally bland

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Chapter 12: Personality and Health Multiple Choice 1. The experimental technique known as the “Walk-In Ink Blot” triggered difficulty concentrating, boredom, panic, and hallucinations and delusions. A more common name for this method is ___________________. a. sensory deprivation. b. virtual adversity loading. c. the cold water immersion test. d. the inescapable shock test.

Answer: a Page: 482 Level of difficulty: easy 2. Who would we expect to respond the most adaptively to sensory deprivation? a. Martin, who is an introvert and a low sensation seeker. b. John, who is an introvert and a high sensation seeker c. Sherry, who is an extrovert and a high sensation seeker. d. Noel, who is an extrovert and a low sensation seeker.

Answer: d Page: 483 & 486 Level of difficulty: medium 3. _______________ is a strong predictor of engaging in risky sexual behaviours. a. Authoritarianism b. Low implicit self-esteem c. Sensation seeking d. Agreeableness Answer: c Page: 484 Level of difficulty: easy 4. According to findings from the international sexuality project, the two best predictors of infidelity were: a. perfectionism and low conscientiousness. b. low self-monitoring and low self-esteem. c. high self-monitoring and Machiavellianism. d. low agreeableness and low conscientiousness.

Answer: d Page: 485 Level of difficulty: medium 5. According to Lazarus and Folkman, primary appraisal involves _________________. a. thinking of ways to directly solve the problem. b. assessing whether the event is a threat or challenge. c. determining whether you have the personal ability to cope with the event. d. thinking of ways to ensure that the problem never happens again.

Answer: a Page: 487 Level of difficulty: easy 6. Secondary appraisal involves ______________________________. a. thinking of ways to indirectly solve the problem. b. assessing whether the event is a threat or challenge. c. determining whether you have the personal ability to cope with the event. d. thinking of ways to deal with the problem the next time it occurs.

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Answer: c

Page: 487

Level of difficulty: easy

7. Chang found that compared to optimists, pessimists were ______________in adaptive coping styles and ______________ in maladaptive coping styles. a. similar; higher. b. lower; higher. c. higher; higher. d. lower; lower.

Answer: b Page: 487 Level of difficulty: easy 8. According to Chang, when it comes to primary appraisals of threat versus challenge, optimists: a. are more likely than pessimists to believe that an event is a challenge rather than a threat. b. do not differ from pessimists in determining whether an event is a threat or challenge. c. are more likely than pessimists to believe that an event is a threat rather than a challenge. d. are less likely than pessimists to be affected by factors such as their current mood when determining whether or an event is a threat or challenge.

Answer: b Page: 487 Level of difficulty: difficult 9. Kelly thinks of all exams as threats to her goal of getting into law school. Meera views exams as challenges to deal with on the road to getting accepted into law school. Research findings on processing bias suggest that Kelly’s approach is typical of someone who is high on ____________ and Meera’s response to exams is typical of a person who is high on _________________. a. neuroticism, extroversion b. pessimism, optimism c. conscientiousness, openness d. optimism, neuroticism Answer: a Page: 487 Level of difficulty: difficult 10. Coping styles have been found to be a. long-lasting b. stable c. Both A and B d. Neither A nor B Answer: c Page: 495 Level of difficulty: easy 11. Which of the following is an example of a constitutional risk factor? a. pessimism b. coping style c. response to stress d. sensation seeking Answer: d Page: 501 Level of difficulty: medium

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12. An intervention program called the Take-Charge Program designed to increase condom use included four sessions with peer counsellors. It was found that individual differences in perceived risk were ______________ to behaviour change following the intervention. a. related b. moderately related c. moderately unrelated d. unrelated Answer: d Page: 485 Level of difficulty: easy 13. People who are high in ___________ are likely to perceive stressors as threats. a. conscientiousness b. neuroticism c. impulsivity d. hardiness Answer: b Page: 486 Level of difficulty: easy 14. The Post-Traumatic Growth Inventory assesses which of the following? a. Optimism b. Appreciation of life c. Confidence d. Future goals Answer: b Page: 487 Level of difficulty: medium 15. ________________ is the positive approach that describes people who are more likely to report positive changes after experiencing a traumatic event. a. Appreciation of life b. Positive outlook c. Benefit finding d. Optimism Answer: c Page: 488 Level of difficulty: medium 16. ________________ are important because they determine, in part, the way that people respond to stressful situations. a. Cognitive appraisals b. Coping interpretations c. Event interpretations d. Challenge appraisals Answer: a Page: 488 Level of difficulty: difficult 17. Coping can be defined as a. the regulation of physiological responses after encountering a problem b. the emotions that arise in response to a problem c. the perception of the intensity of a problem d. the ways in which people try to deal with a problem Answer: d Page: 488 Level of difficulty: easy

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18. ___________-focused coping involves taking actions to directly solve the problem. a. Remedial b. Problem c. Goal d. Emotion Answer: b Page: 489 Level of difficulty: easy 19. Which form of coping is adaptive (or positive) in most circumstances? a. Emotion-focused b. Avoidance-focused c. Problem-focused d. Goal-focused Answer: c Page: 489 Level of difficulty: medium 20. The goodness of fit hypothesis is based on whether a particular coping strategy is adaptive when taking into account __________________ a. the characteristics of the individual. b. the role of others in the situation. c. the other coping options that are available. d. what the situation calls for.

Answer: d Page: 491 Level of difficulty: medium 21. The cultural adjustment that occurs when an individual changes jobs from one country to another is called sojourner adjustment. As rated by the managers at the new jobs, individuals high in ____________ were more likely to show better personal adjustment, job performance, assignment completion, and interpersonal relationships. a. extroversion b. openness to experience c. agreeableness d. conscientiousness Answer: d Page: 492 Level of difficulty: medium 22. When a situation is uncontrollable, what is the most adaptive coping style? a. Emotion-focused b. Task-focused c. Avoidance-focused d. Goal-focused Answer: a Page: 493 Level of difficulty: medium 23. Which one of these coping styles is not a part of the Coping with Health Injuries and Problems (CHIP) measure? a. Avoidance coping b. Emotion focussed c. Proactive coping d. Task focussed Answer: c Page: 496 Level of difficulty: medium

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24. People with chronic illnesses are most likely to use what type of coping? a. Emotional preoccupation b. Palliative c. Distraction d. Catastrophization Answer: a Page: 497 Level of difficulty: easy 25. Which of the Big Five traits was cited as being the most predictive of individual differences in coping styles? a. Extroversion b. Neuroticism c. Conscientiousness d. Agreeableness Answer: b Page: 497 Level of difficulty: medium 26. Research has concluded that there is a clear role for personality in the coping process. Which of the following statements supports this statement? a. There is moderate consistency in coping responses across stressors and problem situations. b. Neuroticism produces less consistent use of an individual’s coping strategies c. Greater coping consistency is associated with greater coping effectiveness d. Coping varies with the situation Answer: a Page: 498 Level of difficulty: easy 27. Which one of the following is not a problem associated with measuring coping through selfreport checklists? a. Measures are too artificial because they are removed from naturalistic contexts. b. Individuals are asked to report on an event that might have occurred months ago. c. There are no clear individual differences that can be identified. d. The range of coping responses needs to be expanded.

Answer: c Page: 499 Level of difficulty: medium 28. Meta-analyses have shown that stress causes a. type A behaviour. b. reduced immunity. c. weight gain. d. mental fatigue.

Answer: b Page: 500 Level of difficulty: easy 29. Which of the following statements about the constitutional risk factor model is false? a. It is based on the premise that personality is a risk factor for health and illness. b. Sensation seeking is an example of a constitutional risk factor. c. Sensation seeking is associated with a host of biological factors. d. The role of environmental factors has become more important in recent years.

Answer: d Page: 501 Level of difficulty: difficult

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d. The role of environmental factors has become more important in recent years.

Answer: d Page: 501 Level of difficulty: difficult 30. Sensation seeking has been found to be a. highly heritable b. moderately heritable c. mildly heritable d. not heritable Answer: a Page: 501 Level of difficulty: easy 31. Which two traits were found to be protective against risky behaviours? a. agreeableness and openness b. neuroticism and agreeableness c. extroversion and conscientiousness d. agreeableness and conscientiousness Answer: d Page: 503 Level of difficulty: medium 32. Procrastination has been found to be a ______________ between daily stressful events and depression. a. mediator b. moderator c. Both A and B d. Neither A nor B Answer: b Page: 504 Level of difficulty: medium 33. Results from longitudinal designs are more informative about health behaviours than crosssectional designs because participants may a. not return for future research sessions. b. develop an illness later. c. switch doctors. d. be faking or lying.

Answer: b Page: 506 Level of difficulty: easy 34. What is the problem with self-report measures of health symptoms? a. Measures differ in their range of item content. b. Response keys (e.g., frequency vs. intensity) may be different across measures. c. Personality factors may influence the perception of symptoms. d. All of the above Answer: d Page: 507 Level of difficulty: medium 35. The ___________ hypothesis explains that neuroticism and negative affect cause an individual to be more attentive to somatic cues. a. disability b. symptom perception c. psychosomatic d. temperament

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Answer: b

Page: 507

Level of difficulty: medium

36. High levels of which personality trait is linked with more visits to the doctor? a. Anxiety b. Hardiness c. Neuroticism d. Conscientiousness Answer: c Page: 508 Level of difficulty: easy 37. Defensive pessimism can be useful because it __________ people but it can also be damaging because it has been associated with greater levels of __________. a. motivates, stress b. protects, illness c. prepares, depression d. strengthens, loneliness Answer: a Page: 509 Level of difficulty: difficult 38. The most destructive element of the Type A personality is a. competitive behaviour. b. increased risk of coronary disease. c. hostility. d. stress.

Answer: c Page: 511 Level of difficulty: medium 39. According to the Type C personality model, what is the most important contributor of cancer proneness? a. Lack of parental closeness b. Increased tendency to experience stress c. A sense of helplessness d. Inability to express emotions Answer: d Page: 514 Level of difficulty: medium 40. The main component of Type D personality style is the a. negative affectivity and social inhibition. b. repression and negative affectivity. c. depression and anxiety. d. irritability and anger.

Answer: a Page: 516 Level of difficulty: medium 41. Which type of personality style is represented by protective factors? a. Type A b. Type C c. Type D d. Hardy Answer: d Page: 517 Level of difficulty: easy

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42. Hardiness is defined by which of the following orientation(s) toward the world? a. Challenge b. Challenge and control c. Challenge, control, and commitment d. Challenge, control, commitment, and connection Answer: c Page: 517 Level of difficulty: difficult 43. High levels of ____________ from the Five Factor Model has been linked with health behaviours, whereas high levels of ____________ havw been linked with a higher rate of death and participation in unhealthy behaviours. a. neuroticism, conscientiousness b. conscientiousness, neuroticism c. Openness to experience, extroversion d. conscientiousness, extroversion Answer: b Page: 521–522 Level of difficulty: difficult 44. When an individual is high in naïve optimism, she: a. overestimates the likelihood of positive events. b. undermines the likelihood of negative events. c. sees herself as having less risk than the average person. d. All of the above Answer: d Page: 522 Level of difficulty: medium 45. What type of optimism is a consistent predictor of health outcomes? a. Defensive optimism b. Unrealistic optimism c. Dispositional optimism d. Functional optimism Answer: c Page: 523–524 Level of difficulty: difficult 46. Which one of the following is not a component of Bandura’s (1997) self-efficacy theory? a. Success b. Magnitude c. Strength d. Generality Answer: a Page: 524 Level of difficulty: medium 47. Joan received cognitive-behavioural therapy training as a way to increase her sense of selfefficacy in exam situations. As a result of the training she a. got better grades on her exams. b. developed a greater internal locus of control. c. became more nervous in exams. d. felt more confident about exams and other stressful situations.

Answer: d Page: 525 Level of difficulty: easy 48. What is the correlation between self-efficacy and health outcomes measures?

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a. .50 b. .01 c. .70 d. .30 Answer: d

Page: 526

Level of difficulty: difficult

49. In general, self-efficacy has been linked to which one of the following? a. Academic distress b. Finding challenges threatening c. Lower levels of anxiety d. Lower job satisfaction Answer: c Page: 527 Level of difficulty: easy 50. Which one of the following is not a type of locus of control? a. God locus of control b. organizational c. chance d. internal beliefs Answer: b Page: 528 Level of difficulty: medium Short Answer/Essay 51. Explain Zuckerman’s (1994) theory linking sensation seeking to individual differences in arousal.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 501 • People who are high in sensation seeking look for stimulation because they have naturally lower levels of arousal.

• People high in sensation seeking have a stronger reaction to presentations of novel stimuli.

• People high in sensation seeking show an increased response to higher stimulus intensities • People low in sensation seeking show decreased responses to higher stimulus intensities o These people are born with an intolerance for highly intense stimuli.

• Impulsive sensation seekers are linked to higher levels of dopamine and lower levels of serotonin in the brain.

52. Explain how optimism and pessimism can affect one’s levels of stress.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 509 • People high in optimism find conflicting goals more stressful o This happens because optimists spend a lot of time trying to resolve the goal and this persistence is stressful o They tend to not give up in challenging situations o In the end however, they are less stressed because the conflict has usually been resolved

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53. Describe the limitations associated with cross-sectional research in health studies.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 506 • Does not tell us anything about life expectancy • A person may have the disease when studied and then it may be cured later or vice versa (they may develop an illness later in life) • Illnesses may be qualitatively different from one individual to another • Variables associated with one type of illness may not generalize to other types of illnesses 54. Explain the three models that explain individual differences in Type A behaviour.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 511 & 512 • The uncontrollability model refers to the need to have control over the environment.

Type A people try to avoid any sense of uncontrollability. Environmental control refers to excessive striving to overcome uncontrollable situations. Self-control refers to the suppression of internal cues (hunger, fatigue) that might interfere with control over a stressful situation.

• The self-evaluation model refers to the excessively high standards a Type A person may hold for themselves. It makes people very self-focussed and self-conscious.

• The social learning model refers to the belief that one must constantly prove him/herself through his or her achievements, and that competition is very important in order to gain as many resources as possible.

55. Contrast the Type A, Type C, Type D, and hardy personalities. Outline the characteristic behaviours of each and how these behaviours may contribute to specific illnesses.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 511–520 • Type A – attributes such as competition, hostility, higher stress levels, need for public recognition and advancement, desire to meet very challenging goals, impatient, and a high focus on the self. These aggressive behaviours have been linked to an increased risk of coronary disease.

• Type C – keeping emotions “bottled-up” involves a sense of hopelessness and helplessness, higher levels of stress, and a history of early loss and lack of parental closeness are all elements of this personality type. This may contribute to being vulnerable to developing cancer, as well as a lower survival rate for those with cancer.

This link may apply to other illnesses as well and is not specific to cancer.

• Type D – the distressed personality consists of negative affectivity and social inhibition.

Feelings of negative emotions concerning social situations are not expressed. Both components must be evident. Type D is a risk factor for coronary heart disease.

• Hardy – protective, resiliency factors composed of three orientations toward the self and the world: sense of self control, commitment (feelings of a sense of purpose and meaningfulness in one’s life), challenge (confronts challenges head on). These three components combined should make a person more resistant to stress.

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56. Define self-efficacy and Bandura’s (1994) four sets of factors that contribute to a sense of self-efficacy.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 524–525 • Self-efficacy is defined as the belief in one’s ability to perform a task or successfully perform a specified behaviour.

• Four different factors: o Self-efficacy develops following mastery experiences because this enhances a sense of personal capability o Social learning plays a role. When exposed to models with high self-efficacy, those around that model are also likely to increase one’s sense of self-efficacy. o Other people’s persuasive efforts that you are capable may motivate you to behave in ways that lead to success and feelings of self-efficacy. Too much of this however, can lead to a false sense of self-efficacy and self importance o Self-efficacy may be influenced by somatic and emotional cues. Stress can undermine self-efficacy beliefs.

57. Contrast the differences among problem-focused, emotion-focused, and avoidance-focused coping.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 488 • Problem-focused coping involves taking actions to directly solve the problem. The problem is managed by either trying to break down the main problem into manageable smaller ones or by seeking information that will lead to a possible solution. People using this coping style try to look at the problem from various perspectives and consider several solutions.

• Emotion-focused coping involves the tendency to reflect on the emotional experiences associated with stress. This can involve rumination about the feelings or the placement of blame on the self or other people.

• Avoidance-focused coping includes dealing with a problem by trying to distract oneself cognitively or avoiding the problem by seeking out other people as a form of social diversion.

58. Describe the differences between adaptive and maladaptive coping styles. In what types of situations are adaptive coping styles considered maladaptive and some maladaptive coping styles considered adaptive?

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 488, 489, 491, 493, 494 • Problem-focused coping is considered an adaptive coping style because it involves taking specific, thought-out actions to directly solve the problem. o This can sometimes be maladaptive when the person does not know when to quit and adopt a more effective strategy. This style of coping is especially maladaptive when the situation is uncontrollable, which can increase state anxiety.

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•

Emotion-focused coping is generally considered maladaptive because it involves a preoccupation with emotion which could cause the person to view the situation as worse than it really is. This method does not help the person take any steps towards actually solving the problem and may increase feelings of guilt. o When the situation is uncontrollable, this style can be adaptive because venting can be a form of tension release. This style may also provoke social support.

• Avoidance-focused coping is considered maladaptive because the main goal is distraction from the problem. By avoiding the problem, the person does not have to deal with it, and it does not get solved.

Note: The goodness of fit hypothesis states that whether a particular coping response is adaptive depends on the match between the coping response and what the problem ideally calls for.

59. Explain the link between personality factors and risky behaviours. Give some examples.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 503 • Table 12.4 (Bermudez, 1999) is an overview of the positive and negative relations between personality factors and risky and healthy behaviours.

Personality Factor Extroversion Neuroticism Agreeableness Conscientiousness Openness Impulsivity Psychoticism Sensation Seeking Thrill Seeking Boredom Susceptibility Venturesomeness Anxiety Hostility Impatience Cynicism Hardiness Self-Esteem Optimism Self-Efficacy Internal LOC Sense of Coherence

Substance Abuse + + – – + + + +

Unsafe Driving + + – – + +

Risky Sex + –

Healthy Behaviour + – + + +

+ +

+ + + + + + + – –

+ + + +

– – – – + + + + +

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•

In general, neuroticism has been linked with negative health behaviours and infrequent positive health behaviours. Extroversion has been linked to both positive and negative behaviours.

60. Explain the differences between mediation and moderation in terms of health, procrastination, and stress.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 504–505 • Mediation is when a variable comes between two variables in a sequence. One variable predicts the mediator, which, in turn, predicts the outcome variable. For example: Stress → procrastination (mediator) → illness. This diagram displays how when an individual is very stressed, they are more likely to procrastinate, which leads to health problems.

• Moderation is when a variable interacts with or combines with another factor so that the combination predicts a particular outcome. For example, when procrastination combines with the daily hassles of life, this combination is more likely to predict higher levels of depression. So, procrastination may exacerbate the link between stressful events and illness.

Chapter 12-13

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Chapter 13: Personality, Mental Health, and Psychopathology Multiple Choice 1. Which person would be the most likely to be diagnosed with borderline personality disorder? a. Angela, who has a negative and unstable image of herself, unstable social relationships, and intense emotional feelings often in the form of rage or anger b. Beatrice, who lies frequently and always has to be the centre of attention c. Chris, who is intensely suspicious of others, and has very few friends d. Don, who is extremely vain, lacks empathy for others, and comes across to others as shallow Answer: a Page: 534 Level of difficulty: easy 2. What role(s) is personality thought to have in psychopathology? a. Personality may be a vulnerability factor for the development of psychopathology. b. Personality factors may explain some of the heterogeneity among people who share the same diagnosis but display somewhat different symptoms. c. Personality plays a role in the persistence of psychopathology. d. All of the above Answer: d Page: 536 Level of difficulty: medium 3. A problem with using distress as one of the criterion for defining abnormal behaviour is that: a. many people with distressing but common symptoms such as anxiety may be classified as having a disorder. b. many people with personality disorders experience little distress but cause significant discomfort to others. c. very few people with major mental disorders such as schizophrenia experience personal distress. d. psychologists cannot measure distress.

Answer: d Page: 538 Level of difficulty: medium 4. Relative to other mental disorders, personality disorders: a. have little effect on interpersonal relationships. b. have a stronger hereditary component. c. are more difficult to treat. d. have the greatest impact on the individual with the disorder, and appear to have little effect on the people around him/her.

Answer: c Page: 538 Level of difficulty: medium 5. According to John Livesly, personality disorder involves the failure to fulfill one or more of three life tasks or goals. Which of the following was not one of Livesly’s life tasks? a. To form stable, integrated, and coherent representations of self and others b. To feel that you are leading a satisfying and happy life. c. To be a useful member of society in that the person can engage in pro-social and cooperative activities. d. To form intimate and positive affiliations with other people.

Answer: b Page: 538 Level of difficulty: difficult

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6. Identify the key criteria that Theodore Millon uses to help distinguish normal versus disordered personality: a. Multiple somatic complaints, mood swings, interpersonal difficulties b. Schizophrenia, financial difficulties, low self-esteem c. Difficult interpersonal relations, erratic behaviour, depression d. Inflexible behaviour, self-defeating behaviour, structural instability Answer: d Page: 539 Level of difficulty: medium 7. According to the American Psychiatric Association, personality disorders typically involve aberrations and dysfunctions in terms of: a. cognition, affect, interpersonal functioning, impulse control. b. self-esteem, mood, interpersonal functioning, somatic functioning. c. self-esteem, unpredictable behaviour, substance abuse, unreliability. d. cognition, impulse control, depression, dishonesty.

Answer: a Page: 539 Level of difficulty: medium 8. Research findings on the comorbidity of personality disorders indicate that: a. individuals with personality disorders have an unusually high morbidity (death) rate. b. individuals with personality disorders tend to associate with others who also have personality disorders. c. individuals who meet criteria for one personality disorder are likely to meet criteria for a second personality disorder. d. it is rare for an individual to have more than one personality disorder.

Answer: a Page: 540 Level of difficulty: easy 9. The personality disorder clusters identified in the DSM: a. are theoretically derived. b. are empirically derived. c. are both empirically and theoretically derived. d. are based on subjective impressions.

Answer: d Page: 541 Level of difficulty: difficult 10. Empirical evaluation of the categorical and dimensional concepts of personality disorders: a. supports a categorical approach. b. supports a dimensional approach. c. supports the categorical and the dimensional approaches equally. d. challenges the existence of personality disorders as a diagnostic condition.

Answer: b Page: 541 Level of difficulty: medium 11. Research findings from twin studies indicate that: a. heritability rates for normal personality traits are in the 5–15% range. b. heritability rates for normal personality traits are in the 20–30% range. c. heritability rates for normal personality traits are in the 40–60% range. d. personality traits are not inherited.

Answer: c Page: 543 Level of difficulty: difficult

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12. Cross-cultural research on personality disorders has found that: a. the rates of schizoid personality disorder were lower in Japan than in North American and Western European countries. b. low rates of psychopathy in Scotland may be related to the tendency of psychopaths to migrate to large urban centers. c. the incidence of histrionic personality disorder was higher in Italy and Latin American countries than in other countries. d. the rates for all of the personality disorders were very similar in all countries studied.

Answer: b Page: 543 Level of difficulty: difficult 13. In Cluster A personality disorders: a. the person exhibits dramatic or erratic behaviour. b. the person exhibits odd or eccentric behaviour. c. the person exhibits anxious or fearful behaviours. d. the person exhibits compulsive or obsessive behaviours.

Answer: b Page: 544 Level of difficulty: medium 14. According to Beck and Freeman’s cognitive theory of personality disorders, people with ____________ personality disorder view themselves as righteous, innocent, noble, and vulnerable, and see others as interfering, malicious, and abusive. a. narcissistic b. paranoid c. antisocial d. dependent Answer: d Page: 544 Level of difficulty: medium 15. Robert has obsessive compulsive personality disorder. According to Beck and Freeman, he is likely to view himself as being: a. responsible, accountable, fastidious, and competent. b. an independent and strong loner. c. special, unique, superior, and above the rules. d. needy weak, helpless, and incompetent.

Answer: a Page: 545–546 Level of difficulty: easy 16. Jennifer thinks that she is special, unique and superior to others. According to cognitive perspective, Jennifer’s main strategies in life are to: a. stay away from others and maintain an active fantasy life. b. attack, deceive, and manipulate others. c. be competitive, manipulative, and use others. d. use charm and dramatics such as temper tantrums, crying, and gestures of suicide.

Answer: c Page: 546 Level of difficulty: difficult 17. _____________ personality disorder is diagnosed only if the person had a conduct disorder prior to the age of 15, and the symptoms persist in adulthood. a. Schizotypal b. Borderline

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c. Histrionic d. Anti-social Answer: d

Page: 547

Level of difficulty: easy

18. This scale was developed by Robert Hare and his associates to assess psychopathy. Factor 1 of this scale measures emotional detachment and Factor 2 measures an unstable, antisocial, and impulsive lifestyle. The name of the scale is the: a. NEO-PI-R. b. PCL-R. c. DAPP-BQ. d. PSY-5.

Answer: b Page: 547 Level of difficulty: difficult 19. Most experts believe that psychologically-based treatment interventions to treat people with ________________are doomed to failure. a. borderline personality disorder b. narcissistic personality disorder c. psychopathy d. obsessive-compulsive personality disorder Answer: c Page: 548 Level of difficulty: medium 20. The factor on the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) that is consistently maladaptive is: a. exploitativeness/entitlement. b. leadership/authority. c. superiority/arrogance. d. self absorption/self admiration.

Answer: a Page: 549 Level of difficulty: medium 21. Klein’s research indicates that it is important to supplement self assessments of personality disorder with informant ratings. In Klein’s seven-year longitudinal study of personality disorders in patients with a diagnosis of depression: a. informants reports were superior to patients reports in predicting all follow-up measures of functioning. b. patients reports were superior to informants reports in predicting all follow-up measures of functioning. c. only the informant’s ratings predicted the patient's level of social functioning. d. only the informant's ratings predicted the patient's level of depression at follow-up.

Answer: c Page: 549 Level of difficulty: difficult 23. In a quantitative review of the association between self and informant reports of various personality disorders, the lowest level of agreement was found for ___________ personality disorder. a. antisocial b. histrionic c. borderline d. narcissistic

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Answer: d

Page: 549

Level of difficulty: medium

24. When people are asked to make personality ratings about themselves or others on a personality trait domain that is difficult to rate, the “self-based heuristic” comes into play.

The term “self-based heuristic” means that: a. people rate themselves more positively than others. b. people attribute their own behaviour to situational factors and the behaviour of others to dispositional factors c. ratings are reflective of the raters own personality features. d. people rate others more positively than themselves.

Answer: c Page: 549 Level of difficulty: difficult 25. According to findings from an Internet-based study that used the NPI to study narcissism: a. females have lower scores than males. b. narcissism declines in successive age groups from 15 years of age to 54 years of age. c. narcissism is higher in individualistic societies than collectivistic societies. d. all of the above Answer: d Page: 549 Level of difficulty: easy 26. Achenbach has found that approximately ____________of studies of adult psychopathology involve informant reports. a. less than 1% b. 15% c. 30% d. 50% Answer: a Page: 561 Level of difficulty: medium 27. Identify the statement in which the personality disorder clusters are correctly matched with the descriptive terms. a. Cluster A – fearful; Cluster B – dramatic and erratic; Cluster C – odd and eccentric b. Cluster A – dramatic and erratic; Cluster B – odd and eccentric; Cluster C – fearful. c. Cluster A – odd and eccentric; Cluster B – dramatic and erratic; Cluster C – fearful. d. Cluster A – odd and eccentric; Cluster B – fearful; Cluster C – dramatic and erratic.

Answer: c Page: 543 Level of difficulty: difficult 28. In Cloninger’s tridimensional model of personality and psychopathology: a. character factors account for the initial development of the disorder, and temperament determines the type of disorder expressed. b. environmental factors account for both the initial development of the disorder and the type of disorder expressed. c. parenting styles interact with biological factors to account for the development of the disorder. d. temperament accounts for the initial development of the disorder, and character factors determine the type of disorder.

Answer: d Page: 554 Level of difficulty: difficult 29. The dimensions of Cloninger’s tridimensional model

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a. are rooted in environmental factors. b. are rooted in biological factors. c. are rooted in a combination of biological and environmental factors. d. have remained unchanged since the introduction of the model.

Answer: b Page: 556–557 Level of difficulty: difficult 30. In Cloninger’s tridimensional model: a. there are three temperaments dimensions; harm avoidance, novelty seeking, reward dependence. b. there are four temperament dimensions; harm avoidance, novelty seeking, reward dependence, and persistence. c. there are four temperament dimensions and three dimensions reflecting individual differences in character. d. None of the above Answer: c Page: 554–556 Level of difficulty: difficult 31. The five factor traits that have the broadest associations with personality disorders are: a. neuroticism, agreeableness, and either low or high extroversion. b. openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion. c. low agreeableness, neuroticism, high conscientiousness. d. neuroticism and low openness to experience.

Answer: a Page: 560 Level of difficulty: difficult 32. The traits of the five-factor model are especially applicable to: a. dependent and antisocial personality disorder. b. schizotypal and paranoid personality disorder. c. obsessive compulsive and schizoid personality disorder. d. borderline and avoidant personality disorder.

Answer: d Page: 560 Level of difficulty: difficult 33. The term PSY-5 applies to: a. the personality disorder subscale of the five factor model. b. five factors commonly associated with psychopathology. c. the psychopathology five derived from the MMPI-2. d. a subscale of the NEO-PI-R. Answer: c Page: 562 Level of difficulty: easy 34. The _______________test/scale lends support to the dimensional model of personality. a. MMPI-2 b. CHIP c. DAPP-BQ d. the Psychopathy checklist Answer: c Page: 563 Level of difficulty: difficult 35. University students: a. are less likely to binge drink than others of the same age who are not in university

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b. are less likely to be diagnosed with a drinking problem than non students of the same age c. are more likely to be diagnosed with a drinking problem than non students of the same age d. show substantially different drinking patterns depending on whether they live in Canada or the United States.

Answer: c Page: 565 Level of difficulty: medium 36. In a 15-year longitudinal study, Shedler and Block found that substance abuse is predicted by: a. impulsivity, interpersonal alienation, emotional distress. b. extroversion and neuroticism. c. low pain tolerance and emotional distress. d. extroversion and low conscientiousness.

Answer: a Page: 565 Level of difficulty: difficult 37. Binge drinking is associated with: a. introversion and hostility b. psychoticism and neuroticism c. dependency and social anxiety d. perfectionism Answer: b Page: 565 Level of difficulty: medium 38. Theorists have focused on two main classes of variables in the attempt to link personality factors with substance abuse. The two variables are: a. tension relief and behavioural disinhibition. b. extraversion and aggression. c. reward dependence and fear avoidance. d. narcissism and aggression.

Answer: a Page: 566-567 Level of difficulty: medium 39. According to Cloninger, Type 1 Alcoholics are _________________________ and Type 2 alcoholics are _______________________. a. quiet and dependent; sensation seekers b. lonely and socially isolated; extroverted and fun loving. c. no different from non alcoholics except that they drink too much; disinhibited. d. sensation seekers; perfectionists.

Answer: a Page: 568 Level of difficulty: medium 40. Identify the statement about problem drinking that is correct: a. Type 1 alcoholics drink for excitement. b. The onset of drinking problems in Type 2 alcoholics usually comes later in life than in Type 1 alcoholism. c. Heavy drinkers are more perfectionistic than abstainers. d. University students who are heavy drinkers are more impulsive than students who are abstainers.

Answer: da Page: 569 Level of difficulty: medium

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41. A problem with research on personality factors and drinking is that: a. findings on the relations between drinking and personality are overly simplistic. b. the research assumes that people have accurate insight into why they drink. c. findings on drinking and personality are contradictory. d. drinking behaviour is not predicted by personality.

Answer: b Page: 569 Level of difficulty: easy 42. All of the following statements about drinking and expectancies are true except: a. Heavy drinkers have stronger positive expectancies than do lighter drinkers. b. We can predict when young adolescents will begin drinking once we know if their expectancies about drinking are primarily negative or positive. c. People who are socially inhibited tend to see alcohol as a negative transforming force. d. People high in hostility endorse the view that alcohol increases power.

Answer: c Page: 570 Level of difficulty: easy 43. According to the ________________ of drinking, drinking results in reduced self-awareness and decreases the cognitive ability to focus on personal shortcomings and deficiencies. a. self-awareness model of drinking b. self-handicapping theory of drinking c. social learning theory of alcoholism d. cognitive awareness theory of drinking Answer: a Page: 570 Level of difficulty: medium 44. Instead of working on an essay that was due on Monday, David spent most of the weekend drinking beer at a folk music festival. Predictably, he received a low grade on the essay.

David attributed his poor performance to the way he spent the weekend, and thus maintained his image of himself as a capable student. This example is consistent with the ___________________ of drinking. a. social learning theory b. self-justification model c. self-awareness model d. self-handicapping theory Answer: d Page: 571 Level of difficulty: easy 45. Dr. Grant writes in a report “Mr. Fleming’s depression stems from the combination of (1) high levels of perfectionism (2) the stress of losing his job of 9 years.” Dr. Grant has used a ______________model of depression. a. five factor b. sociotropy c. diathesis-stress d. self-criticism and dependency Answer: c Page: 572 Level of difficulty: medium 46. According to Sidney Blatt, the ________________________ orientation involves excessive levels of self-criticism and self punitiveness. a. projective

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b. introjective c. anaclictic d. dependency Answer: b

Page: 574

Level of difficulty: medium

47. Identify the statement about schema therapy that is incorrect. a. Early maladaptive schemas are broad, pervasive, and dysfunctional patterns involving the self and the self in relation to others. b. Several studies have associated particular maladaptive schemas with personality dysfunction. c. Therapy can be directed to changing, and perhaps removing each early maladaptive schema. d. Initial evidence indicates that schema therapy is not effective.

Answer: d Page: 575 Level of difficulty: medium 48. According to Beck, ______________ individuals are especially concerned about pleasing others, avoiding disapproval, and avoiding separation. a. sociotropic b. autonomous c. self-conscious d. perfectionistic Answer: a Page: 575 Level of difficulty: easy 49. According to the social expectations model: a. children imitate their perfectionistic parents. b. children learn that they will receive parental approval if they meet the very high standards of their parents. c. the child reacts to a harsh environment by becoming perfectionistic. d. the pressure of unrealistic social expectations leads children to become perfectionistic.

Answer: b Page: 579 Level of difficulty: medium 50. The actress Ashley Judd had a chaotic upbringing, with 12 moves in 11 years of her childhood. Perhaps in an attempt to establish a sense of control in an unpredictable environment, Ms. Judd developed "extreme perfectionism." Ms. Judd's case exemplifies the __________________________ model of perfectionism. a. social expectations b. social learning c. social reaction d. social instability Answer: c Page: 580 Level of difficulty: medium Short Answer/Essay 51. Identify and discuss four potential roles of personality in psychopathology.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 535-536 • Personality factors may serve as vulnerability factors that are involved in the etiology of psychopathology.

• Personality factors can contribute to the persistence of the disorder.

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• • •

Personality factors may differentially predict different symptom profiles.

Personality factors may combine with cultural factors to influence symptom expression.

Personality factors play a role in how people respond to their mental illness. For example personality can be important in determining whether a client will seek professional help, and in determining a client’s responsiveness to treatment.

**This question could be altered by asking students to provide examples that illustrate the roles of personality in psychopathology.

52. Identify and discuss four criteria for defining abnormal behaviour.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 537-538 1) Statistical infrequency – with this criteria uncommon yet highly desirable characteristics would be interpreted as a reflection of abnormality 2) Does the behaviour cause significant distress to the self or other people? Some people with personality disorders feel little distress, but cause a great deal of distress to others.

3) Does the pattern of behaviour cause significant impairment or disability? For personality disorders, self report on this issue may be difficult to evaluate.

4) Is the pattern of behaviour inconsistent with cultural expectations? What is normal for one person’s culture may not be normal for the interviewer’s culture.

53. Present Millon’s three key criteria for distinguishing between normal and abnormal personality.

Level of difficulty: easy Suggested answer, p. 539 Millon’s three key criteria are: 1) Rigid and inflexible behaviour 2) Habitually engage in self-defeating behaviour that moves person further from goals rather than closer to them 3) Structural instability, person finds it very hard to withstand stress & novel situations 54. Discuss the evidence for the dimensional conceptualization of personality disorders.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 541-542 There is a great deal of support for the dimensional model: Personality traits are continuous for both general population and clinical samples.

Disordered personality represents one extreme end of the continuum and normal personality lies along the same continuum.

In a study by Morey, 2000, 144 patients with Axis II disorders were considered. They completed self-report personality measures tapping the five-factor model and personality disorder symptoms. Morey found that the personality disorders reflected “subtle shadings rather than extremes of orthogonal dimensions”. There was a strong similarity of dimensional profiles for the personality disorders when compared to the general population at large.

Others such as O’Connor and Dyce have found similar results. Personality disorders reflect extreme and rigid response tendencies that differ in degree, not in kind from the responses of people without disorders.

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55. What is the distinguishing feature of psychopathy, and how might people with this disorder come across to others? What kinds of actions are psychopaths capable of, and how do they describe their actions? What is the prognosis for rehabilitation?

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 547-548 The distinguishing feature of psychopaths is that they have no sense of shame or remorse when they engage in extremely antisocial acts. They often come across to others as being charming, and are able to manipulate those around them. Psychopaths are capable of engaging in extreme violence, even cold-blooded murder for instrumental gain. When confronted they typically minimize the instrumental and pre-mediated aspects of their crimes. Experts believe that little if anything can be done to rehabilitate psychopathic individuals.

56. Identify and briefly discuss Bornstein’s four components of dependency.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 552 Bornstein’s four components of dependency are: 1) Cognitive component – involves a mental representation of the self as powerless and representations of others as powerful 2) Motivational component – constant need for support from others 3) Emotional component – the anxiety-based reaction when isolated from significant others 4) Behavioural component – help seeking and reassurance seeking designed to increase proximity to others 57. According to Paris, there are differences in psychotherapy issues for patients with personality disorders from the three clusters. Identify the relevant problems and issues for therapy for each cluster.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 553 Cluster A: Rarely seek out psychotherapy. The main problem with cluster A patients is that they have difficulty sustaining interpersonal relationships.

Cluster B: Difficult to treat. Therapy must be pragmatic. Cluster B patients need structure.

Social structures can increase attachment security or facilitate competence, achievement, and persistence in work. An important goal is to make them less dependent and responsive to external reinforcers such as power and sexual attraction.

Cluster C: Patients have self-sustaining anxieties. The goal is to prevent them from engaging in the usual avoidance behaviours. It is important to discourage dependency in the therapy session and to not permit procrastination about therapy.

58. Select two different personality disorders. For each disorder, identify the relevant factors from the five-factor model, and indicate if the person with the disorder would be expected to be high or low in each relevant factor.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 559 The relevant five factors are identified for each disorder in the table on page 559.

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**To make this question more difficult, indicate which disorder(s) you want the students to explain with the five-factor model, and/or ask students to rate more than two personality disorders. To make the question easier, list the five factors for students who may not remember them.

59. Identify and briefly explain three models of drinking behaviour.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 569-571 1) According to the social learning theory of alcoholism, people with positive expectancy schemas of drinking are more likely to become problem drinkers. Expectancy schemas for drinking are influenced by observations of parents, role models, peers, and the media.

2) According to the self-awareness model of drinking, drinking is reinforcing in several ways.

Drinking increases the sense of personal power and efficacy, and reduces feelings of guilt and inadequacy. As well when people drink they become less cognitively able to attend to their shortcomings, and are more likely to drink when they feel self-conscious.

3) According to the self-handicapping theory, drinking shifts the blame from oneself to the effects of alcohol. **To make this question more difficult, ask students to provide examples for each model.

60. List and briefly explain three models of how people become perfectionists. (579-580) Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 579-580 1) According to the social expectations model, the child learns that parental approval is contingent on being perfect. The parents of perfectionists set standards that are quite high.

2) According to the social learning model, children learn to act like perfectionistic models in their environment. Children are especially likely to imitate their parents.

3) In the social reaction model, perfectionists were exposed to a harsh environment in childhood.

The child copes with this environment by becoming perfectionistic.

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Chapter 14: Psychobiography and Personology Multiple Choice 1. The idiographic approach studies_______________, and the nomothetic approach considers ______________. a. individuals; large numbers of people b. variables; individuals c. cross-sections of people; large numbers of people d. the impact of childhood factors on personality; the impact of adult experiences on personality Answer: a Page: 586 Level of difficulty: easy 2. Alan Elms pointed out that nomothetic investigations establish statistical significance, but that the variables studied may not be __________________ to individual participants. a. understandable b. personally meaningful c. helpful d. interesting Answer: b Page: 586 Level of difficulty: medium 3. Which of the following statements is not true of pyschobiographies? a. The conclusions drawn in pyschobiographies cannot be generalized to other people b. They identify and explain issues and themes throughout a person’s life. c. They have inherent methodological limitations such as concerns about interpretive biases. d. They focus on general laws and scientific principles.

Answer: d Page: 587 Level of difficulty: easy 4. The psychobiography of Leonardo da Vinci was regarded as the most-well known of the early pyschobiographies. Who was the author? a. Alan Elms b. Erik Erikson c. Sigmund Freud d. Henry Murray Answer: c Page: 587 Level of difficulty: easy 5. The psychobiography of Leonardo da Vinci included the following major flaw: a. It was based on just one childhood memory recounted by Leonardo da Vinci. b. It considered social factors and ignored internally based factors. c. It ignored the role of his parents in his development. d. It was full of errors about the nature of his inventions.

Answer: a Page: 587 Level of difficulty: easy 6. Which of the follow is not true of external probability? a. It was a guideline advanced by Freud. b. It is a form of external validity. c. It involves establishing whether new information fits with accepted old information. d. It was one of the major limitations of Freud’s analysis of Leonardo da Vinci.

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Answer: d

Page: 587

Level of difficulty: medium

7. In ___________________________ a statistical procedure is applied to a single unit or person, and the unit is repeatedly measured at equal time intervals. a. cross-sectional research b. longitudinal research c. time series analysis d. longitudinal-sequential Answer: c Page: 588 Level of difficulty: medium 8. Simonton’s analysis of King George III is an important example of how psychobiographers can use _____________________ to evaluate a particular person. a. qualitative measures b. quantitative measures c. historical documents d. medical records Answer: b Page: 588 Level of difficulty: medium 9. Nasby and Read (1997) wrote a psychobiography on solo circumnavigator Dodge Morgan who sailed around the world. Morgan completed personality tests both before and after his voyage, provided a record of his thoughts, feelings and behaviours during the voyage as well as provided life history data. This analysis of Morgan was unique because: a. it utilized methodological pluralism. b. it was the first analysis to be written by someone while sailing around the world. c. it was the first analysis to use Jackson’s Personality Research form. d. Mogran was aware there would be a psychobiography written about him when he returned.

Answer: a Page: 588 Level of difficulty: medium 10. Which of the following was a conclusion of the analysis completed on Dodge Morgan, the solo circumnavigator who sailed around the world by himself? a. He became more communal as he spent more time alone at sea. b. He was narcissistic. c. He was a perfectionist. d. He was very dependant on others.

Answer: a Page: 589 Level of difficulty: easy 11. Elms suggested that a key criterion in a good psychobiography is ______________________ a. the psychobiographer’s eclecticism. b. the psychobiographer’s relationship with the subject. c. the use of a clinical theory. d. None of the above Answer: a Page: 590 Level of difficulty: easy 12. Personal structure analysis involves: a. investigating how the person has organized different aspects of his or her life. b. considering how the person structures his/her immediate physical environment.

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c. using an if-then contingency analysis and examining the context of statements a person makes about the self. d. all of the above.

Answer: c Page: 591 Level of difficulty: medium 13. Murray’s concept of ‘press’ can best be defined as: a. the influence of a family on an individual. b. the influence of the situation on an individual. c. the influence a relationship on an individual. d. the influence of a job on an individual.

Answer: b Page: 591 Level of difficulty: medium 14. Which of the following is true about Burger and Cooper’s Desire for Control Scale? a. It uses the term “control freak.” b. Many of the items have positive connotations. c. It consists of 131 items. d. None of the above.

Answer: b Page: 592 Level of difficulty: easy 15. ___________________________ can be measured by consistency criterion. a. Reliability b. Statistical significance c. Agreement among scholars d. Validity Answer: a Page: 592 Level of difficulty: medium 16. A fair test of the interrater reliability of psychobiographies requires that: a. the different analysts have access to the same information. b. the analysts have equal levels of insight into people. c. the analysts have the equivalent background in core psychological theories. d. All of the above Answer: d Page: 592 Level of difficulty: easy 17. The term “historical interpretive psychology” refers to __________________. a. inductive profiling and psychological interpretation of historical information. b. constructive alternativism. c. aggregation of historical and psychological information. d. a psychological analysis that interprets a person in a historical context.

Answer: d Page: 593 Level of difficulty: medium 18. The goal of exemplification is to: a. compare how the characteristics of an individual fit with the theory of personality. b. use an individual case to illustrate a theory. c. take information from a particular person and come up with a new insight or theory. d. All of the above.

Answer: b Page: 593 Level of difficulty: medium

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19. Allport’s idea that case studies inspire new theories is an example of the _____________ function of pyschobiographies. a. exemplification b. comparison c. discovery d. practical purposes Answer: c Page: 593 Level of difficulty: easy 20. Offender profiling is most commonly used to: a. reduce the amount of time spent using general investigative techniques. b. eliminate suspects. c. suggest effective lines of questioning when interviewing and interrogating suspects. d. evaluate crime scenes.

Answer: b Page: 595 Level of difficulty: easy 21. ________________ profiling uses general principles and patterns that have been gleaned from analyses of a relatively large database. a. Deductive b. Inductive c. Recursive d. Inclusive Answer: b Page: 595 Level of difficulty: medium 22. What problems limit the usefulness of profiling? a. Personality profiles do not reflect contemporary research. b. Personality profiles do not reflect the broad range of theoretical approaches from the personality field. c. The profile’s accuracy depends heavily on the skills of the individual profiler. d. All of the above Answer: d Page: 596 Level of difficulty: easy 23. When Mary walks by Mark in the hall without saying ‘hello’ Mark attributes this to Mary being an impolite person rather than to the fact that Mary is late for class and in a rush. This is an example of what kind of bias? a. Confirmatory bias b. Actor-observer bias c. Selectivity bias d. Sexist bias Answer: b Page: 597 Level of difficulty: medium 24. An employer who is trying to find out which employee is stealing large amounts of office supplies has a suspect, employee A, in mind. The employer selectively focuses on any evidence that employee A is the guilty party. The employer has a __________________. a. selectivity bias b. confirmatory bias

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c. actor-observer bias d. pre-judgment bias Answer: b Page: 597

Level of difficulty: easy

25. A patient was verbally abused by his parents for the first 20 years of his life, and sexually molested twice by a neighbour when he was 11. Doctor Uno believes that all of the patient’s problems can be traced to the trauma of being sexually abused. Doctor Uno has engaged in the fallacy of: a. oversimplification. b. eventism. c. critical period fallacy. d. lack of evidence.

Answer: b Page: 597 Level of difficulty: medium 26. The tendency for a psychobiographer to focus on negative characteristics rather than positive characteristics is an example of _____________________ a. the actor-observer bias. b. over-pathologizing. c. omission. d. eventism.

Answer: b Page: 598 Level of difficulty: easy 27. According to Irving Alexander, if Betty omits her teenage years when discussing her life, this likely means that: a. these years may not have been important in her life. b. these years may have been very important in her life. c. Betty cannot remember the event. d. the biographer should be very careful about asking for more information, because prying could unleash unconscious material and trigger significant emotional distress.

Answer: b Page: 599 Level of difficulty: difficult 28. Erikson’s triple bookkeeping approach evaluates a person on all levels except: a. family. b. ego. c. body. d. status.

Answer: d Page: 599 Level of difficulty: medium 29. According to the __________________approach, peoples’ lives are structured and experienced in a “storylike manner.” a. personal mythology b. narrative c. heroic self d. holistic Answer: b Page: 600 Level of difficulty: medium

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30. _______________is based on the premise that emotion is the key motivating force in one’s life. a. Life story theory b. Triple bookkeeping theory c. Primacy theory d. Script theory Answer: d Page: 600 Level of difficulty: medium 31. __________________ made a substantial contribution to psychobiography by drawing attention to the importance of cultural forces in personal identity. a. Douglas b. Erikson c. Runyan d. Freud Answer: b Page: 600 Level of difficulty: easy 32. An analysis of a person’s psychological features at a particular point in history and how the era influenced the individual is called a ____________________ a. psychobiography. b. life story. c. psychohistory. d. script.

Answer: c Page: 601 Level of difficulty: easy 33. Glad conducted a psychobiographical analysis of Hitler, Stalin, and Mao Zedong. In her book she reported on the similarities and differences of these figures, and compared them with other tyrants who had less political influence. Glad used a _________________________ approach. a. cross-historical comparative b. cross-cultural comparative c. cross-societal d. historiography Answer: b Page: 601 Level of difficulty: medium 34. In your textbook the author noted that despite shortcomings in psychobiographical accounts of Mao Zedong by Sheng (2002), and Chang and Halliday (2005), the accounts are still valuable. According to Flett, what makes these accounts valuable? a. They showed that Mao has been unfairly blamed for millions of deaths in China. b. They show that Mao was as much a victim of culture as the people he hurt through his policies, and that even highly influential people are affected by the culture that they help create. c. They drew renewed attention to the role Mao played in the deaths of millions of people, and shows us that although culture shapes people, certain people shape culture. d. None of the above Answer: c Page: 602 Level of difficulty: easy

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35. A book that compares and contrasts the attributes of two or more political leaders from different countries is said to take a: a. cross-cultural comparative approach. b. psychobiographical approach. c. historical approach. d. psycho-social-historical approach.

Answer: a Page: 601 Level of difficulty: medium 36. A key contributing event to Salvador Dali’s great need to be original is: a. being overshadowed by an older sister who always seemed to get the most attention. b. being told that he was a boring and unlikable person. c. being told at an early age that he was the reincarnation of his brother. d. learning in his childhood that if he could entertain passers by on the street, they would give him money to buy food.

Answer: c Page: 603 Level of difficulty: easy 37. In his relationship with his wife Gala, Salvador Dali: a. had a passionate physical relationship. b. was dominant and controlling. c. was distant and often absent. d. was dependent and subservient.

Answer: d Page: 604 Level of difficulty: medium 38. Since his teenage years, Dan has been extremely self absorbed, believes himself to be a genius, and has an extreme need to be seen as unique or special. Dan is likely suffering from which disorder? a. Narcissistic personality disorder b. Bipolar disorder, manic phase c. An inferiority complex d. Low self-esteem Answer: a Page: 604 Level of difficulty: easy 39. Salvador Dali’s sister wrote a book about her brother that suggested he had a normal and happy childhood. Dali was enraged by the depiction of him as normal and typical, and responded by creating a highly unflattering painting that depicted his sister.

The best interpretation of Dali’s response is that he: a. was insecure. b. was angry at his sister about something else. c. was prone to narcissistic injury. d. had antisocial personality disorder.

Answer: c Page: 605 Level of difficulty: medium 40. According to Salvador Dali: a. he felt great pleasure in mistreating and humiliating his first girlfriend. b. his family believed him to be the reincarnation of an older brother.

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c. at times his wife locked him into a room and would not let him out until he completed paintings to sell. d. All of the above Answer: d Page: 604-606 Level of difficulty: easy 41. In her psychobiography it was revealed that Sylvia Plath felt guilty about her father’s death and believed that it was caused by her own shortcomings. Identify the theory that is used in your textbook to interpret Plath’s depression over her father’s death. a. Self-oriented perfectionism b. Conditions of worth theory c. Attributional theory of depression d. Narcissism Answer: c Page: 609 Level of difficulty: medium 42. If we interpret Sylvia Plath’s suicide in light of the diathesis-stress theory of depression, the diathesis would be __________________________ and the stress would be ___________________________ a. narcissism; critics giving bad reviews of her most recent book. b. perfectionism; her husband having an affair. c. depression; marital problems. d. shame; her father’s death.

Answer: b Page: 610 Level of difficulty: difficult 43. A concept that is central to understanding Sylvia Plath is: _________________________ a. perfectionism. b. narcissism. c. the impact of culture on personality. d. addiction.

Answer: a Page: 610 Level of difficulty: easy 44. Anne Sexton suffered from: a. schizophrenia. b. post-partum psychosis. c. attention deficit disorder. d. obsessive compulsive personality disorder.

Answer: b Page: 611 Level of difficulty: easy 45. It is likely that Anne Sexton’s _________________________ were the result of having been neglected by her mother in childhood. a. perfectionism and impulsivity b. emotional flatness and disinterest in closeness with others c. great imagination and creativity d. dependency and attachment difficulties Answer: d Page: 613 Level of difficulty: easy 46. Five factor traits that are especially relevant to Anne Sexton’s personality include:

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a. conscientiousness and extroversion. b. low agreeableness and low conscientiousness. c. low neuroticism and low openness. d. neuroticism and openness.

Answer: d Page: 613 Level of difficulty: medium 47. Anne Sexton’s tendency to blame negative events on herself was most likely caused by: a. a history of emotional abuse by her father. b. an experience in childhood when she was unable to save a friend from drowning. c. being neglected in childhood. d. excessive conscientiousness.

Answer: a Page: 614 Level of difficulty: medium 48. Which of the following is given as an explanation of Anne Sexton’s inappropriate drinking behaviour? a. Postpartum depression b. Social learning theory c. Attachment theory d. Erikson’s developmental theory Answer: b Page: 615 Level of difficulty: medium 49. Ozzy Osbourne: a. is high in agreeableness. b. has a criminal past. c. has cultivated a stage persona as “The Prince of darkness.” d. All of the above Answer: d Page: 616-617 Level of difficulty: easy 50. The psychobiographical analyses of Salvador Dali, Sylvia Plath, Anne Sexton, and Ozzie Osbourne demonstrate that: a. the five-factor model is adequate in accounting for key personality differences. b. in order to avoid eventism and originology, we should avoid personality explanations that consider the first few years of life. c. the use of multiple theories lends a richness to our understanding of case histories. d. individuals are too complex to be understood through the idiographic approach.

Answer: c Page: 618 Level of difficulty: medium Short Answer/Essay 51. Identify and briefly explain at three purposes of psychobiographies.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 593-594 Some purposes of psychobiographies include: 1) Exemplification – illustrates how a personality concept or theory is relevant to a particular person 2) Discovery – case studies can stimulate the development of new theories

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3) Comparison – compare different people with different lives who share an attribute (e.g., compare neurotic perfectionists to narcissistic perfectionist) 4) Comparison – compare the usefulness of different personality theories; show how characteristics of an individual fit with a theory 52. Identify three methodological issues or limitations of case study analyses.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 597 Three limitations of case study analyses include: 1) Cannot generalize from case studies to the general population 2) The actor observer bias – the tendency to ignore situational factors and instead focus on the dispositional personality features of the actor when making attributions 3) Confirmatory bias – tendency to disproportionately focus on information that is consistent with one’s initial beliefs 53. Discuss criticisms of psychobiography such as the critical period fallacy, originology, eventism, lack of adequate evidence, and the tendency to over-pathologize.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 597-598 1) In the critical period fallacy, undue emphasis is placed on one period of life without fully considering other periods of life.

2) In originology, too much emphasis is placed on early life, and the rest of the lifespan is ignored.

3) In eventism there is too much emphasis on single events. Most of the characteristics of an individual are traced to one or two key events.

(Critical period fallacy, originology, and eventism are overlapping concepts).

4) Psychobiographers should obtain as many different sources of relevant evidence as possible. Some scholars who write psychobiographies do not have enough evidence for a definitive analysis.

5) In psychobiography and in psychology in general, there is a tendency to overpathologize. A balanced and fair representation will consider positive attributes as well as the negative. **To make this question more difficult, do not provide students with each criticism, and ask students to list and discuss them.

54. Discuss Erikson’s contributions to psychobiography.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 599, 602 Some of Erikson’s contributions to psychobiography include: 1) Noting the importance of considering culture in the development of personal identity 2) Providing some balance, as he did not rely on Freudian concepts 3) Encouraging psychobiographers to consider the entire lifespan 4) Developing a triple bookkeeping approach, which is a framework for evaluating a person by the levels of the body, ego, and family and society **Erikson’s triple bookkeeping approach could be a topic for an essay question in itself; students could be asked to expand on each of the three levels.

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55. What personality disorder did Salvador Dali exhibit? Identify the factors in Dali’s life that seemed to have contributed to the person he became.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 603-607 Dali exhibited narcissistic personality disorder. At a very young age he was told that he was the reincarnation of his dead brother. This may have impelled him to forge a highly unique persona.

Dali was very talented and received a great deal of praise for his art work. His family encouraged narcissistic behaviour by allowing him to wear a king’s robe and crown, and by allowing him to do whatever he pleased.

56. Explain Salvador Dali’s personality from an Adlerian or operant conditioning perspective.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 607 An Adlerian perspective would focus on Dali’s feelings of inferiority in regards to the idealized vision of his deceased brother. Dali’s sense of inferiority led to strivings for superiority to such an extent that Dali developed a superiority complex.

The operant conditioning approach would note that Dali was rewarded with a great deal of attention for his dramatic and unusual art, and for his extravagant behavioural displays. Attention from others held extremely high reinforcement value for Dali, and served as a positive reinforcer for continued attention seeking behaviour. **Note that there are several perspectives that could be used to explain Dali’s personality; students could be asked to identify and explain one or more relevant perspectives 57. Explain how the multi-dimensional model of perfectionism and Blatt’s concept of selfcritical perfectionism applies to Sylvia Plath.

Level of difficulty: medium Suggested answer, p. 608 Plath held extremely high standards for herself, making her high in self-oriented perfectionism.

She also had very high standards for others and became very frustrated when other people did not meet her expectations, and is therefore considered to have been high in other-oriented perfectionism. It is probable that her high other-oriented perfectionism caused interpersonal conflict. Her perfectionism in combination with extreme self-criticism fits Blatt’s description of self-critical perfectionists.

58. It has been suggested that Sylvia Plath felt guilty for her father’s death. a) How might psychoanalytic theory explain Plath’s misplaced sense of guilt? b) How is Plath’s depression related to her father’s death?

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 609 1) According to psychoanalytic theory, Plath’s guilt may be due to an overly rigid superego.

2) The early loss of a parent is implicated as a risk factor in depression, especially if the child feels responsible for the death. Furthermore, the attributional model indicates that blaming oneself for negative outcomes contributes to vulnerability to depression.

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59. Ann Sexton was highly dependent on others, and it is suggested that she would fulfill current criteria for dependent personality disorder. Discuss the relations between Anne Sexton’s problems with dependency and the treatment she received from her parents.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 613-614 Anne Sexton’s mother was highly self-absorbed, so much so that later in life she even blamed her daughter when she (the mother) developed breast cancer. Her father was an alcoholic who at times was emotionally abusive. The absence of sensitive and responsive behaviour from her parents in early life would be sufficient to cause Sexton to have an anxious-ambivalent attachment style. She was preoccupied with her parents, and idealized them despite many flaws that made them less than ideal parents. Unmet dependency needs from childhood interfered with Sexton’s ability to develop into an independent adult, and caused her to be highly dependent as an adult.

60. Ozzy Osbourne has experienced significant problems with alcohol and drug addiction. Using two different theories, explain his problems with substance abuse.

Level of difficulty: difficult Suggested answer, p. 617-618; see also Chapter 13, p.566-571 1) There is a history of addiction in the Osbourne family. Genetic factors may have played a role in Ozzie’s problems with substance abuse.

2) According to social learning theory, Ozzy’s drinking problems may have been learned through his exposure to his alcoholic father.

3) Theories that consider the use of substances to overcome negative feelings about the self may apply. Ozzy is noted to have said that the first time he had alcohol, he did not like the taste but he loved the feeling that alcohol gave him.

4) Outrageous behaviour due to drinking and drug use contributed to Ozzy’s success as a performer. Money would be a powerful reinforcer, especially for someone from an impoverished background. In other words, Ozzy’s substance abuse was positively reinforced by fame and wealth.

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