Psychology and the Challenges of Life Adjustment and Growth 11 Edition Solution Manual by Ace Test Banks

Psychology and the Challenges of Life Adjustment and Growth 11 Edition By Wiley by Jeffrey S. Nevi Sanchez-Rodriguez

1 Psychology and the Challenges of Life Chapter Outline Module 1.1:Psychology and Adjustment A. 1.1.1. B.

Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Multitasking: In a Word, When Studying, Don’t Touchpoints in Our Study of Adjustment Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: What Makes People Happy?

Module 1.2:Human Diversity and Adjustment 1.2.1. A. 1.2.2. 1.2.3.

Ethnic Diversity Box: Adjustment in the New Millennium: Who We Are Today, Who We Will Be Tomorrow Gender Other Meanings of Diversity

Module 1.3:Critical Thinking and Adjustment 1.3.1. 1.3.2. 1.3.3. A.

Features of Critical Thinking Thinking Critically About Astrology and Other Pseudosciences Thinking Critically About Self-Help Books: Are There Any Quick Fixes? Box: Adjustment in the New Millennium: Thinking Critically When Surfing Online

Module 1.4:How Psychologists Study Adjustment 1.4.1. 1.4.2. A. B. C.

The Scientific Method: Putting Ideas to the Test How Psychologists Do Research Box: Self-Assessment: Dare You Say What You Think? The Social-Desirability Scale Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Do U Text? Box: Try This Out: Testing Your Texting Skills

Module 1.5:Psychology in Daily Life: Becoming a Successful Student 1.5.1. 1.5.2. 1.5.3.

Taking an Active Approach to Learning: (We Don’t Really “Soak Up” Knowledge) The SQ3R Method: Survey Question, Read, Recite, Review Coping with Test Anxiety

Chapter Overview Psychology, Adjustment, and Personal Growth. Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes. Adjustment is behavior that permits us to meet the challenges of life. Adjustment is also referred to as coping or coping behavior. Adjustment is reactive -- coping with the challenges of life. Personal growth is proactive. It involves conscious, active self-development.

The Role of Biology. Biology is not destiny. Genes may determine the ranges for the expression of traits, but environmental conditions and our chosen behavior patterns minimize the influence of genetic risk factors, and maximize our genetic potential. The Clinical and Healthy Personality Approach. The clinical approach focuses on ways in which problems can be corrected, whereas the healthy-personality approach focuses on optimizing our development along personal, social, physical, and vocational lines. Studying Human Diversity. Human diversity refers to many sources of differences among people, including ethnic or racial differences, gender differences, and differences in disability status and sexual orientation. Awareness of the richness of human diversity enhances our understanding of the individual and enables students to appreciate the cultural heritages and historical problems of various ethnic groups. Knowledge of diversity helps psychologists understand the aspirations and problems of individuals from various groups so they can successfully intervene to help group members. The Ethnic Group. An ethnic group comprises people who share factors such as cultural heritage, history, race, and language in common. Minority ethnic groups have frequently experienced prejudice and discrimination by members of one dominant culture. Prejudice Against Women. There have been historic prejudices against women. The careers of women have been traditionally channeled into domestic chores, regardless of women’s wishes as individuals. Much of the scientific research into gender roles and gender differences assumes that male behavior represents the norm. Critical Thinking. Critical thinking is the adoption of a skeptical questioning attitude and evaluation of arguments of claims in the light of evidence. Critical thinking is the hallmark feature of psychology and other sciences. Critical thinking involves examining definitions of terms, examining the premises or assumptions behind arguments, and scrutinizing the logic with which arguments are developed. Critical thinkers are cautious in drawing conclusions from evidence. They do not oversimplify or overgeneralize. Critical thinking guides us to examine evidence for and against astrology and other pseudosciences. The Scientific Method. The scientific method is an organized way of expanding and refining knowledge. Psychologists reach conclusions about their research questions or the accuracy of their hypotheses on the basis of their research observations or findings. The Case Study Method. The case study method involves the crafting of carefully constructed portraits of individuals to help shed light on their behavior. The Survey Method. The survey method involves the administration of questionnaires or interviews to large numbers of individuals to learn more about their attitudes and behavior patterns. Using Samples to Represent Populations. The subjects who are studied are referred to as a sample. A sample is a segment of a population. Women’s groups and health professionals argue that there is a historic bias in favor of conducting research with men. Research samples have also tended to underrepresent minority ethnic groups in the population. Researchers use random and stratified samples to represent populations. In a random sample, each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected to participate. In a stratified sample, identified subgroups in the population are represented proportionately. The Naturalistic Observation Method. The naturalistic-observation method involves careful and unobtrusive observation of behavior where it happens -- in the “field.” The Correlational Method. The correlational method reveals relationships between variables, but does not determine cause and effect. In a positive correlation, two variables increase together; in a negative correlation, one variable increases while the other decreases.

The Experimental Method. Experiments are used to discover cause and effect – that is, the effects of independent variables on dependent variables. Experimental groups receive a specific treatment, whereas control groups do not. Blinds and double blinds may be used to control for the effects of the expectations of the subjects and the researchers. Results can be generalized only to populations that have been adequately represented in the research samples. Becoming a Successful Student. Succeeding in meeting the academic challenges of college requires taking an active approach to learning, as well as skill in managing time and studying effectively. This involves planning ahead, studying different subjects each day, becoming an active note taker, expanding your attention span, eliminating distractions, practicing self-reward, and sticking with it. SQ3R. The SQ3R study method is a widely used study technique designed to help students develop more effective study habits. The steps in this method are: survey, question, read, recite, and review. Coping with Test Anxiety. Test anxiety can make it difficult for us to perform to the best of our ability. Learning to manage irrational, catastrophic thoughts and practicing relaxations techniques can be helpful in coping with test anxiety.

Teaching Objectives After studying this chapter your students should be able to: 1.

Explain what psychology is, what psychologists do and how psychology can be helpful in exploring adjustment and growth issues.

Define multitasking. Identify and describe the various positive and negative effects of multitasking. Are we better at multitasking some activities than others? Why or why not?

Compare and contrast adjustment and personal growth.

Explain what genes and chromosomes are and what they do. Also discuss why biology is not necessarily destiny.

Compare and contrast the differences between the clinical and healthy-personality approaches to adjustment.

Discuss the focus and goals of positive psychology. Briefly explain the three the three fundamental challenges in boosting happiness, and describe at last three techniques for boosting happiness.

Summarize research findings on what does, or does not, make people happy

Define "ethnic group" and discuss why it is important to study human diversity.

Define "gender" and discuss the various prejudices experienced by women historically and in scientific research.

10.

Explain what critical thinking is and why it is essential to your adjustment.

11.

Identify and briefly explain the eight principles of critical thinking.

12.

Show how critical thinking can be used to examine the claims made by supporters of astrology and other pseudosciences. 3

13.

Explain at least five ways that critical thinking can be used to protect yourself from the false claims made in many self-help books.

14.

Analyze how critical thinking can help protect people while surfing online.

15.

Explain what the scientific method is and describe the various steps involved in it.

16.

Explain and provide some examples of the various sampling bias problems present in scientific research in regard to women.

17.

Identify and briefly explain the various methods of observation used by psychologists.

18.

Explain the case study method of research in terms of its purposes and its limitations.

19.

Describe the survey method of research in terms of its purposes and its limitations.

20.

Describe the relationship between samples and populations and explain how researchers ensure that their samples represent target populations.

21.

Describe the naturalistic-observation method of research in terms of its purposes and its limitations.

22.

Describe the correlational method of research in terms of its purposes and limitations, and explain what a positive correlation, a negative correlation, and a correlation coefficient are.

23.

Describe the experimental method of research in terms of its purposes and limitations, and explain what control subjects, experimental subjects, and placebo treatments are.

24.

Identify and briefly describe 7 things you can do to become a successful student.

25.

Describe the purpose of the SQ3R method and briefly describe each of its steps.

Key Terms bulimia nervosa psychology multitasking adjustment gene chromosome predisposition positive psychology ethnic groups gender critical thinking pseudoscience Barnum effect scientific method hypothesis

correlation selection factor replicate case study method social desirability bias surveys generalize sample population stratify random sample volunteer bias naturalistic observation unobtrusive measures correlational method

correlation coefficient positive correlation negative correlation experimental method independent variable dependent variable treatment random assignment experimental group control group placebo sugar pill blind double blind SQ3R

Lecture/Discussion Suggestions 1. How are the choices of careers and lifestyles that are available to students today different from those that were available to their parents and grandparents? Particularly focus on changing roles and expectations for women. What changes have occurred in women's expectations for having a career versus becoming a homemaker, and what pressures have accompanied those changing expectations? Faced with the wider range of available choices today, increased educational opportunities for many of those choices, and the increased cost of obtaining an education, have students experienced periods of self-questioning, soul-searching, or perhaps decision anxiety? Have these issues affected their educational/career choices or their adjustment to college life? In what ways? 2. In presenting the concept of the challenges of life, it may be useful to ask students to generate a list of the factors they perceive to be the greatest challenges to adjustment they currently face. Based on this list and the challenges described in the text, ask students to compare their current challenges to challenges faced by people living in previous ages (such as people living in 1900). How do these challenges compare on the basis of changes in roles, technology, resources, diversity, and society in general? It might surprise students to learn that the great polluter of today, the internal combustion engine, was actually heralded at the turn of the century as the long-awaited cure for the pollution (horse droppings) left untended on city streets by the four-legged transportation conveyances of the time. 3. "Student shock" is a name given to the effects of an often overwhelming number of choices for a major field, severe stress, pressure to choose the right career (and major), and pressure to perform on today's college students. Discuss student shock with the class. Ask students if they have experienced this phenomenon. How has it affected them? Do they feel they have been pushed to grow up or take on too much responsibility too fast? What are their biggest fears about the future? How have they, or their classmates, attempted to cope with student shock and what suggestions might they have for others coping with this phenomenon? How might such heavy demands to cope keep them, eventually, from growing? Since stress and stress management are discussed later in the text, this topic can provide a solid introduction to some relevant aspects of these topics. 4. Lecture about the standards and ideals that psychologists, as scientists, must strive to meet if psychology is to be considered a legitimate science with valid theories and findings. A discussion of why each step of the scientific method is important, as well as a discussion of what can go wrong at each step, how the human factor in science sometimes prevents the method from working as well as it otherwise might, and how the steps interact with each other can be a useful technique for helping students understand why there is such a diversity of scientific opinion on so many issues when science is supposedly "fact" oriented. A discussion of the scientific evidence for and against global warming can be useful in this regard, particularly since a vocal minority of critics still maintain that global warming “science” is more ideological and politically-correct posturing than facts based on solid scientific research. Another approach to this topic is to focus on the ideals that scientists seek to maintain while engaged in their respective fields of investigation. A discussion of ideals such as being objective (unbiased), systematic, reliable, testable, and self-correcting can help students differentiate between science and other nonscientific approaches such as magic, astrology, philosophy, religion, or personal opinion and "anecdotal" evidence. It may be useful to discuss how scientists and science may come into conflict with religious and other nonscientific belief systems. Evolution and the "big bang" theory versus creationism are two examples of this. In general, comments about the scientific illiteracy of the American populace, and the long-term consequences of this illiteracy on the country's economic status, is appropriate in the beginning classes of the term. Examples of how tabloids use technical jargon to make fiction sound like fact are often helpful in demonstrating to students the need to understand the purposes and benefits of the scientific method. 5. Lecture about the methods psychologists use to study behavior and adjustment. One useful strategy is to take a specific adjustment topic such as "student shock," anxiety, depression, stress, or drug abuse, and explain how it might be researched by each of the techniques described in the chapter: case study, naturalistic observation, and so on. Another approach is to examine each research method individually, focusing on what the method does best when it is used correctly and what the drawbacks to each method are (for example, what it 5

cannot do or how it can be misused to imply findings that are not scientifically valid). Or you might take a method that gets a lot of media exposure, such as the survey method, and explore how television network news departments, and political action groups, use surveys (validly or invalidly). 6. Psychologists, like other scientists, seek to describe, explain, predict, and control the areas of behavior they address. What do psychologists mean by controlling behavior as one of their goals? This is both a controversial and troublesome issue. Some psychologists mean that they attempt to control the behavior of animals while others attempt to help people take control of their own lives. On the other hand, psychologists do study the determinants of behavior and, in their experiments, they manipulate the hypothesized determinants of behavior in order to study the effects of such manipulations. When, if ever, do scientists have the right to control the behavior of others? Who is qualified to decide this? These are two common questions related to the use of behavior modification and its potential for misuse. A discussion of this issue might be appropriate either here or when covering behavioral theory in Chapter 2. 7. A major issue related to behavioral research over the years is the issue of informed consent and the ethical responsibilities scientists have to participants in scientific research. If time permits, a discussion of ethics in experimentation with human (and animal) subjects is a useful means of acquainting students with the responsibilities that accompany behavioral research. Describe how the use of deception is sometimes necessary in behavioral research, but explain what the costs of deception can be. Listing some past abuses of the informed consent principle might help students understand the great emphasis that most research institutions in this country place on this principle. Naturalistic observation, when using secret observation of others, has been sometimes criticized for violating informed consent principles to the point of sometimes constituting a legal invasion of privacy. When is naturalistic observation or deception justified even when it does violate informed consent principles? How can overuse of deception affect the reputation of psychology and experimental results obtained from subjects aware of deceptive practices among researchers? These questions are questions all behavioral researchers must deal with in planning their research activities. 8. Given the rise of "animal rights" groups over the years, many students may benefit from an explanation of the various types of research on animals, its uses and abuses. You might also wish to discuss current APA ethical guidelines regarding research with nonhuman subjects as part of this discussion. You could ask students to discuss what limits, if any, they would impose on animal research in general, and specifically in psychological research. 9. I have used the following example to show the importance of control groups in experimental studies. Suppose you wanted to find out if background music played in retail stores actually helped the stores sell more goods. You take a group of stores that do not play background music and after studying them for several months (to develop an adequate baseline of their pre-music sales) you have them begin to play background music. Several months later you are pleasantly surprised to see that sales figures have increased dramatically. The natural tendency is to jump to the conclusion that the background music caused the increase in the stores' sales. But do you really know this? Could something else have caused it? Suppose you find out that the economy in general surged during the period you added background music to your stores. How do you know whether it was the background music or the economy in general, if either, that caused the sales increase? From here you can explain what a control group is and show how the use of an adequate control group could help you find out what caused the sales increase. What other things could be done to find out what types of music work best, and so on? While I have found this to be an effective example, there are certainly many others you might use – such as experiments on how much alcohol someone can drink before they are too impaired to drive – that students can easily relate to that will drive home the point. 10. Pick a relevant, but measurable topic, and have students design their own experiment to measure it, as per Student Activity 1.3 (below and in the student study guide). This could be done as a homework assignment, a small-group in-class activity, or both. 11. “Selective perception” is the natural process by which people pay attention to (and remember) things that feel good and that agree with their basic values and attitudes, and forget or blind themselves things that conflict with their basic beliefs or values. Briefly discuss how selective perception could affect both the researcher and the subject in the case study method or another research method. How does selective perception influence 6

phenomena such as prejudice, making it very difficult to eliminate once it is established? How does it affect older people reminiscing about the "good old days"? You might have the class generate a list of things they believe are altered by selective perception. Students often come up with things such as the officiating at sporting events (depending on which team you are rooting for), or who won a political debate (depending on which candidate you supported before the debate began), or finally, what hidden motivation someone may have had for behaving in a certain way (depending on whether or not you liked the person). These are all common examples of how selective perception affects our attitude and behaviors. 12. A brief discussion of the placebo effect and its ramifications might help the class better appreciate the difficulties scientists must anticipate in preparing experimental studies. You might also discuss how the placebo effect operates in people's everyday lives in pseudosciences such as astrology, in an optimistic versus a pessimistic attitude, and the effectiveness of many over-the-counter medications. 13. Because of the proliferation of "self help" books and TV talk shows such as "Oprah," or even "Dr. Phil," and so on, many students do not know how to separate sound from weak data. While many of these books and shows can be informative, they often spend more time sensationalizing issues and unnecessarily raising people's fears than presenting accurate information. Often, when accurate information is presented, it is drowned in a sea of unfounded opinion, emotional overreaction, inaccurate "research" (which often turns out to be opinion or anecdotal evidence) by self-proclaimed experts, and "hype." Many times, students in my classes will ask questions based on misinformation presented in these books or on these shows. It is important that instructors teaching psychology pay close attention to the types and quality of information presented in self-help books and on TV talk shows (even some of the cable ‘news’ shows) so that they are prepared to deal with student questions. I have found it useful to bring several of the more grievous examples of inaccurate "pop psychology" books or TV talk shows and discuss them with students in terms of how they have distorted the evidence. This topic may lead into a preliminary discussion of social persuasion techniques, discussed more thoroughly in Chapter 7, and you might use this discussion to introduce students to some of the ideas presented more thoroughly there. 14. The Psychology in Daily Life section in this chapter explores an active approach to learning and the SQ3R method of studying. These are also discussed in more detail in the preface to the student study guide which students may purchase to accompany the text. You might briefly discuss the ways in which planning ahead, organizing time, and using the SQ3R method can improve study efficiency. One project the class could be assigned is to keep track, for one week, of how they spend their time. The next week, discuss where they wasted time and what they could do to get more out of the time they have. Then have them develop individual study schedules designed to maximize their study efficiency. Make them work with these schedules and discuss any problems that arise, revising the schedules periodically as their needs and priorities change. 15. Use some of the student activities from the accompanying Student Study Guide (which are also presented in this manual) as in-class exercises or homework assignments to be discussed or explored in the next class session. Many of these activities are very thought provoking and there are four or five of them for each chapter in the text.

Student Activities Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 1.1 What Is Challenging? Nevid and Rathus begin their first chapter with several examples of individuals facing challenges. They illustrate the nature of challenge for Beth, John, Maria, Lisa, and David, and they also review a litany of problems and opportunities that could serve as a checklist. Have you considered which ones apply to you? Some can be regarded as concerns, some as hassles, some as crises, and some as openings for growth. Try this: skip any issues that do not concern you, but count the number of issues in the list below that are (1) issues you have had to adjust to and are examples of your growth, and (2) issues that remain a challenge. Interpersonal relations Family Health Economics Career Self-worth School Environmental pollution Sex Politics Ethics Emotions Concern for others Constraints of time Sexual orientation AIDS and/or safe-sex practices Alcohol Divorce Exercise Heart disease Cigarette smoking Job interviews Tranquilizer use Social approval Gender issues in the workplace

Test taking Premarital living arrangements Career goals Child care Life goals conflicts Grades Moral decisions Food and eating Insomnia Motivation Depression Suicide Role conflicts Self-esteem Changing technology Religion Personal budget Aging Drug abuse Marriage Values Studying Family planning Mental health Cultural diversity

How many issues fit category (1)?______ How many issues fit category (2)?______ Pat yourself on the back for each issue you have faced and managed. For those issues you still must face, consider the following possibility. Look in the index of the text and see if this text promises to discuss issues relevant to you. You may wish to look ahead, or even to visit the library or bookstore for references to supplement your reading. It might be valuable to ask your classmates how many issues they recorded in each case. Everyone could submit their results anonymously, so it could be made apparent that everyone has some challenge to face. That might help your instructor to recognize which directions to take a class.

Activity continued on the back

Follow-Up Questions: 1.

Which of the above issues were not faced by your parents?

Which of the above issues were not faced by people 150 years ago?

How are these issues more (or less) difficult than those faced by your parents or by people 150 years ago?

In what way were some of the issues faced by your parents or by people 150 years ago more difficult than those you face today?

What classes on your campus address any of these challenges?

Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 1.2 A Learning Theory Assessment of Your Studying Learning theorists encourage us to analyze how reinforcers and punishments affect our behavior, and Chapter 1 recommends we use self-rewards for encouraging studying. It might be useful to attempt a "behavioral assessment" of studying behavior by asking ourselves these questions and recording our answers: 1.

What are my rewards for studying and how powerful are they?

How soon after studying do I receive these rewards?

What behaviors do I do instead of studying (to avoid it)?

What are my rewards for these incompatible behaviors, and how soon do they get rewarded?

Which comes first, studying or other behaviors? Why?

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Now consider these general principles from learning theories:

Rewards are more effective when they are immediate.

Bigger rewards are more effective and weak rewards are less effective.

If we engage in less rewarding behavior before a more rewarding behavior, we may grow to like the less rewarding behavior and do it more and more.

In other words, if our main rewards for studying are grades, graduation, and maybe the approval of others, all of which are delayed, we can choose to follow studying with entertainment or socializing which are immediate and attractive rewards. Now if you will create a simple plan for organizing activities that can serve as immediate rewards for studying, you will have taken your first step as a behavioral technician. Write your plan here:

Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 1.3 Research: A Way of Knowing Chapter 1 explains the value of the scientific approach, and especially the role of research. Being able to read, understand, and conduct research can put you on the leading edge of knowledge, which is valuable in our "information age," whether your career takes you into business, human services, science, or industry. To explore research as a tool for knowledge, follow the outline for research in Chapter 1, and pick one of the issues mentioned in the chapter.

First, what is the nature of the problem?

Formulate a research question.

Form a hypothesis.

Design an experiment to test your hypothesis. Present your experimental design here:

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Imagine the hypothesis is supported, what can you conclude?

How can you be sure that the results are due to the factors you are studying, instead of outside variables that you could not control for in your experiment?

Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 1.4 Gender Issues in Challenges to Adjustment Fifty years ago, the expectations for what men and women should become in our society were very clear cut, and often very different from each other. Today, many of those expectations have changed, while some have remained remarkably similar. 1.

Identify three major expectations for men that you believe have substantially changed since the 1950s and briefly explain what impact you believe that has had on males growing up in our society today. a.

Identify three major expectations for women that you believe have substantially changed since the 1950s and briefly explain what impact you believe that has had on females growing up in our society today. a.

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Identify two major expectations for men that you believe have remained similar to those of the 1950s and briefly explain what impact you believe they have on males growing up in our society today. a.

Identify two major expectations for women that you believe have remained similar to those of the 1950s and briefly explain what impact you believe they have on females growing up in our society today. a.

Many people in our culture still have somewhat different expectations for males and females and how they should fulfill social roles. Given this, who do you think has the more difficult task in adjusting in our society today, males or females? Why?

Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 1.5 Planning Your Study Time Taking an active rather than passive approach to studying can begin with the mastery of the material in this text. To organize your study plans, use a chart such as the one below to fill in the planned amount of study time and the planned number of pages to read at the beginning of the week. Fill in the actual amount of study time and the actual number of pages read each day. At the end of the week, compare the totals from the "planned" columns and the "actual" columns. Adjust next week's plans according to how much leftover and new material remain to be studied. Each day that your "actual" total is equal to or greater than your "planned" column, you have met your study goals for that day and are entitled to reward yourself.

Planned Planned Actual Actual Amount of Number of Study Number of Study Time Pages Read Time Pages Read Reward? ______________________________________________________________________________________ Monday

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Tuesday

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Wednesday

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Thursday

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Friday

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Saturday

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Sunday

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2 Theories of Personality Chapter Outline Module 2.1: Psychodynamic Theories 2.1.1. A. 2.1.2. B. 2.1.3 2.1.4.

Sigmund Freud's Theory of Personality Box: A Closer Look: Sigmund Freud Other Psychodynamic Theorists Box: A Closer Look: Eric Erikson – “Who Am I, Really?” The Healthy Personality Evaluation of Psychodynamic Approaches

Module 2.2: Learning Theories 2.2.1. A. 2.2.2. 2.2.3. B. 2.2.4.

Behaviorism Box: A Closer Look: B. F. (Burrhus Frederic) Skinner Social-Cognitive theory The Healthy Personality Box: Self-Assessment: Will You Be a Hit or a Miss? The Expectancy for Success Scale Evaluation of Learning Theories

Module 2.3: Humanistic Theory 2.3.1. 2.3.2. 2.3.3. 2.3.4.

Abraham Maslow and the Challenge of Self-Actualization Carl Rogers's Self-Theory The Healthy Personality Evaluation of Humanistic Theory

Module 2.4: Trait Theories 2.4.1. 2.4.2. 2.4.3. A. 2.4.4.

Hans Eysenck The Five-Factor Model The Healthy Personality Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Are Our Traits Imprinted in Our Genes? Evaluation of Trait Theories

Module 2.5: The Sociocultural Perspective 2.5.1. 2.5.2. 2.5.3. E. 2.5.4.

Individualism Versus Collectivism Sociocultural Factors and the Self The Healthy Personality Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Acculturation: A Double-Edged Sword? Evaluation of the Sociocultural Perspective

Module 2.6: Assessing Personality 2.6.1. 2.6.2.

Objective Personality Tests Projective Personality Tests

Module 2.7: Psychology in Daily Life: Understanding Yourself 2.7.1

Do You Strive to Be All That You Can Be? 19

Chapter Overview The Psychodynamic Model. Freud’s theory is termed psychodynamic because it assumes that we are driven largely by unconscious motives and forces within our personalities. People experience conflict as basic instincts of hunger, sex, and aggression come up against social pressures to follow rules and moral codes. At first this conflict is external, but as we develop it is internalized. Freud’s Structure of Personality. The personality consists of three mental states: the id, the ego, and the superego. The unconscious id represents psychological drives and seeks instant gratification. The ego, or the sense of self or “I,” develops through experience and takes into account what is practical and possible in gratifying the impulses of the id. Defense mechanisms such as repression protect the ego from anxiety by repressing unacceptable ideas and distorting reality. The superego is the moral conscience and develops largely through the Oedipus complex and identification with other important figures in one’s life. Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development. People undergo psychosexual development as psychosexual energy, or libido, is transferred from one erogenous zone to another during childhood. There are five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Fixation in a stage leads to development of traits associated with the stage. Other Psychodynamic Theorists. Carl Jung’s theory, analytical psychology, focuses on a collective unconscious and archetypes, both of which reflect the history of our species. Alfred Adler’s theory, individual psychology, focuses on the inferiority complex and the compensating drive for superiority. Karen Horney’s theory focuses on parent-child relationships and the possible development of feelings of anxiety and hostility. Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development highlights the importance of early social relationships rather than the gratification of childhood sexual impulses. Erikson extended Freud’s five developmental stages to eight, including stages that occur in adulthood. The Psychodynamic View of Healthy Personality. Psychodynamic theorists equate healthy personality with the abilities to love and work, ego strength, a creative Self (Jung and Adler), compensation for feelings of inferiority (Adler), and positive outcomes to various psychosocial challenges (Horney and Erikson). Traits. Traits are elements of personality that are inferred from behavior and account for consistency in behavior. Heredity is believed to play a large role in the development of traits. The Trait Theory View of Personality. Hans Eysenck described personality in terms of two broad personality dimensions: introversion - extraversion and emotional stability- instability (neuroticism). The major contemporary model, the five-factor model, posits five key factors of personality: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience. The Trait Theory View of Healthy Personality. Trait theorists to some degree equate the healthy personality with having the fortune of inheriting traits that promote adjustment. The focus of trait theory is description of traits people possess, not the origins or modification of traits. The Behaviorist View of Personality. To behaviorists, personality is the sum total of an individual’s response repertoire, which is developed on the basis of experience. Behaviorists believe we should focus on observable behavior rather than hypothesized unconscious forces, and that we should emphasize the situational determinants of behavior. They also consider the sense of personal freedom or ability to exercise free will to be an illusion. Classical Conditioning. Classical conditioning is a simple form of associative learning in which a previously neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus, or CS) comes to elicit the response evoked by a second stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus, or US) as a result of repeatedly being paired with the second stimulus. Operant Conditioning. Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which organisms learn to engage in behavior that is reinforced. Reinforced responses occur with greater frequency. 20

Types of Reinforcers. These include positive, negative, primary, and secondary reinforcers. Positive reinforcers increase the probability that operant responses will occur when they are applied. Negative reinforcers increase the probability that operant responses will occur when they are removed. Primary reinforcers have their value because of the organism’s biological makeup. Secondary reinforcers such as money and approval acquire their value through association with established reinforcers. Punishment Versus Negative Reinforcement. Punishment and negative reinforcement are not the same thing. Punishments are defined as aversive events that suppress behavior; punishments decrease the probability that the targeted behavior will occur. Negative reinforcers increase the probability that the targeted behavior will occur -- when they, the negative reinforcers, are removed. The Social-Cognitive View of Personality. Social-cognitive theory focuses on cognitive and social influences on behavior, such as expectancies and learning by observing others in social environments. To predict behavior, social-cognitive theorists believe we need to consider both situational variables (rewards and punishments) and person variables, such as competencies, expectancies, and self-regulatory processes. The Learning Theorist View of Healthy Personality. Learning theorists prefer to speak of adaptive behaviors rather than a healthy personality. Nevertheless, they would probably concur that the following will contribute to a “healthy personality”: having opportunities for observational learning, acquiring competencies, encoding events accurately, having accurate expectations, having positive self-efficacy expectations, and regulating behavior productively to achieve goals. The Humanistic View of Personality. Humanistic theorists argue that our personalities are shaped by what we make of our lives. To the humanists, we are all capable of free choice, self-fulfillment, and ethical behavior. Humanistic psychologists draw upon the philosophy of existentialism, the belief that humans are free to determine their lives and cannot escape responsibility for the choices and the meaning or lack of meaning with which they imbue their lives. Both psychodynamic and behavior theorists believe that our behavior is determined, either by internal forces within the personality, as Freud believed, or by external forces in the environment as the behaviorists maintained. But humanistic psychologists believe that people can exercise personal choice and strive for self-actualization. Self Theory. According to Rogers, the self is an organized and consistent way in which a person perceives his or her “I” in relation to others. Self theory begins by assuming the existence of the self and each person’s unique frame of reference. The self attempts to actualize (develop its unique potential) and best does so when the person receives unconditional positive regard. Conditions of worth may lead to a distorted self-concept, to disowning of parts of the self, and to anxiety. The Humanistic View of Healthy Personality. Humanistic-existential theorists view the healthy personality as experiencing life here and now, being open to new experience, expressing one’s genuine feelings and ideas, trusting one’s feelings, engaging in meaningful activities, making adaptive changes, and being one’s own person. Sociocultural Theory. One cannot fully understand the personality of an individual without understanding the cultural beliefs and socioeconomic conditions that have affected the individual. Sociocultural theory encourages us to consider the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in the development of personality and behavior. Individualism Versus Collectivism. Individualists define themselves in terms of their personal identities and give priority to their personal goals. Collectivists define themselves in terms of the groups to which they belong and give priority to the group’s goals. Many Western societies are individualistic and foster individualism in personality. Many Eastern societies are collectivist and foster collectivism in personality. Acculturation and the Adjustment of Immigrant Groups. Relationships are complex, with negative outcomes associated both with high and low levels of acculturation. Healthier adjustment may be related to maintaining ethnic identity while balancing the demands of living in the host country.

The Sociocultural View of Healthy Personality. Sociocultural theorists would view the healthy personality as functioning adaptively within one’s cultural setting, balancing competing cultural demands, coping with discrimination, and becoming adequately acculturated in a new society while at the same time, retaining important traditional values and customs. Personality Assessment. Various methods are used to assess personality, including observation and interviewing techniques, behavior rating scales, and objective and projective tests of personality. Objective tests, such as the MMPI, present sets of items or questions that allow for only a limited range of responses, so that they can be objectively scored. The examiner compares the individual’s scores to relevant norms in order to determine how an individual places on particular psychological traits or to identify areas of concern. Projective tests, such as the Rorschach and the TAT, present ambiguous test materials that are answered in ways that may reveal underlying aspects of the individual’s personality.

Teaching Objectives After studying this chapter, your students should be able to: 1.

Explain Freud’s “iceberg” view of consciousness, identifying each level of consciousness and explaining its functions.

Identify the three psychic structures in Freud's personality theory and how each structure functions.

Identify and briefly explain, and give an example of, 5 of the defense mechanisms proposed by Sigmund Freud.

Identify the stages of Freud's theory of psychosexual development and describe what happens at each stage.

Briefly explain the views of the various neo-Freudians in terms of their major concepts and how they differed from Freud.

Explain Erikson’s view of development, identifying each of his stages of development and the life crisis characterizing that stage.

Summarize the elements that psychodynamic theorists feel are essential for a person to have a healthy personality.

Discuss the views of the behaviorists in terms of their focus and how they differ from the other personality perspectives.

Explain how classical conditioning works. In your explanation, be sure to briefly discuss what extinction and spontaneous recovery are.

10.

Explain how operant conditioning works and discuss the differences among positive and negative reinforcers, primary and secondary reinforcers, and punishment.

11.

Describe the views of social-cognitive theorists in terms of their focus, concepts, and how they differ from the other personality perspectives.

12.

Summarize the elements that social-cognitive theorists believe are necessary for a person to have a healthy personality.

13.

Describe the views of humanistic theorists in terms of their focus and common features, and how they differ from the other personality theories. 22

14.

Explain the major ideas of Abraham Maslow's theory of personality.

15.

Explain the major ideas of Carl Rogers' self theory.

16.

Summarize the elements that humanistic theorists believe are essential for a person to have a healthy personality.

17.

Discuss the views of trait theorists in terms of their focus and how they differ from the other personality perspectives.

18.

Explain what the “five-factor” model is, briefly describing each of the five factors in the model and discussing how the model is currently being used.

19.

Summarize the elements that trait theorists feel are necessary for a person to have a healthy personality.

20.

Describe the views of sociocultural theorists in terms of their focus and common features, and how they differ from the other personality theories.

21.

Summarize the elements that sociocultural theorists believe are essential for a person to have a healthy personality.

22.

Compare and contrast objective tests with projective tests.

Key Terms personality psychodynamic theory preconscious unconscious repression psychoanalysis resistance psychic structures id pleasure principle ego reality principle defense mechanism superego identification eros libido erogenous zone psychosexual development oral stage fixation anal stage anal retentive traits anal expulsive traits phallic stage Oedipus complex Electra complex displaced latency

genital stage analytic psychology collective unconscious archetypes inferiority complex drive for superiority creative self individual psychology psychosocial development ego identity free association behaviorism classical conditioning unconditioned stimulus unconditioned response conditioned stimulus conditioned response extinction spontaneous recovery operant conditioning reinforcement positive reinforcers negative reinforcers primary reinforcers secondary reinforcers punishment social cognitive theory reciprocal determinism observational learning model 23

person variables situational variables competencies encode expectancies self-efficacy expectations outcome expectancies humanism existentialism self-actualization hierarchy of needs self frames of reference unconditional positive regard conditional positive regard conditions of worth client-centered therapy self-ideals traits neuroticism introversion extraversion conscientiousness neuroticism neurotransmitter sociocultural theory individualists collectivists acculturation

Key Persons Sigmund Freud Carl Jung Alfred Adler Karen Horney Erik Erikson

John B. Watson Ivan Pavlov Little Albert B.F. Skinner Albert Bandura

Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers Hans Eysenck Hermann Rorschach

Lecture/Discussion Suggestions 1. When time permits, I have found it useful to present a brief history of personality theories to compare to the theories presented in the text. Briefly discussing such early approaches as astrology, Hippocrates' "4-fluids" theory, dualism, phrenology, and body typing theories gives the class a clear basis upon which to judge the perspectives presented in the text. It also provides instructors with a chance to clear up any myths or questions students may have regarding these early theories (and pseudo-theories). I continue to be impressed by the number of students who believe in astrology or in body typing, and believe that they are scientifically supported. Although this material is not presented in the text, it can be found in many introductory psychology texts or in texts that deal with personality theory. 2. Ask women in the class if they were ever treated as being unusual or strange if they expressed the view that they wanted to assert themselves in the business world. If students have developed feelings of closeness, you might ask women if they ever felt jealous of their brothers or other boys. I would suggest making it clear that you are not talking about "penis envy" (part of the Electra complex), but perhaps an envy of the types of expectations parents seemed to have for male as opposed to female children. As a follow-up, you might ask students if they were ever aware of differences in their parents' expectations for them and their brothers or sisters, if not in regards to career expectations, perhaps about simple things like curfews and dating rules. Were boys ever envious of their sisters or other girls? You might ask the entire class if they were ever aware of a societal double standard for boys and girls. When did they become aware of it? Did any event in particular make them aware of it? Finally, if you discuss the concept of "penis envy" in your discussion of the Oedipus complex, you might ask students for their reactions to it. Do they feel this concept has validity now, or ever? This question, in most cases, engenders an active - and often humorous - class discussion. Even though the ’double standard’ is not nearly as prominent as it once was, it is often surprising how many students still notice blatant examples of it every day of their lives. 3. Since many students in psychology classes are oriented towards careers in business, it can be informative to lead a discussion relating personality theory to management practices. Discuss how the exchange of labor for basic necessities of survival such as food and shelter can be related to the satisfaction of needs on the lower rungs of Maslow's needs hierarchy and to Freud's emphasis on the satisfaction of primitive drives. Note that when basic needs are met, workers seek satisfaction of higher level needs, for example, opportunities to earn respect and status in one's work, or to achieve self-fulfillment. Chapter 15 contains a fuller description of how worker values over the past generation have shifted in emphasis toward these humanistic values of selffulfillment and self-actualization. Also note that the Japanese practice of organizing workers into decisionmaking groups, project teams, or Quality Circles, can also be seen within a humanistic/phenomenological framework in which the input of the individual worker is valued. Learning theory approaches in management can be illustrated in the use of such compensation practices as payment for piecework and sales commissions and in the use of behavior modification programs to increase worker productivity. Finally, you can relate basic management theories such as Theory X (Freudian?), Theory Y (Humanistic?), and Theory Z (Operant conditioning/Maslow's needs hierarchy?) to the major personality theories. 4. In discussing Freud's defense mechanisms, focus on their common properties: theoretically, they all operate unconsciously; they all distort reality; and since they are passive, rather than active methods of coping, they all avoid the problem rather than deal with its source. You might emphasize the fact that most people use defense mechanisms some of the time. Freud believed that they become problematic when people rely on them as their 24

primary method of dealing with problems and anxiety-producing situations. It is helpful to present clear examples of each defense mechanism as it is described, and if suggestion 3 (above) is used, examples of defense mechanisms used by management and employees in common work situations is another way to relate personality theory to the business world. Typically, students can identify many people (no names please) in their own personal and professional lives who use defense mechanisms regularly. Ask students when they see defense mechanisms as appropriate means to deal with situations and when defense mechanisms are inappropriate. How are they harmful if overused? In this regards, you might also discuss the idea of a defense system, a network of defenses working together to protect one’s ego from anxiety. In describing a defense system, a particularly useful example is that of the defenses thrown up by drug abusers when others try to force them to confront their drug usage problems, and why this makes them so difficult to treat. 5. Use some of Skinner's and Rogers' writings as points of departure for discussing issues of free will and determinism. Do students feel they possess free will? If so, at what times? Assign parts of Beyond Freedom and Dignity or Walden Two and ask students to consider how they might use behavioral principles to construct an "ideal" society. Would they want to live in such a society? The issue of who controls the controllers in such a society might also be raised in this discussion. 6. A brief overview of Adler's theories about the importance of birth order, with oldest, middle, and youngest children each tending to have certain personality characteristics can often generate an energetic class discussion about class members' own families and whether or not Adler's views on birth order match their own experiences. To expand the discussion, you might have students seek out research on blended families an how they might differ from traditional families in regards to birth order effects. 7. A discussion of Jung's differences with Freud regarding the importance of dreams can be used as a basis for exploring Freud's theories and scientific research about dreams and the unconscious. Jung's concept of a "collective unconscious" in which all human experiences are stored can be compared to Freud's views on the unconscious. 8. After discussing Skinner's theories, discuss the ethical implications of behavior control as it is currently used in psychiatric hospitals, with children with mental retardation, in rehabilitation clinics, in schools, and in the workplace. Explore when behavior control might be considered unethical or an invasion of a person's rights in the above settings. How can people be protected against abuses of behavior modification techniques? If you want to expand the discussion into the political arena, you might discuss the legitimacy of concerns espoused by conservatives that the Federal government is increasingly engaging in behavior control policies (for the “good” of society) in areas such as environmental protection and physical health. Are these concerns valid? If so, do the collective needs of society outweigh the rights of individuals to choose for themselves? If not, what causes fears like these to develop? 9. What are the implications of Freud's theory of personality for great artists, writers, doctors, architects, and so forth? The class might be led to recognize that from the traditional Freudian perspective, their accomplishments are viewed as defenses against anxiety, or methods of channeling unacceptable urges into socially acceptable modes of conduct. In other words, Freudian theory seems to take the nobility out of acting nobly. This interpretation is logical if one believes that all motivation stems from the id. Point out that many other psychodynamic theorists believe that motivation can also stem from the (conscious) ego, thus allowing for the presence of fully conscious prosocial motives. 10. Many of Freud's ideas regarding the Oedipus and Electra complexes resulted from listening to numerous incidents, related to him by clients, of what may well have been molestation and sexual abuse when they were children. Although Freud toyed with the idea that maybe these clients' reports were actual sexual abuse (which it now appears they were), he was discouraged from that idea by his own biases as well as extreme skepticism from his colleagues. These incidents point out that child abuse has been occurring for a long time, and people in Freud's day were even more skeptical about it than people are today. Move the class to a discussion of current childhood abuse and molestation. Point out that current research on the long-term effects of such abuse confirm Freud's general conclusions that occurrences in early childhood can have profound influence on adult 25

personality. 11. You might also wish to discuss the phenomenon of hypnosis and "repressed memory" syndrome, and how its existence (according to its proponents) supports Freud's ideas of early childhood trauma and the use of defense mechanisms. However, you might also point out that researchers have grown increasingly skeptical of most “repressed memory” accounts, especially since many of the highly publicized accusations based on these accounts have turned out to be untrue. You might ask students to look up scientific research and individual cases of this phenomenon. This discussion could be used to “springboard” into a fuller discussion of the whole phenomenon of hypnosis and the problems associated with it. 12. Many scientists have pointed out that pseudo-scientific approaches to personality such as astrology often appear to work because their predictions or descriptions are in the form of "Barnum statements," or statements that sound quite profound until closely examined, when it becomes apparent that they have little, if any, real meaning. In order to illustrate the "Barnum effect" as it relates to personality theory, read the following personality description and ask students if they feel it applies to them: You have a great need for other people to like you and admire you. You have a tendency to be critical of yourself. You have a great deal of unused capacity which you have not turned to your advantage. While you have some personality weaknesses, you are generally able to compensate for them. Your sexual adjustment has presented problems for you. Disciplined and self-controlled outside, you tend to be worrisome and insecure inside. At times you have serious doubts as to whether you have made the right decision or done the right thing. You prefer a certain amount of change and variety and become dissatisfied when hemmed in by restrictions and limitations. You pride yourself as being an independent thinker and do not accept others' statements without satisfactory proof. You have found it unwise to be too frank in revealing yourself to others. At times you are extroverted, affable, and sociable, while at other times you are introverted, wary, and reserved. Some of your aspirations tend to be pretty unrealistic. Security is one of your major goals in life. This passage was the earliest used in research into gullibility among recipients of personality descriptions: Forer, B. B. (1949). The fallacy of personal validation: A classroom demonstration of gullibility. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1949, 44, 118-123. Rather than reading the passage to students, it is possible to give them a brief, bogus personality questionnaire and then, a few days later, ask them to rate this "personal report" as being accurate or inaccurate. Regardless of the method you use to illustrate your point, you may wish to follow up through two avenues of discussion: A. What features of the report help to make it universal, or close to universal? B. What does the Barnum effect suggest to us about how astrologers and other "fortune tellers" make a living? 13. Behaviorists have discussed several conditions that must be met for punishment to be effective, such as: it must be immediate, it should be related directly to the problem behavior, it must be severe but not brutal, it should be used fairly and consistently, and so on. Discuss these conditions in terms of how they are currently met by our judicial system in regards to criminals and defendants. For business-oriented students you might discuss how they, as managers, might strive to meet these conditions in rewarding and punishing employees. This can lead to an enlightening discussion of how management often does or does not reward and punish people effectively, or is sometimes limited by labor-relations and union contracts.

14. In order to determine whether the class understands what is meant by person and situational variables in social-cognitive theory, offer an example such as the following, and ask the class to indicate what person and situational variables will determine how the main characters in the following scenario will behave: Melissa and her boyfriend Johnnie go to a bar together after work. A stranger walks up to Melissa and says "You're a real beauty! What are you doing with a creep like this?" Both Johnnie and Melissa immediately realize there is a crowd of onlookers watching them very closely to see how they will respond. What are the person variables in this scenario? What are the situation variables? How could they affect how Melissa and/or Johnnie will respond? 15. Ask students to list on a sheet of paper the traits they see as comprising a healthy personality. Allow a few minutes for students to brainstorm. Then break them into groups and have them discuss their lists to see if they can agree on a group list. Have each group present its list and write the most frequently mentioned traits on the board. Finally, ask students which theorists they think would support the personality characteristics generated by the class. Related to this, you might assign students a paper in which they must discuss what factors they feel contribute to a healthy personality. I have used this as a term paper assignment in my classes and found it to be very successful. The assignment forces students to not only explore and integrate the concepts discussed in class, but also to explore their personal backgrounds and current life situations. Some of the results are touching, extremely personal, and sometimes embarrassing. But this assignment forces students to think and is much more interesting to read than the typical three-to-five page report on Freud or Maslow (which typically all start to sound the same after the sixth or seventh paper you have graded). Because this assignment can be so personal, it is also less likely that students will plagiarize or cheat, and it is much easier to identify students who do cheat. 16. Discuss with the class the differences between the first four stages of Freud's psychosexual theory and Erikson's psychosocial theory of development. Which approach is best supported by the research? 17. Discuss with your students what they see as obstacles that prevent college students, and others, from living in the "here and now." What can they do to live more in the present? 18. It is often useful to discuss the nature-nurture controversy in regards to personality development, pointing out that the evidence indicates that both nature and nurture appear to contribute to personality, with nature determining the basic ranges of personality development, and nurture determining where, within those ranges, personality will end up. IQ is a good example of this, as studies suggest it is powerfully influenced by both nature and nurture. You can tie this concept to the personality theories by asking students to judge on which side of the nature-nurture spectrum each theory or theorist lies. 19. Discuss with the class the importance of parents and parenting to young children, in terms of Erikson's theory. Ask students if they know of cases where good parenting or poor parenting affected, or is currently affecting, children and what those effects are. What should parents do to avoid the problems Erikson felt would result if parents failed to provide the proper environment. There is a discussion in Chapter 14 on authoritative parenting, which is one way the problems identified by Erikson could be avoided. Related to this, you might also discuss Judith Rich Harris’s book The Nurture Assumption: Why Children Turn Out the Way They Do; Parents Matter Less than You Think and Peers Matter More, in which she argues that parenting makes little difference in how children ultimately turn out. While most experts have heavily criticized Harris’s conclusions, it is still an interesting discussion for students. Do they agree with this? Why or why not?

Student Activities Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 2.1 What Is Your Theory of Human Nature? In the second chapter, Nevid and Rathus describe some of the most important theories of personality developed in this century by psychologists. We all have our own theories of human nature, whether they are explicit or implicit. Just as the people who construct such theories for a living, we tend to begin with observations and then hypotheses. What theories are we working with? Explore this by simply asking yourself if you think humans are more inclined to be kind and benevolent or more inclined to be egotistical, selfish, and only interested in "number one." To provoke some thinking here, decide which description of people you think is more accurate.

Sigmund Freud said: ". . . men are not gentle friendly creatures wishing for love, who simply defend themselves if they are attacked, but . . . a powerful measure of desire for aggressiveness has to be reckoned with as part of their instinctual endowment. The result is that their neighbor is to them not only a helper or sexual object, but also a temptation to them to gratify their aggressiveness . . . to seize his possessions, to humiliate him, to cause him pain, to torture and to kill him . . . Anyone who calls to mind the atrocities of the early migrations of the invasions of the Huns or by the so-called Mongols under Ghengis Khan and Tamurlane, of the sack of Jerusalem by the pious crusaders, and even the horrors of the last world war, will have to bow his head humbly before the truth of this view of man . . . We see man as a savage beast to whom the thought of sparing his own kind is alien" (Civilization and Its Discontents, 1930).

Carl Rogers wrote: "I have little sympathy with the rather prevalent concept that man is basically irrational, and that his impulses, if not controlled, will lead to destruction of others and self. Man's behavior is exquisitely rational, moving with subtle and ordered complexity toward the goals his organism is endeavoring to achieve" (Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1957).

Questions: 1.

Which position do you think is more accurate? Why?

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Questions (continued) 2.

Since Freud cited historical cases to support his view, what examples could be used to refute him?

How could either of the arguments use case histories, correlated observations, or research findings to support the theories (provide some specific examples)?

Is there any way to resolve this debate? If so, how? If not, why not?

What would the consequences be should the followers of each theorist, Freud and Rogers, be placed in charge of education? What if each point of view were represented by presidential candidates? Where else in society might big differences be created by the applications of these different models?

Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 2.2 Researching Human Nature We have been much encouraged to think that research is an important and powerful tool for answering questions about ourselves and others. If we use case histories to support one side or the other, it seems it will become a draw. There are lots of nice people in the world and lots of dangerous people. A tougher test of theories is to create hypotheses and to test them. What hypotheses could address such basic issues as those raised by Freud and Rogers? Consider the following possibility as we engage in each of the four basic steps to the scientific method:

Formulate a research question. When people are given a chance to be helpful, are they as ruthless as Freud says, or as benevolent as Rogers pictures? What do you think? Why?

Developing a hypothesis. When people find a wallet with identification and money in it, they are in a position to be helpful. What hypothesis would Freud and Rogers likely create to predict if we were purposely to drop wallets at various locations around campus? Also, what is your prediction? Express your predictions as percentages of wallets returned intact with money and identification inside. Explain why you feel the way you do?

Testing a hypothesis. Where will you place or drop the wallets? How much money would you place in each, or would you choose different amounts? How will finders be able to return wallets if they choose to do so, and can they be returned anonymously?

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Drawing conclusions about the hypothesis. Since this is speculation, unless you have vast resources upon which to draw, just imagine the outcomes fit your own predictions even better than Freud's and/or Rogers'. What could you conclude about the alternative theories? What other hypotheses and tests could you now create?

While your experiment has done a good job of explaining the “what” of your hypothesis (how many people picked up the wallet and returned it), has it been able to explain the “why”? One drawback of many psychological research studies is that they do little to reveal why people act as they do. Is there any way you could empirically discover the “why” in your study? If so how? If not, why not?

Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 2.3 Creating Classical Conditioning It is useful to start this exercise by reading about Pavlov's work on classical conditioning, described in Chapter 2. He used dogs in his research, but we can use roommates and friends to explore classical conditioning. Simply ask a friend to hold out his or her hands with the palms turned up. Tell your subject to resist the moderate pressure you exert downward on his or her hands with your own hands. Each time, before you push down, say the word "Now!" then immediately press down. Repeat this four times. On the fifth occasion, sharply say "Now!" without pressing down. Did the hands rise up to meet yours? (If not, pronounce your friend less than a dog, and try another.) Now tell your subject that you will continue to place your hands just above his or hers and sharply say "Now!" until he or she no longer responds by raising the hands upward. Note how many trials until you "extinguish" his or her hand response. Finally, ask your friend to explain what happened and to write down what he or she tells you.

Follow-Up Questions: 1.

Using the above exercise and the textbook, identify the: a.

Conditioned stimulus:

_______________________________

Unconditioned stimulus:

_______________________________

Conditioned response:

Unconditioned response:

_______________________________

If the hand response extinguishes immediately after telling the subject not to respond to the stimulus "Now!", how would you explain the extinction? However, if it takes more than one trial to extinguish the response, what explanation would you use?

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What results did your classmates get?

How did your subject explain what happened? Is it a behavioral, social-cognitive, phenomenological, or psychodynamic explanation, or some combination of them?

What theory is best supported by your results? Why?

Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 2.4 Nature versus Nurture? Various psychological theories conceptualize people as being inherently “good” or “evil.” They also have different views about how much of personality is learned (nurture) as opposed to being genetically inherited (nature). Given what is discussed in Chapter 2 of your text, state where you think each of the following theories falls on the issue of nature versus nurture and then briefly explain why you feel as you do: a.

Freudian Psychodynamic Theory:

Trait Theory:

Phenomenological Theory:

Social-Cognitive Theory:

Behavioral Theory:

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Sociocultural Theory:

Which of the above theories’ views makes the most sense to you? Why?

Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 2.5 Free Will or Not? The various theories of personality have widely opposing views of whether or not people have free will. Freud’s theory implies that we are basically prisoners of our unconscious instincts, drives, and impulses with little conscious control (or free will) over our actions. Learning theorists are nearly as pessimistic in that many of them see us as prisoners of the conditioning imposed on us by the environment, with little or no ability to rise above that conditioning. Phenomenological theorists and cognitive theorists are somewhat more optimistic, arguing that we do have the ability to rise above biological needs and social conditioning. How do you feel about this? 1.

Do you believe that people have free will? Why or why not?

If people do have free will, what implications does this have for society in areas such as education, religion, politics, and the criminal justice system? Explain why you feel as you do.

If people do not have free will, what implications does this have for society in areas such as education, religion, politics, and the criminal justice system? Again, explain why you feel as you do.

3 Stress: What It Is and How to Manage It Chapter Outline Module 3.1: Sources of Stress 3.1.1. 3.1.2. A. 3.1.3. 3.1.4. 3.1.5. 3.1.6. 3.1.7. 3.1.8. 3.1.9. B. C. I3.1.10

Daily Hassles: The Stress of Everyday Life Life Changes: Are You Going Through Changes? Box: Self-Assessment: How Much Are You Stressed? Ethnic Identity as a Buffer Against Stress Coping with Acculturative Stress Pain and Discomfort: Your Body’s Warning Signal Frustration: When the Wall Is Too High Conflict: “Darned If You Do, Darned If You Don’t” Irrational Beliefs: Ten Doorways to Distress Environmental Stressors: It Can Be Dangerous Out There Box: Self-Assessment: Are You Type A or Type B?. Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Warning Signs of Trauma-Related Stress Noise: Of Muzak, Rock’ n Roll, and Low-Flying Aircraft

Module 3.2: Psychological Moderators of Stress 3.2.1. 3.2.2. 3.2.3. 3.2.4. A. 3.2.5. 3.2.6. B.

Self-Efficacy Expectations: “The Little Engine That could” Psychological Hardiness -- Are You Tough Enough? Sense of Humor: "A Merry Heart Doeth Good Like a Medicine" Predictability and Control: “If I Know what’s Coming, I Can Better Prepare for It” Box: Self-Assessment: The Locus of Control Scale Optimism: Is the Glass Half Full, or Half Empty? Social Support: On Being In It Together Box: Self-Assessment: Assessing your “LOT” in Life: The Life Orientation Test

Module 3.3: Psychology in Daily Life: Managing Stress 3.3.1 3.3.2.

Defensive Coping: Copping Out, Not Coping Active Coping: Dealing Directly with Stress

Chapter Overview Sources of Stress. These include daily hassles, life events, acculturative stress, pain, frustration, conflict, Type A behavior, natural and technological disasters, and environmental factors such as noise, extremes of temperature, pollution and overcrowding. 39

Life Changes and Daily Hassles. Too many positive life changes can affect one’s health because life changes require adjustment, whether they are positive or negative. In contrast to daily hassles, life changes occur irregularly. Research shows that hassles and life changes are associated with health problems such as heart disease and cancer, although causal connections remain murky. Acculturative Stress is associated with physical and psychological health problems among African Americans. Developing a strong ethnic identity can serve to buffer the effects of this stress. Pain is a major adjustment problem for many people. Obtaining accurate information, using distraction and fantasy, using hypnosis, practicing relaxation training and biofeedback training, taking control of your thoughts, and closing the “gate” on pain, are all methods for dealing with persistent pain. Frustration occurs when a person’s attempts to achieve a goal are thwarted. Activities such as commuting, as well as psychological barriers such as fear and anxiety can be persistent sources of frustration. People who have learned to surmount barriers or find substitute goals are more tolerant of frustration. Conflict is frustrating and stressful. It occurs when people are pulled in two or more directions by opposite motives. Psychologists have classified conflicts into four types: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance, and multiple approach-avoidance. Irrational Beliefs. Albert Ellis shows that negative activating events (A) can be made more aversive (C) when irrational beliefs (B) compound their effects. People often catastrophize negative events. Two common irrational beliefs are excessive needs for social approval and perfectionism. Both set the stage for disappointment and increased stress. Type A people create stress for themselves, in part, because they hold the irrational belief that they must be perfectly competent and achieving in everything they do. Disasters. There are natural and technical disasters. Not only do such disasters do physical and personal damage when they strike, they also damage our support systems and our sense of control over our situations and our lives. The effects of disasters may linger for years after the physical damage is done. Terrorism is a source of stress that can shake our sense of living securing in our homes and communities. Environmental Factors. High noise levels are stressful and can impair learning and memory, as well as lead to health problems such as hearing loss, hypertension, and neurological and intestinal disorders. Loud noise also dampens helping behavior and heightens aggressiveness. Extremes of temperature tax the body, are a source of stress, and impair performance. High temperatures are also connected with aggression. The lead in auto fumes may impair learning and memory. Overcrowded living conditions are experienced as aversive and lead to feelings that one’s personal space is intruded upon. Perhaps because of crowding, noise, and so on, city dwellers are less likely than people who live in small towns to interact with or help strangers. A sense of control or choice – as in choosing to attend a concert or athletic contest – helps us cope with the stress or high density. Self-Efficacy Expectations. Self-efficacy expectations encourage us to persist in difficult tasks and to endure discomfort. Self-efficacy expectations are also connected with lower levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline, thus having a braking effect on bodily arousal. When we feel capable of accomplishing tasks and meeting challenges, we are more likely to persist in difficult tasks and endure discomfort. Psychological Hardiness. Suzanne Kobasa found that psychological hardiness among business executives is characterized by commitment, challenge, and control. Humor. Evidence is not conclusive about the potential health benefits of humor or laughter. However, humor does make people feel good, and there is something to be said for feeling good. Predictability. Predictability allows us to brace ourselves for stress. Control permits us to plan and execute ways of coping with stress.

Optimism has been linked to higher resilience to stress. It is also associated with lower levels of emotional distress among cancer patients and fewer postoperative complications among coronary bypass surgery patients. Social Support. Social support has been shown to help people resist infectious diseases such as colds. It also helps people cope with the stress of cancer and other health problems. Kinds of social support include expression of emotional concern, instrumental aid, information, appraisal, and simple socializing. Stress management seeks to help people more effectively manage stress, not eliminate it. While defensive coping techniques reduce the immediate impact of a stressor, they do so at a cost, and can sometimes be harmful in the long run. These techniques include withdrawal, denial, substance use, and aggression. Active coping techniques tend to be more effective because they deal directly with stress and its sources. Active coping techniques include keeping stress at manageable levels, becoming more aware of your body’s response to stress, developing a social support system, exercising regularly, developing rational alternatives to stress-causing thoughts, expressing your feelings, practicing meditation, and practicing deep breathing and progressive relaxation.

Teaching Objectives After studying this chapter your students should be able to: 1.

Define stress and identify eight different sources of stress.

Compare and contrast daily hassles and life changes and explain how each of them affects us.

Explain what acculturative stress is, what its effects are, and what can be done to better cope with it.

Discuss what pain and discomfort are, how they are transmitted to the brain, and how they affect us.

Identify and briefly discuss physiological and psychological methods of pain management.

Compare and contrast frustration and conflict, identifying the four types of conflict discussed in the text.

Explain Ellis’s A-B-C model and discuss how irrational beliefs affect one’s stress levels and one’s ability to deal with stress

Compare and contrast Type A and Type B behavior, and explain how Type A behavior affects us.

Identify and briefly discuss the various environmental stressors and how they affect us.

10.

Discuss what self-efficacy expectations are and how they affect us.

11.

Explain what psychological hardiness is and discuss how it helps us cope with stress.

12.

Explain how control, predictability, humor, optimism, and social support can help people cope with stress.

13.

Compare defensive coping with active coping in terms of their types, uses, and advantages and disadvantages

14.

Explain what meditation is, how it works, and summarize research findings on its effectiveness.

Key Terms stress daily hassles uplifts life changes acculturative stress prostaglandins analgesic endorphins hypnosis

biofeedback training (BFT) gate theory of pain acupuncture frustration tolerance for frustration conflict approach-approach conflict approach-avoidance conflict avoidance-avoidance conflict

multiple approach-avoidance conflict type A behavior pattern self-efficacy expectations psychological hardiness locus of control defensive coping active coping meditation progressive muscle relaxation

Lecture/Discussion Suggestions 1. Have students take the "College Life Stress Inventory" in the text (pages 86-87). This schedule is similar to the Life-Change Units Scale of Holmes and Rahe, but more adapted to the experiences of college students. As with the original Holmes and Rahe Scale, persons "earning" a high number of life-change units within the past year are more prone to a host of illnesses. When students fill out these scales, make sure to tell them that (a) a high score does not doom them but may suggest that they could profit from examining and evaluating the life changes they have experienced, and (b) the evidence for high scorers being prone to illness is correlational, not causal. Also, life-events scales such as these do not take into account the coping skills or other supports/buffers of individual students, and those can have a dramatic effect on their vulnerability to stress. 2. Ask students to enumerate a list of some of the life changes that can accompany going away to college. Assign someone to add the points on the blackboard. Students will quickly see how stressful this transition in life is. If you have first-term students in your class, you might emphasize that the first term of college is particularly stressful because of the many transitions, new priorities, scheduling and financial issues, etc., that do not disappear until one can establish a new, effective routine, and this can easily take up to a full year. 3. If you have access to the original Holmes and Rahe scale, marriage is listed as causing 50 life-change units of stress. However, there are many other changes that occur because of marriage that appear on the Holmes and Rahe scale. Go through the scale and see how many other changes related to marriage appear on the scale and add up the points. Is it any wonder that the first year of marriage can be so "rocky," especially when everything is expected to be so blissful? Related to this, you might have students complete exercise 3.4 in the activities section of the Student Study Guide (and this manual) on the positive effects of marriage for men and discuss the results in class. You might also mention that research indicates that while marriage has clearly beneficial aspects for men, it is not always beneficial for women. (In middle age, married women are more likely to be depressed than single women; the opposite is true for men.) Why might this be? What could be done to change this?

4. As of this writing, the nation is in the midst of one of the most severe economic downturns since the Great Depression. In fact, many of my students are currently in school, in part, because they are out of work and looking to retrain. You might ask student what recession-related stresses they have seen or experienced. How have they, or others they know, coped? What has or has not worked for them?

5. Ask students how they have responded to stressful situations induced by intense heat or crowding. Have them share what their discomfort felt like. List their responses on the blackboard. All in all, they should suggest a very high level of arousal. Then ask students what they did to adjust to their situations. Some students may say 42

they fantasized or daydreamed about being somewhere else. You might first ask them if using fantasy and daydreaming aren't ways of avoiding the situation. Then ask if more direct coping might be better. By playing "devil's advocate," attempt to bring the discussion around to the suggestion that fantasy and withdrawal can at times be excellent ways of adjusting to a source of stress that cannot be avoided or eliminated. Point out that fantasy and withdrawal give you some measure of mental control over a situation that is otherwise uncontrollable and that this change in your locus of control may be the factor that allows fantasy and withdrawal to be effective in some situations. You should still point out that in situations that can be avoided or controlled, fantasy and withdrawal may not be the best options and may do more harm than good. 6. Ask students if they recently experienced any multiple approach-avoidance conflicts. (This question sometimes elicits some frank comments about sexual situations, so be prepared!) Use this question to illustrate to the class that (a) sitting on a fencepost indefinitely can be quite painful, and that (b) conflict resolution requires decision-making, although some people like to pretend that the conflict does not exist and attempt to ignore it. Without being overly directive, ask volunteer students what type of additional information they feel they would need in order to make a decision. Other class members often chime in quite helpfully, and this sort of discussion can take on the tone of a group therapy session, with some students trying to provide information to others based on their own, sometimes painful, experiences. I have sometimes cut off this type of discussion by saying "Look, if we keep on, I'm going to have to bill you for a therapy session." In such discussions, it usually becomes clear that resolving conflict through decision-making involves taking certain risks. You can link this risk-taking to the concept of achievement motivation by noting that persons who accomplish great things in life tend to take moderate risks as opposed to no risks or great gambles. You can also point out that people in groups will often recommend a riskier course of action than any group members would recommend as individuals. This phenomenon is known as risky shift, and often results in disastrous consequences. You might also ask students to identify examples of the other three types of conflicts and describe their experiences with them. Often students will come up with unique and rather humorous examples that will nicely supplement your own examples. 7. Ask students to consider what they would do to limit population growth in certain countries like China or India, or even the United States, within the constraints of a constitutional democracy. Would they promote certain forms of birth control? Would they seek to influence public attitudes through schools, media, or civic organizations? Would they suggest economic incentives (such as the Chinese are already doing), like reduced taxes for one child or less, or extra taxes for more than one child, to encourage families to limit their offspring to two or less? What are the moral implications and values expressed in these recommendations? How can steps to limit population growth be scientifically justified (as in showing that high density can cause severe social problems)? Although the problem of population growth is not directly addressed in this edition of the text, I have found it to be relevant to the issue of crowding. Related to this is the ethical dilemma posed by people in some countries, where male children are highly prized and female children are not, of people using new technologies to identify the sex of the fetus early in the pregnancy. If they find out the fetus is a girl, they have it aborted, and then immediately begin trying to have another child in the hopes that this time it will be a boy. How do students feel about this? Is it possible to stop something like this? If so, what can be done? 8. Ask students to compare and contrast the environmental stressors that face us today with those that faced our great-grandparents in Europe, Africa, Asia, on the American frontier, or in the overcrowded "melting pots" of American coastal cities at the turn of the century. Continuing this discussion, ask students to imagine what it would be like to be suddenly transported back in time to 1850. No sounds of cars and trucks, no planes overhead, no choking gases or fumes from automobiles or trucks, far less violent crime or terrorism to worry about, and in general, much less crowding. There would be plenty of “green space” still untouched by human development, and most people outside the major cities still living in close harmony with nature.

Sound pretty good, eh? Perhaps, but in place of these modern stressors, the time traveler would be faced with the stench of manure on city streets, the choking fumes from the coal furnaces that ran the industries of the time, mostly unpaved roads and very limited transportation in most areas, lack of indoor plumbing in most residences outside major cities, no electricity, no air conditioning, limited heating, few effective treatments for injuries and disease, and only the barest protection on the frontier against the ravages of winter and predators, not to mention no television, radio, Internet, I-pods, or computer gaming systems. You might also ask students how the average American woman of 1850 might adjust to being transported to "Main Street U.S.A." in the early 21st century. 9. Ask students to conduct an opinion poll of dorm residents to examine factors that contribute to dorm living, such as the number of students on a corridor, suite living versus corridor living, living in a triple versus a double, coed dorms versus single-gender dorms, and so on. 10. Ask students to generate a list of "most common hassles" encountered in college. Group problem solving can be an effective follow-up to the generation of this list. 11. Many people experienced new and unexpected forms of stress during the Persian Gulf War and after the 9/11 World Trade Center/Pentagon attacks. Many are currently experiencing stressors related to the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. You might explore with students the types of stress they encountered, or are encountering as a result of these events. Issues like the effect of long-term absence of loved ones sent to the Middle East, fears for the safety of loved ones overseas, fears of terrorism here at home, and the sense of helplessness at not being able to do anything to guarantee the safety of those loved ones or prevent terrorist activities, are just a few that come to mind. You might also discuss any anger that resulted from these events and how students coped with their stress and anger. 12. In a related issue, you might explore the stressful effects on students of the recurring incidents of school shootings, from Columbine to more recent shootings such as the Virginia Tech shootings and the Amish school shootings in Pennsylvania. What issues an fears do these incidents raise for students. Have those fears changed since they were younger, and if so, in what ways? Why do they think we are seeing these types of shootings today? 13. I have found it helpful to continually restate the concept of "potential stressor" - what may trigger one person's alarm reaction may not do so for another person. This is an initial step in restoring a student's sense of control regarding stress. In this regard I continually emphasize that students must learn to increase their selfawareness of which stressors set off their personal alarm reactions if they are going to adequately control their stress levels in a healthy manner. 14. To help students understand the buffering effects of predictability, I often give them this analogy to the Weiss work with rats: "OK, finals are next week. You can't avoid them. Which would you find more stressful, knowing exactly the day and time your finals will be given, or having us (your instructors) coming up to you at random during finals week and saying, 'Here, take your final right now!'?" Overwhelmingly, students prefer the first option and see it as being less stressful. Similarly, they tend to prefer scheduled exams to randomly administered “pop” quizzes. They now also understand the importance of predictability in buffering stress. 15. Assign students to take a specific personal issue and do a "balance sheet" on that issue as a homework assignment. Students have told me that they find doing balance sheets to be a useful tool in helping them solve problems and make decisions. 16. Ask students what mental techniques they use to cope with pain. Ask them to evaluate the relative effectiveness of their techniques, and to suggest why their techniques are, or are not, effective in managing pain. 17. Ask students to describe conflicts they have experienced in each of the four categories of conflicts discussed in the text (approach-approach, and so on). Which type did they find most or least stressful? 44

18. Restraining Your Reactions to Stress - this classroom exercise can be used to demonstrate the stress inoculation approach pioneered by Meichenbaum and others. The following script can be used to structure the exercise in class: Yes, a stressful situation may be coming. But it is not true that you are helpless and can do nothing about it. That is, unless you believe that this is true. You can choose to stop thinking negatively and stop trying to put it out of your mind. You can decide to fantasize the situation before it happens and try to retrain your reactions to it. You can use this technique with any sort of stress predictable from pain and discomfort (Turk, 1975) to Type A behavior (Suinn, 1976). Retraining your reactions to stress, via the imagination, has been called stress inoculation. Giving yourself an imaginary source of the stressor and adjusting to it can increase your ability to cope with the actual stressor later on. Sit back comfortably. Relax. Allow your limbs to become warm and heavy. Now imagine the stressor -- perhaps an unavoidable, painful experience of Type A behavior in a demanding job. Imagine what you are likely to go through in as many details as possible. Imagine the people present, the tasks ahead of you. Perhaps you begin to become aroused. Tell yourself firmly, "Stop and think." Take a breath and let it out slowly and evenly. Look for catastrophizing thoughts. Are you telling yourself there is nothing you can do? Challenge these thoughts as you continue to breathe regularly, through the diaphragm. Now, clearly imagine using adjusting alternatives. Tell yourself it's uncomfortable but not the end of the world. If it's Type A behavior, imagine slowing down and relaxing. Tell people you will not be rushed. Do things at a reasonable, nonhectic pace. Breathe evenly and regularly. Relax. The stress is over and you have survived. More than that: You are proud because you have maintained internal control. You have not allowed yourself to be blown about by the winds of fate. You experience the rise in self-esteem that comes from taking charge of your own life.

19. Since it has been estimated by many study skills experts that about 1 in 5 college students lose points on exams regularly because of test anxiety, it is likely that there will be several students in any class who suffer from this problem. Most students have experienced "freezing up" on a test on at least one occasion, so this topic tends to command great interest with most class members. I initially state that test anxiety is a specific form of situational stress that is learned, and therefore can be unlearned. I note that most experts in test anxiety agree that it begins well before the test. Often, the anxiety may cause the student to avoid studying for the test until the last minute (to avoid the associated anxiety), when finally the fears of complete failure override the avoidance anxiety. By then, the student must cram and will likely be less than ideally prepared for the exam, which makes some of the anxiety justified. Other students who manage to study regularly often find that their dread of the exam steadily increases as exam time approaches, so that by the time they begin the exam they are so "keyed up" that nearly any little problem or unexpected question can cause them to panic and "freeze up." So I advise them to attack the problem before they enter the exam room by using many of the techniques in the text, such as identifying irrational beliefs and catastrophizing thoughts, and using rational restructuring to deal with them; or using progressive relaxation to counter the anxiety that builds up during studying or in the test room; or focusing only on the present, blocking out thoughts about the future or the past.

Using test anxiety as the example in Meichenbaum's exercise (presented above) is also quite useful. I point out that test-anxious students often have low perceived self-efficacy and (where tests are concerned) an external locus of control ("no matter what I do, I'll fail!"), and I point out how they can work to raise their perceived selfefficacy and develop an internal locus of control. It is useful to note that most of these techniques represent an application of the active coping methods presented in Chapter 3 and that test anxiety is only one of several situations, including “stage fright” and other types of performance anxiety, in which they are useful. 20. Effective time management is often considered an important aspect of stress management. Discuss with the class various ways of managing their time more effectively and explore how time management can be a major part of their stress management activities. 21. In discussing ways to cope with stress, you might mention that diet may play a role in how stressed a person feels. For example, about the last thing a person who is test-anxious needs to eat and drink before an exam is a sugar donut and a cup of coffee. While the sugar in the donut and the caffeine in the coffee normally give one's metabolism a "kick" into higher gear, the test-anxious person does not need that extra kick. He or she is already in a higher gear. The extra energy provided by sugar and caffeine may be interpreted by the testanxious person as too much energy and result in feeling jittery and anxious, thus increasing his or her tendency to freeze-up or panic during the test. If a person is already under a great deal of stress, a diet high in sugars and caffeine may make the stress feel (subjectively) even worse. 22. If time permits, you might remind students that an effective method for coping with some of the physical effects of stress is regular, noncompetitive aerobic exercise. If nothing else, regular exercise helps eliminate the physical tension that often accompanies stress, and makes it easier to deal with the psychological tensions associated with stress. In addition, if your body is in good physical condition, it is likely to be able to deal more effectively with any physical stress you encounter. The point here is that the exercise should be regular (for example, daily or every other day, not the once every other weekend variety) and noncompetitive. Competitive sports usually emphasize winning rather than just exercising and it is difficult to engage in them without getting caught up in their competitive aspects. The emphasis on winning may make team sports like football, baseball, basketball, and so on, more harmful than helpful for people under stress, particularly if they have a Type A personality. Exercises like swimming, aerobic dancing, Olympic walking, or running raise the respiration rate and heartbeat to a high, steady rate for as long as you continue the exercise, without the negative stress associated with competition and trying to win. It is also important to remind students that even young, apparently healthy people should get a complete physical examination from a qualified M.D. before embarking on any rigorous new exercise program. This is especially true if they have not engaged in rigorous exercise before or for some time. 23. Ask students to share with the class some of the catastrophizing thoughts they may experience before, during, and after a test (or some other ‘performance’ situation like giving a speech or singing in public). Write them on the blackboard and have students (in small groups) construct rational alternatives for each of the catastrophizing thoughts. Ask students to consider other situations in which irrational or catastrophizing thoughts lead to negative emotions - for example, when another driver cuts in front of you on the road and you become so angry that you almost lose control of your car. What thoughts race through your head in such situations? Have students suggest rational alternatives for those situations. 24. Ask the class if any students have used meditation or progressive relaxation techniques. Usually some students have, and they are often willing to share their experiences. An open class discussion often serves to demystify the techniques and show that "average folks" can effectively use these coping strategies. A demonstration of diaphragmatic breathing can also be effective. Encourage students to try progressive relaxation. There is now a considerable market of cassette tapes available that offer recorded relaxation instructions or simply gentle "white noise," like the sounds of the forest or ocean waves.

25. Discuss the various defense mechanisms in terms of whether they are really effective at controlling stress. What are the long-term costs to some of the defensive coping methods discussed in the book? Present some hypothetical problems in which a person is using defensive methods of coping. Ask students which active coping methods would be more effective and why. 26. One of the most important aspects of any stress management program is for the person under stress to develop an adequate "support system," meaning a network of genuine friends with whom the person can be open and honest and will not have to "wear a mask" or cover up his or her true feelings. Many people (particularly adult males) have networks of acquaintances or "drinking buddies," but few close friends in whom they can confide when they are in emotional pain. Explain to the class the importance of a support system in stress management and explore with them the differences between a true friend and an acquaintance.

Student Activities Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 3.1 Sources of Stress: Hassles In this chapter, we learned that stress can be associated with emotional distress, physical illness, poorer performance, and behavioral problems. Among the several sources of stress are the big changes in life, like graduation or marriage, and the daily hassles like broken shoestrings and snarled traffic. The College Life Stress Inventory has us consider some of the major life changes that increase health risks and are associated with stress. In addition to your score on this scale, consider the possible effects of daily hassles by keeping a "hassles diary" for one week.

Follow-Up Questions: 1.

Which hassles occur at a frequent rate such as daily or several times daily?

For each hassle identified, decide what would be best changed: 1) the hassle or 2) your response. For example, a more scenic route might eliminate the hassle of a difficult commute, while a problem with rainy weather might require a "change in attitude," or more precisely, challenging an irrational idea. Why?

Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 3.2 Where Can You Find "Merry Heart Medicine"? When author Norman Cousins tried to take some control over his own painful medical condition, in which he was hospitalized for months, he asked friends to bring funny films and videos to the hospital. His choices included Laurel and Hardy and Candid Camera. Where would you turn if you wanted to select humorous material? What are at least five specific sources of comedy material you would use if you were in Cousins’ situation?

Follow-Up Questions: 1.

If you wanted evidence that your humorous material was having a "medicinal" effect, how could you empirically measure any benefits?

What are three kinds of humorous programs you could envision for a pediatric ward at a local hospital? Why would you choose these programs?

Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 3.3 A Moderator of Stress: Hardiness Sources of stress do not automatically cause stress-related problems. Moderators of stress, which can include our personal strengths, might mean that we can have a healthier and more productive life in spite of life's challenges, or maybe even because of them. As the text mentions, Suzanne Kobasa and others have studied people who have successfully handled much stress without becoming ill. Kobasa and others have listed some of the strengths for moderating stress, which have been paraphrased below to illustrate the concept of hardiness, and to give us a chance to evaluate ourselves. For each strength, write one change that you could realistically make for personal improvement, and how (if applicable) you would make that change. 1.

Having a clear sense of goals, values, capabilities, and their importance.

Active involvement to promote change.

Finding personal meaning in stressful life events.

Having a sense of control.

Having a good support system.

Activity continued on the back

Seeking stimulation.

Having a stable and even disposition.

Having a Type B personality.

Critical Thinking Could any of the characteristics of hardy people be results of health, rather than causes of health? Select one characteristic and describe how it might be a result rather than a cause.

Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 3.4 Why Do Married Men Live Longer Than Single Men? Some of the studies mentioned in the text, which support the relationship between social support and health, are correlational. Consider the observation that married men live longer than single men. What alternative explanations can you offer to the explanation that social support is the cause of longer living? You might begin by thinking of what else is often different about being married and not being married.

Follow-Up Questions: 1.

How could you test the alternative you generated?

How could men who prefer to remain bachelors gain the benefits of longevity and/or health that married men enjoy?

Do you believe that marriage has the same effect for women? Why or why not?

Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 3.5 A Balance Sheet Pick an issue in your life in which you are, or have been, struggling with what to decide to do about it. Use the following balance sheet, as discussed in your text, to help weigh the “pros” and “cons” of at least one of the alternatives for your decision. 1.

Alternative A

Positive Anticipation Negative Anticipation ____________________________________________________________________________________ Tangible gains and losses for me

____________________________________________________________________________________ Tangible gains and losses for others

____________________________________________________________________________________ Self-approval or self-disapproval

____________________________________________________________________________________ Social approval or social disapproval

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Make photocopies of this sheet to fill out and make similar evaluations of other alternatives in your decision.

Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 3.6 Challenging Irrational Thoughts In this chapter we read about irrational beliefs, and we identified an occasion of some personal distress to analyze by applying Albert Ellis's ABC approach. The current chapter on ways of helping ourselves is described as a do-it-yourself chapter and asks us to take on some very valuable challenges. We can begin by practicing some of the recommendations with hypothetical cases before addressing our own situations. For each example of catastrophizing, write an incompatible and rational rebuttal. 1.

"If I flunk this test I'll just die!"

"I'll feel stupid if the teacher calls on me today."

"I'm too embarrassed to exercise in public."

"My parents never gave me a chance to develop any self-esteem."

"That @#%^&* driver had no right pulling out in front of me!"

"There will never be another love like the one I just lost."

Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 3.7 Controlling Our Own Disturbing Thoughts We should be ready to take the steps recommended in Meichenbaum's three-step procedure. For this week, keep a diary of any occasions when you feel any discomfort, including fear, anger, frustration, pessimism, anxiety, and so forth. For some of us, a day of experience could keep us busy writing for a week, but a full week is a better representation of our experience. Note cards or slips of paper will serve, as long as we record each step for each occurrence. We will not provide all of the space you might need for a diary, but answer the following questions in the spaces below.

How many events during this week were recorded as distressing?

Choose six that appear to involve the use of unnecessary, catastrophizing thoughts. For each case, compose more appropriate thoughts as practiced in the above exercise.

Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 3.8 Monitoring Arousal and Relaxation It is hard to imagine a more positive step we can take in gaining control of our lives than deciding to control stress by learning to lower arousal. This chapter details two very effective and well-researched techniques meditation and progressive relaxation. Monitoring the effects of these techniques can be interesting and rewarding. The easiest way to verify the arousal-lowering potential of meditation or progressive relaxation is to take one-minute heart rates before and after practice. However, not everyone will detect a change in heart rate. For some people, improvements from relaxation are experienced as slower breathing, less muscle tension, or blood chemistry changes. To see if your heart rate is indicative of changes in your level of arousal, take your pulse for one minute, then engage in one of the recommended techniques detailed in the text, and finish by taking your pulse again for one minute. 1.

Your resting pulse prior to meditation or relaxation:

___________

Your pulse immediately after the chosen technique:

___________

For comparison purposes, see how you respond to music. Record your heart's BPM before listening here:

___________

What happens if you vary the musical choices between rowdy and relaxing?

If possible, compare yourself with others in your class and record your observations:

Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 3.9 Monitoring Progress in Lowering Arousal You have read that lowering arousal is worthwhile and will lead to possible improvements in health and performance, so it would be rewarding to verify our progress as we practice meditation and relaxation over days and weeks. One thing that has worked well is to keep a simple arousal diary that records how strong muscle tension is when you first notice it and how strong it remains as you attempt to lower it. Make a note every time you become aware of muscle tension, such as hunching your shoulders during class, or clutching your steering wheel with white knuckles, or wrinkling your forehead while you study or work. Rank your tension on a 10point scale with 10 equal to the most severe strain possible and 1 equal to a total lack of any tension. Next, try to relax as well as possible and judge the new level of muscle tension on the same 10-point scale. What is commonly reported is 1) to notice more and more unnecessary cases of muscle tension, and 2) to include less severe examples as you become more sensitive to signals about your level of arousal, and 3) to record improvement in the ability to reduce tension to lower levels. Keep a note card or slip of paper in your pocket, purse, or wallet so you can record the two numbers on each occasion. Keep the days separate and at the end of the week answer these questions: 1.

Record the total number of times you noticed tension each day.

For each day, record the average level of tension which you first noticed.

For each day, record the average amount of improvement when you tried to relax.

At the end of the project, can you find any changes or improvement in:

Increased recognition of occasions of tension?

Greater sensitivity to even lower levels of unnecessary tension?

Greater reductions in tension after attempting to relax?

Explain how this information might be useful to you in helping you cope with stress.

Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 3.10 Handling Hostility and Frustration In Chapter 11, the text summarizes the rational restructuring procedures described by Albert Ellis. Putting yourself in the shoes of other people and imagining the reasons they may have for their behavior can help you control hostility and frustration when their behavior interferes with your efforts to achieve your own goals. These procedures work! Try this exercise to practice empathizing with others, in order to manage the ill feelings that are sometimes created by their actions.

Think of a reasonable justification another driver would possibly give you for pulling out in front of your car from a side street, in a way which would cause you to have to brake quickly to avoid hitting him or her.

Think of the reasonable justifications an instructor could have for asking students not to call his or her house the night before tests to confirm information about the assigned reading.

Consider the last time someone, whom you were not able to talk to, did something that made you angry. For example, it might have been the way one of your least favorite politicians voted on a bill or measure. Now try to put yourself in their shoes to imagine the justification they would offer for the situation.

How can this information be useful to you in future coping with situations like those described above.

4 Psychological Factors and Health Chapter Outline Module 4.1: Physical. Emotional, and Cognitive Effects of Stress A. The Body’s Response to Stress B. Effects of Stress on the Immune System C. Box: Adjustment in the New Millennium: “Fight or Flight” or “Tend and Befriend”? Gender Differences in Response to Stress

Module 4.2: Factors in Health and Illness Module 4.3: Psychological Factors in Physical Health Problems A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H.

Headaches: Pounding Away Menstrual Problems Coronary Heart Disease: Taking Stress to Heart Cancer: Swerving Off Course Box: Try This Out: Modifying Type A Behavior Box: Self-Assessment: Are You Heart Smart? Box: Try This Out: Modifying Type A Behavior Box: Self-Assessment: Assessing Your Personal Risk of Cancer

Module 4.4: Psychology and Daily Life: Becoming an Active Health Consumer A. Box: Self-Assessment: Are You an Active or a Passive Health Care Consumer

Chapter Overview Health Psychology. Health psychology studies the relationships between psychological factors, (for example, behavior, emotions, stress, beliefs, and attitudes) and the prevention and treatment of physical health problems. The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). The GAS is a cluster of bodily changes triggered by stressors. The GAS consists of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. The bodily responses involve the endocrine system (hormones) and the autonomic nervous system. Corticosteroids help resist stress by fighting inflammation and allergic reactions. Adrenaline arouses the body by activating the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, which is highly active during the alarm and resistance stages of the GAS. Sympathetic activity is characterized by rapid heartbeat and respiration rate, release of stores of sugar, muscle tension, and other responses that deplete the body’s supply of energy. The parasympathetic division of the ANS 69

predominates during the exhaustion stage of the GAS and is connected with depression, inactivity, and weakness. Emotional and Cognitive Effects of Stress. Anxiety tends to occur in response to threatening stressors. Anger usually occurs in response to stressors such as frustration and social provocation. Depression occurs in response to losses, failure, and prolonged stress. High levels of stress are connected with high levels of arousal, which in turn evoke dominant cognitions and behavior patterns and impair problem-solving ability. The Effects of Stress on the Immune System. Leukocytes (white blood cells) engulf and kill pathogens, worn out body cells, and cancerous cells. The immune system also “remembers” how to battle antigens by marshaling antibodies in the bloodstream. The immune system also facilitates inflammation, which increases the number of white blood cells that are transported to the damaged area. Prolonged or intense stress depresses the functioning of the immune system, in part because it stimulates release of corticosteroids. These steroids counter inflammation and interfere with the formation of antibodies. The Multifactorial Approach. This view recognizes that many factors, including biological, psychological, sociocultural, and environmental factors, affect our health. Ethnicity, Gender, Socioeconomic Status, and Physical Health. African Americans live about seven years less than European Americans, largely because of sociocultural and economic factors that are connected with less access to health care and greater likelihood of eating high-fat diets, smoking, and living in unhealthful neighborhoods. Women are less likely than men to have heart attacks in early and middle adulthood due to the protective effects of estrogen. Women outlive men by seven years on average. One reason is that women are more likely than men to consult health professionals about health problems. Psychology and Headaches. Psychologists have studied how stress contributes to muscle-tension and migraine headaches. Psychologists help people alleviate these kinds of headaches by using psychological techniques, such as biofeedback training, to counter states of bodily tension associated with stress or change patterns of blood flow in the body. Psychology and Menstrual Problems. Psychologists have participated in research that is exploring the connections among menstrual discomfort, psychological factors (e.g., anxiety, depression, irritability, attitudes toward menstruation), physical symptoms (e.g., bloating, cramping), and changes in the available levels of hormones and neurotransmitters. PMS afflicts many women for a few days prior to menstruation. In most cases, the symptoms are mild to moderate, but they are severe in some women. Psychologists have helped devise strategies women can use to adjust to menstrual and premenstrual discomfort, including not blaming themselves, engaging in pleasant activities, diet, exercise, and assertive attainment of medical assistance, when needed. Psychology and Coronary Heart Disease. Psychologists have participated in research that shows that risk factors for coronary heart disease include family history; physiological conditions such as hypertension and high levels of serum cholesterol; behavior patterns such as heavy drinking, smoking, eating, fatty foods, and Type A behavior; work overload; chronic tension and fatigue; and physical inactivity. They help people achieve healthier cardiovascular systems by stopping smoking, controlling weight, reducing hypertension, lowering LDL levels, changing Type A behavior, reducing hostility, and exercising. Psychology and Cancer. Psychologists have participated in research that shows that the risk factors for cancer include family history, smoking, drinking alcohol, eating animal fats, sunbathing, and possibly stress. Making healthy changes in behavior can help reduce the risk of cancer, such as avoiding smoking, having regular medical checkups, controlling alcohol use, adopting a healthy diet, and avoiding sunbathing. Psychologists help cancer patients and their families cope with the disease and maintain a “fighting spirit.”

Teaching Objectives After studying this chapter you should be able to: 1.

Explain what health psychology is and the types of things it studies.

Describe the stages of the general adaptation syndrome and discuss the role of the endocrine system in this process.

Identify the various parts of the autonomic nervous system and explain their role in the body's response to stress.

Identify the emotional and cognitive responses to stress and explain the effects of those reactions on our mind and body.

Describe the functions of the immune system and explain the effects of stress on the immune system.

Describe the relationship between life changes and health, as well as the limitations in the research in this area.

Explain how ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status affects people’s reactions to stress and vulnerability to stress-related disorders.

Describe the multifactorial model and identify the various factors it examines and their impact on health.

Summarize research findings on the relationship between ethnicity and health.

10.

Identify the various types of headaches and their symptoms, and discuss how they are related to stress.

11.

Discuss the causes and effects of menstrual discomfort, and ways to cope with it.

12.

Describe the risk factors for coronary heart disease and the various behavioral measures that can contribute to the prevention and treatment of this disorder.

13.

Define Type A behavior, discuss its causes and effects, and describe ways to cope with it.

14.

Identify the risk factors for cancer and discuss the various behavioral measures that can contribute to the prevention and treatment of cancer.

15.

Summarize research findings on stress and cancer.

16.

Identify and briefly describe suggestions for becoming the active manager of your own health care.

Key Terms health psychology general adaptation syndrome stress response Dr. stress stress response alarm stage fight-or-flight reaction endocrine system sympathetic branch autonomic nervous system parasympathetic branch HPA axis hypothalamus adrenal cortex corticosteroids ACTH

adrenal medulla resistance stage tend and befriend response hormones exhaustion stage hypertension diseases of adaptation trait anxiety state anxiety immune system pathogens leukocytes antigens antibodies inflammation psychoneuroimmunology

multifactorial model mental disorders mental illness muscle-tension headache migraine headache serotonin neurotransmitters prostaglandins premenstrual syndrome (PMS) gamma-aminobutric acid (GABA) coronary heart disease (CHD) type A personality type D personality LDL cholesterol carcinogenic DNA

Lecture/Discussion Suggestions 1. Do students see the current emphasis on health and disease prevention as a long-term trend in medical advancement or just a fad? I have found, particularly among some of my older students (who often have many "bad habits" according to current health-focused standards), some resistance to the healthy lifestyle movement. Many of them pass it off as just a fad and take a very fatalistic approach to their behavior ("when it's my time, it's my time," or “everything causes cancer, so what difference does it make”). Many of my younger students still believe they are invulnerable and that health problems only happen to other people. Are these attitudes correct or are they just rationalizing to justify continuing their unhealthy habits? Ask students what they think about this issue. You might find some interesting differences in opinion. 2. As mentioned above, being in their peak years of health, on average, many students resist the notion of stress-related illnesses. Even students who accept the relationship between stress and illness take an "it can't happen to me" attitude. I have found it helpful to point out that college students can, and do, develop ulcers, hypertension, insomnia, and other stress-related disorders. The idea that 18-year-olds develop ulcers can sometimes pique the interest of otherwise complacent students, but even then some of them continue to say, "Yeah, but it won't happen to me!" You might ask students if any of them have experienced these health problems, or perhaps turn in a slip of paper so that such admissions can be made anonymously to protect students’ privacy. Such “first-hand” accounts can often carry more weight among students than anything an instructor can say. Additionally, I emphasize, particularly when discussing things like Type A behavior patterns, that poor health habits don't happen overnight and usually take years to reveal the long-term damage they cause. While shortterm bursts of Type A behavior may be temporarily adaptive (many students seem to develop Type A behavior patterns around the time of final examinations), formation of patterns of Type A behavior in college may not bode well for their future if those patterns become a consistent way for them to deal with life. Furthermore, students who, while in college, learn to take breaks and to cope effectively with stress will be much more able to cope successfully with the on-the-job stress that has become the hallmark of the American work environment. 3. I have found the use of sports competition analogies to be helpful examples for students trying to understand the GAS. The "alarm reaction" on a group level often occurs at the beginning of a contest when the team appears "tight" and doesn't execute well. The resistance stage is analogous to when the team settles down or when an athlete is into the flow of the game. Performance is better but they are using up their energy reserves 72

to attain the higher level of execution. The exhaustion stage is analogous to the end of the game, especially in a particularly long contest (for example, a marathon, triathlon, triple overtime, and so on) when performance suffers and athletes struggle just to keep moving and may be more prone to injuries. I have also connected this to various sports that require different levels of arousal to achieve maximum performance. Very high arousal: Moderately high arousal: Low-moderate arousal:

wrestling, shot put gymnastics, basketball, baseball golf, archery, target shooting

4. Discuss some of the specific physical effects of stress on the body. You might frame your discussion in terms of specific bodily systems such as the cardiovascular system, the digestive system, the musculoskeletal system, the respiratory system, and the immune system. Describe disorders specific to each of these systems in terms of whether they are caused or aggravated by stress and what their short- and long-term effects are. If time permits, you might explore ways to help students cope with some of these disorders. 5. To extend the data on stress and the immune system, mention that further work by Janice Kiecott-Glaser at the Ohio State University has demonstrated significant suppression of immune system functioning among people going through a divorce and among family members who are caregivers for relatives with Alzheimer's disease. The ability of stress to inhibit immune system functioning is a phenomenon to be taken seriously. 6. Discuss the various emotional effects of stress. Ask students how they deal with emotions such as anger or frustration when they are "stressed out" as opposed to when they are well-rested. How patient are they when they are under stress? How tolerant are they of others, especially when those others are causing them problems or frustrations? In general, how do they deal with their emotions when they are stressed out? How do they handle the issue of feeling in control when they are under stress? How does stress affect feelings of loneliness and depression? Many of these issues students can easily relate to, and just talking about them often provides a healthy release. 7. Ask students what changes in their cognitive functioning they notice when they are under stress. Are they more optimistic or pessimistic in their thinking? Are they able to think clearly or does their mind race? Do they think about different things than when they are well-rested? How do they perceive themselves when they are stressed out? Is their self-image different when they are under stress? If so, how? Again, these questions will usually elicit a wide range of student experiences, although those experiences typically center around several common themes. These questions, as well as the questions listed in suggestion 6, can be useful because they help point out to students that they are not the only ones who have had these reactions to stress. Knowing that other people have had similar emotional and cognitive reactions can be a moderator of stress in and of itself. Also, hearing this from other students in "real-life" terms can carry more credibility for many students than hearing an instructor present research and theorize about it. 8. Ask students if they suffer from headaches and if so, what kind. Headaches are one of the most common disorders afflicting humankind, yet people often feel guilty if they miss school or work because of them. You might explore with students how they have felt if they have had to miss major activities such as school, work, or recreational outings due to headaches. How do other people react to their headaches? One major complaint of headache sufferers is that other people often act as if they are hypochondriacs, faking, or exaggerating their discomfort. Headache sufferers know how much they suffer and how debilitating headaches can be. A major point of this discussion is to help make it clear to nonsufferers that headaches can be incapacitating and are not to be laughed at or taken lightly. 9. Ask students what behaviors they engage in that put them at risk for heart disease. What do they think will need to happen for them to change those behaviors? What do they see as obstacles to staying physically fit? To eating a healthier diet? How many of them already exercise regularly and watch what they eat? 10. Discuss the myths about PMS with the class. How might PMS place women in the "sick victim" role? Along with the treatments mentioned in the text, the limiting of caffeine intake appears to reduce PMS symptoms in some women. The oral contraceptive pill has helped other women lessen PMS. Another approach is progesterone treatment. While some claim its effectiveness, the empirical evidence for progesterone's efficacy in this regard is still inconclusive. Part of the problem in evaluating the effectiveness of treatments for PMS is 73

that no universally agreed upon definition for PMS exists among researchers. And, other than self-report, which can vary greatly, no proven valid or reliable diagnostic tests exist for the presence of PMS either. 11. What do students see as major impediments or values that prevent them from going to a physician when they are ill? Do male students have different reasons or values than female students? What forms of illness do they see as being primarily the responsibility of the person who contracts them? Does guilt for being ill ever keep people from seeking proper medical attention? It is worth mentioning that one of the problems spawned by the generally positive focus of the holistic health movement is the occurrence of excessive guilt in the ill person. Many feel that if they are responsible for their own health, then they are also responsible for becoming ill. Such thinking may be especially problematic if the person contracts cancer. If a person wants to gain the positive attitude that may be needed to fight cancer, guilt is the last emotion with which that person needs to be saddled. 12. As a counterpoint to the discussion raised in suggestion 11, you might raise the issue of the massive media coverage of health and illness today. Tabloid newspapers and TV "newsmagazines" often focus on hideous, but often extremely rare, disorders, giving them huge amounts of publicity, sensationalizing them, and in the process, needlessly scaring viewers and readers half to death. The classic example of this occurred a few years ago with tabloids blazing headlines of a "flesh-eating virus." It sold papers. But it is also needlessly frightened many people. While the virus, a rare form of strep virus, does exist, it is also rare and has been around for quite a while. It almost never attacks people with healthy, intact immune systems. More recently, the proliferation of prescription drug advertisements on television are making have led to complaints by physicians that now patients are coming in to their offices and demanding prescriptions because they are convinced they have the disorders mentioned in the ads. Is this type of media coverage turning many people into hypochondriacs? Is it needlessly raising fears that are unfounded (such as in the case of irradiating food)? What impact do news stories like this have on individuals? Businesses? Society? These are important questions given the pervasiveness of the media in most people's lives today. How does the “pill for everything” mentality promoted by Madison Avenue contribute to the use and abuse of illegal drugs, especially among young people? 13. Discuss the factors in our society that contribute to people falling into the "sick role" - believing that they are sick or helpless victims who are unable to heal themselves and must be taken care of or “fixed” by others and becoming trapped in that role? How do constant press stories, and even some psychology texts, that seem to portray everybody as a helpless victim, contribute to this problem? What can people do to avoid this trap and maintain self-control even when they are sick? 14. Related to the discussion in Chapter 3, you might ask students if they believe that people are more stressed today than in previous generations. From there you can have students generate various reasons and discuss why this might be so. One focus of the discussion might be that which was first proposed by Alvin Toffler’s 1970 best seller Future Shock, in which he argued that the rapidly increasing pace of technological changes, and the accompanying increases in the pace of everyday life and the rate at which people must constantly adjust would result in similar increases in a variety of stress-related physical and mental health disorders.. IS his premise still valid? What evidence do students see of the effects of rapid social and technological change on themselves and those around them?

Student Activities Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 4.1 How Much Do We Value Health? Ask yourself and as many others as you care to, the following questions to obtain some idea of our values about health. Before you finish, consider what additional questions you could ask. 1.

If you could achieve your ideal in only one of the following respects, while only achieving mediocrity in the others, which would you choose? a. b. c. d. e.

Perfect health Perfect psychological well-being Perfect financial success Perfect career success Perfect spiritual success

Why did you choose this one over the other ones?

If a new drug were to be made legally available that increased happiness by ten percent, but reduced the length of life, how many years would you be willing to forfeit to use the drug? How did you decide upon this number? What if the drug were illegal?

Activity continued on other side

If you could sell years of your life to people willing to buy them, would you sell any? Why or why not? If you would sell some, how many would you sell and for how much money?

Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 4.2 Health-Related Attitudes and Habits Some good health habits are easier to acquire than others. Just as some bad health habits are more difficult to eliminate than others. Make a list of some of your current health-related attitudes and behaviors. When you have completed the list, answer the following questions: 1.

Which of your health-related attitudes or behaviors is causing you the most stress or discomfort? Why?

What might you do to change this attitude or behavior? Identify at least three possible changes you could make.

What is the most difficult health-related habit for you to acquire and why is it such a problem for you?

Activity continued on other side

What are at least two health-related attitudes or habits you would like to acquire and what can you do to help yourself acquire them?

Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 4.3 The Physiology of Stress As we learn about the autonomic nervous system and its role in our response to stress, we can create a demonstration of the response of two involuntary reactions, one in our heart rate, and one in our rate of perspiration. Changes in heart rate and perspiration are two of the physiological changes observed in stress research and also in so-called "lie detection" testing. If you can do these with a friend or classmate, you will be able to create a "balance order" of effects. 1.

Alone, or together, take your resting heart rate and record the number of beats for one minute (BPM). Your BPM

Friend's BPM

__________

To create a mild, temporary stressor, cough hard three times in a row. Your partner, if included, can skip the coughing this time for comparison. Your 2nd BPM

Friend's 2nd BPM

__________

If applicable, change roles with your friend, and let the friend cough hard three times in a row while you relax. Then immediately count the heart rates after he or she coughs. Your 3rd BPM

Friend's 3rd BPM

__________

After your heart rate(s) return to their original level, both of you cough hard three times and count BPMs until they recover to within two beats of the original level. How long does it take to recover? Minutes for you

Minutes for your friend

__________

You can create a similar demonstration showing the response of the skin to a stressor. In bright light, or outside on a sunny day, look at the pad of your index finger. As you turn or tilt your finger, you will probably see it sparkle from the oils and sweat on it. These can be seen even better with slight magnification. If you wipe the finger on a cloth, the sparkle will be removed. How long does it take to return to this sparkling state if you cough as above? How long does it take if you just wait?

Activity continued on the back

Follow-Up Questions 1.

Who responds stronger to the coughing?

How could you measure the recovery from the coughing?

What branch of the autonomic nervous system have you just witnessed?

According to the text, what other physical changes took place in response to the coughing and how could they be measured?

What stage or stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome have you demonstrated?

Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 4.4 Demonstrating the Stress/Health Relationship If you want to examine the effects of stress on health, you could ask people to record their physical ailments long before and shortly before a stressor such as final examinations. To actually do so would require that you investigate your school's human research guidelines and follow them to protect the rights and well-being of the subjects. Even if you do not attempt any actual data collection, you can design a research proposal. You will have to decide such issues as how many subjects, how health complaints can be recorded, which times recording takes place, and, if possible, how control subjects can be used to help verify any effects of stress.

Where can you recruit subjects and how many do you believe you will need?

How can your subjects' physical complaints be assessed?

When can you test the subjects to illustrate any effects of stress?

Activity continued on other side

What kinds of differences, and how much in the way of differences, are necessary to verify stress effects?

5 Developing Healthier Behaviors Chapter Outline Module 5.1: Nutrition: The Stuff of Life 5.1.1. 5.1.2. A. 5.1.3.

Nutrients: Ingredients in a Healthful Diet Obesity – Are We Losing the Battle of the Bulge Box: Try This Out: Taking It Off and Keeping It Off -- Weight That Is Eating Disorders

Module 5.2: Fitness: Run (at Least Walk) for Your Life 5.2.1. 5.2.2. 5.2.3. A.

Types of Exercise Effects of Exercise Making Physical Activity a Part of Your Lifestyle Box: Self-Assessment: Check Your Physical Activity and Heart Disease IQ

Module 5.3: Sleep: A Time for Renewal A. 5.3.1 5.3.2. B.

Box: Self-Assessment: Are You Getting Your Z’s? Functions of Sleep Insomnia: “When Sleep Eludes Us” Box: Try This Out: To Sleep, Perchance to Dream

Module 5.4: Substance Abuse and Dependence: When Drug Use Causes Harm 5.4.1. 5.4.2. A. B. 5.4.3. C. 5.4.4.

Substance Abuse and Dependence: Crossing the Line Depressants: Drugs that Slow You Down Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Binge Drinking on Campus Box: Self-Assessment: How Do You Know If You Are “Hooked”? Stimulants: Drugs that speed You Up Box: Self-Assessment: Why Do You Smoke? Hallucinogens: Drugs that Twist You Inside Out

Module 5.5: Psychology in Daily Life: Finding Healthful Alternatives to Harmful Substances

Chapter Overview Ingredients of a Healthful Diet. People need to consume a balanced diet that provides sufficient quantities of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals. But we tend to eat too much protein and fats. Complex carbohydrates (starches) are better sources of nutrients than simple carbohydrates (sugars). Consumption of high levels of dietary cholesterol and saturated fat, along with obesity, heightens risk of cardiovascular disorders. Obesity. Obesity is a complex health problem that involves biological factors, such as heredity, amount of adipose tissue (body fat), and metabolic rate (the rate at which the individual converts calories to energy), as well as psychological factors, such as stress and use of food to alleviate negative emotions. Major Eating Disorders. The major eating disorders are anorexia nervosa, and bulimia nervosa. Anorexia is characterized by refusal to eat and maintenance of an unhealthy low body weight. Bulimia is characterized by cycles of binge eating and purging. women are more likely than men to develop these disorders. Psychodynamic theorists propose that young women who are conflicted about their developing sexuality and womanhood may refuse to eat in order to maintain a childlike appearance. However, other theorists emphasize the role of cultural idealization of the slender female -- and the pressure that such idealization places on young women -- as the major contributor. Exercise. Aerobic exercise involves activities in which there is a sustained increase in the consumption of oxygen, such as working out on a treadmill or jogging. Anaerobic exercise, by contrast, involves short bursts of muscle activity, such as lifting weights. Both types of exercise have healthful benefits. Regular exercise helps us maintain a healthy weight by directly burning calories and by building muscle mass (muscle tissue burns more calories than fats). Regular exercise also reduces the risks of cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis. Evidence indicates that exercise can help relieve depression, decrease anxiety and hostility, and boost selfesteem. Sleep. Sleep apparently serves a restorative function, a memory consolidation function, and a survival function. Insomnia. Insomnia is connected with stress, physical and psychological disorders, and states of bodily tension. We can also set the stage for insomnia by worrying whether we will be able to get to sleep, or get enough sleep, to meet our daily responsibilities. Substance Abuse and Dependence. Substance abuse is use of a substance that persists even though it impairs one’s social or occupational functioning or general health. Substance dependence has behavioral and physiological aspects. It may be characterized by a lack of control over the use of a substance and by the development of tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, or both. Causes of Substance Abuse and Dependence. People usually try drugs out of curiosity or because of peer pressure, but drug use comes to be reinforced directly by anxiety reduction or by feelings of euphoria or other desirable effects. Once people become physiologically dependent on a drug, they continue to use it to avert the development of unpleasant withdrawal symptoms. People may have genetic predispositions to become physiologically dependent on certain substances. Alcohol. Alcohol is a depressant drug that induces states of relaxation by slowing the activity of the central nervous system. It can lead to physiological dependence and may cause death in overdoses. Alcohol lowers inhibitions, makes it difficult to weight the consequences of our actions, and provides an excuse for failure or for undesirable behavior. A drink a day seems to be healthful, but most professionals do not recommend drinking because of concern that the individual may develop a problem drinking habit. Heavy drinking is connected with liver damage and other health problems.

Opioids. The opioids morphine and heroin are depressants that relieve pain, but they are also bought on the street because of the euphoric “rush” they provide. Opioid use can lead to physiological dependence.

Sedatives. Barbiturates and a similar drug, methaqualone, are depressants. Though barbiturates have some medical uses, they can lead rapidly to physiological and psychological dependence and can be abused as street drugs. Nicotine. Nicotine is an addictive stimulant found in tobacco that can paradoxically help people relax. Cigarette smoking is a major contributor to heart disease and cancer, and to other health problems. Amphetamines. Stimulants are substances that act by increasing activity of the central nervous system. Amphetamines are stimulants that produce feelings of euphoria when taken in high doses. But high doses may also cause restlessness, insomnia, psychotic symptoms, and a “crash” upon withdrawal. Amphetamines and a related stimulant, Ritalin, are commonly used to treat hyperactive children. Cocaine. Psychologically speaking, the stimulant cocaine provides feelings of euphoria and bolsters selfconfidence. Physiologically, it causes sudden rises in blood pressure and constricts blood vessels. Overdoses can lead to restlessness, insomnia, psychotic reactions, and cardiorespiratory collapse. LSD. LSD is a hallucinogenic drug that produces vivid hallucinations. Some LSD users have “flashbacks” to earlier experiences. Marijuana. Marijuana’s active ingredients, including THC, often produce relaxation, heightened and distorted perceptions, feelings of empathy, and reports of new insights. Mild hallucinations may occur. Marijuana use elevates the heart rate, impairs perceptual motor skills, and may damage the developing brain. The smoke also brings cancer-causing compounds into the body.

Teaching Objectives After studying this chapter your students should be able to: 1.

Identify the essential food elements and discuss how nutritional patterns influence our health.

Describe the various factors that contribute to obesity.

Identify and describe the various psychological methods for controlling your weight.

Compare and contrast anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa in terms of their sufferers, symptoms, and effects.

Compare the various theoretical views regarding the causes of eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa.

Discuss the differences between aerobic and anaerobic exercise and explain the physical and psychological effects of exercise on health.

Discuss the functions of sleep and how sleeping patterns influence our health.

Explain why psychologists are opposed to using sleeping pills to help people get to sleep, and describe various psychological methods for coping with insomnia.

Compare and contrast substance abuse and substance dependence. Make sure to explain what tolerance and abstinence syndrome are as part of your discussion. 85

10.

Summarize the various viewpoints regarding the causal factors in substance abuse and dependence.

11.

Discuss the effects of alcohol and the problems associated with its abuse.

12.

Identify the various opioids, discuss their effects, and describe the problems associated with their use.

13.

Discuss the effects of the sedatives, and describe the problems associated with their use.

14.

Discuss the effects of nicotine and the health problems associated with smoking, including passive smoking.

15.

Identify some of the amphetamines, discuss their effects, and describe the problems associated with their use.

16.

Discuss the effects of ecstasy and health problems associated with its use.

17.

Discuss the effects of cocaine and explain the problems associated with its use.

18.

Discuss the effects of marijuana, LSD, and other hallucinogens and describe the problems associated with their use.

19.

Discuss the effects of marijuana and describe the problems associated with its use.

20.

Identify and briefly describe at least five self-control strategies for modifying the ABCs of substance abuse.

21.

Identify and briefly describe at least five drug-free alternatives for coping with occasional depression, stress, or boredom.

Key Terms nutrition nutrients proteins amino acids carbohydrates dietary fiber fats vitamin anti-oxidants free radicals osteoporosis obesity body mass index calories fat cells adipose tissue

anorexia nervosa bulimia nervosa prepubescence aerobic exercise anaerobic exercise fitness high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) insomnia substance abuse substance dependence tolerance alcoholism delirium tremens disorientation depressants central nervous system (CNS)

binge drinking opioids narcotic barbiturates stimulants nicotine passive smoking amphetamines ecstasy cocaine hallucinogenic drugs psychedelic hallucinations LSD flashbacks hashish

Lecture/Discussion Suggestions 1. The "hidden" calorie contents of many foods surprise even experienced dieters. For example, ask your students this question: "Which of these drinks contains the most calories and which the fewest calories per fluid ounce: Coca Cola, orange juice, or tomato juice?" It might surprise them to learn that orange juice actually contains the most calories, Coca Cola the second most, and tomato juice the fewest. Many dieters avoid sugared soft drinks such as Coke or Pepsi like the proverbial plague, but unknowingly consume even more calories by drinking concentrated fruit juices like orange juice or grapefruit juice (yes, grapefruit juice is also loaded with calories). This is not to suggest that highly sugared soft drinks are preferable to juices, because juices have other nutritional values lacking in the soft drinks. However, the point is that dieters should be aware that some juices, like tomato juice, offer nutritional value, taste, and are low in calories. Others, like orange juice, offer nutritional value and taste, but are not low in calories. This is but one illustration of hidden calories. Most supermarkets carry the small pocket books listing calories and nutritional contents of common foods. It might be informative for your calorie-conscious students to review some of this information in class. 2. When dealing with weight control, always urge common sense. While frustration with one's weight and with efforts to lose weight is often understandable, warn that the desire for a "quick fix" regarding weight loss almost always leads to discouragement and greater frustration in the long run. The text's suggestions for weight loss are sensible and geared toward long-term change. 3. How do students feel about what many claim is society's bias against overweight people? Do students have similar biases themselves? Where do they believe these biases come from? Are these biases fair? How much do media images of attractiveness affect these biases? Are our current biases toward thinness also unhealthy? Maybe someone in the class is overweight and has suffered from these prejudices. Would that person be willing to share his or her experiences with the rest of the class? I do not recommend calling on overweight students for this purpose, but if students are willing to volunteer, this can stimulate an enlightening discussion for students who have never been victimized by weight-related slurs and insults. It can also serve to remind students that when they make weight-related insults, there often is a sensitive human being on the receiving end of them and those comments can hurt people deeply. 4. Ask students how closely their eating habits parallel the desirable nutritional patterns described in the text. If your students are anything like ours, while a few of them are very health-conscious in this regard, most of them are living more on potato chips and Twinkies than legumes and whole grains. Ask students why they are not more concerned about their eating habits (if this is a valid issue for the class). Often students respond that they can't afford to buy good foods or that they will worry about it when they are older or if they ever become overweight. You might point out to students that nutritionally good food is often cheaper, overall, than highly processed fast-foods, snacks, or "junk" foods. Good food doesn't have to take a long time to fix. Eating an apple doesn't have to take any more time than unwrapping and eating a couple of candy bars. You might also point out that lots of foods are unhealthy only because of the toppings we put on them (like butter, salt, whipped cream, salad dressings, and other tasty toppings). For example, popcorn is a nutritionally sound snack that is high in fiber and low in fat. It becomes a problem when it is popped in coconut oil and drowned in butter and salt. Finally, you might point out that they do not have to be overweight to have a nutritional problem and that now is the time to establish good eating habits before they get overweight. Changing their habits after they are already overweight will be much more difficult, if they can do it at all. 5. Ask students what types of exercise they engage in and how often. Discuss the material in the text about the long-term benefits of exercise. You might point out that while exercise has benefits at any age, the benefits appear to be maximized if a regular exercise program is begun while the person is still young and healthy. Research findings indicate that it slows down or even reverse the muscle loss and stiffening associated with aging. It also seems to counteract anxiety and depression and helps people effectively cope with stress. 6. Is it possible to program dreams? Mention that dreams appear to reflect largely the residue of the day's events, but that some people have claimed that they can program their dreams by controlling what they think about as they fall asleep. Sometimes we realize we are having a dream (called "lucid" dreaming) while the dream is still in progress. Some people claim they can control their "lucid" dreams, and some researchers claim they have trained people to have and control lucid dreams. Many people have woken up in the middle of a 87

dream only to say, "I want to go back and finish this dream," and they do. Some people don't remember dreaming at all. Has anyone in the class ever tried to program their dreams? Have they tried to increase their ability to remember their dreams by telling themselves to remember their dreams as they were going to sleep? Or have they ever tried to remain in a dream, once they were aware that they were dreaming, and perhaps change the outcome of the dream by making certain events take place? Finally, has anyone ever woken up from a dream and then gone back to sleep to "pick up" the dream where it left off when they first woke up? Typically, many students have done this, only to find that while the dream picks up where it left off, it heads in an entirely different direction than before it was interrupted. These are all experiences some people have reported in dreams, and this usually generates a lively class discussion. 7. Related to suggestion 6 (above), how many class members have had dreams of falling into a "bottomless" pit or void. Or just falling off a building or cliff? Many have probably heard the old adage that if you "hit bottom, you will die." You might point out to students that there is no evidence that this is true and that some people have reported hitting bottom, and although frightening, it was obviously not fatal, since they lived to tell about it. For most people the very fear of such a dream will usually wake them up before they hit bottom. How many class members have had dreams about flying or floating? This is another common dream experience that may have led to many people reporting that their "soul" or "astral body" has left their physical body during these periods. Again, you might point out that there is no replicated empirical evidence to date to support the "astral projection" claims, but that dreams of flying and falling are quite common. You might also note that researchers have caused similar “out of body” experiences in the laboratory by stimulating areas of subjects’ temporal lobes. How many class members have had nightmares in which they were trying to run away from something but they could not get their feet and legs to move? This is another common experience that may be related to the fact that during REM sleep, most of the voluntary muscles below the head are effectively limp, or paralyzed, and are incapable of movement. It may be that during these nightmares, the brain becomes aware that the legs aren't moving and incorporates that fact into the dream itself. Finally, have any students dreamed that they showed up late for an important examination or that they could not locate the room in which the exam was being held? Have any students dreamed that they have just completed an exam they were actually going to take the next day? Then they dream that their actual taking of the exam was just a dream and now they're completing it? You might have class members share some of their more unusual (non-X-rated) dreams. This is an area that usually raises many fascinating questions. Unfortunately there are still very few concrete answers, but that leaves plenty of room for imagination and speculation! 8. I have found that when I talk about sleep and dreams and point out that people can engage in little, if any, movement during REM sleep, someone always asks about sleepwalking. If you use suggestions 6 and 7 (above), you might point out that sleepwalking typically occurs during Stage IV sleep, not REM sleep. Stage IV sleep is usually the stage of deepest sleep when a person is normally the most difficult to arouse and wake up. Since sleepwalking occurs in this stage of sleep it is considered an arousal disorder, in that the person is usually not consciously aware of his or her surroundings or behavior. This is in spite of the fact that some sleepwalkers can appear to be quite alert, carry on conversations, and so on. They are still in a deep level of sleep, can be very clumsy, and have been known to hurt themselves stumbling down stairs, walking into things, and so forth. Finally, you might point out that sleepwalking is more common in children. It appears to be outgrown by most people, but some researchers suspect a stress-related component: Some sleepwalkers who haven't walked in their sleep since childhood have had reoccurrences during periods of prolonged or severe stress in adulthood.

9. If time permits and there is sufficient interest, you might wish to mention briefly some other sleep disorders. Although not presented in the text, I have found my students to be quite interested in other major sleep disorders such as sleep apnea, a disorder in which a person temporarily stops breathing periodically through the night. This disorder may be related to heart problems in some adults and to some types of SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome). Narcolepsy is a disorder in which a person unpredictably falls asleep at inappropriate times, and frequently occurs when the person is emotionally aroused. Cataplexy is a disorder that typically accompanies narcolepsy, in which the person completely loses muscle tone in his or her voluntary muscles and collapses. When it occurs by itself, a person wakes up mentally, but is unable to move physically for several seconds or minutes or until touched by someone else. While some outside research in the sleep disorder literature may be necessary, I have found most of my students to be quite fascinated by, and interested in, these disorders. 10. Discuss the connection between sleep and stress, or sleep and depression. You might point out that when people are mildly depressed or stressed out they often require more sleep. Some students who "burn the candle at both ends" sleep constantly but are still consistently exhausted. I've heard this problem called "student sleep syndrome" by many of my college counseling center colleagues, as the condition tends to be associated with the stress of trying to juggle classes, a social life, and/or family life, as well as part-time or full-time work. These students seem to be using sleep as a means of escaping from the stress of their waking life. Unfortunately it usually does not solve the problem, and often creates new, collateral difficulties. I've had students who are very relieved to know that this condition is not unique to them, but reflects their situation, and will usually disappear when their schedule is cut back and their stress levels are reduced. I always caution students, however, that any physical condition that is not normal for them should be checked out by their physician, just to be sure. 11. Ask students to list some common home remedies for battling insomnia. Among the methods I've heard commonly mentioned are counting sheep, making one's mind go blank by thinking of nothing, focusing on slow, deep, relaxed breathing, drinking a glass of warm milk, and so forth. Point out that most of these methods, except the milk drinking, involves the meditative practice of inducing relaxation through a process of narrowing attention. Discuss how other techniques, such as progressive relaxation and the use of fantasy, can also be used to create a relaxed state compatible with sleep induction. Point out, too, that one of the other problems with using sleeping pills, not mentioned in the text, is that sleeping pills may alter the amount of time that a person spends in the deeper stages of sleep. So a person might get a full night's sleep by using sleeping pills but may not get the optimally restful and healthy sleep he or she really needs. You might point out that drinking milk before bedtime to induce sleep actually has some scientific support. Milk contains the chemical precursor L-tryptophan, which, when digested, causes the brain to increase production of neurotransmitters associated with relaxation and sleep. In addition, it has been noted for centuries that people typically feel drowsy after eating. For example, the Mexican "siesta," or after-lunch rest, is probably no accident. This drowsiness effect of eating and digesting food may help people who eat a small snack before bedtime actually get to sleep faster. 12. Along these same lines, ask students to describe what they do to fall asleep and how long it usually takes them. As a class exercise, it could be interesting to examine these records to see if sleep styles correlate with sleep latencies. I'd expect that those students who engage in more structured rituals have the longer sleep latencies and perhaps more fitful sleep patterns. Of course, this doesn't establish causal patterns - sleep rituals may be a response to underlying sleep disturbances rather than vice versa. 13. Too little attention is given in the classroom to one of the most significant and tragic social problems today: the terrible toll exacted on highways by drunk drivers, mostly young drivers of high school and college age. Admonitions from authority figures like teachers and parents often go unheeded. While there is no simple means of persuading young people not to drink and drive, it could be useful to sensitize students to this problem by bringing to class speakers from law enforcement or community groups such as M.A.D.D. (Mothers against Drunk Driving) who are active in anti- drunk-driving legislative efforts, or who were victims themselves, or related to victims of drunk drivers.

14. Invite speakers from a local drug "hot line" or drug treatment center, or drug abusers in treatment, to discuss issues regarding drug use and abuse. 15. Ask students to elaborate on a theme: "Is it logical that alcohol is legal for persons of age when other drugs exhibiting less proven harm, such as marijuana, are not?" I do not try to convince the class that alcohol should be prohibited again, as it was during Prohibition, nor that marijuana should be completely legalized, given growing concerns of long-term physiological effects linked to its regular use. I simply try to demonstrate that many factors such as cultural/moral traditions, social perceptions, and politics are involved in the process of whether or not to proscribe a substance. 16. Ask students if they believe marijuana should be legalized. Why or why not? Use this discussion to explore the positive or negative impacts legalization might have. You also might use this discussion to explore current research on the long-term effects of chronic marijuana use, which indicates that it is not a “harmless” drug. In this regard, you could have students fill out Student Activity 7.13: Should Marijuana Be Legalized? If marijuana should be legalized, are there other drugs that should be legalized? Why? Why not? You might ask this question to explore with students whether drug abuse should be treated as a legal matter at all, or just a medical issue, with offenders being “sentenced” to medical treatment instead of jail. 17. Does heroin cause violence? I point out that there is nothing about the chemical effects of heroin that is known to directly induce violent behavior. However, given strict prohibitions against heroin use, persons deciding to use it may be higher risk-takers to begin with, and thus more prone to violence and assorted deviant behaviors. Even without strict prohibitions, given the long-term negative effects of the drug, people using it would be more likely to be higher risk-takers to begin with. Also, some users resort to violence to obtain money to support their habits. 18. How much drinking or marijuana smoking is too much? This is a question I have posed to my classes, and it usually leads to some interesting discussions. Within the limits of the dangers highlighted in the text, I try to point out that there appear to be few, long-term impairments from occasional alcohol or marijuana use for most people, but that many people cannot use these drugs socially or just occasionally. There is a big difference between the person who has a drink at a party just to be "sociable" and people who drink or get high to hide from unpleasant or undesired emotions. For many, alcohol or marijuana use leads to psychological dependence because the drugs become emotional "crutches" without which these users feel anxious, tense, and inadequate to deal with the environment (as with some prescription drugs such as Valium or Prozac). I point out to students that if they cannot get up in the morning and enjoy the day without a drink or a joint ("I just enjoy a drink/joint before breakfast! It loosens me up!"), and they cannot go to any type of party or social gathering without needing to get drunk or stoned to enjoy it ("If I can remember it I must not have had a good time!") then they are already psychologically dependent on the drug or very close to it. They are also likely to be sitting on some self-image and self-confidence problems that need to be dealt with in addition to what any drug such as alcohol or marijuana can give them. Unfortunately, all too often I've seen students come into class day after day either stoned or drunk. It is a problem most schools have, yet, unless the problem students make a public nuisance of themselves, or threaten someone else, few institutions confront the problem. You might ask students how they feel about this behavior or ask them how effective they can be in a classroom when stoned or drunk. I have found that most other students don't like it or appreciate it, but they laugh it off or ignore it because they either don't know what to say or do, or they fear some type of retribution or ostracization from their classmates. You might have students brainstorm ideas of what they can say or do, if anything is possible, to help classmates or at least not to encourage classmates to engage in this type of behavior. Some students might say that it is nobody else's business, and, to an extent, they are correct. But often, the presence of a stoned or drunk person in the classroom can be quite disruptive to the people around that person, and that fact makes it our business and the business of other students in the class.

19. To illustrate the capacity for self-delusion when it comes to cigarette smoking, ask students to anonymously respond, in writing, to the following questions: 1.

How is smoking harmful to one's health?

Do you smoke, and if yes, how many cigarettes do you smoke in an average day?

For smokers, how does smoking affect your health in the present, and how might your health be affected in the future?

For smokers, why do you continue to smoke?

Reasons students offer to explain their continued smoking, despite their recognition of the health dangers, include their belief that it is impossible for them to quit, that they expect to quit sometime in the future before their smoking does any real harm, that they believe they should enjoy themselves in the present and let the future take care of itself, that they expect cancer and other diseases to be cured by the time they might be affected, that they have some special invulnerability to cancer because of their family history, and so forth. I have found very often that one or two unsuccessful attempts at quitting are enough to persuade them that quitting is impossible. This leaves them nothing but rationalization to retreat to in defense of their continued smoking. 20. Elicit stories from those students who have tried to quit smoking and determine what worked, or didn't work for them. For a really lively discussion, ask students for their views on the recent rise of "no smoking" ordinances and smoke-free workplaces in the country. Do smokers feel that nonsmokers have gone too far? How do nonsmokers feel? 21. Have students take the questionnaire "Why Do You Drink?" (pages 244-245 in the text). While discussing the results and gathering student viewpoints, ask them their opinions about the research on controlled drinking, the idea that some alcoholics do not have to quit completely, but can learn to be controlled, social drinkers. Do students believe this is feasible for recovering alcoholics or alcohol abusers on the road to alcoholism? I like to point out that one of the greatest costs of alcoholism is to the family members of alcoholics. I explain the emotional pain and turmoil of such families and talk about the growth of the "Adult Children of Alcoholics" (ACOA) movement and the concept of codependency. I also encourage students who are from alcoholic families to read some ACOA literature or to attend an ACOA meeting.

Student Activities Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 5.1 Personal Attitudes Toward Some Health-Related Issues While considering the health-related problems below, which do you think would be the most difficult to experience? What would be next, and so forth? Rank from 1 to 5, the worst to the least troubling: 1.

Type A behavior pattern

__________

Inactive lifestyle

__________

Obesity

__________

Insomnia

__________

Heart disease

__________

Follow-Up Questions: 1.

Considering these problems, which one is the object of the most ridicule? What defense could be offered for bashing these people?

Which of the problems do you think is the most difficult to correct? Why?

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How can one change from a Type A behavior pattern to more of a Type B behavior pattern? What social or psychological obstacles are likely to interfere with this change?

How much do you weigh, and what is your ideal weight? How much do you believe your ideal weight has been shaped by media influences, and, to the extent that they have, why have you let these influences determine your ideal weight?

How much sleep is ideal and how much do you prefer? How does it compare to how much sleep you are actually getting? What effect is it having on your daily energy levels and performance?

You will learn a great deal about health and health-related issues in this chapter. When you finish, you may find that you need to reconsider some of your answers. As always, you could ask others to reconsider their ideas about the above questions.

Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 5.2 New Weight Guidelines We can often turn to the government and other institutions for good information about nutrition, weight, and health. It might be interesting to compare your ideal weight from question 4 in activity 5.1 with a set of tables for healthy weight from the U. S. Departments of Agriculture and Health and Human Services. In comparison to the most recent tables and guidelines, these are more forgiving and allow a wider range of weights at each height. The source is the 1990 Dietary Guidelines for Americans.

Height Weight (in Lbs.) _________________________________________________ 19 to 34 years 35 years and over _________________________________________________ 5'0" 5'1" 5'2" 5'3" 5'4" 5'5" 5'6" 5'7" 5'8" 5'9" 5'10" 5'11" 6'0" 6'1" 6'2"

97-128 101-132 104-137 107-141 111-146 114-150 118-155 121-160 125-164 129-169 132-174 136-179 140-184 144-189 148-195

108-138 111-143 115-148 119-152 122-157 126-162 130-167 134-172 138-178 142-183 146-188 151-194 155-200 159-205 164-210

How close are you to the recommended weight range for your height?

Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 5.3 Testing Our Aerobic Fitness The text offers many reasons to exercise and quite a few guidelines for beginning and maintaining an aerobic training program. You might find the following test a challenging and rewarding way to chart your progress. Please observe the standard health precautions discussed in Chapter 5 before attempting this test if you are not already exercising, you smoke, have a family history of heart disease, are overweight, or are over 40. Time yourself and perhaps a friend or date if you care to, for a 1.5-mile run/walk. Your aerobic fitness rating can then be compared to the standards in the chart below (for all ages 13 and over).

Aerobic Fitness of Males and Females Estimated from 1.5-Mile Run* __________________________________________________________________ High Low Average (in minutes) (in minutes) (in minutes) __________________________________________________________________ Males

9:29

12:39

11:29

Females

13:38

18:50

16:57

Sailing Team

9:54

11:49

10:43

__________________________________________________________________ *Source: Sharkey (no date) You can use the 1.5-mile run to assess your status and your progress. You could also choose to repeat and time almost any similar task to measure progress. You do not have to compare yourself to any other people or a set of arbitrary standards to be motivated.

Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 5.4 Sleep: The Gentle Tyrant or Benign Dictator?

Samuel Johnson called sleep the gentle tyrant because we cannot resist it, but we could also call sleep a benign dictator because it serves the body and mind as a clock that helps to organize the hundreds of functions that cycle through the 24-hour period. Sleep is only one of the clocks for controlling patterns that influence almost everything about us, including our moods, our intelligence, and most bodily functions. Without these clocks we might experience permanent jet lag. They seem to interact and help each other organize so we are generally at our best during the day.

One of the other clocks for controlling our body and mind is our core temperature, which is higher during our wake time and lower when we sleep. Even if we stay up all night, our temperatures still drop to their lowest levels at night and begin rising as our normal wake-up time approaches. Those functions that use core temperature for their timing go on as normal. Not so those functions that use sleep as a timer for control. Such desynchronization is largely responsible for discomfort and poor performance following a sleepless night. Usually one or two nights of sleep restores synchronization, and we feel better.

Occasionally specialists are asked to help people who have slept so poorly or inconsistently that their patterns and body clocks are confused. We often rely on oral temperature records to let us know where these people stand. Typically, if we take our temperature with an oral thermometer first thing in the morning, it will be several tenths of a degree cooler than just a few hours later. Then, in the late evening, as the day wanes, the pattern reverses and our temperature drops as our sleep time approaches. Sleep medicine specialists can use this pattern to study jet lag, depression, and other problems that seem to be highly related to the coordination of the patterns. For example, many depressed people show little or no pattern of core temperature changes.

You may find it interesting to graph your oral temperatures over the course of several days to verify this pattern, and also to see if it tends to correlate with your tendencies to be a morning person, otherwise known as a "Lark," or an evening person, known as an "Owl," or something in-between (see activity 5.5). Morning temperatures tend to rise faster for Larks and more slowly for Owls. Knowing our own pattern can help us choose class times or design our own schedules.

With an oral thermometer, sample your temperature several times each day for one week. Plot the temperatures on the following graph. Estimate the curving lines that run through the points and best fit your data. You will find a prepared graph on the back of this page.

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Daily Oral Temperatures 100.0-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------99.0-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------98.0-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------97.0-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------96.0-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6AM 8AM 10AM 12PM 2PM 4PM 6PM 8PM 10PM 12AM 2AM 4AM

Time of Day

100

Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 5.5 Are You a "Lark" or an "Owl"? Some of us hit the floor running when we get up in the morning. We usually eat breakfast, prefer morning classes, and do not care to stay up too late "past our bedtime" without some very good reason. This is the pattern of "Larks," or morning people. Others of us hate getting up in the morning, avoid breakfast, and do not need an excuse to stay up late, even to watch a television show that has little attraction. This is the pattern of "Owls," or evening people. Still more of us fit neither extreme case, and fall somewhere in between. Use the questions below to create a better idea of your patterns.

Estimate the number of breakfasts you skip each week (0-7):

Estimate how often you sleep in each week (0-7):

Estimate how often you stay up past your best sleep time each week (0-7):

Estimate what time you feel and respond your very best (AM/PM):

Total the scores on questions 1 - 3: Total = ___________ The higher your score, the more you are like an "owl" in your waking/sleeping pattern. Conversely, the lower your score, the more you are like a "lark."

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102

Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 5.6 Taming the Tyrant Even gentle tyrants are at times unable to get their way, and so many people suffer a range of sleep-related difficulties. In addition to insomnia, as discussed in Chapter 5, some people sleep too long, some suffer from pattern disruption caused by shift work, and some people even create their own difficulties by keeping irregular sleep schedules. If we want to feel our best during the day and sleep better at night, we are told that it is best to maintain regular sleep patterns. To assess the regularity of your sleep, or lack of it, keep the following simple diary. You may want to do this exercise at the same time you keep track of your daily oral temperature (activity 5.4).

Sleep Date Wake-Up Time Start Time __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________

Follow-Up Questions: 1.

How much do you vary your sleep start? Various studies indicate that more than two hours' variation daily can have detrimental effects on daytime performance.

Do you sleep in after late nights? Research suggests that this will also decrease daytime abilities.

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Did you experience any "Sunday night insomnia"? If we stay up later on weekends, we may delay our biological clocks and create problems, possibly including "Monday blues." It is best to keep to our regular patterns as much as possible by waking at our usual times even when we stay up late. While there is little trouble if we lose some sleep, there can be a problem if we disrupt our schedules.

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 5.7 Personal Attitudes Toward Some Drug-Related Issues While considering the drug-related problems discussed in the text, which of the following do you think would cause the most difficult psychological and physical health problems? What would be next, and so forth? Rank from 1 to 5, the worst to the least troubling: 1.

Alcoholism

__________

Addiction to nicotine

__________

Addiction to heroin

__________

Chronic marijuana use

__________

Addiction to crack or cocaine

__________

Follow-Up Questions: 1.

Why do you consider your “1” choice to be the most troubling and your “5” choice to be the least troubling?

Considering these problems, which person is likely to be the object of the most ridicule? What defense could be offered for these people?

105

Which of the problems do you think is the most difficult to correct? Why?

106

5.8 Questioning Ourselves, Part I

Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 1.

If drugs were to become available that could improve life in some ways but cause life to be shorter, what choices would you make regarding your use of such drugs? How many years of your life, if any, would you give up to experience a 25 percent improvement in: a.

Intelligence

______ years

Attractiveness

______ years

Physical strength

______ years

Sexual enjoyment

______ years

Popularity

______ years

Which, if any, were you willing to give up the most years of life for? Why?

Which, if any, were you least willing to give up any years for? Why?

107

What if there were a “magic” potion that could give you unlimited political power, military control, social status, or knowledge of how the universe works? Would you be willing to shorten your life for any of these? Why or why not?

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5.9 Questioning Ourselves, Part II

Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 1.

Two Seattle cocktail waiters were fired because they did not want to serve a strawberry daiquiri to a pregnant woman (Newsweek, 1991). It raises an issue that could quickly divide opinions. Would you favor laws that would prevent or restrict pregnant women from smoking, drinking alcohol, or abusing drugs? What would be your most important argument for such laws? On the other hand, what would be the most powerful argument against such laws? For:

Against:

If you were throwing a party, would you serve alcohol to a pregnant woman? Justify your response.

When do you say when? How many alcoholic beverages at the most would you want to see the following people consume in one evening?

Your date

______

Your designated driver

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Your best friend

______

Your minister

______

The president of the United States

______

Your boss

______

Your grandparent(s)

grandma

______

grandpa

______

Your parent(s)

mother

______

father

______

Your sibling

brother

______

sister

______

Yourself

______

Except for the designated driver, who should not drink any alcohol? How do you explain any differences in your answers? Are any sexist or ageist attitudes or stereotypes influencing your judgments?

What answers would you expect other people to give to these questions?

For an interesting variation of this exercise, answer these questions again as if they referred to smoking, using marijuana, or using some other illegal drug. How are your answers different this time than they were before? Why?

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 5.10 Social Approval of Alcohol Abuse At some point in our lives we decide what our approach to alcohol should be. One influence we can document is peer pressure. If friends and roommates frequently voice approval of "getting wasted," "getting bombed," or "getting ripped," etc., it would be hard to avoid the conclusion that alcohol should be used as a drug, rather than a beverage. Try this exercise for one week: 1.

How many times does someone speak of intoxication as if it is desirable or acceptable and how often is it spoken of in disapproving ways?

What words or phrases are used as synonyms for intoxication?

How many times did you catch yourself speaking of alcohol the same way?

How do you react to the desirable as opposed to the undesirable references? Is there a difference? Why or why not?

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Where do you draw the line between use and abuse of alcohol? How did you decide upon where to draw the line? In other words, what are your reasons for drawing the line where you drew it?

112

Name __________________________________ Date ____________ 5.11 Binge Drinking A major concern in recent years for college, and high school, administrators is “binge drinking.” Each year several adolescents and young adults die, hundreds more are hospitalized, and countless numbers made sick from bouts of binge drinking. 1.

How many of your friends binge drink occasionally? Regularly? Constantly?

What have been the immediate and long-term effects, if any, of this drinking on their health and behavior?

What reason can you give for your friends binge drinking?

How many times, if any, have you been pressured by your friends to binge drink with them?

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How did you feel about it and how have you reacted to this pressure?

If you have engaged in binge drinking, or have been tempted to binge drink, what factors were key in your drinking or in your being tempted to drink?

If you have never engaged in binge drinking, or have been tempted to binge drink and refused to do it, what factors were key in your decision not to do it?

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Name __________________________________ Date ____________ 5.12 Does Smoking and Secondary Smoke Affect Heart Rate? People who are allergic to or bothered by secondary cigarette smoke may not want to participate in this activity except at a distance. If you smoke or know someone who smokes, you may be able to see one of the physiological effects of nicotine first-hand. You would want to be tactful in requesting the cooperation of someone so the request is not interpreted as a challenge. 1.

Take a base rate of the smoker's heart rate after a typical amount of time has passed since the last cigarette - at least an hour or so. The pulse can be monitored at the wrist or neck for one minute.

Record here __________

Now, if you intend to remain close enough to be affected by the secondary smoke of the smoker, take your own heart rate before asking the smoker to light up.

Record your heart rate here __________

Allow the smoker to smoke one cigarette and monitor the heart rate at the end of five minutes, even if he or she is still smoking.

Record the smoker's second heart rate here __________

Record your second heart rate here __________

What have you been able to demonstrate?

Activity continued on the back

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Please explain your feelings, pro or con, about smokers' rights.

Now you may wish to compare your notes with your classmates.

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 5.13 Should Marijuana Be Legalized? Ever since the 1960s, a national debate has continued as to whether or not marijuana should be legalized. What do you think? Reasons for legalization: Give at least three reasons why you think marijuana should be legalized. a.

Reasons to keep it illegal: Give at least three reasons why you think marijuana should not be legalized.

Consequences (good or bad) of legalization of marijuana: List at least three positive or negative consequences you believe would result from the legalization of marijuana.

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 5.14 Should Trans-Fats Be Banned? A recent trend in the United States has been a movement by some schools and communities to remove fatty and sugary foods from cafeteria menus and replace them with healthier choices. An extension of that trend has been the effort in a few cities to ban certain high-fat foods, the use of trans-fatty acids (which are often used in margarines and in cooking foods such as French fries, etc.) in cooking foods in restaurants. some people view this as political correctness taken too far, and an invasion of people’s personal rights to choose what they eat for themselves. Other see this as a necessary first step toward ending the growing “obesity epidemic in the United States. How do you feel? 1. Should schools removed unhealthy foods from cafeteria menus and replace them with healthier choices? Why or why not?

2. Should cities be able to ban fatty foods from restaurant menus, with the threat of criminal charges being filed against chefs or restaurant owners who violate these rules? Why or why not?

3. Should people be able to sue companies like McDonald’s for becoming obese, or developing other health-related problems after years of eating their food? Why or why not?

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6 The Self in a Social World Chapter Outline Module 6.1: The Self: The Core of Your Psychological Being 6.1.1. 6.1.2. 6.1.3. A. B.

Your Physical Self: My Body, Myself The Social Self: The Self You Show to Others Your Personal Self -- The Inner You Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Ms Rose, by any Other Name, Might Still Be a Florist Box: Self-Assessment: Values Clarification -- What Is Important to You?

Module 6.2: The Self-Concept, Self-Esteem, and Self-Identity A. B. 6.2.1. 6.2.2. C. D..

Box: Try This Out: Examining Your Self-Concept Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Your Self in Cyberspace: Which Self Is It? Self-Esteem Self-Identity and Identity Crisis Box: Try Self-Assessment: Are You One of Your Favorite People? Box: A Closer Look: Carl Rogers -- A Case Study in Identity Achievement

Module 6.3:Perception of Others 6.3.1.

The Importance of First Impressions

Module 6.4: Prejudice and Discrimination 6.4.1. 6.4.2.

Sources of Prejudice and Discrimination Combating Prejudice and Discrimination

Module 6.5: Attribution Theory and Personal Adjustment Module 6.6: Psychology in Daily Life: Enhancing Self-Esteem 6.6.1. 6.6.2. 6.6.3. 6.6.4.

Expand Your Competencies Challenge the Tyranny of the “Oughts” and “Shoulds” Have a Crisis (Really? Perhaps the Answer Is Yes) Substitute Realistic, Attainable Goals for Unattainable Goals

Chapter Overview The Self. The self is the core or center of your psychological being. It is an organized and consistent way of perceiving yourself as a unique being -- an “I.” The self also involves your perceptions of the ways in which you relate to the world. The self has physical, social, and personal aspects. Our social selves are the masks and social roles we don to meet the requirements of our situations. Our personal selves are our private inner identities. 121

Names. Names are linked to expectations by parents and society at large. People with common names are usually rated more favorably, but people with unusual names often accomplish more. We have given names, but the names we choose to go by -- often nicknames -- can say much about how we view ourselves. Values. Our values give rise to our personal goals and tend to place limits on the means we shall use to reach them. We are more subject to social influences when we do not have personal values or our values are in flux. Self-Concept. Your self-concept is your impression of yourself. It includes your perception of the traits (fairness, competence, sociability, and so on) you possess to the degree to which you deem these traits to be important in defining yourself. Self-Esteem. Self-esteem begins to develop as the reflected appraisal of how we regarded by important figures in our lives, especially parents. Children who are cherished by their parents, and receive their approval and support, usually come to see themselves as being worthy of love. Research suggests that the children of strict parents are more likely than the children of permissive parents to develop high self-esteem. Although selfesteem can be a relatively stable element of personality, it can also vary depending on external events -- such as test grades or other people’s acceptance -- and our emotional reaction to them. The Ideal Self. The ideal self is our concept of what we ought to be. The closer your self-description is in keeping with your ideal self, the higher your self-esteem is likely to be. Self-Identity. Self-identity is your sense of who you are and what you stand for. Identity Statuses. Identity statuses are categories that describe an individual’s level of self-identity. Marcia identified four identity statuses: identity achievement, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity diffusion. The status of identity achievement describes people who have resolved an identity crisis and are committed to a relatively stable set of beliefs or a course of action. Identity foreclosure describes people who have adopted a commitment to a set of beliefs or a course of action without undergoing an identity crisis. Identity moratorium describes people who are in the throes of an identity crisis; they are undergoing an intense examination of alternatives. Identity diffusion describes people who have neither arrived at a commitment as to who they are and what they stand for nor experienced a crisis. Ethnicity, Gender, and Identity. People from ethnic minority groups often need to come to terms with conflicting values -- those that characterize their particular ethnic background and those that characterize the dominant (European American, middle class) culture in the United States. Erikson’s views of identity development were intended to apply mainly to males because they focus on embracing a philosophy of life and commitment to a career at a time when most women remained in the home. Today, however, identity achievement in terms of a career is as important to women as to men in our society. Social Perception. Through the process of social perception, we come to form impressions of other people and develop attitudes about people and social issues. First Impressions. First impressions obtain their importance because of the primacy effect. That is, we tend to infer traits from behavior. If people act considerately at first, they are conceptualized as considerate people and future behavior is interpreted according to that view of them. Body Language. People’s body language provides important information about their thoughts and feelings which can help us adjust in social situations. For example, when people lean toward us they are usually showing interest in us. Prejudice. Prejudice is a preconceived attitude toward a group that typically leads people to evaluate members of that group in negative terms. Discrimination. Discrimination is negative behavior that results from prejudice. It includes denial of access to jobs and housing. 122

Stereotypes. Stereotypes are fixed conventional ideas about groups of people, such as stereotypes that ItalianAmericans are hot-tempered and Chinese-Americans are deferential. Origins of Prejudice and Discrimination. Sources of prejudice include dissimilarity (or assumptions of dissimilarity), social conflict, social learning, the relative ease of processing information according to stereotypes, and social categorization (“us” versus “them”). Attribution. The attribution process involves the ways in which people infer the motives and traits of themselves and others. In dispositional attributions, we attribute people’s behavior to internal factors such as their personality traits and personal decisions. In situational attributions, we attribute people’s behavior to external circumstances or forces. Attributional Bias. According to the actor-observer effect, we tend to attribute the behavior of others to internal, dispositional factors. However, we tend to attribute our own behavior to external, situational factors. The so-called fundamental attribution error is the tendency to attribute too much of other people’s behavior to dispositional factors. The self-serving bias refers to the finding that we tend to attribute our successes to internal, stable factors and our failures to external, unstable factors.

Teaching Objectives After studying this chapter your students should be able to: 1.

Identify the various types of schemas and explain how they influence our perceptions of others.

Describe the various parts of the self and discuss how, together, these parts meld together to form the "self."

Summarize the research on the relationship between names and personality.

Explain what values are and why they are important to self-development.

Compare and contrast the self-concept, the ideal self, and self-esteem, and explain how each contributes to our overall self-perception.

Identify and briefly explain each of Marcia’s four possible identity statuses, and briefly describe the effects of human diversity on identity formation.

Compare and contrast the primacy and recency effects, and explain how important these effects are in our relationships with others in the long run.

Explain what body language is and why it is important.

Compare and contrast prejudice and discrimination, and identify at least five sources of prejudice.

10.

Identify and briefly describe at least four methods of coping with prejudice and discrimination.

11.

Identify the various types of attributions and discuss the attribution process in terms of the fundamental attribution error, the actor-observer effect, and the self-serving bias.

12.

Identify and briefly describe five ways one can boost one's self-esteem.

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Key Terms schema role schema person schema self- schema self physical self social self personal self ethics self-concept

self-esteem ideal self identity crisis identify achievement identity foreclosure identity moratorium identity diffusion social perception primacy effect recency effect

prejudice discrimination stereotypes attribution attribution process dispositional attribution situational attribution fundamental attribution error actor-observer effect self-serving bias

Lecture/Discussion Suggestions 1. Ask the following question of your class as a means of introducing the topic of self-identity: "Have you ever experienced an identity crisis or a period of serious soul-searching, during which you tried to come to grips with issues concerning your personal values, occupational goals, or beliefs about politics and religion?" Ask students to describe, in several written paragraphs, the issues with which they dealt (for example, premarital sex, conflict with others, career choice, etc.) and how the crisis was resolved. To whom or what did they turn for advice? Did this period of crisis upset their day-to-day functioning? Did it lead to a firm resolution, a temporary solution, or was the whole matter put on "the back burner" for awhile? Are they presently experiencing such an identity crisis? If possible, you might consider reading several of these replies (written anonymously, of course) in class to provide a forum for sharing experiences. 2. Is a person's name more than just a label? Does it convey something about what one's parents intended one to be? Does one's choice of nickname suggest something about how the individual wants to be viewed by others? For example? In what ways would you expect a Robbie to differ from a Robert? Or Candy from Candace? I use such questions to introduce the literature by Zweigenhaft and others that relates personal names to patterns of adjustment. It strikes me as more than coincidental that Henry Head and Richard Brain were world-famous neurologists and that Learned Hand achieved fame as a jurist. Do class members know any names they feel would handicap them or harm someone's self-development? If so, how do they think this would happen? Finally, related to research that suggests that successful people sign their names larger and more illegibly, ask class members if they change the way they sign their own names depending on the situations they are in (for example, writing a check, signing a job application, signing a letter to a friend, and so on) and if so, discuss why they make the changes they make. 3. What values are most important to your students? Distribute copies of the Rokeach Survey of Values (page 203 in the text) and ask students to complete it. Then compute the mean scores for each value and rank-order them to determine overall class values. Or you can partition the data by determining the average values for males and females, or business/technical majors versus humanities/liberal arts majors. Compare the relative values of your students with those represented in a national sample (Appendix in the text).

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For those instructors with many business or career-oriented students, this might be a good place to relate students' personal values to their job values. Many career-development texts have values surveys that measure the types of values students find important in their jobs or future careers. A list of work values would typically include the following: money status power/control security geographic location challenging duties variety of duties company reputation amount of stress competent managers

advancement potential pleasant work environment responsibility friendly co-workers fringe benefits (pension, etc.) enjoyment/interest in job duties creativity in performing duties scheduling/work hours working alone versus working with others company honesty

As with Rokeach's values survey, class members can rank-order these job values, and you can compute overall or partitioned class averages. I have found it useful to compare students' personal and job values and discuss similarities or differences that exist between the two. 4. To introduce the concept of your "self" as a relatively enduring sense of who or what you are as an individual, ask the class to imagine what it would be like to wake up the next morning having changed physical form, say from one gender to the other, or, more frightfully, from human form to animal or insect form. To illustrate the point, passages can be read from Kafka's Metamorphosis about the reaction of an otherwise average salesman to waking up one morning having been transformed into a giant, but lovable, bug. I also ask the class to consider what it must be like to feel like you are an alien in your own body - not in the fanciful case of Kafka's hero, Gregor Samsa - but in the many cases of transsexuals in our society who feel trapped in a body of the wrong gender. This can be a good place to connect the discussion to the material on gender identity. As a means of exploring their ideal selves, you might ask students to name the animal they would like to be transformed into if the transformation discussed above were actually to take place. Often, the animal chosen represents a stylized version of the students' ideal selves. When students name the animal they would most like to be, discuss what it is about the animal that attracts them to it. As a counterpoint, you might ask which animal they would least like to be, and why. 5. Ask students to evaluate their self-concepts by completing the self-acceptance scale on page 209 in the text. Ask them to complete the scale under three conditions: (1) how they think of themselves in the present (selfconcept); (2) how they would like themselves to be (ideal self); and (3) how significant others in their lives (have them identify someone in particular) would like them to be. This should be a silent exercise to protect their rights of privacy - students should not be asked to hand in their ratings of self-concept unless anonymity can be fully assured. Ask students to examine the closeness of their self-concept with their ideal self and whether their sense of an ideal self is similar to the kinds of ideals set by others. Which aspects of themselves would they most like to change, and how? Do such changes reflect a realistic appraisal or perfectionistic, irrational standards? 6. Develop a discussion about how values are changing in our society at large. Have Americans today changed from a personal ethic based on a search for self-fulfillment, which dominated the 1970s, toward a renewed concern for social commitment? Have Americans changed from the perceived worship of greed and wealth that supposedly dominated the 1980s? Or did that ethic really dominate as much as the press would have us believe? Were the increases in gun-related violent crime in the 1990s, particularly by teenagers, related to some collapse of social values or do they simply reflect the emergence of some underlying demon that has been in our society for years but only then began expressing itself? What about recent complaints of too much sexually explicit behavior or verbiage on television and radio? Is there evidence in your community that people are now more involved in community groups, block associations, citizen patrols, and so on? Or is everybody too busy exploring the virtual on-line environment to be socially involved in their real-life communities? Does the election of Barak Obama as President reflect a larger change in social values, or is it just the result of his unique talents as an orator? 125

You might ask students to consider whether long-term intimate relationships can flourish and endure in the context of a "live-for-the-moment," self-oriented, wealth-oriented ethic in which both partners have complete license to "do their own thing." What are the potential hazards to such an arrangement? How might the values of self-fulfillment and social commitment coexist? You might also discuss how environmental values have changed since the 1950s and 1960s. Are people more concerned about the environment now than in the 1970s, when the modern environmental movement started? Has increasing concerns over global warming affected this? How have businesses been changing their approach to environmental concerns? How do many of these changes reflect a real change in business values versus marketing ploys to attract environmentally conscious consumers? Finally, how have some environmental extremists hurt the cause of environmental awareness? Finally, you might discuss how the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, and the subsequent anthrax outbreaks might have changed values in the United States. Patriotism, and other seemingly “traditional” or “nationalistic” values suddenly came to the fore (for awhile) in a way not seen since the early days of World War II. What benefits does this sudden surge in patriotic fervor bring society, and what potential dangers lurk if it gets carried too far? How have the current wars in Iraq and Afghanistan affected the surge in patriotism that occurred after the 9/11 attacks? 7. Although it may be risky with some class groups, it might be appropriate here to discuss whether a single set of proper, correct values exists for everyone, or whether individuals must decide for themselves what is a good set of values for them. Many religions teach that theirs is the only "correct" set of values, and those who do not follow those values are depraved, heretical sinners who will suffer in eternal damnation as a consequence of their immoral ways. These religions strongly resist, and are often morally outraged by, the notion that there may be more than one set of "correct" values, depending on the individual or culture involved. They see the acceptance of multiple value systems in America today as one more sign of the "moral decay" besetting American society. This discussion can be tied directly to the larger issues of moral absolutism versus moral relativism, and the potential dangers of each. This viewpoint is, ironically, very similar to the fears that many militant Islamists have about American culture destroying their traditional cultural ways. One can argue that regimes such as the Taliban regime in Afghanistan and the terrorism they have been linked to are a direct result of those fears. The following questions strike me as relevant to this issue: Is there one set of "correct" values for everyone? If so, whose is it? American values? Iranian values? Judeo-Christian values? Bhuddist values? Are efforts to legally institute one set of "correct" values an infringement of individuals' rights to decide for themselves what is or is not appropriate for them? As the United States becomes more culturally diverse, is the preponderance of so many value systems in America today a sign of moral decay or a sign of the healthy development of a truly pluralistic society? Even in a pluralistic society, however, there must be some limits as to how far one can carry the concept of individually decided values. Otherwise you can have no laws, and no society, at all: you have anarchy. Are there such limits? Is there a point where so many different values are allowed and accepted that there are virtually no activities or values left that are considered immoral or unacceptable? Must there be a basic set of commonly accepted values to keep a society or culture from disintegrating? Since some Americans strongly feel that social anarchy is where the United States has been heading in recent years, do students see this as a problem? If so, who is to decide which values are the "correct ones?" Politicians? Religious leaders (if so, from which religious group)? Majority vote? What are some possible solutions to this dilemma? 8. Related to the discussion in suggestion 8 (above), a discussion about the issues raised by conservative religious groups and by liberal political groups could lead students to specifically examine their own values on issues such as gay marriage, pornography, drugs, birth control, abortion, homosexuality, crime, the death penalty, and so on. As in suggestion 8, this discussion raises a controversial set of issues that may offend some students or may so emotionally arouse them that, in attempting to defend their particular values, they attack the values and beliefs of other students. It is crucial in discussing these issues that you remain sensitive and respect the values and beliefs of all students in the class. These issues can be so personal in nature that I have seen instructors verbally attack students who disagreed with them on these issues. It is essential that this not be allowed to happen. More importantly, you must take great care to impart to students the idea that their values will differ and that they must respect the values and beliefs of other students in the class, even if they do not 126

agree with them. Where students disagree and emotions become aroused, it might be appropriate to point out that this is exactly what happens in society at large when different groups discuss values. The emotional arousal and defensiveness that develops in those groups is exactly what prevents society from resolving these issues. 9. Discuss self-efficacy expectations with the class. Ask students if they can remember times that their confidence, or lack of it, in themselves affected their performance. It might be appropriate here to discuss Albert Ellis's concept of "self-talk" - the notion that we all carry on constant mental conversations with ourselves and the tone of those conversations can affect our self-image and our performance. By monitoring one's self-talk, one may also be able to roughly monitor self-efficacy, as positive self-talk in performance situations might indicate high self-efficacy and negative self-talk might indicate low self-efficacy. Ellis believes that changing one's self-talk from negative to positive can increase self-efficacy, thereby improving performance. Students might be requested to monitor their self-talk and work at developing more positive self-talk. Instructors who decide to use this approach need to insure that they have time to have one-to-one discussions about the self-talk issue in the days and weeks to follow this exercise, as students attempting to make changes might find it more difficult than they imagined, and it may make them aware of problems they previously had ignored. 10. As a discussion of the "primacy effect," ask students for their first impressions of some of their instructors or bosses (no names, please). Ask them to evaluate the accuracy/inaccuracy of these impressions as the term progresses. 11. Given the data in the text, ask students to discuss parental behaviors that either enhance or lower selfesteem in children. Ask students, if they so choose, to share personal examples of the listed behaviors. 12. Using either yourself or student volunteers with strong egos and a flair for the dramatic, role play various body language postures, facial expressions, and style of eye contact with the class. Have the class offer various interpretations for the postures, and so on. Focus on the gestures that may lead to conflicting interpretations and discuss the difficulties encountered when two people take one gesture to mean two different things. 13. It is clear from much that has been written about the AIDS epidemic that many people have made the fundamental attribution error regarding who is (and is not) infected with HIV. Many articles report that sexually active young adults, and teenagers in particular, make this dispositional attribution: "You have to be careful, but I can tell who is "safe" and who is not. I only go out with safe people, so I don't have to worry about contracting AIDS." Others take a more fatalistic view, stating “I’m going to die sometime anyway, and when it’s my time, it’s my time.” Point out the complete lack of evidence for any ability to tell who is safe and who is not. Discuss the reasons why people might make such extraordinary dispositional attributions. Also discuss the dangerous consequences, not only to themselves, but to those with whom they have contact, of engaging in unprotected sexual activity with multiple sexual partners, because of a fatalistic viewpoint Related to this, many morally conservative students make an attribution error in continuing to blame the AIDS epidemic on homosexuals and sexually promiscuous people. I still hear some students make comments to the effect that AIDS sufferers are "getting what they deserve" or are being "punished by God" for their sins. It might be useful here to point out the inaccuracy of such attributions by presenting some of the statistics about AIDS from Chapter 13 (Sexual Behavior). 14. In spite of the positive effects of touching others mentioned in the text, it is important to point out to the class the heightened sensitivity to sexual harassment in the workplace. Given U. S. Supreme Court rulings broadening the definition of sexual harassment, many companies have instituted "no touch" policies in the work setting. While touching can have some very positive effects, one must be certain in today's environment that the touching is mutually desired and that it is warranted by the situation and one's relationship with the person being touched. 15. It can be a high-risk undertaking, but it may be possible to ask class members about what stereotypes they harbored about other ethnic groups, or about the other gender, before they went to college. You can then ask them if those stereotypes have changed as a result of college experiences. A safer method of doing this is to have class members write down their stereotypes anonymously on sheets of paper to be collected by you. Or you could have them break into groups and have each group generate a list of stereotypes, to be put on the board, that they "have heard others use" in reference to various ethnic groups or the two genders. You must 127

emphasize that what they are generating are stereotypes, not facts, and that most of the negative stereotypes about groups of people are not true for the majority of people in those groups. 16. Ask students to share with their classmates any experiences they have had in which they were victims of prejudice or racial or ethnic hatred. How did they cope with it? How did they feel about it? What impact did it have on their own attitudes toward the people who treated them this way? Often, prejudice is expressed in more subtle than explicit terms, such as a job interviewer who suddenly remembers that the position for which you applied was just filled, or the landlord who just that morning rented the vacant apartment in which you were interested. 17. You might tie in the material on attribution to the material on stereotypes and show how the attribution process can serve to reinforce negative stereotypes. A close acquaintance, a female who worked as a detective and security officer (a male-dominated field), told me of an encounter in which during a job interview with a male supervisor, he told her how he was hesitant to hire another female officer because he had experienced problems with some of the female officers he had hired previously. She responded by asking him if he had ever had problems with any of the males he had hired previously. When he answered affirmatively, she then asked him, “Have you stopped hiring males because of it?” She got the job. The point is, how did that supervisor’s stereotypes play into his attributions about why the previously hired female officers had experienced problems as opposed to why the previously hired male supervisors had experienced problems? How might similar stereotypes affect the attributions of people dealing with members of different racial or ethnic groups, or of different ages? 18. Do students feel that the election of Barak Obama as President will have any significant effect on prejudice and discrimination in the United States? If so, in what way? What impact might it have on the argument advanced by some that affirmative action programs are no longer necessary because the playing field is now (for the most part) level.

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Student Activities Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 6.1 Testing Our Perceptions If there is a consistency in the theories of Freud, Erikson, Rogers, and Maslow, it may be the idea that adjustment depends on the accuracy of the perception of reality. It would seem that accurate perception would increase the likelihood of correct choices, reduce or eliminate anxieties from unnecessary worry, provide feedback for change, and so on and so on. In this chapter, Nevid and Rathus portray the virtues of accurate social perception. If only we could see others more accurately without prejudice! If only others could see us the same way!

Select a classmate, or roommate, for this exercise which tests your perceptiveness. It will be a tough test so be prepared to encounter your limitations.

Ask a friend to recall or answer as well as possible and write down:

The last two magazines read and circle the one he or she liked best.

The last two movies seen and circle the one he or she liked best.

Two television shows watched regularly and the one he or she prefers.

Would the person quit school or work if he or she won a $5,000,000 lottery? Why?

Would the person sacrifice his or her life to save anyone in the world? Why or why not?

Did he or she vote in the last election?

Would the person choose the sex of his or her first child?

Activity continued on the back

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You can make up and ask many more such questions. Now tell your subject what you think his or her answer will be on the first question and your rationale for it. Proceed through all the questions to test your accuracy. Maybe you would be willing to let your friend try the same thing with you as a target.

Follow-Up Questions: 1.

What, if any, are the bases for predicting people's responses in advance?

What leads you to make correct predictions?

What leads you to make incorrect predictions?

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 6.2 Testing the Accuracy of Social Perceptions As part of a class discussion, generate a ‘master list’ of labels people typically use to describe each other (i.e. “shy,” “aggressive,” “outgoing,” “smart,” “friendly,” etc.). Which labels in the list would you assign to yourself and your classmates? Can you correctly guess each other’s assignments? Students have often found this exercise to be one of the most revealing and interesting activities in this course. 1.

Each person has access to the master list which everyone just created, which might be on the blackboard or some other handy place.

Assign a label to yourself from the list created by the class. Do not tell others what label you have chosen.

Each person then prepares two response sheets. On the first sheet write down the names of everyone in the class and beside each name assign a stereotype from the master list you think best fits them (be gentle!). On the second sheet, write only your name.

Pass the second sheet around the room systematically so each person can record the label or stereotype they chose for the named individual in question 3. When everyone has responded, each paper is returned to the person named at the top of the page.

Students then reveal the label they originally chose to describe themselves. They can then check the accuracy of their label assignments against other students' perceptions of themselves.

Follow-Up Questions: 1.

Do people perceive you the way you thought they would? If not, in what way were their perceptions different?

How do you feel about the way that others perceived you? Has it made you think about changing some aspect of your public “persona”? If so, what would you change and how would you do it?

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How accurate were your perceptions? What percentage of your labels did your classmates assign themselves?

If your perceptions were incorrect, in what way were they incorrect, and what could you do to increase their accuracy?

Look again at the text discussion regarding how to cope with prejudice and discrimination. Is it possible that this activity could alter the way we discriminate?

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Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 6.3 Perceiving How Others Dress to Impress Does your school require you to wear a uniform? Probably not, but it may be possible for students to choose some rather uniform ways to dress, which may be their attempt to make a statement about what they want us to think about them. How do you believe that people use their clothing, hairstyles, and even facial expressions to help themselves achieve an identity? This activity asks you to sit in the student union or another suitable location and catalog the different social identities you perceive others are trying to project. You might categorize some as Greek, some as Athletes, some as Art Students, and so on. List your proposed labels here:

Questions: 1.

How can you do this without being negative? For example, are any of the labels you use derogatory, such as "nerds," "frat rats," or "animals"? How can you avoid labels such as this?

Beside each label write the degree of confidence you have in assigning people you see in this category as a percentage from 0 to 100 percent. How does this idea alter the way you see this task?

With classmates, create a single list of labels that will be useful for the next project. Assign a number to each label as a code. How many labels have you created?

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Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 6.4 Exploring Your Identity 1. Identify your four greatest personal strengths: a. _____________________________________________________________________ b. _____________________________________________________________________ c. _____________________________________________________________________ d. _____________________________________________________________________ 2. Identify your four greatest personal weaknesses or areas of difficulty: a. _____________________________________________________________________ b. _____________________________________________________________________ c. _____________________________________________________________________ d. _____________________________________________________________________

3. What do you currently see as the biggest challenge in your life:

4. If you could change one thing about yourself, what would that be:

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5. Do you believe you were put here for a specific purpose? If not, why not? If so, what do you believe that purpose to be?

6. What are the three most important goals for you in your life? a. _____________________________________________________________________ b. _____________________________________________________________________ c. _____________________________________________________________________

7. Which of the four identity statuses described by Marcia do you feel you are in? Why?

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7 Social Influence: Being Influenced By - and Influencing - Others Chapter Outline Module 7.1: 7.1.1. 7.1.2. A.

Persuasion: Of Hard Pushing, Soft Pedaling, and You Factors of Persuasion Sales Ploys: Saying No to Persuasive Sales Tactics Box: Try This Out: Countering Persuasive Sales Tactics

Module 7.2:Group Influences: Of Obedience, Conformity, and Mob Behavior 7.2.1. C. 7.2.2.

Obedience to Authority: Does Might Make Right? Box: A Closer Look: Stanley Milgram: The Man Who Shocked the World Conformity: Do Many make Right?

Module 7.3: Altruism and Helping Behavior: Preventing the Social Fabric from Tearing 7.3.1.

The Bystander Effect: Some Watch While Others Die

Module 7.4: Psychology in Daily Life: Becoming an Assertive Person (Winning Respect and Influencing People) A. 7.4.1 7.4.2 7.4.3 7.4.4 B.

Box: Self-Assessment: The Rathus Assertiveness Schedule: Do You Speak Your Mind or Do You Hold Back? Self-Monitoring: Following Yourself Around the Block Confronting Irrational Beliefs: Do Your Own Beliefs Trigger Unassertive or Aggressive Behavior? Modeling: Creating the New – Well, Almost New – You. Behavior Rehearsal: Practice Makes Much Better Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: “Becoming Successfully Shy”: Bernardo Carducci in His Own Words

Chapter Overview Routes of Persuasion. The central route involves the careful weighing of the content of messages . The peripheral route involves persuasion through cues that are peripheral to the content of the message. 137

Factors in Persuasion. Emotional appeals are more effective with most people than are logical presentations. Repeated messages are usually more effective than messages presented once. People tend to be persuaded by celebrities, experts, and people who seem to be similar to themselves. People are more likely to be persuaded when they are in a good mood. People with low sales resistance tend to have low self-esteem and to worry about the impression they will make if they say no. The Foot-in-the-Door Technique. With the foot-in-the-door technique, salespeople encourage customers to accede to minor requests to prime them to agree with larger requests later on. Low-balling. Low-balling is a sales method in which the customer is persuaded to make a commitment on favorable terms, but the salesperson then says that he or she must revise the terms. The Bait-and-Switch Technique. The customer is baited by an offer of merchandise at an extremely low price. But the merchandise appears to be of inferior quality or missing desirable features. The salesperson then pulls the switch by offering higher-quality but also more expensive merchandise. Obedience. Milgram found that the great majority of participants in his research would deliver a strong electric shock to an innocent party when instructed to do so by an experimenter. Possible reasons why people will commit atrocities include propaganda (degrading the victims), socialization, lack of social comparison, perception of the authority figure as being legitimate, inaccessibility of one’s personal values, and lack of buffers. Conformity. Conformity is changing one’s behavior to adhere to social norms, such as facing forward in elevators, or wearing what “people like us” are wearing. Factors that enhance the likelihood of conformity include belonging to a collectivist culture, desire to be liked by others, low self-esteem, shyness, and lack of personal expertise in the situation. Deindividuation. Deindividuation is a state of reduced self-awareness and lowered concern for social evaluation. Factors that foster deindividuation include anonymity, diffusion of responsibility, high levels of arousal, and focus on group norms rather than on one’s own values. As members of crowds, many people engage in behavior they would find unacceptable if they were acting alone. Altruism. Altruism is a selfless concern for the welfare of others, which is characterized by helping others. People are more likely to help others when they are in a good mood, are empathic, believe that an emergency exists, assume the responsibility to act, know what to do, and are acquainted with those in need. When we are members of groups or crowds, we may ignore people in trouble because of diffusion of responsibility. We may be less likely to help when we feel that others are available to offer help, when we don’t perceive a clear need for help, when we don’t feel capable of helping, or when we fear being harmed ourselves.

Teaching Objectives After studying this chapter your students should be able to: 1.

Define "social influence", explain the ELM model and discuss the "routes" involved in the social influence process.

Identify and briefly discuss the factors involved in making a message persuasive.

Identify and briefly discuss the factors involved in making a communicator persuasive.

Discuss how the context of a message influences its persuasiveness and briefly describe the audience factors involved in the persuasiveness of a message.

Explain the "foot-in-the-door" technique, lowballing, and the bait and switch technique. Give an 138

example of each and discuss methods of coping with these techniques. 6.

Describe what happened in the Milgram studies on obedience and identify the factors thought to be responsible.

Identify and briefly describe the seven factors that may foster blind obedience to perceived authority.

Define conformity and social norms and briefly discuss the factors that influence conformity.

Explain why people behave differently in groups than they do as individuals.

10.

Explain what altruism is, and why it is not always as selfless as it may seem.

11.

Explain what the bystander effect is and the various factors that determine or influence helping behavior.

12.

Compare and contrast assertive, passive, and aggressive behavior. Also, briefly explain the four methods discussed in your text for becoming a more assertive person.

13.

Discuss the nature of shyness, how people can learn to be “successfully shy,” and the reasons why becoming a volunteer can help people overcome shyness.

Key Terms social influence elaboration likelihood model (ELM) emotional appeals foot-in-the-door technique low-balling bait-and-switch

obedience conform social norms deindividuation diffusion of responsibility altruism

bystander effect assertiveness irrational beliefs modeling behavioral rehearsal

Lecture/Discussion Suggestions 1. What pressures to conform have students experienced since coming to college? Pressure to conform can be experienced in the form of dress codes, speech patterns, sexual behaviors, political attitudes, traditional family (importance of children, role of women, and so on), and in many other areas of life. Have students experienced conflict because college students have tended to be more liberal than persons in the home environment? 2. What are students' favorite or most hated television commercials? What techniques do these commercials use to persuade a viewer to use a product? What are the characteristics of the communicators? Of the message itself? Ask students to identify which commercials take a central route and which commercials use a peripheral route. 3. Although this is perhaps a risky undertaking, it may be possible to ask students if they know of anyone who has done things as a member of a group or a gang that he or she probably would not have done as an individual. If so, did the person show any guilt, remorse, or regret afterwards when he or she was away from the group? How do they think the gang or group affected that person’s choices and behaviors? 4. Assertive responding can be demonstrated by role-playing exercises in the classroom. The instructor or student volunteers can serve as assertive role models in structured vignettes involving asking someone for a date, interviewing for a job, returning a poorly cooked dish in a restaurant, refusing an unreasonable request 139

from a family member, intended dates, and so on. To demonstrate that assertiveness involves more than just the ability to say "no," use some vignettes that demonstrate assertive responding in giving or receiving compliments and expressing feelings of affection toward loved ones. We often find it helpful to point out that being assertive doesn't guarantee that you will get what you want from other people. However, it increases the probability of being satisfied, especially compared with outcomes when you are passive or aggressive. 5. A common confusion exists about the differences between aggressive and assertive behavior. The classroom role-playing exercise (suggestion 4, above) can be used to illustrate the difference by asking your student actors to demonstrate both assertive and aggressive responses in certain structured vignettes: expressing anger, interceding in the case of a line-breaker in a movie line, complaining about poor service, disputing a bill, and so on. Students should see that acting assertively does not mean that one has a license to aggress, to assault someone verbally or physically, or to act as if the words "tact" and "respect" no longer exist. It is important to demonstrate that expressing criticism in terms of one's own feelings is more effective and assertive than ad hominem arguments. For example, in the situation when someone arrives unexpectedly late, an assertive response might be, "When you came home two hours late and didn't call, I was afraid something had happened to you. I felt like you didn't care enough about me to call." This response can be contrasted with an aggressive, ad hominem attack such as "You're a lousy, uncaring S.O.B. who never gave a (bleep) about anyone but yourself." 6. Role reversal can be used to demonstrate cultural expectations of male dominance and female passivity. Vignettes can be staged in which male and female students enact the traditional marriage roles (male dominant; female passive/submissive) with respect to such situations as deciding who does the housework, choosing a movie to attend, deciding which car to purchase, and so on. Next, ask the student actors to reenact the same scenarios but with roles reversed, and give them the opportunity afterwards to compare and contrast their feelings in both role conditions. As a counterpoint, coach your student-actors to enact roles in which both partners assert their feelings, negotiate differences, divide responsibilities, and arrive at mutual decisions. 7. The discussion of Milgram's studies often leads to questions about ethics in research, particularly the use of deception. Are psychologists and other researchers justified in using deception, and, if so, under what conditions? Issues about debriefing, informed consent, and the relative balance between potential costs and benefits of the research are issues that can be discussed. It is possible to mention other laboratory procedures and ask students for their thoughts on whether they are ethical. Some suggestions:

The Masters and Johnson laboratory observations of sexual behavior The Harlow studies on social deprivation in infant monkeys The sacrifice of laboratory animals The Lang study on alcohol and aggression, which involved deception The military studies of radiation effects in the 1940s and 1950s (in which participants often weren't told what they were being exposed to) The Tuskegee syphilis study The purpose of this exercise is not to arrive at a stock of simplistic answers, but to encourage students to comprehend some of the dilemmas facing psychologists as they attempt to advance the state of psychological knowledge. 8. As illustrated in the text (page 249), ask students to keep a diary or log of their social interactions for a week or two to monitor their assertive and nonassertive behavior. Have them list their responses, how they felt afterwards, and the consequences of their behavior. Have them pinpoint particular assertiveness problem spots and develop strategies for learning more assertive skills based on the discussion in class and in the text. As another option, have students take the Rathus Assertiveness Scale (pages 248-249) in class or as homework. Compute class averages for males and females. This can serve as an applied introduction for discussing assertive behavior. 140

9. One of the most common techniques advertisers use in commercials to sell their products involves the utilization of classical conditioning. By pairing a series of conditioned stimuli with an unconditioned stimulus, advertisers have learned that you can sell products through the images with which the products are paired. Repeated exposure to this pairing makes the effect even more powerful. For example, how many commercials have students seen that aim to sell cars through the use of sexual innuendo? Many car commercials aimed at young males focus on a beautiful woman either sitting in the car, slinking around the car, driving the car (if it is a sporty model), or wistfully admiring some young male who is driving the car. The subtle message often seems to be "If you buy the car, she comes with it!" or "If you buy this car, someone as sexy as this person will desire you because you have the car!" The point is that commercials often sell the car by pairing the car with sex, knowing that many young males will respond positively to a healthy, attractive (and apparently willing) young female. Again, point out that such uses of classical conditioning represent "peripheral" routes of persuasion. Ask students to recall other types of commercials that use classical conditioning to sell their products. What pleasant images besides sex are used as unconditioned stimuli in these commercials? Some other examples I have used are: the soft drink companies often use ads pairing their products with either famous stars (identification), or a young, active, carefree, and healthy lifestyle; liquor ads in magazines often show either a beautiful woman (as in the car commercials) or two nearly perfect people (a heterosexual couple) engaging in conversation, and so on, with a subtle setting and mood that implies that these people are in love and/or are going to have sex later; the various "light beer" commercials that pair the beer with famous retired athletes (and use humor to make the commercial memorable). Or maybe the most famous classical conditioning ad campaign of all time, the "Marlboro man" campaign which paired Marlboro cigarettes with the idyllic American cowboy and turned a low-selling product into the largest selling brand-name cigarette in the world; or more recent cigarette promotional activities in which tobacco companies sponsor major sporting events in an effort to have their products paired with young, healthy athletes or sportsmen, despite the known health risks of smoking. This discussion can also be used as part of a discussion of classical conditioning (Chapter 2). More recently, advertisers have learned to place brand names in key segments of movies or video games so that consumers will link the product with the game/movie hero. Can students give examples of this from recent movies they’ve seen or games they’ve played? One caution: This discussion can become very time-consuming because invariably someone will raise the issue of subliminal perception (see suggestion 10), making it difficult to end the discussion without some additional exploration of the various types of subliminal perception and its ramifications. If you have very restrictive time limits, it is probably better not to use this suggestion. 10. I have found that in discussions about the use of classical conditioning as a persuasion tool in advertising, students typically ask about "subliminal perception," the technique where one can theoretically persuade others to change their behavior by sending a message directly to their subconscious minds without them being consciously aware of what has happened to them. This is a topic that is still debated, and the research concerning its effectiveness has been mixed, at best. I have typically pointed out that early research on subliminal perception found no support for its efficacy but that later, better-controlled studies have found some evidence that visual messages can sometimes have limited effects involving fairly primitive or reflexive responses. No such effects have been found with verbal messages. The effects are minimal and no one has ever shown that subliminal perception can cause you to buy products you wouldn’t ordinarily buy, help you learn complex academic material in your sleep, or make you do anything that goes against your basic moral values. Also, much of the research has been conducted with small samples and has not been effectively replicated, so how meaningful the results are is questionable. I also point out that since the use of subliminal persuasion as an advertising technique has been publicly frowned on for years (look at the flap that was aroused when George W. Bush’s campaign was accused of using an anti-Democrat ad with a nearly subliminal message in it in the 2000 election campaign), why would large respectable corporations risk their reputations, and potential litigation, using a technique with questionable efficacy when there are other methods of persuasion that are legal, acceptable and proven to be much more effective? Many students are more than willing to support the "secret plot" hypothesis, and I point out that while it is possible that companies have occasionally engaged in the practice, the current evidence does not support any sort of secret plot using subliminal persuasion in the vast majority of reported cases. 141

11. Related to suggestion 10 above, I often get questions related to the practice of "back-masking" of messages on phonograph albums and compact disks. Some popular recordings when played backwards do emit sounds that resemble words or statements (often the statements are claimed to be about Satan or occult practices) and some recording groups have actually put hidden messages in their music. The key issue is, "do such messages influence behavior?" The best evidence to date indicates that although the unconscious mind can receive some data presented to it, it cannot unscramble verbal data presented to it in highly compressed form, or in reverse, or softly interwoven into other louder, musical material. Thus, playing a compact disk or record album at its regular speed in its regular fashion with a backward-masked message, or a compressed message, or a scrambled message, or a subliminally soft message will not affect someone's behavior in any significant or measurable manner. 12. Ask students to describe the people in their lives who currently serve as authority figures (you may find yourself included). When do they feel willing to conform to the requests, or demands of these authorities? What factors serve to make them feel unwilling to comply with such demands? 13. As a follow-up to the text’s discussion on low-balling, ask for student volunteers to role play the situation in class. Ask the class to give feedback on the relative effectiveness of the various responses to a "lowballing" salesperson. 14. If you feel like stirring up some controversy, ask students to analyze the persuasion techniques used by the political “spin control” speakers who are constantly on the television news talk shows. Try to focus on the techniques used by specific individuals in regards to specific topics, such as the techniques used by the U.S. government and Saddam Hussein’s regime to win the hearts and minds of their respective publics during the war in Iraq. Or, perhaps, you could focus on techniques being used by both major political parties to “spin” the health care reform bills or the “cap and trade” legislation, both of which were being hotly debated at the time of this writing. Which techniques appear to be most effective? Why?

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Student Activities Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 7.1 Who's Listening?

No one has ever lost money by underestimating the intelligence of the American people. P. T. Barnum

I am confident that Mr. Barnum didn't have us in mind when he was estimating people's gullibility. But researchers repeatedly question how mindfully we handle attempts to influence us. Consider what you would predict people would do in response to these experimental conditions set forth by Harvard's Ellen Langer and her research group. Imagine you have positioned yourself at a library table very near the photocopy machine. Each time someone starts to use the machine and before he or she puts money in it, you approach with one of three requests to use the machine without waiting. Estimate what percent of people will comply with each type of request:

"Excuse me, I have five pages. May I use the Xerox machine?"

Compliance estimate = _______ %

"Excuse me, I have five pages. May I use the Xerox machine because I have to make copies?"

Compliance estimate = _______ %

"Excuse me, I have five pages. May I use the Xerox machine, because I am in a rush?"

Compliance estimate = _______ %

Follow-Up Questions: 1.

What reasons would you give for any differences in your predictions?

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What real value is there in the reason given for request number 2?

Now try to explain the results Langer reported for approaches 1, 2, and 3 respectively: 60, 93, and 94 percent.

What do Langer's results say about people's attempts to organize incoming information?

The researchers also tested the same requests except they changed the number of pages from 5 to 20. These requests resulted in compliance rates of 24, 24, and 42 percent. How do you explain the differences from the first set of results, including a general decline in compliance, and the similar results for approaches 1 and 2? Langer has used the concepts "mindlessness" and "mindfulness" to account for these outcome differences. How do you think she used them?

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Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 7.2 A Simple Question Compared to Britain and other nations, people in the U.S.A. watch more TV and, on the average, sets are switched on for seven hours a day. This would expose some of us to a considerable amount of effort to influence us through advertising. For this activity please watch your favorite commercial TV show this week. (Sorry about the hard assignment, but it will be a good lesson.) While watching, use a watch, clock, or calendar to keep track of the total time devoted to advertising and take some notes on your favorite ad. If you are not quite fast enough to catch it all, you might watch for the ad again. It is bound to be repeated, especially if it is interesting and well done. You will be able to identify some of the strategies used in the ad to persuade the audience by analyzing the characteristics of the communicator, the central and peripheral routes of the message, and the audience. 1.

Is the communicator an expert, attractive, familiar, or similar to the intended listener? Why do you think he or she was chosen?

It is not uncommon for people strong in some of these qualities to be weak in others, and yet still be chosen. For example, ex-athletes often represent brands of beer, and actresses explain why it is good to use buffered aspirin. Since they are not experts, why are they chosen?

Would the use of music, dance, song, beautiful people or scenery (all known as production values) take advantage of the central or the peripheral route of influencing discussed in Chapter 4? What route was used in the ad you have chosen to analyze? How do you think it affected the ad’s persuasiveness? Why?

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What information used the central route? How memorable or effective was this information? Why?

What audience do you think this ad is aimed at? Can you characterize the intended audience as to age, gender, and motivation to be mindful? What other audiences do you think this ad could be targeted toward, if any? Why?

Would you evaluate the ad as successful or not? Why or why not?

In general, which influences you more? The communicator, the central message, or the peripheral messages? Why?

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Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 7.3 Another Simple Question For this activity please watch your favorite commercial TV show this week. (Sorry about another difficult assignment, but it will also be a good lesson.) While watching, use a watch, clock, or calendar to keep track of the total time devoted to advertising and take some notes on your least favorite ad. If you are not quite fast enough to catch it all, you might watch for the ad again. It is bound to be repeated, and you are bound to notice it, especially if it is annoying to you. You will be able to identify some of the strategies used in the ad to persuade the audience by analyzing the characteristics of the communicator, the central and peripheral routes of the message, and the audience. 1.

Is the communicator an expert, attractive, familiar, or similar to the intended listener? Why do you think he or she was chosen, and could they have chosen someone better? If so, who, and why would your choice have been better than theirs?

What information in the ad used the central or the peripheral route? How do you think it could have been better used to affect the ad’s persuasiveness? Why?

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What biases, positive or negative, do you have about the product being advertised in this ad. Do you think any negative biases about the product or the spokesperson in the ad could have affected your reaction to the ad? If so, how? And what could the ad have done differently to help prevent your biases from interfering with the persuasiveness of the message it wanted you to accept?

Some advertisements are used even when market research indicates that a large percentage of the public finds the ad annoying. This is because the same research indicates that the more annoying some ads are, the more likely it is that viewers will buy that product when they shop, despite the annoying qualities of the ad. Why do you think this happens? Has this ever happened to you? If so, what was the ad and the product being advertised?

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Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 7.4 What Would You Predict? 1.

Consider for a moment the next presidential election. What would influence you to become highly involved in the campaign of your choice for president? List your ideas here:

Now suppose you want to persuade someone who does not know whom he or she wants to support to help you with the very big job of handing out leaflets for your candidate in public places on campus and elsewhere. Which techniques in the chapter can you use to influence this person to help? Why would he or she help?

Predict your helper's attitude toward your favorite candidate if: you only thank the helper for the help he or she gave you, or you pay more than the usual amount students can earn in such jobs. Under which condition do you think your helper’s attitude would change more? Why?

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 7.5 Will We Be Willing to Help? We are disturbed by the Kitty Genovese story, and probably ask ourselves what we would do in similar situations. After the discussions of helping behavior in Chapter 7, we realize that circumstances and even our mood may influence our willingness to help or remain a bystander. If we chose to be more helpful, we can consider ideas already discussed earlier in the text, and organize our thoughts to increase helping. Consider your answer to these questions: 1.

How do you create a schema of yourself as a helper? What would be your ideal?

How do you practice being helpful? What are some common opportunities to use? What are some opportunities you could create for yourself, with a little effort?

Are you comfortable that you can assert yourself when the occasion warrants it? Why or why not? If the answer is no, what changes can you make so that eventually the answer will be yes?

Social psychologists, who have led the work on helping research, are prone to investigate the situational variables that affect behavior - that's why it's called social psychology. While they may not emphasize enduring traits of persons as factors, we can speculate what traits might be worth investigating. What traits do you think would be worth studying? Why?

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Name __________________________________ Date ____________ 7.6 Are Our Attitudes Being Manipulated by Madison Avenue? It appears to me to be a very clever advertising campaign when I see a beer pegged as the choice of real mountain men. The ads are replete with implied similes about appreciating the "wildlife," and carrying sixpacks instead of six-shooters. Of course, we could not have expected advertisers to be so truthful as to include the possibilities of beer bellies, belches, and hangovers. Instead, we are exposed to promises that the good life is a function of our beverage choice, with popularity and sex as bonuses if we choose wisely. To begin questioning the possible influence advertising could have, we might start with our own experience. 1.

During this week, keep a diary of all alcohol and tobacco ads you encounter. Record the products and the total number of ads. You are likely to encounter ads in newspapers, television, radio, billboards, and points of purchase in stores. How many did you record total? For each specific item?

Would you include T-shirts, sponsorship of sports or music events, and insignias on equipment as ads also? Why or why not?

Which ones were the most effective? Why?

Which ones were the least effective? Why?

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Also record some information about the actors and models in the ads with particular attention to such details as their age, gender, appearance, and behavior. Other information includes to whom the ads are addressed (the target audience), what implicit rewards are promised for using the product, and what kinds of behavior are encouraged by the ads. What conclusions can you draw from what you have seen, giving specific reasons to support your conclusions?

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8 Psychological Disorders Chapter Outline Module 8.1: What Are Psychological Disorders? 8.1.1. 8.1.2.

Criteria for Determining Abnormal Behavior Classifying Psychological Disorders

Module 8.2: Anxiety Disorders 8.2.1. 8.2.2.

Types of Anxiety Disorders Causal Factors

Module 8.3: Dissociative and Somatoform Disorders 8.3.1. 8.3.2. 8.3.3. 8.3.4.

Types of Dissociative Disorders Causal Factors in Dissociative Disorders Types of Somatoform Disorders Causal Factors in Somatoform Disorders

Module 8.4: Mood Disorders 8.4.1. A. 8.4.2. B.

Types of Mood Disorders Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Why Are More Women Depressed? Causal Factors Box: Self-Assessment: Do Your Own Thoughts Put You Down in the Dumps?

Module 8.5: Schizophrenia 8.5.1. 8.5.2.

Types of Schizophrenia Causal Factors

Module 8.6: Personality Disorders 8.6.1. 8.6.2.

Types of Personality Disorders Causal Factors

Module 8.7: Psychology in Daily Life: Helping a Friend in Crisis 8.7.1 8.7.2 8.7.3 8.7.4

Factors in Suicide Who’s at Higher Risk? Myths About Suicide What Do You Say Now? What Do You Do Now?

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Chapter Overview Psychological Disorders. Psychological disorders are characterized by such criteria as unusual behavior, socially unacceptable behavior, faulty perception of reality, personal distress, dangerous behavior, or selfdefeating behavior. Classification of Disorders. The most widely used classification scheme is found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) of the American Psychiatric Association. The DSM groups disorders on the basis of observable symptoms or features and uses a multiaxial model to provide a more complete diagnostic evaluation. Adjustment Disorders. Adjustment disorders are maladaptive reactions to one or more identified stressors that occur shortly after exposure to the stressor(s) and cause signs of distress beyond that which would normally be expected or impaired functioning. Adjustment disorders are usually resolved when the stressor is removed or the person learns to cope with it. Anxiety Disorders. Anxiety disorders are characterized by motor tension, feelings of dread, and overarousal of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. These disorders include irrational, excessive fears, or phobias; panic disorder, characterized by sudden attacks in which people typically fear that they may be losing control, going crazy, or having a heart attack; generalized anxiety disorder, a generalized pattern of worrisome, anxious behavior and heightened bodily arousal; obsessive-compulsive disorder, in which people are troubled by intrusive thoughts or impulses to repeat some behavioral ritual; and the posttraumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder, which involve maladaptive reactions to a traumatic event. The psychodynamic perspective views anxiety disorders in terms of underlying psychological conflicts. Learning theorists view phobias as conditioned fears. Cognitive theorists focus on ways in which people interpret threats. Some people may also be genetically predisposed to acquire certain kinds of fears. Biochemical factors -- which could be inherited -- may create a predisposition toward anxiety disorders. One such factor is faulty regulation of neurotransmitters. Dissociative Disorders. Dissociative disorders are characterized by sudden, temporary changes in consciousness or self-identity. They include dissociative amnesia, in which personal memories are forgotten; dissociative fugue, which involves forgetting plus fleeing and adopting a new identity; dissociative identity disorder (multiple personality), in which a person behaves as if more than one personality occupies his or her body; and depersonalization, which is characterized by feelings that one is not real, or that one is standing outside oneself. Many psychologists suggest that dissociative disorders help people keep disturbing memories or ideas out of mind. Childhood abuse or trauma figures prominently in the case histories of many people with dissociative disorders. Somatoform Disorders. People with somatoform disorders exhibit or complain of physical problems, although no medical evidence of such problems can be found. In conversion disorder, a person loses a physical function or capability without any apparent medical cause. The person may show la belle indifference (indifference to the symptom), which is suggestive that the symptom serves a psychological purpose. In hypochondriasis, people have exaggerated fears about the significance of their physical complaints and fail to be reassured when their doctors tell them their fears are groundless. These disorders were once called “hysterical neuroses” and expected to be found more among young women. However, they are also found among men and may reflect tendencies to focus on physical symptoms than underlying fears and conflicts. They may also reflect ways of avoiding painful or anxiety-evoking situations. Distorted cognitions also play a role.

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Mood Disorders. Mood disorders involve disturbances in expressed emotions. Major depression is characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, loss of interest, feelings of worthlessness or guilt, inability to concentrate, and physical features that may include disturbances in the regulation of eating and sleeping. Even hallucinations and delusions may be present. Bipolar disorder is characterized by dramatic swings in mood between elation and depression and back. Manic episodes may involve pressured speech, and rapid flight of ideas. Women are more likely than men to be depressed. This may reflect biological influences, but women typically also experience greater stress than men in our culture -- including the stress that accompanies carrying a greater proportion of household and childcare responsibilities.. Research emphasizes possible roles for learned helplessness, attributional styles, and underutilization of serotonin in depression. People who are depressed are more likely than other people to make internal, stable, and global attributions for failures. Genetic factors involving regulation of neurotransmitters may also be involved in mood disorders, Moreover, people with severe depression often respond to drugs that increase the availability of serotonin. Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is a most severe and persistent psychological disorder that is characterized by disturbances of thought and language, such as loosening of associations and delusions; in perception and attention, as found in hallucinations; in motor activity, as shown by a stupor or by excited behavior; in mood, as in flat or inappropriate emotional responses, and in social interaction, as in social withdrawal. The major types of schizophrenia are paranoid, disorganized, catatonic. Paranoid schizophrenia is characterized largely by systematic delusions; disorganized schizophrenia by incoherence; and catatonic schizophrenia by motor impairment. According to the multifactorial model, genetic vulnerability to schizophrenia may interact with other factors, such as stress, complications during pregnancy and childbirth, and quality of parenting, to cause the disorder to develop. According to the dopamine theory of schizophrenia, people with schizophrenia use more dopamine than other people do, perhaps because an overabundance of dopamine receptors in the brain. Personality Disorders. Personality disorders are inflexible, maladaptive behavior patterns that impair personal or social functioning and cause distress for the individual or others. The defining trait of paranoid personality disorder is suspiciousness. People with schizotypal personality disorders show oddities of thought, perception, and behavior. Social withdrawal is the major characteristic of schizoid personality disorder. People with antisocial personality disorders persistently violate the rights of others and are in conflict with the law. They show little or no guilt or shame over their misdeeds and are largely undeterred by punishment. People with avoidant personality disorder tend to avoid entering relationships for fear of rejection and criticism. Psychodynamic theory connected many personality disorders with hypothesized Oedipal problems. Genetic factors may be involved in some personality disorders. Antisocial personality disorder may develop from a combination of factors, including genetic vulnerability and harsh or neglectful parenting in childhood.

Teaching Objectives After studying this chapter your students should be able to: 1.

Explain what psychological disorders are and identify the various criteria used to decide if someone should be labeled as "disordered."

Explain what the DSM is, what it is used for, and what each of its axes does.

Explain what adjustment disorders are and identify and describe the various adjustment disorders. 157

Explain what anxiety disorders are and identify and describe the various anxiety disorders.

Summarize the various theoretical perspectives on anxiety disorders.

Explain what dissociative disorders are and identify and describe the various dissociative disorders.

Summarize the various theoretical perspectives on dissociative disorders.

Explain what somatoform disorders are and identify and describe the various somatoform disorders.

Explain what mood disorders are and identify and describe the various mood disorders.

10.

Summarize research findings on the differences among men and women in rates of depression.

11.

Summarize the various theoretical perspectives on mood disorders.

12.

Explain what schizophrenia is and identify and describe the three major subtypes of schizophrenia.

13.

Summarize the various theoretical perspectives on schizophrenia.

14.

Explain what personality disorders are and identify and describe the various types of personality disorders.

15.

Summarize the various theoretical views on personality disorders.

16.

Describe who is most likely (statistically) to commit suicide, and identify at least three myths about suicide and explain why each one of them is incorrect.

17.

Identify and briefly describe at least five things you can do if someone tells you that he or she is considering suicide.

Key Terms hallucinations ideas of persecution Diagnostic and Statistical Manual adjustment disorder anxiety disorders specific phobia claustrophobia acrophobia social phobia social anxiety disorder agoraphobia panic disorder generalized anxiety disorder obsessive-compulsive disorder obsession compulsion posttraumatic stress disorder acute stress disorder gamma-aminobutric acid (GABA) benzodiazepines

dissociative disorders dissociative identity disorder somatoform disorders dissociative amnesia dissociative fugue dissociative identity disorder depersonalization disorder conversion disorder la belle indifférence hypochondriasis mood disorders major depression psychotic bipolar disorder manic rapid flight of ideas schizophrenia learned helplessness attributional styles delusions 158

stupor paranoid schizophrenia disorganized schizophrenia catatonic schizophrenia waxy flexibility mutism concordance rate diathesis personality disorders paranoid personality disorder schizoid personality disorder schizotypal personality disorder borderline personality disorder histrionic personality disorder narcissistic personality disorder antisocial personality disorder avoidant personality disorder dependent personality disorder obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

Lecture/Discussion Suggestions 1. In order to demonstrate the way in which lay people use the word "sick" to describe behavior they do not understand, cite one or two recent instances of criminal behavior and ask students whether they think the criminal's behavior (like violently raping someone or molesting a child) was "sick." Then ask the class why they think the behavior is sick. This can lead to a full discussion of issues surrounding the label of "sick" and the frequency of a behavior, the degree to which a behavior is disturbing to others, the degree to which a behavior seems self-defeating, and the degree to which students cannot understand the person's motives. Point out that (a) the label "sick" is overused, and (b) “sick” is often a "catch-all" term for behaviors the public doesn't understand or finds morally/culturally unacceptable or offensive. Discuss the dangers in such labeling, specifically that sick people are typically not held responsible for their behavior and therefore may be less likely to change it, or be fully punished for it, even if it involves criminal behavior! Related to this, you might point out that homosexuality has traditionally been labeled as “sick” and was for a long time was considered a legitimate mental illness by psychiatrists and psychologists, but today it is not. This could be a useful, albeit somewhat controversial exploration of how what many in society deem to be “sick” is not always the same as what psychologists label mentally ill. 2. After students have become familiar with the subject matter of the chapter, ask them what a "psycho" is. Sometimes a class is dumbfounded by the question, and sometimes a vigorous debate develops. Some students may make the error of citing a movie or television show in which a "psycho" was responsible for a series of murders -- this, to them, can be evidence. If someone cites a television show's story as "evidence," ask the class what is the problem with that, and don't allow the discussion to proceed until someone clearly states the error of using a scriptwriter's imagination as scientific evidence. You might continue the discussion until a number of students clearly state that a "psycho" is a lay term that has no precise meaning within the science of psychology, and is misused almost as much as the word “sick” (discussed above). Then you might ask students to define specific scientific terms like "psychotic" and "psychopath." 3. In discussing definitions of abnormal behavior, I have found that students often ask about what constitutes “insanity.” Strictly speaking, insanity is a legal, not a psychological, term, and students need to understand this difference. There is no single, all-encompassing federal law on this matter and various states have a patchwork of insanity provisions in their laws. Legal definitions of insanity may be quite different from psychological definitions of mental illness, and give examples such as the antisocial personality, who may be mentally ill by psychological standards but is generally considered to be legally sane. I also discuss the difficulties in knowing whether someone is sane, by anyone's standards, at a given moment in time, which is often the crucial factor in a "temporary insanity" defense, particularly if the person had no history of psychotic behavior. Finally, if time permits, I mention that some states allow juries to choose a "guilty but insane" verdict, whereby a person gets treatment for any mental health problem related to the crime committed, but may also have to serve the sentence prescribed by law for the crime. I have found that in this area, students typically have very strong feelings, but very little of the technical knowledge necessary for making an informed opinion. It is a worthwhile topic to discuss, but may require some significant outside research into the insanity laws of your state and some current cases in which it has been used. 4. It is interesting to elicit views from the class as to why people commit certain bizarre acts. Explain demonistic thinking - that is, the notion that some "thing" got in to someone, or that some unknown "force" was at work in someone. What of the expression that someone is "not herself" or "not himself?" A brief history of demonological concepts of abnormal behavior serves as a good introduction and counterpoint to the various modern theories. 5. If time permits, you might wish to mention some known organically caused disorders that can impair adjustment and cause serious long-term health problems such as: brain trauma, which typically results from a blow to the head from such causes as falls, car accidents, and gunshot wounds (and the various levels of trauma - concussion, contusion, and laceration), brain infections, such as syphilis and encephalitis, degenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease, and cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs), such as strokes.

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6. When there is time, I have often briefly discussed the DSM-IV and how it is used by mental health practitioners desiring third-party reimbursement for services. This typically leads to a discussion of health insurance and policies that provide coverage for mental health services. Many students are unaware that such coverage exists (even if it is often quite limited). Some, who have had direct experiences, may complain about the difficulties they had getting coverage for loved ones. I try to point out situations in which having such coverage can be economically and emotionally beneficial. 7. The issue of suicide, particularly college suicide, may not receive much discussion in the classroom but nonetheless remains a tragic fact of college life. To involve students in this discussion, ask them to list the various stress factors that might contribute to college suicides. Ask them to suggest alternative ways of handling such stressors. What would they do if someone they knew threatened suicide? Have students review the "do's" and "don'ts" mentioned in the text on pages 288-289 for handling such a situation.. 8. Many times, people who are considering suicide exhibit changes in their behavior that can be considered "warning signs" that a suicide attempt is possible. While not all people presenting these warning signs attempt suicide, often people who attempt suicide present the warning symptoms. It is useful for students to be aware of the possible warning signs so that they can take appropriate precautions or intervention measures (described in the text). Some signs are prolonged depression, weight loss, increased drug use or abuse, withdrawal from friends and formerly pleasurable activities, giving away prized possessions for no apparent reason, and a sudden or intense focus on the meaning of life and death, or on death itself. Other signs include dropping veiled hints that the person might not be around much longer or that maybe you won't see them again, or (most blatantly) asking questions about suicide and "what would it be like?" or "what would you think about someone who commits suicide?" By themselves, these behaviors do not necessarily mean anything. But the more of these behaviors that appear at one time in combination with feelings of helplessness and hopelessness following stressful life events or "exit" events, the more likely it is that the behaviors are warnings. Most suicidal people attempt to warn others before they make an attempt. Unfortunately, many of these warnings are so veiled that others don't recognize them as warnings until after the suicide attempt has occurred. A meaningful discussion with students about what to look for and how to cope with the situation if they suspect they are getting warning signs can be a very useful tool for building student awareness of the problem and building student confidence that if they run into such a problem they can handle it effectively. 9. Invite a member of a suicide "hot line" or crisis intervention team to discuss issues related to suicide and suicide prevention. 10. Ask students to differentiate between the “blues” and depression. Lead the discussion so that students come to realize that these states are forms of the same disorder but differ in duration, intensity, feeling, and long-term outlook. People with the blues rarely have the helpless-hopeless perspectives found in sufferers of long-term depression. I find it useful to focus on the specific factors that lead to depression in college students. I borrow heavily from Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck's concepts of catastrophizing and cognitive distortions, and Carl Rogers' ideas about "conditions of worth." I point out how college students are at high risk for depression, given the multiple stressors that can impact on them, and their relatively limited amount of adult experience to help them keep these stressors in their proper perspective. Students are generally not surprised to find out that they are in a high-risk group. However, they are often surprised to realize that there are so many methods of coping with stressors that they can learn to master by themselves. 11. Are persons who commit suicide insane? During this discussion it becomes necessary to reiterate that "insane" is a legal term, but that we may loosely translate it into wondering whether the suicidal person experiences a thought disorder, suffers from impulses that cannot be controlled, or some other mental illness. This is another instance where we may label behavior and motives we don't understand as being "sick," insane, or "crazy." You might point to evidence suggesting that the majority of suicidal individuals are depressed but not psychotic. A good example might be the terminally ill person who takes his or her own life so as to end things quickly, on his or her own terms, rather than face a slow, excruciatingly painful deterioration with no hope of a cure. Is such an action necessarily irrational? I have found that this example typically elicits a thoughtful class discussion with sometimes strong expressions of emotion. 160

12. Extend the coverage of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), using examples of how compulsions can serve to block obsessions, but only temporarily. You might also discuss the evidence linking OCD to neurotransmitter imbalances, particularly serotonin, in the brain and discuss some of the newer biological approaches to treating OCD. I have found it useful to relate the material on OCD to the coverage of anorexia and bulimia. These eating disorders manifest extensive patterns of obsessive-compulsive symptoms, and students seem to comprehend OCD better when they see the interacting obsessions and compulsions of the anorexic or bulimic. 13. Do your thoughts contribute to depression? Have students fill out the "self-assessment" exercise on pages 278 of the text. This exercise explores the types of thinking that can contribute to depression. 14. When I discuss dissociative disorders, I point out that these tend to be statistically rare disorders. However, because of the dramatic nature of the symptoms, they are often the focus of novels, movie scripts, and television shows. Virtually every "soap opera" has used the plot line where a lead character bumps his or her head and develops full-blown dissociative amnesia. While it is a convenient plot device, it is technically inaccurate in that long-term dissociative amnesia with loss of identity is not typically a result of a blow to the head, and it gives an exaggerated sense of the frequency of this disorder in the general population. I also mention that dissociative identity disorder (multiple personality) appears, in at least some cases, to be a real, not faked disorder, with some personalities in a "multiple" exhibiting varying allergic reactions, varying hand dominance, different talents and abilities, and even different "signature brain wave" patterns. It is also useful to note that a large majority of people with dissociative identity disorder have suffered from intense childhood physical, sexual, and emotional abuse. 15. You might discuss posttraumatic stress disorder, in terms of its causes, symptoms, and treatments. It can be useful to discuss with students why it has often been linked to the stress of military combat, and has already been diagnosed in some veterans of the Iraq and Afghanistan wars. It is also useful to explain that anyone experiencing an emotionally traumatic event can develop this disorder, not just combat veterans. 16. Often students hear media reports discussing gambling “addictions,” sexual “addictions, “ or in a similar vein, stories about “compulsive” eating, gambling, shopping, or sexual behavior. A brief, but interesting discussion could focus on the validity of these labels. Are these self-defeating behaviors truly addictions (in the classic sense of the term as it is used to describe physical dependence on substances)? Are they truly compulsive, in the way the term is used in the context of obsessive-compulsive disorder? IF not, how are they different?

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Student Activities Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 8.1 What Is Abnormal? When legal cases such as John Hinckley's involve pleas of "not guilty by reason of insanity," it is common to read that the defense was able to find expert witnesses who testified the defendant was "insane," while the prosecution was also able to call expert witnesses who testified the defendant was "sane." Who is right? Much of the problem is created by the difficulty of defining insanity. The same problem occurs when we try to define abnormal. It is easy to recognize the extreme cases, but often difficult to decide the cases in between, which are the majority. Consider the text's criteria of psychological disorder and think of a case that satisfies the definition, yet would not be likely to be called abnormal. For example, wearing bow ties or beehive hair styles may be unusual, which is the first criterion, but will not cause a diagnosis of "psychological disorder." 1.

Identify an unusual behavior that is not an example of a psychological disorder. Why is it not a disorder?

Identify an unacceptable behavior that is not an example of a psychological disorder. Why is it not a disorder?

What faulty perception of reality is not an example of a psychological disorder? Why is it not a disorder?

When might severe personal distress fail to be considered an example of a psychological disorder? Why is it not a disorder?

Name a self-defeating behavior that would not be an example of a psychological disorder. Why is it not a disorder?

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Name a behavior that is dangerous but not considered an example of a psychological disorder. Why is it not a disorder?

For a real challenge, identify a behavior that is all of the above, or as much of the above as possible, but is not regarded as a psychological disorder.

Now write an alternative definition of psychological disorder. (If you can manage this, you might become famous!)

Which theoretical model of psychological disorders would your definition best fit? Why?

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 8.2 Checking Our Attitudes Toward People With Psychological Disorders Suppose the government leased the apartments or home next door to your residence and converted them into use for the following people. Which types of handicaps or disorders, if any, would create the most discomfort for you? Rank each from 1 to 4, with 1 representing the most alarming, and 4 representing the least alarming.

_____ Persons with mental retardation

_____ Recovering illegal drug users

_____ Schizophrenics

_____ Convicted pedophiles or other sexual predators

_____ Recovering alcoholics

_____ Adolescents with anti-social personality disorder

_____ Convicted violent criminals

_____ Convicted non-violent criminals

What would be your worst fears in each case above? a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

Ask others the same questions and record their responses here: 1.

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Have you any evidence that prejudices exist against the people who are labeled psychologically disordered? If so, what is it?

Why do you believe that prejudices exist against people who are labeled as being psychologically disordered?

What are three things you believe can be done to help alleviate prejudices against the psychologically disordered?

What ill effects could prejudices cause the psychologically handicapped?

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Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 8.3 You Make the Diagnosis Diagnosis is not always as easy as it looks, and diagnosticians can easily disagree about a label if certain features of a person's problems are more prominent at some times and not at other times, or if behaviors associated with one disorder can be associated with a different disorder as well. For instance, people can cry when they are sad, but people can also cry when they are happy. Some people may have symptoms of multiple disorders and then the problems becomes, which one is causing them most distress and needs to be addressed first? Diagnose the following cases: Case 1. Sam is a military dictator who surrounds himself with multiple rings of security due to fears of plots to assassinate him. He has body “doubles” who precede him to any scheduled appointments. He sleeps in a different, random location each night, and has guards randomly assigned to ‘taste-test’ his food in case his personal chefs are involved in a plot to kill him. He regular purges his political rivals and military commanders to ‘weed out’ those potentially disloyal to him, and has killed or arrested thousands in the process. He feels no guilt over his actions, as he claims his victims ‘got what they deserved’ and he had the right to ‘get them before they got him.’ Additionally, he names everything in the country after himself, and has huge posters of himself everywhere. He surrounds himself with ‘worshippers,’ constantly glorifies himself at others’ expense, and constantly criticizes or demeans anyone who is potentially as intelligent or skillful as he is. How would you label this person? Why?

Case 2. Bonnie, age 53, complains of constantly feeling down and has little or no energy. She feels she can’t do anything right and will never be happy. She cries at ‘the drop of a hat’ over almost anything. Other than visits to her doctor, she is reclusive and rarely goes anywhere. She has always worried about illness, has an extensive list of perceived health problems, and is a regular visitor to on-line sites like “web M.D,” where she tries to diagnose the symptoms that she claims her physicians have ignored. She is convinced that she has an undiagnosed life-threatening disorder that will kill her if she can’t find a treatment for it, despite repeated reassurances from her doctors that there is nothing physically wrong with her. If it wasn’t for the attention she gets from her adult children, who drop whatever they are doing to take care of her when she gets ‘sick,’ she doesn’t feel she would be able to survive at all. How would you diagnose Bonnie? Why?

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Name_______________________________ Date _______________ 8.4 A Second Look at Bonnie's Case Good diagnosticians want to look for a phenomenon known as secondary gain. Secondary gain occurs when the disorder results in rewards. An example in the text described the inability to fly missions when some bomber pilots developed a type of conversion disorder, including night blindness. You may remember that memory failures in dissociative disorders were linked to avoidance of painful thoughts, and thus can also illustrate secondary gain. 1.

Can you detect any possible secondary gain for Bonnie? If so, what is it?

In your opinion, what is the merit in hypothesizing that secondary gain plays any role in the problems Bonnie is experiencing?

How could you test to see whether secondary gain is involved or not?

Is it necessary to assume that secondary gain is the only principle that is needed to explain Bonnie's difficulties? Why or why not?

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 8.5 Finding Help for Someone Considering Suicide After reading the discussion of suicide, you probably found the suggestions for helping someone who is contemplating suicide quite valuable. In a real crisis it might be difficult to comply quickly with some of the recommendations, including finding professional help. Answer these questions and you can be steps ahead in a real crisis. 1.

What is the phone number of a "hotline" (other than 911) you can call?

How long did it take you to answer question number one? What problems did you run into? If you gathered the results for your class, the emergency service that administers the hotline might appreciate learning your results.

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Does your school have a counseling center or any service that can respond to emergencies, including potential suicide? Does this service have data on the frequency of emergency phone calls? Is it a 24-hour service? How would someone in crisis typically access this service?

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9 Therapies: Ways of Helping Chapter Outline Module 9.1: Psychodynamic Therapies: Digging Deep Within 9.1.1. 9.1.2.

Traditional Psychoanalysis: “Where Id Was, There Shall Ego Be” Modern Psychodynamic Approaches

Module 9.2: Humanistic-Existential Therapies: Becoming Oneself 9.2.1. 9.2.2.

Client-Centered Therapy: Removing Roadblocks to Self-Actualization Gestalt Therapy: Piecing It Together

Module 9.3: Behavior Therapy: Adjustment Is What You Do A. 9.3.1. 9.3.2. 9.3.3.

Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Finding Help Fear-Reduction Methods Aversive Conditioning Operant Conditioning Procedures

Module 9.4: Cognitive Therapies: Adjustment Is What You Think (and Do) 9.4.1. 9.4.2. A.

Cognitive Therapy: Correcting Errors in Thinking Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy: Overcoming “Musts” and “Shoulds” Box: Self-Assessment: Are You Making Yourself Miserable? The Irrational-Beliefs Questionnaire

Module 9.5: Group, Couples, and Family Therapy: When Therapy Goes Beyond the Individual 9.5.1. 9.5.2. 9.5.3.

Group Therapy: We’re in This Together Couples Therapy: When the Group Is the Couple Family Therapy: When the Group Is the Family

Module 9.6: The Effectiveness of Psychotherapy A. 9.6.1. 9.6.2.

Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Internet Counseling: Psychological Help May Be Only a Few Mouse Clicks Away Problems in Comparing Different Forms of Psychotherapy Analyses of therapy Effectiveness

Module 9.7: Psychotherapy and Human Diversity 9.7.1. 9.7.2. 9.7.3. A.

Psychotherapy and Ethnic Minority Groups Feminist Psychotherapy Therapy for Gay Males and Lesbians Box: A Closer Look: Beverly A. Greene: In Her Own Words

Module 9.8: Biomedical Therapies 9.8.1.

Drug Therapy: In Search of the Magic Pill? 173

Module 9.9 Psychology in Daily Life: Coping with Emotional Responses to Stress – Anxiety, Anger, Depression 9.9.1. 9.9.2. 9.9.3. 9.9.4.

Coping with Anxieties and Fears Managing Anger Lifting Your Mood (Getting Yourself Out of the Dumps) Exercise: Work it Out by Working Out

Chapter Overview Psychotherapy. Psychotherapy is a systematic interaction between a therapist and a client that applies psychological principles to affect the client’s thoughts, feelings, or behavior in order to help the client overcome psychological disorders, adjust to problems in living, or develop as an individual. Traditional Psychoanalysis. The goals of psychoanalysis are to provide self-insight into unconscious conflicts and replace defensive behavior with coping behavior. The major techniques used are free association, dream analysis, and interpretation of the transference. For example, a psychoanalyst may help clients gain insight into the ways in which they are transferring feelings toward their parents onto a spouse or even onto the analyst. Modern Psychodynamic Approaches. These are briefer and more directive, and the therapist and client usually sit face-to-face. Client-Centered Therapy. Client-centered therapy was developed by Carl Rogers. It uses nondirective methods to help clients overcome obstacles to self-actualization. The therapist shows unconditional positive regard, empathic understanding, and genuineness. Gestalt Therapy. Gestalt therapy was originated by Fritz Perls. It is a highly directive method that aims to help people integrate conflicting parts of their personality. He aimed to make clients aware of conflict, accept its reality, and make choices despite fear. Behavior Therapy. Behavior therapy relies on learning principles (for example, conditioning and observational learning) to help clients develop adaptive behavior patterns and eliminate maladaptive ones. Behavior therapy methods include flooding, gradual exposure, systematic desensitization, and modeling. Flooding exposes a person to high levels of fear-evoking stimuli without aversive consequences until fear is extinguished. In gradual exposure, the person progresses through a series of exposure encounters with increasingly fearful stimuli. Systematic desensitization reduces fears by gradually exposing clients to fear-evoking stimuli while they remain relaxed. Modeling encourages clients to imitate another person (the model) in approaching fearevoking stimuli. Aversive Conditioning. This is a behavior-therapy method for discouraging undesirable behavior by repeatedly pairing the stimuli associated with self-defeating goals (for example, alcohol, cigarette smoke) with aversive stimuli so that the undesirable stimuli evoke an aversive response. Operant Conditioning. These are behavior therapy methods that foster adaptive behavior through applying principles of reinforcement. Examples include token economies, social skills training, and biofeedback training. Aaron Beck’s Cognitive Therapy. Aaron Beck notes that clients develop emotional problems such as depression because of cognitive errors that lead them to minimize accomplishments and catastrophize failures. He found that depressed people experience cognitive distortions such as the cognitive triad; that is, they expect the worst of themselves, the world at large, and the future. Beck teaches clients how to dispute cognitive errors. Albert Ellis’s Rational-Emotive-Therapy. Albert Ellis originated rational-emotive behavior therapy, which holds that people’s beliefs about events, not only the events themselves, shape people’s responses to them. Ellis points out how irrational beliefs, such as the belief that we must have social approval, can worsen problems. 174

Group Therapy. Group therapy is more economical than individual therapy. Moreover, group members benefit from the social support and experiences of other members. However, some clients cannot disclose their problems in the group setting or risk group disapproval. They need individual attention. Couples Therapy. In couples therapy, a couple is treated together in the attempt to help them improve their communication skills and manage conflicts more effectively. Family Therapy. In family therapy, one or more families make up the group. Family therapy undertaken from the “systems approach” modifies family interactions to enhance the growth of individuals in the family and the family as a whole. Does Psychotherapy Work? Yes, statistical analyses using the technique of meta-analysis provide impressive evidence for the effectiveness of psychotherapy. Evidence from controlled research trials also supports the therapeutic benefits of particular forms of therapy (called empirically supported treatments) for particular disorders. In conducting research on psychotherapy, investigators face such problems as difficulties in randomly assigning participants to different methods of therapy, problems with measurement of outcome, and problems in sorting out the effects of nonspecific therapeutic factors, such as instillation of hope, from the specific effects of particular methods of therapy. Psychotherapy and Human Diversity. Therapists need to be sensitive to cultural differences. For example, they should understand how people from ethnic minority groups which have been subject to oppression and prejudice may be distrustful of European American therapists. Therapy methods and goals may also conflict with a client’s own cultural values. Feminist therapy attempts to increase awareness of sociocultural issues that contribute to women’s problems and challenges the tradition of male dominance. Many professionals believe that psychotherapy should not attempt to change a gay male or lesbian’s sexual orientation, but should help that person adjust to social and cultural pressures to be heterosexual. Drug Therapy. Antianxiety drugs help quell anxiety, but tolerance and dependence may develop over time. Antipsychotic drugs help many people with schizophrenia by blocking the action of dopamine receptors. Antidepressants often help people with severe depression, apparently by raising levels of serotonin in the brain. Lithium often helps stabilize mood swings in people with bipolar disorder. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT). In ECT an electrical current is passed through the temples, inducing a seizure and frequently relieving severe depression. ECT is controversial because of its side effects, such as memory loss and because of the highly intrusive nature of the procedure. Psychosurgery. Psychosurgery is a yet more controversial (and rarely if ever practiced) technique for controlling severely disturbed behavior through surgery on the brain. The Effectiveness of Biomedical Therapies. There is controversy as to whether psychotherapy or drug therapy should be used with people with anxiety disorders or depression. Drugs do not teach people how to solve problems and build relationships. Having said that, antidepressants may be advisable when psychotherapy does not help people with depression. Furthermore, ECT appears to be helpful in some cases of severe depression in which neither psychotherapy nor drug therapy (antidepressants) is of help. Antipsychotic drugs can help control more flagrant symptoms of schizophrenia. Psychosurgery is all but discontinued because of the questions about its effectiveness and the occurrence of serious side effects.

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Teaching Objectives After studying this chapter your students should be able to: 1.

Explain what psychotherapy is, describing its essential features.

Describe the goals and methods of psychoanalysis, and explain how modern psychodynamic approaches differ from traditional psychoanalysis.

Explain what client-centered therapy is, what its methods are, and discuss the qualities of a client-centered therapist.

Explain what Gestalt therapy is, describing its essential features and techniques.

Describe the goals and methods of behavior therapy, and briefly describe at least three behavior therapy methods for reducing fears.

Identify and briefly describe at least 5 steps you can take to ensure that you receive appropriate care when you are seeking help from mental health professionals.

Compare and contrast aversive conditioning and operant conditioning, identifying several specific types of operant conditioning in your discussion.

Explain what biofeedback training is, how it works, and what it is used for.

Describe the goals and methods of Beck’s cognitive therapy.

10.

Describe the philosophy, goals, and methods of Ellis’s rational emotive behavior therapy.

11.

Compare and contrast individual therapy with group therapy, and briefly describe at least two types of group therapy.

12.

Summarize the advantages and disadvantages of internet counseling.

13.

Summarize the research on the efficacy of psychotherapy, and explain the problems associated with conducting this type of research.

14.

Discuss the issues involved in the practice of psychotherapy with clients from ethnic minority groups.

15.

Explain what feminist therapy is, and why it developed.

16.

Discuss the issues unique to therapy for gay males and lesbians.

17.

Identify three biomedical approaches to therapy, explaining how they work and any problems associated with them.

18.

Describe how best to cope with anxieties and fears.

19.

Describe how best to cope with anger.

20.

Describe how best to cope with depression.

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Key Terms psychotherapy psychoanalysis free association resistance interpretation transference dream analysis wish fulfillment phallic symbols manifest content latent content ego analysis existentialism client-centered therapy Gestalt therapy frames of reference nondirective unconditional positive regard

empathic understanding genuineness gestalt behavior therapy behavior modification flooding gradual exposure systematic desensitization counterconditioned hierarchy modeling aversive conditioning rapid smoking token economy social skills training biofeedback training (BFT) cognitive therapy rational-emotive behavior therapy

group therapy family therapy meta-analysis nonspecific factors therapeutic alliance ESTs biomedical therapy psychotropic drugs rebound anxiety antipsychotic drugs antidepressants MAO inhibitors tricyclic antidepressants SSRIs lithium electroconvulsive therapy psychosurgery prefrontal lobotomy

Lecture/Discussion Suggestions 1. If the resources are available, bring some biofeedback equipment to the class for demonstration purposes. Experiences show that while students have a great deal of curiosity about these machines, the electrode connections suggest to some that electrical shocks are being transmitted through them. Such a demythologizing demonstration can be most instructive. 2. Ask students to think of some commonly experienced phobia, like fear of heights or fear of snakes. Then ask them to suggest alternative ways of overcoming these fears in terms of the techniques discussed in the text (systematic desensitization, gradual exposure, and so on). Ask them to suggest the steps to use in a fear-stimulus hierarchy for desensitization. Ask students to share with the class any successful experiences in overcoming fears or phobias. To protect confidentiality, you might request that students drop you an anonymous note describing their experiences. Then you can share the experience with the class without revealing individual identities. I'd expect such successful home remedies for fear reduction to generally reflect one or another of the behavioral change processes (although they may not be labeled as such), particularly gradual approach and participant modeling. 3. What is the difference between a compassionate layperson and a psychotherapist? (Besides about $160 per hour?) Seriously, this can be a good question to lead into a discussion of the educational backgrounds and professional roles of psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, and so on. The answer to the initial question lies in the definition of psychotherapy - a "systematic interaction" based on the use of psychological principles. Psychotherapists are using systematic approaches based on theory, training, and professional experience, whereas laypersons, no matter how sensitive, caring, and compassionate, are acting on personal experience, "common sense," and/or instinct and intuition, which can sometimes help but can just as often be harmful and have few inherent scientific or theoretical underpinnings. 4. If someone has a psychological problem, how can she or he know what kind of professional to go to and how to find such a professional? Discussing this question usually leads to describing the criteria for considering hospitalization, for deciding that one should visit one's college or university counseling center, for considering seeing a private practitioner, and so on. It also leads to a fuller description of the types of training of individuals, and of state regulations for licensing. Point out to students that they should not be shy regarding asking about 177

the credentials of individuals they are consulting. 5. In a discussion about laws concerning privileged information and ethics in psychology, ask students what they would do if they were psychologists and a client told them of an intent to commit suicide or to kill another person, or if a minor told them of a relative's sexual abuse of him or her. In such a discussion, I refer to the case of Tarasoff v. the Board of Regents of the State of California, during which it was decided that a therapist at a university counseling center was obligated to inform a potential victim of a threat made against her life by the therapist's client. 6. Before students have read this chapter, it may be informative to ask students their impressions of what happens during psychotherapy. Many students retain the Freudian stereotype of the older male psychotherapist with a Viennese accent sitting behind a couch and occasionally saying "Mm hmm," or analyzing a dream, or perhaps even using regressive hypnosis to find out about the client's early childhood. Point out that while some therapists continue to operate this way, few American therapists have Viennese accents, many are female, and only a few therapeutic approaches use dream analysis, regressive hypnosis, or a couch. 7. What are students' impressions of those who seek psychotherapy? Do they perceive such individuals as making mature decisions to seek needed information or help? As weak people who are incapable of making decisions or taking charge of their own lives? As "crazy" people? As spoiled, "neurotic" individuals (such as some Hollywood actors and actresses) participating in a fashionable activity? I usually suggest that individuals have a variety of their own reasons for seeking therapy, provide some demographic data on such persons, and state that strong adherence to a negative stereotype may dissuade some persons from seeking a therapist when they could have profited from doing so. 8. Ask the class if they know of anyone (no names please!) who has received ECT. The student may describe the behavior that led to the ECT and the person's apparent response to the ECT. This discussion can be extended to other biological therapies such as psychosurgery. You might wish to point out the small percentage of cases of major depression in which ECT is used. You might also point out the modern techniques used with ECT to minimize or eliminate pain and side-effects. You might finally point out a recent survey in which ECT patients claim that their ECT treatments were less aversive than going to their dentists for dental work! 9. If there's something of a latent performer in you, you might conduct an impromptu class demonstration of several therapeutic techniques (psychoanalytic, person-centered, TA, cognitive-behavioral, and so on). You play the role of the versatile therapist who switches from one orientation to another, for demonstration purposes only, of course, with student "clients" enacting various problems common in adjustment (for example, insomnia, anxiety, phobias, depression, and so on). This is usually a lively demonstration that requires some quick thinking on your part to highlight the various therapeutic approaches. Although not obligatory, of course, students seem to expect you to use a thick German or Viennese accent when demonstrating the psychoanalytic approach, a skill I am still striving to perfect. 10. Have class members, as a homework assignment, each pick a habit that they would like to reduce or eliminate (smoking, biting nails, procrastinating, and so on). Then ask them to keep a one-week record of the habit, a functional analysis of the behavior. Afterwards, ask students if the increased awareness of their habits served to reduce the frequency of the behaviors. 11. Lecture on Albert Ellis's irrational beliefs. Ask students for examples of behaviors that would demonstrate one or more of these beliefs. Why do students think that people in our society hold these beliefs? For fun you might gave a ‘sing along’ in which some older, but popular songs have been replaced with “irrational” lyrics, which point out the silliness of some of the irrational beliefs described in Ellis’s writings. These can be found at the Albert Ellis Institute Website (http://www.rebt.org/). 12. You might discuss here the issue of test anxiety with students and focus on how Ellis’s ideas of “catastrophizing” and “irrational beliefs” are an integral part of test anxiety, speech anxiety, and other types of performance anxiety. This could easily be used as a “launch pad” to do some deep-breathing exercises or progressive relaxation exercises with the class.

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13. Point out to students how family therapy is an effective form of treatment in abusive situations, anorexia or bulimia nervosa, childhood psychosomatic illnesses, and so on. Expand on the idea of the "identified patient" in the family often being the “scapegoat” for a variety of familial problems. I have encountered occasional resistance to this topic. For example, "It's my brother who's on drugs. I don't have anything to do with it!" Obviously this topic must be handled with sensitivity and tact. 14. It is also useful to include some material, if time permits, on the tremendous growth of "self-help" organizations. Groups like Alcoholics Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, and Adult Children of Alcoholics are helping millions of people cope with drug-related issues. In recent years, the idea of self-help or support groups has expanded to many issues from victims of child abuse to parents of children with SIDS. There are now support groups for agoraphobics, victims of rape, women who've had miscarriages - the list seems endless. Self-help groups are generally useful and often effective. They form an important adjunct to more formal therapies for people who might never otherwise get help. They are, indeed, an idea whose time has come. However, do students see any problems associated with the flourishing of self-help groups?

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Student Activities Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 9.1 Asking Ourselves After reading this chapter on therapies, you probably will have some opinions about psychotherapies. If you have not read the chapter yet, look at the first question and keep it in mind as you read. 1.

If you or someone you know were looking for a psychotherapist, which system or type of therapy would you choose or recommend and why?

Now consult the yellow pages of your local phone directory under the two headings "psychologists" and "psychiatrists" (the latter are often listed under physicians). Which schools of psychotherapy are represented, and is your choice included?

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Without asking, write down how you believe your adjustment instructor would answer question number 1 above. Why do you believe this to be true? Even if your instructor has no preference, he or she might be interested in knowing what kind of impression you have.

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Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 9.2 As Simple as ABC Based on the discussion of Albert Ellis's Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, try to interpret the following situation and offer some hypothetical assistance. A student-acquaintance informs you that he or she has failed an important exam in a required math class and is depressed and considers the situation in that class hopeless. 1.

What is "A," the activating event?

What seems to be the "C," or consequences in this case?

Which irrational belief(s), or "B," could be applicable in this example?

What arguments would you propose to dispute these irrational beliefs?

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What was the last event that upset you?

What feelings and thoughts did that event cause?

Which irrational belief or beliefs could account for your responses?

How would Albert Ellis challenge the ABC's in your example?

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 9.3 Constructing the Anxiety Item Hierarchy To conduct systematic desensitization, clients help their therapists to arrange disturbing stimuli in an order of increasing challenge known as an anxiety item hierarchy. For this exercise, choose a topic, behavior, or situation you associate with fear or anxiety. It does not need to be something that results in feelings of phobic proportions. For example, it could be competing in a race, telling the boss she or he made a mistake, looking over the edge of "Lover's Leap," or taking lessons in scuba. Some people find that the construction of the hierarchy alone can reduce some of their apprehension. 1.

Identify one item for a hierarchy that could be the first and least disturbing item. For example, related to the challenges discussed above, first items could be registering one week before the race, telling the boss the mail has arrived, standing 100 feet from the edge of Lover's Leap, or calling the scuba school to inquire about the cost of lessons.

Now identify the most distressing situation you can imagine for the challenge you have chosen. Again, for example: a competitor says "You don't belong in the race," the boss yells "You're fired," you lean over the edge of the cliff, or you find no air coming to the mouthpiece.

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Now for your challenge, arrange eight to eighteen stimuli in-between the two you have chosen, trying your best to make the perceived difference between each item about equal. If you have chosen a complex situation to cope with, it may take more than 20 items in your hierarchy, so don't hesitate to write more.

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 9.4 Identifying Caffeine Consumption Among the self-control techniques outlined in this chapter is the functional analysis of behavior. By recording information about problem behaviors, including the stimuli that encourage the behavior, and the situation in which the behavior occurs, we may see change occur in reaction to functional analysis, or at least gain ideas about the steps that could lead to successful intervention. For our project we can focus on consumption of caffeine. Prepare a note card so you can record caffeine consumption, including all caffeinated beverages and over-the-counter medications you use, the time, location, and rewards for use. Remember the colas, Dr. Pepper, Mountain Dew, chocolate, some analgesics, and some cold preparations are likely candidates for inclusion. You may find possible rewards include stimulation, socialization, prevention of headaches, or you may chalk it up to simple "habit." Can you record any adverse consequences you experience caused by caffeine, such as sleeplessness, nervousness, headaches, stomach complaints, and so on?

Follow-Up Questions: 1.

What situations prompt you to use caffeine?

What effects, if any, have you noticed if you fail to get your average daily dosage of caffeine? How have you dealt with those effects?

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What is the average number of doses of caffeine taken per day? How does this compare to numbers reported by classmates?

What self-control strategies could help reduce your caffeine consumption based on your functional analysis?

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10 Gender Roles and Gender Differences Chapter Outline Module 10.1: Gender Roles and Stereotypes: What Does It Mean to Be Masculine or Feminine? A.

Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Acculturation and Changing Gender Roles -- Rafael Javier in His Own Words 10.1.1. Adjustment and Psychological Androgyny: The More Traits the Merrier? B. Box: Self-Assessment: Are You a “Chesty” Male or a “Fluffy” Female? The Andro Scale.

Module 10.2: Gender Differences: Vive La Différence or Vive La Similarité? 10.2.1. Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities 10.2.2. Gender Differences in Personality and Social Behavior

Module 10.3: Gender-Typing: On Becoming a Woman or a Man 10.3.1. Biological Influences on Gender-Typing: It’s Nature’s Way 10.3.2. Psychological Influences on Gender-Typing A. Box: A Closer Look: Jayne Thomas, Ph.D. -- In Her Own Words

Module 10.4: Psychology in Daily Life: Coping with the Costs of Gender Polarization 10.4.1. Costs in Terms of Education 10.4.2. Costs in Terms of Careers 10.4.3. Costs in Terms of Psychological Well-Being and Relationships

Chapter Overview Stereotypes. A stereotype is a fixed conventional idea about a group that can give rise to prejudice and discrimination. A gender stereotype is a fixed, conventional idea about how men and women ought to behave. Cultural Beliefs and Gender Roles. Women are typically perceived as nurturing, gentle, dependent, warm, emotional, kind, helpful, patient and submissive. Men are typically stereotypes as independent, competitive, tough, logical, self-reliant, dominant, and protective. Gender Polarization. Gender polarization is the tendency to see males and females as opposites. This polarization is linked to the traditional view of men as breadwinners and women as homemakers. People see the feminine gender role as warm, dependent, submissive, and interested in the arts. They see the masculine gender 189

role as independent, competitive, protective, and competent at business, math, and science. Psychological Androgyny. Throughout history it has been widely assumed that the more masculine a person is, the less feminine he or she is, and vice versa. However, many psychologists look upon masculinity and femininity as independent dimensions. The construct of psychological androgyny characterizes people who possess both stereotypically masculine and feminine traits. Psychologically androgynous individuals can apparently summon up both “masculine” and “feminine” traits to express their talents and desires and to meet the demands of their situations. Psychologically androgynous people show high “identity” and “intimacy” -- using concepts of Erik Erikson. They show both independence and nurturance, depending on the situation. They have higher self-esteem and greater ability to bounce back from failure. Wives of psychologically androgynous husbands are happier than wives of husbands who adhere to a strict stereotypical masculine gender role. Cognitive Gender Differences. Boys have traditionally excelled in math and spatial relations skills, whereas girls have had the edge in language skills. However, these differences are small and growing narrower. Gender Differences in Social Behavior. Females are typically more extroverted and nurturant than males. Males are typically more tough-minded and aggressive than females. Men tend to express more interest than women in casual sex and having multiple sex partners. Biological Views on Gender-Typing. Biological views of gender typing focus on the roles of evolution, genetics, and prenatal influences in predisposing men and women to gender-linked behavior patterns. According to evolutionary psychologists, gender differences were fashioned by natural selection in response to problems in adaptation that were repeatedly encountered by humans over thousands of generations. Testosterone in the brains of male fetuses may be connected with the ability to manage spatial relations tasks. Testosterone is also connected with aggressiveness. Psychological Views on Gender Typing. According to psychodynamic theory, gender typing stems from resolution of the conflicts of the phallic stage. However, children assume gender roles at much earlier ages than the theory would suggest. Social-cognitive theory explains gender-typing in terms of observational learning, identification, and socialization. Gender-schema theory proposes that children use the gender schema of their society to organize their self-perceptions, and that they then evaluate themselves in relation to the schema.

Teaching Objectives After studying this chapter your students should be able to: 1.

Explain what gender roles, gender-role stereotypes are, and gender polarization are. Describe the characteristics typical of the traditional masculine and feminine gender roles in the United States.

Compare and contrast the concepts of “Machismo” and “marianismo.” What effects do they have on males and females in Hispanic culture, and how have they been affected by the process of acculturation?

Explain what psychological androgyny is and how it is different from other personality styles. Discuss how androgyny contributes to healthy adjustment and personal development.

Discuss the various gender-based differences in cognitive functioning and explain why these differences need to be viewed cautiously.

Identify and describe the various gender differences in sexuality, aggression, and communication.

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Define gender typing and explain what gender identity disorder is. Also, discuss how biological influences may affect gender typing.

Compare and contrast the psychodynamic, social-cognitive, and gender-schema views of gender typing.

Summarize research findings on whether men are naturally more aggressive than women.

Define gender polarization and discuss the various personal, educational, and job-related costs of gender-role stereotyping.

Key Terms gender roles gender stereotype stereotype machismo marianismo acculturation

psychological androgyny undifferentiated relational aggression gender typing gender identity sexual orientation

gender identity disorder (GID) evolutionary psychology identification socialization gender-schema theory gender polarization

Lecture/Discussion Suggestions 1. As an example of gender-role stereotyping, consider asking the class this question: "Which of these two people - Janet Taylor Spence or Jerome Kagan - is a famous psychologist, and which is a famous child psychologist?" Predictions would have it that the actual roles would be reversed on the basis of assuming that the female psychologist was the child psychologist and the male was the psychologist. 2. To introduce the concept of gender-role behavior, you might ask students to consider the various influences on their behavior in childhood that directed them toward their respective gender roles. Influences such as choice of toys that their parents bought them, the colors of their rooms and clothes, and being scolded for aggressive play or encouraged to play rough might be mentioned. The parents' behavior toward each other may also have served as a model from which children learned their gender roles and should be discussed. 3. While many traditional gender roles seem like anachronisms to many by today's standards, ask the class to suggest a few traditions that remain strong. Among those that immediately come to mind are the tendency for the husband to be the driver of the family car and for pipe smoking to remain an almost exclusively male preserve. While I don't mean to promote tobacco use as a sign of equality, it is curious that pipe smoking has yet to come into popular use among women whereas cigarette smoking has increased in popularity among younger women for many years now (and women are paying the price. In one of the great medical/social ironies of our time, lung cancer now surpasses breast cancer as a cause of premature death in women). 4. Another gender role that is still prevalent among students is the tendency for males to take the lead in asking for a date, or deciding what the couple will do on a date, and also driving on the date and paying for the date. While there has certainly been much movement away from this among adults, it doesn't appear to have changed as much among many of the college students with whom I work. A good question to pose to male students is "How many times have you been asked out by a female?" Then, "What was your reaction?" While many males still feel somewhat threatened by a female who asks them out, many others are flattered (something that surprises some female students), and typically, if the discussion warms up, many males will express the desire (almost a wish) that more women would take the lead and take the responsibility of always being in the lead off their shoulders. 191

For female students, ask them "How many times have you asked a male out for something other than a prom, and so on, where you may have felt you had to?" For those who have, ask, "How did you feel about doing this?" For those who haven't, "Why not?" This topic approaches the issue of gender roles from a perspective that is still very relevant and often anxiety-inducing to many college or high-school students. There is often some embarrassment about discussing this, but if the discussion takes off, it becomes a great tool to open lines of communication and build some trust between male and female class members. 5. Gender-role patterns are maintained by social influence throughout adulthood. In discussing the influences that affect behavior in the present, ask the male students to think about the last time they socialized with their male "buddies.”. Ask them to imagine what would have happened if instead of sports, politics, and the opposite sex, they directed their discussion toward a sharing of feelings, doubts, insecurities, and personal problems. Would they have been open in sharing emotional intimacy, or would this have been taboo? And what of the restraints placed on women? Are there still social pressures placed on women to sacrifice their career ambitions to help their husbands or fiancés in their careers, or in obtaining further education? How would others act if they were to place their careers on an equal footing? 6. What does it mean to be sexist? While most students respond to this question by pointing out instances of sexual discrimination in the workplace - for example, denial of equal pay for equal work - few are willing to admit that they hold sexist attitudes themselves. A follow-up question might elicit more personal attitudes: ""If you had a toothache while traveling away from home and there were two dentists listed in the local phone directory, Drs. Sally Jones and Sam Smith, whom would you call? Honestly now, whom would you choose to call and why?" To get very personal, you might discuss the fact that when women go to a physician to have a gynecological exam, as often as not they go to a male gynecologist. However, how many males in class would choose to go to a female physician for a complete physical examination, including genitals, if there was a choice between an adequate male physician and a superior female physician? Even today, most young adult males would choose the male physician. Surprisingly, many females will also prefer a male gynecologist to a female, so deeply ingrained (still) is the notion that physicians should be male. This type of sexism can be framed in terms of other occupations for which gender stereotypes still apply: lawyers, stockbrokers, banking executives, accountants, corporate managers, and so on. It can be useful, and fun, to reverse roles and talk about sexism where people are more comfortable dealing with women than men, such as: nurse, bank teller, secretary, receptionist, grade-school teacher, or baby-sitter. You might ask your students, "As parents, if you had a daughter who was talented in math and science or a son who liked nursing, would you discourage them from pursuing those interests? Why?” If you want to turn the discussion toward the political, you might ask students if they would be willing to vote for a female candidate for president. In the last Democrat presidential primary campaign, Hillary Rodham Clinton had many supporters, and nearly won the nomination. However, she also had many detractors who would not vote for a female. Ironically, though, more than a few of her supporters were only in her camp because their prejudices against African Americans were stronger than their prejudices against women. Other than Hillary, who might students vote for if they were to vote for a female for president? Some students will almost certainly respond with, “who else is there?” or something along that line, which raises the valid question of why, after 40 years of ‘women’s liberation,’ are there still so few viable candidates for the U.S. presidency? 7. As a homework assignment, ask students to keep track of gender stereotyping on television commercials or television shows. One classic line from an old commercial is: "My wife . . . I think I'll keep her." Ask them to note how many commercials feature women in domestic roles and how often the overdubbed voice of authority is male and the benighted listeners are female. What does all of this suggest about societal expectations of gender-role behavior? As a variation of this, ask students to keep track of gender stereotyping on television shows, particularly on the "soap operas." Again, how many shows effectively feature women in roles ultimately subordinate to men or in domestic roles?

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8. What are the traits that make up the traditional masculine role? The traditional feminine role? Were many men in the class ever criticized or made to feel uncomfortable if they exhibited a so-called feminine trait? What stereotypes do people typically have of males who pursue occupations that involve "feminine" traits such as ballet dancing or running a flower shop? Were any women in the class ever criticized or made to feel uncomfortable if they exhibited a so-called masculine trait? What stereotypes do people typically have of women who pursue occupations involving "masculine" traits, such as truck driving, or heavy construction work? Are such stereotypes accurate? How are they helpful or harmful? How are the stereotypes changing? Do students feel these stereotypes are positive or negative? For whom? Why? 9. What is mental health? Society has many different expectations, even today, for the behavior of mentally healthy men and mentally healthy women. You may find that students expect mentally healthy males to behave like mentally healthy adults, but not mentally healthy females. This finding would be consistent with the findings of the 1970 Broverman study (Broverman, I. K., Broverman, D. M., Clarkson, F. E., Rosenkrantz, P. S., and Vogel, S. R., (1970). Sex role stereotypes and clinical judgments of mental health. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 34, 1-7), in which it was shown that the social perception of the mentally healthy female differed markedly from that of a mentally healthy adult. For the purposes of this demonstration, have each student in your class list on separate sheets of paper those traits that they believe are common to (a) mentally healthy males, (b) mentally healthy females, and (c) mentally healthy adults. After completion, collect the questionnaires. You will want to use the three people sitting closest to the front to help you quickly analyze the results right there in class. Give each of the three volunteers one set of questionnaires (either a, b, or c). Have them tally how many traits are listed and how many people listed each of the traits. Record on the board or an overhead foil which traits were indicative of mental health for each category. To qualify, a trait must get 60 percent endorsement. For example, using 10 lists for mentally healthy adults, if six of the 10 students indicate that aggressiveness is a mentally healthy trait, record it on the board/foil under the "adult" column. If there is a 50/50 split on any trait, regard it as neutral and do not include it. Using your three volunteers, you can quickly read through the pairs, asking them to raise their hands as to which of the traits their questionnaire respondent endorsed. The procedure can then be repeated for the lists for healthy male and female traits. By the end you should have recorded on the board or foil something like:

Mentally Healthy Mentally Healthy Mentally Healthy Adult Male Female ____________________________________________________________________________

applicable trait

By having lined the traits up in this manner, you and your students can readily see the results. Are there any discrepancies? How do the three differ? How do they resemble each other? If there are large differences, get your students to discuss why. How might various definitions of mental health -- for example, self-actualization, mastery of the environment, adjustment to one's environment, and so on -- affect our view of a mentally healthy male versus a female? Could these reflect differences in our perceptions? At this point you might want to bring up the original Broverman study and its implications for counseling and therapy. 10. While discussing the purported role of sex hormones in gender differences, I find it helpful to mention the use of anabolic steroids, testosterone, and Growth Hormone by both female and male athletes. Undoubtedly, given the recent and well-publicized scandals in major-league baseball, many students will have heard of these substances. It is not unusual to have students in class who have used them. Discuss the risks (high blood 193

pressure, increased incidence of heart attack and stroke, personality changes, impotence in males, and perhaps higher risk of some cancers) versus the benefits (increases in muscle mass). 11. What are the economic costs of gender-role stereotyping to U. S. economic competitiveness? Given the intense competition in the international marketplace, can U. S. companies afford to engage in gender-role stereotyping? Are there some foreign countries where it might be necessary to engage in gender-role stereotyping in choosing whom you send there to represent your company because of the gender-role stereotyping that is a part of that country's culture? 12. Ask students to share examples of gender-role bias in teachers they have had. How has it affected them or their classmates? Have any students been sexually harassed (or do they know someone who was sexually harassed)? I often find that many students have encountered either gender-role bias or sexual harassment (or both) at some point in their education. The results can devastate students victimized by this type of behavior. 13. Ask students for their own ideas about girls' lower performance compared to boys in math in the United States. Given that females in some other cultures do just as well as males in math, if not better, and that the gap in male-female math performance do not appear in the United states until middle school, how might gender polarization and gender stereotyping lead to this problem? What might students suggest to encourage talented female students to pursue careers in math and science? 14. If you have a class where sufficient trust has been built among students, ask for volunteers to role play the handling of sexist remarks on the job. Have the entire class process the effectiveness of various responses to sexist remarks. This can also provide a preview of using assertiveness effectively.

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Student Activities Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 10.1 Riddles These riddles have been around for quite a while, but they may still be useful for our purposes. 1.

A man and his son are in a serious car accident. Both are rushed to the nearest hospital while unconscious. The boy needs emergency surgery, but the emergency room surgeon says, "I can't operate on him, he's my son." How is this possible?

If you enjoy sports, you might get this one. How can two softball teams play a complete softball game, and the score ends 1 to nothing, even though not one man for either team has crossed home plate?

I really doubt the riddles fooled you, given they are old and given the subject for this chapter. However, you may find they will work on a friend or acquaintance. Try them one at a time, separate them by a day or so, and see if your subject learns anything from the first to the second riddle, assuming you told him or her the answer to the first. What happens and what hypotheses might be generated from this information?

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Do you think that people today would be more likely to answer the riddles correctly than people 40 years ago? Why or why not?

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 10.2 Reversal of Roles It is not uncommon to read about or be entertained by people's real or imagined experience with role reversal. What kinds of answers do you come up with to the following questions? 1.

Movies I can think of that have featured the theme of role reversal go back to such Hollywood classics as “Some Like It Hot,” and include more recent films such as Mr. Mom, Mrs. Doubtfire, Tootsie, Three Men and a Baby, the Alien trilogy, and Tomb Raider. What movies can you add to this list? How have such films affected your views, if at all, of men’s and women’s roles in society?

Our nation's experiences in the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan have brought home the reality of women in combat missions. Do you believe that women should be serving in combat roles in the military? Why or why not? What limits, if any, would you recommend for women serving in the armed services when it comes to combat missions, and/or the draft?

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Ask someone else the same question found in 2 above. What is her or his opinion? Why do you think he or she is right or wrong?

In a related question, given the treatment of women in cultures such as that in Afghanistan (as imposed by the Taliban), do we have a right, as a culture to demand that this treatment be changed or to forcefully intervene to change it? Explain your reasons for your beliefs. Under what circumstances, if any, do we ever have that right?

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Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 10.3 Dear Old Sexist School Days In the text, Nevid and Rathus detail how gender roles are reinforced in the education system. Researchers have found that sex bias continues beyond primary and secondary education right into the lecture halls and laboratories of American universities and colleges. For example, a University of Illinois study found that while high school valedictorians, salutatorians, and honor students were attending the University of Illinois, selfconcepts remained steady for males, but dropped dramatically for females. Upon graduating from high school, 23 percent of the males and 21 percent of the females rated themselves as "far above average" in intelligence. By the time they were seniors in college, the numbers for the males and females were respectively, 25 percent and zero. Are college instructors biased in the ways research suggests, such as calling on male students more, making better eye contact with males, supporting male students more, and coaching males more? To assess such possibilities at your school, select one class other than this adjustment class, and record for one week the following information.

Did the instructor favor one gender by disproportionately calling on, helping, encouraging, or agreeing with either the men or the women in that class? How can you accurately record this data? Can anyone else in the class you have chosen also record the same data, so you could check for agreement (which we call reliability)?

In addition to your effort to carefully look at one selected class, where else in your school have you run into gender bias? How did it affect you? I have been utterly astonished at the stories of blatant as well as less obvious sexism that are still reported on college campuses, where people are supposed to be “enlightened” enough to know better. If you cannot think of any examples from your own experience, ask your friends if they have had such experiences. What have you learned?

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What hypotheses could you create to systematically test and document the effects of gender bias in higher education?

What other explanations might account for the University of Illinois findings?

What are at least four things people can do to effectively respond to biased and discriminatory behavior?

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Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 10.4 Thinking Makes It So Shakespeare wrote: "Nothing is either good or bad, but thinking makes it so." What may be meat for one person may be poison for another. It's in the eye of the beholder. And so forth and so forth. By the same token, we can substitute an attractive synonym for something much less attractive, or we can turn things around the other way and make something wonderful or grand sound ugly or base. Word games like these can be used to create or maintain sexual bias. For each of the words below, think of two synonyms that can be substituted for the word one positive and one negative. For example, we can substitute both "rational" and "unfeeling" for "stable," or "childish" and "creative" for "spontaneous.”

POSITIVE

NEGATIVE

consistent

__________

warm

__________

generous

__________

stubborn

__________

self-righteous

__________

different

__________

ambitious

__________

serious

__________

jaded

__________

assertive

__________

meticulous

__________

sensitive

__________

focused

__________

intelligent

__________

principled

__________

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 10.5 Interviewing Others Since we can learn so much from others, consider one or both of these possible interviews. One could be a child and the other an adult engaged in a career not typical for that person's gender, such as a male nurse, or a female firefighter.

With parental permission, question a child about issues raised in this chapter about early appearance of gender-role stereotyping. What questions can you think of and what are the child's answers?

Interview the adult with some questions prepared in advance, but also with flexibility to pursue some unanticipated but promising leads. What can you share from your conversations?

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What did you learn from your questioning of these people? How did it change your thinking, if at all, on this matter?

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11 Interpersonal Attraction: Of Friendship and Love Chapter Outline Module 11.1: Attraction: The Force That Binds 11.1.1. 11.1.2. 11.1.3. 11.1.4. 11.1.5. A.

Physical Attractiveness: How Important Is Looking Good? The Matching Hypothesis: Who Is “Right” for You? Attraction and Similarity: Birds of a Feather Flock Together Proximity: Seeing You Is Liking You Sexual Orientation: The Direction of Erotic Attraction Ethnicity and Sexual Orientation: A Matter of Belonging

Module 11.2: Friendship: “Gotta Have Friends” A.

Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Cell Phone Nation: Social Blessing or Curse?

Module 11.3: Love: That Most Valued Emotion 11.3.1. Styles of Love 11.3.2. Romantic Love in Contemporary Western Culture A. Box: Self-Assessment: Has Cupid Shot His Arrow into Your Heart? Sternberg’s Triangular Love Scale

Module 11.4: Psychology in Daily Life: Coping with Loneliness 11.4.1 11.4.2

Causes of Loneliness What to Do

Chapter Overview Factors that Contribute to Attraction. Physical appeal appears to be the key factor. In our culture, slenderness is considered attractive in both men and women, whereas tallness is valued in men. Women tend to see themselves as heavier than the cultural ideal. Similarity in attitudes and sociocultural factors (ethnicity, education, and so on), proximity, and reciprocity in feelings of admiration also contribute to attraction. Stereotypes About Attractive People. There is an assumption that good things come in pretty packages. Physically attractive people are assumed to be more successful and well adjusted, but they are also perceived as more vain, self-centered, and likely to have sexual affairs.

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Male and Female Preferences in Attractiveness. Both males and females emphasize the importance of physical appeal and personal qualities. However, males tend to place somewhat more emphasis on physical attractiveness, and females tend to place relatively more emphasis than males do on traits like vocational status, earning potential, consideration, dependability, and fondness for children. Some behavioral and social scientists believe that evolutionary forces favored the survival of ancestral men and women with these mating preferences because they conferred reproductive advantages. The Matching Hypothesis. The matching hypothesis suggests that we are more likely to ask out and marry people who are similar to ourselves in attractiveness -- largely because of fear of rejection. Sexual Orientation. Sexual orientation refers to the direction of erotic interests. People with a heterosexual orientation are sexually attracted to members of the opposite sex. People with a gay male or lesbian sexual orientation are sexually attracted to people of their own gender. People with a bisexual orientation are attracted to both men and women. Theories of Sexual Orientation. Psychodynamic theory connects sexual orientation with the resolution of the Oedipus and Electra complexes, Learning theorists focus on the role of reinforcement of early patterns of sexual behavior. Evidence of a genetic contribution to sexual orientation is accumulating. Sex hormones are known to have both organizing and activating effects. Sex hormones may have an effect on the developing brain during prenatal development that may affect later sexual orientation. People’s Reactions to Those Who Are Gay Males, Lesbians, or Bisexuals. Gay males and lesbians have generally met with strong -- sometimes violent – social disapproval. Most people in the United States today favor granting gay males and lesbians equal access to jobs, but many would bar them from activities – such as teaching – in which they fear (mistakenly) that their sexual orientation might affect the sexual orientations of children. Challenges Faced by Those With a Gay Male or Lesbian Orientation. Gay males and lesbians frequently struggle with coming out, both to themselves and others. They often have difficulty coming to terms with their sexual orientation -- both recognizing and personally accepting their sexual orientation, and then deciding whether they will declare their orientation to other people. Gay males and lesbians are more likely than heterosexuals to be anxious, depressed, or suicidal. Their adjustment problems may be connected with society’s negative treatment of them. The Role of Friends. We share activities, interests, and confidences with friends. The key qualities we seek are ability to keep confidence, loyalty, social support, and general positive traits, such as frankness and intelligence. Love. Love is a strong positive emotion characterized by feelings of attraction, attachment, and sexual arousal. Sternberg’s theory postulates three components of love: intimacy, passion, and commitment. Romantic love is characterized by intimacy and passion; infatuation (fatuous love) by passion and commitment; companionate love by intimacy and commitment; and consummate love -- which to many, is the ideal form of love -- by all three components.

Learning Objectives After studying this chapter you should be able to: 1.

Define attraction, describe the various traits that contribute to physical attractiveness in our culture, and discuss the accuracy of the various stereotypes about attractive people.

Summarize research findings on gender and cultural differences in the perception of attractiveness

Explain what the matching hypothesis is and how it influences who we choose as potential partners. 206

Explain the roles of attitudinal similarity, proximity, and reciprocity in interpersonal attraction and discuss the specific areas where similar attitudes are most likely to affect a developing relationship.

Explain what sexual orientation is and how it is different from sexual preference, and summarize research findings in regard to the origins of sexual orientation, and the psychological adjustment of gay males and lesbians.

Compare and contrast the attitudes of various ethnic minorities toward gay males and lesbians.

Describe the role played by friends in our lives and identify the various qualities we seek in friends throughout childhood and into adulthood.

Identify and briefly describe each of the six styles of love discussed in the text.

Explain Sternberg’s “love triangle” and identify at least five possible kinds of love that can emerge from this model.

10.

Compare and contrast romantic love with companionate love.

11.

Explain what loneliness is, describe the factors that contribute to it, and identify various measures that can be taken to cope with it.

Key Terms attraction matching hypothesis proximity reciprocity sexual orientation heterosexual homosexual bisexual

organizing effects activating effects cliques crowds cliques love eros ludus

storge pragma mania agape consummate love empty love fatuous love companionate love

Lecture/Discussion Suggestions 1. I have found that a good way to introduce this topic in some classes is to have students in the class generate a list of the things they find attractive and would look for in a potential mate. This can be done either in a straight question/answer format with the entire class, or you can have the students generate individual lists on paper, hand the slips into you, and tally them on the board, or you can break the class into small groups and have each group generate a list to be shared with the class. Once you have collected the lists, discuss the factors that appear on them in terms of why each factor is important and what could be a potential drawback to overemphasizing that factor in a search for a partner. 2. In a variation of suggestion 1 (above), ask class members what they are looking for in their dating lives. What type of partners are they seeking? This is more than just generating a list of attractive qualities. This asks students to describe a package of qualities that make up an "ideal" partner. Some men and women are seeking partners they can look upon as equals in all areas of life. But some male students will be seeking passive or submissive women raised in a traditional orientation (although many of these males will no longer openly admit this!). On the other hand, some women will be seeking strong, dominant men they can respect who will "take care" of them (although most women who feel this way are hesitant to admit it too). Given the opportunity, some class members may attack traditionally minded men or women, and they may need a bit of support from 207

the instructor - at least in the sense that they are entitled to their view and they are entitled to seek out whomever they believe will make them happy, no matter what the current trends or opinions are. 3. Students may recall instances of being attracted to "forbidden fruit" (for example, someone their parents have forbidden them to be involved with). Why do they believe that such attraction grows stronger as a result of parental opposition? (This phenomenon is called the Romeo and Juliet effect.) I mention the possibility of at least two factors: (1) the adolescent need for independence is heightened by parental opposition, and (2) increased arousal resulting from parental opposition may be attributed to attraction to the "forbidden" person. 4. Students may recall having a "crush" (infatuation) on someone who did not share those same feelings in return. Sometimes, as above, the fact that the feelings are not mutual makes the desired person appear to be both a challenge to be "conquered" and "forbidden fruit," and therefore even more attractive and desirable. The person with the "crush" idealizes the other person and is often afraid of being rejected by that person. (Such idealization is a good example of the psychological defense of projection. In this case, the traits we desire to have in our "perfect" lover, or in ourselves, are projected onto the idealized partner.) The fear of rejection may increase arousal, increasing attraction even further. Often the crush, which in some cases may develop into a full-blown obsession (hence, the stalking phenomenon), will last in spite of strong evidence that the other person in not interested and the feelings will never be mutual. The crush typically disappears when the "obsessed" person looks at the object of his or her affections more realistically and begins to accept feedback from the other person that he or she is not interested in a romantic relationship. Until then, such feedback is either ignored or selectively perceived and interpreted as playing "hard to get," or some other such rationalization. You might ask students if they have ever been on the receiving end of a crush that would not end even when they gave clear feedback that the other person's feelings were not desired and would not be reciprocated. How did it feel for them to have this unwanted person continue to demand love and affection from them? How is it different if the other person is a platonic friend as opposed to a stranger? Often the person with the crush is so egocentric (in regards to the crush) that he or she has no idea how scary and uncomfortable it can be for the person who is the object of these unwanted affections. 5. "Playing hard to get" may work at first because of the challenge it presents. But research indicates that most of us prefer someone who shares similar interests and expresses an interest in us, which goes beyond the interest he or she expresses in everyone else. Most people will not continue to pursue someone who plays "hard to get." Many just assume the other person isn't interested. Others decide it's not worth the effort. Some just don't like the "game-playing" aspects of it. On the other hand, someone who shows a seductive interest in everyone tends to be less attractive to us because we want to believe that their interest in us is special. 6. Reciprocity, or a sense of balance that we all seek in our relationships, is a major factor in determining attraction. We tend to be most comfortable in relationships when we feel that the other person wants the same level of intimacy and involvement in a relationship as we want, and when we feel that the other person is giving as much to the relationship as we are. When there is an imbalance, and we feel we are giving significantly more or less than the other person, or want significantly more or less out of the relationship than the other person, we get uncomfortable and distressed. Reciprocity may be explained partly in terms of the reduced fears of rejection from someone who has expressed an interest in us - that is, we may feel safe in making an emotional investment in such a person. 7. The discussion of who is attracted to who often raises questions related to that ancient bit of folk wisdom that "opposites attract." Opposites attracting might be explained in terms of the complementarity hypothesis. For example, when a submissive partner is attracted to a dominant partner, and vice versa, their opposite qualities complement each other and they both may feel better because of it. Yet it is important to distinguish between complementary needs and clashing attitudes. You might suggest that the dominant-submissive relationship depends on shared expectations of each role in the relationship. The partners may part company if and when their expectations begin to diverge (unless their respective roles are redefined), such as the case when a previously submissive partner begins to act more assertively and independently in opposition to the wishes and unbending expectations of the more dominant partner. Or, to paraphrase Woody Allen, while the lamb might get into bed with the lion, the lamb won't get very much sleep. In essence, partnerships based on complementarity (complementing opposites) can be very tricky to manage. A change in one person requires 208

some complementing change in the other person or the relationship's existence is threatened. You might point out that one area where opposites rarely attract for long is when the "opposite" involves values. For example, it is quite difficult for an ardent “pro-choice” advocate to maintain an intimate relationship with an equally zealous “pro-life” advocate. Similarly, it is very difficult for an avowed atheist to maintain an intimate relationship with a fundamentalist Christian, Jew, or Muslim. This one major value difference involves factors that are too personal and deeply held to be ignored and are likely to be attacked by the other partner in one way or another. It undercuts the fabric of the entire relationship and may be enough to tear it apart. Typically, the greater the difference in partners' deep-level values, the less likely they will stay attracted to each other, unless they find some way to ignore or deny those differences, which is unlikely over the long term. Where values and morals are concerned, opposites rarely attract for long, and it is much more difficult to make such a relationship work. 8. You might briefly discuss the concept of "propinquity" - the effect of nearness. Research indicates that we are most likely to be attracted to, date, and marry people who we spend a lot of time near - the boy or girl next door, someone we work with, someone we go to school or church with. Propinquity, or being around someone in a variety of informal nondating social situations, gives us a chance to get a three-dimensional picture of someone that we might not get if we only dated them. In dating, there is tremendous pressure to be perfect. Hence, people wear masks and pretend to be different from how they really are. This can create a barrier that blocks intimacy if the person can't take the mask off. However, when we are around someone constantly, in informal situations like school, work, or the neighborhood, we get to see them interact more naturally with other people. It is more difficult for them to wear the mask, so we get a better chance to see if their behavior with us reflects their true nature. In most cases, unless the person has some deep-seated character flaw, propinquity increases attraction because we know the other person better and can build more trust and respect for them. It is no wonder then that most people end up marrying the "boy or girl next door" rather than someone they met in a bar or through a blind date. 9. Demonstrating your skills at prognostication, openly declare in class that you are 99 percent certain that none of your students will marry a resident of the state of North Dakota, unless of course you teach in North Dakota, or a neighboring state (in which case, predict that none of your students will marry a resident of the state of Vermont - not only is it far away, but it has very few residents!). Mention that while you're sure that people from North Dakota (Vermont) are perfectly good marital choices, the factor of propinquity alone will probably determine that none of your students will exchange "I do's" with any of the fine folk from North Dakota (Vermont). We're often led to believe the romantic myth that there is one special person, that Prince or Princess Charming, who is the only true perfect mate for us, if only we can find him or her. According to Eric Berne, many of us spend much of our lives playing the waiting game in anticipation of the "man (or woman) with the golden apples." This waiting may not only cause us to ignore or turn down potentially good mates because they're not perfect, but may also make it more difficult if you meet the so-called "perfect partner" only to have that "perfect partner" leave you for someone else (maybe you weren't their "perfect partner"). What do you do if your perfect mate dumps you for someone else ("I'll never find anyone so perfect again," which ignores the fact that if the relationship failed, your partner obviously wasn't as perfect for you as you believe). Eventually, most of us decide to settle down comfortably with the man or woman with the silver apples, or perhaps the ordinary Macintoshes, who live down the street. Marital choices are not usually made in heaven. As the text suggests, they're usually made in the neighborhood. 10. Students are typically quite fascinated with the notion that people may have a difficult time differentiating between arousal that stems from a source of danger, as in fear, and arousal that stems from an attractive person of the opposite sex -- as exemplified by the Dutton and Aron study in which young men found a female interviewer much more attractive and were three to four times as likely to ask her out when they were interviewed in a fear-induced high arousal setting (a suspension bridge over a 200 ft. gorge) as opposed to a safe low arousal setting (a normal office). Students usually have a good time attempting to apply this knowledge to a class discussion of how to create such arousal in dates and then lead one's date to attribute such arousal to sexual attraction. Don't fail to mention the Roman poet Ovid's suggestion to take dates to the Gladiator contests!

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Ask students to consider how Ovid's suggestions for stirring up romantic passions might be applied to their own lives. Such modern day spectacles as football games (gladiator contests?), amusement park rides, thriller-chiller movies, or even overcharged romantic movies can lead to heightened levels of physiological arousal "rubbing off" on feelings of attraction. It seems that more couples hold hands when leaving a theatre showing "Gone With the Wind" or "Star Wars" than when leaving an Ingmar Bergman film festival. Might such a process work in reverse by taking a date to a depressing movie? In this regard, I always mention that students thinking of taking their dates to a horror movie to achieve the desired arousal in their partner should stick to the Alfred Hitchcock type suspense-horror film and avoid the typical "Friday the 13th - part 453" slasher horror films. Many of these “slasher” films are more sickeningly graphic than scary, and if the film makes your date nauseous, might that not also generalize to your date's perception of you? 11. Is romantic love an "irrational emotion?" In discussing this, bring students around to the recognition that romantic love seems to exist only in cultures that teach and believe in the concept, and that romantic love seems to involve unrealistic idealization of the loved one. You might also mention that, historically, most cultures have not let romantic love be used as a basis for marriage, and some cultures, like the ancient Romans, considered romantic infatuation to be a form of temporary insanity! Perhaps there is more to the phrase “I’m crazy about you,” than we are willing to admit to. 12. How can you help yourself "fall out of love" if you find yourself enamored with someone you feel is not right for you? Ask the class for their suggestions. You might also provide a few of your own, such as some of Ovid's (cognitive-behavioral?) suggestions like focusing on the loved one's behavioral or other physical faults (warts, body odor, and so on) rather than his or her positive traits, or thinking of the loved one when you are angry about something or in a bad mood for some other reason. 13. What appears to determine friendships that form on campus or in the dorms? Do students become close to their roommates? If so, why? If not, why not? I point out that propinquity plus attitudinal and background similarity can be a powerful combination in the formation of a friendship. What do students see as the difficulty in maintaining platonic male-female friendships? Do students see any consistent differences between male-male friendships and female-female friendships? If they see differences, what might be the reasons those differences exist? 14. Ask the class to fantasize for a moment that someone representing their physical ideal (say a Brad Pitt or a Angelina Jolie, to name two) showed a romantic interest in them. What if Angelina proposed? Or Brad? Or . . . . (fill-in-the-blank)? What would life be like to be matched with someone so extraordinarily good-looking? Exciting and secure or filled with doubts? Integrate this discussion with a review of the matching hypothesis that predicts people will usually choose romantic partners more or less equal to themselves in physical attractiveness. What do students see as the psychological reasons why the matching hypothesis seems valid? And, if some of your students don't think the matching hypothesis is valid, ask them if they take notice when two people of radically different levels of physical attractiveness are romantic partners. The overwhelming assent to this question is a reverse confirmation of the matching hypothesis. 15. Recreate a "lonely hearts club" experiment in class. Ask students to write an advertisement seeking a romantic partner, say of the type "Hispanic female, 21, seeks . . . ." Ask them to specify in their ads their own major strengths in soliciting a prospective partner or mate and the characteristics they would seek in a mate: level of attractiveness, physical characteristics, income level, occupational level, age. Ask them to treat this seriously, as if they were actually submitting this advertisement to a national magazine. See whether or not the results agree with those of Harrison and Saeed (1977), that more attractive advertisers seek more attractive respondents, that women who advertised their physical attractiveness sought males who were more financially secure, that more successful males sought more attractive females, and so on. 16. Do good things come in pretty packages? Discuss with students the tendency we have to see beautiful/handsome people as "good" people. You may want to discuss findings that juries are less likely to find attractive people guilty (as is suspected to be the case in some celebrity trials), and even if they find them guilty, 210

they tend to give them lighter sentences. You might add that some researchers believe that this might be one reason that members of ethnic minorities, and poor people in general, tend to receive harsher sentences than whites and wealthy people - because they are usually seen as less attractive by jury members. 17. Ask students to discuss the six styles of love described in the Hendricks research. Do they agree, based on their own experience, that males are more "ludic" in love while women are more "pragmatic" or "manic?" How might these styles of love evolve into companionate love? An interesting approach to the topic of romantic versus companionate love is to ask class members how they know the difference between the two. Many of them have probably been in at least one relationship where the romantic love has faded and either companionate love developed or the relationship ended. Many students are very willing to share their experiences in this regard, and it can provide other class members with a more personal exploration of the importance of knowing the difference between romantic and companionate love, and what to expect when the romantic love begins to fade. 18. It is interesting that subjects of the Psychology Today poll on friendship ranked confidentiality as the most valued trait. Lack of friends who keep confidences is the complaint I hear most frequently from students about their friends. I emphasize the importance of the ability to keep confidences, and stress that friends who can keep confidences are to be treasured. 19. Ask students how they cope with loneliness, and the ways they combat it. Do they view loneliness as a serious problem for themselves? For college students in general? How does being lonely affect their activity levels and moods in other areas of their life? 20. Homosexuality is still a very controversial and little understood topic in the minds of many students. A major part of the problem is the negative stereotyping and prejudging of gay males and lesbians that still occurs throughout the country. One way to approach this is to have class members generate a list of stereotypes of gay males and lesbians. Then go through the list item by item, discussing the facts as opposed to the stereotype. I have found that once you get a majority of class members to openly and willingly look at gay males and lesbians as individuals, with differences as vast as those among heterosexuals, rather than as a collection of limp-wristed effeminate males or tough-looking females, you can carry the discussion into the problems faced by gay males and lesbians in a sometimes violently prejudiced heterosexual society. This is a very delicate topic that needs to be handled sensitively. Since, on average, any class with more than 20 people is likely to have at least one gay male or lesbian student, the feelings of possible homosexual or bisexual students should be considered when presenting this. By no means should gay male or lesbian students who are "in the closet" be encouraged or coerced to come "out" in class. Also, many students with very conservative ideologies have strong anti-homosexual fears and biases. They should also be respected, but at the same time they should be encouraged to respect the rights and feelings of others on this issue. This is especially true if the discussion turns to the issue of gay marriage, which it sometimes does.

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Student Activities Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 11.1 What Kind of Face Could Launch a Thousand Ships? As the text says, it may not seem intelligent and sophisticated, but physical appearance is given a lot of importance in interpersonal attraction. Homer claimed that it was the face of Helen of Troy that precipitated the Trojan War. Certainly the Greeks knew how to appreciate physical appearance, and they left a classical, idealized legacy for Western civilization to admire, ponder, and replicate. They are often given credit for defining the ideal characteristics of faces still followed by plastic surgeons today. While most of us might not know much about art, or faces, we know what we like. However, before we examine this fascinating information, seriously try to draw an idealized face in the space below.

Many of you may not have a clue as to how to begin, so here are some rules for shaping the face at least basically. 1.

Construct a rectangle so that the height is approximately 25 percent taller than the width (for example, four inches wide by five inches tall). Now divide the height by two horizontal lines so the rectangle is divided into equal thirds (for example, one line 1 and 2/3 inches from the top, and one line 1 and 2/3 inches from the bottom of the original rectangle).

Next, divide the length of the rectangle into equal fifths. In our example, this requires four vertical lines spaced 0.80 inches apart from each other and the sides of the original rectangle.

Now do what you do when you doodle, and doodle the ears between the middle horizontal lines.

Place the nose in the middle section, neatly fitting on the bottom line and between the two sides.

Place the eyebrows at the tops of the two sections to the sides of the nose section .

Activity continued on the back

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Place the eyes under the eyebrows and fully between the side lines of this section.

In the section immediately below the nose place the lips, one third of the way down the section and fully extending to and slightly past the sides of the section.

Find a magazine photo of the most attractive face you can and report how well the face conforms to the specifications above.

Collect five photos of faces you find attractive, and identify any additional specifications for attractiveness that were omitted above. Believe me, there are many more.

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 11.2 Is Your Love Like a Red, Red Rose? Clearly the word "love" gets overused when it can be applied to the most important person in our life and broccoli. Rathus and Nevid recognize this and make some suggestions about a more exact language of love, especially the different styles of love. The discussion suggests most people in love experience a combination of several different styles. Think about the "ideal" you have of love, and see if you can assign some percentage from 0 to 100 percent to each of the styles. Beside each style enter your ideal percentage.

__________ Eros or romantic love

__________ Ludus or game-playing love

__________ Storge or friendship love

__________ Pragma or pragmatic, logical love

__________ Mania or possessive, excited love

__________ Agape or selfless love

Follow-Up Questions: 1.

Would the relationship you describe above best be described as romantic love, companionate love, or some other love described in the text? How is it similar?

Looking back on a relationship in your past which ended, what percentages would you have assigned in that case?

Activity continued on the back

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How is the relationship described in question 2 (above) similar to or different from the ideal relationship you described in question 1 (above)? Is there any lesson in that?

If you are involved in a relationship, have your partner write down the percentages for his or her vision of ideal love. How does this compare with your ideal? Is it similar to or different from what you expected?

Try comparing your ideal love with a relationship portrayed in a novel, on a television show, or in a movie. What percentages could you use to describe the couple's relationship?

Think about an influential couple you knew while growing up - perhaps your parents, grandparents, or close family friends. What percentages would you assign to their love? Would you want a relationship like theirs? If so, why? If not, how would you want it to be different?

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 11.3 Coffee Shop Observations Next time you are in the student union, coffee shop, cafeteria, or any place where people sit at a table together, observe some of the nonverbal communication and answer these questions: 1.

What body language do people use to convey they are "in love" with the other person?

What body mannerisms suggest to you that two people are not romantically interested in each other, even though they are talking?

Activity continued on the back

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Looking at still another conversation, what can be deduced about the relationship being experienced by the two people at that table, and why?

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 11.4 Is Love Insane? George Bernard Shaw is quoted as saying love is "the most violent, most insane, most delusive, and most transient of emotions." 1.

What arguments or examples from experience, could you use to support his characterization of love?

What rebuttals could be used to refute his contentions?

Activity continued on the back

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Based on your arguments (above), what reasons can you provide to argue that lifetime marriage should be based on love?

What reasons can you provide to argue that lifetime marriage should not be based on love?

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12 Relationships and Communication: Getting From Here to There Chapter Outline Module 12.1: The ABC(DE)s of Relationships 12.1.1. A Is for Attraction A. Box: Adjustment in the New Millennium: Twenty-first Century Dating: Matches Made in (Cyber) Heaven 12.1.2. B Is for Building 12.1.3. C Is for Continuation B. Box: Try This Out: Get That Date! C. Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: They Say You Can’t Hurry Love ... But How About Speed Dating? 12.1.4. D Is for Deterioration 12.1.5. E Is for Ending

Module 12.2: Marriage 12.2.1. 12.2.2. 12.2.3. A. 12.2.4. B. 12.2.5. 12.2.6. 12.2.7. C.

Whom Do We Marry? Are Marriages Made in Heaven or in the Neighborhood? The Marriage Contract: A Way of Clarifying Your Expectations Marital Satisfaction: Is Everybody Happy? Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Emotional Intelligence: The Emotional Pathway to Success Extramarital Affairs: On Truth and Consequences Box: Self-Assessment: Do You Endorse a Traditional or a Liberal Marital Role? Intimate Partner Violence Divorce Adjustment in Stepparent Families Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Dating Again

Module 12.3: Being Single 12.3.1. Cohabitation: "Would You Be My POSSLQ"?

Module 12.4: Psychology in Daily Life: Making Relationships Work 12.4.1. 12.4.2. 12.4.3. 12.4.4. 12.4.5. 12.4.6. 12.4.7 12.4.8

Resolving Conflicts Increasing Pleasurable Marital Interactions Enhancing Communication Skills How to Listen How to Learn About Your Partner’s Needs How to Delver Criticism How to Receive Criticism How to Cope With Impasses 221

Chapter Overview Scientific Views of Stages in the Development of a Relationship. According to social-exchange theory, stages of development involve social exchanges, which balance the rewards and costs of maintaining the relationship. Levinger's Stages in the Development of a Relationship. According to Levinger, relationships undergo a five-stage developmental sequence: attraction, building, continuation, deterioration, and ending. Relationships need not advance beyond any one of these stages. Steps People Can Take to Build a Relationship. People can use opening lines, small talk, and self-disclosure to build relationships. Small talk is a broad exploration for common ground that permits us to decide whether we wish to advance the relationship beyond surface contact. Self-disclosure is the revelation of personal information. Self-disclosure invites reciprocity and can foster intimacy. However, premature self-disclosure suggests maladjustment and tends to repel people. Factors that Contribute to the Continuation or Deterioration of a Relationship. Factors that contribute to the continuation of a relationship include enhancing variety (to fight boredom), trust, caring, commitment, evidence of continuing positive evaluation (e.g., Valentine’s Day cards), absence of jealousy, perceived equity (e.g., a fair distribution of homemaking, child-rearing, and breadwinning chores), and mutual overall satisfaction. The Role of Marriage Today. Today’s marriages still provide a home life and an institution for rearing children and transmitting wealth. However, they are usually based on attraction and feelings of love, and they provide for emotional and psychological intimacy and security. Factors that Contribute to Marital Satisfaction. These include good affective communication, problemsolving communication, sexual satisfaction, and agreement about finances and child-rearing. A marriage contract may help clarify a couple’s values and goals. For example, it indicates whether the wife will take the husband’s surname, who will be responsible for what chores, type of contraception to be used, methods of child-rearing, and how leisure activities will be decided on. By and large, married people seem to be happier with their lives than single people are. Extramarital Affairs. Extramarital sex is viewed negatively by the great majority of people in the United States. Although people have become more permissive about premarital sex, they generally remain opposed to extramarital sex. The discovery of infidelity can evoke anger, jealousy, even shame. Affairs often, but not always, damage marriages. Intimate Partner Violence. About one woman in eight is victimized by intimate partner violence each year. Women and men are equally likely to engage in intimate partner violence, but women are more likely to sustain serious injuries. Intimate partner violence is frequently connected with threats to men’s dominance in relationships. Divorce. About one-half of all marriages in the United States end in divorce. Reasons include relaxed restrictions on divorce, greater financial independence of women, and -- ironically -- continued positive expectations for marriage, particularly the belief that marriage should meet people’s needs and be happy. Divorce typically lowers the standard of living for all parties involved. It is associated with an increased likelihood of suicide in men. Divorce can lead to family disorganization, making it more difficult to rear children. Being Single. Many people are remaining single today by choice, and many are delaying marriage to pursue educational and vocational goals. Some people remain single because they have not found the right marital partner. Others prefer sexual variety and wish to avoid making a commitment.

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Cohabitation. Cohabitation is living together without being married. The incidence of cohabitation has risen to the point where nearly half the population has cohabited at one time or another. For some, cohabitation is an alternative to marriage that confers many of the benefits of marriage without the depth of commitment. For others, cohabitation has, in effect, become a stage in courtship. People who cohabit before marriage may be more likely to get divorced. However, we shouldn’t assume that cohabitation prior to marriage is a cause of later divorce.

Teaching Objectives After studying this chapter your students should be able to: 1.

Explain what an intimate relationship is, and briefly describe Levinger's five stages in the development of a relationship.

Identify and discuss the positive and negative factors that affect each of Levinger's five stages in the development of a relationship.

Explain how cyber-dating is changing the dating scene, and identify at least five guidelines for safer cyberdating.

Discuss the importance of small-talk and self-disclosure in a developing relationship.

Discuss the roles of caring, trust mutuality, and commitment in a developing relationship.

Discuss jealousy, in terms of its causes, effects, and gender differences in reasons for jealousy.

Identify and briefly explain the steps people can take to improve their date-seeking skills at the easy practice level, medium practice level, and target behavior level.

Explain the factors involved in the deterioration and ending of relationships. Discuss whether this is inevitable, and what can be done to prevent it from happening.

Explain why people get married, describe who they marry, and discuss the factors that affect marital satisfaction.

10.

Explain what emotional intelligence is, identifying its five main features, and discuss why it is important to relationships.

11.

Discuss who has affairs, how many people have them, why they have them, how they affect the primary relationship, and how Americans feel about whether affairs are right or wrong.

12.

Discuss how widespread intimate partner violence is, who engages in it, and what motivates it.

13.

Discuss the reasons for changes in the divorce rate in recent years and explain the costs and effects of divorce on all of those involved.

14.

Summarize research findings on adjustment in stepparent families. How common are stepparent families and why is it important to understand them?

15.

Identify and briefly describe at least 5 guidelines for single parents who are about to begin dating again.

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16.

Describe the singles scene, explaining why more people have chosen to remain single in recent years, and the problems encountered by single people today.

17.

Discuss cohabitation in terms of the reasons for and types of cohabitation, and why it has increased in recent years. Also discuss the risks for divorce among those who cohabit prior to marriage and those who do not.

18.

Describe the various methods of coping with marital conflict described in your text.

19.

Explain the various methods presented in your text for improving your communications and listening skills, as a means for resolving marital conflict.

20.

Explain the methods presented in your text for learning about your partner’s needs when trying to improve marital communication.

21.

Describe the methods presented in your text for making requests when trying to improve marital communication.

22.

Describe the methods presented in your text for delivering and receiving criticism when trying to improve marital communication.

23.

Explain the methods presented in your text for coping with impasses when trying to improve marital communications.

Key Terms intimate relationships social-exchange theory ABCDE model needs for affiliation surface contact small talk confederates

self-disclosure mutual cyclical growth mutuality jealousy speed dating equity homogamy

marriage contract emotional intelligence divorce mediation cohabitation part-time/limited cohabitation premarital cohabitation substitute marriage

Lecture/Discussion Suggestions 1. A role-playing exercise is useful in demonstrating the social facades created when people first meet and exchange information about themselves through small talk. Ask for volunteers from the class to play the roles of strangers who meet and engage in social conversation for the first time, say at a singles group, in a line at a college registration, and so on. While Woody Allen used subtitles in the movie Annie Hall to demonstrate what each person really thought but left unsaid, you might ask these role-playing volunteers to turn aside to the class and reveal their inner thoughts they would like to keep hidden from their partner during the social interaction. However, advise students to avoid any public disclosure that might prove embarrassing to themselves or their student-partner ("I think he's so ugly ...."). 2. An essential part of the ritual of developing intimacy involves more than just the words used and thoughts unspoken. It involves the nonverbal messages people send with their bodies. Eye contact, personal space, attire, posture, poise, touching, and so forth, are all a part of the process by which we size up partners, especially during the awareness and surface contact stages. You might ask students to discuss how they know someone is interested in them, based exclusively on nonverbal cues. Ask how they behave differently (nonverbally) with people they like versus people they don't like. Or, ask how they can tell people's feelings toward each other by 224

just watching them. Usually students can name many cues that reveal assumed motives behind nonverbal behaviors. And while body language is by no means an exact science, there are many general rules, especially when focusing on people involved in a relationship, which are fairly accurate most of the time. This discussion might also be used in exploring the role of physical attraction (in Chapter 11) drawing people together. 3. Role-playing exercises can also be used to illustrate various sources of marital conflict and some possible solutions. Student volunteers can be asked to play the roles of husband and wife and be coached by the instructor to engage in negative interactions, such as the use of hostile insults to express their dissatisfaction, or the adoption of a domineering role by one partner, which stifles the opinions and choices of the other partner. Making use of the techniques described in the text, the mock couples can then practice conflict resolution through the use of negotiation strategies, specifying complaints, exchange contracting, and so on. The suggestions on giving and receiving criticism can be used as starting points for these role plays. If student volunteers are scarce, the instructor can model appropriate and inappropriate communication techniques. Be sure to stress that conflict resolution techniques are equally effective for people who are dating or who are just good friends. They can also be useful in resolving conflicts with supervisors and fellow employees in the workplace. 4. The issue of single parenthood and related issues of custody rights, adoption by single parents, and so on have elicited a great deal of public commentary over the years. While not all of these issues are covered in the chapter, they are related to the topics of marriage and divorce and worthy of discussion here. As a lead-in to a discussion of these issues, you might pose the following question to your class: "Where is it written that a woman is a better parent, just by the virtue of her gender?" Students should perceive that there is no simple answer to contested custody proceedings, and that such alternatives as sole custody and joint custody have both advantages and disadvantages. Be aware, though, that a discussion of divorce and single parenthood is likely to arouse strong emotional reactions among students who are themselves children of divorce. If possible, when they are willing and able to share some of their feelings and experiences with the class, ask them to share some of the adjustment challenges and problems they faced and how they coped with them. 5. Students are often willing to share with others their early bumbling experiences in dating situations, sweaty palms and all. This discussion item can be helpful in introducing the concepts of dating skills, dating anxiety, and the techniques psychologists use to help individuals improve their dating skills, such as assertiveness training, systematic desensitization, rational restructuring, and so on. Role-playing exercises can also be used to demonstrate assertive and nonassertive dating interactions. One way to get this entire discussion going is to have class members who are willing discuss the most thrilling experience they ever had on a date (non-X-rated) or even the most embarrassing experience they've ever had on a date. 6. How is marriage today different from the past? Such changes in the state of marriage as shifting gender roles, changing expectations from marriage and from marriage partners, changes in sexual behavior, and increased divorce rates can be introduced into the discussion. You might additionally discuss how such changes affect children in today's marriages, in terms of differences in children's roles and responsibilities. 7. "The girl (or boy) that I marry will have to be . . ." With this refrain from a familiar old song, the class discussion can be directed toward examining the factors that predict marital choices, such as homogamy and propinquity. This discussion can also be integrated with a discussion of research concerning factors that determine attraction (Chapter 11), such as physical attraction and attitudinal similarity. 8. Cohabitation has been an increasingly popular arrangement among couples over the last four decades. You might ask students to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of cohabitation as compared with traditional marriage. How many class members would consider cohabitation as an alternative for themselves? (Some may have already chosen this option.) Would it be a temporary alternative with a goal of eventually getting married or a permanent alternative to marriage for them? As part of this discussion you might also have students discuss the pros and cons of other marriage alternatives such as singlehood, open marriage, group marriage, and communal living. One caution is advisable in this discussion: Some students find such alternatives to traditional marriage either sinful or morally offensive. It is important that these issues be presented in a manner that does not ignore those moral considerations. However, people who have more liberal views shouldn't be attacked as "sinners" or corrupt either. It is important to point out that, while one does not have to agree with or condone others’ choices, there is no single universally agreed upon set of morals regarding these issues and each person 225

must base his or her actions on his or her own moral judgments. 9. Invite a speaker from a local divorced couples club or single parents group to discuss his or her experiences and the experiences of others in adjusting to divorce, as well as the effects on any children involved. Focus not only on the problems of divorce, but also on the efforts of divorced spouses to grow and build meaningful new lives. 10. I continually stress to students that communication ability is a prime predictor of marital satisfaction. Many factors enter into successful communication. I ask students to look at the arguing styles of their own families and at the arguing styles of the families of origin of their spouses/partners. Differences in familial arguing styles often shed light on a couple's difficulties in trying to "fight fair." Furthermore, irrational expectations compound communication difficulties. Students usually have no problem in giving examples of the "mind reading" fantasy (if you really love me you will read my mind and know what I want without me having to tell you!) and other irrational beliefs about loved ones. 11. Regarding marriage contracts, point out that few people use actual contracts, and that such contracts differ from prenuptial agreements, which are legally binding ways of settling claims to property in the event of death or divorce. However, the topics covered in the article on marriage contracting are issues that couples should address. 12. I am constantly amazed at the number of couples I see whose only known reason for getting married is because "We're in love!" As a counselor, I like to suggest that love should usually be a prerequisite for marriage, but not the only reason for it (in other words, a necessary but not sufficient condition for marriage). In particular, I am referring to young couples whose idea of love is clearly the idealized infatuation/romantic love that will eventually fade. I point out that most of us will “love” many people whom we will never marry. Other factors such as common goals, common values, similar interests, mutual respect, attitudes, and so on, are at least as important in predicting marriage success as romantic "love" (which all too often is a polite word for lust among young couples in the infatuation stage of a relationship). 13. A timely, but controversial topic is the issue of what should be done to deal with the problem of single parenthood, particularly among teenagers. Even though the rate of unplanned teenaged pregnancies has dropped in recent years, the United States still has one of the highest rates of unwed teenaged mothers of any industrialized society. What are the costs of this to the young mothers, their children, and to the society at large? You might frame the discussion in terms of typical Planned Parenthood-style recommendations that family planning and sex education programs be improved, fathers be required to shoulder their responsibilities, childcare services be improved to allow unwed mothers to continue working or receive job training, and that young women be directed toward career-oriented roles with the hope of encouraging the postponement of childbearing. What about the effects of welfare reform laws that limit or eliminate welfare benefits to unwed mothers who continue to have children and expect the state to support them, and place strict time limits on how long someone can collect welfare payments at a given time or during their lifetime? As part of this discussion you might mention the economic advantages to postponement of childbearing, in addition to the increased maturity of the parents if they wait to have children. Research has shown that males, in particular, are more actively and emotionally involved in fathering if they are past their mid-20s when they become fathers. Finally, you might ask students what they think about teenagers getting married because the girl gets pregnant. While not nearly as common as they were 30 or 40 years ago, statistically, these marriages are very likely to end up in divorce. Even if they do not end up in divorce, they are very likely to have a host of other problems related to maturity, economics, and the normal personality changes people experience in their late teens. 14. Point out that there are legitimate reasons for divorce and times when divorce is the best option available for certain couples and families. What do students see as good reasons for divorce? What might be some bad reasons for a couple to divorce? What do students think about current effort in some states to make divorce more difficult? What effects might this have? As a counterpoint, you might ask students if it might make more sense to make getting married more difficult rather than getting a divorce.

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15. Ask students about ending relationships. What factors make ending difficult? Have they known people who have continual difficulty ending relationships? What factors seem to operate in these instances? What can people do to facilitate "cleaner" endings to relationships? 16. In recent years, the topic of gay marriage has moved to the center of public debate. As some states have moved to legalize it, there has been a predictable backlash from those who oppose it. What do students think about this? Should gay males and lesbians have the same legal and civil protections that marriage offers to heterosexual couples? Wouldn’t this fall under the “equal protection” clause of the Constitution? Or are there religious connotations and freedom of religion issues linked to the term “marriage” that exempt it from the ordinary legal rules? What about those who claim that if gay marriage is legalized, what is to stop others from demanding that polygamy or other forms of group marriage also be legalized? What social and legal problems might this create?

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Student Activities Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 12.1 Opening Lines When we spy someone who is appealing and apparently available, most of us would like to know what to say, and we might rehearse a line or two to break the ice. What do you think is appropriate, and what do you think is shallow and a turn-off? Test your thoughts on this by writing examples of "good," "mediocre," and "shallow" opening lines in the space below. Then tell a friend what you are up to and ask him or her to evaluate the examples you have written.

Follow-Up Questions: 1.

How well did you do? Was your friend able to tell correctly what your intentions were? If not, what went wrong? What could you do to fix the problem?

Activity continued on the back

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Generally, what goals do you recommend people try to achieve with their opening remarks to someone they find attractive?

What do people of the opposite sex report are appropriate for opening lines? Ask your classmates or friends for ideas. If you cannot ask others, try to imagine what they would say. Write down what you can and ask your instructor to provide some feedback or class discussion.

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 12.2 It May Be in How We Say It While the suave lines we invent to initiate relationships are important, the nonverbal cues we give may be even more significant. Try to imagine you are a screenwriter working on a movie. You are writing a line for the heroine or hero, whomever you identify with, who is approaching the other star for the first time, and simply says: "Good evening," or alternatively "Hi, my name is ________." Now write the stage direction, referring to vocal tone, eye contact, bodily postures, and movement. 1.

First, write this for yourself.

Second, write this for someone who is very shy. How is this different from what you wrote for yourself? Is it better or worse? Why?

Finally, write this for your favorite actor or actress. Is this different from either or both of the first two you wrote? If so, how? Is it better or worse? Why?

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Describe how the president says this before a televised talk. How is it different from any of the others you wrote above? Is it better or worse? Why?

Follow-Up Questions: 1.

What did you rely on most for creating different nonverbal communication in this exercise?

What would you most like to change about your own nonverbal communication and how can you change it?

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Name_______________________________ Date _______________ 12.3 It May Be When We Say It After initial attraction, we are still "on approval," meaning we still want to keep Mr. or Ms. "Right" favorably impressed with us. In our first and early testing opportunities, we can, and likely must, disclose information to each other. Rathus and Nevid point out how we must consider what is safe to disclose and what could be selfdamaging and prematurely revealing. Consider the research project discussed in Chapter 12 where researchers had their confederates reveal intimate information early in a ten-minute conversation, or late in the conversation, and as a consequence either come across as immature and phony if they revealed too early, or more attractive when revealing the same information toward the end of the ten minutes. Write down three items of disclosure you think the researchers could have used in their study to create the effects they found. 1.

Activity continued on the back

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You will need some feedback on how well you did, so share your three ideas with your confidant, your class, or your instructor. Be prepared for some criticism because these are judgment calls. Others may have a less than adequate idea of the context you have imagined. Let's hear them out because we are at least being sensitized to some of the relevant points the text is trying to make. How did you do? What could you do differently next time to do it better?

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 12.4 A Tall Job A tall job is what Nevid and Rathus call the preparation of a marriage contract, even an informal one. But to avoid ending up like Donald Trump, let us do it anyway. Consider each of the eleven issues discussed in the questions below, and decide how each would be resolved for you. 1.

What name will the wife use after marriage?

How will chores be allocated?

Will there be children, and if so, how many and when?

Will there be contraception, and if so, what kind?

How will child care be distributed?

Activity continued on the back

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Whose career will determine where you live? Why?

Who will work and who will make financial decisions?

Which relatives will be visited and how often?

What leisure activities will be shared and unshared?

10. How will sexual issues be decided, and what will the decisions be?

11. How can changes in this contract be accommodated?

12. Do you agree with some experts who believe marriages should be free of such contractual specifications? Why?

13. What things might you add to this list? Why?

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13 Sexual Behavior Chapter Outline Module 13.1: The Biological Basis of Sex 13.1.1. Female Sexual Anatomy 13.1.2. Male Sexual Anatomy 13.1.3. Sex Hormones and Sexual Behavior

Module 13.2: Sexual Behavior and Response 13.2.1. 13.2.2. 13.2.3. A. B.

Varieties of Sexual Expression The Sexual Response Cycle Excitement Phase Box: Self-Assessment: Warning Signs of Cybersex Addiction Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: “Cybersex Addiction” -- A New Millennium Adjustment Problem 13.2.4. Plateau Phase 13.2.5. Orgasmic Phase 13.2.6. Resolution Phase C. Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: In Search of the Magic Fragrance: What Does the Nose Really Know?

Module 13.3: Rape 13.3.1. 13.3.2. 13.3.3. A.

Why Do Men Rape Women? Myths About Rape Preventing Rape Box: Self-Assessment: Cultural Myths That Create a Climate That Supports Rape

Module 13.4: Sexual Dysfunctions 13.4.1. Types of Sexual Dysfunctions 13.4.2. Causes of Sexual Dysfunctions 13.4.3. Sex Therapy

Module 13.5: Psychology in Daily Life: Practicing Healthier Behaviors to Prevent the Spread of HIV/AIDS and Other Sexually Transmitted Diseases 13.5.1 A. B. 13.5.2

HIV/AIDS Box: Self-Assessment: The AIDS Awareness Inventory Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Making Sex Safe(r) in the Age of AIDS What Can You Do to Prevent STDs in the Age of AIDS

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Chapter Overview Female Sexual Organs. The vulva, or external female sexual organs, include the mons veneris, clitoris, major and minor lips, and vaginal opening. The woman’s internal sexual organs consist of the vagina, cervix, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The cervix is the opening that connects the upper vagina to the uterus. Fallopian tubes connect the uterus with the abdominal cavity. Ovaries lie in the abdomen and produce ova and the sex hormones estrogen and progesterone. When an ovum is released, it travels through a fallopian tube, where fertilization in most likely to occur. Male Sexual Organs. The major male sex organs include the penis, testes (or testicles), scrotum, and the series of ducts, canals, and glands that store and transport sperm and produce semen (the fluid that transports and nourishes sperm). Hormones and the Menstrual Cycle. Levels of estrogen and progesterone vary and regulate the menstrual cycle. Following menstruation, estrogen levels increase, causing an ovum to ripen and the uterine lining to thicken. An ovum is released (ovulation occurs) when estrogens reach peak blood levels. In response to secretion of progesterone, the inner lining of the uterus thickens, gaining the capacity to support an embryo. If the ovum is not fertilized, estrogen and progesterone levels drop suddenly, triggering menstruation. Hormones and Sexual Behavior. As a directional or organizing effect, sex hormones predispose animals toward masculine or feminine mating patterns. The activating effects of sex hormones influence the sex drive and facilitate sexual response. The sex drive and sexual response of both males and females is facilitated by testosterone. Why Do Sexual Practices and Customs Vary so Widely Around the World? Sexual practices and customs vary largely because of differences in cultural attitudes and values toward sex. Factors in Selecting a Method of Contraception. Considerations in the selection of a method of contraception include its convenience, its moral acceptability, its cost, the extent to which it enables partners to share the responsibility for contraception, its safety, its reversibility, whether it affords protection against sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), and its effectiveness. The Sexual Response Cycle. The sexual response cycle describes the body’s response to sexual stimulation and consists of four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. The sexual response cycle is characterized by vasocongestion and myotonia. Excitement is characterized by erection in the male and lubrication in the female. Orgasm is characterized by muscle contractions and release of sexual tension. Following orgasm, males enter a refractory period during which they are temporarily unresponsive to sexual stimulation. Rape. Rape apparently has more to do with power and aggressiveness than with sex per se. Social critics argue that men are socialized into sexual aggression by being generally reinforced for aggressiveness and competitiveness. Social and cognitive factors, such as viewing sex in adversarial terms and adopting rape myths that tend to blame the victim, also contribute to a climate that encourages rape. These include beliefs that women who dress provocatively deserve or are at least partially responsible for rape and that women who say “no” really mean “yes.” Preventing Rape. From a cultural perspective, prevention of rape involves publicly examining and challenging widely held cultural attitudes and ideals that contribute to rape. We can specifically encourage our colleges and universities to require students to attend lectures and seminars on rape. In terms of a woman’s personal life, she can take precautionary measures to reduce the risk of rape, such as avoiding deserted areas, dating in groups, and being assertive in expressing her sexual limits. but let us not forget that the act of rape is a crime of violence and is always the fault of the rapist.

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Sexual Dysfunctions. Sexual dysfunctions are persistent or recurrent problems in becoming sexually aroused or reaching orgasm. They include hypoactive sexual desire disorder (lack of interest in sex), female sexual arousal disorder and male erectile disorder (characterized by inadequate vasocongestion), orgasmic disorder, and premature ejaculation. Sexual dysfunctions may be caused by physical health problems, negative attitudes toward sex, lack of sexual knowledge and skills, problems in the relationship, and performance anxiety. Sexual dysfunctions are treated by sex therapy, which focuses on reducing performance anxiety, changing selfdefeating attitudes and expectations, teaching sexual skills, enhancing sexual knowledge, and improving sexual communication. There are also some biological treatments, such as drugs that enhance vasocongestion.

Teaching Objectives After studying this chapter you should be able to: 1.

Discuss the reasons why sexual practices vary so much from culture to culture and describe some of the differences that exist in these cultures.

Describe the male and female sex organs and explain the functions of the various components of these organs.

Explain what a clitoridectomy is, why it is performed, the dangers associated with it, and where it is most commonly performed.

Identify the hormones involved in human sexual response and explain what role they play in human sexual arousal and behavior.

Summarize current research on the varieties of sexual expression and the importance of values in sexual expression.

Compare and contrast at least five major methods of contraception in terms of their effectiveness, how they prevent pregnancy, their reliability, and reversibility.

Summarize the research on cybersex addiction, and discuss the warning signs of cybersex addiction.

Identify the four stages of the sexual response cycle and briefly explain what happens during each stage of the cycle.

Explain what pheromones are and discuss their role in sexual arousal in animals and in humans.

10.

Describe the prevalence of rape in the United States, discuss the reasons for this prevalence, and identify at least three myths about rape.

11.

Explain the possible strategies for reducing the risk of being raped by a stranger.

12.

Explain the possible strategies for reducing the risk of date rape.

13.

Identify the various sexual dysfunctions and briefly explain the causes for each of them as well as for sexual dysfunctions in general.

14.

Briefly explain what sex therapy is and what its goals are.

15.

Explain what STDs are and identify the various causes of five of the most prevalent STDs. Also, briefly discuss which STDs can and cannot be treated or cured.

16.

Identify and briefly explain various measures you can take to protect yourself from AIDS and other STDs. 239

Key Terms vulva pudendum urethral mons veneris clitoris glans major lips minor lips vagina cervix uterus fallopian tubes ovaries ovum clitoridectomy circumcision infibulation penis

testes scrotum sperm semen testosterone prostate estrogen progesterone menstruation endometrium ovulation organizing effects activating effects estrus menopause contraception sexual response cycle vasocongestion

myotonia excitement phase cybersex addiction plateau phase orgasmic phase resolution phase refractory period pheromones rape sexual dysfunctions hypoactive sexual desire disorder female sexual arousal disorder male erectile disorder orgasmic disorder premature ejaculation performance anxiety sex therapy

Lecture/Discussion Suggestions 1. To introduce the topic of sexuality, you might ask students to anonymously submit questions about sex they've always wanted to have answered but were too embarrassed to ask. My experience has been that reading these questions in class is often both amusing and useful in demonstrating that many supposedly idiosyncratic concerns harbored by students are actually quite common. I never promise to be able to answer all the questions on the spot, but I try to make a point of responding to each question during the course of subsequent lectures, time permitting, or in the form of handouts or recommended readings. You could also assign people to look up the answers in the library or on the web and then discuss their findings with the class. 2. How do students arrive at their concepts of what is normal and what is abnormal or deviant sexual behavior? Point out that people tend to use one or more of a variety of criteria in making such judgments, including: incidence of the activity, whether the activity feels good (the hedonistic view), whether the activity seems compatible with one's anatomy, religious beliefs, whether the activity is legal, and so on. As examples, point out that masturbation may be normal from a statistical perspective but deviant from one's religious perspective, and that prostitution is not deviant from a legal standpoint in Nevada, but may be morally deviant from many people's religious and moral perspectives. 3. How did students first learn about the “facts of life”? Most students will have learned them piecemeal from friends, books, television, the Internet, and movies. Parents will probably run no better than third as sources of information and school sex-education programs fourth. 4. Do students believe that premarital intercourse is permissible for persons who are engaged? In love? Dating steadily? On a first date? At first sight? There has been a great deal of permissiveness since the late 1960s in regards to these questions, despite the downturn in sexual activity among adolescents in recent years. When I use this discussion question, I encourage students to respect one another's beliefs. This discussion leads readily into a discussion of sexual permissiveness in general. Studies in this area show (a) a general sex with affection standard ("I'll have sex with you if I believe I love you"), (b) a negative correlation between permissiveness and the age of the respondent, (c) a double standard for men and women, and (d) a slight retrenchment of traditional behaviors in recent years. In fact, surveys published in the late 1990s and turn-of-the-century indicate that teenage sexual activity has dropped off sharply in the 1990s, with an accompanying drop-off in teenage births, although the teenage birth rate turned upward again in 2006.. Is this drop-off part of a larger conservative shift 240

in the U. S. that began in the 1980s and appears to be regaining strength in the late-1990s, or do students relate it to more specific factors such as the fear of pregnancy or AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases? The most recent surveys also indicate that teens who are sexually active are more likely than teens from earlier years to use condoms. What does this imply? Fear of diseases such as AIDS? Better education and communication between partners? Or both? 5. I have found that although the text does not directly address the issue of pornography in this edition, it is still an important part of any discussion on sexuality and people's responses to sexual stimuli. One way to introduce this topic is to have students define pornography. This typically leads to a discussion about what it is, which gets to the heart of legal decisions regarding pornography. While most people would probably consider "Hustler" magazine, and most X-rated movies or web sites to be pornographic, some would not. Far fewer would consider "Playboy" or "Cosmopolitan" magazines to be pornographic, although many would. How many people would consider the classic nude paintings and sculptures of the great Renaissance artists to be pornographic? Yet, technically, they are no different from what is commonly found on many “centerfold” internet sites, or shown in magazines like "Playboy.”" The truth is, some people would find anything that portrays the human body or human sexuality to be pornographic. Others would find almost nothing pornographic. Most people are somewhere in the middle. These examples typically help make it clear that there is no consensus in the United States about what constitutes pornography. Truly, in many cases, one person's pornography is another person's artistic expression. Noting that pornography is a multi-billion dollar business in the U.S. and that approximately one out of three internet visits is to a sex-related website, there is a large market for sexual material and many people who publicly decry the evils of pornography are not, in private, practicing what they preach. Given this lack of consensus, and the rights guaranteed by the First Amendment to the U. S. Constitution, how can the law (or should the law) decide what is illegal pornography as opposed to legal erotica? Until there is a greater consensus, the legal aspects of pornography will remain vague and difficult to enforce. You might stress the validity of differentiating between child pornography, violent pornography, and nonviolent erotica, pointing out that violent pornography (in which the victim is almost always female) has been linked to disinhibition of aggression (usually by men toward women) and so when feminists declare this material to be problematic, they have scientific evidence to support their charges. However, nonviolent erotica, in which both men and women engage in sexual activity willfully and pleasurably, has been linked to nothing more than immediate sexual arousal. And while women may be portrayed as sex objects in these films, the males aren't exactly portrayed as paragons of virtue or intelligence either. While there is increasing evidence of the addictive nature of on-line pornography (as discussed in the text), there is little scientific evidence that nonviolent erotica by itself creates the types of violent social problems that the censors, both conservatives and feminists, would have people believe. Child pornography by its very nature is illegal because one of the participants is under the legal age of consent. There is also little doubt about the harm that can occur to children forced or coerced into engaging in sexual activity with adults. There is also evidence linking the collection of child pornography with child molestation. So there is a much stronger scientific and sociological case for banning or severely restricting this material. Another aspect that should be examined here is if it is even possible to outlaw pornography. It might be mentioned that the demand for erotic material is quite strong in the United States. Some cable companies report that their "pay-per-view" adult movie channels are their best-selling premium channels. With DVD and BlueRay players/recorders in almost every home and millions of erotic videotapes and DVDs already sold, not to mention the innumerable X-rated web sites on the internet from which “adult” material can be easily downloaded, (many of which are located outside the United States), trying to outlaw pornography today would be more difficult than trying to ban guns or reintroduce Prohibition. At best (or worst, depending on your perspective) it would go underground. It would not disappear. Studies indicate that most Americans do not support restrictive bans on "adult" material, except for its availability to children. If such laws were enforced, many otherwise "decent" and law-abiding citizens would be instantly transformed into potential criminals. Finally, you might mention that in many countries where pornography was legalized, after an initial surge, sales declined markedly. Once it was readily available, many people lost their interest in it. (No more "forbidden fruit" perhaps?) On the other hand, the potentially addictive nature of cyber-porn may be changing that scenario for many. Also, in their efforts to stamp out pornography, many groups have given erotic books and movies so much free publicity that sales of the material have increased after the protests became publicized. The classic case in the 1970s was the movie I Am Curious Yellow, which opened in Boston to small crowds of hard core 241

pornography aficionados. After the national TV networks announced on the evening news that it had been banned in Boston by the city government, it drew record crowds nearly everywhere else it was shown (the lines in New York City the day it opened were more than half a mile long). Please note, the point here isn't to argue that pornography should or should not be banned. The argument is that until there is a greater consensus and more evidence of its social harm, efforts to ban nonviolent erotica will bear the same fruits as Prohibition in the 1920s. Those who seek to ban sexually explicit materials need to develop rationales that are more convincing to the majority of people or come up with empirical evidence that the material is as harmful as they claim. Otherwise, their efforts are largely wasted. For as long as the majority of Americans feel that erotica should not be banned and the demand for the material remains as strong as it currently is, rightly or wrongly, that demand will guarantee that there will continue to be a plentiful supply, whether or not the material is legal. If anyone needs further proof of that, just examine how difficult it has been to eliminate child pornography, which IS illegal, and which the vast majority of adults believe is dangerous and should be banned. Yet it still flourishes on the Internet, to the point that there are clubs and “societies” with websites dedicated to making child pornography legal and to legalizing adult-child sexual relationships. 6. Do men and women have different sexual needs? This question may lead to a spirited class discussion, and you might suggest beforehand that the discussion will be rated PG-13, not R or X. Many students retain the traditional view that men have greater sexual needs. A few others may say that women have greater needs, often referring to the capability of some women to experience multiple orgasms. You might summarize this discussion by saying that sexual needs vary from individual to individual, and even within the same person (for instance as a person ages), and that the important thing is to be aware of one's partner's needs and one's own needs. This discussion can provide a good bridge to a discussion concerning men's and women's reactions to erotica versus romance. 7. Related to any discussion on pornography is the issue of whether there are any effects from the sexual activity commonly portrayed on television, especially with the explosion in cable TV systems over the past 1520 years. While not technically pornographic, many people feel that much of the sexual material shown on TV today constitutes "soft-core" erotica. Many people feel that there should be restrictions on the amount and types of sexual behavior shown on television. Others argue that you can always change the channel or turn off the set, and that free speech and free expression rights protect these sexual portrayals. Some try to argue a middle ground, claiming that it should not be banned, but should be restricted to late-night hours when children are likely to be asleep and unable to view it. Additionally, some argue that our culture is prematurely sexualizing its children, particularly younger females, by glorifying adolescent female, “celebrities” who suggestively prance around stage nearly naked, and then develop clothing lines for young girls with tag lines like “pornstar” or “jailbait” emblazoned across the chest of the shirts, or “Yes I do, but not with you,” on the rear end of the shorts. What sort of effect does this have on other children? Is it really harmful or another case or overzealous moralists trying to impose their views on others? What do students feel about this issue? Relatedly, should sexual behavior be banned when violent behavior isn't? Some people feel that the real pornography in both movies and television is the amount of graphic violence to which children and adults are regularly exposed. This is another difficult issue, but if you talk about censorship and pornography, be prepared for the violence issue to surface. 8. Given the epidemic of sexually transmitted diseases (including AIDS), does remaining single look less attractive to students than it might have 20 or 25 years ago? Does monogamy now look like a more enticing lifestyle? What do students think? How safe do they feel in their sexual activity today? Have they restricted or toned down their sexual activity? Have some remained celibate? Are they taking more precautions than teens in the 1960s and 1970s did? Or do many of them still feel that "I'm healthy! I only go out with nice girls/boys. So it can't happen to me!" 9. It is useful to clarify for students that otherwise healthy and normal individuals can and do suffer from sexual dysfunctions. One of the negative side effects of the sexual revolution has been the myth of superadequacy - a belief system that disregards the fact that all humans have experiences that do not meet their expectations. This is as true, if not more true, for sex as for any other human behavior. This myth increases the 242

risk for developing performance anxiety and subsequent sexual dysfunction. Psychological sex therapy techniques are very effective in treating such dysfunctions, but always recommend that someone seeking sex therapy rule out physiological causes first. 10. In discussing AIDS, the goal should be twofold: enhance awareness and reduce hysteria and prejudice. Cover the "safer sex" techniques listed in the text and have student volunteers role play the "What Do You Say Now?" exercise on safe sex (be sure to pick your "volunteers" carefully). 11. Invite speakers who counsel rape victims or who were rape victims themselves. The sharing of personal experiences can help increase awareness about the potential for rape, the steps that can be taken to minimize risk, and the struggle to adjust in the aftermath of a rape. Another way to introduce the topic is to have students generate a list of cultural myths about rape. Then review the myths generated by students as well as those in the text, countering each myth with the facts. However a discussion about rape is initiated, it's important to highlight the tendency to blame the victim where rape is concerned.

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Student Activities Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 13.1 The Perfect Sex Questionnaire In this chapter we learn how reliant we are on information from surveys and questionnaires to understand sexual behavior. We also learn that many questionnaires are open to some methodological flaws, or are dated, or just didn't ask the "right" people. There is only one way to find the "perfect sex questionnaire." You will have to write it. Try writing five relevant questions about sexual behavior that would answer questions that are important to you. They may reflect a concern, or an issue related to your interests.

Your instructor may wish to follow up this exercise with class discussion.

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Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 13.2 Sex and Entertainment The last movie or television show you saw that included sexual intimacy will serve as our target for this exercise. The answers may tell us much about the attitudes and behaviors being encouraged today.

Did the script suggest that safe sex was being practiced? If so, how?

What kind of relationship was the couple involved in? Was it a long-term relationship, such as a marriage or cohabitation, or a brief fling, or what?

What was the state of the relationship at the end of the movie? Was there an implication of any type of long-term commitment that would extend after the end of the movie? If so, what was it?

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Do you think there are different standards of sexual behavior for yourself, for others, or for entertainment? If so, what are those standards and how are they different from yours?

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 13.3 What Are Your State's Laws? The laws governing sexual behavior differ from state to state. Occasionally we read about obviously outdated laws that are still on the books, but not enforced. Missouri once had a law forbidding a woman from refusing her husband's sexual advances. What does your state say about the following sexual issues? Answer a) what you believe the law says, and then b) find a good source for the law to check yourself.

What is your state's age for statutory rape? a)

What constitutes being labeled a “sexual predator” in your state? a)

What is your state’s age for legally being allowed to get married?

Does your state allow cohabitation or recognize common law marriage? If so, under what conditions? a)

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Does your state require a blood test for a marriage license, and if it does, is AIDS included in the screening? What other diseases are screened for, if any? a)

Does your state limit where sexual predators can live or work, if so where are they excluded from living or working, and how does your state track them? a)

Which of the laws are not enforceable? Why not?

Would you like to see any of these laws changed? Why?

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 13.4 Critical Thinking

Researchers have found evidence that rape victims tend to be less dominant and less self-assertive than nonvictims. The results suggested that women who appear to be vulnerable are more likely to be attacked. If we look critically at this research, we will see that it is a bit premature to conclude that women have been socialized into the role of victims who are "asking for it." 1.

What other explanations could account for research findings such as this?

What kind of study could more successfully test the hypothesis that being less dominant and self-assertive could increase the risk of being a rape victim? Explain how you would design such a study.

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 13.5 Sexual Expectations Historically, adolescents in this country have faced numerous stereotypic expectations regarding their sexual behavior. At one extreme, males were supposed to be ready, willing, and eager at every sexual opportunity no matter who the partner or what kind of commitment they have to someone else. Females were divided into “nice girls” who saved themselves until marriage, and “bad girls” who were sexually promiscuous. Males encouraged each other to have sex with the “bad girls,” but them labeled them “sluts,” and gave them “reputations” that were unappealing at best. The males on the other hand were labeled “studs” and looked up to by other males. Males would then marry the “nice girls,” while the “bad girls” were left to mend their own reputations and fend for themselves. 1.

How are these stereotypic expectations different today, if at all, from years past?

Who have they changed more for, men or women? Why do you believe this is so?

Do you see the changes as for the better or the worse? Why?

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Have you ever found yourself under pressure to behave sexually in a way you did not want to? What happened, how did you handle it, and how did it affect you afterwards?

What do you think can be done to lower the amount of sexual pressure on adolescents today?

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14 Adult Development: Going Through Changes Chapter Outline Module 14.1: Adolescence 14.1.1. 14.1.2. 14.1.3. A. B.

Physical Changes of Adolescence Cognitive Development Social and Personality Development Box: Self-Assessment: The Sensation-Seeking Scale Box: Self-Assessment: What Is Your Identity Status?

Module 14.2: Young and Middle Adulthood 14.2.1. 14.2.2. 14.2.3. 14.2.4. A. 14.2.5. B. 14.2.6.

Physical Development in Adulthood Cognitive Development Social and Personality Development Children: To Have or Not to Have Box: Self-Assessment: Should You Have a Child? Becoming an Authoritative Parent: Rearing Competent Children Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Childbirth Advice Is Just Keystrokes Away Transitions to Mastery: Facing the Challenges of Midlife

Module 14.3: Late Adulthood 14.3.1. A. 14.3.2. 14.3.3.

Physical Development Box: Self-Assessment: What Are Your Attitudes Toward Aging? Cognitive Development Personality and Social Development

Module 14.4: Psychology in Daily Life: Live Longer and Healthier Lives 14.4.1. Components of Successful Aging 14.4.2. Developing Healthy Exercise and Nutrition Habits

Chapter Overview Physical Development in Adolescence. Adolescence is a period of life that begins at puberty and ends with assumption of adult responsibilities. Changes that lead to reproductive capacity and secondary sex characteristics are stimulated by increased levels of testosterone in the male and of estrogen and androgens in the female. 255

Cognitive Development in Adolescence. Formal operational thinking appears in adolescence, but not everyone reaches this stage. Two consequences of adolescent egocentrism are the imaginary audience and the personal fable. the imaginary audience refers to the adolescent beliefs that they are the center of attention and that other people are as concerned with their appearance and behavior as they are. The personal fable refers to the adolescent belief that one’s feelings and ideas are special, even unique, and that one is invulnerable. Feelings of invulnerability can be connected with risky behavior. Social and Personality Development in Adolescence. Adolescents and parents are often in conflict because adolescents desire more independence and may experiment with things that can jeopardize their health. Despite bickering, most adolescents continue to love and respect their parents. According to Erikson, adolescents strive to forge an ego identity -- a sense of who they are and what they stand for. The changes of puberty prepare the body for sexual activity and reproduction, but many adolescents lack the maturity to make responsible decisions regarding their sexual activities. Adulthood and Emerging Adulthood. Historically speaking, marriage has been a marker of adulthood. In American society today, making independent decisions, accepting responsibility for oneself, and financial independence are key markers. Emerging adulthood is a hypothesized period that exists in wealthy societies. It roughly spans the ages of 18-25 and affords young people extended periods of role exploration. Physical Development in Young and Middle Adulthood. People are usually at the height of their physical powers during young adulthood. Menopause, the cessation of menstruation, is associated with a great many myths, including the belief that hormonal changes naturally lead women to become depressed and anxious during this period of life. Men undergo a more gradual decline of reproductive functioning. Cognitive Development in Young and Middle Adulthood. People are usually at the height of their cognitive powers during early adulthood, but people can be creative for a lifetime. Memory functioning declines with age, but the decline is not usually as large as people assume. People tend to retain verbal ability, as shown by vocabulary and general knowledge, into advanced old age. Crystallized intelligence -- one’s vocabulary and accumulated knowledge -- generally remains intact. Fluid intelligence -- the ability to process information rapidly -- declines more rapidly, but workers’ familiarity with solving specific kinds of problems is often more important than declines in fluid intelligence. Social and Personality Development in Young and Middle Adulthood. Young adulthood is generally characterized by efforts to become established and advance in the business world, and by the development of intimate ties. Many young adults reassess the directions of their lives during the “age-30 transition.” Many theorists view middle adulthood as a time of crisis (the “midlife crisis”) and further reassessment. Many adults try to come to terms with the discrepancies between their achievements and the dreams of youth during middle adulthood. Some middle-aged adults become depressed when their youngest child leaves home (the “empty-nest syndrome”), but many report increased satisfaction, stability, and self-confidence. Many people in middle adulthood experience “middlescence” -- a phase during which they redefine themselves and their goals for the 30 to 40 healthy years they expect lie ahead. Physical Development in Late Adulthood. Older people show less sensory acuity, and their reaction time lengthens. Changes in the elasticity of the skin lead to wrinkling and production of melanin declines, producing a graying of the hair, Our lung capacity , muscle mass, metabolic rate, and bone density decline. Our immune system weakens and our cardiovascular system becomes less efficient. Though we also encounter age-related changes in sexual functioning, people who maintain their general health can adjust to these changes and continue to enjoy sexual experience throughout their lifetimes. Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood. Cognitive changes beginning in middle adulthood continue, which mostly affect memory and tasks requiring fluid intelligence. Crystallized intelligence remains relatively intact and people can continue to be creative throughout their lifetimes. Alzheimer’s Disease. Alzheimer’s disease is a brain disease of unknown origin. It is not a consequence of normal aging. It is characterized by cognitive deterioration in memory, language, and problem-solving.

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Gender and Ethnic Differences in Life Expectancy. Women outlive men by nearly seven years, and European and Asian Americans tend to outlive other ethnic groups in the United States. By and large, the groups who live longer are more likely to seek and make use of health care. Personality and Social Development in Late Adulthood. Erikson characterizes late adulthood as the stage of ego integrity versus despair. He saw the basic challenge as a maintaining the belief that life is worthwhile in the face of physical deterioration. Despite common stereotypes, most older people life independently and are not living in poverty. Older adults rate their life satisfaction and health as generally good. Retirement can be a positive step, so long as it is voluntary. Having social support is a major contributor to emotional well-being among older people. Death and Dying. Kubler-Ross has identified five stages of dying among people who are terminally ill: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and final acceptance. However, other investigators find that psychological reactions to approaching death are more varied than Kubler-Ross suggests. Hospices support terminally ill patients and their families. Euthanasia is a controversial topic with varied legal status. Scholars have identified certain stages of bereavement that many people experience when they lose a loved one.

Teaching Objectives After studying this chapter your students should be able to: 1.

Discuss the physical changes that take places during adolescence and the issues those changes present for adolescents and their parents.

Describe cognitive development in adolescence, and the effects on behavior that result from the cognitive style typical of adolescents.

Describe the characteristics of adolescent social, personality, and sexual development.

Explain what emerging adulthood is and why it is only found in industrialized societies.

Compare and contrast the physical changes that occur in young, middle, and late adulthood.

Describe what menopause and the climacteric are and discuss how they affect women in middle adulthood.

Explain whether or not there is a male equivalent of menopause and describe the physiological changes men experience during middle age.

Compare and contrast cognitive development in young, middle, and late adulthood.

Compare and contrast social and personality development in young, middle, and late adulthood.

10.

Compare and contrast authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive styles of parenting in terms of how they differ from each other and how they affect children.

11.

Identify the various causes of child abuse and discuss the effects of abuse and neglect on children who are abused or neglected.

12.

Explain what the “midlife transition,” “midlife crisis,” “middlescence,” and “empty nest syndrome” are and how they affect male and female behavior in middle adulthood.

13.

Explain what empty-nest syndrome is and discuss what evidence there is to support or refute this concept. 257

14.

Describe the physical and sexual functioning changes that occur in late adulthood.

15.

Describe cognitive development in late adulthood and identify the factors that contribute to intellectual functioning across the lifespan.

16.

Summarize the research on the prevalence, causes, and effects of Alzheimer’s disease. What can be done to treat and cope with Alzheimer’s disease?

17.

Describe the effects of gender, ethnicity, and social class on aging, and explain why those differences exist.

18.

Describe personality and social development in late adulthood, and explain how the living arrangements of most elderly people differ from the stereotypes about them.

19.

Discuss the impact of retirement on older persons and present the reasons for the differences between happily retired persons and retired persons who deteriorate and are unhappy in their retirement.

20.

Identify Elisabeth Kübler-Ross's stages of death and dying and discuss what evidence there is in support or rebuke to her theory.

21.

Explain what hospices are and what their goals are. Also compare and contrast positive and negative euthanasia, and discuss if their is ever a situation where either type is justified.

22.

Explain what successful aging is, and identify and briefly explain the three components of successful aging.

Key Terms adolescence growth spurt puberty secondary sex characteristics menarche formal-operations stage egocentrism imaginary audience personal fable sturm and drang ego identity versus role diffusion ego identity role diffusion emerging adulthood

young adulthood menopause climacteric osteoporosis andropause crystallized intelligence fluid intelligence trying twenties the dream intimacy versus isolation individuation age 30 transition catch 30s instrumental competence

authoritative authoritarian permissive generativity versus stagnation midlife crisis middlescence empty nest syndrome late adulthood reaction time Alzheimer’s disease ego integrity versus despair euthanasia hospice bereavement

Lecture/Discussion Suggestions 1. As a prelude to discussing adult development, I lecture on some of the major issues and conflicts typical of adolescence. I often present the problems adolescents face in terms of changes occurring along four dimensions: physical, social, intellectual, and emotional. While this may require some outside research from the child and adolescent development literature, the response from students is usually favorable and it is usually relevant to 1st- and 2nd-year college students. 258

2. What do most students see for themselves when they become middle-aged? Have students compare what they would like to be doing at that point, versus what they believe they will actually be doing by then. If there is a big gap between the two, explore why the gap exists. Most students, other than nontraditional and returning students, have little idea what they may be feeling or doing when they are in their 40s or 50s. What types of problems or conflicts will they be likely to face during those years? How will those conflicts be similar to or different from the conflicts they see their parents and other middle-aged adults currently dealing with? What could happen if they decide to switch professions at age 40? What do they think will be essential in any career they choose for them to be happy in that career 20 or 30 years from now? Do students know any middle-aged adults who currently dress and act like teenagers? Cars, motorcycles, hairstyles, clothes, and romantic partners are typical clues to this behavior. What do students suppose these persons' motives are for acting this way? Finally, do students feel that trying to act 18 at age 40 is an effective way to cope with growing older? If not, what are some better ways? 3. The "Attitudes Toward Aging" test in the text (page 481) will help students discover whether they hold stereotypical images of the elderly. Students can score their own tests. The key for scoring the test is very simple: all the test items are false. Use student responses to the questionnaire as a basis for discussing stereotypes about the elderly. 4. You might wish to discuss the types of lifestyles and habits students currently have and how healthy those habits are. While students cannot change their biological predispositions, they can do much to mitigate their risk factors, in many cases by effectively managing their lifestyles. It is important to note that the most significant lifestyle moderators of negative biological factors typically must be undertaken early in the person's life to make meaningful differences later on. In other words, the longer they wait to make healthful changes, the less impact those changes are likely to have. However, in habits like exercise, the evidence continues to develop that beginning a regular exercise program at any age can be helpful at prolonging life and improving the quality of life. 5. Invite a speaker from a senior citizen's organization to discuss issues about retirement with the class. Focus the discussion on such issues as, "Should older workers be forced to retire to make room for younger workers?" and "Should younger workers be forced to pay into the social security system?" Ask students to consider the consequences of their answers in terms of both their individual interests and the interests of society in general. 6. Ask the women in class about the tough choices women may have to make in terms of both pursuing careers and having children. What are the stresses women experience in living out these dual roles? What do women who choose to pursue a career expect from their husbands or partners? Do their husbands/partners live up to these expectations? Ask men in the class to react to the women's comments. How many men in class would be willing to give up their careers to stay home and raise children while their wives pursued careers? This discussion can be related to the material in Chapter 10, on gender roles, and the material in Chapter 15, on women and careers. 7. What are the implications of being able to increase greatly the chances of determining the gender of one's child? Is it possible that parental choice of boys and girls would tend to even out in the long run, or might there be too many children of one gender and not enough of the other? This is already becoming a problem in some cultures, where great value is placed on male children. Pregnant women in these cultures have used prenatal techniques such as ultrasound to determine if their fetus is a boy or girl. If it is a girl, they abort the fetus. Research in other countries, like the U. S., indicates that most parents would choose boys if they had a choice. Are there implications from theses trends for the institution of marriage? For the incidence of homosexuality? At some point might the government legislate against using sex-determination procedures? If techniques as simple as pinpointing the time of ovulation and deciding when to have intercourse can practically guarantee the gender of a child, what types of measures would a restrictive government have to take in order to safeguard against sex selection? Could it be enforced? 8. Consider the development of test-tube babies. Can students describe the procedures that are used to initiate conception outside the mother's body? The point here is to have students consider where the ovum might be taken from, what type of environment the ovum and zygote require, and how much time the zygote would have before it had to be returned to the mother. To what location in the mother's body would the ovum be returned? Answers to these questions require knowledge of the role of the fallopian tubes and of the germinal period. 259

This discussion can lead naturally to a review of the ethical, social, and legal questions surrounding infertility technology. Should couples who want children be entitled to use any technology available, no matter how experimental? Should these techniques be covered by health-care insurance? Even when the odds of success are extremely low? In cases of artificial insemination and surrogate parenting, what legal rights do the donors of sperm or egg cells have? What rights should they have? What will be the effects on the children when they learn how they were conceived? Should the children be told? It needs to be pointed out that infertility technology is a classic example of how technology often advances more quickly than our moral, ethical, and legal guidelines, as well as our psychological ability to cope with its ramifications. You might, if you feel brave, extend to the issue of cloning and the ethical issues surrounding that technology. On a related point, you might want to mention the psychological stresses on a couple who seek infertility treatment. As part of the diagnosis, the couple's sex life is extensively examined (a stressful occurrence for most couples). Attempts to get pregnant often separate the act of intercourse from feelings of romance and affection. To increase the chances of conception, infertile couples often need to have sexual intercourse at specific times, whether or not they are "in the mood." More advanced treatments (IVF, and so on) may not work until several attempts have been made, leading to a roller coaster of emotions for the couple. Miscarriages can still occur, followed by clinical depression. The treatments can be very expensive, are often not covered by insurance plans, and are not always successful. As can be imagined, other conflicts the couple has may surface. Many couples undergoing fertility treatments undergo psychological screening and may require psychological counseling. In all, infertility technology has provided miracles for some couples and has exacted enormous emotional costs for other couples. 9. Review the reasons listed in the text for and against having children. Which reasons seem valid or justifiable to students, and which reasons evoke the most negative reactions in the class? 10. Your text and an earlier survey by Angus Campbell (1975) report that people who willfully choose not to have children are generally quite happy with their lives. Still, what pressures to have children do such people experience? What are some of society's biases and fears about childlessness and childless couples? Is it worth the emotional and economic costs to have children via the sophisticated "test-tube" technology available today? 11. In discussing postpartum depression, some students may ask about the diagnosis of "postpartum psychosis." A relatively rare event, it has been related to some spectacular cases of mothers killing their children and/or attempting suicide. The diagnosis is accepted in the British legal system but has received only limited legal recognition in the United States. In an infamous case in Houston, Texas, a woman was found not guilty by reason of insanity (on retrial) after killing her five children. She used an insanity defense claiming to be suffering from postpartum psychosis. She had a history of severe problems with depression, and her husband had been warned after the first child was born that she was mentally fragile and probably should not have any more children. Do students feel she should have been found innocent or given a lighter sentence? Why or why not? How much responsibility for this tragedy did the husband bear, if any? Legally, he was not tried or punished at all, since he did not actually kill the children and had not violated any existing laws. 12. While the scientific research has failed to support the efficacy of "infant bonding" in the first few hours you might stress to your students that spending time with the newborn is an emotionally rewarding experience that can certainly affect the parents' attitude toward and attachment to the child, if not the child's attitude and sense of attachment. And though it may not be bonding in the biological sense, it can't hurt and may actually help. So why not spend the time with the newborn to find out? Evidence is being amassed that the first four months of life are crucial for infant bonding with parents, even if the first few hours are not. Ask students to discuss their feelings about guaranteed maternity leave or paternity leave. Does the idea of paternity leave conflict with the stereotypic male gender role? Point out that most of the world's industrialized nations have much more liberal policies concerning parental leave than do most employers in the United States.

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13. Ask students who are parents what their experiences were in trying to find adequate day care for their children. While decent day care is available in the United States, it often requires much "shopping around" to find it, and it can be a nerve-racking experience for many parents. The information on selecting a day-care center is an excellent list of items to be considered when going through this process. 14. Discuss the styles of parenting described by Baumrind and the guidelines for being an authoritative parent. Are these suggestions biased or controversial? What values are embedded in these guidelines? Do students feel that a person should try to be a certain kind of parent? Do some students believe that a person just naturally learns how to parent effectively? Are certain values better than others when it comes to parenting? If so, which ones? Why? 15. The topic of divorce, previously covered in Chapter 12, is also relevant to this chapter. The text briefly summarizes the effects of divorce on children. Ask students from divorced families (who are willing to share) to share their feelings and thoughts about their parents' divorce. Thank them sincerely for sharing such (often painful) experiences. Point out the general decline in parenting that children experience when divorce occurs. It is, indeed, often a time of turmoil for children. Ask students to consider, from a child's point of view, the benefits and/or drawbacks of joint custody versus primary or exclusive custody. 16. Are parents doing less parenting today than in previous generations? A large amount of sociological data indicates that in some ways the answer is yes. Counseling psychologists report that they are being asked to counsel more and more children and adolescents for problems that were traditionally handled by parents, and in some cases they feel like a “paid friend” more than a psychologist. Is this phenomenon occurring because parents do not feel adequate anymore? Is it because with so many families in which both parents working, neither parent has the time nor the energy anymore? Is it that counseling has become so accepted that many parents now believe counselors to be the best source of a solution to a problem and don’t even try to solve it themselves? Or is it some combination of all of the above? What effects might being sent to a counselor have on a child whose only real problem is that mom and dad are burnt out or feel inadequate? This data is matched by grade- and high-school teachers who report that they are increasingly expected to teach their students values and behavioral skills that were traditionally taught in the home. In many cases they feel overwhelmed and unprepared for the responsibility that accompanies such teaching, not to mention that some resent that they are being asked to do this when they are clearly not being trained nor paid for it. Additionally, many times they find that if they do or say anything to try and correct the child’s misbehavior, the parents are “in their face,” berating. The common opinion I have heard voiced repeatedly by K-12 teachers is that years ago when they were children, if they got in trouble at school, they got another dose of punishment when they came home. Today, if the child gets in trouble at school, the parents sue the school district. Is there any truth to this and if so, what impact does it have on children’s behavior if they know that mom and dad will blindly support them no matter how badly they misbehave at school? Overall, this discussion leads to the topic of how parents today are different than they were 30 or 40 years ago. Are the changes for the better or worse? Has the current generation of parents reneged on their responsibilities? Are they using television as a baby-sitter and surrogate parent? What impact is this having? How has the increase in single-parent families impacted on parenting as a whole? Are some parents trying too hard to be "buddies" with their children rather than parents to those children? If so, why is this happening? If not, then what is happening? Is the whole issue of parental incompetence really a new phenomenon, or is it just the renewal of a complaint that has been heard for centuries (given additional weight because of the massive media coverage available today)? Or is Judith Rich Harris accurate in her claim that parental behavior doesn’t matter much in shaping children’s personality? 17. Whenever it is appropriate, I relate the topic of child abuse to my lectures. I constantly reiterate how traumatizing it is, how adults often repress or distort their memories of it, how widespread child abuse is, how most of it still goes undetected and/or unreported, and how our society pays enormous social, psychological, emotional, and economic costs because of our national propensity to abuse or neglect our children. Most students respond with horror when they hear the statistics. Many students don't believe them. Others feign disbelief to cover up the fact that they, themselves, are abuse victims. For some students, this discussion is very painful and opens "old wounds," which may require extra discussion (individually) outside of class. I have run into several cases of ongoing abuse as a result of this discussion that required immediate referrals to mental 261

health, or (in a couple of cases) criminal authorities. More frequently, I have run into cases of students with "unfinished business" centered around previous abuse or neglect that required referral to a counselor for completion. I emphasize to my students that neglecting or abusing a child is never appropriate or justifiable, for any reason, despite rationalizations to the contrary. If we can educate our students to the costs of child abuse and deter them from abusing their children or perhaps lead them to seek help, then we, as educators, have made a bigger contribution to the adjustment and growth of our students, and their children, than any abstract lecture or discussion of scientific theory or methodology could ever accomplish. 18. Some research in aging has focused on the concept of an internal, genetically programmed "biological clock" within us that may determine how rapidly we age. This theory accounts for how some people seem to age faster than others in the same amount of time. The most striking example of this is children who have progeria, a rare genetic disorder in which the child ages nine or ten times faster than normal and rarely lives much past the ages of 10 or 11. Theorists in this area speculate that it may be possible to slow down the biological clock so that progerics can age normally. Of course, this would mean that it might be possible to slow down the biological clock for everyone else, so that we all age more slowly and live healthier, longer lives. Many researchers in the field believe that this is not only possible, but will be reality within the next 100 years. Recent research with aging veterans in V. A. hospitals using hormone treatments has indicated that metabolism can be increased, as well as muscle mass, skin elasticity, and muscle strength (at least in the short term). While these preliminary result raise some exciting possibilities, they also raise a plethora of questions and social/ethical issues regarding the directions in which this technology is headed and how it will be used if perfected. What are the possible social consequences of a world in which people live 300 to 400 years on average and never die of old age and aging-related diseases? What about the population explosion and overcrowding? How would this affect the job market? How could it affect the institution of marriage? How would it affect things like the sentencing of criminals? What about the moral and religious issues raised? Would everyone have access to this technology? Who would pay for it? Would it be covered under a typical healthcare plan? Given the extensive and deep-level fears that many people have about death and dying, what would people's reactions be if they knew there was a drug available that could prevent aging, but they were denied access to it? This is an issue that your students' children and grandchildren may well have to deal with, yet this field has received little publicity and few scientists and politicians have thought through the Pandora's box of ethical, moral, and practical issues that extreme longevity could raise. Student Activity 14.5 provides students with an opportunity to explore this issue, and you might use it as an assignment to facilitate this discussion. 19. In discussing death and dying, students invariably ask about "near death experiences (NDEs)," where people's hearts have stopped beating but they are later revived and report having left their body during this period and watched the medics working on them. Others report having the sensation of traveling down a long tunnel toward a brilliant white light filled with love and warmth, only to be pulled back into their body as they were revived. These experiences touch on the very sensitive issue of life after death. How is science and the scientific method limited in its efforts to investigate events such as near-death experiences? Are these experiences just the hallucinations created by an oxygen starved, dying brain in a last, desperate effort to make sense out of the experience of dying (which is the current scientific explanation for this phenomenon), or is there something more to these experiences that goes beyond science's ability to measure? Although there is no scientific proof yet as to what these experiences are, they are an increasing focus of study in medical science. They raise important issues regarding people's psychological needs to have a continued existence after death, and science's limitations in exploring this area. This is also a good place to explore the importance of religion or some other mystical belief system in helping people to cope with their fears of death and providing them with a greater sense of meaning to their lives. 20. Regarding the material in the text on the myths about menopause, ask students their beliefs about menopause, and discuss the negative stereotypes associated with menopause. Point out the myths about menopause mentioned in the text. It is also important to point out that the intensity of menopausal mood swings is more attributable to the psychological meaning of menopause for women than to hormonal or other biological changes that accompany menopause.

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21. Ask class members to indicate who has retired parents, and the reasons for their retirement. Ask these students, if they are willing to share, about the adjustment their parents had to make in coping with retirement. This is a good way to start any discussion on the difficulties of forced or early retirement. While many Americans are working longer before retiring, the recent corporate trend of reducing labor forces by offering early retirement or buy-out options has resulted in large numbers of Americans in their 50s being suddenly thrust into retirement. For many, this is a stressful and difficult transition, making it a difficult and stressful time for their spouses and children too. 22. As America ages (the demographic imperative), what will be the required adjustments needed by our society in order to cope with the very large cohort of people over 65? What changes in retirement policies, Social Security, health care, and housing will be needed? How will our views of growing old have to change? 23. Discuss Alzheimer's disease - its effects on the sufferer, and its effects on the sufferer's family or caregivers. The financial costs are high, but the emotional and psychological costs to the family of watching the steady deterioration and death of a loved one are staggering. Given the amount of care they need as the disease progresses, it should not be surprising that in the case of many elderly couples, where one member is taking care of the other, who has Alzheimer’s, the caregiver dies before the Alzheimer’s patient. Fortunately, support groups for family members of Alzheimer's patients have become quite commonplace in recent years. 24. A discussion of euthanasia is always controversial. While most physicians and most Americans remain morally opposed to "active euthanasia" (in spite of Dr. Kervorkian), some surveys show that up to 80 percent of physicians have occasionally engaged in "passive euthanasia." Related to this, the living will is also growing in popularity, but in about a half of the states, such documents do not enjoy full legal status and can be overridden by family members or physicians. Some critics of nationalized health care claim that, due to costs, health care could be rationed, and the first people to be denied coverage would be the elderly. This would result in de facto euthanasia through denial of care. While these claims seem somewhat hysterical to most people, if you want to play “devil’s advocate” and assume it could happen, what do students feel about this issue?

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Student Activities Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 14.1 Where Are You? From the discussion in this chapter, where would you place your current development? In what ways is your experience consistent with the discussion and in what ways is your experience inconsistent with the discussion?

Current development:

Consistent experiences:

Inconsistent experiences:

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 14.2 Our Parents as Subjects Consider one or both of your parents for a while. Where are they in terms of their adult development? Would they tend to nod agreeably if they were reading this chapter, or would they look puzzled or even openly disagree? 1.

Try to create their reaction in your mind and describe it.

This might be a good time to call home and check out your attempt to empathize with either or both parents. What can it accomplish? What will they say to these questions? a.

When in their lives did they experience the greatest amount of freedom?

When did they experience the greatest physical change? How did it affect them?

When did they feel most in control of their lives? If not now, how is it different now?

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What changes do they look forward to?

What could you add to this set of questions?

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 14.3 Getting Ready for the Rest of Life Support groups help us through so many of life's experiences. There are support groups in our locale for victims of diseases, former patients of various disorders, survivors of suicide, and parents who experience the loss of a child. There are also informal social supports we enjoy when lunching with colleagues, bowling with friends, or talking over the fence with a neighbor. Where will we get support for growing older and dealing with the challenges of aging? Will we just have to laugh at ourselves as our eyes lose their focus, our waistlines fight for space, and our children's tuition bills come due? It may be that the most reliable support will come from within ourselves. Taking Shakespeare's dictum that "nothing is either good or bad, but thinking makes it so," reword the following changes that can come with aging so that the glass is half full instead of half empty, so to speak. The first half of life consists of the capacity to enjoy without the chance; the last half consists of the chance without the capacity. Mark Twain 1.

Imagine you discovered you have just passed the halfway point of your predicted lifespan. Will this be the half of life described by Mark Twain as the "half that consists of chance without the capacity?" How could the last half be described in positive language?

Suppose you are holding the newspaper at arm's length and still squinting to read the print which you feel "isn't as good as it used to be." If you give in to nature and start wearing glasses, you would be showing your age. How could this turn of events be described positively?

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Soon there will be no child living in your home. Growing up and moving out is creating the "empty nest." What can be positive about this?

Of all the challenges or changes outlined in this chapter, what one would you add to this exercise? How could you reconstruct it in a more positive light?

What is the next major life change you anticipate? Consider the chapter discussion relevant to your age and use it to compare or contrast this next major life change, again, viewing it in a positive light.

Identify one change or challenge in this chapter that you will not be experiencing because of your abilities, beliefs, strengths, or choices. How will it be possible to avoid this one?

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 14.4 Aging and Stereotypes Television and movie scriptwriters often take advantage of negative stereotypes about aging, and thereby contribute to some of the myths surrounding it. Please identify an example of ageism that is perpetuated by the entertainment media, and bring your example to class to contribute to a discussion. 1.

Describe your example here.

How is this portrayal of aging inaccurate or different from your real-life experience of older people?

In contrast to question 1, illustrate a case where the writer has helped provide some accurate insight.

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 14.5 A Fountain of Youth As your text describes, there are many scientific efforts underway to slow down the deterioration associated with aging. Drugs such as DHEA, HGH, and melatonin are just the first wave of what may someday be true anti-aging drugs. Some experts in aging believe that within just a few generations (at most) science will be able to “stretch” the human lifespan out to around 150 years, with the person feeling young and healthy virtually the entire time. A few researchers believe that within 100 years science will be able to expand human life expectancy to around 300 to 400 years, with people being youthful and vigorous most during most of their extended lives. Some extremely optimistic researchers believe that at some point we will be able to stop the aging process entirely, and while people will still die from war, accidents, crime, and some diseases, no one will die from old age. This raises some interesting questions about the impact such changes will have on society. 1.

How do you think extended or unlimited aging would affect or change society?

What potential problems do you see this creating for society itself, and the world in general?

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If a pill were available that would stop aging completely, would you take it? Why or why not? If you would take it, can you imagine reasons why someone else might not? What would those reasons be?

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Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 14.6 Personal Experience: Part I Having children can be among the most exciting experiences in your life, while at the same time being among the scariest experiences once the awesome responsibility you have taken on by having a child really sinks in. Once you get the child home you also realize how unprepared you are for many of the things with which you will now have to cope. While there are hundreds of child-rearing manuals, some much more helpful than others, each child is different and no child comes with a set of "operating instructions" custom-tailored to that particular child. 1.

Visit your favorite library and/or bookstore. How many child-rearing books can you find on the shelves or in the indexes?

Please identify and characterize the one that appeals to you most and explain why.

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Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 14.7 What Are the Odds? 1.

What odds do you give yourself for becoming a parent? Write it as a percentage, and write down what you think the odds are for college students. Are your odds higher or lower than the odds you gave to college students in general? Why?

Ask several friends the same thing and write down their responses here.

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Compare the odds given by you and your friends with the likelihood given for parenting in the United States and Canada (approximately 80 percent). Do you and others have very different ideas about the odds in general or your odds in particular? If so, why do believe your odds are different?

What classes on parenting, if any, are offered on your campus? Where else could you go in your community or region to enroll in such classes?

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Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 14.8 To Have or Have Not First read the reasons presented in Chapter 14 to have or not to have children and check the items that seem to apply to you. Now take a position to have or to have not, even if only for this exercise. If you cannot decide, flip a coin.

Identify the strongest reason that is inconsistent with your chosen or coin-determined position. Explain why you are not influenced by that reason.

Write a rebuttal that challenges that reason. Explain why you are so strongly influenced by that rebuttal.

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Now do the same for the strongest reason in support of your position. Explain why you believe so strongly in this reason.

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 14.9 Are You Feeling the Pressure? Have others ever tried to influence your choice about having children? Was it strong persuasion or subtle hints? If this has not happened to you, has it happened to one of your siblings or friends?

Record here any influences you detect from friends, family or other sources (for you or your sibling/friend).

What position gets the heaviest support -- not just in terms of sheer numbers, but also in terms of strengths and influence? For example, an argument from a friend may be more manipulative than an ad for Huggies, and a casual comment from a relative may be more weighty than a lecture from a confirmed bachelor professor.

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 14.10 In Your Judgment Since how our parents raised us can influence how we will or would raise children and because you now have some sound basis for judging, please characterize your parents' child rearing with regard to the emphasis they placed on authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive styles.

Also, please describe the strengths or weaknesses you think you will bring to the tasks of parenting, and explain what you can do to help correct or compensate for your weaknesses.

What do you look forward to the most about having children, if you choose to have them?

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What is your biggest fear about having children or your ability to raise children, should you choose to have them?

What are some steps you can take ahead of time to alleviate your fears or minimize the problems you anticipate?

If you choose to have children, about how old do you want to be when you have your first child? Why this age and not an older or younger age?

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15 The Challenge of the Workplace Chapter Outline Module 15.1: Career Development 15.1.1. 15.1.2. 15.1.3. A.

Motives for Working Stages of Career Development Getting a Job Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Careers: What’s Hot, What’s Not

Module 15.2: Adjustment in the Workplace 15.2.1. A. B. 15.2.2.

Job Satisfaction Box: Self-Assessment: How Do You Feel About Your Work? The Job Satisfaction Index Box: Adjustment and Modern Life: Challenges of a Changing Workplace Work and Stress

Module 15.3: Women in the Workplace 15.3.1. Why Do Women Work? 15.3.2. Women in the Workplace 15.3.3. Sexual Harassment

Module 15.4: Psychology in Daily Life: Finding a Career That Fits 15.4.1. How to Use the Balance Sheet and Psychological Tests to Make Career Decisions 15.4.2. Finding Your Dream Job A. Box: Self-Assessment: What's Your Career Type? Attend the Job Fair and Find Out!

Chapter Overview Reasons for Working. Workers are motivated by both extrinsic rewards (money, status, security) and intrinsic rewards (the work ethic, self-identity, self-fulfillment, self-worth, and the social values of work). The work ethic holds that we are morally obligated to engage in labor, to avoid idleness. Stages of Career Development. Stage theorists identify various stages of career development, including the fantasy, tentative, realistic-choice, maintenance, career change, and retirement stages. Writing a Resume. Your resume is a summary of your background and qualifications. Your resume is you -until the interview. It should summarize your background in education and work experience, most recent experiences first. General rule to break (sometimes): Any color ink is fine as long as it’s black. Include e-mail address and cell phone number. don’t lie -- you may lie your way into a job for which you are not qualified; then what do you do? 285

The Cover Letter. The cover letter can explain how you learned about the opening, briefly show how you are qualified, can state salary and geographical needs, request an interview, offer to send references upon request, and thank the prospective employer for her or his consideration. The Job Interview. Make a good first impression by being well-groomed, well-dressed, and as well-spoken as you can be. Maintain eye contact, but look engaged, not challenging. Answer questions briefly and have some questions of your own to ask. Emphasize how your qualifications fit this job. Never be sarcastic or impatient. Ask for a reasonably high salary. Don’t volunteer weaknesses. Getting Ahead on the Job. Your adjustment may begin with recognizing that you’re going from the “top” of your educational experience to a relatively low rung in the world outside. Learn how to do your specific job tasks and take responsibility for them. Show that you can get along with co-workers and supervisors. Seek a mentor to “show you the ropes.” Factors Associated with Job Satisfaction. Actually the great majority of workers in the United States report being completely or somewhat satisfied with their jobs. Older workers and workers with higher incomes are more likely to say they are satisfied. Workers do not like being left out of decision-making processes and profit from constructive rather than destructive criticism. Many workers complain of stress, low pay, lack of recognition, and unsatisfactory job benefits in areas like health insurance and retirement. Enhancing Job Satisfaction. Measures that contribute to job satisfaction include careful recruitment and selection of workers, training and instruction, unbiased appraisal and feedback, goal setting, linking financial compensation to productivity, allowing workers to make appropriate decisions, and flexible schedules such as flextime and job sharing. Sources of Workplace Stress. There are physical, individual, group, and organizational stressors. For example, the workplace can be polluted. The workers’ personality may not fit the job. Co-workers may be criticizers or “back-stabbers.” Organizations may have strict hierarchies that do not permit input from lower-level workers. Decreasing Stress in the Workplace. The organization can study the workplace environment to reduce stressors such as pollution and abrasive supervisor-employee relationships. Many organizations provide health or fitness facilities and activities. Workers also need to evaluate whether their jobs truly fit their personalities and skills. Burnout. Burnout is characterized by emotional exhaustion, feelings of depersonalization, and reduced achievement. The typical “setup” for burnout is frustration on the job when encountered by highly conscientious workers. Workers can prevent burnout by measures such as creating clear priorities, setting reasonable goals, and limits, sharing their feelings (with people they can trust!), building supportive relationships, and setting aside time to pursue personally rewarding activities outside the workplace. Women in the Workplace. Women work mainly for the same reasons that men do -- financial independence, self-esteem, social interaction, self-identity. However, women often encounter greater stress in the workplace, such as pressure of balancing childbearing and career needs, role overload, sexism and sexual harassment, and dealing with the gender-related earnings gap. “Men’s Work” and “Women’s Work.” The very question is sexist because it assumes that there are such things as “men’s work” and “women’s work.” Areas that have been traditional male preserves -- especially medicine and law -- are now seeing equal or nearly equal numbers of women entering them. However, because these areas were shut off to women, older men usually remain in positions of power. Other areas are still dominated by men -- for example , the military, science, and engineering, truck driving, and the construction industry. The Gender-Related Earnings Gap. The earnings gap narrowed at the end of the twentieth century such that women earned about 65% of the income of men. There is no simple explanation for the remaining earnings gap. Reasons include discrimination, women’s “choices” (based on a lifetime of exposure to gender role stereotypes) to enter traditionally lower-paying fields, and the fact that the fields formerly restricted to women tend to 286

remain dominated by older men. Reducing the Earnings Gap. Women profit from realistic career planning, maintaining employment continuity, child-care facilities, and training programs. (Lack of discrimination wouldn’t hurt either.) Sexual Harassment. One commonly accepted definition of sexual harassment consists of deliberate or repeated unsolicited verbal comments, gestures, or physical contact of a sexual nature that is unwelcome. People who are sexually harassed can adopt a cool (not necessarily nasty ) “professional” attitude in relating to harassers, directly inform the harasser to stop, avoid being alone with the harasser, keep a record of incidents, complain to the organization, and seek legal remedies. Harassment usually will not go away by itself.

Teaching Objectives After studying this chapter your students should be able to: 1.

Compare and contrast the various intrinsic and extrinsic motives for working.

Identify and briefly explain Super's stages of vocational development.

Explain what a resume and a cover letter are, and provide a detailed description of what each should, or should not, contain.

Summarize, in detail, the things you should do to make a good impression at a job interview.

Identify and discuss the various developmental tasks in taking a new job.

Describe the various measures that can be taken to enhance job satisfaction

Identify the various sources of stress in the workplace. Describe their effects, including burnout, and explain what steps can be taken to cope with job stress.

Describe discrepancies in pay and promotion for women in the workplace. Identify and explain the steps that can be taken to improve the workplace for women.

Discuss the types of behavior that represent sexual harassment. Explain what steps a person can take to protect himself or herself against sexual harassment.

10.

Explain what a balance sheet is and describe how it can be used to enhance the process of making career decisions.

11.

Identify at least two psychological tests that could be useful in the career decision-making process and explain how psychological tests can help us make better career decisions.

12.

Describe the six coping styles proposed in Holland's theory and explain how certain coping styles "fit" better in certain occupations than in others.

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Key Terms extrinsic motives intrinsic motives fantasy stage tentative choice stage realistic stage maintenance stage career change stage retirement stage

résumé cover letter job satisfaction quality circle hoteling flextime burnout the earnings gap

sexual harassment balance sheet realistic type investigative type artistic type social type enterprising type conventional type

Lecture/Discussion Suggestions 1. To stimulate discussion about differing values toward work, ask students to compare and contrast their values toward work with the work values of their parents and grandparents. Do they expect more from their jobs (self-fulfillment, growth experiences) than their parents or grandparents did? What about the role of continuing education in staying “current” on the job? Will our work values have to change again so that the U. S. can remain economically competitive in the international arena? 2. Ask for suggestions from the class for improving the quality of work life (for example, flextime, job restructuring, quality control (QC) circles, and so on). What would they do if they were running one of the major automobile manufacturing companies (Ford, GM, Chrysler) to improve productivity and quality control to compete more effectively with foreign manufacturers? How can this be managed effectively when several major automakers are facing severe cut-backs in their labor forces and problems related to retooling their factories from producing large, gas-guzzling SUVs to smaller, more fuel efficient compact and hybrid vehicles? 3. One traditional work value that seems to remain intact, as suggested by the results of a Psychology Today survey, is the expectation by both men and women that the husband's career should be the one that is most important in a dual-career marriage. If my classes are any basis for comparison, the question of relative career importance should raise a lively discussion. The following question can be used as a groundbreaker: "Should one partner give up a good job if the other partner is offered a better job in another city or is forced to transfer to another city to maintain his or her job?" Another question I've posed to students as part of this discussion is, "How much of the tendency to place the male's career first, in a dual-career marriage, is the result of unabashed sexism by husbands and wives, or a pragmatic adjustment to a work world where men still tend to get paid much higher salaries and better benefits for the same work, and women still tend to be more interested in childrearing?" Although there is no absolute answer to this question, it raises several possibilities that keep this topic interesting. 4. Career decision-making is very likely a current concern for many of your students. To illustrate the use of a balance sheet, weigh several potential career choices in terms of relative advantages and disadvantages of each to himself or herself and to important others. Ask other class members to provide input. I also suggest to students who are choosing careers that taking the SCII can be well worth the effort. I especially like the SCII because the test constructors have made notable efforts to be nonsexist in developing the test. For students to see where they might do best within a chosen field, suggest the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), as it provides useful information about personal preferences and interactional styles. 5. Are women's career commitments as strong as men's? Or are women's careers only stopgaps between school, marriage, children, and retirement? Research suggests that young women underestimate their anticipated career longevities and that the average woman of today can expect about 28 years of her life in the work force. Ask students to suggest ways in which the structure of family life and work life might be adapted to provide women with access to career opportunities and job continuity comparable to that of men (for example, job sharing, maternity/family leave, day-care centers, or early career counseling). 288

6. Gender segregation practices in the work place still remain prevalent in many areas of our society. Nurses are primarily women while physicians remain primarily men. Paralegals are primarily women but lawyers are primarily men. Secretaries are primarily women, but business executives are primarily men. The list is endless. Based on the discussion in the text, ask students for suggestions concerning what might be done to reduce gender segregation patterns and close the "earnings gap" between men's and women's pay. Might there be some jobs that should be men's work and others that should be women's work? Or should both genders have equal access to all jobs, including combat duty in the military? 7. Ask students to share reasons why they chose their majors or careers. Do economic or personal fulfillment values seem most prominent in your students' decisions? Or did students just "fall into" the majors or careers they've "chosen?" For students who are undecided about a career or major, what obstacles block their decisionmaking processes? 8. Sexual harassment is an important issue of concern for many working women and men. Are there students in class who have experienced sexual harassment in school or on the job who would be willing to share their experiences (perhaps anonymously in writing)? How did they feel as a result of these experiences? How did they cope with these experiences and how did they feel as a result of them? Ask for suggestions from class members concerning what can be done about incidents of sexual harassment, recognizing that no single strategy is perfectly suited to all cases. Reinforce the text's point that because of recent court decisions that hold companies liable for even allowing a “hostile atmosphere” to exist in which a person feels harassed or threatened, most companies now take sexual harassment quite seriously. 9. I often point out to students that bookstores and libraries stock large numbers of books and web resources designed to improve job-seeking skills, from writing résumés to doing well in interviews. As the text explains, these skills are learned, not innate. I try to combat the attitude I frequently hear: "I'm just no good at interviews!" The material in this chapter, as well as books, mock interviews, cognitive restructuring, and behavioral rehearsal, along with relaxation skills, all can enhance interview performance. 10. Maslow's contributions to the literature on worker motivation and his concepts of self-actualization and self-fulfillment have come to the fore in many work settings. As mentioned earlier in the suggestions for Chapter 3, such workplace innovations as quality control (QC) circles, which originated in Japanese companies but spread rapidly in western industry as well, reflect this humanistic tradition of treating individuals as meaningful, creative sources of input for decision making, and not just cogs in a great industrial machine. As an elective project, several students might be interested in examining what some local industries in your area are doing with issues of worker motivation and, in particular, whether they've begun to use worker decision-making groups or quality circles. Students can take responsibility for interviewing company personnel to obtain information and report to class. This exercise might be particularly valuable to those students who are businessoriented and interested in seeing how psychological principles apply to business. Similar interview projects can be arranged to examine whether behavior modification programs or some other applications of psychological theory and research are being used in local industry. 11. Ask students which factors contribute to work-related stress. Relate how the stress-reduction techniques in Chapter 5 can be utilized on the job. Which job stresses do students perceive as most difficult? Some in-class role plays on dealing with such problems as difficult supervisors, or problems with insensitive or irresponsible coworkers might be appropriate.

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Student Activities Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 15.1 Resources for Career Information There are some fantastic resources waiting at your library that can provide important information about the career you have chosen or are considering. You will find the reference librarian very helpful and able to direct you to titles such as The Dictionary of Occupational Titles and The Occupational Outlook Handbook. The latter is updated yearly and is quite complete in coverage of the nature of occupations. Both titles are widely held at libraries designated as Federal Depository Libraries and generally are available at local, regional, and campus libraries. Ask the person behind the reference desk for directions, and answer these questions about your chosen career, or what you might consider for a career: 1.

What is the nature of the work? Does it seem to fit your preconceptions?

What work conditions are associated with the occupation?

How many people are currently employed in this occupation?

What education, training and other qualifications are required?

What is the outlook for this career choice? How many more people are expected to be needed in the future?

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What earnings and advancement opportunities are associated with this career choice?

What health benefits are associated with this job?

Is your interest in this career enhanced or reduced by this exercise? What exactly was influential?

Which stage of vocational development is associated with this exercise?

10. If you won the lottery, would you still choose this career? Why or why not? If not, what else would you do?

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Name __________________________________ Date ____________ 15.2 Our Work and Our Identity The text points out the tendency for us to say "I am a _______" rather than "I work as a ______," and thus, we intertwine career with self-identity. We will be or already are sensitive at those times people ask us what our major is, what our career plans are, and what work we do. Ask three people who are unfamiliar with your career interests to grade the "prestige" they associate with five jobs that you identify, including your first choice. Use a scale of 1 to 10, with 10 being the most prestigious job. Also ask all participants to give an example of a job they would rate a 1 and one they would rate a 10.

Follow-Up Questions:

Is it alarming or comforting to learn what others think of your choice? Why?

How much did the three judgments vary? In what ways did they vary?

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Do the opinions of others regarding your career choice have any value to you? Why or why not?

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Name ________________________________ Date ______________ 15.3 Supercharging Your Formal Education It is hard to find it in writing, but students generally know that there are courses outside their major, called electives, that are extremely useful, exciting, and valuable. 1.

What courses outside your major could you describe to your class that you would highly recommend? Why are these courses valuable? What benefits do they provide?

Ask a friend for his or her recommendation for an elective course and the reason for the recommendation. What did the friend recommend and why does he or she recommend it?

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Ask a faculty member for his or her recommendation for an elective course and the reason for the recommendation. What did the faculty member recommend and why did she or he recommend it?

Please bring these to class for sharing, and indicate which class or classes intrigue you.

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Name _________________________________ Date _____________ 15.4 What Matters on the Job? Since most of us have work experience, we can judge the relative contribution of several of the components that influence job satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Rank each item from 1 to 10, with 1 representing the most important and 10 representing the least important. Briefly explain your rating.

______ The boss

_______ Salary/Money

______ Geographic location

_______ Advancement potential

______ Fellow workers

_______ Benefits (health insurance, etc.)

______ Work environment

_______ Status/Prestige

______ Hours

10. _______ Daily tasks on the job

Follow-Up Questions: 1.

This is an exercise that is also good to share with other members of your class. It probably would be useful to discover what your classmates' experiences are, especially if they are quite different from your own. For example, working nights or weekends might not be part of your experience, so the insights of others might be valuable if you are thinking of a career in a medical field.

Given the possible effects of criticism, goal setting, linkage of pay to productivity, work redesign, flextime, and stress at the workplace, how would you change the workplace you rated in this exercise?

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How would you monitor, measure, and document improvements that your recommendations could create?

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