Research Methods in Psychology Evaluating a World of Information 4th Edition Test Bank by Ace Test Banks

Research Methods in Psychology Evaluating a World of Information 4th Edition Test Bank

richard@qwconsultancy.com

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Name: ___________________________ Class: _________________ Date: __________

Chapter 01

Which of the following is an example of being a producer of research? a.

administering an anxiety questionnaire

applying a new therapy technique

writing an opinion article about a psychological study

undergoing a brain scan

Which of the following is an example of being a consumer of research? a.

administering a questionnaire of PTSD symptoms

consenting to participate in a research study

using a new teaching strategy to increase academic performance in a classroom

measuring dopamine levels in patients with schizophrenia

Students who are interested in being consumers of, but not producers of, research might choose which of the following professions? a.

A clinical psychologist

An intervention program evaluator

A political pollster

An advertising executive

Dr. Smitherman insists that all his research assistants know how to be producers of research. All of the following relate to this requirement EXCEPT a.

he wants to make sure they understand how to write in APA style.

he wants to make sure they understand why anonymity is important.

he wants to make sure they understand how to interpret study results and graphs.

he wants to make sure they have previously been participants in research studies.

Elliott is double majoring in English and psychology. He plans on being a high school English teacher and is majoring in psychology only because he finds the classes interesting. Which of the following is an important reason for him to be a good consumer of research? a.

His psychology advisor may ask for his help in copyediting a research article.

He will likely need to be a participant in research studies as part of his psychology major.

He will probably want to read research related to enhancing his teaching.

He will have to produce research before he can consume it.

In the theory-data cycle, theories first lead to a.

questions.

answers.

data.

research.

Another word for hypothesis is a(n)

theory.

observation.

prediction.

outcome.

Another word for data is a(n) a.

theory.

observation.

prediction.

outcome.

RESEARCH STUDY 1.1: Deci and Ryan (1985, 2001) have proposed that three fundamental needs are required for human growth and fulfillment: relatedness, autonomy, and competence. Susan predicts that students who have these needs met in their psychology class feel happier and more satisfied with the class. She collects data and finds that students who feel more related and competent do feel happier, but that feeling more autonomous does not seem to matter. Susan thinks that maybe autonomy is necessary only when people are in situations in which they are not being evaluated. Deci and Ryan’s general statement of how the three needs are related to growth and fulfillment is an example of which of the following? a.

a theory

a hypothesis

data

research

10.

11.

RESEARCH STUDY 1.1: Deci and Ryan (1985, 2001) have proposed that three fundamental needs are required for human growth and fulfillment: relatedness, autonomy, and competence. Susan predicts that students who have these needs met in their psychology class feel happier and more satisfied with the class. She collects data and finds that students who feel more related and competent do feel happier, but that feeling more autonomous does not seem to matter. Susan thinks that maybe autonomy is necessary only when people are in situations in which they are not being evaluated. Susan’s prediction that students who have all three needs met will experience greater satisfaction with their psychology class is an example of which of the following? a.

a theory

a hypothesis

data

research

RESEARCH STUDY 1.1: Deci and Ryan (1985, 2001) have proposed that three fundamental needs are required for human growth and fulfillment: relatedness, autonomy, and competence. Susan predicts that students who have these needs met in their psychology class feel happier and more satisfied with the class. She collects data and finds that students who feel more related and competent do feel happier, but that feeling more autonomous does not seem to matter. Susan thinks that maybe autonomy is necessary only when people are in situations in which they are not being evaluated. After Susan collects and analyzes her data, which of the following is the next logical step? a.

Susan writes a paper challenging Self-Determination Theory because some of her data did not support it.

Susan ignores the data that did not fit the theory.

Susan recalculates her data to fit the theory.

Susan designs a new study to test her new hypothesis.

12.

13.

14.

RESEARCH STUDY 1.1: Deci and Ryan (1985, 2001) have proposed that three fundamental needs are required for human growth and fulfillment: relatedness, autonomy, and competence. Susan predicts that students who have these needs met in their psychology class feel happier and more satisfied with the class. She collects data and finds that students who feel more related and competent do feel happier, but that feeling more autonomous does not seem to matter. Susan thinks that maybe autonomy is necessary only when people are in situations in which they are not being evaluated. Susan’s hypothesis was not completely supported by her data. What does this mean? a.

Susan must have collected the data incorrectly.

Susan must have analyzed the data incorrectly.

The theory may need to be amended.

The theory is completely wrong.

________ is the approach of collecting data and using it to develop, support, and/or challenge a theory. a.

Falsifiability

Theorizing

Empiricism

Application

a theory.

a hypothesis.

data.

15.

16.

17.

research.

Benjamin is a social psychologist who studies marriage. He believes that marital satisfaction has two components: the ability to trust one’s partner and a belief that one can be a good spouse. He conducts a study to test his ideas. Assuming that his data match his theory, which of the following statements should he make? a.

“The data prove my theory.”

“My theory is generalizable.”

“The data provide support for my theory.”

“The data complicate my theory.”

Which of the following is true of the relationship between hypotheses and theories? a.

Hypotheses are used to determine if a theory is accurate.

Theories are used to determine if a hypothesis is accurate.

Multiple theories are needed to test whether a hypothesis is accurate.

Hypotheses and theories are synonymous terms.

Which of Robert Merton’s scientific norms describes the idea that scientists should always accurately report the findings of their study even if the findings do not support the scientist’s hypotheses or theories? a.

universality

communality

disinterestedness

organized skepticism

18.

19.

20.

Scientists often say that more data are needed to draw conclusions about the accuracy of new theories and are reluctant to accept new claims without empirical support. What scientific norm does this illustrate? a.

universality

communality

disinterestedness

organized skepticism

Dr. Rodriquez is a health psychologist who is interested in studying the effects of cannabidiol (CBD) oil on perceptions of pain in college student athletes with sports injuries. She became interested in studying this topic after hearing multiple claims by the media that CBD oil was effective in treating pain. However, she could not find any empirical studies that reported findings of the effectiveness for CBD oil for sports injuries. Her decision to conduct a study to test the media claims is an example of which of Merton’s scientific norms? a.

universality

communality

disinterestedness

organized skepticism

Which of the following is an example of applied research? a.

a social psychologist who is interested in the components of selfconcept

an educational psychologist who looks for a way to increase math skills in eight-year-olds

a personality psychologist who studies the difference between introverts and extroverts

a cognitive psychologist who looks at the difference in problem-solving abilities of men and women

21.

22.

23.

Which of the following is an example of translational research? a.

an industrial-organizational psychologist who is interested in the components of job satisfaction

a clinical psychologist who examines the effectiveness of art therapy in decreasing symptoms of ADHD

a sports psychologist who uses information on how we emotionally process victory to design an intervention for improving mental stamina during athletic performance

a cognitive psychologist who examines people’s ability to distinguish between colors based on light exposure

Which of the following is an example of basic research? a.

an industrial-organizational psychologist who is interested in the components of job commitment

a clinical psychologist who examines the effectiveness of drama therapy in helping children who have been abused

an educational psychologist who examines how mindset (“intelligence is innate” or “intelligence can be achieved”) affects academic performance

an experimental psychologist who examines people’s ability to perceive a “sweet” taste

Research that is done specifically to solve a practical problem, like increasing memory ability or decreasing symptoms of depression, is known as a.

basic research.

applied research.

empirical research.

translational research.

24.

25.

26.

Research that is done specifically to add to our general understanding of psychology, like distinguishing the components of extraversion or predicting the time it takes a person to determine whether an object is a face or another object, is known as a.

basic research.

applied research.

empirical research.

translational research.

Which of the following is true of the difference between basic and applied research? a.

Basic and applied research have different goals.

Applied research is more important than basic research.

Basic research is more difficult to conduct than applied research.

Applied research is done by consumers of research.

Vinai learns that people with schizophrenia have a problem labeling their emotions. Using this information, he designs a research study to examine whether teaching patients with schizophrenia to label the emotions of people they see in movie clips helps them to better label their own emotions. Vinai hopes that the findings of this research could then be used to create an intervention to treat schizophrenia. Vinai’s study is an example of a.

basic research.

applied research.

empirical research.

translational research.

27.

28.

29.

30.

According to the text, the bridge between basic and applied research is known as a.

empirical research.

practical research.

translational research.

compound research.

Scientific journals and magazines are similar in which of the following ways? a.

Both are written for the general public.

Both tend to be written by scientists.

Both tend to publish peer-reviewed articles.

New editions come out on a regular basis (usually monthly).

Which of the following is the reason that scientific journals use peer review? a.

It is cost effective.

It is more efficient/faster.

It encourages collaboration among researchers.

It ensures that the studies published are of the highest quality.

Nadia submits her article to a scientific journal for publication. Who makes the final decision on whether her article is published in that scientific journal? a.

the editor of the journal

Nadia, the author of the article

a panel of experts

the publisher of the journal

31.

32.

33.

34.

Which aspect of the peer-review cycle allows for the greatest amount of honesty in reviews? a.

the number of peer reviewers

the anonymity of the peer reviewers

the possibility of rejection

the frequency of publication

Dr. Gonzalez is a peer reviewer for a manuscript submitted to a journal. He is likely to provide comments on which of the following? a.

how well the general public will understand the study

how well the research was conducted

the prestige/reputation of the author

previous studies from the same research group

Dr. Stewart is an editor of a psychology journal. She wants to ensure that reviewers give honest reviews of the papers they are asked to read. Which of the following could she do to increase the likelihood of honest feedback? a.

increase the number of peer reviewers

use reviewers from fields other than psychology

make sure the peer reviewers are anonymous

give reviewers a longer amount of time to read papers

Articles that could be considered journalism a.

are typically written by scientists.

are typically written for scientists.

35.

36.

37.

38.

are hard to access.

do not require specialized education to read.

The quality of journalists’ coverage of a science story will be determined by which two factors? a.

the importance and accuracy of the story

the length and source of the story

the education and experience of the journalist

the education and experience of the scientist

Salma conducts a study and finds that her data do not completely support her theory. Which of the following statements should she avoid saying? a.

“My data are inconsistent with my theory.”

“My data disprove my theory.”

“My theory needs amending.”

“My data partially prove my theory.”

Translational research is best thought of as ________ basic research and applied research. a.

superior to both

inferior to both

a bridge between

another term for

Which of the following is a reason psychological scientists publish their research in scientific journals?

39.

40.

41.

to get money from the journals where their work appears

to share their findings with the general public

to have their results reviewed by other psychologists

to gain attention by journalists

Which of the following is a reason that a journalist may misrepresent a psychology study in a magazine? a.

The peer-review process for journalists sometimes makes them miss important facts.

Journalists may count on their readers to check the original scientific journal.

Journalists may not personally have the scientific background to understand the study.

Journalists are unethical.

Your friend Gaby loves reading articles about psychology studies in her monthly women’s magazine. Which of the following would you tell her? a.

“Stop reading those articles because they are never accurate.”

“Peer-reviewed journals are much easier to read than magazines.”

“Be careful about reading those articles because they may not present findings accurately.”

“Reading those magazines is just as good as reading the peerreviewed journals.”

RESEARCH STUDY 1.2: Dr. White reads about a new theory that states that depression is caused by increased levels of estrogen in the womb. To test this theory, she conducted a study comparing the level of estrogen in amniotic fluid in individuals who were later diagnosed with depression with the level of those who did not develop depression. Dr. White found no differences between the groups in estrogen levels in the amniotic fluid.

Based on these results, Dr. White should conclude that

42.

43.

she has disproved the previous theory because the lack of findings contradict her theory.

there is no way to prove the theory because of flaws in the methodology used by Dr. White to test her theory.

previous studies that support the theory are probably flawed.

there may be unexamined factors influencing the results that contributed to the results of other studies on this topic.

evaluate the ways in which her study differed from previous studies that supported this theory

work with a journalist to write a magazine article claiming they have disproved the previous theory

develop a new theory of what causes depression

start altering treatments for depression based on her findings

conduct a similar study with improved research design.

44.

45.

design a new study to ask a slightly different research question.

thoughtfully consider reasons why these findings might not support the new theory.

conduct the same study in a different sample of depressed patients.

theory.

research question.

hypothesis.

data.

theory.

research question.

hypothesis.

data.

46.

47.

48.

depressed patients

clinical researchers

journalists

social workers

Which of the following is a benefit of the peer-review process? a.

Reviewers’ names are made public so they can defend their critiques of an article.

The journal editor provides input on study design to ensure rigorous scientific methods.

Reviewers’ names are kept anonymous so they can be open in their critiques of an article.

Nonsignificant results are not considered for publication to ensure interesting research.

How can you ensure that a popular media article accurately reflects the original research of a scientific study? a.

find and read the original scientific article

determine whether the results fit within the theories you learned in your psychology classes

check that the popular media article includes the statistical significance of the results

49.

50.

51.

research the credentials of the author of the popular media article

Which of the following is a reason why it is important to be a knowledgeable consumer of research? a.

It is important to know how to write in APA style.

It is important to understand how to design an effective study.

It is important to know why researchers protect the anonymity of participants.

It is important to understand whether the information you read is accurate.

Which of the following is a reason why it is important to be an effective producer of research? a.

It is important to be able to synthesize previous research findings.

It is important to communicate new scientific findings that can advance the field of psychology.

It is important to understand whether the information you read is accurate.

It is important to know how to read an APA style research report.

A research consumer ________ scientific results. a.

analyzes

produces

reads

graphs

52.

53.

54.

Which of the following involves using evidence from the senses or from instruments that assist the senses as the basis for conclusions? a.

hypotheses

empiricism

translational research

evidence-based treatment

Luis has just finished planning a study to explore personality traits that predict how open adults are to altering their beliefs when presented with findings from scientific studies. Before beginning data collection, Luis preregisters his hypothesis. One of the primary benefits of preregistering his hypothesis is that a.

he is less likely to develop an incorrect hypothesis.

it allows him to design a rigorous study focused on empirically testing his hypothesis.

he is less likely to be suspected of developing his hypotheses after analyzing his findings.

it prevents other researchers from testing the same hypothesis.

Dr. Knepp studies Extrasensory Perception (ESP) which is the ability to perceive things through telepathy or clairvoyance. She theorizes that ESP exists but only in people who believe it exists and who are not skeptical of ESP. She surveys a large number of adults about their beliefs in ESP and, as expected, only adults who believe in ESP report having those abilities. What is true about Dr. Knepp’s theory? a.

It is not falsifiable.

It does not have a hypothesis.

It is not translational research.

It is provable.

55.

56.

57.

58.

Which of these statements would most likely be used by a research psychologist when describing the results of a study? a.

My data are consistent with my hypothesis.

My data prove my hypothesis.

My data do not prove my hypothesis because they may coincidentally also fit an incorrect hypothesis.

My data prove the theory being tested.

Suppose you hypothesize that all children have an imaginary friend at some point during their preschool years. You talk to twenty children, all of whom say that they have or have had an imaginary friend. Does your finding support your hypothesis? a.

Yes, because all of the data are consistent with the hypothesis.

Yes, because there is no alternative explanation for these findings.

No, because you do not have a theory to support your hypothesis.

No, because you have not confirmed the presence of an imaginary friend for all children.

A scientist is most likely to accept a theory when a.

one study has data that are consistent with the theory.

an evidence-based treatment confirms the theory.

the theory is not falsifiable.

the findings of replicated studies are consistent with the theory.

If we cannot observe a behavior, we cannot study it. What does this statement refer to? a.

empiricism

falsifiability

59.

60.

61.

replication

skepticism

What is the primary purpose of peer review? a.

to distinguish between magazines and journals

to ensure the relevance, accuracy, and integrity of the content

to give scientists more practice thinking critically about research methodology

to make sure that the authors have included all relevant citations of other research in the field

What is the best description of a peer-reviewed journal article? a.

an article written by experts and reviewed by other professionals in the same field of study

an article written by college professors

an article that is designed to communicate the results of a scientific study to the general public

an article written by journalists designed to share scientific findings widely via the media

A professor may agree to an interview with a journalist who expresses an interest in writing a popular article describing findings from the professor’s recently published empirical journal article. What is the professor most likely hoping to achieve by working with this journalist? a.

He is hoping to communicate new knowledge to other scientists.

He is hoping to help solve problems identified by other scientists related to their field of research.

He hopes to become known as an expert in his field.

He wants to make the findings available to a wider audience that might be able to benefit from the findings.

62.

Name three types of research data or information that people are exposed to every day, even if they are not psychologists.

63.

Provide two reasons why it is beneficial to be a good consumer of research, even if you are not a psychologist.

64.

Although not all psychology majors become producers of research, name two benefits of learning how to become a producer of research.

65.

Padma wakes up on Tuesday morning and none of the lights or the appliances in their apartment are working. What theory might explain why this is happening? What could Padma do to test this theory? How is this an example of the theory-data cycle in science?

66.

What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis?

67.

Describe the four scientific norms that Robert Merton identified as important practices that help science continue to progress.

68.

Explain why we do not say that a single study proves a theory or that a single study disproves a theory.

69.

Explain why the relationship between applied and basic research can best be thought of as interrelated.

70.

The Harlow study described in the text is an example of basic research. It found that attachment to a caregiver is important in the early months of life. How might a researcher use this study as inspiration for an applied research study?

71.

Imagine that you are a clinical researcher who studies depression. Provide an example of basic research and applied research that you might conduct.

72.

Name three ways that articles published in scientific journals are different from journalistic articles.

73.

Explain how the peer-review process ensures that only quality science is published.

74.

Dr. Mendoza sends a paper to a journal. The editor sends the paper to four experts in the field for peer review. Name three things that the peer reviewers should comment on in evaluating Dr. Mendoza’s paper.

75.

Name the two aspects that improve the publication process from journal to journalism.

76.

The text mentions two ways you can prevent being misled by a journalist’s coverage of science. What are those two ways, and why are they important to consider as you evaluate a story?

Answer Key Chapter 01

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62. Answer:

Several answers are acceptable, including political polling data, websites (e.g., WebMD), and advice columns in newspapers and magazines.

63. Answer:

Several answers are acceptable, including using findings from research to help one’s profession, to help one’s everyday life (e.g., techniques to improve relationships, improve study skills), and to save money and time (e.g., by not spending time and money on things that are not effective).

64. Answer:

The benefits of learning how to become a producer of research can include learning to write in APA style, gaining skills necessary to work in a professor’s research lab, gaining skills necessary to complete a class assignment, and becoming a more informed consumer.

65. Answer:

Answers may vary, but in each response, students should propose a theory for why the lights/appliances do not work. Possible theories could be that Padma did not pay their electric bill, there was an electrical storm, or a fuse in their apartment was blown. Students should then propose a way for Padma to test the theory. For example, if students theorize that the lights/appliances are off because they did not pay the bill, students should state that Padma should pay their bill and see if the lights come back on. Students should explain how Padma has a theory, collects data, and then uses the data to evaluate the theory.

66. Answer:

A hypothesis is a prediction about what a researcher says should happen. Answers may vary, but students may say that a hypothesis is an if-then statement, such that if something happens, then they predict something else will then happen. In each response, students should say that a theory is a statement that explains why various variables/concepts are related. Some students may say that hypotheses are used to test theories.

67. Answer:

1) Universalism (scientific claims are evaluated according to their merit, independent of the researcher’s credentials or reputation); 2) Communality (scientific knowledge is created by a community, and its findings belong to the community; 3) Disinterestedness (scientists strive to discover the truth, whatever it is; they are not swayed by conviction, idealism, politics, or profit); and 4) Organized Skepticism (scientists question everything, including their own theories, widely accepted ideas, and “ancient wisdom”).

68. Answer:

A single study does not prove a theory because although a study today may find support for a theory, a study done tomorrow may not find support for that theory. A single study cannot disprove a theory because the single study may have been poorly conducted. Further, students may also mention that a disconfirming study may mean that the theory may need to be amended or altered rather than completely dismissed.

69. Answer:

These two types of research are best thought of as interrelated because they both inform each other. Specifically, basic research can be used later to conduct applied research and inform basic research. Students may also mention translational research in their responses.

70. Answer:

Answers may vary, but in each response, students should provide an example applying the concept of attachment in early life to an applied domain. For example, a student could include studying foster children who may not be with their caregivers in early life and their later attachment. Another example could involve examining different techniques used in hospitals to teach parents-to-be how to form close attachments with their children.

71. Answer:

Answers may vary, but in each response, students should provide an example of a basic study, such as frequency of depressive symptoms, type of depressive symptoms, how people who have depression function in daily life, and so on. Students should also provide an example of an applied study, such as a treatment designed to decrease depressive symptoms, a method to increase the social interactions of depressive patients, and so on.

72. Answer:

Answers may vary, but in each response, students should mention any three of the following: peer-reviewed articles are written by scientists, whereas journalism articles are not; peerreviewed articles are written for other scientists, whereas journalism articles are not; peer-reviewed articles are harder to access/acquire, whereas journalism articles are not; peerreviewed articles require special education to read, whereas journalism articles do not; and peer-reviewed articles are, of course, peer-reviewed, whereas journalism articles are not.

73. Answer:

Answers may vary, but in each response, students should say that peer reviewers act as gatekeepers or monitors of quality science by evaluating research that is submitted and ensuring that only good research is published. They may also state that peer reviewers comment on what is good and what is bad about the research and provide suggestions for improving the research before it is published.

74. Answer:

Peer reviewers should comment on three of the following: (a) how interesting the work is; (b) how novel the research is; (c) how well the research was done; and (d) how clear the results are.

75. Answer:

Journalists should choose studies that are important (and not just eye-catching or sensational), and they should accurately report on or describe the research study, ensuring that they fairly describe the study.

76. Answer:

The two ways you can prevent being misled by a journalist’s coverage of a science are by finding the original source and by maintaining a skeptical mindset when evaluating popular sources. Reading the original scientific journal article is important because some popular media stories report on studies that are only sensational or eye-catching and that do not really add to our understanding of science. Maintaining a skeptical mindset is important because the journalist might have omitted details or aspects of the study that are key to understanding the study.

Name: ___________________________ Class: _________________ Date: __________

Chapter 02

A psychiatrist is testing a drug that treats depression. He has given the drug to all his patients, and all of them have experienced a decrease in depressive symptoms. Although this is interesting, his experience is limited because he does not have a.

a reliable way to measure depressive symptoms.

a comparison group that did not receive the drug.

a hypothesis.

psychotherapy to supplement the drug.

RESEARCH STUDY 2.1: Sariyah is studying subliminal messages and weight loss. She is curious whether people will lose more weight if they hear subliminal messages that encourage weight loss (“don’t eat that food,” “you want to be thin,” etc.) in the music compared to people who do not have subliminal messages in their music. She studies 40 people and finds the following results: Number Who Lost Weight

Number Who Did Not Lose Weight

Exposed to Subliminal Messages

(Cell A) 15 people

(Cell C) 5 people

Not Exposed to Subliminal Messages

(Cell B) 10 people

(Cell D) 10 people

To understand whether the subliminal messages have an effect, Sariyah needs to consider which of the following cells in the chart? a.

She must consider only Cell A.

She must consider Cells A and B.

She must consider Cells A and C.

She must consider all of the cells.

Number Who Did Not Lose Weight

Exposed to Subliminal Messages

(Cell A) 15 people

(Cell C) 5 people

Not Exposed to Subliminal Messages

(Cell B) 10 people

(Cell D) 10 people

A change to which of the following cells will result in a different interpretation of the results of subliminal messages?

A change in any cell will result in a different interpretation.

A change in Cell B only will result in a different interpretation.

A change in Cell C only will result in a different interpretation.

A change in Cell D only will result in a different interpretation.

Vanessa claims that she sleeps better when she falls asleep to music. She has a comparison group because she has noticed that she does not listen to music every night, only when she remembers to charge her phone. She typically remembers to charge her phone on nights when she is able to finish studying earlier. What problem do you see in Vanessa’s reasoning about sleeping better to music?

Vanessa may be sleeping better because she is less distracted by studying and goes to bed sooner.

Vanessa’s belief that she sleeps better with music is not falsifiable.

Vanessa is biased because she sleeps in the same bed every night.

There is no problem with Vanessa’s reasoning.

One of the reasons that research studies are superior to personal experience is that a.

they include at least one comparison group.

they avoid constants.

they use confederates.

an authority is involved.

What does it mean that behavioral research is probabilistic? a.

Conclusions drawn from behavioral research are probably true.

Behavioral research involves probability sampling.

Inferences drawn from behavioral research are not expected to explain all cases.

Behavioral research requires the calculation of probability estimates.

Angel reads about a study in which smartphone use is associated with migraine headaches. He says, “Well, that study is not valid because I use a smartphone more than anyone I know, and I never get migraines.” Based on his comment, Angel may be forgetting which of the following? a.

Science is based on empiricism.

The study has been replicated.

The study did not properly define smartphone use.

10.

Science is probabilistic.

Two biases of intuition discussed in the text are a.

being swayed by a good story and being persuaded by what comes easily to mind.

the present/present bias and the confederate bias.

probabilistic thinking and nonintuitive thinking.

overconfidence bias and oversimplification bias.

James is asked about the best way to study for an exam. He responds that the best way to study is by making flashcards. He easily thinks of all the times he used flashcards and got an A. However, he fails to take into consideration all the times he got an A and did not use flashcards and the times he used flashcards and did not do well. His faulty thinking is an example of a.

cherry-picking evidence.

the availability heuristic.

a present/present bias.

asking biased questions.

Edward believes that there are a lot of differences between men and women on a variety of different dimensions. He believes this because when he thinks about books that have been written on men and women, he can quickly recall only books that say men and women are different (e.g., Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus) and cannot recall any that say men and women are the same. His reliance on what comes to mind is an example of which of the following? a.

the availability heuristic

a present/present bias

11.

12.

13.

a confirmation bias

overconfidence

Which of the following is a problem presented by the availability heuristic? a.

We do not examine all of the evidence, only what we can quickly think of.

We rely on the opinions of others rather than on our own opinions.

We do not carefully examine our own experience.

We will never be right in our conclusions.

Asking questions to get the answers we want is known as a.

the availability heuristic.

a present/present bias.

a confirmation bias.

overconfidence.

Sasha believes that she is a nice person. To confirm this, she asks all her friends whether she is a nice person; they all agree that she is. Sasha concludes that she is a nice person and says she has evidence of it. However, she does not ask any of her enemies whether they think she is a nice person. This is an example of which of the following? a.

a confirmation bias

a present/present bias

fourth cell reasoning

overconfidence

14.

15.

16.

17.

In which of the following scenarios should you be skeptical of an authority? a.

when they present all the evidence on a topic

when they have a scientific degree

when they based their opinions on their intuition

when they have conducted scientific research on the topic

Sasha believes that she is a nice person. To confirm this, she asks all her friends whether she is a nice person; they all agree that she is. Sasha concludes that she is a nice person and says she has evidence of it. Sasha would likely draw a different conclusion if she did which of the following? a.

asked her enemies if she was a nice person

counted up all the times she was nice in the past

asked all her friends the same question again in another six months

considered all the times she was nice to her enemies

You and your friends go to see a speaker on campus. The speaker, Dr. Darian, is an “expert” on getting into graduate school. Which of the following should make you less skeptical about his advice? a.

His recommendations are based on techniques that have worked for his students.

His recommendations are based on the techniques that helped him get into graduate school.

His recommendations are based on research he conducted for his dissertation.

His recommendations are similar to what you knew before you came to the talk.

If you are interested in reading an overview of peer-reviewed scientific research within a specific area, which of the following reading sources would you choose?

18.

19.

20.

edited books

popular magazines

scientific journals

an expert’s dissertation

Which of the following is true of the distinction between scientific journals and popular magazines? a.

Scientific journals are published quarterly; popular magazines are published monthly.

Scientific journals are published on specific topics; popular magazines are not published on specific topics like psychology.

Scientific journal articles are peer-reviewed; popular magazine articles are not.

Scientific journal article findings explain all cases all of the time; popular magazine articles explain only certain cases.

Diego is interested in examining the relationship between a person’s attachment style and his or her relationship satisfaction. He finds 65 studies that have examined this topic. He combines the results of all these studies and calculates an effect size. His research is most accurately described as a.

a meta-analysis.

a review journal article.

a chapter in an edited book.

a PsycWiki.

Ellie is looking for a summary of research on the effect size of childhood abuse on adult depression. Which of the following scientific sources would be an ideal source? a.

a meta-analysis

21.

22.

23.

a review journal article

a trade book

a chapter in an edited book

Compared with doing a generic internet search, why is PsycINFO a superior way to find scientific sources? a.

It is free.

It searches only sources in psychology and related fields.

It can be done on any computer.

It searches research scientists’ websites.

Which of the following is the first section of an empirical journal article? a.

abstract

introduction

results

references

Matthew is reading an empirical journal article and wants to know whether the authors used the Big Five Inventory (BFI-44) or the NEO-PI to measure extraversion. In which section would he find this information? a.

introduction

method

results

discussion

24.

25.

26.

27.

Lana is writing her first empirical journal article. Although she thinks she knows why she found the results she did, she also wants to mention some alternative explanations for her findings. In which section will she mention these alternative explanations? a.

method

results

discussion

references

Which of the following is the correct ordering of the sections of an empirical journal article? a.

introduction, abstract, results, discussion, method, references

introduction, discussion, method, results, abstract, references

abstract, introduction, results, method, discussion, references

abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references

Javier wants his lab partner to tell him if he thinks the article Javier found for their project is appropriate. Rather than have him read the entire article, which two parts of the paper could Javier have his lab partner read to get a summary of the article? a.

the abstract and the first paragraph of the introduction

the abstract and the first paragraph of the discussion

the abstract and the method section

the last paragraph of the introduction and the results section

Which of the following is NOT a section or subsection commonly found in an empirical journal article? a.

abstract

28.

29.

30.

outcomes

participants

procedure

When reading an empirical journal article “with a purpose,” which two questions should you ask yourself as you read? a.

“What is the argument?” and “What is the evidence to support the argument?”

“What were the methods?” and “What are the results?”

“What is the hypothesis?” and “What are the explanations?”

“What research exists on this topic?” and “What research needs to be conducted to answer the question?”

When reading an empirical journal article “with a purpose,” which section should you read first? a.

abstract

introduction

method

discussion

When reading an empirical journal article “with a purpose,” why should you read the abstract first? a.

because it is the shortest section

because it provides an overview of the article

because it is written by the journal’s editor

because it appears in PsycINFO

31.

32.

33.

34.

Which of the following sections comes last in an empirical journal article? a.

method

results

discussion

introduction

What is the problem with being swayed by a good story? a.

A good story is never the true explanation for a scientific finding.

Scientific findings never have commonsense explanations.

A good story may not be supported by data.

Good stories are not falsifiable.

After reading the chapter, Cyril says to himself, “I am sure other people might engage in faulty thinking, but I never would.” What is Cyril experiencing? a.

bias blind spot

confirmation bias

faulty intuition

motivated thinking

Hannah just finished reading an empirical journal article for a class project. What information might she get out of reading the references section of her article? a.

a list of the measures used in the study

the name of an article that researched a similar topic

35.

36.

37.

38.

an idea for a future study

an explanation of the statistical tests used

Which of the following sources is most likely to contain only information that has been rigorously peer-reviewed? a.

chapters in edited books

full-length books

review journal articles

magazine articles

Which of the following is a limitation of Google Scholar compared to PsycINFO? a.

Google Scholar does not provide PDF versions of articles.

Google Scholar is not free to use.

Google Scholar is not limited to just psychology and related fields.

Google Scholar can only be accessed from certain computers.

Hannah just finished reading an empirical journal article for a class project. Where should she go if she wants to look for a list of the study’s hypotheses or research questions? a.

first page of the article

first page of the method section

last paragraph of the results section

last paragraph of the introduction

How would you adopt the mindset of a scientific reasoner?

39.

40.

41.

using common sense to understand scientific data

remaining objective as you interpret scientific data

finding evidence that confirms your hypotheses

reminding yourself that because you know about potential biases, you cannot fall prey to them

Why is it important to adopt the mindset of a scientific reasoner? a.

to avoid falling into the pitfalls of personal biases

to identify the most intuitive explanations

to be able to sway people with a good story

to know what evidence people like best

Which of the following is a limitation of PsycINFO compared to Google Scholar? a.

PsycINFO does not provide PDF versions of articles.

PsycINFO is not free to use.

PsycINFO is not limited to just psychology and related fields.

PsycINFO does not allow you to search particular fields.

What is the difference between advice from an authority and that from a researcher? a.

Authorities weigh all possible opinions, while researchers rely on their own theories.

Authorities interpret the results for you when providing advice, while researchers present only statistics.

Authorities often base their advice on intuition, while researchers rely on facts.

42.

43.

44.

45.

Authorities always provide advice based on their own research, while researchers base their advice on results from multiple studies.

Different factors that could account for significant results are called a.

hypotheses.

biases.

predictions.

confounds.

Advice that is based on ________ is most likely to be correct. a.

personal experience

research

intuition

authority’s conclusions

You read research that found that first-born children tend to have higher IQs than their siblings. However, you typically earn higher grades than your older brother. Scientists might explain this discrepancy by saying that a.

research is probabilistic.

you have cherry-picked information to support your conclusion.

you have fallen prey to your blind spot bias.

your intuition is better than research.

person. If you were concerned that Tim was making the present/present bias, what would you ask him?

46.

47.

How many people have you met and befriended?

Do you think the times you made friends by telling jokes might come more easily to mind?

Did you go into conversations where you opened with jokes thinking that you would make friends?

What about the times you opened with a joke and didn’t become friends with the person?

Tim tells you that the best way to make friends is by opening the conversation with a joke. He can easily recall all the friends he met by telling a joke and also the times he opened with chitchat and didn’t befriend the person. You are concerned that Tim is making the blind spot bias. As a researcher, what would you most likely ask him to consider? a.

What about the times you opened with a joke and didn’t become friends with the person?

Do you think the times you made friends by telling jokes might come more easily to mind?

Do you think that you should test this out by opening some conversations with a joke and some conversations with chitchat?

Did you go into conversations where you opened with jokes thinking that you would make friends?

Marcella is conducting a PsycINFO search for treatments for autism spectrum disorder by searching “autism treatment.” However, her search is returning too many results. If she is interested in getting more specific results, Marcella could search a.

using the “or” function for all thesaurus synonyms for autism.

“autism treatment” and “behavioral” and enter an age range of interest.

“autism spectrum disorder” or “treatment” or “symptom improvement.”

“autis*treatment.”

48.

49.

50.

51.

How does research overcome the problem of confounds? a.

Research uses intuition to detect potential confounds.

Research combines data across diverse individuals.

Research focuses on one possible explanation for the results.

Research systematically compares multiple conditions.

Which of the following best describes an abstract? a.

brief summary of an article

description of studies recently published in other psychology journals

index of authors in the field of psychology

computerized database

What should the introduction of a research report include? a.

a description of the procedures used to test the hypothesis

a description of the materials used to collect the data

a summary of how the findings of the study can potentially be generalized to other populations

a summary of recent research on the primary topic of interest

If you wanted to know exactly which statistical analyses were used in a particular study, you should consult the a.

introduction of a journal article.

method section of a journal article.

results section of a journal article.

52.

53.

54.

55.

discussion section of a journal article.

What is the primary difference between researchers and non-researchers? a.

Researchers test their intuition with systematic, empirical observations.

Researchers rely on personal experience and intuition.

Researchers rely exclusively on logic.

Researchers are strongly influenced by authority figures.

Why are empirical and journal review articles considered prestigious publications? a.

They are written by scientists.

They use quantitative techniques.

They are both peer-reviewed.

They use statistical analyses to test hypotheses.

Edited books consist of a collection of chapters a.

written by an authority on the topic.

written by many different experts.

that undergo a rigorous peer review process.

written for a general audience.

Both PsycINFO and Google Scholar a.

identify whether an article is peer-reviewed.

allow you to limit your search terms to specific fields.

56.

57.

58.

allow you to identify journal articles on a specific topic.

are free search tools.

Dr. Klein receives an email inviting her to submit an article based on her research to The Journal of Science. The email promises a rapid publication process and charges a fee to cover the costs of expediting the process. She is not familiar with this journal and decides to look up its impact factor in Journal Citation Reports. Unfortunately, it is not listed there. What would Dr. Klein likely conclude about this journal? a.

It would be a great way to get her work out quickly to other scientists.

It is probably too new to be in Journal Citation Reports.

It likely has a rigorous peer-review process

It is likely a predatory journal.

What does the impact factor of a journal tell you? a.

how often, on average, papers in that journal have been cited

where that journal is ranked by scientists

how difficult the articles in that journal are to read

that the journal is definitely not predatory because predatory journals do not have impact factors

Journal articles that are available through subscription only are a.

predatory.

paywalled.

open access.

a primary source of disinformation.

59.

60.

61.

Kalilah just read a story in the most recent issue of Psychology Today that has grabbed her interest. As a thoughtful consumer of information, what should Kalilah do? a.

start with the assumption that the media coverage of the story is an inaccurate representation of the original research study

consider comparing the media coverage of the story to the original research report

contact the science journalist to ask additional questions about the topic

read the Psychology Today story cynically

The deliberate creation and sharing of information known to be false is a.

predatory.

poor scientific journalism.

disinformation.

the result of a bias in thinking.

RESEARCH STUDY 2.1: Sariyah is studying subliminal messages and weight loss. She is curious whether people will lose more weight if they hear subliminal messages that encourage weight loss (“don’t eat that food,” “you want to be thin,” etc.) in the music than will people who do not have subliminal messages in their music. She studies 40 people and finds the following results: Number Who Lost Weight

Number Who Did Not Lose Weight

Exposed to Subliminal Messages

(Cell A) 15 people

(Cell C) 5 people

Not Exposed to Subliminal Messages

(Cell B) 10 people

(Cell D) 10 people

Although Sariyah is concerned with exposure to subliminal messages, she collects data from people not exposed to subliminal messages. What is this group called? Why must this group be included in her study?

62.

RESEARCH STUDY 2.1: Sariyah is studying subliminal messages and weight loss. She is curious whether people will lose more weight if they hear subliminal messages that encourage weight loss (“don’t eat that food,” “you want to be thin,” etc.) in the music than will people who do not have subliminal messages in their music. She studies 40 people and finds the following results: Number Who Lost Weight

Number Who Did Not Lose Weight

Exposed to Subliminal Messages

(Cell A) 15 people

(Cell C) 5 people

Not Exposed to Subliminal Messages

(Cell B) 10 people

(Cell D) 10 people

Explain why the results of Cells B and D are important.

63.

Yasmine believes that attractive people make more money because among her four friends who work at a local restaurant, the most attractive of the four makes the most in tips. A study by Judge, Hurst, and Simon (2009) found that attractive people make more money than unattractive people. Provide two reasons why Yasmine should be more convinced about the relationship between attractiveness and income by the Judge, Hurst, and Simon paper than by her personal experience.

64.

Imagine that Dr. Jones publishes a study that claims that drinking while pregnant is dangerous for the health of the unborn baby. He finds that of the 100 women in his study who drank when pregnant, 78 had children who experienced problems with attention. Of the 100 women in his study who did not drink when pregnant, only 29 children experienced problems with attention. Your neighbor says that Dr. Jones is wrong because she drank

when pregnant and her child is perfectly healthy. Explain why Dr. Jones is not wrong.

65.

Name four examples of biases of intuition.

66.

Explain how conclusions drawn from the confirmation bias are different from those using the theory-data cycle.

67.

Name three ways that the scientific reasoner is different from the intuitive thinker.

68.

You are having lunch with your friends, Oliver, Julia, and Richard, and you are discussing the link between homework and exam grades. Oliver says, “I know that doing homework improves exam grades because I always do my homework and I have a 4.0.” Julia says, “I know that doing homework improves exam grades because a blog I read on an education website says so.” Richard says, “I know that doing homework improves exam grades because that makes sense. Teachers would not assign it if it did not.” Provide a response to each friend for why his or her reasoning is unsound.

69.

Describe three ways that scientific journals or journal articles are different from popular magazines or magazine articles.

70.

Describe two pros and two cons of reading about scientific research in popular magazines compared with reading about research in scientific journals.

71.

Karla is starting her study for her research methods course and needs to begin finding some research articles. She tells you that she plans on

searching for her sources on Google Scholar. Provide three reasons that you would recommend that she use PsycINFO instead to search for sources.

72.

Name the six basic sections of an empirical journal article.

73.

When reading an empirical journal article “with a purpose,” which two questions should you ask yourself as you read? To this end, which section should you read first in order to quickly answer these questions?

74.

When reading a story about a scientific study in popular media, what are two issues you should think critically about to assess the quality of the study?

75.

Your friend Samir wants to learn how to be more persuasive. He is a marketing major and thinks that understanding more about persuasion might be helpful. Which type of scientific sources might you recommend to him and why?

Answer Key Chapter 02

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The group is called a comparison group. This group must be included because in order for Sariyah to consider the effect of subliminal messages on people exposed to them, she must also examine what happens among people “normally,” that is, when they are not exposed to the “treatment.”

62. Answer:

The results of Cells B and D are important because they demonstrate the relative rate of improvement when no treatment is given. One cannot determine whether something is effective if one does not know what would have happened in the absence of treatment.

63. Answer:

Controlled studies have comparison groups and can avoid confounds.

64. Answer:

Behavioral research is probabilistic, meaning that the conclusions drawn from studies explain a large percentage of cases, but not necessarily all cases. Students may also explain that the neighbor’s child being healthy (1 data point) does not refute the large number of cases (in this case, 78) of children who were affected.

65. Answer:

Examples of biases of intuition include being swayed by a good story, the confirmation bias, the present/present bias, the availability heuristic, and the blind spot bias.

66. Answer:

When people engage in the confirmation bias, they are seeking to confirm their hypotheses and are asking questions that will give them the answer they expect. By contrast, when people engage in the theory-data cycle, they ask questions that may confirm or disconfirm their hypothesis. In the latter, they are not trying to find a particular answer but rather trying to find the correct answer.

67. Answer:

Researchers create comparison groups, examine all the data (or all cells), test their ideas with systematic research, try to ask objective questions, change their theories/beliefs when the data do not support their original ideas, and try to accept data temporarily (keeping them from becoming overconfident).

68. Answer:

Answers may vary, but in each response, students should write that they would mention to Oliver that his own experience might be biased or flawed because he has no comparison group (e.g., he might have made good grades without homework, he has just never done that); to Julia that the writer on that blog, although they may appear to be an authority, may not be and may be basing their opinions on personal experience rather than on actual research; and to Richard that sometimes obvious or intuitive explanations may not be the correct ones.

69. Answer:

Answers may vary, but in each response, students must mention at least three of the following: journal articles are peer-reviewed, journal articles are written for psychology researchers and students, scientific journals do not tend to have advertisements in them, and scientific journals are available from libraries and online databases (rather than in regular bookstores).

70. Answer:

Two of the pros could include: it is easier to read, it can provide interesting new ideas, and the articles may be easier to access since one does not need a library or subscription of a journal; and two of the cons could include: the research described may not be accurately reported, the research may not be important in the field.

71. Answer:

Answers may vary, but in each response, students must mention at least three of the following: PsycINFO allows you to search for terms in specific fields, PsycINFO specifies whether an article is peer reviewed, and PsycINFO focuses on psychology and psychology-related articles.

72. Answer:

The six basic sections of an empirical journal article are the abstract, the introduction, the method, the results, the discussion, and the references.

73. Answer:

The two questions are “What is the argument?” and “What is the evidence to support the argument?” The abstract should be read first in order to quickly answer these questions.

74. Answer:

The two issues you think critically about to assess the quality of the study are: “Did the journalist select a story because it is sensational while overlooking its flaws?” and “Did the journalist describe the story accurately?”

75. Answer:

Answers may vary, but in each response, students should say that they would suggest that Samir read chapters in an edited book or perhaps a review article. They would recommend these because they provide more general reviews of research and thus are more likely to be accessible to a non-psychology student.

Name: ___________________________ Class: _________________ Date: __________

Chapter 03

RESEARCH STUDY 3.1: Anderson is reading his morning paper and sees the following headline: “Men Should Avoid Rock Music When Playing Board Games.” (This headline is based on a study conducted by Fancourt, Burton, & Williamon, 2016.) In the study, men and women played the game “Operation” when listening to different types of music. Male participants performed worse when listening to AC/DC than when listening to Mozart, but female participants’ performance did not differ based on music. Which of the following is a variable in this study? a.

the gender of the researcher

the volume of the music

the type of game

the gender of the participant

the type of game

effort put into playing the game

the gender of the participant

the number of researchers

RESEARCH STUDY 3.1: Anderson is reading his morning paper and sees the following headline: “Men Should Avoid Rock Music When Playing Board Games.” (This headline is based on a study conducted by Fancourt, Burton, & Williamon, 2016.) In the study, men and women played the game “Operation” when listening to different types of music. Male participants performed worse when listening to AC/DC than when listening to Mozart, but female participants’ performance did not differ based on music. How many measured variables are included in this study? a.

one

two

four

five

RESEARCH STUDY 3.1: Anderson is reading his morning paper and sees the following headline: “Men Should Avoid Rock Music When Playing Board Games.” (This headline is based on a study conducted by Fancourt, Burton, & Williamon, 2016.) In the study, men and women played the game “Operation” when listening to different types of music. Male participants performed worse when listening to AC/DC than when listening to Mozart, but female participants’ performance did not differ based on music. In this study, the researchers recorded how many errors participants committed. This is an example of which of the following? a.

a constant

a variable’s level

a measured variable

a manipulated variable

RESEARCH STUDY 3.1: Anderson is reading his morning paper and sees the following headline: “Men Should Avoid Rock Music When Playing Board Games.” (This headline is based on a study conducted by Fancourt, Burton, & Williamon, 2016.) In the study, men and women played the game “Operation” when listening to different types of music. Male participants performed worse when listening to AC/DC than when listening to Mozart, but female participants’ performance did not differ based on music. In this study, the authors were interested in participants’ board game performance. Which of the following would be a reasonable operational definition of performance? a.

an earnest attempt to finish quickly

which board game participants chose to play

performance when playing a board game

whether participants won against a partner

Which of the following is true of variables? a.

Variables are the same as constants.

All variables can be manipulated.

Some variables can be either manipulated or measured.

Variables only need conceptual definitions.

Which of the following is true of operational definitions? a.

Conceptual definition and operational definition mean the same thing.

Some psychological concepts are more difficult to operationally define than others.

Some psychological concepts cannot be operationally defined.

Operational definitions answer the question, “Why did the researchers measure this variable?”

10.

11.

Which of the following is an association claim? a.

“Owning a dog is related to higher life satisfaction.”

“A majority of Americans like dogs.”

“Dog traveled 500 miles to find its owners.”

“Being visited by dogs in the hospital causes decreases in recovery time.”

Dr. Ellison finds a relation between amount of sleep and problem solving. Specifically, having a higher amount of sleep the night before an exam is associated with higher scores on two measures of problem solving. This is an example of which type of association? a.

negative association

positive association

zero association

causal association

Dr. Hoda measures job satisfaction and number of years of education. In examining her scatterplot, she sees the cloud of points has no slope. This indicates which type of relationship? a.

negative association

positive association

zero association

causal association

Which of the following allow us to make strong predictions using association claims? a.

strong positive associations

strong negative associations

12.

13.

14.

both strong positive associations and strong negative associations

neither strong positive associations nor strong negative associations

RESEARCH STUDY 3.2: Dr. Ramon makes the following claim: “Watching television leads people to spend less time communicating with their spouses, study says.” Dr. LaSalle makes the claim: “Research shows that making more money correlates with spending less time talking with your spouse.” Which type of claim is Dr. Ramon making? a.

statistical claim

association claim

causal claim

frequency claim

statistical claim

association claim

causal claim

frequency claim

making more money correlates with spending less time talking with your spouse.” Which of the following statements is true of Dr. Ramon’s and Dr. LaSalle’s claims?

15.

16.

17.

Dr. Ramon’s claim makes a stronger statement than Dr. LaSalle’s claim.

Dr. LaSalle’s claim makes a stronger statement than Dr. Ramon’s claim.

Dr. LaSalle’s claim is the same as Dr. Ramon’s claim.

Dr. Ramon’s claim involves more variables than Dr. LaSalle’s claim.

Which of the following phrases would NOT indicate that a researcher is making a causal claim? a.

“curbs”

“seems to decrease”

“suggests a change”

“is at higher risk of”

To evaluate how well a study supports a frequency claim, you need to focus most on evaluating which of the following validities? a.

construct validity and external validity

statistical validity and external validity

internal validity and external validity

internal validity and construct validity

that I am convinced. I am not sure you can really measure being bullied.” Quinn also questions the study, saying, “Which middle school students did they study? I am curious if they included both private and public school students.” Manish is also curious about the study, asking, “I wonder how strong the relationship is between bullying and self-esteem. Could you predict one from the other?” Clarissa’s concern is addressing which of the following?

18.

19.

the study’s statistical validity

the study’s internal validity

the study’s external validity

the study’s construct validity

RESEARCH STUDY 3.3: Anton and his friends are discussing a study he read about in his developmental psychology class. In the study, the researcher made the claim that most middle school students who are bullied have low self-esteem. Clarissa questions the study, saying, “I am not sure that I am convinced. I am not sure you can really measure being bullied.” Quinn also questions the study, saying, “Which middle school students did they study? I am curious if they included both private and public school students.” Manish is also curious about the study, asking, “I wonder how strong the relationship is between bullying and self-esteem. Could you predict one from the other?” Quinn’s concern is addressing which of the following? a.

the study’s statistical validity

the study’s internal validity

the study’s external validity

the study’s construct validity

that I am convinced. I am not sure you can really measure being bullied.” Quinn also questions the study, saying, “Which middle school students did they study? I am curious if they included both private and public school students.” Manish is also curious about the study, asking, “I wonder how strong the relationship is between bullying and self-esteem. Could you predict one from the other?” Manish’s concern is addressing which of the following?

20.

21.

the study’s statistical validity

the study’s internal validity

the study’s external validity

the study’s construct validity

RESEARCH STUDY 3.3: Anton and his friends are discussing a study he read about in his developmental psychology class. In the study, the researcher made the claim that most middle school students who are bullied have low self-esteem. Clarissa questions the study, saying, “I am not sure that I am convinced. I am not sure you can really measure being bullied.” Quinn also questions the study, saying, “Which middle school students did they study? I am curious if they included both private and public school students.” Manish is also curious about the study, asking, “I wonder how strong the relationship is between bullying and self-esteem. Could you predict one from the other?” Why should Anton NOT interrogate the internal validity of the study? a.

because he is a student, not a researcher

because the author of the study already did

because the study’s claim is an association claim

because he has not taken statistics yet

that I am convinced. I am not sure you can really say for sure that being bullied leads to low self-esteem because they didn’t measure being bullied before they measured self-esteem.” Clarissa is concerned that the researcher

22.

23.

failed to consider a third variable.

concluded there was a relationship, but there really isn’t one.

failed to establish temporal precedence.

concluded there was not a relationship, but there really is one.

A common finding in the study of aggression is that exposure to television is associated with increased aggressive behavior in children. You know this relationship may not be causal because you are not sure which occurred first: watching television or being aggressive. You are questioning which of the following rules of causation? a.

the criterion of covariance

the criterion of temporal precedence

the third-variable criterion

the criterion of external validity

A common finding in the study of aggression is that exposure to television is associated with increased aggressive behavior in children. You are curious as to whether peer pressure is really to blame (peer pressure encourages you to watch television and peer pressure encourages you to be aggressive). You are questioning which of the following criteria of causation? a.

the criterion of covariance

the criterion of temporal precedence

the third-variable criterion

the criterion of external validity

24.

25.

26.

27.

Stefan wants to make a causal claim in his dissertation. Which of the following is necessary? a.

He must make a frequency claim first.

He must manipulate all of his variables.

He must measure all of his variables.

He must conduct an experiment.

Which of the following could be an independent variable in a causal claim? a.

one that is manipulated

one that is measured

one that is kept constant

one that has one level

Which of the following is a dependent variable? a.

one that is manipulated

one that is measured

one that is kept constant

one that has one level

RESEARCH STUDY 3.4: Dr. Kang, a cognitive psychologist, conducts an experiment examining the effect of emotion on memory. He provides lists of 15 words to two groups of participants at his university. He puts the names of all the participants in a hat. The first 20 names he assigns to Group A and the last 20 he assigns to Group B. Group A is given a list of words that are very emotional in content (e.g., passion, murder). Group B is given a list of words that are neutral in content (e.g., houseplant, desk). He then measures how many words each group is able to remember after being distracted for 5 minutes by watching a video about the history of the university. He finds that Group A remembers 15% more words than Group B.

Which of the following makes Dr. Kang’s study an experiment?

28.

29.

The study included a manipulated variable and a measured variable.

The study included a distractor task.

The study was conducted at a university by a psychologist.

The study investigated a theory of emotion on memory.

the length of the distractor task

the number of words remembered

the content of the words

the number of words on the list

Which of the following is the dependent variable in Dr. Kang’s study?

30.

31.

the length of the distractor task

the number of words remembered

the content of the words

the number of words on the list

the covariance of the study

the temporal precedence of the study

the internal validity of the study

the external validity of the study

5 minutes by watching a video about the history of the university. He finds that Group A remembers 15% more words than Group B. If Dr. Kang decided against using random assignment, which of the following would be threatened?

32.

33.

the covariance of the study

the temporal precedence of the study

the internal validity of the study

the external validity of the study

Emotion enhances memory.

Distraction is associated with worse memory.

Group A has better memory than Group B.

Fifteen percent of emotional words are remembered.

Dr. Hadden wants to conduct a study that will allow him to make claims that apply to all college students. Which of the following validities is he prioritizing? a.

the statistical validity of the study

the internal validity of the study

34.

35.

36.

the construct validity of the study

the external validity of the study

the statistical validity of the study

the internal validity of the study

the construct validity of the study

the external validity of the study

Who is responsible for deciding which validity is prioritized in a study? a.

the researcher

the participants

the peer reviewers

the journalist

Which of the following questions assesses internal validity when evaluating causal claims?

37.

38.

39.

Are the groups large enough to find a significant difference?

How well did the experiments manipulate the variables?

Did the researcher randomly assign participants?

To what populations can we generalize this claim?

When examining the statistical validity of a frequency claim, one should look for the a.

strength of the association.

margin of error estimate.

statistical significance.

length of the measurement.

What is a confidence interval constructed around? a.

the margin of error

the point estimate

the population parameter

the correlation coefficient

Which of the following is a causal claim? a.

Texting interferes with a driver’s ability to pay attention.

Most drivers have reported texting while driving.

Texting while driving is associated with poor impulse control.

Teens spend too much time texting and driving.

40.

41.

42.

43.

Which of the following statements is an operational definition of “fear of snakes” that could be assessed as a structured question? a.

measuring heart rate following exposure to snakes

asking the question “When was the last time you saw a snake?”

assigning the participant to keep a “daily fear diary” in which they track their fear level

asking, “On a scale of 1 to 10, how afraid of snakes are you?”

Which of the following is a reasonable causal claim? a.

No one should text and drive.

Experts say a majority of drivers text while driving.

Texting while driving reduces impulse control.

Teens spend too much time texting and driving.

What makes certain constructs harder to operationalize? a.

Some constructs are difficult to observe.

When different definitions don’t correlate.

When there are only two levels of the variable.

Some constructs cannot be manipulated.

You read a news article about a recent scientific study titled, “New Drug Reduces OCD Symptoms in Mice.” To evaluate whether the title’s claim is supported, you should do which of the following? a.

Ensure that the authors operationally define OCD.

Research the frequency of OCD in mice.

Check whether the authors established the three criteria for a causal claim.

44.

45.

46.

Ask yourself whether the implication makes intuitive sense.

Which of the following indicates that an article’s causal claims are based on research? a.

The author describes their creative solution to a scientific problem.

The article describes how manipulated variables were operationalized.

The article includes a direct quote from an expert in the field.

The article compares two groups of individuals.

When researchers conduct an experiment comparing two different treatment conditions, they are likely to be more concerned with ________ validity than ________ validity. a.

construct; internal

statistical; construct

internal; external

external; statistical

RESEARCH STUDY 3.5: Jenny reads the following headline on an online article: “If You’re Sexist, People Will Think You’re Racist, and Vice Versa.” (This headline is based on a study conducted by Sanchez and colleagues, 2017.) This study found that members of stigmatized groups are threatened by prejudice directed at other stigmatized groups. Their results showed that White women can feel threatened by racism, men of color feel threatened by sexism, and that these perceptions made participants expect unfair treatment. In this study, ________ is a conceptual definition of one of their primary variables. a.

a questionnaire assessing level of stigma perceived

perceived prejudiced attitudes

47.

48.

age of participants

self-reported race on a questionnaire

RESEARCH STUDY 3.5: Jenny reads the following headline on an online article: “If You’re Sexist, People Will Think You’re Racist, and Vice Versa.” (This headline is based on a study conducted by Sanchez and colleagues, 2017.) This study found that members of stigmatized groups are threatened by prejudice directed at other stigmatized groups. Their results showed that White women can feel threatened by racism, men of color feel threatened by sexism, and that these perceptions made participants expect unfair treatment. In this study, the article’s headline is ________ because ________. a.

justified; this is an association claim

justified; this is a causal claim

unjustified; this is a correlational study

unjustified; this is an experiment

RESEARCH STUDY 3.5: Jenny reads the following headline on an online article: “If You’re Sexist, People Will Think You’re Racist, and Vice Versa.” (This headline is based on a study conducted by Sanchez and colleagues, 2017.) This study found that members of stigmatized groups are threatened by prejudice directed at other stigmatized groups. Their results showed that White women can feel threatened by racism, men of color feel threatened by sexism, and that these perceptions made participants expect unfair treatment. Which of the following questions assesses the construct validity of this study? a.

Would this research generalize to children?

Did the researchers establish temporal precedence?

How did the researchers measure expectations of unfair treatment?

How big was the effect of perceived discrimination?

49.

50.

RESEARCH STUDY 3.5: Jenny reads the following headline on an online article: “If You’re Sexist, People Will Think You’re Racist, and Vice Versa.” (This headline is based on a study conducted by Sanchez and colleagues, 2017.) This study found that members of stigmatized groups are threatened by prejudice directed at other stigmatized groups. Their results showed that White women can feel threatened by racism, men of color feel threatened by sexism, and that these perceptions made participants expect unfair treatment. The results of this study can be generalized to which of the following groups? a.

White women and men of color

all underrepresented groups

women of color

individuals receiving unfair treatment

RESEARCH STUDY 3.5: Jenny reads the following headline on an online article: “If You’re Sexist, People Will Think You’re Racist, and Vice Versa.” (This headline is based on a study conducted by Sanchez and colleagues, 2017.) This study found that members of stigmatized groups are threatened by prejudice directed at other stigmatized groups. Their results showed that White women can feel threatened by racism, men of color feel threatened by sexism, and that these perceptions made participants expect unfair treatment. Because of the design of this study, Sanchez and colleagues are likely more interested in ________ than ________. a.

construct validity; generalizing to all underrepresented groups

the effect size of their findings; internal validity

generalizing to all underrepresented groups; statistical validity

external validity; validating their causal claims

51.

52.

53.

A scatterplot is a graph a.

with points plotted to show a possible relationship between two sets of data.

that shows the size of a difference on a variable between two groups.

that shows changes over time on a variable.

used to show causal associations.

A group of students recorded the amount of time they studied for an exam in their research methods course and the grade they received on the exam. The scatter plot shows a positive, linear relationship. What statement best describes this relationship between time spent studying and exam grade? a.

As study time increases, exam grades decreased.

As study time increased, exam grades increased.

As study time increased, exam grades increased at first and then decreased.

As study time increased, exam grades decreased at first and then increased.

Mrs. Raynor, a school psychologist, tracks the number of students that are reported by teachers as having concerning behaviors in the classroom. At the end of the year, she calculated that 12.4% of the students in her school have been identified as having behaviors that impact their performance in the classroom. She understands that there is a margin of error to this estimate and reports that the number of children who have behavior problems at school may be as low as 10.2% and as high as 14.6%. What is the term used to describe the 12.4% calculation made by Mrs. Raynor? a.

the margin of error of the estimate

the confidence estimate

the point estimate

54.

55.

56.

the point interval

the frequency range

the confidence estimate

the point estimate

the confidence interval

One criterion for determining that X causes Y is that a.

we have adequate operational definitions.

we can generalize the results to our population of interest.

we can determine that Y occurs before X.

we can determine that X occurs before Y.

________ validity tends to be higher in experiments than in other types of studies. a.

Content

Internal

External

Statistical

57.

58.

59.

60.

Science journalists have argued that cigarette smoking leads to a variety of health problems. What type of claim are they making? a.

causal

association

frequency

operational

What is the best way to balance characteristics about participants that can lead to alternative explanations for findings? a.

operationalization of variables

manipulated variables

random assignment

correlational studies

What is one reason that causal claims cannot be made from correlational studies? a.

participants are randomly assigned to groups

correlations are not sensitive enough to detect causal associations

the temporal order of the variables is unknown

correlational studies only involve a single variable

The absence of random assignment in any study a.

strengthens your ability to make a causal claim.

increases internal validity.

decreases internal validity.

61.

strengthens your ability to make a frequency claim.

RESEARCH STUDY 3.6: From a Time.com article entitled “Why Men Shouldn’t Listen to Rock Music While Playing Board Games,” published on December 13, 2016. Researchers Fancourt, Burton, and Williamon wanted to find out whether different types of music would impact participants’ performance on a mocksurgery game, “Operation.” Many real-life surgeons listen to music while operating, so the authors were interested in whether this may actually help performance, and whether that differed by gender of the participant. The psychologists asked men and women participants to play the mocksurgery game, “Operation,” in which they needed to remove three different organs from a “patient” using tweezers. The experimenters played either rock music, classical music, or operating-room sounds. They found that the type of music made a difference on the performance of male participants, who were slower to complete the task (in seconds) while listening to rock music compared with classical music. The performance of female participants did not differ based on the type of music they listened to. Name the variables in this study and indicate the levels of each.

62.

RESEARCH STUDY 3.6: From a Time.com article entitled “Why Men Shouldn’t Listen to Rock Music While Playing Board Games,” published on December 13, 2016. Researchers Fancourt, Burton, and Williamon wanted to find out whether different types of music would impact participants’ performance on a mocksurgery game, “Operation.” Many real-life surgeons listen to music while operating, so the authors were interested in whether this may actually help performance, and whether that differed by gender of the participant. The psychologists asked male and female participants to play the mocksurgery game, “Operation,” in which they needed to remove three different organs from a “patient” using tweezers. The experimenters played either rock music, classical music, or operating-room sounds. They found that the type of music made a difference on the performance of male participants, who were slower to complete the task (in seconds) while listening to rock music compared with classical music. The performance of female participants did not differ based on the type of music they listened to.

Explain the difference between a variable and a constant. Give an example of each from this study.

63.

RESEARCH STUDY 3.6: From a Time.com article entitled “Why Men Shouldn’t Listen to Rock Music While Playing Board Games,” published on December 13, 2016. Researchers Fancourt, Burton, and Williamon wanted to find out whether different types of music would impact participants’ performance on a mocksurgery game, “Operation.” Many real-life surgeons listen to music while operating, so the authors were interested in whether this may actually help performance, and whether that differed by gender of the participant. The psychologists asked male and female participants to play the mocksurgery game, “Operation,” in which they needed to remove three different organs from a “patient” using tweezers. The experimenters played either rock music, classical music, or operating-room sounds. They found that the type of music made a difference on the performance of male participants, who were slower to complete the task (in seconds) while listening to rock music compared with classical music. The performance of female participants did not differ based on the type of music they listened to. What is the difference between a manipulated and a measured variable? Indicate which variables are manipulated and which variables are measured in this study.

64.

RESEARCH STUDY 3.6: From a Time.com article entitled “Why Men Shouldn’t Listen to Rock Music While Playing Board Games,” published on December 13, 2016. Researchers Fancourt, Burton, and Williamon wanted to find out whether different types of music would impact participants’ performance on a mocksurgery game, “Operation.” Many real-life surgeons listen to music while operating, so the authors were interested in whether this may actually help performance, and whether that differed by gender of the participant. The psychologists asked male and female participants to play the mocksurgery game, “Operation,” in which they needed to remove three different organs from a “patient” using tweezers. The experimenters played either rock music, classical music, or operating-room sounds. They found that the type of music made a difference on the performance of male participants, who were slower to complete the task (in seconds) while listening to rock

music compared with classical music. The performance of female participants did not differ based on the type of music they listened to. Based on the design and results of the study, what type of claim can the researchers make in this study? Explain three reasons why you think this is the claim being made.

65.

RESEARCH STUDY 3.6: From a Time.com article entitled “Why Men Shouldn’t Listen to Rock Music While Playing Board Games,” published on December 13, 2016. Researchers Fancourt, Burton, and Williamon wanted to find out whether different types of music would impact participants’ performance on a mocksurgery game, “Operation.” Many real-life surgeons listen to music while operating, so the authors were interested in whether this may actually help performance, and whether that differed by gender of the participant. The psychologists asked male and female participants to play the mocksurgery game, “Operation,” in which they needed to remove three different organs from a “patient” using tweezers. The experimenters played either rock music, classical music, or operating-room sounds. They found that the type of music made a difference on the performance of male participants, who were slower to complete the task (in seconds) while listening to rock music compared with classical music. The performance of female participants did not differ based on the type of music they listened to. Consider the measured outcome variable in this study. Provide both a conceptual definition and an operational definition for it.

66.

Consider two variables: income and relationship satisfaction. Describe the three types of associations assuming these two variables.

67.

Name the three types of claims. Explain the difference between the claims.

68.

Name the four validities used to interrogate claims. If you were to question a study’s four validities, provide a question you might ask related to each validity.

69.

RESEARCH STUDY 3.7: You read an article stating that Facebook is related to unhappiness. In the study, a group of high school students were asked how many times a day they checked their Facebook pages and how happy they were. In discussing this article with your friend Matt, he exclaims, “I knew it! I have always said that being on Facebook is the cause of all my unhappiness!” What type of claim is the author making in the article referenced in this study? Name two reasons you think the author is making this type of claim.

70.

RESEARCH STUDY 3.7: You read an article stating that Facebook is related to unhappiness. In the study, a group of high school students were asked how many times a day they checked their Facebook pages and how happy they were. In discussing this article with your friend Matt, he exclaims, “I knew it! I have always said that being on Facebook is the cause of all my unhappiness!” Using the three criteria for evaluating causal claims, discuss the reasons your friend Matt is correct or incorrect in his interpretation of the study.

71.

Name the three criteria/rules necessary for making a causal claim. Describe why each is important.

72.

RESEARCH STUDY 3.7: You read an article stating that Facebook is related to unhappiness. In the study, a group of high school students were asked how many times a day they checked their Facebook pages and how happy they were. In discussing this article with your friend Matt, he exclaims, “I knew it! I have always said that being on Facebook is the cause of all my unhappiness!” Explain how one could convert this study into an experiment.

73.

exclaims, “I knew it! I have always said that being on Facebook is the cause of all my unhappiness!” Explain why converting this study to an experiment changes the type of claim the researcher can make.

74.

For the following three terms, create a measured operational definition for each: academic success, attention, and social anxiety.

75.

For the following three terms, create a manipulated operational definition for each: stress, personal space, and study skills.

Answer Key Chapter 03

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There are three variables in the study. The first variable is the gender of the participant. It has two levels (male or female). The second variable is the type of music. It has three levels (rock music, classical music, or operating-room sounds). The third variable is the time it takes each participant to complete the task. It has infinite levels (continuous variable).

62. Answer:

A variable is something that varies. A variable must have at least two levels or values, although it can have many more. A constant is something that does not vary in a particular study. However, students may point out that what is a variable in one study can be amended in another study to be a constant and vice versa. A constant in this study is the game played (they all played the board game “Operation”). A variable in the study is the gender of the participant, the type of music played, or the time it took to complete the task.

63. Answer:

Answers will vary, but in each answer, students should define manipulated and measured variables and provide examples from the study. Manipulated variables are those that a researcher controls and alters the levels of, whereas measured variables are just measured and the researcher does not control their levels. In this study, manipulated variables include the type of music; measured variables include gender of the participant and time to complete the task.

64. Answer:

Answers will vary, but in each answer, students should state that the author can make a causal claim. Students may say that the claim being made is causal for the following reasons: covariance was established because of the phrase “made a difference,” temporal precedence was established because the music manipulation came before the measurement of performance, and internal validity was established because there was a manipulated variable (type of music) and we assume that participants were randomly assigned to music group conditions.

65. Answer:

Answers may vary, but students should state that the conceptual definition is board-game performance, task performance, or mock-surgery attempt. (Generally, the study was attempting to look at how men and women complete a game of “Operation.”) Students should also state that the operational definition is the time it took to complete the task. Students may say that scores were measured in seconds, but that is not necessary.

66. Answer:

The three types of associations assuming these two variables are as follows: positive association: as income goes up, relationship satisfaction goes up; negative association: as income goes up, relationship satisfaction goes down; and zero association: there is no link between income and relationship satisfaction.

67. Answer:

The three types of claims are frequency claims, association claims, and causal claims. One difference is based on the number of variables: frequency claims examine one variable, whereas association and causal claims examine two variables. Association and causal claims say that two variables are related, but causal claims go a step further and say not only that two variables are related, but also that one variable causes the other (which is established through covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity).

68. Answer:

The four validities used to interrogate claims are construct validity, internal validity, external validity, and statistical validity. For construct validity, one might ask, “Is the measure really measuring what it is supposed to measure?” or “Did the researcher manipulate this variable in the best way?” For external validity, one might ask, “Do the findings of this study extend to people not in the study?” or “Does this phenomenon happen in the real world, outside the laboratory?” For internal validity, one might ask, “Are there explanations other than the one the researcher provided?” For statistical validity, one might ask, “Did the researcher draw the correct conclusions given the data?” or “Is there a chance that the researcher said there was an effect when there really wasn’t one?”

69. Answer:

The author is making an association claim. One reason is because the author says the two variables are related (i.e., his language indicates association, not cause). Another reason is because the author only measured variables rather than manipulating any variables.

70. Answer:

Matt is incorrect in his interpretation. He is saying the study is making a causal claim, when it is making an association claim. The first criterion, covariance, is met; the two variables covary or correlate. The second criterion, temporal precedence, is not met; it is unclear whether Facebook use comes first and then unhappiness or if unhappiness comes first and then Facebook use. The third criterion, internal validity/third-variable problem, is also not met because the study is not an experiment, meaning it cannot rule out alternate explanations.

71. Answer:

The three criteria are the rule of covariance, the rule of temporal precedence, and the internal validity/third-variable rule. The covariance rule is important because one variable cannot cause another variable if they are not related. The temporal precedence rule is important because for something to cause something else, it must occur in time before the thing it is thought to affect occurs. The third-variable rule/internal validity is important because we have to know that truly one variable causes another and not that a third variable is causing the change.

72. Answer:

To convert the study into an experiment, one of the variables that is currently being measured would need to be manipulated. Time on Facebook could be manipulated; some people could be told to go on Facebook x number of times a day and some people could be told to go on Facebook y times a day, and then happiness could be measured. Or one could say that happiness could be manipulated; some people could be made to feel happy and some people could be made to feel unhappy, and then the number of times the people check their Facebook pages afterward could be measured.

73. Answer:

By converting the study to an experiment, the researcher can now make causal claims. This is because experiments allow the researcher to establish temporal precedence and to rule out third variables (thereby enhancing internal validity).

74. Answer:

Answers may vary, but regardless of the actual operational definitions provided by students, they must provide something that is precise, quantifiable, and measured. For example, for academic success, students cannot simply say that it is how well a student does in classes. Appropriate answers for academic success could be GPA, number of classes taken, exam grades, or standardized test scores. These definitions should not be manipulated (e.g., inducing social anxiety).

75. Answer:

Answers may vary, but regardless of the actual operational definitions provided by students, they must provide something that the researcher controls or manipulates. For example, for stress, students cannot simply say that it is when people feel uncomfortable and uncertain. Appropriate answers for stress might be giving students feedback that they failed or information that their performance would have some future implications (e.g., show them they qualify for something).

Name: ___________________________ Class: _________________ Date: __________

Chapter 04

The aim of the Tuskegee Study was to examine which disease? a.

syphilis

HIV

tuberculosis

smallpox

Which of the following ethical violations did NOT occur in the Tuskegee Study? a.

Researchers told participants they were receiving treatment even though they were not.

Participants in the study were given/infected with the disease.

Participants were not told they had been infected with the disease.

Researchers prevented participants from seeking treatment.

Which of the following ethical violations proposed by the Belmont Report was NOT committed in the Tuskegee Study? a.

Participants were harmed.

Participants were not treated respectfully.

Participants were not given monetary payments for their time.

Participants were from a disadvantaged social group.

In considering whether research is ethical, which of the following are balanced against each other? a.

inconvenience to participants versus benefit to the researcher

time investment of the study versus complexity of the study

importance of the research versus financial cost to conduct the study

risk to participants versus value of the knowledge gained

Which of the following is true of the Belmont Report? a.

It was written at the request of the U.S. Congress.

It was written primarily in response to the Milgram obedience studies.

It was written primarily in response to medical experiments performed in Nazi-occupied Europe.

It was replaced by the APA guidelines.

RESEARCH STUDY 4.1: Dr. Kushner is planning on conducting a study next semester. He is curious as to whether sleep deprivation is associated with poorer cognitive performance. For example, if you sleep poorly the night before a big exam, will you do worse? Dr. Kushner is especially curious about selective sleep deprivation, where people are kept from entering REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Using an electroencephalograph (EEG) to monitor brain waves, he plans to let participants sleep until they enter REM sleep and then wake them. After the participants are awake for one minute, Dr. Kushner plans to let them return to sleep. As they enter REM sleep again, he will wake them again and follow the same procedure. He plans to do this through the entire eight-hour sleep session. The following morning, participants will be asked to take a sample SAT test. Dr. Kushner asks his participants to provide informed consent. Doing this is adhering to which principle of the Belmont Report? a.

the principle of beneficence

the principle of justice

the principle of integrity

the principle of respect for persons

RESEARCH STUDY 4.1: Dr. Kushner is planning on conducting a study next semester. He is curious as to whether sleep deprivation is associated with poorer cognitive performance. For example, if you sleep poorly the night before a big exam, will you do worse? Dr. Kushner is especially curious about selective sleep deprivation, where people are kept from entering REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Using an electroencephalograph (EEG) to monitor brain waves, he plans to let participants sleep until they enter REM sleep and then wake them. After the participants are awake for one minute, Dr. Kushner plans to let them return to sleep. As they enter REM sleep again, he will wake them again and follow the same procedure. He plans to do this through the entire eight-hour sleep session. The following morning, participants will be asked to take a sample SAT test. Imagine that Dr. Kushner is a clinical psychologist who volunteers his time at a local prison counseling several inmates. Because of his connections there, he is considering using prisoners as his participants. Why is this choice potentially problematic? a.

According to the Belmont Report, prisoners are entitled to special protection.

Prisoners do not make good participants since they may not tell the truth.

Prisoners are unable to give informed consent.

More prisoners may want to participate than Dr. Kushner can actually study.

REM sleep again, he will wake them again and follow the same procedure. He plans to do this through the entire eight-hour sleep session. The following morning, participants will be asked to take a sample SAT test. To address the Belmont principle of beneficence, Dr. Kushner would need to ask which of the following questions?

Are the people in my study going to benefit as much as the people who are not in my study?

What can I do to decrease the potential harm experienced by my participants?

Can the participants in my study give full, informed consent?

Am I trained sufficiently to conduct this study?

RESEARCH STUDY 4.1: Dr. Kushner is planning on conducting a study next semester. He is curious as to whether sleep deprivation is associated with poorer cognitive performance. For example, if you sleep poorly the night before a big exam, will you do worse? Dr. Kushner is especially curious about selective sleep deprivation, where people are kept from entering REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Using an electroencephalograph (EEG) to monitor brain waves, he plans to let participants sleep until they enter REM sleep and then wake them. After the participants are awake for one minute, Dr. Kushner plans to let them return to sleep. As they enter REM sleep again, he will wake them again and follow the same procedure. He plans to do this through the entire eight-hour sleep session. The following morning, participants will be asked to take a sample SAT test. Dr. Kushner suspects that the people who will most benefit from his study are high school and college students, who are asked to perform cognitive functions in various states of sleep deprivation. Given this information, what type of participants should Dr. Kushner recruit for his study? a.

people with a history of insomnia

employees from a local daycare center

students from a community college

patients from Dr. Kushner’s clinical psychology practice

10.

11.

RESEARCH STUDY 4.1: Dr. Kushner is planning on conducting a study next semester. He is curious as to whether sleep deprivation is associated with poorer cognitive performance. For example, if you sleep poorly the night before a big exam, will you do worse? Dr. Kushner is especially curious about selective sleep deprivation, where people are kept from entering REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Using an electroencephalograph (EEG) to monitor brain waves, he plans to let participants sleep until they enter REM sleep and then wake them. After the participants are awake for one minute, Dr. Kushner plans to let them return to sleep. As they enter REM sleep again, he will wake them again and follow the same procedure. He plans to do this through the entire eight-hour sleep session. The following morning, participants will be asked to take a sample SAT test. Dr. Kushner’s decision about the type of participants to recruit should be informed by which of the following principles of the Belmont Report? a.

the principle of integrity

the principle of respect for persons

the principle of beneficence

the principle of justice

RESEARCH STUDY 4.1: Dr. Kushner is planning on conducting a study next semester. He is curious as to whether sleep deprivation is associated with poorer cognitive performance. For example, if you sleep poorly the night before a big exam, will you do worse? Dr. Kushner is especially curious about selective sleep deprivation, where people are kept from entering REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Using an electroencephalograph (EEG) to monitor brain waves, he plans to let participants sleep until they enter REM sleep and then wake them. After the participants are awake for one minute, Dr. Kushner plans to let them return to sleep. As they enter REM sleep again, he will wake them again and follow the same procedure. He plans to do this through the entire eight-hour sleep session. The following morning, participants will be asked to take a sample SAT test. As a psychologist who primarily does research, Dr. Kushner is most concerned with which APA standard of ethics? a.

12.

13.

RESEARCH STUDY 4.1: Dr. Kushner is planning on conducting a study next semester. He is curious as to whether sleep deprivation is associated with poorer cognitive performance. For example, if you sleep poorly the night before a big exam, will you do worse? Dr. Kushner is especially curious about selective sleep deprivation, where people are kept from entering REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Using an electroencephalograph (EEG) to monitor brain waves, he plans to let participants sleep until they enter REM sleep and then wake them. After the participants are awake for one minute, Dr. Kushner plans to let them return to sleep. As they enter REM sleep again, he will wake them again and follow the same procedure. He plans to do this through the entire eight-hour sleep session. The following morning, participants will be asked to take a sample SAT test. Imagine that Dr. Kushner is a clinical psychologist who volunteers his time at a local prison counseling several inmates. Because of his connections there, he is considering using prisoners as his participants. The institutional review board (IRB) that reviews his committee must have which of the following as a member? a.

a prisoner advocate

a criminal justice professor

the prison warden

a prisoner

REM sleep again, he will wake them again and follow the same procedure. He plans to do this through the entire eight-hour sleep session. The following morning, participants will be asked to take a sample SAT test. Dr. Kushner plans to tell his participants that the reason he is waking them up during the night is to recalibrate the EEG machine. This would be an example of which of the following?

14.

deception through omission

deception through commission

deception through permission

deception through exception

RESEARCH STUDY 4.1: Dr. Kushner is planning on conducting a study next semester. He is curious as to whether sleep deprivation is associated with poorer cognitive performance. For example, if you sleep poorly the night before a big exam, will you do worse? Dr. Kushner is especially curious about selective sleep deprivation, where people are kept from entering REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Using an electroencephalograph (EEG) to monitor brain waves, he plans to let participants sleep until they enter REM sleep and then wake them. After the participants are awake for one minute, Dr. Kushner plans to let them return to sleep. As they enter REM sleep again, he will wake them again and follow the same procedure. He plans to do this through the entire eight-hour sleep session. The following morning, participants will be asked to take a sample SAT test. Dr. Kushner is deciding whether he needs to give participants a reason for waking them up several times during the night. He knows that he cannot tell them the real reason, but he is unsure whether he should deceive them (give them a false reason why he is waking them up) or provide them with no cover story at all. Which of the following issues should be considered most heavily when deciding whether to use deception? a.

whether his institutional review board (IRB) will approve the use of deception

whether he can create a convincing story that his participants will believe

whether he can conduct the study just as well without deception

15.

16.

whether his participants will be angry when they find out he used deception

RESEARCH STUDY 4.1: Dr. Kushner is planning on conducting a study next semester. He is curious as to whether sleep deprivation is associated with poorer cognitive performance. For example, if you sleep poorly the night before a big exam, will you do worse? Dr. Kushner is especially curious about selective sleep deprivation, where people are kept from entering REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Using an electroencephalograph (EEG) to monitor brain waves, he plans to let participants sleep until they enter REM sleep and then wake them. After the participants are awake for one minute, Dr. Kushner plans to let them return to sleep. As they enter REM sleep again, he will wake them again and follow the same procedure. He plans to do this through the entire eight-hour sleep session. The following morning, participants will be asked to take a sample SAT test. Dr. Kushner plans to use deception in his study and is thinking about a debriefing session. Which of the following is true of the debriefing? a.

Dr. Kushner needs to invite only participants who were troubled by the study to the debriefing session.

Because his study has potential medical applications, the use of a debriefing session is optional.

During the debriefing, Dr. Kushner needs to tell the participants only that there was deception.

Participants must be told the reasons for the deception.

He plans to do this through the entire eight-hour sleep session. The following morning, participants will be asked to take a sample SAT test. Upon receiving institutional review board (IRB) approval, Dr. Kushner trusts that his graduate student will conduct the study. However, his graduate student does not conduct the study and instead provides Dr. Kushner with invented results that support his hypotheses. This is known as which of the following?

17.

data fabrication

data falsification

plagiarism

intellectual property destruction

RESEARCH STUDY 4.1: Dr. Kushner is planning on conducting a study next semester. He is curious as to whether sleep deprivation is associated with poorer cognitive performance. For example, if you sleep poorly the night before a big exam, will you do worse? Dr. Kushner is especially curious about selective sleep deprivation, where people are kept from entering REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Using an electroencephalograph (EEG) to monitor brain waves, he plans to let participants sleep until they enter REM sleep and then wake them. After the participants are awake for one minute, Dr. Kushner plans to let them return to sleep. As they enter REM sleep again, he will wake them again and follow the same procedure. He plans to do this through the entire eight-hour sleep session. The following morning, participants will be asked to take a sample SAT test. Which of the following is true regarding obtaining informed consent in Dr. Kushner’s study? a.

He does not need to obtain informed consent since participants will not be awake during most of the study.

He does not need to obtain informed consent because he is not using deception.

He needs to obtain informed consent because the study is anonymous.

He needs to obtain informed consent because there is a likelihood of risk in his study.

18.

19.

20.

21.

You submit a study for approval by the institutional review board (IRB), and they tell you that written informed consent is required. Which of the following can be excluded from your informed consent document? a.

a statement of benefits

a statement of risks

a description of the study’s hypotheses

a list of procedures

According to the Belmont Report, which of the following groups of people is entitled to special protection? a.

women

members of minority religious groups

people with developmental disabilities

refugees

Which of the following is NOT an example of coercion? a.

a researcher hinting to participants that their employer will be told if they do not participate

a researcher offering three points of extra credit to college students to participate in a study

a researcher offering homeless participants $1,000 to participate in a study

a researcher telling participants that he will be fired if he is unable to recruit at least 50 participants

The need to balance the potential costs and benefits to participants taking part in a research study is done to address which principle of the Belmont Report?

22.

23.

24.

the principle of respect for persons

the principle of justice

the principle of beneficence

the principle of integrity

The belief that the participants in a research study should be representative of the type of people who would also benefit from the findings of the research stems from which principle of the Belmont Report? a.

the principle of justice

the principle of respect for persons

the principle of beneficence

the principle of integrity

In addition to the three principles derived from the Belmont Report, which of the following two principles were added in the principles put forth by the American Psychological Association? a.

the principle of consent and honesty

the principle of reliability and validity

the principle of honor and accountability/commitment

the principle of integrity and fidelity/responsibility

The American Psychological Association’s ethical guidelines have ________ principles and ________ standards. a.

3; 10

3; 8

3; 5

25.

26.

27.

5; 10

All of the following are true of institutional review boards (IRBs) in the United States EXCEPT that a.

IRBs can be found in settings other than colleges and universities.

IRBs are mandated by federal law.

IRBs must have a psychologist as a member.

IRBs must have at least five members.

An in-person institutional review board (IRB) meeting would probably be required for all of the following studies EXCEPT a.

an anonymous survey asking whether students want the campus mascot to be changed.

an anonymous study looking at gang behavior in recent parolees.

a confidential study examining eating patterns in newborns.

a confidential survey examining sexual behavior in people with mental disabilities.

Which of the following studies would probably require written informed consent? a.

an observational study that measures walking speed of people entering and exiting buildings

an anonymous study that measures the relationship between time spent grocery shopping and money spent on groceries

a confidential study examining income level and voting behavior

an anonymous survey asking whether students want a coffeehouse opened in the library

28.

29.

30.

What is the difference between data that is collected anonymously and data that is collected confidentially? a.

Confidential research collects participants’ names but separates them from the data; anonymous research does not collect participants’ names.

Anonymous research collects sensitive information about participants (e.g., sexual behavior, illegal behavior); confidential research collects nonsensitive information about participants.

Confidential research collects sensitive information about participants (e.g., sexual behavior, illegal behavior); anonymous research collects nonsensitive information about participants.

Anonymous research and confidential research are the same thing.

Which of the following is true of students’ views of deception and harm in research studies? a.

Students usually are tolerant of studies that use major deception.

Students are not tolerant of any degree of deception.

Students typically find the negative effects of deception to be diminished during debriefing.

Students find the negative effects of deception to be worsened by debriefing.

Which of the following is a suitable reason for using debriefing in a study? a.

It prevents researchers from being sued.

It allows researchers to get feedback from participants about how to design follow-up studies.

It gives participants an opportunity to sign a waiver releasing the researcher from any liability.

It informs participants about the presence and purpose of deception in a study.

31.

32.

33.

34.

A local committee that reviews research that is conducted on animals is known as a.

an IACUC.

an AIRB.

an AWA.

an IRB.

In which of the following ways is an institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC) different from an institutional review board (IRB)? a.

IACUCs are optional at universities conducting animal research; IRBs are mandatory at universities conducting human research.

Seeking permission from an IACUC is recommended but not required for animal research; IRB approval is required for human research.

IACUCs monitor the care and treatment of animals throughout the study; IRBs do not monitor the care of human participants throughout the study.

IRBs must follow federal guidelines, but IACUCs do not have federal guidelines to follow.

When conducting animal research, which guideline states that alternatives to animal research should be considered? a.

refinement

reduction

replacement

recycling

Which of the following has been used as a defense of animal research by animal researchers?

35.

36.

37.

Animal research has resulted in many benefits to both animals and humans.

Animal research requires less research funding than human research.

Animal research is less likely to result in physical harm to the subject compared to human research.

Animal research has not had the same types of scandals that human research has had (e.g., the Tuskegee Study).

Why is plagiarism a violation of ethics? a.

It violates an APA standard.

It violates a Belmont principle.

It is akin to lying.

It makes psychology researchers look bad.

In addition to being ethical violations, why are data falsification and fabrication problematic? a.

They are impossible to discover.

They impede scientific progress.

They are federal crimes.

Data are easy to acquire.

Which of the following is a primary reason that psychologists might fabricate or falsify their data? a.

They feel pressure to publish findings.

They are curious to see if other scientists would be able to detect the data fabrication or falsification.

They believe that the data they create is equally as valid as data that would be collected from participants.

38.

39.

40.

41.

A journal might require it for higher impact.

What was the primary ethical concern in the Milgram study? a.

The financial costs of conducting the study outweighed the benefits gained by the researcher.

The researchers did not debrief the participants.

The potential risks to participants outweighed the value of knowledge we can gain.

The number of people negatively affected was larger than the number of people positively affected.

The use of debriefing in a study such as Milgram’s obedience study appeals to which principle of the Belmont Report? a.

principle of beneficence

principle of integrity

principle of respect for persons

principle of justice

The following situations can influence ethical decision making EXCEPT a.

bad experiences of other researchers.

the possibility of additional grant funding.

changing social norms.

scientific discoveries.

The issue of obtaining informed consent deals with which of the following principles of the Belmont Report?

42.

43.

44.

the principle of beneficence

the principle of justice

the principle of integrity

the principle of respect for persons

Why is it unethical to provide an incentive that is too large to refuse (for example, offering undergraduate students free tuition for a semester for participating in a study)? a.

It is unfair to other researchers who cannot afford to pay participants.

It unduly influences people into participating.

It is unfair to people who choose not to participate in the study.

It is not unethical to do this.

From an ethical standpoint, in what way is researching prisoners with tuberculosis similar to researching children with ADHD? a.

Neither group of participants can provide informed consent.

Researchers must ensure anonymity when dealing with both types of participants.

Both groups of participants have less autonomy than other types of participants.

Researchers do not have to have written informed consent with these groups of participants.

When is it acceptable for a researcher to study participants only from a specific group, such as a researcher studying depression in a sample of Native American women? a.

if the specific group being studied is especially prone to the problem being studied (e.g., if depression rates are higher in Native American women)

45.

46.

47.

if the specific group being studied has participated in similar research previously (e.g., earlier studies of intelligence in Native American women)

if the researcher has special access to the specific group (e.g., the researcher works on a Native American reservation)

it is never acceptable for such a specific group to be studied

The principle of justice calls for a balance between ________ and ________ . a.

costs to the participant; benefits to the participant

needing to deceive participants; needing to obtain informed consent

the interests of the researcher; the interests of the institutional review board (IRB)

the kind of people who participate in research; the kind of people who benefit from it

Why might a researcher debrief his participants even if his study didn’t include any deceptive elements? a.

because APA guidelines require debriefing in all studies regardless of deception

to ensure that his participants had an educational research experience

to prevent participants from having negative experiences during the study

to decrease the likelihood of data falsification

Which of the following is a difference between a debriefing session following a study with deception compared to a debriefing session following a study without deception? a.

A deception study debriefing must attempt to restore a sense of honesty and trustworthiness.

48.

49.

50.

A deception study debriefing must have a member of the institutional review board (IRB) present.

A deception study debriefing must last at least 30 minutes.

A deception study debriefing must be done with each participant individually.

Ethical decision making is a.

as easy as a yes-no decision.

based only on what is good for society.

based on a balance of priorities.

determined by legal experts.

Dr. Smitherman conducted a study 5 years ago, and his graduate student now recommends that they conduct the study again to see if the effect still occurs. Dr. Smitherman says, “No, I cannot do that study now; I think it is unethical.” Which of the following is NOT a reasonable explanation for Dr. Smitherman’s response? a.

There were no ethical guidelines 5 years ago, but there are now.

He might have changed his thinking due to a bad experience with some of the participants from the original study.

Public opinion about that type of research has changed.

New findings have made such research less beneficial.

Your professor says that researchers do not make ethical decisions alone. What does this mean? a.

Researchers must conduct research with other researchers.

Researchers must discuss their ethical choices with their participants.

Researchers must consult with lawyers before they conduct a study.

51.

52.

53.

Researchers must consider the opinions of others, including institutional review board (IRB) members and peers.

A study suggesting a link between the measles, mumps, rubella (MMR) vaccine and autism led to reduced vaccination rates and increased rates of measles. This example demonstrates the serious implications of a.

data falsification/fabrication.

using deception.

failing the Principle of Justice.

legal protection of lab animals.

The ethical principles that govern psychological research and the code of conduct for how to protect human and nonhuman participants in research are published by the a.

Institutional Review Board.

Nuremberg Code.

Belmont Report.

American Psychological Association.

In Milgram’s (1963) experiments on obedience to authority, participants were led to believe that they were shocking a “learner” in another room each time the learner made an error. What was the main risk to participants in Milgram’s study? a.

physical harm

psychological distress

scientific fraud

lack of confidentiality

54.

55.

56.

57.

When obtaining informed consent from a participant, what must the researcher do? a.

tell the participant the hypotheses of the study

tell the participants about any deception in the study

explicitly inform participants of any potential risks involved in participating in the study

explain how scientific fraud will be avoided

What must a researcher do when using deception in an experiment? a.

debrief the participants afterward

give a formal apology

have the participants sign a waiver of liability

explain how the data collected will be analyzed

Which of the following is most likely to be part of a debriefing? a.

asking participants to summarize the data they provided as one strategy for checking their understanding of the study hypotheses

having participants review and sign an informed consent form

an explicit warning about any potential risks

fully informing participants about all aspects of the study

What is the primary purpose of an Institutional Review Board (IRB)? a.

to review a study’s procedure to ensure that participants were randomly selected

to review a study after its completion to determine if participants experienced any risk

58.

59.

60.

to assess scientific fraud

to review a study’s procedure to ensure that participants were treated ethically

Which of the following ethical considerations is relevant to research with animals? a.

ensuring anonymity

obtaining informed consent

obtaining IRB approval

minimizing harm

Dr. Rodriguez is interested in studying the impact of exercise on synaptic connections in the hippocampus of rats. However, before the study begins, construction work to renovate another lab on the floor above Dr. Rodriguez’s lab begins. Dr. Rodriquez notices that his rats appear distressed by the construction noises, so he negotiates to have his laboratory temporarily moved to another building. What guideline for animal care in research is Dr. Rodriguez following? a.

reduction

replacement

refinement

relevance

Which statement would an animal researcher most likely agree with? a.

Animals should have the same rights as humans.

Animals should be used only in observational research.

Ethical issues are less important in research with animals than in research with humans.

The use of animals in research is justified by the knowledge that is gained from the research.

61.

State the three principles of the Belmont Report and explain how the Tuskegee Study violated each of them.

62.

Explain why the Belmont principle of respect for persons requires participants to provide informed consent.

63.

RESEARCH STUDY 4.2: Dr. Van Ryan is a social psychologist who is curious about how clothing affects people’s perceptions. Specifically, she is curious how women who wear high heels are perceived in the workplace. Does the addition of height make co-workers take them more seriously? Are women who wear high heels seen as less professional? She is considering using an experimental design where some participants are instructed to wear high heels to work for a week and some participants are instructed to wear flat shoes. Each day of the week, Dr. Van Ryan will have the employers and co-workers of the women rate how competent and professional the participants are. What is the principle of beneficence? Explain how the principle of beneficence needs to be addressed by Dr. Van Ryan as she considers conducting her study.

64.

What is the principle of justice? Explain how the principle of justice needs to be addressed by Dr. Van Ryan as she considers conducting her study.

65.

RESEARCH STUDY 4.2: Dr. Van Ryan is a social psychologist who is curious about how clothing affects people’s perceptions. Specifically, she is curious how women who wear high heels are perceived in the workplace. Does the addition of height make co-workers take them more seriously? Are women who wear high heels seen as less professional? She is considering using an experimental design where some participants are instructed to wear high heels to work for a week and some participants are instructed to wear flat shoes. Each day of the week, Dr. Van Ryan will have the employers and co-workers of the women rate how competent and professional the participants are. Which of the ethical standards of the American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines would be most important to Dr. Van Ryan? Name two components of this standard that Dr. Van Ryan must consider as she plans her study.

66.

RESEARCH STUDY 4.2: Dr. Van Ryan is a social psychologist who is curious about how clothing affects people’s perceptions. Specifically, she is curious how women who wear high heels are perceived in the workplace. Does the addition of height make co-workers take them more seriously? Are women who wear high heels seen as less professional? She is considering using an experimental design where some participants are instructed to wear high heels to work for a week and some participants are instructed to wear flat shoes. Each day of the week, Dr. Van Ryan will have the women’s employer and co-workers rate how competent and professional the participant is. After Dr. Van Ryan conducts her study, a colleague accuses Dr. Van Ryan of deleting some of the data that does not match her hypothesis. If this is true, in what type of research misconduct did Dr. Van Ryan engage? Why is this behavior a problem for the science in general?

67.

What are the two issues that need to be balanced in conducting ethical research?

68.

State the five ethical principles proposed by the APA. How do these principles differ from the Belmont principles?

69.

What is the primary responsibility of an institutional review board (IRB), where are IRBs found, and who sits on such a board?

70.

Dr. Johnson is planning on conducting a study in which he observes the ways people approach each other in bars. He plans to sit at a local bar and listen to the ways men introduce themselves to women and the ways women introduce themselves to men. To avoid detection, he plans to sit at the bar and write down the information he collects on cocktail napkins. Dr. Johnson concludes that he does not need to have participants sign a written informed consent. Explain the concept of informed consent and why Dr. Johnson does not need to collect informed consent in this study.

71.

Explain the difference between deception through omission and deception through commission in a research study. Why would a researcher want to deceive their participants? Why should researchers be careful about using deception?

72.

Under what conditions is debriefing necessary? What should be included in a debriefing?

73.

What is an institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC)? Name one way it is similar to an institutional review board (IRB) and one way it differs from an IRB.

74.

What are the three primary arguments provided in favor of animal research?

75.

What is plagiarism? Explain why plagiarism is an ethical violation.

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61. Answer:

The three principles of the Belmont Report are respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. Answers may vary, but in each response students should also include how each was violated by the Tuskegee Study. Sample answers include: • Respect for persons: participants were not given the opportunity to give informed consent and were not given all the information about the study prior to participating; • Beneficence: the researchers harmed the participants and did not take steps to decrease harm to the participants; • Justice: the researchers targeted a disadvantaged group.

62. Answer:

This principle requires that people/participants should be treated with respect and as autonomous agents. As such, people should be given the opportunity to make an informed decision about participating in research without being coerced.

63. Answer:

The principle of beneficence means that the researcher should protect the participants from harm and ensure their well-being. Dr. Van Ryan should consider several ways in which her participants could be harmed, such as the pain of wearing high heels or the possibility that others will see them less professionally. Dr. Van Ryan should also consider benefits, such as participants may be seen as more competent or participants may enjoy the opportunity to dress up more than usual.

64. Answer:

The principle of justice requires that a fair balance be struck between the participants and the people who benefit from the research. In other words, both should be treated fairly and equally. The participants in Dr. Van Ryan’s study should be those who can benefit from her study. In this case, it appears that this principle will not be a problem, as high heels are typically worn by women and the participants in her study are women.

65. Answer:

The eighth standard of the APA guidelines is the most important for Dr. Van Ryan. The components of this standard that Dr. Van Ryan must consider as she plans her study are use of the IRB, use of informed consent, limited use of deception, and use of debriefing. Dr. Van Ryan must consider the following components to the extent that they be avoided: plagiarism and data falsification/fabrication.

66. Answer:

Dr. Van Ryan engaged in data falsification. (Note that this is not an example of data fabrication.) Data falsification is a problem for science because people trust the results of studies to inform their own theories and their own research activities. Thus, science is impeded if it is further based on faulty and/or misleading data.

67. Answer:

The two issues that need to be balanced are the potential risks to participants compared to the value of the knowledge gained by the research.

68. Answer:

The five ethical principles proposed by the APA are respect for persons, beneficence, justice, integrity, and fidelity/responsibility. The principles of respect for persons, beneficence, and justice are identical to those of the Belmont Report. The other two principles are unique to psychologists.

69. Answer:

An IRB is a committee whose primary responsibility is ensuring that research done on human beings is done ethically. IRBs are found at any institution that conducts research on human participants (students may give specific locations, such as universities or hospitals). IRBs are composed of at least five people. An IRB must include a scientist, a nonscientist, and a community member.

70. Answer:

Informed consent is designed to fully inform participants of the components of their participation in a study (costs, benefits). Answers may vary, but in some answers, students may mention the Belmont/APA principle of respect for persons, although they do not need to. They may also mention APA Standard 8.02, but they do not need to mention this either. In each response, students should state that Dr. Johnson does not need to collect informed consent from people because they are already in a setting where they can expect to be observed, and it is a low-risk public setting. In this case, the participants are not doing anything they would not be doing otherwise; thus, they are exposed to no more risk or benefit by participating in a study.

71. Answer:

Deception through omission involves a researcher not providing participants with all the information, whereas deception through commission involves a researcher actually providing participants with false information. Researchers might want to deceive participants when the study requires it (for example, as a cover story or use of a confederate). Researchers should be careful about using deception because it can lead participants to feel stressed or uncomfortable or to question the worth of the research process.

72. Answer:

Debriefing is necessary in any study that involves deception. Debriefings can and probably should be done in all studies, regardless of the presence of deception.

73. Answer:

An IACUC is a review board that reviews research conducted with animals. It is similar to an IRB in the following ways: it reviews research, it must comply with federal guidelines, and it has application protocols. It is dissimilar in the following ways: it is required to have at least three members (as opposed to five for an IRB), it must have specific members related to animal research (veterinarian or scientist familiar with animal protocols), and it follows up with the research as it is being conducted.

74. Answer:

The three primary arguments in favor of animal research are: • Animal research has resulted in numerous benefits to animals and humans. • Animal researchers are sensitive to animal welfare and take steps to reduce or eliminate animal suffering. • Animal researchers have reduced the number of animals needed for animal research.

75. Answer:

Plagiarism is the representation of the ideas or words of another person as one’s own. Plagiarism is an ethical violation because it is akin to stealing—meaning that a person is stealing someone else’s work or intellectual property. As such, this is unethical.

Name: ___________________________ Class: _________________ Date: __________

Chapter 05

Which of the following is true of operational definitions? a.

There is only one operational definition that is possible for each conceptual definition.

The specification of operational definitions is one of the creative aspects of the research process.

Conceptual definitions are created after operational definitions are determined.

Operational definitions and conceptual definitions are the same thing.

For her research methods class, Serena plans to interview several teachers about their attitude toward teaching children who have attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This is an example of what type of measurement? a.

self-report measurement

observational measurement

physiological measurement

archival measurement

For his research methods class, Felipe plans to watch how students treat other children in their classrooms who have attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). He will evaluate how positively or negatively the children are treated by their classmates. This is an example of what type of measurement? a.

self-report measurement

observational measurement

physiological measurement

archival measurement

Which of the following is an example of physiological measurement? a.

measurements of hormones in the bloodstream

participants’ indications of whether or not they’ve been diagnosed with high blood pressure

number of panic attacks a patient reports

level of anxiety reported by participants

Hosea is studying the relationship between caffeine consumption and problem-solving ability. Which of the following is a categorical way to operationalize caffeine consumption? a.

the number of cups of coffee consumed in a day

the number of milligrams of caffeine consumed during the study

the frequency of buying energy drinks

whether the participant drank coffee in the 24 hours prior to the study

Hosea is studying the relationship between caffeine consumption and problem-solving ability. Which of the following is a quantitative way to operationalize problem-solving ability? a.

the time spent solving a math problem

the type of puzzle solved (Sudoku puzzle or a crossword puzzle)

whether participants used insight or trial-and-error techniques to solve the problem

the report of a teacher about whether a student is a good or bad problem solver

Naomi is studying the effect of popularity on academic success for her research methods project. To do this, she has elementary school students rate how popular each member of their class is. She then uses this information to rank the students on popularity (e.g., John is the most popular, Vanessa is the second-most popular). Which of the following best describes this variable? a.

an ordinal scale of measurement

a self-report measurement

a categorical measurement

an interval scale of measurement

Todd is studying the effect of popularity on academic success for his research methods project. He decides to measure popularity by asking each elementary school student to tell him how many friends he or she has. He assumes that more friends means the student is more popular. Which of the following best describes this variable? a.

a ratio scale of measurement

a qualitative variable

an other-report measure

a categorical variable

What is the difference between a ratio scale of measurement and an interval scale of measurement? a.

A ratio scale of measurement has a zero value that actually means “nothing” or “the absence of something,” but an interval scale does not.

10.

11.

An interval scale of measurement is a type of measurement used for categorical measurements, but a ratio scale is used for quantitative measurements.

An interval scale has equal intervals, but a ratio scale does not.

A ratio scale of measurement cannot be used to compare people’s scores, but interval scales can (e.g., Phillip is twice as fast).

RESEARCH STUDY 5.1: Dr. Rodriquez is considering conducting a study examining whether narcissistic people have poorer romantic relationships than those who are not narcissistic. One of her first tasks is to determine which of her participants are narcissistic and which are not. She decides to use the scale created by a colleague, the Donal scale. Question 1 reads, “I tend not to think about other people as much as I think about myself.” Question 2 reads, “I do not have a high opinion of myself.” Question 3 reads, “I think other people think I am really special.” Dr. Rodriquez is concerned whether the measure will really measure narcissism or if it will measure some other related concept. She is concerned about the scale’s a.

operational definition.

validity.

reliability.

convenience.

RESEARCH STUDY 5.1: Dr. Rodriquez is considering conducting a study examining whether narcissistic people have poorer romantic relationships than those who are not narcissistic. One of her first tasks is to determine which of her participants are narcissistic and which are not. She decides to use the scale created by a colleague, the Donal scale. Question 1 reads, “I tend not to think about other people as much as I think about myself.” Question 2 reads, “I do not have a high opinion of myself.” Question 3 reads, “I think other people think I am really special.” Before using the measure in her study, Dr. Rodriquez gives the measure to a group of participants on the first day of the semester and again on the last

day of the semester. She then compares the scores between the two time points. This is a test of which of the following?

12.

13.

interrater reliability

internal reliability

test-retest reliability

construct reliability

RESEARCH STUDY 5.1: Dr. Rodriquez is considering conducting a study examining whether narcissistic people have poorer romantic relationships than those who are not narcissistic. One of her first tasks is to determine which of her participants are narcissistic and which are not. She decides to use the scale created by a colleague, the Donal scale. Question 1 reads, “I tend not to think about other people as much as I think about myself.” Question 2 reads, “I do not have a high opinion of myself.” Question 3 reads, “I think other people think I am really special.” Before using the measure in her study, Dr. Rodriquez gives the measure to a group of participants on the first day of the semester and again on the last day of the semester. Dr. Rodriquez is examining the scatterplot of the data she collected on the first day of the semester and the last day of the semester. On the scatterplot, she sees that the dots are very close to forming a diagonal line. This indicates which of the following? a.

a strong relationship

a nonrelationship

a valid finding

a negative finding

Question 2 reads, “I do not have a high opinion of myself.” Question 3 reads, “I think other people think I am really special.” Before using the measure in her study, Dr. Rodriquez analyzes the data she gets from her students. She looks at the relationship between each of the individual questions. She sees that participants who agree with Question 1 also agree with Question 3 and disagree with Question 2. This is a test of which of the following?

14.

interrater reliability

internal reliability

test-retest reliability

construct reliability

RESEARCH STUDY 5.1: Dr. Rodriquez is considering conducting a study examining whether narcissistic people have poorer romantic relationships than those who are not narcissistic. One of her first tasks is to determine which of her participants are narcissistic and which are not. She decides to use the scale created by a colleague, the Donal scale. Question 1 reads, “I tend not to think about other people as much as I think about myself.” Question 2 reads, “I do not have a high opinion of myself.” Question 3 reads, “I think other people think I am really special.” Dr. Rodriquez calculates a correlation coefficient (r) to examine the relationship between Question 1 and Question 2 and between Question 1 and Question 3. She finds a correlation coefficient of r = –0.73 between Questions 1 and 2 and a correlation coefficient of r = 0.74 between Questions 1 and 3. Which of the following is true of her findings? a.

There appears to be good internal reliability in the scale.

The correlation between Questions 1 and 2 and Questions 1 and 3 are in the same direction.

The correlation between Questions 1 and 2 is much weaker than that between Questions 1 and 3.

The negative correlation between Questions 1 and 2 is bad for Dr. Rodriquez.

15.

16.

RESEARCH STUDY 5.1: Dr. Rodriquez is considering conducting a study examining whether narcissistic people have poorer romantic relationships than those who are not narcissistic. One of her first tasks is to determine which of her participants are narcissistic and which are not. She decides to use the scale created by a colleague, the Donal scale. Question 1 reads, “I tend not to think about other people as much as I think about myself.” Question 2 reads, “I do not have a high opinion of myself.” Question 3 reads, “I think other people think I am really special.” Dr. Rodriquez is concerned about the validity of the measure of narcissism recommended by her colleague. She sends a copy of the measure to the faculty members in her psychology department to look at, and they all tell her it looks like it will measure narcissism. She now has evidence of which of the following? a.

content validity

face validity

discriminant validity

concurrent validity

RESEARCH STUDY 5.1: Dr. Rodriquez is considering conducting a study examining whether narcissistic people have poorer romantic relationships than those who are not narcissistic. One of her first tasks is to determine which of her participants are narcissistic and which are not. She decides to use the scale created by a colleague, the Donal scale. Question 1 reads, “I tend not to think about other people as much as I think about myself.” Question 2 reads, “I do not have a high opinion of myself.” Question 3 reads, “I think other people think I am really special.” Dr. Rodriquez decides to test the internal reliability of her measure. Which of the following results demonstrates good internal reliability? a.

α = 0.10

α = –0.03

α = 0.95

α = –0.98

17.

18.

19.

20.

Which types of reliability can be analyzed with scatterplots? a.

all types of reliability

internal reliability and test-retest reliability

internal reliability and interrater reliability

interrater reliability and test-retest reliability

A correlation-based statistic called ________ is commonly used to determine internal reliability. a.

Cronbach’s alpha

kappa

a scatterplot

Pearson’s r

Asking many similar questions when trying to measure a concept is done to a.

ensure validity.

cancel out measurement error.

make sure participants are not lying.

allow participants to skip questions.

Which of the following is NOT possible? a.

A measure is neither reliable nor valid.

A measure is both valid and reliable.

A measure is reliable but not valid.

A measure is valid but not reliable.

21.

22.

23.

24.

Establishing construct validity is most important for which of the following? a.

a concrete construct

a behavior that is directly observable

physical measurements (e.g., length)

an abstract concept

Establishing construct validity would probably be most important for which of the following? a.

a measure of heart rate

a measure of the number of times a person eats alone during a month

a measure of spirituality

a measure of income

In which of the following ways are content and face validity similar? a.

Both involve subjective judgments.

Both involve asking participants for their opinions about the measurement.

Both are preferred by psychologists as ideal measures of validity.

Both are very difficult to establish.

RESEARCH STUDY 5.2: Dr. Sheffield is a clinical psychologist who specializes in treating pathological gambling. Pathological gambling is defined as being unable to resist impulses to gamble. Bothered by not having a good measure that he can give to clients to determine whether they are suffering from this condition, he creates a new measure of pathological gambling. The measure has 15 questions, and it takes 20 minutes to complete. Dr. Sheffield gives his measure to his supervisor, who is also an expert in pathological gambling. His supervisor says that his measure appears to test

all the components of pathological gambling, including feeling restless when attempting to stop gambling, jeopardizing jobs in order to keep gambling, and using gambling to escape from problems and a bad mood. Given this information, Dr. Sheffield’s measure has evidence of which of the following?

25.

26.

content validity

convergent validity

criterion validity

discriminant validity

RESEARCH STUDY 5.2: Dr. Sheffield is a clinical psychologist who specializes in treating pathological gambling. Pathological gambling is defined as being unable to resist impulses to gamble. Bothered by not having a good measure that he can give to clients to determine whether they are suffering from this condition, he creates a new measure of pathological gambling. The measure has 15 questions, and it takes 20 minutes to complete. If Dr. Sheffield’s measure does not actually measure pathological gambling, his measure is said to lack which of the following? a.

validity

reliability

conceptualization

operationalization

RESEARCH STUDY 5.2: Dr. Sheffield is a clinical psychologist who specializes in treating pathological gambling. Pathological gambling is defined as being unable to resist impulses to gamble. Bothered by not having a good measure that he can give to clients to determine whether they are suffering from this condition, he creates a new measure of pathological gambling. The measure has 15 questions, and it takes 20 minutes to complete. To test his measure, Dr. Sheffield gives his measure to a group of people in Gamblers Anonymous (GA) and another group in Alcoholics Anonymous

(AA). He finds that people in the GA group have higher scores on his new measure than people in the AA group. Why did Dr. Sheffield do this?

27.

28.

to obtain evidence for face validity

to obtain evidence for content validity

to obtain evidence for convergent validity

to obtain evidence for criterion validity

RESEARCH STUDY 5.2: Dr. Sheffield is a clinical psychologist who specializes in treating pathological gambling. Pathological gambling is defined as being unable to resist impulses to gamble. Bothered by not having a good measure that he can give to clients to determine whether they are suffering from this condition, he creates a new measure of pathological gambling. The measure has 15 questions, and it takes 20 minutes to complete. To test his measure, Dr. Sheffield gives his measure to a group of people in Gamblers Anonymous (GA) and another group of people in Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). He finds that people in the GA group have higher scores on his new measure than people in the AA group. This procedure is known as a a.

test-retest paradigm.

known-groups paradigm.

prediction paradigm.

group evaluation paradigm.

To test his measure, Dr. Sheffield gives his measure to a group of his clients and at the same time measures how many times they have been gambling in the past month. He predicts that clients who score higher on his measure will also report gambling more times in the past month. This procedure is meant to provide evidence for which of the following?

29.

30.

face validity

content validity

criterion validity

discriminant validity

RESEARCH STUDY 5.2: Dr. Sheffield is a clinical psychologist who specializes in treating pathological gambling. Pathological gambling is defined as being unable to resist impulses to gamble. Bothered by not having a good measure that he can give to clients to determine whether they are suffering from this condition, he creates a new measure of pathological gambling. The measure has 15 questions, and it takes 20 minutes to complete. Dr. Sheffield decides to test the criterion validity of his measure. Dr. Sheffield gives his measure to a group of people that includes suspected problem gamblers and non-gamblers. Which of the following options below could he also do to get evidence for criterion validity? a.

give the measure to a group of people attending Gamblers Anonymous meetings

correlate the measure with a behavior, such as amount of money lost in a casino during the past year

ask the participants to give their opinion on whether the measure is valid

give a measure of alcohol addiction to the same group of clients

they are suffering from this condition, he creates a new measure of pathological gambling. The measure has 15 questions, and it takes 20 minutes to complete. Dr. Sheffield has now decided that he wants to test his measure on some university students (who some estimates say have a 6% prevalence rate of compulsive gambling). He has a group of 100 university students complete his measure. He also has them complete two other measures (one that measures addictive behavior in general and one that measures general attitudes toward gambling). He finds that his new measure is positively associated with each of these other measures. This procedure has provided evidence for the ________ of Dr. Sheffield’s measure.

31.

content validity

predictive validity

convergent validity

discriminant validity

RESEARCH STUDY 5.2: Dr. Sheffield is a clinical psychologist who specializes in treating pathological gambling. Pathological gambling is defined as being unable to resist impulses to gamble. Bothered by not having a good measure that he can give to clients to determine whether they are suffering from this condition, he creates a new measure of pathological gambling. The measure has 15 questions, and it takes 20 minutes to complete. Dr. Sheffield has decided to test the discriminant validity of his new measure. He has a group of first-time Gamblers Anonymous (GA) attendants complete his measure and finds that they score higher than a group of people who do not attend the group. Which of the following results would provide evidence for discriminant validity? a.

He finds that the GA attendees score higher on his measure than the non-GA attendees.

He finds that the measure of gambling is not correlated with a measure of sensation-seeking in either of his two groups of people.

He finds that more recent GA joiners score higher than veteran GA attendees, who are more recovered.

32.

33.

34.

He finds that the measure he used is also associated with people’s past diagnoses of pathological gambling.

RESEARCH STUDY 5.2: Dr. Sheffield is a clinical psychologist who specializes in treating pathological gambling. Pathological gambling is defined as being unable to resist impulses to gamble. Bothered by not having a good measure that he can give to clients to determine whether they are suffering from this condition, he creates a new measure of pathological gambling. The measure has 15 questions, and it takes 20 minutes to complete. Dr. Sheffield wants to establish the discriminant validity of his pathological gambling measure. He gives his measure and three others to a group of 100 people. Which of the following provides the best evidence for discriminant validity? a.

that his measure is not strongly correlated with a measure of impulsivity

that his measure is not strongly correlated with the number of friends people have

that his measure is strongly correlated with a measure of alcohol addiction

that his measure is strongly correlated with a measure of self-esteem

Another word for discriminant validity is ________ validity. a.

convergent

asymmetrical

divergent

multiple

An educational psychologist is testing the discriminant validity of a new measure of numerical learning difficulties. He gives his measure to a group of students along with another measure of verbal learning difficulties, which

he predicts should not be strongly related to numerical learning difficulties. Which of the following correlations would the psychologist hope to find in order to establish discriminant validity?

35.

36.

37.

r = 1.0

r = –1.0

r = 0.83

r = –0.18

Why are convergent and discriminant validity often evaluated together? a.

Both terms refer to the same type of validity.

Researchers have to look at the patterns of correlations for both types of validity.

Researchers have to determine whether convergent validity predicts discriminant validity.

Both types of validity are subjective in that they are determined by experts in the field.

Your friend Dominic is complaining about having to take the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), a test that is required to go to graduate school and is similar to the ACT and SAT. He complains, “Tests like the GRE don’t really measure how well people actually do in graduate school.” Dominic is questioning the ________ of the test. a.

discriminant validity

content validity

convergent validity

criterion validity

According to its conceptual definition, a variable should be related to a particular behavior. If a researcher is able to demonstrate that his measure

of the variable is related to the behavior, then he has established which of the following?

38.

39.

40.

discriminant validity

content validity

convergent validity

criterion validity

In interrogating the construct validity of a measure, which question should a researcher ask? a.

Is there enough evidence that this measure is valid?

Do I know that this measure is valid?

Does this measure have the right kind of validity?

Has an expert said that this measure is reliable?

What does it mean that “reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity”? a.

If a measure is reliable, it is also valid.

If a measure is valid, it is also reliable.

Reliability and validity are unrelated concepts.

Reliability and validity are the same concept.

Two researchers tell you they study the same thing. However, when you look at their research papers, they do not use similar methodologies or measurements. How is this possible? a.

The researchers have the same conceptual definitions.

The researchers have the same operational definitions.

41.

42.

43.

The researchers have the same conceptual definitions and operational definitions.

The researchers do not have the same conceptual definitions or the same operational definitions.

What is the term for a researcher’s definition of the variable in question at a theoretical level? a.

measurement validity

construct validity

conceptual definition

operational definition

In looking at a scatterplot of interrater reliability, why would a researcher want to see all the dots close to the line of agreement? a.

because it indicates a negative relationship

because it indicates that the researcher’s two research assistants/raters are making similar measurements

because it indicates that the researcher’s measurement is valid

because it indicates that the researcher’s measurement will also have high test-retest reliability

A helpful tool for visualizing test-retest reliability and interrater reliability is a a.

bar graph.

Cronbach’s alpha.

correlation coefficient.

scatterplot.

44.

45.

46.

47.

A correlation coefficient and a scatterplot both provide which of the following pieces of information? a.

the strength and direction of the relationship between two measurements

the path and significance of the relationship between two measurements

the validity and reliability of two measurements

the outliers present in the two measurements

When using correlation coefficients to evaluate reliability, which of the following is undesirable? a.

a correlation coefficient close to 1

a negative correlation coefficient

a strong correlation coefficient

it depends on the type of reliability being evaluated.

If a measurement looks like it is a plausible operationalization of a conceptual variable, then it has a.

interrater reliability.

subjectivity.

face validity.

credibility.

Asking an expert or experts to evaluate a measure is used to establish ________ validity. a.

content

criterion

48.

49.

50.

divergent

face

In order to use the known groups paradigm to establish criterion validity, which of the following is necessary? a.

At least three groups must be used.

After testing, the groups should have significantly different scores on the measure.

Prior to testing, similarity between the groups must be demonstrated.

The groups must be composed of experts in the field of psychology.

Your friend Alanna says that when examining validity, you always want to see positive correlations. Why is she wrong? a.

Both the strength and the direction of a correlation matter when examining validity.

The strength of a correlation matters, but the direction of a correlation does not matter.

Negative correlations are desirable when examining validity.

Correlations are not used to examine validity.

Dr. Pierre is interested in studying levels of anxiety in children who have lived through a major natural disaster. As she plans her study, she is considering various operational definitions of anxiety. Which of the following is an example of an operational definition for anxiety that she could consider? a.

feeling worried

state of being uneasy

changes in heart rate while viewing images of the aftereffect of a natural disaster

51.

52.

53.

54.

level of apprehension

Which type of measure operationalizes a variable by recording the answers of a participant using a questionnaire? a.

physiological measure

self-report measure

observational measure

conceptual measure

“A strong relationship was found. Children with more positive relationships with their parents had higher academic performance than children with less positive relationships with their parents.” From this information, you know that the r in the study was closest to a.

.10

.50

+.10

+.50

In a scatterplot, the direction of the relationship can be seen by the a.

spread of the dots.

slope of the line.

number of dots.

the presence of a line drawn through the dots.

Dr. Leising conducts observational studies of adolescents interacting with peers during problem-solving tasks. She records each 30-minute interaction

and then has the students in her laboratory code prosocial behaviors in the adolescents as they view each video. Because she has several students coding the videos, she calculates how reliable their scores are with each other by having them all code the same videos periodically. Which type of reliability is Dr. Leising calculating?

55.

56.

interrater reliability

test-retest reliability

internal reliability

internal consistency

Jiyun has just conducted a study examining the association between a child’s level of impulsivity and the amount of corporal punishment used by their parents. She used a questionnaire about discipline strategies to assess corporal punishment. She calculated the scale’s internal reliability as .85 and concluded that her scale had good internal reliability. Jiyun most likely calculated reliability using what statistic? a.

Cronbach’s alpha

the average inter-item correlation (AIC)

kappa

slope of a line

Danesh has just read an article that describes a study that used a survey completed by participants to assess anxiety levels in adults. He is interested in the reliability of the survey and finds that the authors have provided information about both internal and test-retest reliability. However, there is no information about interrater reliability. Which of the following reasons explains why the authors do not report interrater reliability? a.

Since the study has good internal reliability, it is not necessary to report interrater reliability.

The combination of internal reliability and test-retest reliability provide enough information about the study’s reliability.

57.

58.

59.

The anxiety scale is a self-report measure, and interrater reliability is needed only when two or more observers are providing ratings.

Interrater reliability is typically calculated only for the experimenter to evaluate the ratings and is rarely reported in journal articles.

When your scale does not correlate with other, unrelated procedures or scales, it has ________ validity. a.

convergent

discriminant

face

criterion

Fatima is trying to measure gender role stereotypes using a gender role survey. She believes that her participants will be able to tell that she is measuring gender role stereotypes because the survey looks like it is measuring stereotypes. Fatima believes that her scale has what type of validity? a.

convergent

discriminant

face

criterion

If Jamal wanted to test the consistency of participants’ responses on a survey at two different times, what would he use? a.

internal reliability

interrater reliability

criterion validity

test-retest reliability

60.

Explain why the textbook argues, “In fact, operationalizations are one place where creativity comes into the research process.”

61.

Imagine that you are trying to measure people’s stress. Provide an example of measuring stress using a self-report measure, a physiological measure, and a behavioral measure.

62.

Imagine that you are trying to measure people’s stress. Provide three quantitative definitions of stress: one that is ordinal, one that is interval, and one that is ratio.

63.

Explain why many people feel that physiological measurements are the best way to operationalize a variable but why they may not, in fact, be the best.

64.

RESEARCH STUDY 5.3: Lauryn, Gabi, and Jennifer are students in Dr. Shaffer’s Research Methods class. For a class assignment, they are asked to devise an operational definition for romantic attachment, or love. Lauryn decides to ask a group of married couples to report if they are in love with their spouse (1 indicates “Yes, I am in love” and 2 indicates “No, I am not in love”). Gabi decides to watch couples sitting on campus and measure how close they sit together, assuming that people who sit closer together are more in love. Jennifer decides to recruit a group of newlyweds and measure the change in heart rate that occurs between the start of the study (when the person is alone) and the moment they see their spouse walk into the room. For each student described above, indicate whether the operational definition of her variable is categorical or quantitative. If a student’s operational variable is categorical, explain whether it could or could not be made quantitative and how you would do that.

65.

66.

Dr. Sarolli is planning on measuring literacy (defined as the ability to read and write written text in one’s native language). He decides he wants to create a quantitative operational definition. Create an ordinal, interval, and ratio way to measure literacy.

67.

Explain the difference between validity and reliability. Explain whether they are related or independent concepts.

68.

Name the three types of internal reliability and the four types of validity.

69.

Name two types of reliability that apply to Dr. Li’s measure and how each one could be established, given the above scenario.

70.

RESEARCH STUDY 5.4: Dr. Li is interested in creating a measurement of religiosity. According to the dictionary, religiosity is “the quality of being religious; piety; devoutness.” She creates a measure comprising 10 statements. People respond to each statement using the following scale (1 = strongly disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Some of the statements are below. Statement 1: “I believe in a religion.” Statement 2: “Part of who I am stems from my religious beliefs.” Statement 3: “I believe that religion is unnecessary.” Dr. Li gives her new measure to a group of 100 adults in order to test the internal validity of her measure. Draw two scatterplots: one that demonstrates the likely relationship between Statements 1 and 2 and one that demonstrates the likely relationship between Statements 1 and 3. Explain why you have drawn each scatterplot as you have.

71.

RESEARCH STUDY 5.4: Dr. Li is interested in creating a measurement of religiosity. According to the dictionary, religiosity is “the quality of being religious; piety; devoutness.” She creates a measure comprising 10 statements. People respond to each statement using the following scale (1 = strongly disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Some of the statements are below. Statement 1: “I believe in a religion.” Statement 2: “Part of who I am stems from my religious beliefs.” Statement 3: “I believe that religion is unnecessary.” Dr. Li gives her new measure to a group of 100 adults in order to test the internal validity of her measure. What type of correlation coefficients (r) would Dr. Li expect to find between Statements 1 and 2 and between Statements 1 and 3? What would these correlation coefficients tell Dr. Li about the internal reliability of her measure?

72.

RESEARCH STUDY 5.4: Dr. Li is interested in creating a measurement of religiosity. According to the dictionary, religiosity is “the quality of being religious; piety; devoutness.” She creates a measure comprising 10 statements. People respond to each statement using the following scale (1 = strongly disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Some of the statements are below. Statement 1: “I believe in a religion.” Statement 2: “Part of who I am stems from my religious beliefs.” Statement 3: “I believe that religion is unnecessary.” Provide a suggestion for how Dr. Li could establish the face validity of her measure and a suggestion for how she could establish the content validity of her measure.

73.

RESEARCH STUDY 5.4: Dr. Li is interested in creating a measurement of religiosity. According to the dictionary, religiosity is “the quality of being religious; piety; devoutness.” She creates a measure comprising 10 statements. People respond to each statement using the following scale (1 = strongly disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Some of the statements are below. Statement 1: “I believe in a religion.” Statement 2: “Part of who I am stems from my religious beliefs.” Statement 3: “I believe that religion is unnecessary.” Provide a suggestion for how Dr. Li could establish the criterion validity of her measure.

74.

Given the situation above, explain the difference between criterion validity, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. Why is each one important?

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This statement stems from the fact that there is no one way to operationalize a concept in psychology. The choice of how to operationalize an abstract concept allows the researchers to think outside the box and think of ways to observe something that is not necessarily easily observed. In addition, students may also state that researchers strive to improve existing operationalizations or create new ones even though an operationalization already exists, thus adding to the continuing creativity of the research field. Students may also say that this adds to the creativity of the research process because different researchers may generate different operationalizations, ensuring that the field has great variety.

61. Answer:

Answers may vary, but in each response, students must provide an actual measure of measuring behavior and not simply provide a conceptual definition. A self-report measure must involve asking a person how stressed they are in some way (the person must report on themselves). A physiological measure must involve collecting some biological information (e.g., heart rate, cortisol levels). A behavioral measure must involve collecting data that can be directly observed (e.g., number of times a person looks at the clock during an exam, how long a student waits to speak to a professor).

62. Answer:

Students should create definitions that are quantitative (numerical), not categorical. They should make an ordinal definition that involves ranking people (e.g., the most stressed people in the class). Their interval definition should be something that has a nonsignificant 0 (e.g., the rating of stress on a 1–10 scale). Their ratio definition should be something that involves a meaningful 0 (e.g., number of stressful days experienced in the past week).

63. Answer:

Many people may feel that physiological measurements are best because they tend to be very accurate and based on biological components. Although physiological measurements are good and accurate, just like the other measures they must be validated with other measures.

64. Answer:

Lauryn’s operational definition is categorical. To make this quantitative, Lauryn could ask participants to rate how much they are in love on a 1 (Not in love at all) - 5 (Very much in love) scale rather than just saying they are in love or are not in love. Gabi’s operational definition is quantitative. Jennifer’s operational definition is quantitative.

65. Answer:

Lauryn’s operational definition is self-reported. Gabi’s operational definition is observational. Jennifer’s operational definition is physiological.

66. Answer:

Students should create definitions that are quantitative (numerical), not categorical. They should make an ordinal definition that involves ranking people, so that people with the highest literacy skills are rated highest and people with the lowest literacy skills are rated lowest, for example. Their interval definition should be something that has a nonsignificant 0, such as a 10-point scale on which people’s levels of literacy are rated by themselves or by another observer. Their ratio definition should be something that involves a meaningful 0, such as the number of words a person can read in a given amount of time.

67. Answer:

In each response, students should first explain the difference between validity and reliability: Reliability is the consistency of a measure, or the ability of a researcher to trust a measure. By contrast, the validity of a measure is belief that a measure is actually a measure of what it is purported to measure. Then, students should explain their relation/independence. They may say they are fairly independent concepts, meaning that a measure can be reliable but not valid or neither valid nor reliable. They may also say that reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity, or say that if a measure is valid, it is also reliable.

68. Answer:

The three types of reliability are (in no particular order): testretest reliability, interrater reliability, and internal reliability, and the four types of validity are (in no particular order): external validity, statistical validity, internal validity, and construct validity.

69. Answer:

The two types of reliability that apply to Dr. Li’s measure are testretest reliability and internal reliability. Interrater reliability is not one of the types of reliability, as it is unlikely that it is necessary given this measurement. The first reliability is test-retest reliability and is established by giving the measure to a group of people at one time and then again after some time has elapsed. The second type of reliability is internal reliability and is established by looking at the relationship between each of the 10 items. In their responses, students may also simply say that it can be established by calculating Cronbach’s alpha. They may not simply say that it can be calculated with a scatterplot or a correlation coefficient because those can be used for all types of reliability.

70. Answer:

The first scatterplot (S1 and S2) should depict a positive slope/relationship, and the second scatterplot (S1 and S3) should depict a negative slope/relationship. The scatterplots may depict moderate or strong relationships but not weak relationships or nonrelationships. A person who says “yes” to S1 will probably say “yes” to S2 (positive relationship), and a person who says “yes” to S1 will probably say “no” to S3 (negative relationship).

71. Answer:

The first correlation coefficient (S1 and S2) should be a positive r. The second correlation coefficient (S1 and S3) should be a negative r. Students may describe moderate or strong relationships (r values of at least 0.5 or higher) but not weak relationships or nonrelationships. A person who says “yes” to S1 will probably say “yes” to S2 (positive relationship), and a person who says “yes” to S1 will probably say “no” to S3 (negative relationship).

72. Answer:

The face validity could be established by giving her measure to experts (students can state several examples of experts) and having them look at whether the items make sense (look like they measure religiosity). The content validity could be established by giving her measure to experts (again, students can state several examples of experts) and have them look at whether the statements measure all of the components of religiosity (which, from the definition, may include devotion and piety, although the students’ responses to this question do not have to be this specific).

73. Answer:

Criterion validity could be established by asking people to take her measure and collecting data at the same time about something that would be related to religiosity (examples could include frequency of church attendance, amount donated to religious causes, self-reports of whether they believe in a higher power, etc.). The criterion validity could also be established using the known-groups paradigm, which would involve giving the measure to a group of people known to be religious (perhaps church attendees) and those known not to be religious (maybe a group of known atheists) and determining whether the two groups score differently. Students may also state that criterion validity could be established by asking people to take the measure now and collecting data after some time has elapsed. The data collected in the future can be the same type of data collected concurrently.

74. Answer:

Criterion validity is a measure’s ability to forecast an outcome that is related to the measure. For example, if the measure has criterion validity, it would be correlated with future behaviors (e.g., church attendance, amount donated to the church in the next month). Convergent validity is whether a measure is related to similar measures, such as spirituality. Discriminant validity is whether a measure is unrelated to concepts it should be unrelated to, such as health. All three types are important. Criterion validity is important because it indicates the measure’s ability to predict things that Dr. Li cares about. Convergent validity is important because Dr. Li needs to make sure that her measure is related to similar concepts. Divergent validity is important because Dr. Li wants to make sure that the measure is related not to everything but only to those things that make sense.

Name: ___________________________ Class: _________________ Date: __________

Chapter 06

RESEARCH STUDY 6.1: Professor Singh creates a survey to measure how happy his students are with his teaching this semester. He is teaching two classes: Psychology and Law and Introduction to Neuroscience. He writes the following questions for his survey: A. What was your favorite part of this class? B. Please rate how much you agree with the following statement using the scale below: This was one of my favorite classes all semester. 1

Strongly Agree

Agree

Neither agree nor disagree

Disagree

Strongly disagree

C. Which of the following is most true of you? a. I am a very serious student. b. I try only as hard as I have to. D. How easy did you feel this class was? 1

Easy ----- ----- ----- Hard Which of the questions above is an example of a forced-choice question? a.

question A

question B

question C

question D

Strongly Agree

Agree

Neither agree nor disagree

Disagree

Strongly disagree

C. Which of the following is most true of you? a. I am a very serious student. b. I try only as hard as I have to. D. How easy did you feel this class was? 1

Easy ----- ----- ----- Hard Which of the questions above is an example of an open-ended question?

question A

question B

question C

question D

B. Please rate how much you agree with the following statement using the scale below: This was one of my favorite classes all semester. 1

Strongly Agree

Agree

Neither agree nor disagree

Disagree

Strongly disagree

C. Which of the following is most true of you? a. I am a very serious student. b. I try only as hard as I have to. D. How easy did you feel this class was? 1

Easy ----- ----- ----- Hard Which of the questions above is an example of a question that uses a Likert scale?

question A

question B

question C

question D

Strongly

Agree

Neither agree nor

Disagree

Strongly

Agree

disagree

C. Which of the following is most true of you? a. I am a very serious student. b. I try only as hard as I have to. D. How easy did you feel this class was? 1

Easy ----- ----- ----- Hard Which of the questions above is an example of a question that uses a semantic differential scale?

question A

question B

question C

question D

In developing a measure of “need for cognition” (the degree to which people like thinking and problem-solving), Dr. Jonason asks his participants to rate their agreement with the following statement: “I frequently solve and enjoy solving crossword puzzles and Sudoku puzzles.” What is the problem with this question? a.

It is a forced-choice question.

It is a double-barreled question.

It has a double negative.

It is a leading question.

Why are double-barreled questions problematic? a.

They may have poor construct validity.

They may be too easy to answer.

They are leading questions.

They are too conceptual.

In his measure of “need for cognition” (the degree to which people like thinking and problem-solving), Dr. Jonason asks his participants to rate their agreement with the following statement: “I have never not enjoyed thinking.” What is the problem with this question? a.

It is a forced-choice question.

It is a double-barreled question.

It has a double negative.

It is a leading question.

Which of the following is the most direct way to control for question order effects? a.

Give the survey questions to different groups of people.

Prepare different versions of the survey, varying the order of the questions.

Combine multiple questions into single questions.

Order effects cannot be controlled for.

Dr. Gore is conducting a survey examining people’s opinions toward funding for collegiate athletics on his campus. He notices that several participants agree with all 12 questions. This is most likely due to a.

fence sitting.

faking bad.

observer bias.

10.

11.

12.

13.

acquiescence.

How do reverse-worded items address the issue of shortcuts in surveys? a.

They slow down readers, making them answer more carefully.

They give people more answer options.

They are easier for people to read.

They ask each question twice so the participant answers twice.

Which of the following increases accurate responding? a.

nay-saying response sets

fence sitting

reverse-worded questions

acquiescence

Dr. Gahan decides to create a questionnaire asking about people’s attitudes toward immigration (a socially sensitive topic). He should be most concerned about which of the following? a.

people self-reporting more than they can know

fence sitting

faking bad

negatively worded answers

Dr. Paul is concerned about a fence-sitting response set when he conducts his survey. Which of the following might you recommend to decrease fence sitting? a.

using reverse-worded questions

14.

15.

16.

using scales with an even number of response options

providing a “no opinion” option

using a Likert scale

Forced-choice question formats are especially good at dealing with which of the following issues? a.

fence sitting

faking good

response sets

people self-reporting more than they can know

Which of the following is true when asking people questions about themselves? a.

The confidence people have in their memories is not strongly related to the accuracy of their memory.

People are very good judges of the reasons for their behavior.

People are better able to remember vivid memories.

If people are inaccurate in reporting their reasons for behavior, it is because they are deliberately trying to be deceptive.

Which of the following statements is true of observational data? a.

Observational measures automatically have good construct validity.

Observational measures cannot be used to make causal claims.

Observational measures can be used to make frequency claims.

Observational measures provide better information than self-report data.

17.

18.

19.

20.

A study by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) involved telling teachers that some of their students were “bloomers” and would achieve rapid academic success within the next year. In fact, these students were no different than any of the other students in the class. At the end of the year, the “bloomers” showed more gains in IQ than the other students. It appeared that the teacher had unintentionally treated the “bloomers” in special ways. This is an example of which of the following? a.

observer bias

observer effects

a masked study design

self-report operationalization

Another word for observer effects is a.

observer bias.

expectancy effects.

interrater reliability.

unobtrusive observation.

Masked or blind study designs are designed to deal with a.

yea-saying biases.

bystander effect.

observer bias.

faking good.

Dr. Ewell is concerned that the children will behave differently because of the presence of research assistants. He is concerned about

21.

22.

reactivity.

observer bias.

faking good.

interrater reliability.

make the observations himself instead of using a research assistant

have two undergraduate research assistants make the observations instead of just one

observe the same-sex friend pairs on the first day and the opposite-sex friend pairs on the second day

hide a video camera in the daycare center and record the children playing without them knowing

RESEARCH STUDY 6.2: Dr. Ewell, a developmental psychologist, is planning on conducting a study that involves watching children play together to determine how sharing behavior occurs in same-sex friend pairs compared to opposite-sex friend pairs. Dr. Ewell decides to collect his data at a neighborhood park. He has his two research assistants pose as a married couple having a picnic. While having their picnic, they take detailed records of the sharing behavior of the children and note whether the pairs are same sex or opposite sex. This technique is known as

23.

24.

a blind study design.

unobtrusive observation.

delayed observation.

a double-blind study design.

face validity

convergent validity

interrater reliability

test-retest reliability

–0.92

0.02

0.89

25.

26.

27.

1.15

a video camera

a developmental psychology textbook

a codebook

binoculars

He will likely need to get permission to videotape the children prior to doing so.

If he uses hidden cameras, he does not need to tell the participants they have been videotaped.

He will be unable to use videotape because he is studying children.

He can use the videotapes regardless of whether the adult objects as long as the child agrees.

RESEARCH STUDY 6.2: Dr. Ewell, a developmental psychologist, is planning on conducting a study that involves watching children play together

to determine how sharing behavior occurs in same-sex friend pairs compared to opposite-sex friend pairs. Imagine that Dr. Ewell wants to videotape the children interacting in the park. Why would most psychologists have no problem with the ethics of Dr. Ewell’s study?

28.

29.

30.

His research topic is interesting.

People in a public park do not expect their behavior to be private.

Research with children is generally not risky.

Observing children is the only way to collect data about this topic.

Which of the following is true of interrater reliability? a.

It is measured with an ICC.

It is necessary to calculate only if you have four or more raters.

It does not need to be calculated if your research assistants are well trained.

If interrater reliability is established, it means the observations are also valid.

The construct validity of observations can be threatened by a.

reactivity.

socially desirable responding.

acquiescence.

leading questions.

Observer bias relates mainly to ________, whereas observer effects stem from ________. a.

validity; reliability

31.

32.

33.

researchers; participants

faking good; faking bad

outcomes; expectations

How might a researcher deal with reactivity? a.

wear a name tag identifying them as a researcher

wait to begin observations

measure behavior by having each participant wear a camera on their head

use multiple observers

Unobtrusive observation is done to counteract which of the following? a.

observer bias

observer effects

reactivity

nay-saying

Dr. Jewell is interested in measuring people’s attitudes toward proposed tax cuts. One of his items reads, “People who support cutting taxes are not well informed about how the government works.” What is the problem with this question? a.

It is a forced-choice question.

It is a double-barreled question.

It has a double negative.

It is a leading question.

34.

35.

36.

37.

In which of the following studies is self-report the best data collection option? a.

a study examining the intensity of pain during natural childbirth

a study examining the health of children born via natural childbirth

a study examining discussions about natural childbirth between mothers and doctors

a study examining the breathing styles used during natural childbirth

Which of the following is another term for response sets? a.

observer bias

nondifferentiation

socially desirable responding

uniqueness

Which of the following questions is most likely to result in a socially desirable answer? a.

“How often do you shop online?”

“Have you ever sent a ‘sext’ (a sexually explicit message or photo)?”

“When was the last time you tweeted/retweeted?”

“Why did you choose your Facebook profile photo?

Faking good is also known as a.

fence sitting.

acquiescence.

socially desirable responding.

nondifferentiation.

38.

39.

40.

41.

Which of the following is a poll likely to measure? a.

a person’s attitude toward their doctor

a person’s feelings about people diagnosed with cancer

a person’s thoughts about whether they prefer Advil or Tylenol

a person’s opinions about a healthcare law

Which of the following determines the construct validity of a survey question? a.

how well it is worded

how many people answer it

how short it is

how many response options it has

Which of the following is a disadvantage of using open-ended questions? a.

The answers provided are often spontaneous.

The answers are unscientific.

The answers must be coded.

The answers are not taken seriously by participants.

Which of the following is true of question wording? a.

It has no effect on the results of a survey/poll.

No research has scientifically demonstrated that question wording affects the answers participants give.

Differences in how questions are worded always lead to different results.

42.

43.

44.

Researchers may alter the wording of a question to determine if it does have an effect on the results.

A question that suggests a particular viewpoint to respondents is known as a(n) a.

leading question.

double-barreled question.

negatively worded question.

ordered question.

Why might question order affect how people respond to a survey or poll? a.

People cannot understand multiple questions.

People are lazy.

People may try to appear consistent.

People are easily confused.

Julian creates a survey asking participants first to report how happy they are in their marriage and then second to report how happy they are in their life. His advisor, Dr. Fuentes, recommends that he create a second version of the survey that reverses the order of these questions. Why is Julian’s advisor recommending this? a.

He is concerned that Julian has a double-barreled question.

He is concerned that Julian’s results could be affected by question order.

He is concerned that Julian’s participants will use shortcuts.

He is concerned that Julian’s participants will try to fake good.

45.

46.

47.

48.

A researcher wants to know what people really do, not what they think they do. Which method would you advise him to use? a.

Behavioral observations

Self-report questions

Both behavioral observations and self-report questions are equally good for finding out what people really do.

Neither behavioral observations nor self-report questions is desirable for finding out what people really do.

Which of the following is true of behavioral observation? a.

It requires recording technology, such as video cameras.

It requires a research assistant to be with the participant at all times.

It may tell a different story than data collected by self-report questions.

It is a more reliable and valid method than self-report methodology.

Why would behavioral observation be a good research method for studying a high-frequency behavior (e.g., number of words spoken in a day or number of steps taken in a week)? a.

It will take less time to collect the data.

Participants would not be able to accurately keep track of so much data.

It is cheaper to collect data than it is to self-report data.

Researchers do not need to obtain participant consent for behavioral observation.

Which of the following is a unique threat to construct validity found only in behavioral observation? a.

acquiescence

49.

50.

51.

fence sitting

socially desirable responding

observer bias

Which of the following is a good reason a researcher may give for using observational methods as opposed to self-report methods? a.

“I do not want to have to worry about the construct validity of my conceptual variable.”

“I do not want to have to worry about ethics.”

“I want to measure something that people may not know how often they do it.”

“I want to make a causal claim.”

If a question has response options such as strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, and strongly disagree, this is known as a(n) a.

Likert scale.

agreement scale.

semantic differential format.

open-ended format.

Which of the following is true about research using surveys and polls? a.

Surveys and polls can support only frequency claims.

Surveys and polls are an accurate way to measure people’s actual behavior.

Surveys and polls can efficiently measure people’s subjective feelings.

Surveys and polls utilize only one type of question format.

52.

53.

54.

55.

Which of the following hypotheses would be best tested with a survey? a.

College students with part-time jobs have high self-esteem.

Children who are exposed to more words per day have faster brain development.

Drinking coffee makes people walk faster.

Sharing with others increases dopamine levels.

If a question has response options that are anchored with adjectives, this is known as a(n) a.

Likert scale.

agreement scale.

semantic differential format.

open-ended format.

Which the following statements are correct about the question format of survey and polls? a.

The format of a question has a larger impact on construct validity than wording.

Political polls typically use Likert scales to ask people which candidate they would vote for.

Researchers compute an average to score a survey with forced-choice questions.

Open-ended questions usually include rich and spontaneous information.

In developing a measure of “need for cognition” (the degree to which people like thinking and problem-solving), Dr. Jonason asks his participants to rate their agreement with the following statement: “I frequently solve and enjoy solving crossword puzzles.” What should Dr. Jonason do to improve the construct validity of this question?

56.

57.

58.

Split up the question into two separate questions.

Phrase the question in a neutral way.

Avoid suggesting a particular viewpoint in the question.

Avoid using negative phrasing in the question.

Negatively worded questions have low construct validity because a.

they lead people to respond with a certain viewpoint rather than with their true opinions.

they capture people’s ability to understand the question rather than their true opinions.

they are too simple to truly capture people’s true opinions.

they are unable to capture people’s true opinions because they evoke an emotional response.

“Most Americans believe that there should not be tax cuts. Please rate your opinions about tax cuts on a 1 (Disagree) to 5 (Agree) scale.”

“Please rate your opinions about tax cuts on a 1 (I strongly disagree with tax cuts) to 7 (I strongly agree with tax cuts) scale.”

“The government should never raise taxes. Please rate your agreement on a 1 (Disagree) to 7 (Agree) scale.

“Do you agree that tax cuts are an important issue and there should be tax cuts? Yes or No.”

A researcher most likely prepared two versions of a survey with different question sequencing to address the issue of

59.

60.

question order.

flashbulb memories.

appropriate question formats.

fence sitting responses.

Using a computerized measure of implicit opinions, such as the Implicit Association Test, is a way to address a.

fence sitting.

acquiescence.

socially desirable responding.

nondifferentiation.

Zariah placed five identical pairs of black socks on a table and asked passersby to rate which pair of socks were their favorites. Although the socks were exactly the same, people rated the last pair of socks as having the highest quality. How should Zariah interpret this result? a.

Zariah was mistaken, and the socks actually did differ in quality.

Zariah needs to consider the accuracy of flashbulb memories.

People were giving socially desirable responses and not being honest.

People are not always able to accurately explain their responses.

61.

Write three questions designed to measure liking for peanut butter and jelly sandwiches—one forced-choice, one open-ended, and one with a response scale (can be of any type).

62.

What is an advantage of open-ended questions? What is a disadvantage?

63.

RESEARCH STUDY 6.3: Dr. Omiata is working on creating a survey designed to measure people’s attitudes toward marijuana use. For each statement, the person is asked to rate their agreement on a 5-point scale. A selection of his statements is below. 1

Strongly Agree

Agree

Neither agree nor disagree

Disagree

Strongly disagree

A. I think that people who illegally ruin their lives by smoking pot are all alike. B. I think that marijuana should be legal in all 50 states and that people should have easy access to it. C. Marijuana consumption should never not be controlled. D. People who smoke marijuana are breaking the law. For each of Dr. Omiata’s statements, state whether it is well worded. If it is not, indicate what the problem is and how it could be fixed.

64.

Dr. Smith is interested in measuring how adults view sexual behavior in teenagers. She asks the following two questions. i. Is it okay for boys under the age of 18 to be sexually active? ii. Is it okay for girls under the age of 18 to be sexually active? Explain why Dr. Smith should be worried and how she can correct the problem.

65.

Explain why each of the following poses problems to a measure’s validity: response sets (acquiescence, nay-saying, and fence sitting), socially desirable responding (faking good or faking bad), and inability to report.

66.

Dr. Katz is interested in studying self-esteem. He is especially curious as to whether people who have higher self-esteem say the words I and me more

often than those who have low self-esteem. He has decided to poll people and ask them how often they say these words during the day. Explain why you would advise him NOT to use this method, and explain what alternative you would propose.

67.

State three ways that researchers could reduce reactivity in a study and why each one is effective.

68.

Dr. Leman is interested in using a survey to study people’s experiences with natural disasters, like Hurricane Sandy and the tornadoes that hit Joplin, Missouri, and Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Provide one reason why a survey is a good method to study this topic and one reason that a survey may not be a good method.

69.

Explain the difference between observer bias and observer effects and give an example of each.

70.

Explain why observational methods are typically seen by most psychologists as ethical.

71.

Dr. Overup decides to use a hidden camera to videotape the behavior of people on dates at a local restaurant to determine how they express affection in public. State which threat to construct validity Dr. Overup is trying to address. Briefly discuss how she should deal with the ethics of the hidden camera.

72.

Dr. Overup decides to use a hidden camera to videotape the behavior of people on dates at a local restaurant to determine how they express affection in public. She has three research assistants code each video. She calculates an ICC of .94 for their rating of affection. Explain how Dr. Overup

should interpret this value and what it tells her in terms of the reliability and validity of her measure.

73.

Explain why socially desirable responding happens. Name one way to decrease the likelihood of its occurrence.

74.

There are several ways to decrease socially desirable responding. Choose one of these and explain why it decreases this response tendency.

75.

Explain how a masked or blind design deals with both observer bias and observer effects.

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Students must create a question for each type. For the response scale question, students may use any type of response scale (semantic differential, Likert-type, etc.). Sample questions include: a. Open-ended: How much do you like peanut butter and jelly sandwiches? b. Forced-choice: Choose between the following two statements: I really like peanut butter and jelly sandwiches OR I prefer not to eat peanut butter and jelly sandwiches. c. Using a 10-point scale in which 1 = hate and 10 = love, rate how much you like peanut butter and jelly sandwiches.

62. Answer:

An advantage of open-ended questions is the amount of information they can generate, or that the data generated are very rich, or that the data generated can be spontaneous. A disadvantage is that the data can be complicated/difficult, or that the data still need to be coded/categorized, or that the data are very time-consuming to code and/or categorize.

63. Answer:

a. Statement A is leading and is likely to have people all respond in the same way because of its tone. Fixes could involve taking out the phrase “ruin their lives,” for example. b. Statement B is a double-barreled statement—it states two different things simultaneously. Students should recommend breaking it into two separate statements. c. Statement C is a double negative and is likely to lead to confusion. Fixes could involve rewording it (“Marijuana consumption should be controlled”) or adding another statement (“Controlling marijuana is a good idea”). d. Statement D is well worded.

64. Answer:

Dr. Smith is likely to see order effects in her questions. The order of her questions may affect the validity of her results. For example, people may say that it is okay for girls only because they originally said that it was okay for boys. (Students may actually state that people may be hesitant to reveal having a double standard.) To correct this problem, Dr. Smith should have two versions of the questionnaire—one with the question order of boys then girls and one with the question order of girls then boys—to make sure there are no differences.

65. Answer:

The response sets pose a problem for validity because it is unclear whether the reader really does agree (or disagrees or has no opinion) with each question/statement, meaning that we are unsure whether the data really do represent what they think (we just do not know). Socially desirable responding is a problem because we cannot tell whether a participant is simply trying to look good/bad and being dishonest or if they really do have those opinions/engage in those behaviors. Inability to report is a problem because participants may not realize that they do not know the exact answer (Why did I buy my new car? How many times did I eat lunch last month?) but may respond as if they do know. Instead of providing no data, they provide some data, but we are unsure of the data’s accuracy.

66. Answer:

People are unlikely to be able to realistically know how many times they say any given word or two in a given day. (Students may be precise and say this is an issue of inability to report.) Thus, he is likely to acquire a lot of very inaccurate data. As an alternative, in their responses, students should recommend some sort of observational measure. Students may recommend a specific way to collect data, but that is not necessary. If they mention some alternatives, these could include using some sort of recording device (similar to the electronically activated recorder [EAR] described in the book) or even bringing participants into a lab and counting the words in a lab conversation.

67. Answer:

One option is to hide their presence from the person they are observing. This is effective because the person cannot behave differently as a function of being observed if they are not aware they are being observed. A second option involves waiting until the person being observed has become desensitized to being observed and is likely to go back to responding “normally.” A third option involves examining some product of people’s behavior rather than the people’s behavior itself. For example, instead of observing people’s eating behavior, you could count the number of chips that are missing from the bowl after the study. This is effective because this method is unobtrusive and people will not be aware that their behavior’s results are being observed.

68. Answer:

Answers may vary, and students can give a variety of reasons why using a survey may be a good method. These reasons may include that surveys are excellent measures of subjective experiences (e.g., fear, anxiety) or that surveys may be good measures of why people think they responded to the natural disaster the way they did (why they evacuated). Students can give a variety of reasons for why a survey is not a good method, including but not limited to the faulty nature of people’s memory, especially for vivid events (like a natural disaster). The answers in both cases should demonstrate that the student realizes that surveys are better for subjective information as opposed to objective information.

69. Answer:

Observer bias occurs when researchers rate or record behavior in a way that is not objective. An example of this should clearly demonstrate that the researcher is seeing something different based on their expectations (similar to the study described in the book of the psychiatrist judging a person differently based on whether they think they are a patient). Observer effects occur when participants’ behavior changes to match the expectations of observers. An example of this should clearly demonstrate that the behavior change is coming from the participant, such as the participant acts smarter because the researcher treats them in a way that makes them behave that way.

70. Answer:

In many cases, researchers are observing behavior that is expected to be public, meaning that there is no expectation of privacy. Researchers do not identify the identities of the people they observe. When more secretive measures are used to observe behaviors, researchers often obtain permission beforehand or explain the recording after the study.

71. Answer:

Dr. Overup is attempting to deal with reactivity. Answers may vary, but students could mention several things related to ethics, including getting IRB approval, getting informed consent from people prior to videotaping, or deleting videotapes if participants request that after participation.

72. Answer:

Dr. Overup should be pleased with an ICC of that value as it is very close to one, indicating a high degree of interrater reliability. It appears that the research assistants are all rating the same behavior, indicating good reliability, but this says nothing about the validity of her measure (it is possible that the research assistants are all similarly biased).

73. Answer:

Socially desirable responding happens when participants are embarrassed, shy, or uncomfortable about giving an unpopular answer. Possible means of decreasing socially desirable responding include ensuring anonymity, creating questions designed to assess this tendency, getting others to rate participants (e.g., friends), or using specialized measures to keep participants from knowing exactly what they are studying (e.g., the IAT).

74. Answer:

Students may provide any of the following: a. Ensure anonymity—this may allow participants to feel that others may not judge them or know that their answer is “unpopular.” b. Measure participants’ tendency to respond in a socially desirable way—this will allow the researcher to determine who these participants might be and thus remove or discount their data. c. Use “other reports” instead of self-report— people may be less concerned about reporting something unpopular or embarrassing about someone other than themselves. d. Using a special measure, such as the IAT—this allows for more indirect or unconscious measurement.

75. Answer:

This design deals with observer bias and observer effects by keeping the observer unaware of the condition they are observing, so there is no way their expectations can either affect their measurements/observations of the participants (observer bias) or cause the participants to change their behavior in response to the expectations of the researcher (observer effects).

Name: ___________________________ Class: _________________ Date: __________

Chapter 07

all students at the university

all psychology majors and minors

all students he is currently teaching

all students in his Introduction to Neuroscience class

RESEARCH STUDY 7.1: Professor Kramer has decided to measure how happy his students are with his teaching this semester. He is teaching two classes this semester—Psychology and Law and Introduction to Neuroscience. He gives his students a survey. Dr. Kramer plans to give his survey only to his Psychology and Law students because he sees them on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, and he can spare the class time (unlike in his Introduction to Neuroscience class, which only meets on Tuesdays and Thursdays). Which of the following is true? a.

This will lead to a biased sample because the type of students who take Psychology and Law may be different from the type of students who take Introduction to Neuroscience.

This will lead to a biased sample because of self-selection.

This will lead to a biased sample because the Psychology and Law students have a lot of time to complete the survey.

The will lead to a sample that is representative of both of his classes.

sampling only those students who come to class frequently

sampling only those students whose student ID numbers end with an odd number

sampling only those students who sign the consent form

sampling only those students who finish the survey

RESEARCH STUDY 7.1: Professor Kramer has decided to measure how happy his students are with his teaching this semester. He is teaching two classes this semester—Psychology and Law and Introduction to Neuroscience. He gives his students a survey. If all the students in Dr. Kramer’s two classes complete the survey, then Dr. Kramer has done which of the following? a.

decreased the external validity of his study

collected too much data

relied on a census

enhanced sampling bias

Dr. Kramer could reasonably use his sample to say something about which of the following populations of interest?

students enrolled at the university

students who are political science majors

students who have taken a class with Dr. Kramer

students currently taking a psychology class

RESEARCH STUDY 7.1: Professor Kramer has decided to measure how happy his students are with his teaching this semester. He is teaching two classes this semester—Psychology and Law and Introduction to Neuroscience. He gives his students a survey. In Introduction to Neuroscience, 43 of 50 students complete the survey, and in Psychology and Law, 46 of 48 students complete the survey. Based on this information, which of the following can Dr. Kramer say? a.

His sample is larger than his population.

His sample is representative.

His sample is biased.

His sample came from his population of interest.

A sample is always ________ a population. a.

more expensive to measure than

smaller than

more interesting than

more scientific than

If researchers measure every member of a population, they have a.

conducted a census.

10.

11.

12.

collected a sample.

increased internal validity.

biased the study.

If researchers measure every tenth member of a population, they have a.

conducted a census.

collected a sample.

increased internal validity.

biased the study.

Which of the following is an example of a nonprobability sample? a.

simple random sample

convenience sample

systematic sample

cluster sample

Which of the following is true of probability sampling? a.

It is the best way to obtain a representative sample.

It is the same as random assignment.

It results in larger samples than nonprobability sampling.

It should be used only when external validity is not the goal of the study.

Dr. Tanaka is an educational psychologist interested in students’ attitudes toward science and the effect of those attitudes on performance on

standardized tests. He chooses his local school district to study. There are 15 high schools, and he randomly chooses five. Then, of the 2,500 students in each of those five schools, he randomly recruits 250 students. This is an example of which of the following sampling techniques?

13.

14.

snowball sample

systematic sample

multistage sample

cluster sample

Dr. Chandler is a personality psychologist who is interested in studying the characteristics of people who report being abducted by UFOs. She finds several people in an online support group for UFO abductees to participate and asks them if they can provide the names and contact information of other people who have also been abducted. Upon contacting these new participants, she asks them to refer her to even more people they may know who have been abducted. This is an example of what kind of sampling? a.

purposive sampling

snowball sampling

convenience sampling

self-selection sampling

Having a representative sample is most important in which of the following example claims? a.

“Having a dark triad personality is associated with having greater relationship problems.”

“Receiving weekly feedback from your supervisor increases work productivity.”

“People who report knowing someone who has been diagnosed with skin cancer also report having greater sunscreen use.”

“Forty-three percent of psychology majors report being frustrated by people asking them if they are psychoanalyzing them.”

15.

16.

17.

18.

A sample is to ________ as a population is to ________. a.

part; entire

external; internal

people; groups

participants; researchers

A biased sample consists of too many ________ cases. a.

basic

ideal

complicated

unusual

Convenience sampling relies on which of the following? a.

studying people who are easy to find

studying people who are willing to participate

studying people who are typical

studying people who are colleagues of the researcher

Online surveys commonly suffer from which of the following? a.

poor reliability

self-selection

probability sampling

over sampling

19.

20.

21.

22.

Another term for probability sampling is a.

purposive sampling.

convenience sampling.

random sampling.

cluster sampling.

Why do studies that use probability samples have excellent external validity? a.

They also ensure excellent internal validity.

They study every member of the population of interest.

They use a larger number of measures.

All members of the population are equally likely to be represented in the sample.

Why are techniques like cluster sampling and multistage sampling just as externally valid as simple random sampling? a.

They all contain elements of random selection.

They all measure every member of the population of interest.

They all use lists of all population members.

They all rely on large samples.

The difference between a cluster sample and a multistage sample is a.

cluster samples are probability samples; multistage samples are not.

multistage samples sample both clusters and participants; cluster samples just sample clusters.

23.

24.

25.

cluster samples rely on clusters of participants; multistage samples collect data from participants at different stages.

There is no difference between cluster samples and multistage samples.

The difference between a cluster sample and a stratified random sample is a.

cluster samples study all possible clusters; stratified random samples randomly select strata.

cluster samples use oversampling; stratified random samples use undersampling.

cluster samples use randomly selected clusters; stratified random samples use predetermined strata.

There is no difference between cluster samples and stratified random samples.

Oversampling is a variant used in which of the following sampling techniques? a.

simple random sampling

cluster sampling

convenience sampling

stratified random sampling

Which of the following results in an unrepresentative sample? a.

systematic sample

simple random sample

snowball sample

stratified random sample

26.

27.

28.

29.

Which of the following results in an unbiased sample? a.

snowball sample

convenience sample

purposive sample

systematic sample

For his research methods class project, Hiro is studying the effect of pet ownership on stress levels. Although a lot of research has been done on dog and cat owners, not much is known about other pets, so Hiro decides to study bird owners. Which of the following would demonstrate a purposive sampling technique? a.

He contacts the Twitter followers of Dr. Oiseau, a famous biologist who studies birds.

He recruits bird owners by e-mailing members of the National Bird Owners Association and asking for participants.

His participants are all the people who have purchased birds at his local pet store in the past six months.

He asks bird owners to give him the names of other bird owners.

Which of the following statements is true of random assignment and random sampling? a.

Random assignment is necessary for internal validity, whereas random sampling is necessary for external validity.

They both are necessary for frequency claims.

They both mean the same thing.

Random sampling is more important than random assignment.

What is the most common sampling technique in behavioral research? a.

simple random sampling

30.

31.

32.

purposive sampling

cluster sampling

convenience sampling

He contacts the Twitter followers of Dr. Oiseau, a famous biologist who studies birds.

He recruits bird owners by e-mailing members of the National Bird Owners Association and asking for participants.

His participants are all the people who have purchased birds at his local pet store in the past six months.

He asks bird owners to give him the names of other bird owners.

How are quota sampling and stratified random sampling similar? a.

Both identify subgroups that need to be studied.

Both randomly sample subgroups to be studied.

Both result in nonrepresentative samples.

Both result in representative samples.

Which of the following is true regarding interrogating frequency claims? a.

Their accuracy can usually be determined.

The chief concern is to evaluate the sampling technique.

The most important thing to consider is the size of the sample.

33.

34.

35.

36.

Frequency claims cannot be interrogated.

External validity is most important for which of the following claims? a.

frequency claims

association claims

causal claims

external validity is equally important for all claims.

Which of the following is true of a nonrepresentative sample in a research claim? a.

You should automatically disregard the claim.

You should automatically accept the claim.

You should ask whether it is relevant to what the researchers are measuring.

You should ask whether more participants are necessary.

In which of the following cases would a large sample especially be needed? a.

a study of high school students

a study of first-time homeowners

a study of people who have been to the doctor in the past year

a study of teenagers whose parents are both deployed overseas in the military

When you are interrogating the external validity of a sample, which is the most important question to ask? a.

How many people are in the sample?

37.

38.

39.

How was the sample collected?

How were the participants measured?

How many people are in the population?

Dr. Sanchez conducts a simple random sample of 500 men who became fathers for the first time in the past year. He finds that 23% of them report being unsure of their ability to be good fathers, plus or minus 4%. What does this mean? a.

The true percentage of fathers who feel this way is 23%.

If this study was done many times, the estimate of father uncertainty would be 23% about 4% of the time.

We can be 4% sure that the estimate of father uncertainty would be 23% of fathers.

If the study was done many times, the estimate of father uncertainty would be between 19% and 27%.

margin of error

sampling bias

probability value

statistical significance

40.

41.

42.

The true estimate would increase.

The margin of error would become smaller.

External validity would become less important.

Statistical validity would become negatively affected.

Which of the following is true of sample size? a.

It primarily affects external validity.

It primarily affects construct validity.

It primarily affects internal validity.

It primarily affects statistical validity.

If a sample is biased, then it is ________ the population of interest. a.

unrepresentative of

unrelated to

incorrectly compared to

unfairly applied to

Which of the following is necessary for a sample to be considered representative? a.

All members of the population must be included in the sample.

All members of the population have an equal chance of being included in the sample.

All members of the sample belong only to the population of interest.

All members of the sample are likely to provide the same data/information.

43.

44.

45.

46.

Which of the following may lead to a biased sample? a.

using people who accept compensation (e.g., money) to participate

using people who agree to participate

using people who are readily available to the researcher

using people who have participated in other research studies

What do purposive, convenience, quota, and snowball sampling have in common? a.

They are considered ethical sampling options.

They are all probability sampling techniques.

They produce large samples.

They result in samples where some people are systematically left out.

Which of the following sampling techniques would you recommend to a researcher interested in studying rare individuals, like people who have been struck by lightning? a.

snowball sampling

purposive sampling

quota sampling

convenience sampling

Why might a researcher choose purposive sampling over systematic sampling? a.

Purposive sampling is always cheaper.

External validity is not vital to the researcher’s study.

Only purposive sampling allows the researcher to study a particular type of participant.

47.

48.

49.

The researcher does not have to specify a population of interest ahead of time.

Why is the use of representative samples especially important in frequency claims? a.

Frequency claims require very large samples, and representative samples are always large.

It is unethical to make frequency claims without representative samples.

It is unlikely that the accuracy of estimates can be checked.

Representative samples allow for enhanced internal and external validity.

Research articles that use terms such as unbiased sample, random samples, or representative sample allow for readers to a.

skip interrogating statistical validity.

make a frequency claim.

reject the conclusions made by the researcher(s).

be confident in a study’s external validity.

If a study uses an unrepresentative sample, which of the following questions should you ask when assessing its external validity? a.

“Are the characteristics that make the sample biased actually relevant to what is being measured?”

“Is the sample size sufficiently large?”

“Is the study making a frequency, association, or causal claim?”

“Could the study have used a representative sample instead?”

50.

51.

52.

Studies that use nonprobability samples have ________ external validity. a.

zero

unknown

guaranteed

enhanced

Shoppers often leave reviews for products that they purchased online. Which of the following best describes the external validity of product reviews on an online shopping site? a.

The external validity is high because this is a randomly selected sample of online shoppers.

The external validity is high because online shoppers are more likely to be honest about their opinions.

The external validity is low because online shoppers are more likely to change their mind.

The external validity is low because this is a self-selected sample of online shoppers.

Which of the following is an advantage of polling organizations using Internet panels over landline panels? a.

It is easier to follow up with Internet panels and track how their opinions change over time.

Internet panels are always representative of the population of Americans.

Landline panels are biased through self-selection, while Internet panels are not.

Internet panels give more accurate responses than samples obtained through landlines.

53.

54.

55.

Professor Adeyemi is examining well-being after retirement in a city, and it is important to have excellent external validity. Professor Adeyemi selects two random numbers, 4 and 6, and gets a list of all of the retired people in the city. If Professor Adeyemi obtains the sample by starting with the 4 th person on the list and selecting every 6th person, which of the following sampling techniques is most likely being used? a.

cluster sampling

stratified random sampling

systematic sampling

quota sampling

Professor Adeyemi is examining well-being after retirement in a city, and it is important to have excellent external validity. If Professor Adeyemi obtains a sample that reflects the demographic proportions of their city, which of the following sampling techniques is most likely being used? a.

cluster sampling

stratified random sampling

systematic sampling

quota sampling

Dr. Choi is studying the extent to which Asian American mothers enforce gender roles at home. She wants to ensure that her sample includes 50 first generation, 50 second generation, and 50 third generation immigrants. If Dr. Choi obtains her particular sample by putting flyers in the local Asian grocery store, which of the following sampling techniques is she using? a.

snowball sampling

purposive sampling

quota sampling

stratified random sampling

56.

57.

58.

Which of the following is an example of convenience sampling? a.

Researchers recruited participants from online websites, such as Prolific Academic.

Researchers oversampled Latinx participants for their study and adjusted their results.

Researchers reached out to participants attending Gambler’s Anonymous meetings.

Researchers asked international college students to recommend other international students to participate in their study.

What information should you consider to examine the external validity of the claim, “Two-thirds of American college students sleep less than six hours a day”? a.

if the sample size is large enough

if random assignment was used in the study

if the study used probability sampling

if the sample includes non-American participants

You are looking to purchase a new pair of running shoes. Which of the following should you consider when looking at the Zappos.com headline “61% said this shoe felt true to size”? a.

whether the people who rated the shoe were randomly assigned to the running shoe

whether the people who rated the show were more conscientious than average

whether the people who rated the shoe had Internet access

whether the people who rated the shoe share same characteristics as others who bought the shoe

59.

60.

61.

The study that found that two-thirds of Americans had experienced at least one adverse childhood experience (ACE) did not use a random sample. What conclusion should you make about the results of the study? a.

We can generalize the results of the study to all Americans.

We can generalize the results of the study only to Americans with adverse childhood experiences.

The results are incorrect because the study did not use a random sample.

We are uncertain about the generalizability of the results.

Which of the following is correct about sample size? a.

A large sample size is more representative of the population than a small sample.

A large sample size still needs to be a random sample in order to be generalizable.

A sample size of 1,000 allows for the most statistically accurate conclusions.

A sample size of 1,000 has the optimal balance of external validity and statistical accuracy.

RESEARCH STUDY 7.2: Dr. Parrett is a sports psychologist for a large Southern university. The provost and chancellor have asked her to examine the relationship between athletic performance and academic stress at the university. For example, is it the case that the most talented athletes experience the greatest concern over their grades? The provost and chancellor have made it clear to Dr. Parrett that they want a large amount of external validity in the study. She has valid and reliable measures of both athletic performance and academic stress. She knows that she does not have the time or the money to study the entire population of interest. What is the population of interest in Dr. Parrett’s study? Will she be collecting a sample or conducting a census? Why does she need to be concerned with external validity/representativeness?

62.

RESEARCH STUDY 7.2: Dr. Parrett is a sports psychologist for a large Southern university. The provost and chancellor have asked her to examine the relationship between athletic performance and academic stress at the university. For example, is it the case that the most talented athletes experience the greatest concern over their grades? The provost and chancellor have made it clear to Dr. Parrett that they want a large amount of external validity in the study. She has valid and reliable measures of both athletic performance and academic stress. She knows that she does not have the time or the money to study the entire population of interest. Describe the three sampling problems that could lead to a biased sample for Dr. Parrett.

63.

RESEARCH STUDY 7.2: Dr. Parrett is a sports psychologist for a large Southern university. The provost and chancellor have asked her to examine the relationship between athletic performance and academic stress at the university. For example, is it the case that the most talented athletes experience the greatest concern over their grades? The provost and chancellor have made it clear to Dr. Parrett that they want a large amount of external validity in the study. She has valid and reliable measures of both athletic performance and academic stress. She knows that she does not have the time or the money to study the entire population of interest. What is the difference between a cluster technique and a multistage technique? Explain why Dr. Parrett would be advised to use a cluster or a multistage technique rather than a simple random sample.

64.

RESEARCH STUDY 7.2: Dr. Parrett is a sports psychologist for a large Southern university. The provost and chancellor have asked her to examine the relationship between athletic performance and academic stress at the university. For example, is it the case that the most talented athletes experience the greatest concern over their grades? The provost and chancellor have made it clear to Dr. Parrett that they want a large amount of external validity in the study. She has valid and reliable measures of both athletic performance and academic stress. She knows that she does not have the time or the money to study the entire population of interest. Imagine that Dr. Parrett wants to use a nonrepresentative sampling technique. Name the three types of nonprobability sampling and explain how each one could be used by Dr. Parrett.

65.

A representative sample is most necessary for which type of claim (frequency, association, or causal)? Why?

66.

Explain the two reasons nonrandom samples are sometimes acceptable.

67.

Explain why bigger samples are not always better samples.

68.

What is the difference between random sampling and random assignment?

69.

RESEARCH STUDY 7.3: Dr. Dowling is a clinical psychologist who is interested in the link between mental illness and criminal activity. She gets IRB permission to study patients at all five inpatient/residential mental health facilities in her state. There are 4,307 patients currently living in these facilities. She asks patients whether they have ever been arrested for a crime and whether they have ever been convicted of a crime. She collects a sample size of 1,369. She finds that 27% (+/–3%) report having been arrested for a crime but that only 13% (+/–3%) have been convicted of a crime. Name two populations of interest to which Dr. Dowling could reasonably generalize her findings. State which of these two populations would be more generalizable to her findings, and explain why that is the case.

70.

Choose a representative sampling technique and a biased sampling technique. Explain how Dr. Dowling would implement each of these sampling techniques.

71.

RESEARCH STUDY 7.3: Dr. Dowling is a clinical psychologist who is interested in the link between mental illness and criminal activity. She gets IRB permission to study patients at all five inpatient/residential mental health facilities in her state. There are 4,307 patients currently living in these facilities. She asks patients whether they have ever been arrested for a crime and whether they have ever been convicted of a crime. She collects a sample size of 1,369. She finds that 27% (+/–3%) report having been arrested for a crime but that only 13% (+/–3%) have been convicted of a crime. Dr. Dowling is interviewed by a journalist about the findings of her study. The journalist criticizes the sample size as being too small and says that, because of that, the findings do not really have any real-world meaning. How should Dr. Dowling respond?

72.

RESEARCH STUDY 7.3: Dr. Dowling is a clinical psychologist who is interested in the link between mental illness and criminal activity. She gets IRB permission to study patients at all five inpatient/residential mental health facilities in her state. There are 4,307 patients currently living in these facilities. She asks patients whether they have ever been arrested for a crime and whether they have ever been convicted of a crime. She collects a sample size of 1,369. She finds that 27% (+/–3%) report having been arrested for a crime but that only 13% (+/–3%) have been convicted of a crime. Dr. Dowling is interviewed by a journalist about the findings of her study. The journalist asks Dr. Dowling how many people live in all five hospitals and Dr. Dowling answers. The journalist replies that given that there are only about 4,000 people, it seems reasonable that Dr. Dowling should have studied the entire population rather than just drawing a sample for her study to really tell us something about people suffering from mental illness. How should Dr. Dowling respond?

73.

RESEARCH STUDY 7.3: Dr. Dowling is a clinical psychologist who is interested in the link between mental illness and criminal activity. She gets IRB permission to study patients at all five inpatient/residential mental health facilities in her state. There are 4,307 patients currently living in these facilities. She asks patients whether they have ever been arrested for a crime and whether they have ever been convicted of a crime. She collects a sample size of 1,369. She finds that 27% (+/–3%) report having been arrested for a crime but that only 13% (+/–3%) have been convicted of a crime. Dr. Dowling is interviewed by a journalist about the findings of her study. The journalist asks her to explain what it means that “27% of the sample (+/–3%) report having been arrested for a crime.”

74.

75.

Explain why a researcher may wish to choose snowball sampling over a representative sampling technique.

Answer Key Chapter 07

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Dr. Parrett’s population is all athletes at her university. Given that she cannot study the entire population, she will be collecting a sample (not a census). Because she is relying on a sample, she needs to make sure that her sample looks like or is similar to the population, such that whatever she says about her sample can be generalized to her population.

62. Answer:

The three problems include: (a) sampling only those athletes who are easy to contact (perhaps using the student athletes in her classes, using the student athletes who are psychology majors, using the student athletes who play on the practice field next to her office); (b) sampling only those athletes whom she can contact (perhaps using Facebook to contact the athletes when not every athlete has a Facebook page or contacting athletes using their campus phone numbers when some athletes do not live on campus); and (c) sampling only those who invite themselves (perhaps posting a flyer on campus asking for athletes to volunteer or asking coaches if they would like their athletes to be studied).

63. Answer:

A cluster technique involves breaking the population into clusters (in Dr. Parrett’s case, sports teams) and randomly sampling only some of the clusters to study (of ten sports, she randomly chooses six). From those clusters, she studies each member of the cluster. A multistage technique also involves the random selection of clusters, but instead of studying all of the members of the cluster, Dr. Parrett would then randomly select some members of each of the selected teams. Students should state that both techniques are helpful because her data exists in clusters (in this case, sports) and that a simple random sample may yield all people from one sport and not any from another. This allows at least every sport to have the chance of being included in the sample.

64. Answer:

In each response, students need to name three of the four types. The four types of nonprobability sampling are convenience sampling, purposive sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. For convenience sampling, Dr. Parrett uses athletes she has access to (perhaps those in her psychology classes or those living in an athletes-only dorm). For purposive sampling, Dr. Parrett seeks out athletes of a particular type to study (perhaps football players because they are the most highprofile). For snowball sampling, Dr. Parrett recruits a beginning group of athletes and then collects from them information on other athletes whom she can then study.

65. Answer:

A representative sample is most necessary for frequency claims because the number/frequency reported is only meaningful if it accurately represents the population it is purported to be about. If the number is based only on a sample that does not look like the population, then the number could be artificially high or low.

66. Answer:

Nonrandom samples are okay when: (a) the nonrandom sample seems not to meaningfully differ from the population it is meant to represent, and (b) the research is making a causal claim where internal validity is the priority.

67. Answer:

Bigger samples are not always better if the larger sample is not representative of the population. Having more people is good only if those people represent the population. Students may also state that 1,000 is an optimal number for a representative sample, although this alone is not the correct answer.

68. Answer:

Random sampling is used to generate a representative sample and/or is used to enhance external validity. Random assignment is used in experimental designs to make sure experimental groups are equal and/or is used to enhance internal validity.

69. Answer:

Answers may vary, and students can mention several populations of interest, such as people suffering from a mental illness, people with mental illness living in a residential facility, people with a mental illness living in her state, people living in her state, or people convicted of crimes. In each response, however, students must state which of the two populations is the better based on Dr. Dowling’s sample, and this population of interest will be the more specific of the two.

70. Answer:

Answers may vary, but in each response, students should choose an appropriate representative sampling technique (simple random sample, cluster sample, multistage sampling, systematic sample, or stratified random sample) and an appropriate biased sampling technique (convenience sample, purposive sample, self-selected sample, or snowball sample). For each one, students need to give a clear understanding of the sampling technique. For example, for cluster sampling, the student should clearly identify what the clusters are, how the clusters are sampled, and the fact that each member of the cluster is then measured. For a self-selected sample, the student may say that Dr. Dowling posts flyers around the hospitals and asks for volunteers.

71. Answer:

It appears the journalist is confusing statistical validity with external validity. Sample size is unrelated to external validity. Further, this sample size is not too small, and the journalist would be wise to focus on the margin of error and sampling technique instead.

72. Answer:

Dr. Dowling should explain that using a population rather than a sample would not necessarily increase the study’s external validity. Dr. Dowling could also say that an increase in sample size above and beyond the 1,369 that she studied is unlikely to result in a better estimate and that the margin of error would only decrease slightly from its already low 3%.

73. Answer:

Twenty-seven percent of the 1,369 participants reported being arrested for a crime. If the study was run multiple times, 95% of the time, the estimate would be between 24% and 30%.

74. Answer:

Population size: 4,307 Sample size: 1,369 Population estimate for number of arrests: 27% Population estimate for number of convictions: 13% Margin of error for each estimate: 3%

75. Answer:

Snowball sampling may be beneficial when the population of interest is rare in some way. Representative sampling techniques may not be able to find a sufficient number of people who have the condition or experience. In each response, students should be clear that snowball sampling should be used in exceptional cases.

Name: ___________________________ Class: _________________ Date: __________

Chapter 08

A study finds a correlation coefficient of r = .52. According to the guidelines for interpreting effect sizes, the magnitude of this effect is a.

very small or very weak.

small or weak.

moderate.

unusually large in psychology.

Which of the following graph formats is the best way to examine an association claim between a categorical variable and a quantitative variable? a.

a scatterplot

a line graph

a bar graph

a pie chart

When examining an association claim using a bar graph, an association is indicated by which of the following? a.

a difference in the height between the bars

the number of bars in the graph

the number of observations that make each bar

the direction of the bars

When examining an association in which one variable is categorical and one is quantitative, which of the following is most likely to be used? a.

a curvilinear association

an outlier

a scatterplot

a bar graph

While reading about a research study, which of the following would tell you that an association claim is being made? a.

one manipulated and one measured variable

two measured variables

two manipulated variables

two categorical variables

RESEARCH STUDY 8.1: Dr. Guidry conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = –.57, 95% CI [–.77, – .37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [–.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] In evaluating Dr. Guidry’s study, you question the construct validity of the study. Which of the following questions would you be asking? a.

How did Dr. Guidry recruit her participants?

Which statistic did Dr. Guidry compute?

How reliable is the measure of daily stress?

Does the number of friends cause people to experience less stress?

RESEARCH STUDY 8.1: Dr. Guidry conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = –.57, 95% CI [–.77, – .37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [–.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] According to the guidelines for interpreting effect sizes, what type of effect size has Dr. Guidry found for the association between number of friends and life satisfaction?

very small or very weak

small or weak

moderate

unusually large in psychology

Comparing all three correlations, Dr. Guidry will be able to most accurately predict life satisfaction from the experience of daily stress because the relationship

is negative.

has the largest effect size.

was reported first.

was statistically significant.

RESEARCH STUDY 8.1: Dr. Guidry conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = –.57, 95% CI [–.77, – .37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [–.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Which of the following conclusions can Dr. Guidry draw about the number of friends one has and life satisfaction based on her statistical analyses?

10.

People with more friends tend to report greater life satisfaction.

People with more friends tend to report lower life satisfaction.

Having more friends increases one’s life satisfaction,

Having more friends decreases one’s life satisfaction.

• Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = –.57, 95% CI [–.77, – .37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [–.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Which of the following best describes the 95% CI for the relationship between the number of friends and daily stress?

11.

We cannot conclude statistically that the observed association between daily stress and number of friends came from a population other than zero.

Effect size could not be calculated.

There is a statistically significant association between the two variables.

She can reliably predict a study participant’s experience of daily stress from the participant’s number of friends.

RESEARCH STUDY 8.1: Dr. Guidry conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = –.57, 95% CI [–.77, – .37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [–.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] In determining whether the relationship between two of Dr. Guidry’s variables was statistically significant, which of the following must be considered? a.

sample size and number of variables analyzed

direction of the association and strength of the association

sample size and effect size

12.

the number of outliers and the direction of the association

RESEARCH STUDY 8.1: Dr. Guidry conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = –.57, 95% CI [–.77, – .37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [–.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Dr. Guidry realizes that the women in her study have more friends than the men in her study. This might result in which of the following?

13.

outliers due to subgroups

larger effect sizes

more measured variables

spurious associations due to subgroups

RESEARCH STUDY 8.1: Dr. Guidry conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = –.57, 95% CI [–.77, – .37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [–.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Dr. Guidry creates a scatterplot of the relationship between the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. In doing so, she realizes there are three

scores that seem to be very extreme and are nowhere near the other points on the scatterplot. Specifically, it appears that three people report very high levels of daily stress and very low levels of life satisfaction. Dr. Guidry should probably consider these scores

14.

random.

moderators.

outliers.

curvilinear scores.

RESEARCH STUDY 8.1: Dr. Guidry conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = –.57, 95% CI [–.77, – .37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [–.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Dr. Guidry creates a scatterplot of the relationship between the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. In doing so, she realizes there are three scores that seem to be very extreme and are nowhere near the other points on the scatterplot. Specifically, it appears that three people report very high levels of daily stress and very low levels of life satisfaction. Which of the following statements is true? a.

These scores strengthen, but not weaken, the correlation between these two variables.

These scores are less likely to have an effect because of the large sample size.

These scores are mainly problematic when they are extreme on one of the variables.

These scores are considered a type of effect size.

15.

RESEARCH STUDY 8.1: Dr. Guidry conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings. • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = –.57, 95% CI [–.77, – .37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [–.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Dr. Guidry has decided to examine one of her relationships with a scatterplot to double-check for a curvilinear relationship. Which relationship will be most important for her to examine?

16.

life satisfaction and experience of daily stress

number of friends one has and experience of daily stress

number of friends one has and life satisfaction

life satisfaction, experiences of daily stress, and number of friends one has simultaneously

RESEARCH STUDY 8.1: Dr. Guidry conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = –.57, 95% CI [–.77, – .37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [–.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Matt, Dr. Guidry’s research assistant, is discussing the findings of the study with some other students. He claims that the experience of more daily

stress causes people to have lower life satisfaction. Which of the following causal criteria did Matt meet?

17.

the covariance of cause and effect

temporal precedence

internal validity

external validity

RESEARCH STUDY 8.1: Dr. Guidry conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = –.57, 95% CI [–.77, – .37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [–.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Dr. Guidry submits her study for publication in a scientific journal. If one of the peer reviewers is concerned about the external validity of her study, which of the following is the most important aspect of Dr. Guidry’s study to consider?

18.

the random sampling technique used to recruit the participants

the number of people in the sample

the use of three measured variables

the number of significant findings

• Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = –.57, 95% CI [–.77, – .37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [–.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Considering Dr. Guidry’s study, her results could most safely be generalized to which of the following groups?

19.

people in the southern United States

elderly people

people with a high number of friends

people with high life satisfaction

The association found in her study could probably generalize to young adults.

The association found in her study could probably generalize to elderly people in other large cities in the South.

The association found in her study could probably generalize to people living in other capital cities (e.g., Sacramento, California).

The association found in her study could probably generalize to elderly persons living in nursing homes.

20.

RESEARCH STUDY 8.1: Dr. Guidry conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = –.57, 95% CI [–.77, – .37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [–.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Dr. Guidry finds that the relationship between the number of friends one has and life satisfaction is stronger for men than for women. In this study, gender (male or female) is considered a(n)

21.

outlier.

cause.

moderator.

spurious variable.

RESEARCH STUDY 8.1: Dr. Guidry conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = –.57, 95% CI [–.77, – .37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [–.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Dr. Guidry finds that the relationship between the number of friends one has and life satisfaction is stronger for men than for women. Why might Dr. Guidry have looked for this difference?

22.

23.

24.

to examine her study’s external validity

to examine her study’s internal validity

to determine whether the association was curvilinear

to determine whether the association was spurious

Which of the following is true of 95% CIs? a.

It is necessary for establishing internal validity.

It deals with precision estimates about the population.

It involves testing effect sizes.

It is only done when you have two quantitative variables.

Which of the following is true about large effect sizes in an association claim? a.

All else being equal, there will be a greater likelihood of finding a nonstatistically significant relationship.

All else being equal, there will be greater likelihood of finding a zero in the 95% CI.

All else being equal, there will be greater likelihood of a finding being important in the real world.

All else being equal, there will be greater likelihood of establishing construct validity.

In which of the following cases might a small effect still be important? a.

when the sample is very large

when it is aggregated over many situations

when the outcome is extreme, like success or failure

when external validity is high

25.

26.

27.

28.

Which of the following is true of the relationship between effect size and statistical significance? a.

Larger effect sizes are advantageous for statistical significance.

Statistical significance alone is sufficient to indicate effect size.

An association’s effect size has no effect on statistical significance.

Effect size and statistical significance are synonymous terms.

Statistical significance depends on which of the following? a.

sample size and number of variables analyzed

direction of the association and strength of the association

sample size and effect size

number of outliers and direction of the association

Martin has found a correlation of r = .18 between the two variables of using prescription stimulants (e.g., Adderall) and frontal lobe activity. This correlation is more likely to be statistically significant if a.

the study can be applied to the real world.

Martin used a larger number of subjects.

Martin measured frontal lobe activity extremely accurately.

Martin’s measure of prescription stimulant use is categorical.

Which of the following is true about outliers? a.

They have the biggest effect when dealing with small sample sizes.

They can affect the strength, but not the direction, of an association.

They usually affect a majority of the data points.

29.

30.

31.

They are only problematic when they affect one variable and not the other.

Why are curvilinear relationships hard to detect with correlation coefficients (r)? a.

Curvilinear relationships require a large amount of scores.

r always looks for the best straight line to fit the data.

r always assumes a zero association.

r always assumes a negative relationship.

Which of the following questions is necessary to ask when interrogating statistical validity? a.

Is there a potential moderator?

Are the variables measured in a reliable way?

Is random assignment affecting the findings?

Is there a restriction of range?

For a third variable to be plausible as the explanation in an established association, which of the following must also be true? a.

The third variable must be related to both of the measured variables in the original association.

The third variable must be measured on the same scale as the original measured variables.

The third variable must be a categorical variable.

The third variable must have a positive relationship with the two measured variables in the original association.

32.

33.

34.

35.

When evaluating the external validity of an association claim, which of the following is the most important issue to consider? a.

the way the sample was selected from the population

the size of the sample

the number of subgroups

the size of the original population

If an association study did not select people for the study by using random sampling, which of the following statements is true? a.

The association should be rejected as inconclusive.

The study must be done again using the same participants.

The effect size should be considered, but tests of statistical significance should not.

The findings should be replicated in another population.

Which of the following is true of moderators? a.

They help establish a cause and effect relationship.

They decrease effect size.

They can inform external validity.

They weaken statistical significance.

What is the relationship between moderators and external validity? a.

Moderators suggest that associations may be spurious.

Moderators suggest that associations may not generalize to all subgroups of people.

Moderators are necessary for external validity to be established.

36.

37.

38.

39.

Moderators suggest that an association between two variables will extend to another variable.

A study finds a correlation coefficient of r = .52. This number gives you information about which of the following? a.

statistical significance and effect size

strength and direction of the relationship

statistical validity and external validity

type of relationship and importance

Which of the following indicates that a study used a bivariate correlational design? a.

the presence of two measured variables

the use of correlational statistics

the inclusion of quantitative variables

the depiction of a bar graph

A study finds a correlation coefficient of r = .52 and reports 95% CI [.37, .67]. The 95% CI indicates which of the following? a.

The correlation is negative.

The correlation is unlikely to have come from a zero association population.

The correlation is not statistically significant.

The effect size is large.

A study finds a correlation coefficient of r = .52 and reports 95% CI [.37, .67]. The 95% CI is a

40.

coefficient interval.

coefficient estimate.

confidence interval.

confidence estimate.

If there is very little variance on one of the variables, this is known as a.

spurious data.

an outlier effect.

restriction of range.

null effect.

41. The figure above is an example of a a.

bar graph.

line graph.

data plot.

scatterplot.

42. Imagine you calculated the correlation coefficient for the data presented in the figure, and the resulting number was r = –.44. Looking at the figure, how would you know the number you calculated is incorrect? a.

There aren’t 44 data points in the figure.

Correlation coefficients cannot be smaller than 1.

The figure depicts a positive relationship.

There wouldn’t be a way to know this.

43. Which of the following could you conclude by looking at the figure? a.

There is a causal relationship between optimism and life satisfaction.

As optimism increases, life satisfaction also increases.

The relationship between optimism and life satisfaction is negative.

More people reported being optimistic than being satisfied with life.

44. The figure above is an example of a a.

bar graph.

line graph.

data plot.

scatterplot.

45. In order to create the figure, which of the following pieces of information would you need? a.

the mean optimism scores of people who voted and people who did not vote

the correlation coefficient between voting behavior and optimism

the number of people who voted and did not vote in 2020

each individual participant’s optimism score

46. Which of the following can you conclude by looking at the figure above?

47.

48.

The number of people who voted in 2020 is larger than the number of people who did not vote in 2020.

There is an association between voting behavior in 2020 and one’s level of optimism.

Voting in 2020 caused increases in one’s level of optimism.

Optimistic people will be more likely to vote in 2022.

When interrogating the construct validity of an association claim, which of the following statements is true? a.

Quantitative variables need to be assessed, but qualitative variables do not.

The reliability of the measures is more important than their validity.

How each variable was measured must be considered.

Only the construct validity of the outcome variable needs to be interrogated.

If a person is asking whether the variables in an association claim are measured appropriately, what is being interrogated?

49.

50.

51.

construct validity

external validity

internal validity

statistical validity

The temporal precedence criterion is also known as the ________ problem. a.

third variable

covariance

association

directionality

When bivariate association claims do not meet the criteria of temporal precedence and internal validity, this means that ________ cannot be ________. a.

covariance; established

construct validity; interrogated

hypotheses; tested

causal inferences; made

Which of the following best describes the circled dot in the figure below?

52.

53.

The dot represents a single participant.

The dot represents a single outlier.

The dot represents the 95% CI.

The dot represents the effect size.

Dr. Reyes is examining whether exercise is linked to positive moods. She recruits a sample of college students and asks them to answer whether they exercised at least three times last week (yes or no) and to rate their mood in the last week (1: Not happy at all to 5: Very happy). If Dr. Reyes wants to present her data on a figure, which of the following figures should she use? a.

A scatterplot with exercise on the X-axis and mood on the Y-axis

A scatterplot with mood on the X-axis and exercise on the Y-axis

A bar graph with exercise on the X-axis and mood on the Y-axis

A bar graph with mood on the X-axis and exercise on the Y-axis

Dr. Reyes is examining whether exercise is linked to mood. She recruits a sample of college students and asks them to answer whether they exercised at least three times last week (yes or no) and to rate their mood in the last week (1: Not happy at all to 5: Very happy). Which of the following questions should Dr. Reyes ask if she is interrogating the construct validity of her study?

54.

55.

Was the manipulation of exercise conducted in a valid way?

Was there good test-retest reliability for mood in the study?

Was there good internal reliability for mood in the study?

Does the measurement of mood correlate with other measures of mood?

Dr. Reyes is examining whether exercise is linked to mood. She recruits a sample of college students and asks them to answer whether they exercised at least three times last week (yes or no) and to rate their mood in the last week (1: Not happy at all to 5: Very happy). Her results show that students who exercised in the last week also reported happier moods. Can Dr. Reyes make a causal inference from her study? Select the best explanation for the response. a.

Yes, Dr. Reyes’ study meets all three of the causal criteria.

No, Dr. Reyes’s study meets only one the three causal criteria: covariance.

No, Dr. Reyes’ study meets only one the three causal criteria: temporal precedence.

No, Dr. Reyes’s study meets only two of the three causal criteria: covariance and temporal precedence.

Dr. Tung is investigating the association between smartphone use and mindless eating. In his first study with a sample size of 25 college students, he finds r = .32. In his second study with a sample size of 100 college students, he finds r = .31. With all else equal, which of the following should Dr. Tung expect to find in terms of 95% CI in his two studies? a.

He should find that the interval is wider for his first study.

He should find that the interval is wider for his second study.

He should find that the interval contains a zero for his first study.

He should find that the interval contains a zero for his second study.

56.

57.

58.

59.

Dr. Tung is investigating the association between smartphone use and mindless eating. In his first study with a sample size of 25 college students, he finds r = .32. If Dr. Tung hopes to find that college major (education, history) is a moderator, which of the following results should he find? a.

Education majors use their smartphones more and mindlessly eat more, compared to history majors.

Smartphone use is positively linked to mindless eating for both education and history majors.

Smartphone use is positively associated with mindless eating for education majors, but not for history majors.

Education majors engage in mindless eating more than history majors because they use their smartphones more.

Which of the following does NOT depict a statistically significant association? a.

r = .26, 95% CI [–.08, .60]

r = .32, 95% CI [.03, .61]

r = -.44, 95% CI [–.32, –.56]

r = –.28, 95% CI [–.06, –.50]

Which of the following studies would benefit the most from a replication study? a.

a study with a large correlational coefficient

a study with a small sample size

a study with a large effect size

a study with a narrow confidence interval

Why is it important for researchers to replicate a study?

60.

61.

Replicating a study gives the researcher additional estimates of the association.

Replicating a study gives the researcher larger effect sizes.

Replicating a study increases the likelihood of a significant association.

Replicating a study reduces the likelihood of outliers.

Which of the following correctly explains the relationship between a moderator and a spurious association? a.

They are different: A moderator indicates the association is not spurious.

They are different: A moderator only involves one variable, while a spurious association involves both variables.

They are different: A moderator indicates that the same association exists within subgroups, while a spurious association indicates that the associations differ for subgroups.

They are the same: A moderator indicates that the association is spurious.

RESEARCH STUDY 8.2: Dr. Moynihan conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of panic attacks a person experienced in the past month, the number of nightmares experienced in the past month, and people’s levels of neuroticism (a personality trait characterized by instability, anxiety, and worry). She collects a convenience sample of 50 community college students (25 males, 25 females). Below are her findings: • A (number of panic attacks in the past month and neuroticism): r = –.03, 95% CI [–.10, .04]. • B (number of panic attacks in the past month and number of nightmares in the past month): r = –.14, 95% CI [–.22, –.60]. • C (number of nightmares in the past month and neuroticism): r = .48, 95% CI [.28, .68]. Draw a scatterplot for the three associations found by Dr. Moynihan.

62.

RESEARCH STUDY 8.2: Dr. Moynihan conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of panic attacks a person experienced in the past month, the number of nightmares experienced in the past month, and people’s levels of neuroticism (a personality trait characterized by instability, anxiety, and worry). She collects a convenience sample of 50 community college students (25 males, 25 females). Below are her findings: • A (number of panic attacks in the past month and neuroticism): r = –.03, 95% CI [–.10, .04]. • B (number of panic attacks in the past month and number of nightmares in the past month): r = –.14, 95% CI [–.22, –.60]. • C (number of nightmares in the past month and neuroticism): r = .48, 95% CI [.28, .68]. Explain the three associations from Dr. Moynihan’s study in terms of direction of each association (a) statistical significance; (b) and effect size; (c) using the guidelines for interpreting effect sizes.

63.

RESEARCH STUDY 8.2: Dr. Moynihan conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of panic attacks a person experienced in the past month, the number of nightmares experienced in the past month, and people’s levels of neuroticism (a personality trait characterized by instability, anxiety, and worry). She collects a convenience sample of 50 community college students (25 males, 25 females). Below are her findings: • A (number of panic attacks in the past month and neuroticism): r = –.03, 95% CI [–.10, .04]. • B (number of panic attacks in the past month and number of nightmares in the past month): r = –.14, 95% CI [–.22, –.60]. • C (number of nightmares in the past month and neuroticism): r = .48, 95% CI [.28, .68]. State two questions that you might ask if you were to interrogate the construct validity of Dr. Moynihan’s study.

64.

instability, anxiety, and worry). She collects a convenience sample of 50 community college students (25 males, 25 females). Below are her findings: • A (number of panic attacks in the past month and neuroticism): r = –.03, 95% CI [–.10, .04]. • B (number of panic attacks in the past month and number of nightmares in the past month): r = –.14, 95% CI [–.22, –.60]. • C (number of nightmares in the past month and neuroticism): r = .48, 95% CI [.28, .68]. Of the three findings in Dr. Moynihan’s study, which finding has the largest effect size? Name two things that having a large effect size means.

65.

RESEARCH STUDY 8.2: Dr. Moynihan conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of panic attacks a person experienced in the past month, the number of nightmares experienced in the past month, and people’s levels of neuroticism (a personality trait characterized by instability, anxiety, and worry). She collects a convenience sample of 50 community college students (25 males, 25 females). Below are her findings: • A (number of panic attacks in the past month and neuroticism): r = –.03, 95% CI [–.10, .04]. • B (number of panic attacks in the past month and number of nightmares in the past month): r = –.14, 95% CI [–.22, –.60] • C (number of nightmares in the past month and neuroticism): r = .48, 95% CI [.28, .68]. Of the three findings in Dr. Moynihan’s study, which associations are statistically significant? How do you know this from the results? What does it mean that an association is statistically significant?

66.

• B (number of panic attacks in the past month and number of nightmares in the past month): r = –.14, 95% CI [–.22, –.60]. • C (number of nightmares in the past month and neuroticism): r = .48, 95% CI [.28, .68]. What is an outlier? What aspect of Dr. Moynihan’s study makes her findings especially susceptible to outliers? Why is this a problem?

67.

RESEARCH STUDY 8.2: Dr. Moynihan conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of panic attacks a person experienced in the past month, the number of nightmares experienced in the past month, and people’s levels of neuroticism (a personality trait characterized by instability, anxiety, and worry). She collects a convenience sample of 50 community college students (25 males, 25 females). Below are her findings: • A (number of panic attacks in the past month and neuroticism): r = –.03, 95% CI [–.10, .04]. • B (number of panic attacks in the past month and number of nightmares in the past month): r = –.14, 95% CI [–.22, –.60]. • C (number of nightmares in the past month and neuroticism): r = .48, 95% CI [.28, .68]. Imagine that Dr. Moynihan finds two outliers. These two people report a very high number of nightmares in the past month and have very high scores on neuroticism. Why should Dr. Moynihan be worried about the presence of these two outliers?

68.

• C (number of nightmares in the past month and neuroticism): r = .48, 95% CI [.28, .68]. Imagine that Dr. Moynihan is concerned about curvilinear relationships. Which of the three relationships is most likely to be affected by a curvilinear relationship? How should Dr. Moynihan check for this type of relationship? Why would this be effective?

69.

RESEARCH STUDY 8.2: Dr. Moynihan conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of panic attacks a person experienced in the past month, the number of nightmares experienced in the past month, and people’s levels of neuroticism (a personality trait characterized by instability, anxiety, and worry). She collects a convenience sample of 50 community college students (25 males, 25 females). Below are her findings: • A (number of panic attacks in the past month and neuroticism): r = –.03, 95% CI [–.10, .04]. • B (number of panic attacks in the past month and number of nightmares in the past month): r = –.14, 95% CI [–.22, –.60]. • C (number of nightmares in the past month and neuroticism): r = .48, 95% CI [.28, .68]. Examining Dr. Moynihan’s study and using the three criteria of causation, why can she NOT say that the number of panic attacks in the past month causes one to have fewer nightmares in the same month?

70.

How strong is the external validity of Dr. Moynihan’s study? How does the fact that she finds no differences in the associations in men and women also speak to the study’s external validity?

71.

Draw a scatterplot for the following three associations: a. a curvilinear association b. a positive association with a large effect size c. a zero association

72.

What does it mean that an association is “spurious”? What can cause spurious associations?

73.

Explain how the type of graph you use for an association between two quantitative variables differs from the type of graph you would use for an association between a categorical variable and a quantitative variable. How would you describe the results differently between these two types of associations?

74.

Why is the size of a sample not as important to external validity as the way a sample was collected?

75.

What are the six questions that consumers of research should ask to evaluate the statistical validity of an association claim?

Answer Key Chapter 08

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Students should draw three scatterplots. Scatterplot A should show a group of dots showing no discernable pattern OR a flat vertical line with dots showing no discernable pattern OR a curvilinear relationship. Scatterplot B should show a weak negative relationship (a line pointing down, with dots loosely grouped around the line). Scatterplot C should show a strong positive relationship (a line pointing up, with dots closely grouped around the line).

62. Answer:

a. Direction of the association: A is negative, B is negative, and C is positive. b. Statistical significance: B and C are statistically significant; A is not statistically significant. c. Effect size: A has a zero association; B has a small or weak effect size; C has an effect size that is unusually large in psychology.

63. Answer:

Students should pose at least two questions that relate to the reliability of the measures or the validity of the measures. For example, one question could be: “Is the measure of neuroticism really measuring neuroticism?” Another question could be: “Are people able to reliably report on the number of nightmares experienced in the past month?”

64. Answer:

The finding that has the largest effect size is C (number of nightmares in the past month and neuroticism). Large effect sizes do at least two of the following: (a) allow us to more accurately predict the number of nightmares in the past month from people’s neuroticism scores; (b) indicate how important a finding is; (c) increase the likelihood of finding a statistically significant association between the two variables.

65. Answer:

There are two statistically significant findings: B (number of panic attacks in the past month and number of nightmares in the past month) and C (number of nightmares in the past month and neuroticism). The two statistically significant findings have 95% CI that does not include zero. Statistical significance means that the association is not likely to have come from a zero association population.

66. Answer:

Outliers are extreme scores. Dr. Moynihan should be especially worried about outliers because she is working with a fairly small sample size. Small sample sizes are a problem because the outliers can have more effect on the association.

67. Answer:

Dr. Moynihan should be worried about the presence of outliers because they may be affecting the association between these two variables. In this case, it is possible that these two scores are causing there to be a significant relationship when there is none.

68. Answer:

Relationship A (number of panic attacks in the past month and neuroticism) is most likely to be affected by a curvilinear relationship (students may also state that this is because curvilinear relationships yield nonsignificant r coefficients, but they do not have to). Dr. Moynihan should check for this type of relationship by creating a scatterplot of that association. This would be effective because it would allow her to see the curvilinear relationship, whereas an r coefficient only looks for straight lines.

69. Answer:

Dr. Moynihan is unable to establish two of the three criteria. She can establish criterion 1— the two variables do covary. She cannot establish temporal precedence, as both variables were measured in the past month (so they are co-occurring). She also cannot establish internal validity because (a) neither variable was manipulated and (b) a third variable could be causing both variables.

70. Answer:

In each response, students should question the external validity of her study because of the convenience sampling method used to collect her sample. Students may also question the sample size; however, if this is the only issue they state, it is not sufficient, as sample size is less important than sampling method. The lack of a moderating effect of gender suggests that her findings may apply equally to men and women.

71. Answer:

Students should draw three scatterplots. Scatterplot A should show a curvilinear relationship (either a U relationship or an inverted U relationship). Scatterplot B should show a steep line pointed upward, with dots closely grouped around the line. Scatterplot C should show a group of dots showing no discernable pattern, OR a flat vertical line with dots showing no discernable pattern, OR a curvilinear relationship.

72. Answer:

An association is spurious when it is attributable only to the mean differences in subgroups within the sample. Spurious correlations make it look like there is an association between two variables when there is none. Spurious associations can be caused by subgroups.

73. Answer:

A scatterplot should be used when the association is between two quantitative variables and would be described using direction and strength of the correlation. A bar graph should be used when one of the variables is categorical and one variable is quantitative and would be described using the difference between group averages.

74. Answer:

Although large sample sizes are good, findings of research studies can be generalized to others only if the sample closely matches the population of interest. A large sample that is poorly sampled is not as good as a small sample that is well sampled in terms of external validity.

75. Answer:

1. How strong is the relationship? 2. How precise is the estimate? 3. Has it been replicated? 4. Could outliers be affecting the association? 5. Is there a restriction of range? 6. Is the association curvilinear?

Name: ___________________________ Class: _________________ Date: __________

Chapter 09

Which of the following studies is an example of a longitudinal design? a.

Dr. Finn’s study in which he measured job commitment in a group of Japanese factory workers and in a group of Mexican factory workers

Dr. Stabler’s study in which he measured people’s frequency of playing video games in ninth grade and their aggressive behaviors in 12th grade

Dr. Benson’s study in which she measured people’s spatial manipulation ability in August and measured their ability again in May after they had taken two semesters of art classes

Dr. Tutola’s study in which he measured the daily stress of a group of married men and the daily happiness of their spouses

Which of the following is a necessary component of a longitudinal design? a.

measuring the same variables at two points in time

measuring at least four variables at one time

measuring different age groups at two different times

manipulating a variable at two points in time

________ can be examined in both simple bivariate designs and longitudinal designs. a.

Autocorrelation

Cross-sectional correlation

Cross-lag correlation

Sequential correlation

When conducting longitudinal research, researchers typically find ________ to be the most interesting. a.

autocorrelations

cross-sectional correlations

cross-lag correlations

multivariate correlations

Cross-lag correlations are NOT helpful for answering/addressing which rule of causation? a.

Rule of covariance: Is there covariance?

Rule of temporal precedence: Is there temporal precedence?

Are there third variables that could explain the relationship?

Rule of parsimony

RESEARCH STUDY 9.1: Dr. Farah is an educational psychologist who is interested in studying the potential causal relationship between doing homework and academic achievement. In January, Dr. Farah has her students report their fall GPA (a measure of academic achievement) and estimate how many hours they spent doing homework during a typical week in the fall semester. In May, Dr. Farah measures the same variables again (the estimated number of hours spent doing homework during a typical week in the spring semester and their spring GPA). She finds the following correlations: Variable A

Variable B

Correlation Fall number of Fall semester GPA 1 hours of homework

Correlation Coefficient .83*

Correlation Fall number of Spring number of 2 hours of homework hours of homework

.36*

Correlation Fall number of Spring semester 3 hours of homework GPA

.69*

Correlation Spring number of Fall semester GPA 4 hours of homework

.18

Correlation Fall semester GPA 5

Spring semester GPA

.45*

Correlation Spring number of Spring semester 6 hours of homework GPA

.80* *Indicates a statistically significant relationship.

What type of study design is Dr. Farah using?

quasi-experimental design

bivariate correlational design

multiple regression design

longitudinal design

estimate how many hours they spent doing homework during a typical week in the fall semester. In May, Dr. Farah measures the same variables again (the estimated number of hours spent doing homework during a typical week in the spring semester and their spring GPA). She finds the following correlations: Variable A

Variable B

Correlation Coefficient

Correlation Fall number of Fall semester GPA 1 hours of homework

.83*

Correlation Fall number of Spring number of 2 hours of homework hours of homework

.36*

Correlation Fall number of Spring semester 3 hours of homework GPA

.69*

Correlation Spring number of Fall semester GPA 4 hours of homework

.18

Correlation Fall semester GPA 5

Spring semester GPA

.45*

Correlation Spring number of Spring semester 6 hours of homework GPA

.80* *Indicates a statistically significant relationship.

In considering the three criteria for causation, which of the following questions will Dr. Farah’s study NOT be able to address? a.

Is there covariance?

Is there temporal precedence?

Are there third variables that could explain the relationship?

Do the rules make intuitive sense?

Variable B

Correlation Coefficient

Correlation Fall number of Fall semester GPA 1 hours of homework

.83*

Correlation Fall number of Spring number of 2 hours of homework hours of homework

.36*

Correlation Fall number of Spring semester 3 hours of homework GPA

.69*

Correlation Spring number of Fall semester GPA 4 hours of homework

.18

Correlation Fall semester GPA 5

Spring semester GPA

.45*

Correlation Spring number of Spring semester 6 hours of homework GPA

.80* *Indicates a statistically significant relationship.

Which of the correlations is an autocorrelation?

Correlation 1

Correlation 2

Correlation 4

Correlation 6

Variable B

Correlation Coefficient

Correlation Fall number of Fall semester GPA 1 hours of homework

.83*

Correlation Fall number of Spring number of 2 hours of homework hours of homework

.36*

Correlation Fall number of Spring semester 3 hours of homework GPA

.69*

Correlation Spring number of Fall semester GPA 4 hours of homework

.18

Correlation Fall semester GPA 5

Spring semester GPA

.45*

Correlation Spring number of Spring semester 6 hours of homework GPA

.80* *Indicates a statistically significant relationship.

Of the correlations listed in the table, how many are autocorrelations?

10.

two

three

four

five

Variable A

Variable B

Correlation Coefficient

Correlation Fall number of Fall semester GPA 1 hours of homework

.83*

Correlation Fall number of Spring number of 2 hours of homework hours of homework

.36*

Correlation Fall number of 3 hours of homework

Spring semester GPA

.69*

Correlation Spring number of Fall semester GPA 4 hours of homework

.18

Correlation Fall semester GPA 5

Spring semester GPA

.45*

Correlation Spring number of 6 hours of homework

Spring semester GPD

.80* *Indicates a statistically significant relationship

Which of the following correlations is a cross-sectional correlation? a.

Correlation 3

Correlation 4

Correlation 5

Correlation 6

11.

Variable B

Correlation Coefficient

Correlation Fall number of Fall semester GPA 1 hours of homework

.83*

Correlation Fall number of Spring number of 2 hours of homework hours of homework

.36*

Correlation Fall number of Spring semester 3 hours of homework GPA

.69*

Correlation Spring number of Fall semester GPA 4 hours of homework

.18

Correlation Fall semester GPA 5

Spring semester GPA

.45*

Correlation Spring number of Spring semester 6 hours of homework GPA

.80* *Indicates a statistically significant relationship.

Of the correlations listed, how many are cross-sectional correlations?

12.

one

two

three

four

Variable B

Correlation Coefficient

Correlation Fall number of Fall semester GPA 1 hours of homework

.83*

Correlation Fall number of Spring number of 2 hours of homework hours of homework

.36*

Correlation Fall number of Spring semester 3 hours of homework GPA

.69*

Correlation Spring number of Fall semester GPA 4 hours of homework

.18

Correlation Fall semester GPA 5

Spring semester GPA

.45*

Correlation Spring number of Spring semester 6 hours of homework GPA

.80* *Indicates a statistically significant relationship.

Which of the following correlations is a cross-lag correlation?

13.

both Correlations 1 and 6

both Correlations 2 and 5

both Correlations 3 and 4

both Correlations 3 and 5

Variable A

Variable B

Correlation Coefficient

Correlation Fall number of Fall semester GPA 1 hours of homework

.83*

Correlation Fall number of Spring number of 2 hours of homework hours of homework

.36*

Correlation Fall number of Spring semester 3 hours of homework GPA

.69*

Correlation Spring number of Fall semester GPA 4 hours of homework

.18

Correlation Fall semester GPA 5

Spring semester GPA

.45*

Correlation Spring number of Spring semester 6 hours of homework GPA

.80* *Indicates a statistically significant relationship.

Correlation 4 is an example of which of the following types of correlations? a.

autocorrelation

multivariate correlation

cross-sectional correlation

cross-lag correlation

14.

Variable B

Correlation Coefficient

Correlation Fall number of Fall semester GPA 1 hours of homework

.83*

Correlation Fall number of Spring number of 2 hours of homework hours of homework

.36*

Correlation Fall number of Spring semester 3 hours of homework GPA

.69*

Correlation Spring number of Fall semester GPA 4 hours of homework

.18

Correlation Fall semester GPA 5

Spring semester GPA

.45*

Correlation Spring number of Spring semester 6 hours of homework GPA

.80* *Indicates a statistically significant relationship.

Correlation 1 is an example of which of the following types of correlations?

15.

autocorrelation

multivariate correlation

cross-sectional correlation

cross-lag correlation

Variable B

Correlation Coefficient

Correlation Fall number of Fall semester GPA 1 hours of homework

.83*

Correlation Fall number of Spring number of 2 hours of homework hours of homework

.36*

Correlation Fall number of Spring semester 3 hours of homework GPA

.69*

Correlation Spring number of Fall semester GPA 4 hours of homework

.18

Correlation Fall semester GPA 5

Spring semester GPA

.45*

Correlation Spring number of Spring semester 6 hours of homework GPA

.80* *Indicates a statistically significant relationship.

Correlation 5 is an example of which of the following types of correlations?

16.

autocorrelation

multivariate correlation

cross-sectional correlation

cross-lag correlation

Variable A

Variable B

Correlation Coefficient

Correlation Fall number of Fall semester GPA 1 hours of homework

.83*

Correlation Fall number of Spring number of 2 hours of homework hours of homework

.36*

Correlation Fall number of Spring semester 3 hours of homework GPA

.69*

Correlation Spring number of Fall semester GPA 4 hours of homework

.18

Correlation Fall semester GPA 5

Spring semester GPA

.45*

Correlation Spring number of Spring semester 6 hours of homework GPA

.80* *Indicates a statistically significant relationship.

Based on her pattern of correlations, which of the following can Dr. Farah safely conclude? a.

Because Correlation 3 is significant but Correlation 4 is not, Dr. Farah has evidence that increased homework comes before academic achievement.

Because not all the correlations are significant, Dr. Farah has no evidence that increased homework comes before academic achievement.

17.

Because Correlations 2 and 3 are significant, Dr. Farah has evidence that increased homework comes before academic achievement.

Because Correlation 4 is stronger than Correlation 5, Dr. Farah has no evidence that increased homework comes before academic achievement.

Variable B

Correlation Coefficient

Correlation Fall number of Fall semester GPA 1 hours of homework

.83*

Correlation Fall number of Spring number of 2 hours of homework hours of homework

.36*

Correlation Fall number of Spring semester 3 hours of homework GPA

.69*

Correlation Spring number of Fall semester GPA 4 hours of homework

.18

Correlation Fall semester GPA 5

Spring semester GPA

.45*

Correlation Spring number of Spring semester 6 hours of homework GPA

.80* *Indicates a statistically significant relationship.

For Dr. Farah to make the claim that homework causes academic achievement, which correlation does she predict will NOT be significant?

18.

Correlation 1

Correlation 2

Correlation 3

Correlation 4

Variable B

Correlation Coefficient

Correlation Fall number of Fall semester GPA 1 hours of homework

.83*

Correlation Fall number of Spring number of 2 hours of homework hours of homework

.36*

Correlation Fall number of Spring semester 3 hours of homework GPA

.69*

Correlation Spring number of Fall semester GPA 4 hours of homework

.18

Correlation Fall semester GPA 5

Spring semester GPA

.45*

Correlation Spring number of Spring semester 6 hours of homework GPA

.80* *Indicates a statistically significant relationship.

Imagine that Dr. Farah noted a cyclical, reinforcing relationship between homework and academic achievement. For this to be case, which of the following correlations would need to be significant?

19.

Correlations 1 and 6

Correlations 2 and 5

Correlations 3 and 4

Correlations 2 and 3

week in the spring semester and their spring GPA). She finds the following correlations: Variable A

Variable B

Correlation Coefficient

Correlation Fall number of Fall semester GPA 1 hours of homework

.83*

Correlation Fall number of Spring number of 2 hours of homework hours of homework

.36*

Correlation Fall number of Spring semester 3 hours of homework GPA

.69*

Correlation Spring number of Fall semester GPA 4 hours of homework

.18

Correlation Fall semester GPA 5

Spring semester GPA

.45*

Correlation Spring number of Spring semester 6 hours of homework GPA

.80* *Indicates a statistically significant relationship.

A colleague of Dr. Farah’s questions the internal validity of her causal claim. He is curious as to whether the relationship between homework and academic achievement could be explained by interest in one’s classes. Specifically, he thinks that students who are interested in their classes will both do more homework and have higher GPAs. Which of the following is a solution to this possible threat to internal validity?

20.

Dr. Farah should replicate her study.

Dr. Farah should also measure students’ interest in their class.

Dr. Farah should measure students’ interest in their class instead of time spent doing homework.

Dr. Farah should measure students’ interest in their class instead of GPA.

Variable B

Correlation Coefficient

Correlation Fall number of Fall semester GPA 1 hours of homework

.83*

Correlation Fall number of Spring number of 2 hours of homework hours of homework

.36*

Correlation Fall number of Spring semester 3 hours of homework GPA

.69*

Correlation Spring number of Fall semester GPA 4 hours of homework

.18

Correlation Fall semester GPA 5

Spring semester GPA

.45*

Correlation Spring number of Spring semester 6 hours of homework GPA

.80* *Indicates a statistically

significant relationship.

A colleague of Dr. Farah’s asks her why she did not simply conduct an experiment. Which of the following is a probable reason for Dr. Farah’s choice not to conduct an experiment?

21.

22.

It would be impossible to manipulate hours of homework completed.

It would be too expensive to run an experiment.

It would be unethical to manipulate whether students are told to do homework for a semester.

It would take longer to conduct an experiment.

In understanding “controlling for” a third variable, which of the following is a similar concept? a.

creating a longitudinal study

identifying subgroups

creating an operational definition

conducting a replication

Which popular media headline might suggest that a multiple regression has been used? a.

“Pet ownership is an important predictor of well-being in elderly adults.”

23.

24.

25.

“Daughters are happier when their mothers are happy working outside the home.”

“Eating lunch away from your desk is associated with greater work productivity.”

“Vacations are important for happiness, even when length of vacation is controlled for.”

Which popular media headline does NOT suggest that a multiple regression has been used? a.

“Dog ownership decreases stress.”

“After taking into account job experience, people who are happier with their jobs report greater productivity.”

“After correcting for several factors that affect memory, including intelligence, researchers found that people who read more frequently remember 12% more about a crime scene than those who don’t read frequently.”

“The link between traumatic experience and the development of anxiety symptoms existed even when controlling for the effect of parental anxiety.”

In a multiple regression design, ________ variable is to dependent variable as ________ variable is to independent variable. a.

criterion; predictor

manipulated; measured

control; mediator

bivariate; multivariate

All of the following are true of betas and correlation coefficients EXCEPT a.

betas describe the relationship between two variables exactly as correlations coefficients do.

26.

27.

both betas and correlation coefficients can tell you something about the strength of a relationship.

both betas and correlation coefficients can tell you something about the direction of a relationship.

betas from an analysis can be compared with other beta coefficients from the same analysis just as correlation coefficients can.

Which of the following is a reason why multiple regression designs are inferior to experimental designs? a.

They can only control for third variables that are measured.

They cannot establish covariance.

They take longer to conduct.

They are more expensive to conduct.

RESEARCH STUDY 9.2: Dr. Finkel is a social psychologist who studies romantic relationships. Several researchers have found that there is a link between income and marital satisfaction (e.g., Dakin & Wampler, 2012). Dr. Finkel is curious as to whether there is a causal link between the two variables, such that having a higher income causes higher levels of marital satisfaction. He is confident that he cannot reasonably or ethically manipulate people’s income level, so he decides to use a multivariate design. He is also curious as to whether there is a causal link between these two variables or if two other variables (number of arguments and life satisfaction) can explain the relationship. He measures his three variables in a sample of 124 married couples recruited from a local community center. Below are his results: DV: Marital Satisfaction Variable

Beta (b) Significance (p)

Income

.69

.03

Number of arguments

–.73

.01

Life satisfaction

.13

.81

Given Dr. Finkel’s design, which of the following issues is his study best able to address?

28.

the ethical issue of manipulating income level

the issue of temporal precedence between his two variables

the issue of possible third variables

the issue of diminished statistical validity

Beta (b) Significance (p)

Income

.69

.03

Number of arguments

–.73

.01

Life satisfaction

.13

.81

Which of the following is NOT a predictor variable in Dr. Finkel’s study? a.

marital satisfaction

life satisfaction

29.

income

number of arguments

Beta (b) Significance (p)

Income

.69

.03

Number of arguments

–.73

.01

Life satisfaction

.13

.81

Which of the following can be concluded based on the results of Dr. Finkel’s study? a.

As the number of arguments a couple has increases, their marital satisfaction increases as well, controlling for income but not life satisfaction.

The relationship between life satisfaction and marital satisfaction has the weakest effect size of all of the results.

The beta for the relationship between life satisfaction and marital satisfaction is significantly different than zero.

Income is a stronger predictor of martial satisfaction than either the number of arguments or life satisfaction.

30.

Beta (b) Significance (p)

Income

.69

.03

Number of arguments

–.73

.01

Life satisfaction

.13

.81

One of Dr. Finkel’s colleagues argues that he should have considered years of marriage in his study, which is a known predictor of marital satisfaction. If Dr. Finkel conducts his study again and asks people to report on how many years they have been married as well, which of the following statements is true?

31.

The beta value for number of arguments may no longer be statistically significant.

The beta value for number of arguments will remain unchanged.

He will need to add another criterion variable.

He will need to delete a predictor variable.

Finkel is curious as to whether there is a causal link between the two variables, such that having a higher income causes higher levels of marital satisfaction. He is confident that he cannot reasonably or ethically manipulate people’s income level, so he decides to use a multivariate design. He is also curious as to whether there is a causal link between these two variables or if two other variables (number of arguments and life satisfaction) can explain the relationship. He measures his three variables in a sample of 124 married couples recruited from a local community center. Below are his results: DV: Marital Satisfaction Variable

Beta (b) Significance (p)

Income

.69

.03

Number of arguments

–.73

.01

Life satisfaction

.13

.81

Which of the following is a criterion variable in Dr. Finkel’s study?

32.

marital satisfaction

life satisfaction

income

number of arguments

A researcher has examined a variety of correlational studies that point to a causal relationship between two variables. All of the studies have found a positive relationship between the two variables, but for ethical reasons, no experiments have been conducted. Using an approach of pattern and parsimony, the researcher may begin to make a causal claim by doing which of the following? a.

running another correlational study but with more people

specifying a mechanism or explanation for the causal relationship

examining the dates of the studies to look for temporal precedence

replicating all of the original studies

33.

34.

35.

The pattern and parsimony approach to causation is a good example of which cycle in research? a.

journal-journalism cycle

basic-applied cycle

theory-data cycle

peer-review cycle

Which of the following is NOT true of third variables and mediating variables? a.

Third variables are external to the causal variable, but mediating variables are internal to the causal variable.

Third variables are considered nuisances, but mediating variables are not.

Third variables can be detected using multiple regression techniques, but mediating variables cannot.

Third variables are not usually of central interest to researchers, but mediating variables are.

RESEARCH STUDY 9.3: Dr. Cheong is a clinical psychologist who is curious about how people deal with natural disasters (e.g., hurricanes, tornados, earthquakes). His previous research suggests that there is a relationship between how much people feel their emotional well-being was affected by the natural disaster and their likelihood of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. However, he is curious as to whether the effect of emotional well-being occurs because people receive different levels of social support. He conducts a study in which he asks 174 men and women affected by Hurricane Sandy (2012) to report on how their well-being was affected by the hurricane, the social support felt after the storm, and the number of PTSD symptoms. Dr. Cheong finds support for his proposed relationship. However, in examining his data more closely, he finds that the relationship between emotional well-being and PTSD symptoms is stronger for men than for women.

Which of the following is the mediating variable in Dr. Cheong’s hypothesis?

36.

37.

emotional well-being

PTSD symptoms

social support

participant gender

participant gender is a moderating variable.

participant gender is a mediating variable.

emotional well-being is a moderating variable.

emotional well-being is a mediating variable.

Which of the following is true of multiple regression? a.

It can control for all third variables, including those that are not measured.

38.

39.

40.

Adding more predictors means research is controlling for more variables.

There is a limit to the number of predictors that can be statistically significant.

There is a limit to the number of predictors that can be included in a regression.

Why is the statistical validity of a multiple regression design more complicated to analyze than a bivariate design? a.

Statistical significance of associations cannot be determined.

Betas and rs share no similarities.

These designs require both a predictor and criterion variable.

It is harder to detect outliers.

If a researcher is asking why the relationship between two variables exists, they are curious about which of the following? a.

moderation

mediation

third variables

controlling variables

Which of the following research questions is an example of a mediation? a.

Does the use of humor by teachers have a different effect on stress levels in boys and girls?

Is the relationship between socioeconomic status and substance use different in adolescents with responsive parents versus adolescents with rejecting parents?

41.

42.

43.

Is the association between anxiety and self-esteem in children impacted by whether or not the child has Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder?

Is the relationship between peer rejection and symptoms of depression in adolescence influenced by the amount of time spent using social media?

Why would a researcher interested in making a causal claim NOT do an experiment? a.

Experiments are very expensive, and the researcher might not have grant funding.

There may be ethical limitations of manipulating a variable.

Laboratory space is required for experiments, and the researcher might not have a lab.

Experiments take longer to do than other types of studies.

If an experiment cannot be done for practical or ethical reasons related to manipulating the variable of interest, which of the following events should happen? a.

The study should not be conducted at all.

The researchers should wait until the experiment can be done.

A longitudinal correlational design could be done instead.

The IRB can grant a waiver of review to conduct the study anyway.

A criterion variable is also known as a(n) ________ variable. a.

predictor

independent

control

44.

45.

46.

47.

dependent

Which of the following symbols would indicate that you are reading results from a multiple-regression analysis? a.

Adding several variables to a regression analysis can help do which of the following? a.

increase the statistical significance of the results

control for several variables at once

increase the construct validity of a study

meet the temporal precedence criterion for causal inference

The degree to which a good scientific theory provides the simplest explanation of some phenomenon is known as a.

minimalism.

pretentiousness.

parsimony.

density.

Such topics as the link between media and aggression and smoking and lung cancer have been studied with a variety of methods and by a variety of

researchers and have all reached similar conclusions. This is an example of which of the following?

48.

49.

50.

hypothesis generation

third variable problems

multiple-regression designs

pattern and parsimony

Why is it problematic when journalists report only on a single study? a.

It can make journalists look bad.

It can lead people to think journalists are scientists.

It can lead people to value one study over decades of previous research.

It can cause people to interrogate a study’s validities.

Why should journalists report on the previous body of research when writing about a newly published scientific study? a.

to highlight pattern and parsimony in scientific research

to demonstrate that they have a background in science

to make it easier for their readers to determine that the story is credible

to prove to their editors that readers will be interested in the story

When examining the results of a multiple regression, which of the following should be compared to determine which predictor variables have the largest relationship to the criterion variable? a.

b values

beta values

significance values

51.

52.

53.

effect sizes

Studies that use the longitudinal, multiple-regression approach or the pattern and parsimony approach have what in common? a.

They study changes over time.

They involve more than two measured variables.

They assess cross-lag correlations

They can never establish causation.

Jennifer is a developmental psychologist who studies changes over time in intelligence by studying the same people at ages 16, 22, and 30. What type of research design is she using? a.

cross-sectional

autocorrelational

longitudinal

cross-lag correlations

Stefania studies developmental changes in aggression in children using a longitudinal design. She assesses aggression annually starting at age 3 and continues until the children are 5 years old. She finds that aggression levels at age 3 are correlated with aggression levels at age 4 and that aggression at age 4 is correlated with aggression at 5. What are these examples of? a.

cross-sectional correlations

cross-lag correlations

multivariate correlations

autocorrelations

54.

55.

56.

57.

Sruthi studies the association between maternal alcohol use during pregnancy and focused attention in infants. She finds that mothers who drink more alcohol also smoke more cigarettes and have less nutritious diets during pregnancy. All three of these variables are associated with focused attention during infancy. Which of the following is true of this study? a.

Temporal precedence cannot be established between predictor and criterion variables.

The autocorrelations suggest that there is a third variable that is unaccounted for.

The study has multiple predictor variables that may explain levels of the criterion variable.

She cannot establish covariance in any of her variables.

A regression table in an empirical journal article includes columns for betas and p values. What can you determine from p values that are less than .05? a.

The 95% CI for that beta does not contain zero.

The 95% CI for that beta is not significant.

The 95% CI for that beta contains zero.

The 95% CI for that beta indicates a positive association.

Which of the following is most likely to be included in popular media articles describing a study that used multiple regression? a.

A table with the betas and their confidence intervals.

A list of the specific predictor variables used.

The phrase “controlled for” when describing the findings.

A list of the specific criterion variables used.

Parsimony is the a.

statistical control of potential third variables.

58.

59.

60.

statement of a causal claim using multiple regression.

use of longitudinal studies to investigate causal claims.

simplest explanation of a pattern of data.

A variable that explains the association between two other variables when the condition of temporal precedence has been established is a(n) a.

mediator.

moderator.

predictor.

criterion.

An industrial-organizational psychologist is interested in exploring whether the relationship between group cohesion and productivity in the workplace is influenced by gender. What is the moderator variable in this example? a.

group cohesion

productivity

gender

type of workplace

A sports psychologist is interested in explaining whether motivation is related to performance because of previous athletic experience. What type of variable is previous athletic experience in this example? a.

predictor

criterion

mediator

moderator

61.

RESEARCH STUDY 9.4: Dr. O’Toole is a counseling psychologist who researches family dynamics. She is curious as to whether there is a causal link between the amount of time families spend together on vacation and children’s happiness. More specifically, she thinks that spending more time together as a family on vacation causes children to be happier. She designs a study where she samples 63 single-child families in December 2016 and measures how many days the family spent on vacation in the past year as well as the child’s happiness. She then contacts the same families in December 2020 and measures those two variables again. The results of her study are below. Variable A

Variable B

Correlation 1 2016 vacation days 2016 child happiness Correlation 2 2020 vacation days 2020 child happiness Correlation 3 2016 vacation days

2020 vacation days

Correlation 4 2016 child happiness 2020 child happiness Correlation 5 2016 vacation days 2020 child happiness Correlation 6 2016 child happiness 2020 vacation days

Describe what makes Dr. O’Toole’s study (1) a longitudinal study and (2) a multivariate correlational study.

62.

together as a family on vacation causes children to be happier. She designs a study where she samples 63 single-child families in December 2016 and measures how many days the family spent on vacation in the past year as well as the child’s happiness. She then contacts the same families in December 2020 and measures those two variables again. The results of her study are below. Variable A

Variable B

Correlation 1 2016 vacation days 2016 child happiness Correlation 2 2020 vacation days 2020 child happiness Correlation 3 2016 vacation days

2020 vacation days

Correlation 4 2016 child happiness 2020 child happiness Correlation 5 2016 vacation days 2020 child happiness Correlation 6 2016 child happiness 2020 vacation days

There are three types of correlations discussed in longitudinal designs. From Dr. O’Toole’s study, provide an example of each of the following: a cross-sectional correlation, an autocorrelation, and a cross-lag correlation. Make sure you use the variable names and not just the correlation numbers (e.g., the correlation between 2016 vacation days and 2016 child happiness).

63.

a study where she samples 63 single-child families in December 2016 and measures how many days the family spent on vacation in the past year as well as the child’s happiness. She then contacts the same families in December 2020 and measures those two variables again. The results of her study are below. Variable A

Variable B

Correlation 1 2016 vacation days 2016 child happiness Correlation 2 2020 vacation days 2020 child happiness Correlation 3 2016 vacation days

2020 vacation days

Correlation 4 2016 child happiness 2020 child happiness Correlation 5 2016 vacation days 2020 child happiness Correlation 6 2016 child happiness 2020 vacation days

There are three possible causal patterns that can be found in a study like Dr. O’Toole’s. Choose one causal pattern and explain which correlations need to be significant, which ones should not be significant, and what type of causal claim can be made. Make sure you use the variable names and not just the correlation numbers (e.g., Correlation 1).

64.

Explain why longitudinal designs can help researchers make causal statements. If a researcher is hoping to make a causal statement, why would a researcher use a longitudinal design instead of an experimental design?

65.

How do multiple regression designs help rule out third variables?

66.

RESEARCH STUDY 9.5: Dr. Nguyen is a psychologist who studies legal decision making. Specifically, he is curious about the factors that are irrelevant to the crime committed that influence the sentences juries give to defendants (known as extra-legal factors). To study this further, he samples a group of jury-eligible adults from the Memphis area. He provides them with the fact pattern to a particular case and allows them to watch the closing statements from the trial. He then asks them to provide a sentence (in months) for the defendant. In addition, he measures two legal factors (the number of arguments made by the prosecuting attorney and the length of time the defense attorney speaks during his or her closing argument) and two extra-legal factors (how attractive the participants think the defendant is [higher scores indicate higher ratings of attractiveness] and how many legal television shows the participants watch). The data are below. DV: Length of Sentence Provided Variable

b (beta)

Significance (p)

Number of arguments made by the prosecuting attorney

.49

.12

Length of the defense attorney’s closing argument

1.63

.02

Attractiveness of the defendant

–2.54

.04

Number of legal television shows watched

–.19

.39

List the predictor and dependent/criterion variables in Dr. Nguyen’s study.

67.

two extra-legal factors (how attractive the participants think the defendant is [higher scores indicate higher ratings of attractiveness] and how many legal televisions shows the participants watch). The data are below. DV: Length of Sentence Provided Variable

b (beta)

Significance (p)

Number of arguments made by the prosecuting attorney

.49

.12

Length of the defense attorney’s closing argument

1.63

.02

Attractiveness of the defendant

–2.54

.04

Number of legal television shows watched

–.19

.39

Explain whether Dr. Nguyen is correct in thinking that extra-legal factors are more important in legal decision making than legal factors.

68.

RESEARCH STUDY 9.5: Dr. Nguyen is a psychologist who studies legal decision making. Specifically, he is curious about the factors that are irrelevant to the crime committed that influence the sentences juries give to defendants (known as extra-legal factors). To study this further, he samples a group of jury-eligible adults from the Memphis area. He provides them with the fact pattern to a particular case and allows them to watch the closing statements from the trial. He then asks them to provide a sentence (in months) for the defendant. In addition, he measures two legal factors (the number of arguments made by the prosecuting attorney and the length of time the defense attorney speaks during his or her closing argument) and two extra-legal factors (how attractive the participants think the defendant is [higher scores indicate higher ratings of attractiveness] and how many legal televisions shows the participants watch). The data are below. DV: Length of Sentence Provided Variable

b (beta)

Significance (p)

Number of arguments made by the prosecuting attorney

.49

.12

Length of the defense attorney’s closing argument

1.63

.02

Attractiveness of the defendant

–2.54

.04

Number of legal television shows watched

–.19

.39

Choose one of the variables in Dr. Nguyen’s study. Explain how this variable relates to criminal sentencing, considering direction of the effect, statistical significance, and strength of relationship compared with the other variables.

69.

RESEARCH STUDY 9.5: Dr. Nguyen is a psychologist who studies legal decision making. Specifically, he is curious about the factors that are irrelevant to the crime committed that influence the sentences juries give to defendants (known as extra-legal factors). To study this further, he samples a group of jury-eligible adults from the Memphis area. He provides them with the fact pattern to a particular case and allows them to watch the closing statements from the trial. He then asks them to provide a sentence (in months) for the defendant. In addition, he measures two legal factors (the number of arguments made by the prosecuting attorney and the length of time the defense attorney speaks during his or her closing argument) and two extra-legal factors (how attractive the participants think the defendant is [higher scores indicate higher ratings of attractiveness] and how many legal televisions shows the participants watch). The data are below. DV: Length of Sentence Provided Variable

b (beta)

Significance (p)

Number of arguments made by the prosecuting attorney

.49

.12

Length of the defense attorney’s closing argument

1.63

.02

Attractiveness of the defendant

–2.54

.04

Number of legal television shows watched

–.19

.39

Explain whether Dr. Nguyen could conduct an experiment instead of a multiple regression design. Regardless, why would an experiment be better than his current study?

70.

Explain the value of pattern and parsimony in attempting to establish causal links in correlational findings.

71.

Name two consequences of journalists reporting on single studies rather than reporting on patterns of data.

72.

RESEARCH STUDY 9.6: Dr. Cheong is a clinical psychologist who is curious about how people deal with natural disasters (e.g., hurricanes, tornados, earthquakes). His previous research suggests that there is a relationship between how much people feel their emotional well-being was affected by the natural disaster and their likelihood of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. However, he is curious as to whether the effect of emotional well-being occurs because people receive different levels of social support. He conducts a study in which he asks 174 men and women affected by Hurricane Sandy (2012) to report on how their well-being was affected by the hurricane, the social support felt after the storm, and the number of PTSD symptoms. Dr. Cheong finds support for his proposed relationship. However, in examining his data more closely, he finds that the relationship between emotional well-being and PTSD symptoms is stronger for men than for women. State Dr. Cheong’s hypothesis and sketch a diagram of this hypothesized relationship.

73.

Give one example of both a mediational hypothesis and a moderation hypothesis. Include diagrams of each hypothesis.

74.

different levels of social support. He conducts a study in which he asks 174 men and women affected by Hurricane Sandy (2012) to report on how their well-being was affected by the hurricane, the social support felt after the storm, and the number of PTSD symptoms. Dr. Cheong finds support for his proposed relationship. However, in examining his data more closely, he finds that the relationship between emotional well-being and PTSD symptoms is stronger for men than for women. Using Dr. Cheong’s study, identify a mediating variable and a moderating variable and explain the difference between the two types of variables.

75.

Explain what it means that third variables are “external” to the causal variable and mediators are “internal” to the causal variable.

Answer Key Chapter 09

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Dr. O’Toole’s study is a longitudinal study because it measures the same variables in the same group of people at two different points in time. Dr. O’Toole’s study is also a multivariate correlational study because she is studying more than two variables (specifically, she is studying four).

62. Answer:

In their responses, students must provide an example of each type of correlation. Appropriate answers are as follows: Cross-sectional correlations: a. 2016 vacation days and 2016 child happiness b. 2020 vacation days and 2020 child happiness Autocorrelations: a. 2016 vacation days and 2020 vacation days b. 2016 child happiness and 2020 child happiness Cross-lag correlations: a. 2016 vacation days and 2020 child happiness b. 2016 child happiness and 2020 vacation days

63. Answer:

In their responses, students should choose one of the causal patterns below and provide the appropriate information. Pattern 1: a. Correlations 1, 2, and 5 should be significant. b. Correlation 6 should not be significant. c. This pattern suggests a causal relationship such that 2016 vacation days causes children’s happiness in 2020. Pattern 2: a. Correlations 1, 2, and 6 should be significant. b. Correlation 5 should not be significant. c. This pattern suggests a causal relationship such that happiness of children in 2016 causes families to take more vacation days in 2020. Pattern 3: a. Correlations 1, 2, 5, 6 should be significant. b. This pattern suggests a cyclical relationship, suggesting that vacation time and children’s happiness reinforce each other, such that happy children lead their families to take more vacations and taking more vacations makes children happier.

64. Answer:

Longitudinal designs help researchers make causal statements by allowing them to address two of the three necessary conditions for cause. They allow a researcher to examine covariance (saying two variables are related) and temporal precedence (by looking at the relationship of the variables over two or more time points) but do not rule out third variables. Researchers may do longitudinal studies instead of experiments when one of the variables cannot be manipulated, whether for practical or ethical reasons.

65. Answer:

Multiple regression designs help rule out third variable explanations for the relationship between two other variables by statistically testing whether a relationship holds true after controlling for a suspected third variable. For example, say there is a relationship between variables X and Y. A multiple regression design will measure additional variables to determine whether a third, fourth, or more variables when added to the analysis weaken or make the initial relationship between X and Y disappear.

66. Answer:

There is one dependent variable in Dr. Nguyen’s study: the length of the sentence handed down. There are four predictor variables: the number of arguments made by the prosecuting attorney, the length of time the defense attorney speaks during his or her closing argument, how attractive the participants think the defendant is, and how many legal television shows the participants watch.

67. Answer:

Dr. Nguyen is not correct because there is evidence that both legal and extra-legal factors are important. In each response, students should explain the idea of statistical control, such that both the length of the defense attorney’s closing argument and the attractiveness of the defendant are predictors of length of criminal sentences, controlling for the other variables included in the study.

68. Answer:

In their responses, students should choose one of the variables and provide the following information: Number of Arguments Made by the Prosecutor: a. There is a positive relationship between the number of arguments and the sentence given. b. The relationship is not statistically significant. c. Comparison of the betas suggests that this is the thirdstrongest variable. Length of the Defense Attorney’s Closing Argument: a. There is a positive relationship between the length of the closing argument and the sentence given. b. The relationship is statistically significant. c. Comparison of the betas suggests that this is the second strongest variable. Attractiveness of the Defendant: a. There is a negative relationship between the attractiveness of the defendant and the sentence given. b. The relationship is statistically significant. c. Comparison of the betas suggests that this is the strongest variable. Number of Legal Television Shows Watched: a. There is a negative relationship between the number of legal television shows watched and the sentence given. b. The relationship is not statistically significant. c. Comparison of the betas suggests that this is the weakest variable.

69. Answer:

It is possible for Dr. Nguyen to conduct an experiment. All of his predictor variables could be manipulated in an experiment. An experiment would be better than his current design because it would allow him to randomly assign people to groups rather than worry about measuring all possible third variables.

70. Answer:

When correlations between two variables cannot be further explored with experimental designs, researchers can (a) specify a mechanism for the causal path between the two variables (parsimonious explanation) and (b) look for patterns in the studies that have been conducted before.

71. Answer:

In each response, students should name at least two of the following: (a) it can make it appear that psychologists conduct research on a whim; (b) it can give the impression that a single study is more important than previous studies; (c) it can make it easy for critics to deride the results of a single correlational study (e.g., not showing causation, having a nonrepresentative sample).

72. Answer:

The hypothesis that Dr. Cheong predicts that the relationship between emotional well-being and PTSD symptoms is mediated by social support. In each response, students should also draw a diagram similar to the one below. Students do not need to label the relationships (a, b, and c).

73. Answer:

Answers will vary for the examples. An example of a mediational diagram is:

An example of a moderation diagram is:

74. Answer:

Participant gender is a moderating variable, and social support is a mediating variable. A moderating variable is one that asks whether the relationship is the same for every person or in every situation. A mediating variable is one that asks why or in what way two variables are linked.

75. Answer:

Third variables are external to the causal variable, meaning they are linked to both the predictor and the dependent variable but are not responsible for the relationship between the two variables. Mediator variables, by contrast, are internal to the causal variable, meaning that they are linked to the dependent and predictor variables by being the middle step in that relationship.

Name: ___________________________ Class: _________________ Date: __________

Chapter 10

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1: Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a 5-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (“Happy” by Pharrell). Group B listened to a 5-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled “Home Is Such a Lonely Place” by Blink-182). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for 5 minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask them to roll a six-sided die. Participants who rolled a 1 or 2 were assigned to Group A. Participants who rolled a 3 or 4 were assigned to Group B. Participants who rolled a 5 or 6 were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or 5 minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 common words to remember (e.g., desk, gray, plane, car, mask). When 5 minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given 3 minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered:

Group A (Happy)

Group B (Sad)

Group C (Neutral)

Number of Words Remembered Groups A and B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .36

Group A vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .30

Group B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .41

Group A vs. Group B

No statistically significant difference d = .09

Which of the following is a dependent variable in Dr. Lonsbary’s study?

number of words on the list

time given to type the words remembered

time given to memorize the words

number of words remembered

computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 common words to remember (e.g., desk, gray, plane, car, mask). When 5 minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given 3 minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered:

Number of Words Remembered

Group A (Happy)

Group B (Sad)

Group C (Neutral)

Groups A and B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .36

Group A vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .30

Group B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .41

Group A vs. Group B

No statistically significant difference d = .09

Which of the following is an independent variable in Dr. Lonsbary’s study?

number of groups participants were assigned to

feeling happy

participant’s mood

number rolled on the die

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1: Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school

students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a 5-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (“Happy” by Pharrell). Group B listened to a 5-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled “Home Is Such a Lonely Place” by Blink-182). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for 5 minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask them to roll a six-sided die. Participants who rolled a 1 or 2 were assigned to Group A. Participants who rolled a 3 or 4 were assigned to Group B. Participants who rolled a 5 or 6 were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or 5 minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 common words to remember (e.g., desk, gray, plane, car, mask). When 5 minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given 3 minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered:

Number of Words Remembered

Group A (Happy)

Group B (Sad)

Group C (Neutral)

Groups A and B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .36

Group A vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .30

Group B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .41

Group A vs. Group B

No statistically significant difference d = .09

How many conditions/levels of the independent variable were in Dr. Lonsbary’s study?

two

three

five

nine

participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered: Group A (Happy)

Group B (Sad)

Group C (Neutral)

Number of Words Remembered Groups A and B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .36

Group A vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .30

Group B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .41

Group A vs. Group B

No statistically significant difference d = .09

Which of the following is a control variable in Dr. Lonsbary’s study?

the number the participant rolled on the dice

the type of song

the amount of time allowed for memorizing the words

the mood of the participants

Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or 5 minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 common words to remember (e.g., desk, gray, plane, car, mask). When 5 minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given 3 minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered:

Number of Words Remembered

Group A (Happy)

Group B (Sad)

Group C (Neutral)

Groups A and B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .36

Group A vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .30

Group B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .41

Group A vs. Group B

No statistically significant difference d = .09

Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the covariance rule for causality? a.

noting that there is a difference between the number of words recalled by the happy and neutral people

having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered

making sure that all participants were asked to remember the same list of words

putting the 60 participants into equal groups

Group B (Sad)

Group C (Neutral)

Number of Words Remembered

Groups A and B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .36

Group A vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .30

Group B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .41

Group A vs. Group B

No statistically significant difference d = .09

Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the temporal precedence rule for causality?

noting that there is a difference between the number of words recalled by the happy and neutral people

having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered

making sure that all participants were asked to remember the same list of words

putting the 60 participants into equal groups

experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 common words to remember (e.g., desk, gray, plane, car, mask). When 5 minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given 3 minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered:

Number of Words Remembered

Group A (Happy)

Group B (Sad)

Group C (Neutral)

Groups A and B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .36

Group A vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .30

Group B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .41

Group A vs. Group B

No statistically significant difference d = .09

In Dr. Lonsbary’s study, which of the following is NOT present? a.

a control variable

a treatment group

a placebo group

a manipulation check

Number of Words Remembered Groups A and B vs. Group C

Group A (Happy)

Group B (Sad)

Group C (Neutral)

Statistically significant difference

d = .36

Group A vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .30

Group B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .41

Group A vs. Group B

No statistically significant difference d = .09

What type of design did Dr. Lonsbary use in her study?

matched-group design

within-groups design

independent-groups design

pretest/posttest design

remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given 3 minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered:

Number of Words Remembered

Group A (Happy)

Group B (Sad)

Group C (Neutral)

Groups A and B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .36

Group A vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .30

Group B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .41

Group A vs. Group B

No statistically significant difference d = .09

Dr. Lonsbary’s study contains which of the following techniques designed to address a threat to construct validity?

10.

counterbalancing

a placebo group

a demand characteristic

a manipulation check

When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask them to roll a six-sided die. Participants who rolled a 1 or 2 were assigned to Group A. Participants who rolled a 3 or 4 were assigned to Group B. Participants who rolled a 5 or 6 were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or 5 minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 common words to remember (e.g., desk, gray, plane, car, mask). When 5 minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given 3 minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered:

Number of Words Remembered

Group A (Happy)

Group B (Sad)

Group C (Neutral)

Groups A and B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .36

Group A vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .30

Group B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .41

Group A vs. Group B

No statistically significant difference d = .09

Dr. Lonsbary’s colleague, Dr. Chavis, recommended randomly assigning the participants to the three groups. His recommendation was designed to avoid which of the following?

11.

an order effect

a selection effect

a practice effect

a carryover effect

Number of Words Remembered

Group A (Happy)

Group B (Sad)

Group C (Neutral)

Groups A and B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .36

Group A vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .30

Group B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .41

Group A vs. Group B

No statistically significant difference d = .09

Dr. Lonsbary’s study asked participants to report on their mood before completing the memory test. Her decision to include this step was done to address the study’s ________ validity.

12.

external

statistical

internal

construct

room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 common words to remember (e.g., desk, gray, plane, car, mask). When 5 minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given 3 minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered:

Number of Words Remembered

Group A (Happy)

Group B (Sad)

Group C (Neutral)

Groups A and B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .36

Group A vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .30

Group B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .41

Group A vs. Group B

No statistically significant difference d = .09

Dr. Lonsbary is considering doing a follow-up study in which instead of asking participants to listen to music to induce mood, she has them write either a story about a character who just won the lottery or a story about a character who just experienced the death of their spouse. This change in the mood variable is designed to enhance the study’s ________ validity. a.

external

statistical

internal

13.

construct

Number of Words

Group A (Happy)

Group B (Sad)

Group C (Neutral)

Remembered Groups A and B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .36

Group A vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .30

Group B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .41

Group A vs. Group B

No statistically significant difference d = .09

Which of the following provides information about the statistical validity of Dr. Lonsbary’s study?

14.

the method of random assignment

the d coefficient

the number of people in each group

the mood reported by the participants

trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 common words to remember (e.g., desk, gray, plane, car, mask). When 5 minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given 3 minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered:

Number of Words Remembered

Group A (Happy)

Group B (Sad)

Group C (Neutral)

Groups A and B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .36

Group A vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .30

Group B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .41

Group A vs. Group B

No statistically significant difference d = .09

Which of the following could Dr. Lonsbary conclude from her study?

15.

Quiet studying improves memory.

Listening to music can cause changes in mood.

Listening to music will always improve your mood.

Being in an angry mood likely has the same effect on memory as being in a sad mood.

piece of music intended to make them feel happy (“Happy” by Pharrell). Group B listened to a 5-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled “Home Is Such a Lonely Place” by Blink-182). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for 5 minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask them to roll a six-sided die. Participants who rolled a 1 or 2 were assigned to Group A. Participants who rolled a 3 or 4 were assigned to Group B. Participants who rolled a 5 or 6 were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or 5 minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 common words to remember (e.g., desk, gray, plane, car, mask). When 5 minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given 3 minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered:

Number of Words Remembered

Group A (Happy)

Group B (Sad)

Group C (Neutral)

Groups A and B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .36

Group A vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .30

Group B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .41

Group A vs. Group B

No statistically significant difference d = .09

Prior to conducting the current study, Dr. Lonsbary asked her research assistant to use the same mood manipulation with a sample of 30 college students to determine if people’s moods really did change after listening to the music. This preliminary study is known as a ________ study.

16.

pretest/posttest

concurrent measure

pilot

pretest-only

type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered:

Number of Words Remembered

Group A (Happy)

Group B (Sad)

Group C (Neutral)

Groups A and B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .36

Group A vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .30

Group B vs. Group C

Statistically significant difference

d = .41

Group A vs. Group B

No statistically significant difference d = .09

Prior to conducting the current study, Dr. Lonsbary asked her research assistant to use the same mood manipulation with a sample of 30 college students to determine if people’s moods really did change after listening to the music. Running this preliminary study helps establish ________ validity.

17.

external

statistical

internal

construct

Which of the following is true of control variables? a.

Control variables help define the control group.

Control variables determine external validity.

Control variables change the level of the manipulation.

Control variables are kept the same for all participants.

18.

19.

20.

21.

Dr. Kline, an environmental psychologist, conducts a study to examine whether visiting zoos causes people to have more positive attitudes toward environmental conservation. He asks a group of 45 people attending the zoo on a Saturday morning about their attitudes. He finds that 69% of the people report having a positive attitude after their visit. Which of the following is true? a.

His control group is people who did not visit the zoo.

He does not have a dependent variable.

He can make a strong causal claim about the effect of zoo visits on environmental attitudes.

His study does not qualify as an experiment.

A threat to internal validity occurs only if a potential design confound varies with the independent variable a.

haphazardly.

systematically.

spontaneously.

especially.

Which of the following is true of selection effects? a.

Selection effects are a type of control variable.

Selection effects can occur when experimenters allow participants to choose their own treatment group.

Selection effects are unimportant for interrogating external validity.

Selection effects are rarely considered in causal experiments

Experiments use random assignment to avoid which of the following?

22.

23.

24.

random selection

selection effects

carryover effects

demand characteristics

Which of the following research designs is used to address possible selection effects? a.

posttest-only designs

matched-groups designs

pretest/posttest designs

correlational designs

Using a matched-group design is especially important in which of the following cases? a.

when you have only a few people in your study

when you have at least three levels/conditions of the independent variable

when you do not have a control group

when you have a complex dependent variable

An independent-groups design is also known as a design __________. a.

between-subjects

matched-groups

within-groups

mixed

25.

26.

27.

28.

Which of the following is a reason that a researcher might choose a pretest/posttest design? a.

to ensure that random assignment made the treatment/comparison groups equal

to determine between-group differences

to allow for the study of spontaneous behaviors

to improve construct validity

Dr. Alfonse, a developmental psychologist, conducts a study to determine whether children prefer books with drawn illustrations or with photographs. A group of 30 preschoolers are shown two copies of a book (Ferdinand the Bull) at the same time. Although the story is the same, one book is illustrated with drawings and the other is illustrated with photos. Students are then asked to indicate which book they prefer. This is an example of which of the following designs? a.

longitudinal design

repeated-measures design

concurrent-measures design

posttest-only design

One reason researchers use within-group designs is a.

to eliminate practice effects.

it is less time-consuming for the participants.

to increase the diversity of the participant pool.

they require fewer participants.

Which of the following is a threat to internal validity found in within-groups designs but not in independent-groups designs?

29.

30.

31.

selection effects

design confounds

demand characteristics

practice effects

________ is used to control order effects in an experiment. a.

Random assignment

A design confound

Increasing demand characteristics

Counterbalancing

Which of the following is an advantage of within-groups designs? a.

These designs avoid order effects.

These designs avoid demand characteristics.

These designs are always possible.

These designs rely on fewer participants.

use of an electroencephalograph (EEG), the researcher measures how long it takes participants to fall asleep. Which of the following designs is Dr. Dormeur using?

32.

33.

pretest/posttest design

concurrent-measures design

repeated-measures design

posttest-only design

RESEARCH STUDY 10.2: Dr. Dormeur studies sleep and sleep disorders. She is curious as to whether technology exposure before bedtime causes people to fall asleep more slowly. She recruits a sample of 60 middle-aged women from a local church who reported no history of sleep problems. She creates three conditions. All participants come to the sleep lab for three nights in a row and experience all three conditions. In the first condition (A), participants were asked to play an online game (Candy Crush) on an iPad for 10 minutes prior to going to bed. In the second condition (B), participants were asked to read an article using an iPad that discussed tricks and tips for improving one’s score on Candy Crush (which took about 10 minutes). In the third condition (C), participants were asked to read a newspaper article about the inventor of Candy Crush (which took about 10 minutes). With the use of an electroencephalograph (EEG), the researcher measures how long it takes participants to fall asleep. Dr. Dormeur’s participants have agreed to participate in the study for only three nights each. Which type of counterbalancing can she use? a.

partial counterbalancing

full counterbalancing

minimal counterbalancing

carryover counterbalancing

women from a local church who reported no history of sleep problems. She creates three conditions. All participants come to the sleep lab for three nights in a row and experience all three conditions. In the first condition (A), participants were asked to play an online game (Candy Crush) on an iPad for 10 minutes prior to going to bed. In the second condition (B), participants were asked to read an article using an iPad that discussed tricks and tips for improving one’s score on Candy Crush (which took about 10 minutes). In the third condition (C), participants were asked to read a newspaper article about the inventor of Candy Crush (which took about 10 minutes). With the use of an electroencephalograph (EEG), the researcher measures how long it takes participants to fall asleep. Given that there are three conditions/levels of the independent variable, how many orders of the conditions are possible in Dr. Dormeur’s study?

34.

three

six

nine

twelve

RESEARCH STUDY 10.2: Dr. Dormeur studies sleep and sleep disorders. She is curious as to whether technology exposure before bedtime causes people to fall asleep more slowly. She recruits a sample of 60 middle-aged women from a local church who reported no history of sleep problems. She creates three conditions. All participants come to the sleep lab for three nights in a row and experience all three conditions. In the first condition (A), participants were asked to play an online game (Candy Crush) on an iPad for 10 minutes prior to going to bed. In the second condition (B), participants were asked to read an article using an iPad that discussed tricks and tips for improving one’s score on Candy Crush (which took about 10 minutes). In the third condition (C), participants were asked to read a newspaper article about the inventor of Candy Crush (which took about 10 minutes). With the use of an electroencephalograph (EEG), the researcher measures how long it takes participants to fall asleep. Dr. Dormeur was concerned that asking participants how long it took them to fall asleep would lead them to suspect that was the purpose of the study. Her decision to measure how long it took participants to go to sleep using the EEG instead of self-report was meant to decrease which of the following?

35.

36.

37.

order effects

selection effects

demand characteristics

counterbalancing effects

Practice effects and carryover effects are examples of ________ effects. a.

order

scientific

between-person

causal

A design in which participants are exposed to all the levels of an independent variable at roughly the same time and a single attitudinal or behavioral preference is the dependent variable is known as a(n) a.

staggered-administration design.

concurrent-measures design.

repeated-measures design.

between-group design.

What is the primary difference between pretest/posttest designs and withingroups designs? a.

the number of participants used

the number of times the dependent variable is measured

the number of levels of the independent variable participants are exposed to

there is no difference between the two designs.

38.

39.

40.

41.

Random selection enhances ________ validity, and random assignment enhances ________ validity. a.

internal; internal

external; external

internal; external

external; internal

Generally, what is the main priority for experimental studies? a.

construct validity

external validity

internal validity

statistical validity

A variable that the researcher controls is a ________ variable. a.

measured

manipulated

dependent

selection

In true experiments,________ is to dependent variable as ________ is to independent variable. a.

measuring; manipulating

controlling; manipulating

recording; measuring

42.

43.

44.

manipulating; measuring

Which of the following phrases describes a manipulated variable? a.

“Participants wrote down how many text messages they had sent the day before.”

“Researchers recorded whether participants volunteered to help the student in need or did not volunteer.”

“Participants were placed in the high tempo music condition, the low tempo music condition, or the no music condition based on which color card they randomly drew from a deck.”

“Researchers recorded the length of time participants took to complete the anagrams.”

When interrogating the construct validity of the dependent variable in an experiment, which of the following questions should be asked? a.

“How well was this variable manipulated?”

“How well was this variable controlled by the experimenter?”

“How well was this variable explained to participants?”

“How well was this variable measured?”

Considering a measure’s face validity is a.

a good way to interrogate the construct validity of the dependent variable.

not necessary in experiments.

only done if an experiment uses observational measures.

the first step in establishing causation.

45.

Researchers conducting an experiment can ensure temporal precedence by doing which of the following? a.

having a control group

manipulating the cause before measuring the effect

running a manipulation check

establishing covariance

46. The figure above depicts which type of research design? a.

repeated-measures design

concurrent-measures design

posttest-only design

pretest/posttest design

47. In the study depicted in the figure above, why might researchers have measured blood pressure twice? a.

to make sure the first measurement could be trusted

to decrease testing effects

to make sure the two groups were equal before the manipulation

to establish temporal precedence

48. In the study depicted in the figure above, how could a researcher transform the study into a within-groups design?

49.

50.

adding a control group

removing the first blood pressure measurement

adding another independent variable

having participants play both the competitive game and the noncompetitive game

What is the difference between concurrent-measures designs and repeatedmeasures designs? a.

Concurrent-measures designs are independent-groups designs; repeated-measures designs are within-group designs.

Concurrent-measures designs expose participants to the levels of the independent variable at roughly the same time; repeated-measures designs expose participants to the levels of the independent variable sequentially.

Concurrent-measures designs can have any number of levels of an independent variable; repeated-measures designs can only have two levels of the independent variable.

There is no difference; they are two terms for the same design.

Identify a major disadvantage to using matched groups when assigning participants. a.

it removes randomness

it requires more time and resources

51.

52.

53.

participants may know the person they are matched with

the researcher will lose data from participants who don’t match

Before she administers the independent variable to her two test groups, Dr. Mackintosh gives all participants an IQ test. She then pairs up each participant with another who had a similar IQ score. Based on the flip of a coin, one member of the pair is assigned to test Group A and one is assigned to test Group B. What technique is Dr. Mackintosh using? a.

matched groups

selection bias

group assignment

external validity

When participants are sorted from lowest to highest on a variable, grouped into sets of two, and then one person from each set is assigned at random to each of the experimental groups, this is called a.

random assignment.

biased choice.

matching.

sorting.

When a participant arrives for her experiment, Dr. Dajani flips a coin to determine which of two experimental conditions the participant will receive. Using this strategy increases the ________ of her study. a.

external validity

bias

internal validity

54.

55.

56.

57.

counterbalancing

The d score is a standardized measure of the degree to which the independent variable caused a change in the dependent variable. This is also known as the a.

impact factor.

change rate.

standard change.

effect size.

Of the following, which will produce the MOST narrow and precise confidence interval? a.

a small sample size with less variability

a small sample size with greater variability

a large sample size with less variability

a large sample size with more variability

Which of the following is true about replicating experiments? a.

Every experiment should test something slightly different to get new information.

The same group of people should participate every time.

Only the original experimenters can do the replication.

Multiple tests result in a better estimate of the population.

The question “Can the causal relationship generalize to other people, places, and times?” refers to what type of validity?

58.

59.

60.

internal

face

construct

external

Dr. West wants to know what kind of exercise makes people happiest. She randomly assigns participants to either a weight-lifting or cardio group. Each group does the assigned exercise for 30 minutes. They then report on their mood on a scale of 1-10. What could Dr. West do to eliminate potential confounds in her experiment? a.

study only one type of exercise

use the same room and exercise instructor for both groups

let participants choose what type of exercise they want ahead of time

have participants describe their emotions however they want instead of using a scale

Which of the following is a reason that researchers typically choose to prioritize internal over external validity? a.

They want to be able to generalize results to the population.

Having a confound-free setting allows them to make causal claims.

Conducting an experiment in the laboratory is more expensive and time consuming.

Researchers can seek out more diverse and representative participants.

Explain why control variables are necessary in experiments and why they are not actually variables.

61.

Explain why experiments are better than your own personal experience at making causal claims.

62.

RESEARCH STUDY 10.3: Dr. Phillips is a cognitive-developmental psychologist who studies how children learn mathematical principles. His current interest is in studying how children learn multiplication. He recruits 54 second-graders who have not yet learned how to multiply numbers to participate in his study. He is curious as to whether different teaching styles lead to better mastery of the subject. One condition (A) involves having students read a chapter on multiplication from their textbook. One condition (B) involves having students watch a video of cartoon characters explaining multiplication. One condition (C) involves having students being taught multiplication by a teacher. One condition (D) involves having students being taught multiplication by a fourth-grader. In all conditions, participants spend 30 minutes learning the fundamentals of multiplication and are then given the same 15-question multiplication test. The number of questions answered correctly is recorded. The data are below. Group A (Textbook)

Group B (Cartoon video)

Group C (Teacher)

Group D (Fourthgrader)

Number of Multiplication Problems Solved

Groups B, C, D vs. Group A

Statistically significant difference

d = .27

Groups B, C vs. Group D

Statistically significant difference

d = .22

Group C vs. Group D

Statistically significant difference

d = .45

Group B vs. Group C

No statistically significant difference d = .07

Group A vs. Group D

No statistically significant difference d = .03

Based on the results of his study, Dr. Phillips hopes to make a causal statement. Explain how his study does or does not meet the three rules of causation.

63.

Group B (Cartoon video)

Group C (Teacher)

Group D (Fourthgrader)

Number of Multiplication Problems Solved

Groups B, C, D vs. Group A

Statistically significant difference

d = .27

Groups B, C vs. Group D

Statistically significant difference

d = .22

Group C vs. Group D

Statistically significant difference

d = .45

Group B vs. Group C

No statistically significant difference d = .07

Group A vs. Group D

No statistically significant difference d = .03

Identify the independent variable(s), dependent variable(s), and a control variable in Dr. Phillips’ study.

64.

lead to better mastery of the subject. One condition (A) involves having students read a chapter on multiplication from their textbook. One condition (B) involves having students watch a video of cartoon characters explaining multiplication. One condition (C) involves having students being taught multiplication by a teacher. One condition (D) involves having students being taught multiplication by a fourth-grader. In all conditions, participants spend 30 minutes learning the fundamentals of multiplication and are then given the same 15-question multiplication test. The number of questions answered correctly is recorded. The data are below. Group A (Textbook)

Group B (Cartoon video)

Group C (Teacher)

Group D (Fourthgrader)

Number of Multiplication Problems Solved

Groups B, C, D vs. Group A

Statistically significant difference

d = .27

Groups B, C vs. Group D

Statistically significant difference

d = .22

Group C vs. Group D

Statistically significant difference

d = .45

Group B vs. Group C

No statistically significant difference d = .07

Group A vs. Group D

No statistically significant difference d = .03

Using Dr. Phillips’ study as an example, explain the difference between a control group and a comparison group. Why did Dr. Phillips’ study not have a control group?

65.

multiplication by a teacher. One condition (D) involves having students being taught multiplication by a fourth-grader. In all conditions, participants spend 30 minutes learning the fundamentals of multiplication and are then given the same 15-question multiplication test. The number of questions answered correctly is recorded. The data are below. Group A (Textbook)

Group B (Cartoon video)

Group C (Teacher)

Group D (Fourthgrader)

Number of Multiplication Problems Solved

Groups B, C, D vs. Group A

Statistically significant difference

d = .27

Groups B, C vs. Group D

Statistically significant difference

d = .22

Group C vs. Group D

Statistically significant difference

d = .45

Group B vs. Group C

No statistically significant difference d = .07

Group A vs. Group D

No statistically significant difference d = .03

Explain why Dr. Phillips cannot conduct a within-groups design.

66.

Group A (Textbook)

Group B (Cartoon video)

Group C (Teacher)

Group D (Fourthgrader)

Number of Multiplication Problems Solved

Groups B, C, D vs. Group A

Statistically significant difference

d = .27

Groups B, C vs. Group D

Statistically significant difference

d = .22

Group C vs. Group D

Statistically significant difference

d = .45

Group B vs. Group C

No statistically significant difference d = .07

Group A vs. Group D

No statistically significant difference d = .03

Name two ways that Dr. Phillips could avoid selection threat when he is assigning participants to conditions and explain why each of these methods avoids selection threat.

67.

Group B (Cartoon video)

Group C (Teacher)

Group D (Fourthgrader)

Number of Multiplication Problems Solved

Groups B, C, D vs. Group A

Statistically significant difference

d = .27

Groups B, C vs. Group D

Statistically significant difference

d = .22

Group C vs. Group D

Statistically significant difference

d = .45

Group B vs. Group C

No statistically significant difference d = .07

Group A vs. Group D

No statistically significant difference d = .03

Write a question you would ask of Dr. Phillips’ study to interrogate each of the four validities.

68.

What type of experimental design is affected by order effects? What can researchers do to address order effects, and how does this fix them?

69.

What is a design confound? What type of validity is threatened by design confounds, and how is it threatened? Explain why not all problems in a study are necessarily confounds.

70.

Explain the difference between full counterbalancing and partial counterbalancing. Why would a researcher choose partial counterbalancing over full counterbalancing?

71.

Name three advantages of within-groups designs.

72.

Name three disadvantages of within-groups designs.

73.

What is the difference between a posttest-only design and a pretest/posttest design? Provide both a benefit and a disadvantage of using a pretest/posttest design.

74.

Define manipulation checks and pilot studies, and explain how they address the construct validity of an experiment.

Answer Key Chapter 10

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Control variables are not actually variables because they do not actually vary. Control variables are necessary in experiments to deal with threats to internal validity. Control variables are those aspects of a study that are held constant or equal across groups and that allow researchers to rule out alternate explanations for the causal relationships.

61. Answer:

Experiments provide a comparison group, whereas personal experience does not provide a comparison group. With experiments, the question “compared to what?” can be answered. One knows one’s own experience in given situations, but there’s no way of knowing if those experiences are different from or the same as other people’s experiences in those same situations.

62. Answer:

The three rules for causation are covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity. Dr. Phillips’ study does meet the three rules of causation. In terms of covariance, there are differences between at least two of the groups, which indicates the manipulation had an effect on children’s mathematical ability. In terms of temporal precedence, because Dr. Phillips manipulated the learning experience before measuring mathematical ability, he established temporal precedence. In terms of internal validity, Dr. Phillips removed other explanations for the link between learning experiences and mathematical ability, such as the length of the math test and the time exposed to the instruction.

63. Answer:

The independent variable is the learning style or type of instruction (students should be clear in their responses in stating that there is only one independent variable; it should not be confused with the four levels/conditions of the independent variable). The dependent variable is the number of multiplication problems solved correctly. Students may state several control variables, but they need to select only one. Options include keeping the number of test items the same, keeping the math problem difficulty level the same, and keeping the exposure to math instruction the same length (30 minutes).

64. Answer:

A control group is a level of an independent variable that is intended to represent no treatment or a neutral condition. Dr. Phillips’ study did not have a control group because a group without instruction would not have made sense in his study. A comparison group, by contrast, is a group that treatment groups can be compared with. In this case, Dr. Phillips can compare each of the four conditions with one another to determine which is the most effective way to teach multiplication.

65. Answer:

A within-groups design is not possible because being taught multiplication can only happen the first time once. As such, it would be impossible to have participants be taught for the first time four different times.

66. Answer:

In each response, students should provide at least two ways to avoid selection threat in this scenario. One method is random assignment. Students may describe a means for random assignment (rolling a die, picking a card), but they do not have to. Random assignment avoids selection threat by spreading any individual differences randomly among the four conditions. The other method is matched-group designs. Students may describe a variable that could be of concern on which the participants should be matched (e.g., IQ, mathematical ability, SES), but they do not have to. Matched-groups designs avoid selection threat by making sure the groups are even on a particular variable. Note that students should not get credit for saying that a pretest/posttest design avoids selection threat. This design can detect a selection threat but can do nothing to avoid it.

67. Answer:

Students should write a question for each of the four internal validities. Sample questions could include: a. Construct validity: “Was the math test given to the participants really a good measure of their understanding of multiplication?” b. External validity: “Were the participants chosen for the study like other second-graders, or were they different in some way?” c. Statistical validity: “Was there a difference between Group A and Group B?” d. Internal validity: “Is there some explanation for the difference in math scores other than instruction type?”

68. Answer:

Within-groups designs are affected by order effects. Counterbalancing is the means by which researchers address order effects. Counterbalancing addresses order effects by varying the order in which the levels of the independent variable are presented to the participants. If one order is causing a different pattern of results, then the inclusion of another order should reveal that to be the case.

69. Answer:

A design confound is a second variable that varies systematically with an independent variable. It threatens internal validity because it provides an alternate explanation for the results. In other words, students may say that although it appears that X causes Y, a design confound means that some other variable could actually be causing Y. Problems in a study are confounds only if they co-occur/vary systematically with the independent variable.

70. Answer:

Full counterbalancing occurs when all participants are exposed to all conditions/levels of the independent variable. Partial counterbalancing occurs when participants are exposed to only a subset of all the possible combinations. Partial counterbalancing should be chosen when there are four or more conditions/levels of the independent variable. There would be so many combinations of levels of the independent variable that it might not make sense to have participants exposed to all combinations.

71. Answer:

(a) Within-groups designs eradicate selection threats; (b) researchers get more precise estimates of the differences between groups because more of the extraneous error is removed; and (c) they typically require fewer participants.

72. Answer:

(a) Within-groups designs have the potential for order effects; (b) they have an increased risk for demand characteristics; (c) it may not be realistic to have participants provide repeated measures; and (d) it may be impossible for participants to experience something twice (as in the example from the textbook of learning to ride a bike twice).

73. Answer:

A posttest-only design involves measuring the dependent variable once, whereas a pretest/posttest design involves measuring the dependent variable before and after the experimental manipulation. (Note that students should not state that the pretest/posttest design is a repeated-measures design or a within-groups design in their responses.) In each response, students must state one benefit of the pretest/posttest design, which could include: is good with small sample sizes; allows the researcher to ensure that random assignment worked; allows for the direct observation of change due to the manipulated variable. Students must also state one cost of the pretest/posttest design, which could include: can lead to suspicion among the participants (leading to demand characteristics); takes more time/adds an extra step; can change the behavior of the participants.

74. Answer:

A pilot study is a study conducted before the experimental study that tests whether the manipulation works (e.g., does happy music cause happiness?). Manipulation checks are conducted within the experimental study itself and ask the participants to report on their experiences (e.g., after listening to happy music, they are asked to state if they are happy before completing the dependent measure). Both manipulation checks and pilot studies address whether the independent variable was manipulated as intended. This ensures that the manipulation works. This is important to construct validity because it ensures that the proposed cause is in fact the cause.

Name: ___________________________ Class: _________________ Date: __________

Chapter 11

When interrogating experiments, on which of the big validities should a person focus? a.

internal validity

external validity

construct validity

statistical validity

Which of the following is never found in a one-group, pretest/posttest design? a.

a random sample

a valid measure

a comparison group

a manipulation

Spontaneous remission in clinical studies is an example of which of the following threats to internal validity? a.

regression

attrition

maturation

placebo effects

The addition of a comparison group can address which of the following threats to internal validity? a.

instrumentation

maturation

selection-history

attrition

Which of the following threats to internal validity can apply even when a control group is used? a.

attrition

history threats

instrumentation threats

demand characteristics

To be a history threat, the external event must occur a.

constantly during the experiment.

at the beginning of the experiment.

systematically, affecting most members of the group.

intentionally, induced by the experimenters.

Regression is especially problematic in which of the following situations? a.

when the experimental and comparison groups are equal at posttest

when one group has an extremely high score at pretest

when the experimental and comparison groups are equal at pretest

10.

11.

when one group has an extremely low score at posttest

Which of the following is a method researchers use to identify or correct for attrition? a.

find other participants with similar scores and replace the missing ones

not allow participants to leave a study once it has started

determine whether those who dropped out of the study had a different pattern of scores than those who stayed in the study

follow up with the participants who left the study at a later date and replace their missing data with the new data

Which of the following can help prevent testing effects? a.

using a comparison group

establishing reliability of the measure

using a clear coding manual

employing a pretest-only design

Dr. Carter is curious about how self-esteem changes as a result of a new counseling program. She is concerned about testing threats in her study. Which of the following would you recommend to her as a way to address this type of threat? a.

refusing to let participants drop out of the study

conducting a pretest-only study

using a different measure of self-esteem at pretest than at posttest

omitting a comparison group

Which of the following is true of instrumentation threats?

12.

13.

14.

They are the same as testing threats.

They occur only when using mechanical instruments (e.g., blood pressure cuffs, scales).

They can be avoided with counterbalancing.

They are problematic only in observational research.

Dr. Persaud is curious as to whether children in a daycare center will share more after watching an educational video on sharing. Immediately before and after the video, she has several undergraduate research assistants code the sharing behavior of a group of 33 four-year-olds. Which of the following would you recommend to her to decrease the threat of instrumentation? a.

asking the same research assistants to code the same children at pretest and posttest

establishing different coding manuals for pretest and posttest

using clear coding manuals

using only one research assistant to code all the videos

Which of the following studies would have a possible threat of observer bias? a.

a study looking at the effect of eating fruits and vegetables on body weight

a study looking at the effect of tutoring on SAT scores

a study looking at whether increasing the number of hours listening to music increases singing ability

a study looking at the effect of daily exercise on resting heart rate

Observer bias can threaten which of the following big validities? a.

internal validity and construct validity

15.

16.

external validity and construct validity

internal validity and external validity

internal validity only

Dr. Hoff is curious as to whether children in a kindergarten classroom will be friendlier after talking about friendship. Immediately before and after the discussion, she has several undergraduate research assistants code the “friendliness” of a group of kindergarteners. Which of the following threats should Dr. Hoff be most concerned about? a.

history

maturation

instrumentation

testing

RESEARCH STUDY 11.1: In previous studies, Dr. Hamid has established that finding meaning in one’s everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one’s classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are responding to different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam. The study described above is an example of which of the following? a.

a one-group, pretest/posttest design

a null effect

a double-blind study

17.

18.

observer bias

RESEARCH STUDY 11.1: In previous studies, Dr. Hamid has established that finding meaning in one’s everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one’s classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are responding to different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam. Dr. Hamid likely designed his study so that neither he nor his students knew which group they were in to address which of the following? a.

placebo effects

attrition

demand characteristics

maturation

different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam. Which of the following aspects of Dr. Hamid’s study allows him to prevent observer bias?

19.

keeping his students unaware of which type of essay they are writing

having his teaching assistant assign students randomly to the two groups

grading the exams himself (a Ph.D.) instead of having his teaching assistant (a college senior) do it

ensuring the person grading the exams is unaware of each student’s writing group

RESEARCH STUDY 11.1: In previous studies, Dr. Hamid has established that finding meaning in one’s everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one’s classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are responding to different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam. Imagine that in Dr. Hamid’s study, he notes that all of the students do extremely well on the midterm exam. When he looks at the results of the final exam, he notices that all the students’ exam scores went down. Which of the following pattern of results would suggest that there is a threat to internal validity? a.

The final exam scores were lower in the preparation group than the meaning group.

The final exam scores were equally low in both groups.

The final exam scores were lower than the national average.

20.

21.

The final exam scores were lower than the final exam scores of students of his colleague, Dr. Fao.

RESEARCH STUDY 11.1: In previous studies, Dr. Hamid has established that finding meaning in one’s everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one’s classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are responding to different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam. Imagine that in Dr. Hamid’s study, he notes that all of the students do extremely well on the midterm exam. When he looks at the results of the final exam, he notices that all the students’ exam scores went down. Given this information, which of the following threats might be present in his study? a.

regression

attrition

maturation

observer bias

RESEARCH STUDY 11.2: Dr. Bloedorn is a health psychologist who researches nutrition. She is curious as to whether a new drink additive will help people consume fewer calories during a meal. The drink additive is a white, odorless, tasteless powder that a person can add to any drink. She collects a random sample of 63 overweight students on campus and measures the calories they eat during lunch using a calorimeter. She then gives this additive to the same 63 participants to use at dinner and measures how many calories they eat (again using the calorimeter). Which of the following threats to internal validity should Dr. Bloedorn be worried about?

22.

23.

observer bias

attrition

blinding

placebo effects

RESEARCH STUDY 11.2: Dr. Bloedorn is a health psychologist who researches nutrition. She is curious as to whether a new drink additive will help people consume fewer calories during a meal. The drink additive is a white, odorless, tasteless powder that a person can add to any drink. She collects a random sample of 63 overweight students on campus and measures the calories they eat during lunch using a calorimeter. She then gives this additive to the same 63 participants to use at dinner and measures how many calories they eat (again using the calorimeter). The addition of a control group that does not use the drink additive would help Dr. Bloedorn address which of the following threats to internal validity? a.

history

demand characteristics

instrumentation

placebo effects

RESEARCH STUDY 11.2: Dr. Bloedorn is a health psychologist who researches nutrition. She is curious as to whether a new drink additive will help people consume fewer calories during a meal. The drink additive is a white, odorless, tasteless powder that a person can add to any drink. She collects a random sample of 63 overweight students on campus and measures the calories they eat during lunch using a calorimeter. She then gives this additive to the same 63 participants to use at dinner and measures how many calories they eat (again using the calorimeter). The addition of a group that does not use the drink additive but adds a similar-looking substance that they think is the additive would help Dr. Bloedorn address which of the following threats to internal validity?

24.

25.

26.

history

observer bias

instrumentation

placebo effects

RESEARCH STUDY 11.2: Dr. Bloedorn is a health psychologist who researches nutrition. She is curious as to whether a new drink additive will help people consume fewer calories during a meal. The drink additive is a white, odorless, tasteless powder that a person can add to any drink. She collects a random sample of 63 overweight students on campus and measures the calories they eat during lunch using a bomb calorimeter. She then gives this additive to the same 63 participants to use at dinner and measures how many calories they eat (again using the bomb calorimeter). Imagine that Dr. Bloedorn finds no difference between the calories consumed with the drink additive and without. This is known as a.

observer bias.

a maturation effect.

a null effect.

the placebo effect.

Which of the following is a reason that a study might yield a null result? a.

too much between-group difference

too much within-group variance

a false positive

use of a within-subjects design

Dr. Deveraux has conducted a study that has resulted in a null effect. Nonetheless, she suspects that there truly is a causal relationship between

her independent and dependent variables. Which of the following is UNLIKELY to be to blame?

27.

28.

a weak manipulation

an insensitive measure

too many participants

a reverse confound

Dr. Morimoto is curious as to whether exposing people to violent video games causes them to be more aggressive. He assigns half his participants to play a video game for 5 minutes and the other half to play for 7 minutes. He finds that there is no relationship between playing the game longer and being more aggressive. What might be to blame for this null effect? a.

a weak manipulation

an insensitive measure

a reverse confound

ceiling effect

Dr. Adebayo is curious as to whether exposing people to violent video games causes them to be more aggressive. She assigns half her participants to play a violent video game for 5 minutes and the other half to play the same game for 25 minutes. Afterward, she has them play a board game and has a well-trained coder determine whether they are very aggressive in their playing style, barely aggressive, or not at all aggressive. She finds that a vast majority of her participants, regardless of group assignment, are rated as very aggressive. This outcome would be known as a(n) a.

weak manipulation.

ceiling effect.

floor effect.

outlier.

29.

30.

31.

32.

Which of the following is true of ceiling and floor effects? a.

They cannot be detected by manipulation checks.

They are problematic only in pretest/posttest designs.

They can be caused by poorly designed dependent variables.

They don’t affect the results of a study.

A confound that keeps a researcher from finding a relationship between two variables is known as a(n) ________ confound. a.

weak

insensitive

null

reverse

Unsystematic variability in a study is also known as a.

error variance.

null effect.

group inconsistency.

situational variability.

In what way does high within-groups variance obscure between-groups variance? a.

It decreases the power of the study.

It leads to larger effect sizes.

It causes more overlap in scores between experimental/comparison groups.

33.

34.

35.

36.

It limits the type of statistical analyses that can be conducted.

Which of the following things can be done to reduce measurement error? a.

using less precise measurements

using more reliable measurements

using a pretest/posttest design

increasing unsystematic variance

Which of the following things can be done to reduce the effect of individual differences? a.

using a matched-groups design

decrease power

collecting measurements from diverse groups of people

using a between-groups design

Testing threats involve ________, whereas instrumentation threats involve ________. a.

researchers; participants

participants; measurements

independent variables; dependent variables

within-groups; between groups

When a double-blind study is not possible, an acceptable alternative may be a.

a matched groups design.

a within-groups design.

37.

38.

39.

40.

the use of a control group.

a masked design.

Which of the following is a reason why a researcher might choose to conduct a double-blind placebo control group study? a.

to eliminate testing effects

to control for observer bias

to prevent attrition

to control for regression to the mean

A participant’s score on a dependent variable is a combination of which of the following? a.

measurement error and their true score

systematic variance and error variance

manipulation effect and observer bias

their mean score and their standard deviation

A researcher’s attempt to control sounds, smells, and even temperature in a testing environment is meant to reduce which of the following? a.

between-group variance

situation noise

weak manipulations

demand characteristics

Why is there a publication bias against null effects?

41.

42.

43.

Null effects are not real.

Null effects are the result of badly designed studies.

People generally want to read about independent variables that change the outcome.

Null results happen less often than significant results.

Which of the following threats to internal validity would result in group differences prior to the start of the study? a.

design confound

selection effect

order effect

maturation effect

Dr. Gong conducts a study where she randomly assigns participants to different experimental conditions. The testing for each condition occurs in a different room of the psychology building. After collecting her data, she learns that the air conditioning in one of the rooms had been turned off during data collection. Which of the following threats to internal validity should Dr. Gong be concerned with? a.

design confound

selection effect

order effect

maturation effect

To avoid insensitive measures, it is important to use measures that include a.

large differences between the levels of the variable.

measurement error.

44.

45.

46.

ceiling effects.

multiple increments of the variable.

Ceiling effects can lead to a.

large variance within groups.

large variance between groups.

small variance between groups.

all participants performing poorly.

Dr. Navarro conducted a study investigating whether exercising immediately before an exam boosted cognitive abilities. She randomly assigned participants to either do jumping jacks or count to 60 before giving them a geometry test. She did not find any differences between groups but believes there may have been a ceiling effect. What might be a clue that this was the case? a.

All participants’ scores are centered around 100% correct.

Participants in the counting group showed more variability in scores.

Participants in the exercise group took longer to complete the test.

Some participants verbally noted that the test was too easy.

Ceiling effects can affect a.

certain groups more than others.

independent variables only.

dependent variables only.

both independent and dependent variables.

47.

48.

49.

50.

After finding a null result in her study, a researcher decides to conduct a follow-up study where she limits who the findings will generalize to. Which cause of within-group variance is she trying to reduce? a.

measurement error

individual differences

situation noise

lack of power

Using the same setting and consistent protocols for each participant in a study will reduce the effect of a.

measurement error.

individual differences.

situation noise.

floor effects.

What can researchers do to reduce the risk of measurement error? a.

select measures that have high reliability and validity

make conditions comparable in each experimental group

use large sample sizes

use a strong manipulation

Dr. Biswas designs a study comparing the effects of mindfulness training to cognitive training on flexible thinking. In designing this study, what would be an appropriate manipulation check? a.

testing that the flexible thinking task is hard enough to show group differences

measuring heart rate to ensure that mindfulness has a calming effect

51.

52.

53.

ensuring that no participants had prior experience with mindfulness training

adding a third group that receives flexibility training

Which of the following is the easiest way to increase precision and power in a study? a.

increase sample size

use a between groups design

more situational noise

additional comparison groups

The likelihood that a study will return an accurate result when the independent variable really has an effect is called a.

floor effect.

masking level.

power.

ceiling effect.

Dr. Flores wants to determine whether a new therapeutic technique for treating depression in adolescents is effective. Which of the following is a method Dr. Flores could use to increase power in the experiment? a.

recruit teenagers only with severe depression

test multiple techniques simultaneously

focus the study on a small number of participants

double the sample size

54.

55.

56.

57.

Why is it important for studies with null results to be published? a.

They violate Merton’s norm of disinterestedness.

They are a good example of flawed research designs.

They push researchers to revise existing theories.

They are extremely uncommon.

If a narrow confidence interval contains zero, then the effect is a.

significant.

null.

at ceiling.

at floor.

Davonte conducts a study on numerical reasoning in two-year-olds. He wants to know whether showing them an educational YouTube video will help them improve their counting abilities. For his dependent variable, he asks each child to count to 100. He finds no change from pretest to posttest and discovers most children couldn’t count past 10. This is an example of a.

a floor effect.

a noise effect.

a ceiling effect.

a maturation effect.

Which of the following is an example of a history threat? a.

In a study of mood, some participants were on antidepressants.

In a study of intelligence, participants were allowed to study the test beforehand.

58.

59.

In a study of school performance, a hurricane closes the school for two weeks.

In a study of a medication, all participants know whether they are getting treatment or placebo.

Dr. Granger notices that 20 students in their longitudinal study of 100 college students dropped out of the experiment over time. When they look at the missing data, they discover that those 20 students had significantly lower pretest scores than the 80 with complete data. Which type of threat is this an example of? a.

instrumentation

testing

history

attrition

Dr. Kebede wants to determine whether energy drinks improve the performance of the school’s soccer team. He gives half the team the energy drinks and half the team water. He has trained observers watch the soccer players and rate them on a scale of 1-10 (where 1 is extremely poor and 10 is extremely well) for overall soccer performance before and after they consume the drinks. Which of the following is an example of observer bias in his study? a.

The observers get more generous in their scoring over time as they learn more about soccer.

The players know they are being observed and improve their performance in response.

The players know whether they got the energy drink or placebo and it changes their behavior.

Because they expect the energy drink group to perform better, observers notice better plays from that group.

60.

Dr. Georgiou wants to help undergraduates overcome homesickness. She gives a survey to 500 undergraduates and picks the 50 who scored the highest on her measure of homesickness to complete her treatment. After three weeks, she tests them again and finds their homesickness scores are significantly lower. Which of the following is a threat to her study? a.

selection effect

regression to the mean

observer bias

testing

61.

RESEARCH STUDY 11.3: Dr. Paddock is a counseling psychologist who is interested in decreasing adjustment issues in first-year college students. She is curious if having students create collages of their first few weeks of school and then mail them home will help students feel they have integrated their new life with their old and, as a result, will help them feel less homesick. She samples a group of 100 incoming college freshmen at her university and measures how homesick they are during the first week of school. During week 4 of school, she has them make the collage and send it home. During week 7 of school, she measures their homesickness again. She notices a significant reduction in the amount of homesickness from the pretest to the posttest and concludes that her treatment is effective. What is a comparison group? What kind of comparison group could Dr. Paddock add to her study to address several threats to internal validity? (In other words, what would this comparison group do/not do?) Explain why this addition would help address threats to internal validity.

62.

She notices a significant reduction in the amount of homesickness from the pretest to the posttest and concludes that her treatment is effective. Name two threats to internal validity that are likely to be present in Dr. Paddock’s study, given her particular design. What other explanation do these threats provide for the results found by Dr. Paddock?

63.

RESEARCH STUDY 11.3: Dr. Paddock is a counseling psychologist who is interested in decreasing adjustment issues in first-year college students. She is curious if having students create collages of their first few weeks of school and then mail them home will help students feel they have integrated their new life with their old and, as a result, will help them feel less homesick. She samples a group of 100 incoming college freshmen at her university and measures how homesick they are during the first week of school. During week 4 of school, she has them make the collage and send it home. During week 7 of school, she measures their homesickness again. She notices a significant reduction in the amount of homesickness from the pretest to the posttest and concludes that her treatment is effective. Imagine in Dr. Paddock’s study that only 90 of the original participants completed the measure of homesickness during week 7 (10 participants had left the university and were unavailable). What kind of threat to internal validity does this pose? How does this affect her conclusion that her treatment for homesickness worked?

64.

RESEARCH STUDY 11.3: Dr. Paddock is a counseling psychologist who is interested in decreasing adjustment issues in first-year college students. She is curious if having students create collages of their first few weeks of school and then mail them home will help students feel they have integrated their new life with their old and, as a result, will help them feel less homesick. She samples a group of 100 incoming college freshmen at her university and measures how homesick they are during the first week of school. During week 4 of school, she has them make the collage and send it home. During week 7 of school, she measures their homesickness again. She notices a significant reduction in the amount of homesickness from the pretest to the posttest and concludes that her treatment is effective. Imagine in Dr. Paddock’s study that only 90 of the original participants completed the measure of homesickness during week 7 (10 participants had left the university and were unavailable). Name two things that Dr. Paddock

can do to address this possible threat to internal validity and why these should be done.

65.

RESEARCH STUDY 11.3: Dr. Paddock is a counseling psychologist who is interested in decreasing adjustment issues in first-year college students. She is curious if having students create collages of their first few weeks of school and then mail them home will help students feel they have integrated their new life with their old and, as a result, will help them feel less homesick. She samples a group of 100 incoming college freshmen at her university and measures how homesick they are during the first week of school. During week 4 of school, she has them make the collage and send it home. During week 7 of school, she measures their homesickness again. She notices a significant reduction in the amount of homesickness from the pretest to the posttest and concludes that her treatment is effective. Imagine in Dr. Paddock’s study that the pretest scores were incredibly high, indicating a large amount of homesickness in her sample. What kind of threat to internal validity does this pose? How does this affect her conclusion that her treatment for homesickness worked?

66.

Name the three threats to internal validity that can occur in studies regardless of the use of a comparison group. Why doesn’t a comparison group help in these cases?

67.

What is a double-blind study? Explain how this design addresses both the issue of demand characteristics and the issue of observer bias.

68.

Explain what a manipulation check is and how it can be used to address issues of weak manipulations and insensitive measures.

69.

watches a five-minute clip of a movie in which the main characters are having a romantic first date. The second group watches a five-minute clip from the same movie in which the main characters break up. After the participants watch the movie clip, they are then asked to write a sentence about their relationship. Armand counts the number of uses of the words we and us as a measure of commitment. After conducting the study, he finds that there is not a statistically significant difference between his two groups. Provide three reasons why Armand’s study may have resulted in null effects.

70.

RESEARCH STUDY 11.4: Armand conducts a study for his research method class. He is curious as to whether watching romantic movies makes people more committed to their romantic relationship. He collects a sample of men in dating relationships and divides them into two groups. One group watches a five-minute clip of a movie in which the main characters are having a romantic first date. The second group watches a five-minute clip from the same movie in which the main characters break up. After the participants watch the movie clip, they are then asked to write a sentence about their relationship. Armand counts the number of uses of the words we and us as a measure of commitment. After conducting the study, he finds that there is not a statistically significant difference between his two groups. Armand’s professor suggests that the null effect may be due to insufficient between-group variance. Describe two ways that Armand’s study may have had poor between-group variance.

71.

Armand’s professor suggests that the null effect may be due to a large amount of within-group variance. State three causes of within-group variance in Armand’s study.

72.

RESEARCH STUDY 11.4: Armand conducts a study for his research method class. He is curious as to whether watching romantic movies makes people more committed to their romantic relationship. He collects a sample of men in dating relationships and divides them into two groups. One group watches a five-minute clip of a movie in which the main characters are having a romantic first date. The second group watches a five-minute clip from the same movie in which the main characters break up. After the participants watch the movie clip, they are then asked to write a sentence about their relationship. Armand counts the number of uses of the words we and us as a measure of commitment. After conducting the study, he finds that there is not a statistically significant difference between his two groups. Armand’s professor proposes that he replicate the study and double the number of participants he recruits. State which cause(s) of within-group variability will be helped by adding more participants and why this will help.

73.

Explain how within-group variance can obscure between-group differences.

74.

Name two study designs that would address issues of individual differences contributing to within-group variance. If these two designs are not possible, what else could a researcher do?

75.

Explain why null effects are important in science but are hard to find in popular media.

Answer Key Chapter 11

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A comparison group is a group to which the results of the experimental/treatment group can be compared. In each response, students should provide a description of a comparison group that involves not making the collage (or making it but not sending it home, although this is a weaker answer). This addition would allow other alternative explanations for the causal relationship to be ruled out because Dr. Paddock could see if the same thing (a reduction in homesickness) happened in the comparison group.

62. Answer:

In each response, students must name two threats from the following list: history, maturation, testing, or demand characteristics. They should not get credit for saying any of the following: attrition, regression, instrumentation, observer bias, or placebo effects (these may be found in Dr. Paddock’s study, but there is nothing in the scenario to suggest they are a problem). Depending on the answer provided, students should then say why this threat provides an alternate explanation. For example, if a student states that there is a history threat, he or she should explain that maybe something other than the manipulation happened during the first few weeks of school to reduce homesickness.

63. Answer:

This is an attrition threat. The 10 participants who left may have been more homesick than those who stayed. Not having the Time 2 data of the participants who possibly were the most homesick might partly explain the reduction in homesickness.

64. Answer:

Dr. Paddock can do one of two things. First, she could simply delete the pretest data from the 10 people who dropped out, meaning that she was only examining people who completed both parts of the study. This way, if there is a reduction in scores, it is not because the most homesick people are not included in the posttest data. The second thing that Dr. Paddock could do is examine the pretest scores of the 10 participants who dropped out. If their scores are very dissimilar to the participants who did not drop out, then there is reason to be concerned. However, if their scores are similar to the participants who continued in the study, then there is less of a threat to internal validity.

65. Answer:

Answers may vary; students should state that this is a possible regression threat to internal validity OR a maturation threat. Students who say it is a regression threat should explain that Dr. Paddock’s conclusion that homesickness dropped due to her treatment may be threatened because it is likely that homesickness scores were going to decline anyway as they were so high to begin with, and they would automatically regress toward the mean. Students who say it is maturation threat should explain that Dr. Paddock’s conclusion is weakened because Time 1 is when homesickness is likely to be especially high in students. By Time 2, as students have adjusted more to college, their homesickness scores likely would have declined without any intervention.

66. Answer:

Observer bias, demand characteristics, and placebo effects can occur in studies regardless of the use of a comparison group. Comparison groups are not helpful in these situations because of: a. Observer bias—the observer can be biased in rating both the experimental/treatment group and the comparison group. b. Demand characteristics—regardless of a comparison group, participants may change their behavior to be “better participants.” c. Placebo effects—having a group that doesn’t receive the drug/treatment (comparison group) does nothing to remove the possibility that the treatment group improves because they think they are being treated.

67. Answer:

A double-blind study is a study in which neither the participants nor the researchers who evaluate them know who is in the treatment group and who is in the comparison group. When participants are kept unaware of their group assignment, they cannot change their behavior to match any expectation (demand characteristics). And when the observers are kept unaware of participants’ group assignment, they cannot change their rating behavior/data collection to match the hypothesized expectations (observer bias).

68. Answer:

A manipulation check is a separate dependent variable that experimenters include in a study, just to make sure the manipulation worked. Manipulation checks are good because they can determine whether groups are sufficiently different from one another and/or whether a ceiling or floor effect is at play. If groups are not different on this other dependent variable, it might be a reason for researchers to change their manipulation or measurement.

69. Answer:

Armand’s study may have resulted in null effects because (a) there was not enough between-group variance, (b) there was too much within-group variance, or (c) there is really no difference between the two groups.

70. Answer:

One issue with Armand’s study may have been weak manipulation, such that the manipulations did not push the two groups far enough apart. Although students do not need to, they may give specific reasons in their responses as to why his manipulation was weak (e.g., saying that five minutes was not long enough for people to have felt something for the characters). Students should state that a second issue with Armand’s study may have been insensitive measurement. Although they do not need to, students may also give specific reasons in their responses as to why the measure was insensitive (e.g., the number of times one can use we and us in one sentence is probably pretty limited, resulting in a floor effect).

71. Answer:

The three possible causes of within-group variance in Armand’s study are measurement error (the way the we and us words were counted could lead to error), individual differences (people in the groups were disproportionately committed or not committed), and situation noise (the sound in one theater may have been better than in the other theater).

72. Answer:

Collecting data from more participants will address measurement error and individual differences but not situation noise. Collecting data from more people allows the measurement error (sometimes measuring high, sometimes measuring low) to be spread out such that it isn’t always high and isn’t always low. Collecting data from more people reduces the impact of individual differences (outliers).

73. Answer:

Group differences are hidden when there is a lot of similarities overlap between the treatment group and the comparison group. Ideally, the groups are very different. When there is a lot of within-group variability, the scores range (both high and low), and that means that the scores of one group may be similar to some scores of the other group. This overlap makes the groups look more similar than they actually are.

74. Answer:

A researcher concerned with individual differences should consider using a within-groups design or a matched-groups design. If these two design options are not feasible, a researcher could increase the number of participants.

75. Answer:

Null effects are important in science because it is important to understand that some things are not related, some therapies do not work, and some differences do not exist. Null effects are hard to find in popular media because there is a publishing bias against null effects. Generally, newspapers and magazines prefer to print articles about relationships, differences, and effective treatments.

Name: ___________________________ Class: _________________ Date: __________

Chapter 12

The mathematical way to describe an interaction is a.

a difference in differences.

a caveat.

a qualified main effect.

a patterned pattern.

Dr. Rhodes notices an interaction in his factorial study. In describing this, which statement might he use to explain the link between Independent Variable A and Independent Variable B in predicting the dependent variable? a.

Variable A cancels out Variable B.

The effect of Variable A depends on Variable B.

Variable A mainly affects Variable B.

The effect of Variable A is mediated by Variable B.

In the case of a factorial design, another term for independent variable is a.

main effect.

cell.

factor.

significance variable.

What are the two main reasons to conduct a factorial study? a.

to increase internal validity and to establish external validity

to compare participant variables and to establish covariance

to find moderators and to find mediators

to test limits and to test theories

The number of main effects that need to be examined is ________ the number of independent variables. a.

more important than

equal to

unrelated to

independent of

Which of the following can be said of the interaction in a study? a.

It can be determined by investigating marginal means.

It can exist even if the main effects are not significant.

It is usually less important than a study’s main effects.

There can be only one type of interaction.

RESEARCH STUDY 12.1: Dr. Singh was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, she was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an “opposite” category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of “southern” if they first think about the category of “northern”? She was also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are shown examples of those categories (e.g., looking at pictures of different animals) compared with generating those examples themselves (e.g., drawing pictures of different animals). Dr. Singh

has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the “dog” category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of her study are below. Type of Activity

Type of Activity

Cutting out Pictures

Drawing Pictures

Focus of the Activity

Dogs and cats

Focus of the Activity

Dogs only

How many participant variables exist in Dr. Singh’s study?

participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the “dog” category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of her study are below. Type of Activity

Type of Activity

Cutting out Pictures

Drawing Pictures

Focus of the Activity

Dogs and cats

Focus of the Activity

Dogs only

Which of the following best describes Dr. Singh’s study?

a 2 × 2 crossed factorial design

a 4 × 2 nested factorial design

a 2 × 1 mixed factorial design

a 2 × 4 within-groups factorial design

In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the “dog” category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of her study are below. Type of Activity

Type of Activity

Cutting out Pictures

Drawing Pictures

Focus of the Activity

Dogs and cats

Focus of the Activity

Dogs only

To make her study a 2 × 2 × 3 factorial design, which of the following would Dr. Singh need to do?

10.

add a second dependent variable (quality of the category attributes listed)

add a new manipulated variable (time to complete the task: 5 minutes versus 10 minutes versus 15 minutes)

add a new participant variable (sex: males versus females)

add a new independent variable (activity condition: alone versus with a friend)

Type of Activity

Cutting out Pictures

Drawing Pictures

Focus of the Activity

Dogs and cats

Focus of the Activity

Dogs only

Which of the following is the most likely reason Dr. Singh conducted a factorial design?

11.

to determine whether a mediator was present in participants’ ability to categorize

to test whether there is a difference between creating and searching for category members

to test whether there is a difference between thinking about a category and thinking about a category and its opposite

to test whether task type interacts with the effect of activity focus

looking at pictures of different animals) compared with generating those examples themselves (e.g., drawing pictures of different animals). Dr. Singh has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the “dog” category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of her study are below. Type of Activity

Type of Activity

Cutting out Pictures

Drawing Pictures

Focus of the Activity

Dogs and cats

Focus of the Activity

Dogs only

In Dr. Singh’s study, how many possible main effects exist?

12.

examples themselves (e.g., drawing pictures of different animals). Dr. Singh has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the “dog” category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of her study are below. Type of Activity

Type of Activity

Cutting out Pictures

Drawing Pictures

Focus of the Activity

Dogs and cats

Focus of the Activity

Dogs only

Which of the following could be said of the focus of activity variable in Dr. Singh’s study?

13.

There is no main effect for the focus of activity variable.

A proper statistical test would be necessary to determine the effect of the focus of activity variable.

The focus of activity variable is a participant variable.

The focus of activity finding is not as important as the type of activity finding.

categorize differently if they are shown examples of those categories (e.g., looking at pictures of different animals) compared with generating those examples themselves (e.g., drawing pictures of different animals). Dr. Singh has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the “dog” category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of her study are below. Type of Activity

Type of Activity

Cutting out Pictures

Drawing Pictures

Focus of the Activity

Dogs and cats

Focus of the Activity

Dogs only

To determine if there is a main effect for type of activity, Dr. Singh must examine how many marginal means?

14.

Type of Activity

Cutting out Pictures

Drawing Pictures

Focus of the Activity

Dogs and cats

Focus of the Activity

Dogs only

In graphing the results of her study, which of the following would be true for Dr. Singh?

15.

Dr. Singh would see a crossover interaction.

Dr. Singh would reach different conclusions based on which independent variable she put on the x-axis.

Dr. Singh would not be able to use a line graph.

Dr. Singh would see a difference in differences for one variable but not the other variable.

think differently about the category of “southern” if they first think about the category of “northern”? She was also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are shown examples of those categories (e.g., looking at pictures of different animals) compared with generating those examples themselves (e.g., drawing pictures of different animals). Dr. Singh has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the “dog” category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of her study are below. Type of Activity

Type of Activity

Cutting out Pictures

Drawing Pictures

Focus of the Activity

Dogs and cats

Focus of the Activity

Dogs only

In graphing the difference in differences, which of the following values would Dr. Singh use?

16.

6.5

7.5

Type of Activity

Cutting out Pictures

Drawing Pictures

Focus of the Activity

Dogs and cats

Focus of the Activity

Dogs only

By examining the marginal means, it appears that in this study

17.

there are no meaningful main effects.

there is a main effect of focus of the activity.

there is no significant interaction.

there is no main effect of type of activity.

about the category of “northern”? She was also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are shown examples of those categories (e.g., looking at pictures of different animals) compared with generating those examples themselves (e.g., drawing pictures of different animals). Dr. Singh has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the “dog” category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. Dr. Singh also was curious as to whether categorization happens similarly for children as it does for adults. As such, she recruits a group of 10-yearolds and a group of 20-year-olds to participate in the study. The results are below.

Which of the following is the correct factorial notation for Dr. Singh’s new study?

18.

1×2×4

2×2×2

2×2

2×4

RESEARCH STUDY 12.2: Dr. Singh was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us

recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, she was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an “opposite” category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of “southern” if they are also thinking about the category of “northern”? She was also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are shown examples of those categories (e.g., looking at pictures of different animals) compared with generating those examples themselves (e.g., drawing pictures of different animals). Dr. Singh has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the “dog” category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. Dr. Singh was also is curious as to whether categorization happens similarly for children as it does for adults. As such, she recruits a group of 10-yearolds and a group of 20-year-olds to participate in the study. The results are below.

Dr. Singh will need to examine ________ main effects and ________ interactions.

19.

3; 3

3; 4

4; 8

4; 4

RESEARCH STUDY 12.2: Dr. Singh was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us

recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, she was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an “opposite” category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of “southern” if they are also thinking about the category of “northern”? She was also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are shown examples of those categories (e.g., looking at pictures of different animals) compared with generating those examples themselves (e.g., drawing pictures of different animals). Dr. Singh has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the “dog” category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. Dr. Singh also was curious as to whether categorization happens similarly for children as it does for adults. As such, she recruits a group of 10-yearolds and a group of 20-year-olds to participate in the study. The results are below.

Dr. Singh will need to examine how many two-way interactions?

20.

curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an “opposite” category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of “southern” if they are also thinking about the category of “northern”? She was also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are shown examples of those categories (e.g., looking at pictures of different animals) compared with generating those examples themselves (e.g., drawing pictures of different animals). Dr. Singh has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the “dog” category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. Dr. Singh also was curious as to whether categorization happens similarly for children as it does for adults. As such, she recruits a group of 10-yearolds and a group of 20-year-olds to participate in the study. The results are below.

Based on the graphs above, Dr. Singh should conclude which of the following? a.

There is a main effect for participants’ age.

The three-way interaction does not look significant.

The interaction between activity focus and activity type depends on participants’ age.

Participants’ age appears to mediate the relationship between activity focus and activity type.

21.

RESEARCH STUDY 12.2: Dr. Singh was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, she was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an “opposite” category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of “southern” if they are also thinking about the category of “northern”? She was also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are shown examples of those categories (e.g., looking at pictures of different animals) compared with generating those examples themselves (e.g., drawing pictures of different animals). Dr. Singh has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the “dog” category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. Dr. Singh also was curious as to whether categorization happens similarly for children as it does for adults. As such, she recruits a group of 10-yearolds and a group of 20-year-olds to participate in the study. The results are below.

Based on the graphs above, why should Dr. Singh conclude that there is a three-way interaction? a.

There is a two-way interaction for 10-year-olds but not for 20-year-olds.

There is a two-way interaction for 20-year-olds but not for 10-year-olds.

There is a two-way interaction for 10-year-olds that is different from the two-way interaction for 20-year-olds.

There is no two-way interaction for either 10-year-olds or 20-year-olds.

22.

Which of the following reasons might Dr. Singh have for changing her study in this way?

23.

to enhance external validity

to ensure construct validity

to deal with statistical validity

to control internal validity

RESEARCH STUDY 12.2: Dr. Singh was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us

recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, she was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an “opposite” category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of “southern” if they are also thinking about the category of “northern”? She was also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are shown examples of those categories (e.g., looking at pictures of different animals) compared with generating those examples themselves (e.g., drawing pictures of different animals). Dr. Singh has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the “dog” category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. Dr. Singh also was curious as to whether categorization happens similarly for children as it does for adults. As such, she recruits a group of 10-yearolds and a group of 20-year-olds to participate in the study. The results are below.

The addition of the new variable to Dr. Singh’s study could be thought of as which of the following?

24.

a confound

a moderator

an independent variable

a dependent variable

According to the textbook, why is it important to study interactions?

25.

26.

27.

They are more scientific than other analyses.

Many outcomes in psychology are interactions.

They are more complicated than other analyses.

They are easier to understand than main effects.

Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 × 4 independent-groups factorial design. Assuming he wants 25 people in each cell, how many participants does Dr. Gavin need to recruit? a.

100

150

200

250

Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 × 4 independent-groups factorial design. How many independent variables are in his study? a.

Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 × 4 independent-groups factorial design. How many interactions will Dr. Gavin need to examine? a.

28.

29.

30.

31.

Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 × 4 independent-groups factorial design. How many main effects will Dr. Gavin need to examine? a.

Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 × 4 independent-groups factorial design. How many cells are in his design? a.

Dr. Gavin decides that instead of conducting a 2 × 4 independent-groups factorial design, he is going to conduct a 2 × 4 within-groups factorial design. Which of the following things will change? a.

the number of main effects that need to be examined

the number of interactions that need to be examined

the number of participants needed

the number of cells

Dr. Gavin decides that instead of conducting a 2 × 4 independent-groups factorial design, he is going to conduct a 2 × 3 × 4 mixed factorial design. Which of the following things will NOT have to change? a.

the number of main effects that need to be examined

32.

33.

34.

the number of interactions that need to be examined

the number of participants needed

the number of researchers needed

A “difference in the difference between the differences” would indicate which of the following? a.

a crossover interaction

multiple main effects

a three-way interaction

a within-groups factorial design

Imagine that you are reading a journal article and you see the following sentence: “The study used a 2 × 2 × 4 design.” Based on this sentence alone, you would know which of the following pieces of information? a.

the number of participants in the study

the number of main effects that need to be examined

the statistical significance of the interaction

the number of participant variables

Imagine that you are reading a journal article and you see the following sentence: “The study used a 2 × 2 × 4 design.” Where are you likely to have encountered this sentence? a.

the introduction

the Method section

the Results section

the Discussion section

35.

36.

37.

38.

Which of the following phrases might a person encounter in a popular media article that indicates an interaction? a.

“statistically significant”

“mixed factorial design”

“it depends”

“mediator variables”

An author might use all of the following methods to indicate statistical significance EXCEPT a.

using the word significant.

including an asterisk in a table.

using the notation p < 0.05.

the inclusion of a graph.

A popular media articles describes how children and adolescents differ in the US and Canada. How does the inclusion of participant variable information denote a factorial design? a.

Participant variables are often used as moderators.

Participant variables are found only in factorial designs.

Studies with participant variables always find significant interactions.

Studies with participant variables are easier to write about.

Neely is examining the graph of an interaction and sees that one line is flat and one line rises sharply to the right. Which of the following should Neely conclude? a.

There is no interaction.

39.

40.

41.

There is a crossover interaction.

There is a spreading interaction.

There is a main-effect interaction.

If a person describes the results of a study to you by saying that there is a zero difference in one condition but a large difference in another condition, the person is most likely describing which of the following? a.

a crossover interaction

a spreading interaction

a three-way interaction

a difference interaction

What is the difference between a main effect and an overall effect? a.

Main effects are less important than overall effects.

Main effects are more complicated to determine than overall effects.

Main effects look at one variable at a time; overall effects look at all variables simultaneously.

There is no difference between main effects and overall effects.

What does the author of the textbook mean when she writes, “We don’t live in a main effect world”? a.

She means that psychologists do not like to examine main effects.

She means that main effects are not important.

She means that interactions are common in everyday life.

She means that studies that produce interactions are the only studies worth conducting.

42.

43.

44.

45.

You read an article that states, “How well you remember different types of information depends on the context in which you learned them.” Based on this information, what else is true about this study? a.

The influence of context on memory depends on the type of information presented.

You remember information best only when it’s presented in a specific context.

There is no effect of context on memory.

There is an effect of information type on memory.

The phrase “especially for” would be used to describe which of the following results? a.

crossover interactions

spreading interactions

one significant main effect

two significant main effects

If a study describes the “difference in differences,” what is the minimum number of variables the researchers were studying? a.

If a study has a difference in the differences, you know the study definitely has a

46.

47.

48.

crossover interaction.

significant main effect.

spreading interaction.

significant interaction.

Studies with one independent variable can show a.

a difference in differences.

an interaction effect.

a simple difference.

a factorial effect.

A simple difference is also called a.

a factorial design.

a marginal means difference.

an interaction effect.

a main effect.

Dr. Green is interested in conducting a 2 × 2 × 3 within-group factorial design, with 20 participants in each cell. How many participants does she need overall? a.

240

49.

50.

51.

52.

Dr. Green is interested in conducting a 2 × 2 × 3 mixed factorial design, with 20 participants in each cell. Which of the following would NOT be a possible number of participants for this study? a.

Why are factorial designs useful in testing theories? a.

They allow researchers to explore the construct validity of a theory.

Results from factorial designs are typically straightforward and easy to interpret.

They allow researchers to understand the nuances of how variables interact.

Results from factorial designs are always intuitive.

The arithmetic means for each level of an independent variable, averaging over levels of the other independent variable, are called a.

estimate means.

marginal means.

interaction means.

factorial means.

A study finds that the relationship between time spent studying and final exam grade depends on the techniques used for studying. Which of the following statements do we know to be true from this sentence? a.

There is no main effect of time spent studying.

Some studying techniques caused students to fail.

53.

54.

55.

There was an interaction between time and technique.

The study used a 2 × 2 design.

Lakshmi wants to know whether a new TV show helps children learn their ABCs. She discovers there is an interaction with whether or not parents watched the show alongside the child. Which of the following statements best describes this finding? a.

The show improved ABC skills only for kids whose parents watched along with them.

The show did not improve ABC skills because parents had to be there.

Only parents can teach children their ABCs.

Learning ABCs depends on watching a TV show.

A study finds that exercise improves concentration, especially for students who took a yoga class as opposed to step aerobics. Which of the following statements can we infer about the study based on this finding? a.

There was no main effect of exercise on concentration.

This was a within-group study.

The researchers were biased against step aerobics.

There was an interaction in the results.

RESEARCH STUDY 12.3: Dr. Yared is interested in memorization techniques and motivation. He splits his participants into four equal groups of 20 people each and gave each participant a list of 30 words to try to memorize in three minutes. Two groups were told to repeat the words silently to themselves and two groups were told to make up a story using the words. Two groups were offered 10 cents per word they recalled and two were offered $1 per word. The table shows how many words each group was able to recall. Memory

Memory

Technique

Repetition

Make up a story

Monetary reward

10 cents per word recalled

Monetary reward

1 dollar per word recalled

What are the marginal means for memory technique?

56.

28 and 29

14 and 14.5

21 and 36

10.5 and 18

Memory Technique

Repetition

Make up a story

Monetary reward

10 cents per word recalled

Monetary reward

1 dollar per word recalled

What are the marginal means for monetary reward?

57.

28 and 29

14 and 14.5

21 and 36

10.5 and 18

Memory Technique

Repetition

Make up a story

Monetary reward

10 cents per word recalled

Monetary reward

1 dollar per word recalled

Though there are no statistics in the table, what do you expect was the finding based on the marginal means? a.

There appears to be a main effect of monetary reward

There appears to be a significant interaction between monetary reward and memory technique

There appears to be a main effect of memory technique

None of the manipulations affected memory

58.

59.

60.

RESEARCH STUDY 12.4: Dr. Price conducted a study on how toddlers learn their colors. She thinks that the place where the toddlers are asked about colors and the objects they play with while learning the colors will affect the outcome. She wrote this in the methods section: “Seventy-six children (42 girls; Mage = 18 months, 14 days; SD = 17 days) were in the final group. Children participated in one of four between-subjects conditions (19 children each) differing in location (kitchen vs. living room) and objects (blocks vs. rings vs. puzzle pieces).” Which statement is true based on the excerpt? a.

This is a mixed factorial design

This is a single independent variable design

This is a 2 × 3 design

There is an interaction between location and object

If location was a within-subjects variable

If there were more levels in the independent variables

If both location and object were within-subjects variables

If there is an interaction in the results

interaction was not significant. This latter finding suggests that the benefit of using puzzle pieces to learn about colors is not dependent on where the puzzle is completed.” Given this excerpt, which of the following statements could also be found in the paper?

61.

Toddlers talked about colors with every toy equally

Toddlers talked more about colors in the living room

Toddlers talked more about colors in the living room but only when they played with the puzzle pieces

Toddlers did not change their answers based on location

RESEARCH STUDY 12.5: To study the effects of physical discomfort on attention, Dr. Lopez conducted the following study: A group of participants were required to keep one hand submerged in cold water (52 degrees). Half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 2 minutes, and half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 4 minutes. In addition, half of the participants were given a placebo pill and told it would reduce the pain of the water (pain relief assumed). The other half were given a placebo pill and told that it would have no effect (no pain relief assumed). While their hands were in the water, participants were asked to watch a video where a ball is quickly passed between and underneath three cups. At the end of the video, participants were asked to indicate under which cup the ball could be found. Whether or not the participant picked the correct cup was recorded (as a measure of whether they were paying attention). The results are below. Duration Duration 2 Minutes

4 Minutes

Pain Relief Expectation

Expecting to experience pain relief

Pain Relief Expectation

Not expecting to experience pain relief

Name the independent variables in this study and describe their levels.

62.

4 Minutes

Pain Relief Expectation

Expecting to experience pain relief

Pain Relief Expectation

Not expecting to experience pain relief

Using Dr. Lopez’s study as an example, explain why an interaction can be described as “a difference in differences.”

63.

Duration Duration 2 Minutes

4 Minutes

Pain Relief Expectation

Expecting to experience pain relief

Pain Relief Expectation

Not expecting to experience pain relief

Using Dr. Lopez’s study as an example, explain why an interaction is often described by saying “it depends.”

64.

4 Minutes

Pain Relief Expectation

Expecting to experience pain relief

Pain Relief Expectation

Not expecting to experience pain relief

Using factorial notation, describe Dr. Lopez’s study. Given this information, how many main effects and interactions will Dr. Lopez need to examine?

65.

4 Minutes

Pain Relief Expectation

Expecting to experience pain relief

Pain Relief Expectation

Not expecting to experience pain relief

Using the marginal means, state whether it appears that the main effects in Dr. Lopez’s study are important. (You do not need to say whether the main effects are statistically significant but simply whether a difference appears to exist.)

66.

quickly passed between and underneath three cups. At the end of the video, participants were asked to indicate under which cup the ball could be found. Whether or not the participant picked the correct cup was recorded (as a measure of whether they were paying attention). The results are below. Duration Duration 2 Minutes

4 Minutes

Pain Relief Expectation

Expecting to experience pain relief

Pain Relief Expectation

Not expecting to experience pain relief

Using the data table alone, discuss whether Dr. Lopez should conclude that an interaction exists in his study.

67.

Pain Relief Expectation

Expecting to experience pain relief

2 Minutes

4 Minutes

Pain Relief Expectation

Not expecting to experience pain relief

Imagine that Dr. Lopez decides to manipulate the pain duration differently. He now has three levels of this variable: 2 minutes, 4 minutes, and 6 minutes. Using factorial notation, describe Dr. Lopez’s study. Given this new study design, how does this change the number of cells, main effects, and interactions in Dr. Lopez’s study?

68.

4 Minutes

Pain Relief Expectation

Expecting to experience pain relief

Pain Relief Expectation

Not expecting to experience pain relief

Provide a graph of the possible interaction in Dr. Lopez’s study and discuss whether Dr. Lopez should conclude that an interaction exists in his study.

69.

RESEARCH STUDY 12.5: To study the effects of physical discomfort on attention, Dr. Lopez conducted the following study: A group of participants

were required to keep one hand submerged in cold water (52 degrees). Half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 2 minutes, and half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 4 minutes. In addition, half of the participants were given a placebo pill and told it would reduce the pain of the water (pain relief assumed). The other half were given a placebo pill and told that it would have no effect (no pain relief assumed). While their hands were in the water, participants were asked to watch a video where a ball is quickly passed between and underneath three cups. At the end of the video, participants were asked to indicate under which cup the ball could be found. Whether or not the participant picked the correct cup was recorded (as a measure of whether they were paying attention). The results are below. Duration Duration 2 Minutes

4 Minutes

Pain Relief Expectation

Expecting to experience pain relief

Pain Relief Expectation

Not expecting to experience pain relief

Imagine that Dr. Lopez decides to add another variable to his study. He is curious as to whether the results of the study vary based on sex (male and female). Using factorial notation, describe Dr. Lopez’s study. Given this new study design, how does this change the number of cells, main effects, and interactions in Dr. Lopez’s study?

70.

Whether or not the participant picked the correct cup was recorded (as a measure of whether they were paying attention). The results are below. Duration Duration 2 Minutes

4 Minutes

Pain Relief Expectation

Expecting to experience pain relief

Pain Relief Expectation

Not expecting to experience pain relief

Imagine that Dr. Lopez decides to add an additional variable to his study. He is curious as to whether the results of the study vary based on sex (male and female). The graphs of the results are below. Discuss whether Dr. Lopez should conclude that a three-way interaction exists in his study.

71.

Provide two reasons a researcher would want to conduct a factorial study.

72.

State the three types of factorial designs.

73.

Explain why researchers care about interactions more than main effects.

74.

Imagine that you read the following passage in a journal article. Provide three pieces of information that this passage tells the reader about the study conducted. “A 3 × 4 within-subjects design was specified that varied color of paper (blue, pink, white) and font size (10 point, 12 point, 14 point, 16 point). The time it took participants to read the printed word was measured.”

75.

Imagine that you read the following passage in a popular magazine. Should you conclude that the original article found evidence of an interaction? Why is or isn’t there evidence of an interaction? “One study had participants watch a crime show. Half the participants watched a documentary of a murder that took place in rural Virginia, while the other half watched a movie adaptation of the same murder. The effect of viewing a crime show on people’s fear of being a victim of crime depends on the participants’ sex, with women in general being more fearful regardless of which show they saw, whereas men reported more fear after watching the documentary.”

Answer Key Chapter 12

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Dr. Lopez’s study has two independent variables: duration of the task and pain relief expectation. For duration of the task variable, there are two levels: 2 minutes and 4 minutes. For the pain relief expectation variable, there are two levels: an expectation of pain relief and no expectation of pain relief.

62. Answer:

An interaction can be thought of as a difference in differences because an interaction describes a different pattern of results in one independent variable based on another. In other words, a difference in one variable is associated with a difference in another variable. In Dr. Lopez’s study, a difference in people’s expectation of pain relief and attention is different based on how long they experience pain.

63. Answer:

An interaction can be explained by saying that the effect of one independent variable depends on another independent variable. In Dr. Lopez’s study, one might say that the relationship between people’s pain expectation and attention depends on how long they experience pain.

64. Answer:

Dr. Lopez’s study is a 2 × 2 design. Dr. Lopez will need to examine two main effects and one two-way interaction.

65. Answer:

In each response, students should provide the marginal means for each group (meaning they should provide four marginal means). In examining the pain expectation main effect, there appears to be no main effect/difference, as the marginal means are equal (25). In examining the duration of the pain main effect, there appears to be a main effect. The marginal mean for the 2-minute group is 28.5, and the marginal mean for the 4-minute group is 21.5.

66. Answer:

In each response, students should provide difference scores from the table. They can provide either the difference of duration scores (2 minutes: 32 - 25 = 7; 4 minutes: 18 - 25 = -7) or the difference in pain relief expectation scores (expectation: 32 - 18 = 14; no expectation: 25 - 25 = 0). Regardless of which they provide, students should state that it appears that an interaction is present. Students should not receive credit if they reference a graph or interpretation of a graph (e.g., nonparallel lines).

67. Answer:

The new study should be described as a 2 × 3. The number of main effects and interactions does not change, but the number of cells changes from four to six.

68. Answer:

In each response, students should provide a graph of the interaction. Students may provide a line or bar graph. It does not matter which variable is placed on the x-axis. Two graphs are provided below: students only need to provide one, but which one they provide will depend on which variable they place on the xaxis. Based on the nonparallel/intersecting lines, students should state that it appears that an interaction is present.

69. Answer:

The new study should be described as a 2 × 2 × 2. Dr. Lopez will need to examine three main effects, three two-way interactions, and one three-way interaction. In addition, there will now be 8 cells instead of 4.

70. Answer:

Dr. Lopez should conclude that there is no three-way interaction. In their responses, students may elaborate and say this is because the pattern of results is identical between the two groups/levels of the new independent variable.

71. Answer:

One reason to conduct a factorial study is to test limits, or explore whether an independent variable affects different types of people differently (e.g., men and women) or whether an independent variable works similarly in different situations. A second reason to conduct a factorial study is to test a theory.

72. Answer:

The three types of factorial designs are independent-groups factorial designs, within-groups factorial designs, and mixed factorial designs.

73. Answer:

Researchers care more about interactions than main effects because many of the outcomes in psychology (and, by extension, life) are interactions. In other words, the effect of many variables depends on other variables.

74. Answer:

In each response, students should state three of the following six pieces of information that this passage tells the reader: (1) it is a factorial design; (2) there are two independent variables (they may specify that these are color of paper and font size); (3) one variable has three levels (color of paper: blue, pink, and white); (4) one variable has four levels (font size: 10 point, 12 point, 14 point, 16 point); (5) both variables were manipulated as within-groups variables; (6) there is one dependent variable (time it takes to read printed word).

75. Answer:

This passage suggests that an interaction was found in the original study. Students’ reasoning for making this conclusion can come from the inclusion of the term depends or from the inclusion of a participant variable (participant sex) that suggests moderation.

Name: ___________________________ Class: _________________ Date: __________

Chapter 13

Which of the following is true of quasi-experiments? a.

Quasi-experiments use random assignment.

Quasi-experiments involve manipulated variables.

Quasi-experiments cannot have comparison groups.

Participants are not randomly assigned to groups.

Which of the following is a quasi-experimental design in which participants are not randomly assigned to groups and are tested only after exposure to the quasi-independent variable? a.

interrupted time-series design

nonequivalent control group design

nonequivalent groups interrupted time-series design

stable-baseline design

Which of the following is a quasi-experimental design in which participants are not randomly assigned to groups and are tested both before and after exposure to the quasi-independent variable? a.

interrupted time-series design

nonequivalent control group pretest/posttest design

matched group factorial design

multiple regression design

Which of the following designs involves repeated measurement of a variable before and after some event? a.

interrupted time-series design

nonequivalent control group design

matched group factorial design

multiple regression design

The degree to which a quasi-experiment supports a causal claim depends on which of the following? a.

its design and its results

its duration and its sample size

its importance and its external validity

its statistical significance and its practical significance

A wait-list design is helpful in dealing with which of the following threats to internal validity? a.

maturation

selection

history

attrition

If Dr. Ba is interested in a causal relationship between joining a fraternity/sorority and attractiveness concern, why doesn’t she conduct a true experiment?

It is not possible to study private organizations, like fraternities/sororities.

It is not possible to measure body concern.

He was unable to recruit an equal number of men and women.

He was unable to randomly assign participants to join a fraternity/sorority.

RESEARCH STUDY 13.1: Dr. Ba is interested in whether joining a fraternity/sorority causes people to become more concerned about their attractiveness. She recruits a group of 55 freshmen (25 men, 30 women) who are planning to go through fraternity/sorority recruitment on her campus. After they join, she gives them a measure of attractiveness concern (the Body Concern Scale). In addition to measuring the group of participants who joined a fraternity/sorority, Dr. Ba decides to give the same measure to another group of 55 participants who decided to not join a fraternity/sorority. This type of design is known as a(n) a.

interrupted time-series design.

nonequivalent control group design.

nonequivalent groups interrupted time-series design.

reversal design.

In addition to measuring the group of participants who joined a fraternity/sorority, Dr. Ba decides to give the same measure to another group of 55 participants who decided to not join a fraternity/sorority. After conducting the study, Dr. Ba finds out that the people who joined a fraternity/sorority all saw a documentary on body image sponsored by the InterGreek Council the night before recruitment began. This threat to internal validity is known as a

10.

11.

selection threat.

selection-history threat.

history threat.

testing threat.

RESEARCH STUDY 13.1: Dr. Ba is interested in whether joining a fraternity/sorority causes people to become more concerned about their attractiveness. She recruits a group of 55 freshmen (25 men, 30 women) who are planning to go through fraternity/sorority recruitment on her campus. After they join, she gives them a measure of attractiveness concern (the Body Concern Scale). Which of the following would Dr. Ba need to do to his current study design to make it an interrupted time-series design? a.

Rrecruit a group of participants who joined a fraternity/sorority at a different school.

Take measurements of body concern before and after joining a fraternity/sorority.

Measure body concern using a different measure than the Body Concern Scale.

Add an additional variable, such as self-esteem.

campus. After they join, she gives them a measure of attractiveness concern (the Body Concern Scale). In addition to measuring the group of participants who joined a fraternity/sorority, Dr. Ba decides to give the same measure to another group of 55 participants who decided to not join a fraternity/sorority. Doing this would help Dr. Ba address all of the following threats to internal validity EXCEPT

12.

13.

experimenter bias.

maturation.

selection.

history.

RESEARCH STUDY 13.1: Dr. Ba is interested in whether joining a fraternity/sorority causes people to become more concerned about their attractiveness. She recruits a group of 55 freshmen (25 men, 30 women) who are planning to go through fraternity/sorority recruitment on her campus. After they join, she gives them a measure of attractiveness concern (the Body Concern Scale). In addition to measuring the Body Concern of the participants who joined a fraternity/sorority both immediately before and immediately after they join, Dr. Ba measures them for the three weeks before and the three weeks after. This type of design is known as a(n) a.

nonequivalent control group design.

nonequivalent groups interrupted time-series design.

interrupted time-series design.

multiple-baseline design.

campus. After they join, she gives them a measure of attractiveness concern (the Body Concern Scale). In addition to measuring the Body Concern of the participants who joined a fraternity/sorority both immediately before and immediately after they join, Dr. Ba measures them for the three weeks before and the three weeks after. This type of design would be able to better address which of the following threats to internal validity?

14.

15.

history

testing

selection-history

experimenter bias

RESEARCH STUDY 13.1: Dr. Ba is interested in whether joining a fraternity/sorority causes people to become more concerned about their attractiveness and appearance. She recruits a group of 55 freshmen (25 men, 30 women) who are planning to go through fraternity/sorority recruitment on her campus. After they join, she gives them a measure of attractiveness concern (the Body Concern Scale). Suppose Dr. Ba finds that joining a fraternity/sorority reduces self-esteem about one’s appearance. Who could her study generalize to? a.

students in fraternities/sororities

college students

all individuals with low self-esteem

university graduates who were in fraternities/sororities

Suppose Dr. Ba was concerned that students who choose to join fraternities/sororities are more concerned with their appearance overall. How could she test whether this type of selection threat exists?

16.

17.

18.

Collect attractiveness concerns at more time points throughout the year from her subjects.

Compare baseline levels of attractiveness concerns in fraternity/sorority students versus the average college student.

Check that none of her participants had exceptionally high levels of attractiveness concerns at the beginning of his study.

Examine whether any events occurred on campus that year that may influence attractiveness concerns for all students.

Which of the following is an advantage of using quasi-experimental designs? a.

They allow researchers to capitalize on random assignment.

They allow researchers to enhance external validity.

They allow researchers to disregard internal validity.

They are better suited to detect significant effects.

In conducting quasi-experimental designs, researchers tend to give up some ________ in exchange for ________. a.

internal validity; external validity

internal validity; statistical validity

statistical validity; external validity

construct validity; statistical validity

Why do quasi-experiments tend to have very good construct validity for the independent variable?

19.

20.

The manipulations have been previously validated in the lab.

They use real-world manipulations/experiences.

They tend to use more participants.

They also have good construct validity for the dependent variable.

RESEARCH STUDY 13.2: Dr. LaGuardia is a cognitive neuroscientist who is interested in the effect of brain concussions on the ability to recognize faces. They conduct a quasi-experimental study in which they examine football players before and after the regular season using the Benton Facial Recognition Test (a published, widely used measure of one’s ability to recognize faces) to compare those who received concussions to those who did not. Dr. LaGuardia finds that players who had concussions during the regular season performed worse on the Benton Facial Recognition Test than did players who did not experience concussions. In interrogating the construct validity of Dr. LaGuardia’s study, which of the following statements is accurate? a.

Because Dr. LaGuardia’s participants actually experienced concussions, the independent variable appears to have construct validity.

Because Dr. LaGuardia did not use a true experiment, it is impossible to determine if the independent variable has construct validity.

Because Dr. LaGuardia studied real football players, the dependent variable appears to have construct validity.

Because Dr. LaGuardia did not use a true experiment, it is impossible to determine if the dependent variable has construct validity.

season performed worse on the Benton Facial Recognition Test than did players who did not experience concussions. Which of the following makes Dr. LaGuardia’s quasi-experimental study different from a correlational study?

21.

Dr. LaGuardia used a validated measure of the dependent variable.

Dr. LaGuardia was able to confirm the occurrence of a concussion rather than relying on self-report.

Dr. LaGuardia used a naturally occurring comparison group (i.e., players who did not suffer a concussion).

Dr. LaGuardia used members of a real sports team rather than members of the general population.

RESEARCH STUDY 13.2: Dr. LaGuardia is a cognitive neuroscientist who is interested in the effect of brain concussions on the ability to recognize faces. They conduct a quasi-experimental study in which they examine football players before and after the regular season using the Benton Facial Recognition Test (a published, widely used measure of one’s ability to recognize faces) to compare those who received concussions to those who did not. They find that players who had concussions during the regular season performed worse on the Benton Facial Recognition Test than did players who did not experience concussions. Which of the following is true regarding external validity in Dr. LaGuardia’s study? a.

Because Dr. LaGuardia selected participants who actually experienced concussions, the study has strong external validity.

Because Dr. LaGuardia’s study is a quasi-experiment, it is impossible to obtain external validity.

Because Dr. LaGuardia’s dependent variable was assessed in the laboratory, the study has limited external validity.

Because Dr. LaGuardia selected a widely used measure, their study generalizes to other applications of this measure.

22.

23.

RESEARCH STUDY 13.2: Dr. LaGuardia is a cognitive neuroscientist who is interested in the effect of brain concussions on the ability to recognize faces. They conduct a quasi-experimental study in which they examine football players before and after the regular season using the Benton Facial Recognition Test (a published, widely used measure of one’s ability to recognize faces) to compare those who received concussions to those who did not. They find that players who had concussions during the regular season performed worse on the Benton Facial Recognition Test than did players who did not experience concussions. If Dr. LaGuardia had instead been interested in conducting a small-N design, which of the following might they have done? a.

Dr. LaGuardia would not have compared participants’ performance on the Facial Recognition Test to other groups.

Dr. LaGuardia would have collected fewer types of data.

Dr. LaGuardia would have likely collected other additional dependent measures.

Dr. LaGuardia would have likely selected a topic where he expected a small effect size.

RESEARCH STUDY 13.2: Dr. LaGuardia is a cognitive neuroscientist who is interested in the effect of brain concussions on the ability to recognize faces. They conduct a quasi-experimental study in which they examine football players before and after the regular season using the Benton Facial Recognition Test (a published, widely used measure of one’s ability to recognize faces) to compare those who received concussions to those who did not. They find that players who had concussions during the regular season performed worse on the Benton Facial Recognition Test than did players who did not experience concussions. In analyzing the data, Dr. LaGuardia finds that there was no pretest difference in Benton Facial Recognition scores. However, they do find that the football players who received concussions had worse visuo-spatial awareness before the study. Which of the following threats to internal validity should they be concerned with? a.

regression to the mean

history threat

24.

25.

26.

27.

design confounds

maturation threat

In which of the following ways are correlational designs similar to quasiexperimental designs? a.

They both use nonrandom samples.

They both suffer from possible threats to internal validity.

They both use random assignment.

They both use small numbers of participants.

Which of the following is true of small-N experiments? a.

Small-N designs determine whether a finding is replicable by doing a test of statistical significance.

Data from small-N designs are presented as averages.

Data from small-N designs are grouped together.

Each person in a small-N design is treated as a separate experiment

Which of the following CANNOT typically be applied to a small-N experiment? a.

experimental control

manipulation of variables

inferential statistics

replication

Seeing stability in a stable-baseline design can help rule out which of the following threats to internal validity?

28.

29.

30.

regression to the mean

placebo effects

attrition

observer bias

Which of the following is NOT a small-N design? a.

interrupted time-series design

stable-baseline design

multiple-baseline design

reversal design

A small-N design that involves providing treatment and then removing treatment is known as a(n) a.

interrupted time-series design.

stable-baseline design.

multiple-baseline design.

reversal design.

RESEARCH STUDY 13.3: Dr. Anderson is a nutritionist who helps clients lose weight prior to surgery. She is working with W. J., a male client who is planning on undergoing a heart transplant. He currently eats more than 3,500 calories a day and has been asked by his doctor to cut the number of calories to about 1,800 (400 for breakfast, 600 for lunch, and 800 for dinner). She is curious as to whether a food journal will help W. J. reduce the number of calories he eats. A food journal is used to record everything a person eats to help patients be more aware of what they’re eating. W. J.’s partner also recorded the food he consumed at each meal to have complete data before introducing the journal. Dr. Anderson decides to phase in the food journal gradually, initially having W. J. record only what he ate at

breakfast during the first three days after baseline (days 4–6). During days 7–9, the journal is used at lunch, too, and during days 10–12, it also is used during dinner. The data for Dr. Anderson’s study are below.

What type of small-N design has Dr. Anderson used with W. J.?

31.

interrupted time-series design

stable-baseline design

multiple-baseline design

reversal design

Which of the following is evidence that would allow Dr. Anderson to conclude that keeping a food journal caused weight loss in W. J.?

32.

Lunch calories decreased on Day 3.

Breakfast calories decreased on Day 2.

Dinner calories decreased on Day 10.

Calorie intakes for the three meals differed on Day 1.

If Dr. Anderson wanted to change the study to a stable-baseline design, which of the following would she change?

33.

the time she introduces the intervention

the dependent variable

the type of intervention

how frequently she measures the dependent variable

Dr. Natchez, a colleague of Dr. Anderson, questions whether W. J. simply wrote down less in his journal as the study went on because he grew tired of completing this “measure.” Dr. Natchez believes he has uncovered which of the following threats to internal validity?

34.

instrumentation threat

experimental demand

testing threat

observer bias

Which of the following aspects of Dr. Anderson’s study might be susceptible to observer bias?

35.

the use of the food journal to track calories consumed

the conversion by Dr. Anderson of the food journal entries into calories consumed

the use of only one manipulation (e.g., the food journal)

the use of only one dependent variable

In examining the external validity of her study, Dr. Anderson is probably most concerned about which of the following?

36.

She is probably concerned that her study generalizes to all men.

She is probably concerned that her study generalizes to all transplant recipients.

She is probably concerned that her study generalizes to all overweight people.

She is probably not very concerned about external validity.

In interrogating the statistical validity of Dr. Anderson’s study, which of the following might be asked?

37.

By what margin did W. J.’s calorie intake improve?

How accurate was W. J.’s partner in her calculation of the calories consumed at each meal?

Was the number of calories consumed by W. J. going to decrease before surgery anyway?

Was Dr. Anderson qualified to analyze the data?

In interrogating the construct validity of Dr. Anderson’s study, which of the following might be asked?

38.

By what margin did W. J.’s calorie intake improve?

How accurate was W. J.’s partner in her calculation of the calories consumed at each meal?

Was the number of calories consumed by W. J. going to decrease before surgery anyway?

Was Dr. Anderson qualified to analyze the data?

Which of the following is NOT a trade-off of Dr. Anderson’s use of a small-N design?

39.

40.

She will have limited ability to generalize to other patients.

Inferential statistical tests probably cannot be used to examine whether food journals are an effective way to reduce weight.

It will be harder to interpret the size of the effect.

She will not be able to determine the presence of other confounds that may be impacting calorie intake.

If a researcher is concerned about external validity, which of the following would you recommend with regard to conducting small-N designs? a.

Do not conduct small-N designs if you are concerned about external validity.

Compare the results of a small-N design with other studies.

Conduct only reversal designs.

Use only one’s own clients/patients/students.

According to the textbook, which of the following ethical questions might be posed specifically in reference to a reversal design?

41.

42.

43.

Is it ethical to remove an effective treatment?

Is it ethical to treat only one person?

Can confidentiality be assured?

Can consent be given?

In small-N designs, each participant is treated a.

with multiple interventions.

by a clinical psychologist.

as a data point.

as a separate experiment.

Which of the following people would be of most interest for a small-N design? a.

a college student

a person suffering from a cold

a person diagnosed with schizophrenia

a psychology student

Which of the following topics would be especially well suited to a quasiexperimental design? a.

Does therapy improve coping skills following exposure to a natural disaster?

Does watching violent movies cause increases in acceptability of aggression?

Does parent-training therapy lead to better parenting skills?

Do people diagnosed with a mental illness have poorer social abilities?

44.

45.

46.

47.

How does a researcher who conducts a small-N design address external validity concerns about their study? a.

triangulates their findings with other findings

runs more small-N studies with similar participants

runs more small-N studies with the same participants

runs a large-N study before running a small-N study

In a nonequivalent control group interrupted time series design, the independent variable is studied as a.

a dependent variable as well.

both a repeated measures variable and an independent-groups variable.

a guarantee of internal validity.

frequently as possible.

In quasi-experimental designs, the researcher does not have experimental control over the independent variable and does not randomly assign participants to conditions. This results in which of the following? a.

the researcher being unable to rule out any threats to internal validity

a study that is no different than a correlational design

a weaker causal claim than a true experiment

an unethical study

Researchers may be interested in how a variable changes over the course of a major event that is scheduled outside of experimental control. This is called

48.

49.

50.

nonequivalent control group design.

wait-list design.

reversal design.

interrupted time-series design.

Which of the following is a difference between small-N and large-N designs? a.

Large-N designs have the power to detect large effect sizes, while small-N designs can only detect small effects.

Statistical validity is stronger in large-N designs, while generalizability is more important in small-N designs.

Large-N studies typically gather less information about participants than small-N designs.

It is not possible to maintain experimental control in small-N studies whereas it is in large-N studies.

Which of the following is an advantage of small-N designs over large-N designs? a.

Small-N designs take advantage of unique cases.

Small-N designs have better experimental control.

Small-N designs generalize to larger groups of individuals.

Small-N designs have fewer threats to internal validity.

Which of the following is a difference between participants in small-N designs compared to large-N designs? a.

Large-N designs generalize only to the population from which participants are drawn, whereas small-N designs generalize to the larger population.

Large-N designs benefit from having diverse populations, while smallN designs typically use normative samples.

51.

52.

53.

Large-N designs prioritize having a large sample over sampling procedures, while small-N designs focus on sampling procedures.

Large-N designs are more concerned with selecting representative participants, while small-N designs focus on unique cases.

Which of the following is true of a quasi-experiment? a.

In a quasi-experiment, the researcher randomly assigns participants to groups.

In a quasi-experiment, the researcher assigns participants to conditions based on the particpant’s preexisting level of the independent variable.

We can balance participant variables between groups in a quasiexperiment.

A quasi-experiment allows us to infer causality more accurately.

Both Shakita and Chris are studying the effects of frustration on task completion. Shakita randomly assigns participants to either a frustration or non-frustration condition. Chris divides participants into either a frustration or non-frustration condition based on self-reported ratings of how frustrated participants are on average during a week. Both Shakita and Chris measure task completion in the same way. Shakita is using a ________ design and Chris is using a ________ design. a.

true experimental; quasi-experimental

quasi-experimental; true experimental

matched group factorial design; nonequivalent control group design

nonequivalent control group design; matched group factorial design

Jeff studies the number of new patients who sought mental health treatment for anxiety at a public health clinic for several years before and after a major earthquake devastated the city. This type of design is known as a(n)

54.

55.

56.

interrupted time-series design.

nonequivalent control group design.

nonequivalent control group pretest/posttest design.

nonequivalent control group interrupted time-series design.

Mrs. Abbott, a fifth-grade teacher, tests her children’s understanding of fractions at the beginning of the year and again at the end of the year. She also tests a group of fifth graders at another school who use a different math curriculum. This type of design is known as a(n) a.

interrupted time-series design.

nonequivalent control group design.

nonequivalent control group pretest/posttest design.

nonequivalent control group interrupted time-series design.

Which threat to internal validity is never relevant to a repeated-measures design? a.

selection

maturation

history

regression to the mean

Rina is conducting a longitudinal study examining the impact of parenting on children as they move from middle childhood into adolescence. She starts with a sample of fourth grade children and tests them annually until they are in ninth grade. At the ninth grade appointment, only 62 families show up. What threat to internal validity is relevant here? a.

regression to the mean

57.

58.

59.

selection

attrition

instrumentation

Which of the following threats to internal validity is related to human subjectivity? a.

regression to the mean

instrumentation

attrition

demand characteristics

Ms. Janis is trying to reduce the number of aggressive behaviors in Danny, one of her first-grade students. She starts by tracking how frequently he bites, pushes, and hits his fellow classmates for a two-week period of time. She then positively reinforces him every time he goes an hour without exhibiting any aggressive behaviors. After two weeks Mrs. Janis notes that Danny is much less aggressive than he was before she used positive reinforcement. She is not sure that the positive reinforcement is the reason for the reduction in Danny’s aggression. To check this, what should Ms. Janis do? a.

Continue to positively reinforce Danny for another week.

Try a different strategy to address Danny’s aggression.

Remove the positive reinforcement to see if Danny’s aggression increases.

Try using positive reinforcement on another child to see if she gets the same effect.

If the effects of a treatment for a single behavior in a small-N study are not reversible, we would use a(n)

60.

stable baseline design.

multiple baseline design.

reversal design.

nonequivalent control group pretest/posttest design.

In a reversal design, for us to correctly conclude that the treatment variable had the intended effect on an individual, the behavior should a.

differ from the baseline during the treatment phase and return to the baseline during the reversal phase.

differ from the baseline during the treatment phase and should not return to baseline during the reversal phase.

remain stable throughout all phases.

remain stable in the treatment phase and differ from baseline only in the reversal phase.

61.

Lara is conducting a study for her research methods class. She is curious if participating in a collegiate study-abroad program causes people to become more accepting of other cultures. Provide an example of an independentgroups quasi-experimental design and an example of a within-groups quasiexperimental design using Lara’s research question.

62.

63.

RESEARCH STUDY 13.4: Dr. Fletcher is interested in understanding whether joining a fraternity/sorority causes people to become more concerned about their attractiveness and appearance. He recruits a group of 55 freshmen (25 males, 30 females) who are planning to go through fraternity/sorority recruitment on his campus. After they join, he gives them a measure of attractiveness concern/appearance concern (the Body Concern Scale, where higher scores indicate higher body concerns). As the study is described, explain a selection threat that may be present in Dr. Fletcher’s study. What could Dr. Fletcher do to address this threat?

64.

RESEARCH STUDY 13.4: Dr. Fletcher is interested in understanding whether joining a fraternity/sorority causes people to become more concerned about their attractiveness and appearance. He recruits a group of 55 freshmen (25 males, 30 females) who are planning to go through fraternity/sorority recruitment on his campus. After they join, he gives them a measure of attractiveness concern/appearance concern (the Body Concern Scale, where higher scores indicate higher body concerns). In addition to measuring the group of participants who joined a fraternity/sorority, Dr. Fletcher decides to give the same measure to another group of 55 participants who decided to not join a fraternity/sorority. Based on the results below, explain whether Dr. Fletcher should be concerned about a history threat to internal validity.

65.

of 55 freshmen (25 males, 30 females) who are planning to go through fraternity/sorority recruitment on his campus. After they join, he gives them a measure of attractiveness concern/appearance concern (the Body Concern Scale, where higher scores indicate higher body concerns). In addition to measuring the group of participants who joined a fraternity/sorority, Dr. Fletcher decides to give the same measure to another group of 55 participants who decided to not join a fraternity/sorority. Based on the results below, explain whether Dr. Fletcher should be concerned about a maturation threat to internal validity.

66.

Explain why quasi-experiments and correlational studies can be seen as similar but why quasi-experiments are superior.

67.

RESEARCH STUDY 13.4: Dr. Fletcher is interested in understanding whether joining a fraternity/sorority causes people to become more concerned about their attractiveness and appearance. He recruits a group of 55 freshmen (25 males, 30 females) who are planning to go through fraternity/sorority recruitment on his campus. After they join, he gives them a measure of attractiveness concern/appearance concern (the Body Concern Scale, where higher scores indicate higher body concerns). In addition to measuring the body concern of the participants who joined a fraternity/sorority immediately before and immediately after they join, Dr. Fletcher measures them for the three weeks before and the three weeks after. Based on the results below, explain whether Dr. Fletcher should be concerned about a testing threat to internal validity.

68.

Explain why quasi-experiments offer a trade-off between internal validity and external validity.

69.

List the three differences between small-N and large-N designs.

70.

Provide a reason a researcher might want to conduct a small-N design. Provide a reason why a researcher might want to avoid conducting a smallN design.

71.

Describe the three different small-N designs.

72.

Explain how interrogating the statistical validity of a small-N design is different from interrogating the statistical validity in a large-N design.

73.

What type of design is Ryan using to change Layne’s behavior? Name a threat to internal validity that this design is well suited to address. Why does this design address that threat to internal validity?

74.

RESEARCH STUDY 13.5: Layne is trying to watch less television. Her friend Ryan is a psychologist who agrees to help her. He creates a treatment plan that involves giving Layne $5 for every day that she watches fewer than 90 minutes of television. He monitors her television watching for three days, treats her for three days and monitors her, and then just monitors her for three more days. Imagine that Ryan’s study finds the following pattern of results. Explain whether Ryan should conclude that the $5 treatment is effective at decreasing television viewing and whether he should be concerned by an instrumentation threat. (In the graph, B indicates baseline and T indicates treatment.)

75.

RESEARCH STUDY 13.5: Layne is trying to watch less television. Her friend Ryan is a psychologist who agrees to help her. He creates a treatment plan that involves giving Layne $5 for every day that she watches fewer than 90 minutes of television. He monitors her television watching for three days, treats her for three days and monitors her, and then just monitors her for three more days. Imagine that Ryan and Layne’s study finds the following pattern of results. Explain why the data below are especially convincing because of the second baseline/reversal. Name a specific threat that these data address.

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In each response, students should provide an example of an independent-groups design that involves both a group of students studying abroad and a group of students who do not (could be a wait-list group, a group going the next semester, a group of equal academic status or background), for example, a nonequivalent control group design. Students also need to provide an example of a within-groups quasi-experimental design (must include measuring students several times before studying abroad and afterward but may or may not include a control group).

62. Answer:

Dr. Fletcher is conducting a quasi-experiment because it is impossible to randomly assign participants to join or not join a fraternity/sorority.

63. Answer:

Those people in the study who join a fraternity/sorority may be different in their body image concerns from those who do not join. For example, those who join fraternities/sororities may by nature be more concerned about their bodies than those who do not join. To address this concern, Dr. Fletcher should add a comparison group. In their responses, students may be more specific and state what kind of comparison group, but they do not have to.

64. Answer:

Dr. Fletcher should not be concerned with a history threat. If something happened in history to affect the change in the dependent variable, then it should have happened to both groups equally. In this case, that did not happen—both groups started the same and only one group changed.

65. Answer:

Dr. Fletcher should be concerned with a maturation threat. It appears that both groups became more concerned about their bodies over time, and it does not appear that joining a fraternity/sorority caused that to happen.

66. Answer:

Quasi-experiments and correlational studies are similar in that both either (a) do not have random assignment to levels of an independent variable or (b) suffer from threats to internal validity. Quasi-experiments are superior in that they take steps to deal with these threats, such as implementing a wait list or seeking a comparison group.

67. Answer:

Dr. Fletcher should not be concerned about a testing threat. It appears that the change in scores happened only after recruitment, suggesting that the scores were not simply changing at random.

68. Answer:

Quasi-experiments provide a fair amount of external validity because they often use real-world manipulations or occur in response to real-world situations. As such, it is clear that the research findings relate to the real world. However, the lack of random assignment brings such a study’s internal validity into question. There is a trade-off—as an experimenter exerts experimental control, he or she gives up external validity. As he or she gets external validity (applies to the real world, which is harder to control), he or she gives up experimenter control.

69. Answer:

The three differences are listed in the table below. In their responses, students may discuss these from the perspective of small-N designs being different from large-N designs or from the perspective of how large-N designs differ from small-N designs. Large-N Designs

Small-N Designs

Participants are grouped. Each participant is treated as a The data from an individual separate experiment. Small- N participant are not of designs are almost always interest in and of repeated-measures designs, in themselves; data from all which researchers observe how participants in each group the person or animal responds to are combined and studied several systematically designed together. conditions. Data are represented as group averages.

Individuals’ data are presented.

Researchers decide whether a result is replicable by doing a test of statistical significance.

Researchers decide whether a result is replicable by repeating the experiment on a new participant.

70. Answer:

In each response, students should state an advantage of small-N designs. Most likely students will state that (1) researchers might have an opportunity to study a special case (e.g., people with a particular mental illness, a particular disorder, a life experience) or (2) a practitioner (clinician, teacher) might want to ensure that a treatment is effective. Students should also state a disadvantage, probably the issue with external validity/generalization to other participants.

71. Answer:

The three small-N designs are: stable-baseline design, multiplebaseline design, and reversal design. In all cases, these designs establish behavior over a period of time. If maturation was at play, behavior would be seen to rise over time, not in response to a particular event or dramatically at a point in time.

72. Answer:

Unlike large-N designs, which use inferential statistics and effect sizes, small-N designs tend to draw conclusions from graphic representations of the data and ask about overall improvement.

73. Answer:

The design described is a reversal design. The threats to internal validity that are addressed by this design include maturation, regression, testing, and instrumentation. If the findings are due to maturation, the observed change during the treatment period would not reverse to the baseline state. Because each participant is treated separately, group means and, therefore, outliers which could regress to the mean, are not relevant. Duration of television watching is not the type of variable that is sensitive to order effects (testing), and it does not involve instruments that can change, so testing and instrumentation effects are not an issue in this design.

74. Answer:

It appears that Ryan should conclude that the treatment was effective because the behavior decreased during the treatment phase (T1, T2, and T3) compared to the first and second baseline phases. Ryan should not be worried about an instrumentation threat because if the measure had started giving lower scores, then it would have kept giving them rather than showing higher scores during the second baseline phase.

75. Answer:

The second baseline/reversal is especially important because it rules out several threats and increases internal validity. In each response, students must also state a specific threat that is addressed. For example, without the second baseline, one could make an argument that maturation was at play (her television viewing was simply decreasing, or that instrumentation was an issue (the timer was providing shorter estimates), or that regression happened (higher scores got lower over time).

Name: ___________________________ Class: _________________ Date: __________

Chapter 14

The first step in establishing a study’s quality and credibility is to establish its a.

replicability.

external validity.

internal validity.

acceptance by scientists.

Psychologists use which of the following strategies to determine a study’s replicability? a.

establishing internal validity

repeating the study

generalizing

study reframing

Which of the following types of replications investigate the same research question but use different procedures? a.

statistical replication

direct replication

replication-plus-extension

conceptual replication

direct replication.

replication-plus-extension.

conceptual replication.

secondary replication.

RESEARCH STUDY 14.1: Melanie conducts a study for her research methods class to determine if consuming caffeine causes people to perform better on cognitive tasks. In her study, she gives half of her participants a glass of water and half of her participants a glass of cola and then has them attempt to solve 15 math problems. She finds that people who drink caffeine beforehand solve more math problems than those who drink water beforehand. Melanie decides to conduct a variation of the original study in which she measures participants’ ability to solve verbal analogies as the cognitive task instead of measuring their ability to solve math problems. She finds that people who drink caffeine beforehand solve more verbal analogies than those who drink water beforehand, suggesting caffeine consumption causes improved cognitive performance. This study is known as a a.

statistical replication.

replication-plus-extension.

conceptual replication.

secondary replication.

measuring a different group of participants

having participants drink a caffeinated energy drink rather than a caffeinated cola

measuring the same participants one week later

having participants complete 10 math problems instead of 15

Which of the following can direct replication studies change? a.

the dependent variable

the study procedures

the participants

the independent variable

Which of the following is true of a scientific literature? a.

It comprises studies conducted by a single researcher.

It comprises studies that have tested only the exact same variable.

It comprises studies conducted all in the same year.

It comprises studies conducted with different methods.

10.

11.

Collect all the studies that have been conducted on daily stress and cardiovascular health.

Measure daily stress and cardiovascular health in several new samples of participants.

Determine the average cardiovascular health of undergraduates at her university.

Journal her own daily stress level.

RESEARCH STUDY 14.2: Cindy decides to conduct a meta-analysis examining the relationship between daily stress and cardiovascular health for her senior psychology research project. Cindy’s advisor recommends that she contact several researchers in the field for articles that were not published and/or that found null effects. Doing this will address which of the following? a.

the file drawer problem

the need for overestimation

the lack of reporting significant findings

ecological validity

Which of the following is a reason that psychologists especially value metaanalyses? a.

Meta-analyses eliminate the need for replications.

Meta-analyses allow researchers to examine the strength of a relationship.

Meta-analyses are immune to threats to internal validity.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Meta-analyses always take less time to conduct.

Responsible journalists do which of the following as it pertains to discussing replicability? a.

They report only on studies that have been directly replicated.

They report findings only from meta-analyses.

They provide readers with a sense of the entire literature as well as recent studies.

They provide readers with statistical values from each study.

Which of the following types of study support external validity? a.

a study using non-randomly selected participants

a study that adds a new independent variable

a study that is a direct replication

a failed replication study

When generalizing the results of a sample to a population, which of the following is the most important question to ask? a.

Where were the participants tested?

How many participants were in the sample?

How were the participants sampled?

Do the participants come from the “real world”?

Which of the following is another term for ecological validity? a.

mundane realism

16.

17.

18.

everyday realism

experimental realism

cultural realism

Which of the following is true of theory-testing mode? a.

It is related to the theory-data cycle.

The priority is external validity.

The focus is primarily on testing frequency claims.

Few psychological studies are of the theory-testing type.

Which of the following studies is most likely to be conducted in generalization mode? a.

examining whether dog ownership decreases stress levels

exploring the relationship between weight and number of fast-food restaurants in one’s neighborhood

determining how frequently people report fighting with their bosses

investigating whether there is a causal link between receiving cognitive therapy and increased coping skills

Which of the following claims is always researched in generalization mode? a.

association claims

causal claims

frequency claims

experimental claims

19.

20.

21.

22.

In a previous correlational study, Dr. Lafayette has found that owning dogs is associated with lower levels of daily stress in a sample of returning war veterans. Which of the following would constitute a shift from theory-testing mode to generalization mode? a.

conducting a study on the same sample of war veterans, this time using a different measure of daily stress

conducting a study examining the stress reduction mechanism

conducting an experimental study in which he assigns people to own a dog or not

conducting a study on dog ownership using a sample of elderly participants from a local retirement home

________ psychology is a subdiscipline of psychology that works primarily in the generalization mode. a.

Clinical

Experimental

Social

Cultural

Which of the following is true of cultural psychology? a.

Its researchers function only in theory-testing mode.

Its main focus is on internal validity.

It typically finds support for a theory across different cultural contexts.

It often disproves theories based on WEIRD samples.

According to the textbook, which of the following is a component of WEIRD people? a.

women

23.

24.

25.

26.

educated

interdependent

republican

According to the textbook, what is the problem with WEIRD samples? a.

They are not very representative of the world’s population.

They are not good for theory-testing mode.

They are not used frequently enough.

They are not very easy to measure.

A study conducted in the “real world” is often said to be conducted in a.

mundane surroundings.

a field setting.

an ecological situation.

authentic localities.

Which of the following is an advantage of studies that are conducted in realworld settings? a.

They have a high degree of internal validity.

They are more important than studies conducted in laboratories.

They are high in ecological validity.

They automatically generalize to other situations.

RESEARCH STUDY 14.3: Dr. Grayson, a health psychologist, conducts a study examining whether people eat more when they are exposed to

pictures of food than when they are not exposed to pictures of food. She goes to a fast-food restaurant in downtown Chicago that has pictures of menu items on its menu board and measures the amount of food ordered during the lunch rush (11:30 a.m.–1:30 p.m.) on Tuesday. On Thursday, she does the same thing but at a fast-food restaurant that does not have pictures on its menu board (about two blocks away from the first restaurant). She finds that the restaurant with pictures of food sells more food than the restaurant that does not have pictures. Because Dr. Grayson conducted her study in a field setting, which of the following is an advantage of her study?

27.

It automatically generalizes to other situations (e.g., fancy restaurants, cafeterias).

It automatically generalizes to other people.

It removes all threats to internal validity.

It has a high degree of ecological validity.

RESEARCH STUDY 14.3: Dr. Grayson, a health psychologist, conducts a study examining whether people eat more when they are exposed to pictures of food than when they are not exposed to pictures of food. She goes to a fast-food restaurant in downtown Chicago that has pictures of menu items on its menu board and measures the amount of food ordered during the lunch rush (11:30 a.m.–1:30 p.m.) on Tuesday. On Thursday, she does the same thing but at a fast-food restaurant that does not have pictures on its menu board (about two blocks away from the first restaurant). She finds that the restaurant with pictures of food sells more food than the restaurant that does not have pictures. Dr. Grayson wants to conduct her study again, but this time she wants to conduct it in her laboratory. She wants people to feel and act the same way in her laboratory that they would when facing ordering choices in an actual fast-food restaurant. To this end, she must try to enhance which of the following? a.

experimental realism

generalizability

statistical validity

28.

29.

cultural relativity

RESEARCH STUDY 14.3: Dr. Grayson, a health psychologist, conducts a study examining whether people eat more when they are exposed to pictures of food than when they are not exposed to pictures of food. She goes to a fast-food restaurant in downtown Chicago that has pictures of menu items on its menu board and measures the amount of food ordered during the lunch rush (11:30 a.m.–1:30 p.m.) on Tuesday. On Thursday, she does the same thing but at a fast-food restaurant that does not have pictures on its menu board (about two blocks away from the first restaurant). She finds that the restaurant with pictures of food sells more food than the restaurant that does not have pictures. Dr. Grayson decides to conduct her study again, but in the new study, she studies people at a sit-down restaurant, and she manipulates whether the menu they use at the table has pictures or not. This is known as which of the following? a.

statistical replication

conceptual replication

replication-plus-extension

direct replication

RESEARCH STUDY 14.3: Dr. Grayson, a health psychologist, conducts a study examining whether people eat more when they are exposed to pictures of food than when they are not exposed to pictures of food. She goes to a fast-food restaurant in downtown Chicago that has pictures of menu items on its menu board and measures the amount of food ordered during the lunch rush (11:30 a.m.–1:30 p.m.) on Tuesday. On Thursday, she does the same thing but at a fast-food restaurant that does not have pictures on its menu board (about two blocks away from the first restaurant). She finds that the restaurant with pictures of food sells more food than the restaurant that does not have pictures. Dr. Grayson would most be able to generalize her findings to which of the following populations?

30.

31.

32.

people from Chicago

people who live in downtown Chicago

people who eat lunch at fast-food restaurants

people who eat out at restaurants

Which of the following is true of experimental realism? a.

It exists only in field settings.

It is a synonymous term for mundane realism.

It supports external validity.

It is important only in generalization mode.

Why do studies conducted in theory-testing mode de-emphasize ecological validity? a.

Ecological validity is never important.

Internal validity is the highest priority for theory testing.

Testing a theory never requires realism.

Theories do not need to explain the behavior of everyone.

In a conceptual replication, the ________ are the same, but the ________ is/are different from the original study. a.

variables; operationalization

independent variables; dependent variables

researchers; outcomes

methods; participants

33.

34.

35.

36.

Another word for replicable is a.

valid.

reproducible.

reliable.

scientific.

In a conceptual replication, which of the following is allowed to be different from the original study? a.

the dependent variable in the study

the independent variable in the study

the procedures of the study

the moderators used in the study

What does it mean when a study cannot be replicated by an independent researcher? a.

The replication was done incorrectly.

The independent researcher’s study is superior.

The importance of the finding should be interpreted cautiously.

The topic should no longer be researched.

Replicability helps interrogate which of the four big validities? a.

construct validity

external validity

internal validity

statistical validity

37.

38.

39.

40.

Who determines the population to which a study’s findings generalize? a.

the participants

journalists

the IRB

the researcher

A researcher in theory-testing mode focuses on ________ validity, while a researcher in generalization mode focuses on ________ validity. a.

internal; external

external; internal

external; statistical

statistical; external

Which of the following claims is most likely to be made in generalization mode? a.

“A majority of women report considering infidelity at least once during their marriages.”

“Men are more likely than women to report considering infidelity.”

“Parental divorce is associated with greater likelihood of infidelity.”

“Being exposed to attractive individuals increases thoughts of infidelity.”

A cultural psychologist would be most interested in which of the following sets of participants? a.

a sample of community college students

a sample of 12-year-old children

41.

42.

43.

a sample of homeless veterans

a sample of Taiwanese grandparents

Dr. Fern recently collected data for a study examining whether an intervention targeting coping strategies can reduce depression. After analyzing the results, she finds no effect of her intervention on depression symptoms. Which of the following would you recommend she do next? a.

Preregister her study so she can publish the null findings.

Add more participants because her initial sample size may have been too small.

Contact journal editors to see if they will publish null results.

Try a different analytic approach.

Which of the following is a benefit of a meta-analysis compared to other types of publications? a.

Meta-analyses allow for calculation of effect size across multiple studies.

Only meta-analyses allow for examination of moderators.

Meta-analysis is the only type of publication that synthesizes an entire scientific literature.

Meta-analyses always avoid the file drawer problem.

Which of the following MUST be done before meta-analyses can occur? a.

only direct replications

cultural psychology replications done on the topic

collection of the scientific literature on a topic

publication of the topic in the popular media

44.

45.

46.

47.

Which of the following is true of p-hacking? a.

It is considered a common and acceptable practice.

It is always done intentionally.

It is the same as HARKing.

It can involve running a different analysis than originally proposed.

Some studies may not replicate because the original study used questionable scientific practices. Which of the following is a way open science practices attempt to deal with this problem? a.

using larger sample sizes

requiring scientists to make their data and materials available for review

conducting direct replications

encouraging preregistration

At which point in the scientific process does preregistration occur? a.

before data collection

before developing hypotheses

after publication

after replication

In open science, open data are more concerned with ________, while open materials are more interested in ________. a.

construct validity; statistical validity

replication; construct validity

48.

49.

50.

generalizability; statistical validity

statistical validity; replication

A study on self-associations and social behaviors was published in the United States one year ago. This year, a conceptual replication study was published. This second study used a different method to assess social behavior and randomly sampled 50 people from the population in Canada. How might a cultural psychologist respond to the new article about this study? a.

with enthusiasm, since replication studies are rare

with skepticism, because this study may not apply to non-WEIRD populations

with skepticism, since this study used a small sample size

with enthusiasm, because of the inclusion of one non-WEIRD sample

Which of the following studies would be least likely to be influenced by cultural differences? a.

a study of the association between depression and beliefs about mental health

a study examining rates of divorce across different cultures

a study examining the effect of parent education on child socialization

a study examining motor responses of newborns

Which of the following participant samples would most likely generalize to the population of teenage American girls? a.

75 girls aged 13–18, randomly sampled from multiple sites across the country

All 500 of the girls at a single high school

200 girls recruited from Girl Scout troops across the country

51.

52.

53.

50 after-school female volunteers who were available to participate in the research easily

What was the primary goal of the Open Science Collaboration (OSC) conducted in 2015? a.

conceptual replication of popular research studies

multiple replications of a single research study

direct replication of popular research studies

increased access to open data and materials for future research studies

How would you best describe the results of the facial feedback hypothesis replications? a.

The facial feedback effect is stronger than originally hypothesized.

The facial feedback effect was not supported by the replications.

The facial feedback effect is approximately the same as hypothesized.

The replications were conceptual; therefore we cannot conclude anything about the hypothesis.

Dr. Kapoor conducted a study on risk-taking behaviors in a lab setting. Now she wants to generalize to other settings. A conceptual replication of her project in a real-world setting would increase a.

internal validity.

test-retest reliability.

experimenter bias.

ecological validity.

54.

55.

56.

57.

A study revealed an unexpected finding, but the researcher wrote up the results as if that result was predicted all along. What is this referred to as? a.

HARKing

p-Hacking

preregistering

meta-analysis

Nimah is working on her senior honors thesis and finds only one of her three hypotheses was supported. If she follows transparent research practices, what should she do with these results? a.

Repeat the study to determine if the results are the same.

Check for outliers that may be adjusting the p value of the null results and see if they are now significant.

Change the other two hypotheses to make it appear as if the null results were predicted.

Report on all findings and hypotheses as they were originally formulated.

In order to avoid HARKing, what should researchers do? a.

pre-register their study

provide open materials

provide open data

use a large sample size

Open data protects against which questionable research practice? a.

HARKing

file drawer problems

58.

59.

60.

p-hacking

under reporting null effects

In what type of study do researchers replicate their original experiment and add variables to test additional questions? a.

direct replication

replication-plus-extension

conceptual replication

additional replication

Mac conducts a study in which they use the same measures as a previous study. However, they use a different population, sample size, and add in several additional variables they hypothesize might be related to the original results. What type of study is Mac doing? a.

replication-plus extension

direct replication

conceptual replication

indirect replication

Which of the following would help to address a file drawer problem? a.

conducting a thorough literature search

increasing ecological validity

conducting additional research projects

contacting researchers for unpublished results

61.

Explain why replication is essential to science. Compare and contrast two of the following types of replication that scientists use to determine whether a study is replicable: direct replication, conceptual replication, or replicationplus-extension.

62.

RESEARCH STUDY 14.4: Dr. Tropez conducts a study examining the relationship between exposure to religion in popular media and religiosity (defined as “the belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a personal God or gods”). In his study, he randomly samples a group of 113 participants from his local community college. He generates a list of movies with religious themes (Year One, Dogma, Passion of the Christ) and asks participants to indicate how many they have seen. He then measures religiosity by asking participants how many times they have attended a house of worship (e.g., church, temple, synagogue, mosque) in the past year. He finds that having seen a higher number of religiousthemed films is positively correlated with religious attendance. A colleague criticizes Dr. Tropez for using a WEIRD sample. Explain what this means and why it is a problem.

63.

RESEARCH STUDY 14.4: Dr. Tropez conducts a study examining the relationship between exposure to religion in popular media and religiosity (defined as “the belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a personal God or gods”). In his study, he randomly samples a group of 113 participants from his local community college. He generates a list of movies with religious themes (Year One, Dogma, Passion of the Christ) and asks participants to indicate how many they have seen. He then measures religiosity by asking participants how many times they have attended a house of worship (e.g., church, temple, synagogue, mosque) in the past year. He finds that having seen a higher number of religiousthemed films is positively correlated with religious attendance. Provide an example of each of the following for Dr. Tropez’s original study: a direct replication, a conceptual replication, and a replication with extension.

64.

especially a personal God or gods”). In his study, he randomly samples a group of 113 participants from his local community college. He generates a list of movies with religious themes (Year One, Dogma, Passion of the Christ) and asks participants to indicate how many they have seen. He then measures religiosity by asking participants how many times they have attended a house of worship (e.g., church, temple, synagogue, mosque) in the past year. He finds that having seen a higher number of religiousthemed films is positively correlated with religious attendance. What are the two aspects of external validity? Pose a question for each aspect of external validity as it relates to Dr. Tropez’s study.

65.

RESEARCH STUDY 14.4: Dr. Tropez conducts a study examining the relationship between exposure to religion in popular media and religiosity (defined as “the belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a personal God or gods”). In his study, he randomly samples a group of 113 participants from his local community college. He generates a list of movies with religious themes (Year One, Dogma, Passion of the Christ) and asks participants to indicate how many they have seen. He then measures religiosity by asking participants how many times they have attended a house of worship (e.g., church, temple, synagogue, mosque) in the past year. He finds that having seen a higher number of religiousthemed films is positively correlated with religious attendance. A colleague of Dr. Tropez questions how generalizable his study is to other participants by highlighting that he studied only 113 people. Dr. Tropez responds that generalizability comes not from the “how many” of the sample but the “how” of the sample. What does Dr. Tropez mean, and how generalizable is his study?

66.

the past year. He finds that having seen a higher number of religiousthemed films is positively correlated with religious attendance. What is the difference between theory-testing mode and generalization mode? In which mode does Dr. Tropez seem to be operating?

67.

Explain why external validity is the priority in generalization mode but not in theory-testing mode.

68.

Explain what a meta-analysis is and how it is useful in understanding the importance of a scientific relationship.

69.

Explain what the file drawer problem is and how and why it needs to be addressed when conducting a meta-analysis.

70.

Which types of claims are always made in generalization mode? Why is this the case?

71.

Name the subdiscipline of psychology that works exclusively in generalization mode, and explain why it works exclusively in this mode.

72.

What does it mean that a sample is WEIRD? (In other words, what does WEIRD stand for?) Why can WEIRD samples be problematic for research?

73.

Explain why using WEIRD samples tends not to be a problem for researchers operating in the theory-testing mode and why cultural psychologists question this practice.

74.

What is experimental realism? What does this mean for studies conducted in artificial settings (e.g., a laboratory) and studies conducted in field settings?

75.

Explain how a study can be important but lack a diverse, random sample and a real-world setting. What type of study is likely to have neither of these?

76.

What is preregistration? Why is it important in the scientific process?

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Replication is essential to science because it establishes a study’s credibility and quality—if the results of a study can be repeated, then it is easier to believe its results. Students will describe two of the three types of replication and provide an explanation of the key differences between the two replication types they’ve selected. Students’ explanations will vary but should include the following descriptions: Direct replication: a study in which researchers repeat the original study as closely as possible to see if the original effect appears in the newly collected data. Conceptual replication: a study in which researchers examine the same research question (the same conceptual variables) but use different procedures for operationalizing the variables. Replication-plus-extension: a study in which researchers replicate their original study but add variables or conditions that test additional questions.

62. Answer:

The acronym WEIRD stands for/means samples that are predominately Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic. WEIRD samples are likely not representative of the world’s population, and this may be the case here as it relates to media exposure and/or religiosity.

63. Answer:

In each response, students should provide an example of each type of replication. For a direct replication, students should state that Dr. Tropez should roughly do the exact same study again, albeit with different participants. For the conceptual replication, the students should provide some different operational definition for either the independent variable (e.g., a different way to measure exposure to religion in the popular media, like exposure to popular religious television shows) or the dependent variable (e.g., a different way to measure religiosity, like a self-reported belief in God, a standardized scale of religiosity, etc.). For a replication with extension, the students should add a new variable to the study. For example, Dr. Tropez could add a new participant variable (e.g., age) and see if this relationship is found in people older than college students

64. Answer:

There are two aspects of external validity: generalizing to other people and generalizing to other situations. Answers may vary, but in each response, students should pose a question that addresses each aspect. For generalizing to other people, the student may ask a question about whether the relationship between media exposure and religiosity exists in people other than college students. For generalizing to other situations, the student may ask a question about whether the relationship exists when examining different types of religious media (television, music, books).

65. Answer:

Whether the study is generalizable to other people stems not from how many people are in a sample but from how the sample was collected. The study is probably fairly generalizable to college students, as he randomly sampled his participants.

66. Answer:

In theory-testing mode, researchers are focusing on showing an association or causal claim. In generalization mode, researchers are focusing on applying the findings of their studies to other populations and/or samples. It appears that Dr. Tropez is working in theory-testing mode.

67. Answer:

When working in generalization mode, the researcher is attempting to make the claim that a finding is true for other people or other situations, making external validity crucial. In theory-testing mode, researchers are trying to examine some part of a theory (either causal claim or association claim), in which case they must exert a fair amount of control, typically of a degree that is not reminiscent of the real world. As such, this does not lend itself to external validity.

68. Answer:

A meta-analysis is a mathematical way of averaging results across several research studies. Meta-analyses are important for considering whether a relationship exists between two variables across a variety of studies/literature and how strong a relationship is. This is important because scientific importance is determined by more than a single study.

69. Answer:

The file drawer problem is that studies that are published (and are easily found using traditional methods) tend to be studies that have found an effect, which means those that found null effects are seldom published (and, thus, sit in researchers’ file drawers). This is a problem for meta-analyses when estimating effect size because they will be biased toward stronger effects as no null effects are included. This can be fixed by contacting researchers who may have done research on the subject but not published it.

70. Answer:

Frequency claims are always made in generalization mode. This is the case because frequency claims are about the number of people that do/believe something, and it is important that the number be representative of the population to which it refers.

71. Answer:

The subdiscipline that works exclusively in generalization mode is cultural psychology. Cultural psychology seeks to determine whether findings found in one culture extend to other cultures. As such, it is constantly asking whether the findings of one study generalize to other people (specifically, people in other cultures).

72. Answer:

The acronym WEIRD stands for/means samples that are predominately Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic. WEIRD samples are not representative of the world’s people. Research on WEIRD samples may not sufficiently explain how human processes work differently in different contexts.

73. Answer:

Researchers in theory-testing mode often deprioritize external validity. As such, it is not necessary to use truly representative samples. However, cultural psychologists remind psychologists that just because a process exists in one cultural group does not mean that it will exist across cultures and that they should move beyond WEIRD samples.

74. Answer:

Experimental realism is providing participants with a setting in which they feel the same way they would in a real-world situation (e.g., same emotions, same motivations, and same behaviors). Even though a study is not done in the real world, experimental realism can be created in the laboratory/artificial settings. In field settings, experimental realism is automatic, as people are in their real-world environments.

75. Answer:

Studies can be important even if they lack both a random sample and a real-world setting. A study may need a large degree of experimental control and as such seem artificial. However, many of these studies are incredibly valuable because they demonstrate association and causal relationships, have high internal validity, and can provide support for various theories. The type of studies that have neither a diverse, random sample nor a real-world setting tends to be those done in theory-testing mode.

76. Answer:

Preregistration occurs when scientists submit their study’s method, hypotheses, and/or statistical approach prior to data collection. Preregistration emphasizes the importance of the full theory-data cycle and encourages transparency and rigor in science. It also discourages p-hacking because the hypotheses and approach are made public prior to conducting the study.