Theories of Personality Understanding Persons, 6E Susan C Cloninger Instructor Manuals_Combine

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Theories of Personality Understanding Persons, 6th Edition By Susan C. Cloninger

Instructor’s Manual Susan Cloninger The Sage Colleges

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Sixth Edition

Susan Cloninger The Sage Colleges

Contents Additional Instructor Resources: PowerPoint and Test Bank 1 Approaches to Teaching Personality 1 Pedagogical Aids in the Text 2 Illustrative Biographies 2 Preview Table 3 Chapter Summary 3 Thinking About the Theory 3 Study Questions 3 Glossary 3 For the Beginning Teacher 4 Approaches to Teaching Personality 5 Biography 5 Films and Television Sources 6 Empirical Research 7 Chapter by Chapter Suggestions for Lessons and Class Discussions 9 Chapter 1: Introduction to Personality Theory 9 PART I: The Psychoanalytic Perspective 12 Chapter 2: Freud: Classical Psychoanalysis 12 Chapter 3: Jung: Analytical Psychology 15 PART II: The Psychoanalytic-Social Perspective 18 Chapter 4: Adler: Individual Psychology 18 Chapter 5: Erikson: Psychosocial Development 20 Chapter 6: Horney and Relational Theory: Interpersonal Psychoanalytic Theory 22 PART III: The Trait Perspective 24 Chapter 7: Allport: Personological Trait Theory 24 Chapter 8: Two Factor Analytic Trait Theories: Cattell’s 16 Factors and the Big Five 26 Chapter 9: Biological Theories: Evolution, Genetics, and Biological Factor Theories 28

Copyright ©2013, 2008, 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

PART IV: The Behavioral Perspective 30 Chapter 10: The Challenge of Behaviorism: Dollard and Miller, Skinner, and Staats 30 Chapter 11: Kelly: Personal Construct theory 34 Chapter 12: Mischel: Traits in Cognitive Social Learning Theory 36 Chapter 13: Bandura: Performance in Cognitive Social Learning Theory 38 PART V: The Humanistic Perspective 39 Chapter 14: Rogers: Person-Centered Theory 39 Chapter 15: Maslow and His Legacy: Need Hierarchy Theory and Positive Psychology 42 Chapter 16: Buddhist Psychology: Lessons from Eastern Culture 44 Chapter 17: Conclusion 45 Using the World Wide Web 47 Video Suggestions 47

Copyright ©2013, 2008, 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

This manual provides teaching suggestions and test questions to accompany Theories of Personality: Understanding Persons (6th edition). Each instructor and each class are different, and there are more possibilities than any one of us can implement. I hope that some of these suggestions will be useful both to experienced teachers (who may wish to try something new) and to those teaching Personality Theory for the first time, as each chooses which aspects of the material to emphasize. Some theoretical perspectives will appeal more than others, and the balance of application and research will vary. Whatever the choice, I have found that students prefer a course in which they can identify their particular instructor's "angle" on the material, giving them a guide into unfamiliar territory. A personal voice from the instructor is important for both traditional seat time classes and the increasingly popular hybrid and online modes of instruction.

Additional Instructor Resources: PowerPoint and Test Bank Instructors may wish to use PowerPoint presentations in their lectures or make them available as a study aid for students. Slides that accompany the text are available from the publisher through your local representative, that can be incorporated into the instructor’s own presentations.

An extensive test item file (multiple choice, true-false, and essay format) with software for test construction is also available.

Approaches to Teaching Personality The field of personality theory can be approached from many angles: applied, biographical, conceptual, descriptive, empirical—and undoubtedly more.

Some instructors emphasize research that tests theoretical ideas. Studies reviewed in the text can be expanded in lecture or in student reports. Students, working individually or in groups, can examine the current literature to determine whether, overall, theoretical ideas are valid. They may also design their own research projects. If these are not too ambitious, data may even be collected during the course. Instructors choosing this option may consider administering personality questionnaires in class, having students write questionnaires on particular topics (such as birth order or recalled parental behavior or life goals), and having various students each analyze some part of this pooled data set. The discussion of theoretical constructs and propositions in Chapter 1 provides a beginning point for this assignment. By testing hypotheses derived from various theories using their own data, students understand both the theories and the process of empirical validation.

Other instructors may prefer to discuss the philosophical and historical foundations of theory, or to emphasize one or a few theories more than others. Alternatively, instructors may emphasize how theoretical concepts apply to individuals. Individual applications include implications of personality theory for psychotherapy and for job placement or other managerial issues. These applications make extensive use of personality testing, suggesting the exercise of taking personality tests in class and/or discussing research on test validation. Cross-cultural issues could be included in this discussion.

Psychobiography is another individual focus, one that is more conceptual and less applied. It is my favorite approach for undergraduate courses. It helps students understand life narratives (an approach that could be supplemented in lecture). I include psychobiographical writing assignments in my own course. Students read a biography or autobiography and write term papers interpreting the personality from the perspective of various theories. (A term paper assignment is provided later in this Instructor Manual.) The details of individual lives that students bring to class make the 1

theoretical material come alive with freshness and unanticipated insights each term. This approach has an additional strength: it makes each student the expert in the sense that they know more about the biography they are reading than the instructor knows, and this experience of expertise can transform attitudes toward learning. Biography also reminds us that the cultural and historical background of a person's life cannot be ignored. When theories "fit" the case examples which students bring to class, we all feel intellectually gratified. When theories don't fit, we remember that theory development is an ongoing process.

Pedagogical Aids in the Text The theories are grouped into five perspectives: psychoanalytic, psychoanalytic-social, trait, behavioral, and humanistic. Brief introductions to each “Part” identify the key assumptions of the perspective in a numbered list. Each theoretical chapter includes several pedagogical features that can be used to guide students' reading and, depending upon the instructor's preferences, may provide material for class discussion and for assignments or quizzes.

Illustrative Biographies Throughout the text, biographies are presented and analyzed to illustrate theoretical concepts. In this edition, each theoretical chapter is illustrated with one biography. Interpretations are systematically presented to correspond to the topics presented in the preview table for each chapter: description (individual differences), adjustment, cognition, society, biology, and development. Here are the biographies that are analyzed: Chapter 2 (Freud): Adolf Hitler Chapter 3 (Jung): Martin Luther King, Jr. Chapter 4 (Adler): Oprah Winfrey Chapter 5 (Erikson): Mahatma Gandhi Chapter 6 (Horney and Relational Theory): Marilyn Monroe Chapter 7 (Allport): Mother Teresa Chapter 8 (Cattell and the Five Factor Theory): Sonia Sotomayor Chapter 9 (Evolution and Temperament): Hillary Rodham Clinton Chapter 10 (Skinner and Staats): Tiger Woods Chapter 11 (Kelly): Richard Nixon Chapter 12 (Mischel): Frida Kahlo Chapter 13 (Bandura): Barack Obama Chapter 14 (Rogers): Maya Angelou Chapter 15 (Maslow): David Pelzer Chapter 16 (Buddhism): The Dalai Lama Illustrative biographies help students understand how theoretical concepts can be used to understand particular individuals—what evidence from a person’s life fits a concept (such as “trait” 2

or “self-actualization”). Psychobiography has its limitations. Obviously the cases do not provide a rigorous empirical test of the concepts and do not demonstrate that we can generalize the conclusions to other people. They do help illustrate the concepts, though, and can be powerful pedagogical tools, especially if extended in class with critical analysis.

Instructors have many choices for using these Illustrative Biographies in their classes. They may use them as models for student writing assignments or critical thinking exercises. It is also possible to make the Illustrative Biographies optional or extra credit, or they can be skipped altogether. The rest of the text stands alone without them.

Preview Table Each theoretical chapter (Chapters 2 through 16) contains a preview table that briefly summarizes the theory's position on six issues: individual differences, adaptation and adjustment, cognitive processes, culture, biological influences, and development. These issues are described more fully in Chapter 1 of the text. These tables can organize comparisons among various theories, and they can be used for review (for example, to systematically close each lecture or student study session).

Chapter Summary A bulleted summary list at the end of each chapter describes the main points of the chapter.

In addition to reviewing the material, it can be used, together with the Preview table at the beginning of the chapter, to preview key concepts before students study the chapter in detail.

Thinking About the Theory Critical thinking questions at the end of each chapter ask students to critically evaluate and to expand upon concepts provided in the chapter. Since a variety of informed opinions are often possible, these questions are particularly useful to guide class discussion.

Study Questions Study questions at the end of each chapter ask students to recall material from the chapter.

They are useful for review and may be used for quizzes or exam questions, particularly when instructors want to reward students for reviewing in the structured way that the questions provide.

This approach is especially motivating for students who have weaker study skills.

Glossary A glossary for the entire text is found at the end of the text (page 333). Within each chapter, glossary definitions are found in the margins, defining key terms. In the text, the glossary terms are printed in boldface type. Students should be encouraged to recognize these terms as key concepts and to pause in their reading to understand them. In addition to the study questions, these glossary terms can be used to quiz students by asking them to define the terms in their own words and to provide or recognize examples of each.

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For the Beginning Teacher The intrinsic interest of the subject matter in personality can make this course one of the most gratifying to teach. Success is not automatic, however. Students and teachers need to have some clear, shared sense of their task, since the amount of material and number of side issues to be explored can be daunting. Carefully selected assignments and examinations, with clear expectations, provide direction for student effort and focus for class sessions. Interesting tangents will still emerge, and occasionally spending time on them may feel even more playful when there is a clear sense of the fundamental work of the course.

Students generally want to know clearly what will happen in class and what they are required to do. Grades are, like it or not, important to students, and careful planning can turn this to good purpose by strategically using grades and assignments as motivators for behavior that the instructor values. Is attendance required? Will tests include material in the book that is not discussed in class? If you present material that is not in the book, will students be expected to know it for the test? If there is a class exercise, will they get credit for completing it? If there is a class discussion, will talking influence their grade? If there is a film, will it be tested? Should they have read the text before class? Explain requirements clearly, and plan how to monitor their accomplishment. To balance this clarity, though, the teacher must also be flexible in order to accommodate student interest and to correct for unrealistic expectations about what can be accomplished.

Class time can be spent various ways. Students appreciate clear explanations of important concepts from the text, illustrated by new examples. Identifying what is most important can be more helpful than trying to cover everything. One way to organize a lecture is to outline the chapter, using the accompanying PowerPoint slides, and to use this structure to explain the material -- deviating enough from the text to provide interest, but not so much as to confuse students. I generally present lectures using computer-displayed visual materials, combining PowerPoint outlines, definitions, clip art, videos, and occasionally class exercises. I make my presentations available to students on the web, which many of them download and print before class to facilitate note-taking (although some instructors prefer to delay making electronic notes available until after the lecture, to encourage attendance).

Lectures can expand on material not covered in the text. Even faculty who stay close to the book most of the time may wish to do this in areas of their own particular interest and expertise. If this "lecture supplements the book" approach is the regular strategy, students should be clearly told what they must learn through their own reading, and how exams will weigh content from lecture and from the book.

For a change of pace, the instructor may spend some classes on class exercises, personality tests, or films. It has been my experience that both students and instructors are most appreciative of such a change of pace after an exam or major written assignment. At most schools, films need to be scheduled well in advance, particularly if they must be rented. The librarian or media consultant at your school may have additional suggestions.

A carefully chosen term project or set of assignments can enhance class discussions as well as supplement the book. Students may be asked to do a psychobiographical analysis on the basis of a biography they have read. Alternatively, they may be assigned to read research articles relevant to a particular theory, and to present them either in a paper or in an oral report. A panel of related research makes an interesting class session. If the instructor chooses to do several class 4

demonstrations throughout the term, having students briefly write about them can ensure that students will take them seriously. Brief papers reporting such demonstrations could be collected frequently, or they could be written in an Exercise Notebook to be collected two or three times throughout the term. (An advantage of the Exercise Notebook is that it allows the instructor greater flexibility throughout the term to add or delete exercises, since there is no prior announcement of a particular number of written reports.) Some instructors may wish to make written reports of class exercises an "extra credit" assignment. These strategies, to be maximally effective, should be anticipated at the outset of the term so that they can be included in a list of course requirements on the class syllabus.

Approaches to Teaching Personality Biography The study of individual lives through psychobiography is an intrinsically interesting approach for students. Students may be required to read a biography or autobiography and to analyze it from the perspective of one or several personality theories. Students' oral presentations of these projects at the end of the term provide an interesting review of course concepts, as well as permitting some review time between the completion of the last chapter of the book and the final exam. (Students may need to be reminded to include theoretical concepts in their presentations, so captivating are the details of the lives they report.) A number of excellent biographies have been televised; students occasionally mention them in class and venture theoretical interpretations.

I ask my students to report on their biographies at various points throughout the term, since otherwise they tend to procrastinate until the end, and the quality of the work suffers. Class discussion of interim assignments is also a useful review of theories to date. This is my syllabus statement of the assignment: PERSONALITY TERM PAPER Apply the theories of personality that have been covered in the course to an understanding of one person. The person must be a real person, not a fictional or mythological figure. Base your paper a on published biographical or autobiographical book, in addition to the text. You should discuss all of the theories covered in the course in your paper, though you may choose to concentrate on some more than others.

Be detailed in your discussion of how theoretical concepts apply. There is no need to explain the theoretical concepts in the paper. (You may presume that the reader knows the theories.) Focus on how the theoretical concepts apply to the one person you are trying to understand. Cite specific details from the biography to support your interpretations.

Cite references that you use for direct quotations and for factual material. Ordinarily, only two references will be necessary: the biography (or autobiography) and the text. If you wish to do more detailed reading about personality theory or about the biography, you may include more references, but that is not necessary or expected. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that you understand the theories well enough to apply them appropriately, with insight.

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Tips for working on the term paper may be found by following links from the course home page.

[These tips are listed below.]

Three brief progress reports will be collected: Assignment #1: List the biographical source (book) you will be using. Use APA format (or the format used in the class text), and include all bibliographical information. In one page (prose or outline), summarize your thoughts about how the material covered so far (chapters 1-6) applies to this person.

Assignment #2: In 1-3 pages (prose or outline), summarize how the trait and biological interpretations (chapters 7-9) apply to the biography you are analyzing.

Assignment #3: In 1-3 pages (prose or outline), summarize how behavioral theories (chapters 1013) apply to the biography you are analyzing. In particular, consider what cognitions are relevant to understanding this personality.

The purpose of these assignments is to ensure that you are thinking critically about the theories throughout the course. As a result, no credit will be given for assignments that are more than a day or two late. As described on the syllabus, the final paper is due [date], and you should be prepared to present selected parts of it informally, orally, in class. Submit your final paper both electronically and in print form. The print form will be returned to you, with the instructor's comments. Please be sure that both copies are identical in every way (including the cover page).

Suggested Length: 15 to 20 pages (Longer papers are acceptable. Shorter papers will not be penalized for length, but be sure that you are discussing theories adequately, which is difficult to do in a paper much less than 15 pages.)

When I introduce the assignment in the first or second class, I discuss tips on the following list, which are also posted on the course website: Advice for psychobiography assignment •Is there sufficient information?

•Is the information unbiased?

•Do you have biased ideas about the person?

•Are you very interested in the person?

•Can you complete the analysis in time?

Films, Television Sources and Music In some ways similar to biography, analysis of television programs and movies also offers an intrinsically interesting approach to studying personality, and one that is comfortable to our media-immersed students. Personally, I worry that the personalities that we may analyze in films are distorted by the implicit theories of the film producers—a concern that is somewhat attenuated, but not entirely eliminated, when the films are based on real people. Nonetheless, the intrinsic interest of this approach, the hope that it will create habits of critical thinking that extend beyond the classroom, and the relative ease of incorporating video materials in class are clear advantages.

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Many varieties of films are possible. Some are documentary biographies, such as those broadcast on the Biography program on the A&E television network (http://www.aetv.com/biography/). Other programs are formatted as interviews that focus on a person’s life (a format that invites discussion of the interview as a data collection method). The television program Inside the Actors Studio, on the Bravo television network, probes the life history of actors, producers, and others in the film industry in an interview format (http://www.bravotv.com/Inside_the_Actors_Studio). James Lipton, the host, includes a standard open-ended set of questions toward the end of each interview, in which guests are asked a standard set of questions (e.g., “What is your favorite curse word?” and “What is your favorite sound or noise?”). I have occasionally presented this brief portion of the program from several different guests, back-to-back, to illustrate individual differences and to invite student interpretation of the responses. It’s fun, and sometimes the responses seem ready-made for a particular theoretical interpretation. It is a welcome change of pace from the over-used multiple choice questionnaires that are so pervasive in personality research.

Feature films provide another source of material. Though more fictional in plot and with disclaimers about portraying actual people, the personality concepts have pedagogical potential.

Lists of Hollywood films that have been used in teaching psychology courses (including but not limited to personality) are occasionally circulated, and one such list is found in the first reference below. A systematic method for analyzing films, using a method called the Structural Analysis of Social Behavior (SASB), is described in the second reference below, which applies this method to psychoanalytic and humanistic approaches, (A word of warning: Implementing this approach would require considerable advance preparation by the instructor to select appropriate video segments and to understand the SASB method.)

Music can also be used to illustrate personality theories by examining the lyrics of popular songs. One suspects that operas could also be used, though with less appeal to most students.

SUGGESTED READING: Lampropoulos, G. K., Kazantzis, N., & Deane, F. P. (2004). Psychologists’ use of motion pictures in clinical practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 35, 535–541. [This study reports several movies and their rated usefulness in therapy.]

Leck, K. (2007). Teaching personality theories using popular music. Teaching of Psychology, 33, 34–36. [This approach uses song lyrics both in lecture and in student assignments.]

Paddock, J. R., Terranova, S., & Giles, L. (2001). SASB goes Hollywood: Teaching personality theories through movies. Teaching of Psychology, 28, 117–121.

Empirical Research Theories are, in principle, evaluated and accepted, rejected, or revised as a consequence of empirical research. Chapter 1 presents an overview of the strategy of empirical verification of theories. Later chapters consider empirical research related to each theory. Expanded consideration of empirical research (whether reported in the text or not) is an effective lecture or lecturediscussion exercise, and a logical choice for paper assignments or oral reports. Such assignments can be facilitated by providing instruction in literature search techniques and by presenting an 7

overview of the major parts of a research article (Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion).

Besides reviewing published research, students can design their own studies. Depending on the college curriculum, they might actually conduct such studies in a subsequent research course. (To do so within a one-term personality class is, in most cases, too rushed to permit high-quality research.) If individually designed and conducted projects are not feasible within the time constraints of a course, the class can together collect data and then individually or in small groups, analyze parts of it. For example, personality tests can be taken in class or administered to volunteers outside the class, and brief background demographic information collected. Students may write their own test items--an activity that is likely to foster appreciation of the pitfalls of ambiguous items.

Instructors should be familiar with the requirements of their institution's human subjects research committee. Some projects may require an ethics review before being conducted.

The instructor may use lecture time to expand on selected studies reported in the text.

Studies with tables or figures in the text would be particularly appropriate for such expansion. Other articles of particular interest to the instructor, or which are too recent to be included in the text, would also be fine choices for lecture. The difficulty of making causal inferences from correlational studies bears frequent repetition in personality research SUGGESTED READING: Benjamin, L. T. (1983). A class exercise in personality and psychological assessment.

Teaching of Psychology, 10, 94–95. [Describes a 2-week exercise in which students develop a personality test, administer it, and analyze it.]

Camac, C. R., & Camac, M. K. (1993). A laboratory project in scale design: Teaching reliability and validity. Teaching of Psychology, 20, 102–104. [Describes a class project in developing a scale of sensation seeking.]

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CHAPTER BY CHAPTER SUGGESTIONS FOR LECTURES AND CLASS DISCUSSIONS Many factors contribute to classroom interest, including the enthusiasm and expertise of the teacher and the students' sense that they are engaged in a meaningful endeavor. I hope that some of the suggestions in the pages that follow will be helpful as you develop assignments and lectures that reflect the unique approach to the field that each instructor provides.

Chapter 1: Introduction to Personality Theory Trait and Construct Measurement The concept of a theoretical construct can be rather abstract. One way to illustrate it would be to focus on particular personality traits and their measurement. Here are two references that describe class exercises designed for this purpose.

SUGGESTED READING: Friesen, M. D., & Ellis, B. J. (). Convergent validation of an interview-based personality assessment: A laboratory project. Teaching of Psychology, 35, 109– 112. [This class exercise requires two class sessions and illustrates the importance of multiple operational definitions by measuring the same 4 personality traits by both interview and questionnaire methods.]

Holmes, J. D. (2008). Teaching traits and constructs through scale construction: A need and a strategy. Teaching of Psychology, 35, 86–90. [Describes a classroom exercise for developing scales to measure traits, presented in the context of theory and hypothesis generation.]

Comparison of Expert Knowledge with Common Sense As the quotations at the beginning of Chapter 1 indicate, common sense offers many opinions about personality. One way to begin the course, particularly appropriate for the first class when students will not have read the text, is to consider common sense statements about personality. Such statements can be provided by the instructor or elicited from the class. The statements can then be compared with available research (a strategy that requires advance preparation by the instructor). Or, requiring less advance preparation, the instructor can use these statements to discuss the issue of empirical verification. What research would support the statements, or refute them? What measures would be needed?

Students may also be asked what topics or issues that they expect to be covered in the course. What areas seem relevant to personality; where can expert knowledge supplement common sense? If this topic is addressed at the beginning of the term, consider keeping a record of the issues raised, and return to them at the end of the term to evaluate whether expectations have been met. If they have not, is it because the questions were not well formulated? Or have the theories failed to meet legitimate expectations?

SUGGESTED READING: Embree, M. C. (1986). Implicit personality theory in the classroom: An integrative approach. Teaching of Psychology, 13, 78–80. [Describes a classroom exercise for making students aware of their own implicit personality theories, comparing these with selected formal personality theories.]

Goldstein, M. D. (1998). Forming and testing implicit personality theories in cyberspace. Teaching of Psychology, 25, 216-220. [Reports an exercise in which 9

students analyze internet home pages by psychologists in terms of their implicit personality theories.]

Vyse, S. A. (1990). Adopting a viewpoint: Psychology majors and psychological theory. Teaching of Psychology, 17, 227–230. [Reports that students adopt theories based on understanding themselves.]

Personality Measurement Students are usually quite interested in taking personality tests and learning their results.

Such tests can be given early in the course or later, in conjunction with the related theorist.

Some appropriate tests are the Myers-Briggs Personality Inventory (see Chapter 3), the AllportVernon-Lindzey Study of Values (see Chapter 7), Cattell's 16PF, and the NEO-PI or the Five Factor Inventory (see Chapter 8). (I recommend avoiding tests with clear implications for mental health, such as the Personal Orientation Inventory, unless your students are relatively sophisticated or will be entering mental health professions.)

An introductory lecture on measurement, emphasizing the construction and validation of tests, is appropriate for Chapter 1, particularly if your students will be taking tests or conducting their own research. How much should we accept the results of psychological tests? The instructor may wish to supplement the text explanation of reliability and validity. A researchoriented class can analyze data collected from students for reliability, and can propose (perhaps even measure) validity criteria.

The Barnum Effect refers to people's tendency to accept as valid statements that are really general personality descriptions, applicable to nearly everyone. Dickson and Kelly (1985) give some examples of Barnum statements: "You are generally cheerful and optimistic but get depressed at times." "You find that study is not always easy." Because of the Barnum Effect, we cannot assume that personality tests are valid simply because people accept the results. We need more scientific evidence of validity.

SUGGESTED READING: Boyce, T. E., & Geller, E. S. (2002). Using the Barnum effect to teach psychological research methods. Teaching of Psychology, 29, 316–318.

Brockway, J. H., & Bryant, F. B. (1998). You can’t judge a measure by its label: Teaching the process of instrumentation. Teaching of Psychology, 25, 121–123.

[Describes an exercise in finding and comparing various instruments that purportedly measure the same theoretical construct, using library resources such as the measurement database, Health and Psychological Instrument (HaPI) File.]

Dickson, D. H., & Kelley, I. W. (1985). The "Barnum Effect" in personality assessment: A review of the literature. Psychological Reports, 57, 367–382.

[Reviews research on the Barnum Effect. People accept favorable statements more than unfavorable statements, though unfavorable statements are accepted if given by a high status person. Statements based on projective tests tend to be accepted more than those from other types of measures.]

McKelvie, S. J. (1990). Student acceptance of a generalized personality description: Forer's graphologist revisited. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 5(4), 91–95. [Describes a class exercise in which students received a generalized personality profile based on handwriting samples, which resulted in increased rated belief in graphology compared to a control group. Discusses research on

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acceptance of generalized feedback about personality based on various personality tests.]

Psychobiography Instructors who assign psychobiographical analyses to their students may wish to lecture on psychobiography early in the course. Psychobiography has several advantages. It calls attention to the social and cultural context of individual personality. It requires precise definitions of theoretical constructs so that we know when they apply to an individual life. It has heuristic value, suggesting ways in which theorists have ignored important influences on real people's lives. However, psychobiography has disadvantages, too. It offers little control over many variables that influence an individual, so that it is impossible to know precisely what is causing a person to behave a certain way. It is difficult to know the extent to which our preexisting biases influence what we see. It is based on data that have already been selected and, likely, distorted by the biographer (or autobiographer).

SUGGESTED READING: Enns, C. Z. (1994). On teaching about the cultural relativism of psychological constructs. Teaching of Psychology, 21, 205–211. [Discusses shortcomings in traditional personality theories that ignore multicultural issues. Describes how autobiography can help overcome this shortcoming.]

Runyan, W. M. (1981). Why did Van Gogh cut off his ear? The problem of alternative explanations in psychobiography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 1070–1077. [Considers the difficulty that arises because many theoretical explanations can be offered for the same biographical event. Several particular explanations of Van Gogh's self-mutilation are described, which could be presented in lecture to introduce the problem of multiple interpretations.]

Mueller, S. C. (1985). Persons in the personality theory course: Student papers based on biographies. Teaching of Psychology, 12, 74–78. [This is the “seed” that eventually developed into the Illustrative Biographies of this textbook; the text author “Cloninger” was “Mueller” in another phase of life.]

Runyan, W. M. (1982). Life histories and psychobiography: Explorations in theory and method. New York: Oxford University Press.

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PART I: The Psychoanalytic Perspective Chapter 2: Freud: Classical Psychoanalysis Defense Mechanisms Examples of defense mechanisms are given in the text. The instructor may wish to supplement these examples. To avoid misunderstanding, it is wise to emphasize the adaptive nature of defense mechanisms. They are ego functions, and they help adjust to reality. They are problematic only if they are over-used or distort reality excessively. The text refers to empirical measures of defense mechanisms, which could be further reported in a class that is concerned with research.

SUGGESTED READING: Freud, A. (1966). The ego and the mechanisms of defense (rev. ed.). New York: International Universities Press. (Original work published 1936) Freud, S. (1962). The ego and the id. (J. Strachey, Ed.; J. Riviere, Trans.). New York: Norton. (Original work published 1923) Freud, S. (1972). Civilization and its discontents. (J. Strachey, Ed.; J. Riviere, Trans.). London: Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1929) Vaillant, G. E. (1992). The historical origins and future potential of Sigmund Freud’s concept of the mechanisms of defence. International Review of Psychoanalysis, 19, 35–50.

Vaillant, G. E. (2000). Adaptive mental mechanisms and their role in a positive psychology. American Psychologist, 55, 89–98.

Humor Jokes and cartoons can be used to illustrate various kinds of conflict. Students may enjoy bringing these in to class. Without advance preparation, class brainstorming can produce familiar jokes, slang, or curse words to be classified into categories as oral, anal, or phallic images. Similarly, slang obcenities or expressions of emotion can be categorized into these classical early childhood stages.

Repressed Memory and Sexual Abuse This topic is one in which personality theory has brought therapy application and scientific research together in heated conflict. How are we to understand memories of childhood sexual abuse? Are they generally accurate, emerging during psychotherapy on the path from abuse to cure? Are they often false, created in therapy by the power of suggestion, in which the therapist is guided by an erroneous theory? What are, or should be, the boundaries between experiences in therapy and actions in the real world (such as taking action against those who perpetrated childhood sexual abuse)? Several issues might be expanded in lecture. What kind of empirical evidence is relevant to resolving the case; is clinical evidence within therapy sufficient, or should objective data be collected? Scientific evidence has cast considerable suspicion on memories of abuse that are recovered in therapy. Neuroscientists continue to explore the effects of trauma on memory, to see whether the extraordinary biochemical consequences of severe abuse might have memory consequences that are beyond the parameters of the stressful events that can be manipulated in experimental research. This topic offers an opportunity to discuss the importance of integrating empirical research with clinical application.

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SUGGESTED READING: Alter-Reid, K., Gibbs, M. S., Lachenmeyer, J. R., Sigal, J., & Massoth, N. A. (1986).

Sexual abuse of children: A review of the empirical findings. Clinical Psychology Review, 6, 249–266.

Baker, R. A. (Ed.) (1998). Child sexual abuse and false memory syndrome. Amherst, NY: Prometheus.

Froula, C. (1986). The daughter's seduction: Sexual violence and literary history.

Signs, 11, 621–644. [Provides literary portrayals of father-daughter incest from a feminist perspective, including Maya Angelou's I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, especially relevant because Angelou is an illustrative biography later in the text.]

Loftus, E., & Ketcham, K. (1994). The myth of repressed memory. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. [Influential research documents scientific doubts about clinical claims of recovered memory for childhood sexual abuse.]

Miller, L. A. (1997). Teaching about repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse and eyewitness testimony. Teaching of Psychology, 24, 250–255. [Describes a course devoted to repressed memories and eyewitness testimony.]

Research on Psychoanalytic Theory Psychoanalytic theory is often criticized as difficult to verify by empirical research.

Though this criticism has much validity, there have been efforts to apply empirical techniques, even true experimental techniques, to psychoanalytic hypotheses. Several of these are reported in the text. Silverman's studies, very briefly mentioned in the text (abbreviated from a longer discussion in the previous edition), are particularly instructive. Instructors may also wish to engage students in research on this topic. The following references offer ideas.

SUGGESTED READING: Davidson, W. B. (1987). Undergraduate lab project in personality assessment: Measurement of anal character. Teaching of Psychology, 14, 101–103.

[Describes a class exercise in which students developed an objective measure of anal character, based on the traits of frugality, orderliness, and obstinacy, and evaluated the reliability and validity of the measure. Appropriate for discussing the empirical validation of psychoanalytic concepts. This exercise could be replicated as a class exercise, either with the anal character or with other concepts (e.g., oral character).]

Lilienfeld, S. O., Wood, J. M., & Garb, H. N. (2001, May). What’s wrong with this picture? Scientific American, 284(5), 80–87. [This article, clearly written and suitable as assigned reading for students, critically evaluates projective tests, including the Rorschach inkblot test, the TAT, and Draw-a-Person test. It is useful for discussing empirical validation of psychoanalytic approaches and for applying the discussion of reliability and validity in the previous chapter.]

Psychobiography Freud’s contributions to psychobiography are as controversial as the subjectivity which distorted his clinical case reports. Nonetheless, psychoanalysis has been a favorite theory for psychobiographical analyses.

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SUGGESTED READING: Elms, A. C. (1988). Freud as Leonardo: Why the first psychobiography went wrong.

Journal of Personality, 56, 19–40.

Leavy, S. A. (1985). Hitler's "table talk" as psychoanalytic source material.

Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 21, 609–616. [Discusses primary material in analyzing Hitler's unconscious fantasies.]

Freudian Principles in Everyday Life Students may be interested to discuss Freudian principles that can be observed in everyday life. Examples are given in the following reference.

SUGGESTED READING: Miserandino, M. (1994). Freudian principles in everyday life. Teaching of Psychology, 21, 93–95.

Historical and Current Status of Psychoanalytic Theory Though many have criticized Freud’s errors, his theory was part of an evolution in thought about personality, as Ellenberger describes, and modern advances such as those described by Westen strive to build on Freud’s strengths while using empirical studies to prune its errors.

SUGGESTED READING: Ellenberger, H. F. (1970). The discovery of the unconscious: The history and evolution of dynamic psychiatry. New York: Basic Books.

Westen, D. (1998). The scientific legacy of Sigmund Freud: Toward a psychodynamically informed psychological science. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 333–371.

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Chapter 3: Jung: Analytical Psychology Psychological Type and Interpersonal Relationships If time permits, students enjoy testing their psychological type. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is the most frequently used research instrument for this purpose. A briefer test is published in Keirsey and Bates (1978), and several variations are available on the web (e.g., The Keirsey Temperament and Character Web Site at http://www.keirsey.com/). The Myers-Briggs test is widely used in businesses for personnel training, and this practical use is an interesting application for many students, who may find parallels to their own experience at work, in class group projects, or in social interactions. For consideration of intimate relationships, Jung’s essay on marriage is interesting.

SUGGESTED READING: Jung, C. G. (1954). Marriage as a psychological relationship. In C. G. Jung, The development of personality (pp. 187–201) (W. McGuire, Ed,: R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (Original work published 1931) Keirsey, D., & Bates, M. (1984). Please understand me (5th ed.). Del Mar, CA: Prometheus Nemesis. [Contains a brief and popular measure of psychological types and offers extensive discussion of the various psychological types. This book is quite readable for undergraduates, and rich enough in detail to provide extensive discussion material.]

Levy, N., & Ridley, S. E. (1987). Stability of Jungian personality types within a college population over a decade. Psychological Reports, 60, 419–422. [Gives norms on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator based on a cross-sectional study of 1,764 black female college students over a 10 to 12 year time span. Frequencies of each psychological type are reported. Similar distributions were found across time.]

Belief in Paranormal Phenomena Many people believe in paranormal phenomena, though scientific psychology is skeptical. Jung's concept of synchronicity is likely to appeal to many students, who may offer personal testimonials of paranormal phenomena if the atmosphere is conducive to such disclosure. One approach to this issue is to suggest procedures which would permit a scientific test of paranormal phenomena, based upon the hypothesis-testing model of science. Another approach is to consider individual differences in belief in the paranormal.

SUGGESTED READING: Cartwright, D. S. (1989). Concurrent validation of a measure of transcendental powers. Journal of Parapsychology, 53, 43–59. [Contains a measure of Transcendental Mental Powers, based on Carl Rogers's theory, and describes validity evidence. Although Cartwright derives this measure from Rogers's theory, the topic of paranormal beliefs is usually associated with Jung's theory, and so the topic is suggested here.]

Lamal, P. A. (1989). Attending to parapsychology. Teaching of Psychology, 16, 28– 30. [Reviews studies suggesting that there is widespread belief in extrasensory perception (ESP) among students and in the population at large, and contrasts this attitude with the omission of parapsychology in most introductory 15

psychology textbooks. A class exercise is described that empirically tests some parapsychological ideas. The article summarizes some literature on individual differences in the belief in the paranormal.]

Roig, M., Icochea, H., & Cuzzucoli, A. (1991). Coverage of parapsychology in introductory psychology textbooks. Teaching of Psychology, 18, 157–160.

[Presents data on coverage of parapsychology in 64 introductory psychology textbooks and argues that there is bias against parapsychology. This article may be of interest to instructors who wish to document the attitude of mainstream psychology regarding parapsychology, to contrast this attitude with Jung's acceptance of psychic phenomena.]

Tobacyk, J. J., & Wilkinson, L. V. (1990). Magical thinking and paranormal beliefs.

Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 5, 255–264. [Reports a study of 282 college students, showing positive correlations among various measures of paranormal beliefs. Two scales are included: a 25-item Paranormal Belief Scale and a 30-item Magical Ideation Scale.]

Symbols of the Collective Unconscious It is not necessary to consider dreams in order to discuss symbolism. Symbols abound in fairy tales, myths, literature, and religion. One well-known symbol is water, interpreted as a symbol of the unconscious. Dreaming of drowning, for example, can be interpreted as being overcome by the unconscious. Great things can come from the unconscious; for example the frog who later became a prince came first from a well, symbolizing the unconscious, in the Grimm brothers' fairy tale, "The Frog Prince." Baptism is a religious ritual in which the great forces of the unconscious, spiritually understood, touch and transform an individual. Crossing water symbolizes change; Hansel and Gretel, for example, crossed water returning home from their encounter with the wicked witch.

SUGGESTED READING: Chetwynd, T. (1982). A dictionary of symbols. London: Paladin.

Bettelheim, B. (1976). The uses of enchantment: The meaning and importance of fairy tales. New York: Knopf.

Campbell, J. (1968). The hero with a thousand faces (2nd ed). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Mayes, C. (1999). Reflecting on the archetypes of teaching. Teaching Education, 10(2), 3-16. [Projection of the archetype may be a difficult concept for students to understand. This article discusses various kinds of projection that occur in the classroom, onto the teacher, and this may make the concept easier to understand.]

Rosen, D., & Luebbert, M. (Eds.). (1999). The evolution of the psyche. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Stannard, K. (1988). Archetypal images in contemporary television: The mythology of Dr. Who. Humanistic Psychologist, 16, 361–367.

Scientists' Skepticism About Jung's Theory Jung's theory arouses objections from the perspective of science. A strongly worded criticism of Jung's theory as “pseudoscience” is contained in the following reference, which could form the basis for lecture and discussion. This would provide a good opportunity to review the scientific method and criteria of a sound theory (Chapter 1).

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SUGGESTED READING: McGowan, D. (1994). What is wrong with Jung. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books.

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PART II: The Psychoanalytic-Social Perspective Chapter 4: Adler: Individual Psychology Many excellent resources are available on the web at the Alfred Adler Institutes of San Francisco and Northwestern Washington (http://www.adlerian.us).

Birth Order The concept of birth order as a determinant of personality is one that students generally find quite interesting. A quick and easy introduction to the concept of birth order and achievement would be to ask how many of them have gone farther or achieved higher in school than their siblings, and how many are first-borns, second borns, and so forth. Undoubtedly, their experiences will be diverse, emphasizing Adler's admonition that individual circumstances must be considered.

SUGGESTED READING: Parrott, L. (1992). Earliest recollections and birth order: Two Adlerian exercises.

Teaching of Psychology, 19, 40–42. [Describes two class exercises to illustrate the Adlerian concepts of early recollections and birth order. The article gives detailed guidelines for the instructor, and it describes results of an evaluation of the exercises by students.]

Sulloway, F. J. (1996). Born to rebel: Birth order, family dynamics, and creative lives. New York: Vintage Books. [Discusses birth order of famous people, offering an opportunity to illustrate family constellation ideas.]

Early Memories Adler's suggestion that early memories provide keys to understanding an individual's personality is an idea that readily triggers class discussion. What do students remember? How early are these memories? What do they seem to mean?

SUGGESTED READING: Bruhn, A. R. (1992a). The Early Memories Procedure: A projective test of autobiographical memory, Part 1. Journal of Personality Assessment, 58, 1–15.

Bruhn, A. R. (1992b). The Early Memories Procedure: A projective test of autobiographical memory, Part 2. Journal of Personality Assessment, 58, 326– 346.

Watkins, C. E. (1983). An Adlerian exercise for use in the personal growth class: Early recollections. Individual Psychology, 39, 195–199. [Describes a class exercise on early recollections.]

Social Interest versus Individualism Adler suggested that mental health requires "social interest." His community orientation runs counter to the value of individualism, which is prevalent in our culture. This might be a good time to consider how values influence the judgment of mental health.

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SUGGESTED READING: Adler, A. (1964). Social interest: A challenge to mankind. New York: Capricorn.

(Original work published 1936) Leak, G. K., Gardner, L. E., & Pounds, B. (1992). A comparison of Eastern religion, Christianity, and social interest. Individual Psychology, 48, 53–64.

Psychobiography Adler's theory has been the basis of published psychobiographies, as the following reading suggestions illustrate. Also consider the Sulloway work on birth order, described above.

In addition, Adler's list of mistaken styles of life is readily understood and can be applied to biographical materials by students with little difficulty.

SUGGESTED READING: Brink, T. L. (1975). The case of Hitler: An Adlerian perspective on psychohistory.

Journal of Individual Psychology, 31, 23–31. [Analyzes Hitler from an Adlerian perspective, considering inferiority feelings and a pampered childhood. This suggests an alternative to the Freudian approach to Hitler presented in the text, Chapter 2. It would be a vehicle for elaborating Adler's objections to Freud's theory.]

Fancher, R. E. (1998). Biography and psychodynamic theory: Some lessons from the life of Francis Galton. History of Psychology, 1, 99–115.

Rintala, M. (1984). The love of power and the power of love: Churchill's childhood.

Political Psychology, 5, 375–390. [Analyzes Winston Churchill's love of power to its childhood origins. Churchill is interpreted as trying to compensate for deprivation by seeking power.]

Positive Psychology and Adler Positive Psychology (Chapter 15) has a lot to say about the benefits of social usefulness.

Consider talking about how Positive Psychology and Social Usefulness are linked by this concept.

SUGGESTED READING: Barlow, P.J., Tobin, D. J., & Schmidt, M.M. (2009, Fall). Social interest and positive psychology: Positively aligned. Journal of Individual Psychology, 65(3), 191 – 202.

Leak, G.K., & Leak, K.C. (2006, Fall). Adlerian social interest and positive psychology: A conceptual and empirical integration. Journal of Individual Psychology, 62(3), 207 – 223.

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Chapter 5: Erikson: Psychosocial Development Identity Most students will be able to relate to the concept of "identity crisis." The comparison with career choice is useful, since career is a major basis of identity. Recent research and theory makes identity a topic in which multicultural, ethnic, and gender considerations can be developed. The boundaries between individual personality and social and cultural forces can be readily explored here. Students might imagine what the world will be like in 50 years, with continuing changes in the world’s population density, and age and ethnicity of humans, and predict changes in identity that may occur.

SUGGESTED READING: Root, M. P. P. (1990). Resolving "other" status: Identity development of biracial individuals. Women and Therapy, 9, 185–205. [Describes the identity resolution of biracial individuals. Several strategies for resolving identity are considered.

Psychological theorists are criticized for their lack of attention to these issues.]

Richard, H. W. (1996). Filmed in black and white: Teaching the concept of racial identity at a predominantly white university. Teaching of Psychology, 23, 159– 161. [Describes an assignment for students to analyze the developing racial identity of a character based on a film or a book.]

Sampson, E. E. (1993). Identity politics: Challenges to psychology’s understanding.

American Psychologist, 48, 1219–1230. [Identity raises political issues in psychology.]

Sullivan, T., & Schneider, M. (1987). Development and identity issues in adolescent homosexuality. Child and Adolescent Social Work, 4, 13–24. [Presents a developmental approach to identity resolution among homosexual adolescents.

Research and theory on this topic is summarized, providing a useful introduction to a neglected topic. Since Erikson's theory presumes heterosexuality, this reading offers balance.]

Yeh, C. J., & Hwang, M. Y. (2000). Interdependence in ethnic identity and self: Implications for theory and practice. Journal of Counseling and Development, 78, 420–429. [Describes a case study to illustrating the importance of awareness of bicultural identity in counseling.]

Ego Strengths and Social Institutions The text suggests that research could be conducted to test the specific relationships Erikson proposes between ego strengths and social institutions. What is the relationship between religion and trust? law and autonomy? and so forth. Students may generate hypotheses to test these ideas. Point out that hypotheses that compare groups of individuals do not necessarily correspond to those that compare the same individuals across time. The second approach is more consistent with the case study interests of the psychodynamic model. Therefore, rather than suggesting what kinds of people turn to religion, law, and so forth, hypotheses might more profitably explore the life circumstances when this occurs.

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Psychobiography Erikson's contributions to psychobiography make this chapter the most logical one for an expanded coverage of psychobiography. Erikson's own biographical analyses of Gandhi and Luther are worthy of discussion. In addition, Erikson's theory has been applied by others.

SUGGESTED READING: Cole, T. R., & Premo, T. (1987). The pilgrimage of Joel Andrews: Aging in the autobiography of a Yankee farmer. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 24, 79–85. [Cites Erikson's views on old age to interpret the autobiography of an early American farmer.]

Erikson, E. H. (1958). Young man Luther: A study in psychoanalysis and history.

New York: Norton.

Erikson, E. H. (1969). Gandhi’s truth: On the origins of militant nonviolence. New York: Norton.

Lorimer, R. (1976). A reconsideration of the psychological roots of Gandhi's Truth.

Psychoanalytic Review, 63, 191–207. [Compares Erikson's analysis of Gandhi with his analysis of Luther. Lorimer suggests that Luther attained a masculine identity, while Gandhi's was more feminine.]

Muslin, H., & Desai, P. (1984). Ghandi [sic] and his fathers. Psychohistory Review, 12(2-3), 7–18. [Describes Gandhi's relationships with his elders and with his mother. Cites Kohut's theory in understanding Gandhi's identifications.]

Teixeira, B. (1987). Comments on ahimsa (nonviolence). Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 19, 1–17. [Explains Gandhi's principle of nonviolence. This principle is also discussed in relation to other individuals, including Martin Luther King, Jr., who is featured in Chapter 3 of the text.]

Torres, J. (1977). Psychobiographical analysis as a teaching tool. Social Work, 22, 119–123. [Describes using his psychobiography of Frederick Douglass to teach psychoanalytic developmental theory. Erikson's theory is considered.]

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Chapter 6: Horney and Relational Theory: Interpersonal Psychoanalytic Theory Sex Roles and Defense Mechanisms Horney argued that sex differences are largely due to culture, not to anatomy. Culture, through sex roles, influences the defense mechanisms that people learn.

SUGGESTED READING: Lobel, T. E., & Winch, G. L. (1986). Different defense mechanisms among men with different sex role orientations. Sex Roles, 15, 215–220. [An empirical study of 30 male college students showing relationships between the Bem Sex Role Inventory and the Defense Mechanism Inventory. Masculine men used more externalizing defenses, and feminine men used more internalizing defenses. This article would be suitable as a reading assignment for students.]

Westkott, M. (1986). The feminist legacy of Karen Horney. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. [An excellent biography of the theorist.]

Perfectionism as a Defense Mechanism Aspirations to achieve, to improve, are challenged by Horney. In contrast to Adler's positive view of fictional finalisms, Horney cautions that "the search for glory" may be neurotic.

SUGGESTED READING: Sorotzkin, B. (1985). The quest for perfection: Avoiding guilt or avoiding shame?

Psychotherapy, 22, 564–571. [Presents clinical case material that may be used to illustrate perfectionism as a defense mechanism.]

Psychobiography Horney's concepts of "moving toward," "moving against," and "moving away" are readily understood and easily applied to psychobiography. In addition, the impact of culture on sex roles should be considered, as the following reading suggests.

SUGGESTED READING: Moes, E. C. (1990). Validation in the eyes of men: A psychoanalytic interpretation of paternal deprivation and the daughter's desire. Melanie Klein and Object Relations, 8, 43–65. [Analyzes Marilyn Monroe from the psychoanalytic perspective of Melanie Klein. Though the article does not mention Karen Horney's theory, it does consider sex roles in culture as important to understanding Marilyn Monroe.]

Class Research: Media Analysis Horney’s three interpersonal orientations offer an opportunity for a simple class research project. Television portrays a flow of images of interpersonal behavior. These can be categorized into Horney’s three interpersonal orientations. Select popular programs (or have students do so), and have students focus on one character and tally each instance of “moving toward,” “moving against,” and “moving away” behavior. Methodological issues of content coding can be discussed in as much detail as makes sense for the class, but at minimum, intercoder reliability should be mentioned and could be analyzed. If time permits, analysis of the styles in relationship to the character’s age, gender, and other characteristics could be undertaken.

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Attachment Studies of attachment in early life and in adolescence and adulthood are important for object relations approaches, and the topic has much intrinsic interest for students in their personal lives. Discussion can center on the empirical approaches in the classic studies of infancy, on measurement issues in studying attachment styles among adolescents and adults, or on more narrative discussion of how people’s lives reflect a search for love. In addition to the following, many references are cited in the text.

SUGGESTED READING: Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44, 709–716.

Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. M. (1991). Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 226-244.

Hazan, C., & Diamond, L. M. (2000). The place of attachment in human mating.

Review of General Psychology, 4, 186-204.

Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511-524.

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PART III: The Trait Perspective Chapter 7: Allport: Personological Trait Theory Functional Autonomy Allport's concept of functional autonomy is probably his best-known personality concept. A general discussion of the role of developmental concepts in personality theory would be appropriate here. Do we really become free of our past, as Allport suggests? Or is our "inner child" more powerful than he suggests? How does this issue relate to mental health? How often do people, either informally or in their own legal defense, blame their behavior on adverse early experience? (Is psychology perhaps responsible for this?) Most people would agree that healthy people are more free of their past than are those less well adapted.

Religious Orientation Allport's distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientation is interesting, and has been explored in research, as several studies cited in the text indicate. Other developments in the field may be presented from the text or additional sources below.

SUGGESTED READING: Allport, G. W. (1950). The individual and his religion: A psychological interpretation. New York: Macmillan. [Allport’s classic and influential contribution.]

Batson, C. D., Floyd, R. B., Meyer, J. M., & Winner, A. L. (1999). “And who is my neighbor?”: Intrinsic religion as a source of universal compassion. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 38, 445–457.

Hester, M. P. (1998). The status of psychology of religion: An interview with Raymond F. Paloutzian. Teaching of Psychology, 25, 303–306. [Mentions Allport’s work and later developments: religion as a quest, religion as means and ends, and integration of both perspectives for full spirituality.]

Prejudice Allport's work on prejudice is classic. It may be elaborated in lecture. In addition, the larger question may be posed: how do individual personality dynamics relate to social behavior?

SUGGESTED READING: Katz, I. (1991). Gordon Allport's The Nature of Prejudice. Political Psychology, 12, 125–157. [Discusses Allport's analysis of racial prejudice from the perspective of historical experience, including affirmative action and school busing.]

Study of Values Students may enjoy computing their scores on the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values. In discussing this instrument in class, the instructor may point out that it is high in "face validity," unlike the indirect measurement strategies of projective techniques. This approach is consistent with Allport's high trust of self-report statements.

SUGGESTED READING: Robinson, J. P., Shaver, P. R., & Wrightsman, L. S. (1991). Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes. New York: Academic Press.

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Expressive Measures of Personality (Handwriting Analysis) Instructors who wish to discuss handwriting analysis may find a study by Patricia Wellingham-Jones helpful. It presents extensive methodological information, including details of how handwriting samples are coded. Many significant relationships were found between handwriting and differences between successful women and a control group, though many of these did not conform to predictions. The article would lend itself to a critical discussion, emphasizing the difficulties of "capitalizing on chance" in discussing unexpected significant results.

SUGGESTED READING: Wellingham-Jones, P. (1989). Evaluation of the handwriting of successful women through the Roman-Staempfli Psychogram. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 69, 999–1010.

Historical Importance of Allport for Personality Theory and Humanism Roy DeCarvalho and others have written extensively about the historical importance of Gordon Allport for issues that are still the subject of lively discussion, especially among humanistic psychologists. Allport is generally categorized as a “trait theorist,” but an equally persuasive argument could be made for calling him a “humanistic theorist.”

SUGGESTED READING: DeCarvalho, R. J. (1990). Contributions to the history of psychology: LXIX. Gordon Allport on the problem of method in psychology. Psychological Reports, 67, 267–275.

DeCarvalho, R. J. (1991). Gordon Allport and humanistic psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 31(3), 8–13.

Zuroff, D. C. (1986). Was Gordon Allport a trait theorist? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 993–1000.

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Chapter 8: Two Factor Analytic Trait Theories: Cattell’s 16 Factors and the Big Five Measurement of Personality and Predicting Behavior If time permits, students enjoy taking and scoring personality tests. The 16PF, the NEOPI, and the Five Factor Inventory are particularly suited to this chapter. Test-taking is timeconsuming; allow at least an hour and a half, and be sure to have enough scoring templates on hand, if you do the exercise in class. It would be useful to have descriptions of personality factors available for students to examine. The manuals for the tests contain such descriptions. A briefer alternative strategy would be to present students with lists of adjectives typical of each factor, and have them rate themselves on those adjectives. Table 8.3 on page 156 of the text may be adapted for this purpose.

SUGGESTED READING: Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PIR) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI): Professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

Dollinger, S. J. (2004). Predicting personality-behavior relations: A teaching activity.

Teaching of Psychology, 31, 48–51.; Russell, M., & Karol, D. (2002). 16PF Fifth Edition Administrator’s Manual: With Updated Norms. Champaign, IL: Institute for Personality and Ability Testing, Inc. (IPAT).

Factor Analysis Instructors may wish to supplement the text's intuitive discussion of factor analysis.

Correlation matrices could be presented that show items tending to cluster into separate factors in a psychological test. (If time permits, these data could be collected in class.) Another strategy would be to present research reporting factor analyses and help students understand the statistical presentations.

SUGGESTED READING: Segrist, D. J., & Pawlow, L. A. (2007). The mixer: Introducing the concept of factor analysis. Teaching of Psychology, 34, 121–123. [Describes a class exercise in which students move around and form groups based on the content and relationships among test items.]

The Five Factor Model An immense research literature documents the stability of the five factor model and its correlations with diverse measures. The details are concrete and comprehensible to students, and the topic lends itself to discussion of construct validity and selection of criterion measures.

Many references cited in the text would also provide specific research examples of this model.

The Miserandino (2007) reference below describes a class exercise in which students infer personality factors based on the obituary of television celebrity Johnny Carson.

SUGGESTED READING: Goldberg, L. R. (1993). The structure of phenotypic personality traits. American Psychologist, 48, 26–34.

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McCrae, R. R.. & Costa, P. T., Jr. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal. American Psychologist, 52, 509–516.

Miserandino, M. (2007). Heeeere’s Johnny: A case study in the five factor model of personality. Teaching of Psychology, 34, 37–40.

Heredity and Personality Cattell's assertion that some traits are highly influenced by heredity, while others are mostly learned, is interesting to students. The instructor may wish to present Cattell's heritability estimates, and discuss what these imply about personality and child-rearing. Highest heritabilities are reported for factors B, F, A, I and L. Moderate heritabilities are reported for factors C, B, H, M, and Q3. Lowest heritabilities are reported for factors D, E, N, O, Q1, Q2, and Q4. The article by Tesser gives Personal Orientation Inventory items with heritabilities.

This would make an interesting class discussion about heritability, to help counter preconceptions and to add the importance of social context to the Herrnstein intelligence debate.

SUGGESTED READING: Cattell, R. B. (1973). Personality and mood by questionnaire. San Francisco: JosseyBass. [Heritabilities are presented in Table 25 on page 147 of Cattell’s book.]

Hamer, D., & Copeland, P. (1998). Living with our genes: Why they matter more than you think. New York: Doubleday.

Tesser, A. (1993). The importance of heritability in psychological research: The case of attitudes. Psychological Review, 100, 129–142.

The Dynamic Lattice Cattell's dynamic lattice diagrams the relationships among ergs, sentiments, and attitudes. The concept is easier to understand if it is illustrated with examples familiar to students. If students are doing biographical analyses, they may wish to make a dynamic lattice.

Examples could be produced in class. Begin by asking students what specific behavior they wish to consider, and put it to the left of the diagram. The text lists of ergs and of sentiments should be helpful in filling in the rest of the diagram. Discuss the concept of subsidiation in the dynamic lattice in comparison to Freud's concept of libido, the channeling of id instincts through the secondary processes of the ego.

Preparing Expert Witnesses Expert witnesses are sometimes called to testify in court about psychological test results.

The following article consists of questions that opposing lawyers might ask in order to challenge the expertise of a witness about Cattell's psychological tests. It could provide an interesting format for a class session.

SUGGESTED READING: Pope, K. S. (1993-94). Multivariate personality and clinical assessment in court: Use of the Cattell tests in forensic proceedings. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 13, 175–186.

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Chapter 9: Biological Theories: Evolution, Genetics, and Biological Factor Theories Evolutionary Approaches Evolutionary perspectives offer an exciting but controversial perspective on personality, and are among the most active new approaches in the field. Students’ backgrounds in the natural sciences or in fundamentalist thought may predispose them to accept or reject this perspective, though these inclinations might not be voiced in class. Psychologists have tended to dismiss instinct notions in favor of experience, and so we too may need to get into the details of this new approach to fully appreciate the way it includes experience and thought, and even culture, as the text describes.

SUGGESTED READING: LeDoux, J. (2002). Synaptic self: How our brains become who we are. New York: Viking. [Joseph LeDoux includes detailed neuroscience models within an evolutionary model of brain function.]

Pinker, S. (2002). The blank slate: The modern denial of human nature. New York: Viking. [Steven Pinker, who has written other books worth reading, here addresses some of the objections that have been raised against a biological, evolutionary model of human nature, and so may prepare the instructor for class discussion on this topic.]

Premack, D., & Premack, A. (2003). Original intelligence: Unlocking the mystery of who we are. New York: McGraw-Hill. [Delightfully written, this book provides lots of specific research to supplement lectures.]

Temperament Discussions of temperament have migrated from child development to personality more generally, as biological approaches have gained favor. Students may be interested in analyzing their own temperaments, currently and as they recall childhood, using ideas from the text. The idea of temperament has been around since ancient Greek times, but modern psychology contributes scientific measurement and promises connections with neuroscience.

SUGGESTED READING: Kagan, J. (1994). Galen's prophecy: Temperament in human nature. New York: Westview Press.

Plomin, R. (2002). Individual differences research in a postgenomic era. Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 909–920.

Biological Trait Theories Eysenck, Gray, and others have provided factor theories based on proposed specific biological variables, especially emphasizing neurotransmitters. Instructors will vary in how much they wish to pursue the biological mechanisms of these factors, depending in part on their own background in neuroscience and psychology and in part on the scientific background of their students. If models of the brain are available at your school, they could be used to illustrate these ideas. One point worth making is that cortical arousal (as emphasized in theories that build on Pavlov’s work) is different from emotional arousal. The two types of arousal have different implications for personality. Additionally, the sorts of self-report questions presented in the text 28

can be discussed, recognizing that many influences besides biology influence these conscious self-statements. Furthermore, the question of cause and effect should be discussed, reflecting research (presented in the text) that indicates that nervous system structure and functioning is changed by experience, particularly early experience.

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PART IV: The Behavioral Perspective Chapter 10: The Challenge of Behaviorism: Dollard and Miller, Skinner, and Staats Psychobiography Some instructors who used a previous edition (3rd or earlier) of this book may wish to discuss the Patricia Hearst psychobiography in order to raise questions of free will and determinism. Some of the following references provide details.

SUGGESTED READING: Garcia, L., & Griffitt, W. (1978). Evaluation and recall of evidence: Authoritarianism and the Patty Hearst case. Journal of Research in Personality, 12, 57–67.

[Reports 2 experiments using undergraduate subjects. Authoritarianism was related to recall of evidence and to inferences about the case.]

Miller, A. G., Hinkle, S. W., Pliske, D., & Pliske, R. M. (1977). Reactions to the Patricia Hearst case: An attributional perspective. Psychological Reports, 41, 683–695. [Reports an experimental study of undergraduate reactions to the Patricia Hearst case, focusing on personal versus situational attributions.

Internal-external locus of control of subjects influenced their evaluations of Hearst.]

Determinism and Free Will Skinner's discussions of determinism, and his debates with Carl Rogers over the issue of free will, are worth discussing in class.

SUGGESTED READING: Rogers, C. R., & Skinner, B. F. (1956). Some issues concerning the control of human behavior. Science, 124, 1057–1066. [Rogers and Skinner debate the role of subjective experience in human psychology, and other issues.]

Skinner, B. F. (1971). Beyond freedom and dignity. New York: Knopf.

Sperry, R. W. (1988). Psychology's mentalistic paradigm and the religion/science tension. American Psychologist, 43, 607–613. [This article, and the discussion of it in letters in the January 1990 issue of the American Psychologist (pp. 70–73), offers material to expand upon the "free will versus determinism" debate that Skinner's writings fueled.]

Utopian Communities Skinner's Walden Two novel has stimulated several communities built on behavioral principles. Reading and web resources provide supplementary material for class discussion. A community based on Skinner’s principles, Twin Oaks in Virginia, maintains a web page (http://www.twinoaks.org/).

SUGGESTED READING: Elms, A. C. (1981). Skinner’s dark year and Walden Two. American Psychologist, 36, 470–479.

Skinner, B. F. (1948). Walden Two. New York: Macmillan.

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Behavior in Personality Testing According to Werner and Pervin (1986), only 28% of items on 6 major personality inventories refer to behavior. For a class exercise, students could evaluate personality tests to see whether they refer to behavior this seldom. In addition, the instructor should make clear that asking about behavior on a self-report inventory falls short of behaviorists' commitment to observing behavior itself.

SUGGESTED READING: Werner, P. D., & Pervin, L. A. (1986). The content of personality inventory items.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 622–628.

Behaviorism as a Major Psychological Perspective The influence of behaviorism goes far beyond personality theory, and instructors may wish to discuss this from a historical perspective.

SUGGESTED READING: Lattal, K. A. (Ed.). (1992). Reflections on B. F. Skinner and psychology [Special issue]. American Psychologist, 47(11).

Skinner, B. F. (1990). Can psychology be a science of mind? American Psychologist, 45, 1206–1210.

Watson, J. B. (1994). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 101, 248–253. (Original work published 1913) Unified Theory Although discussion of eclecticism, pluralism, and unified theory is not presented until Chapter 17, Arthur Staats has been an influential spokesperson for unifying various levels of explanation, including behaviorism, as his biography in this chapter describes.

SUGGESTED READING: Staats, A. W. (1991). Unified positivism and unification psychology. American Psychologist, 46. 899–912.

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Conflict Dollard and Miller's model of types of conflict provides an alternative theoretical conceptualization for issues that people face in therapy. Ask students to provide examples of the various kinds of conflict, and point out that unless there is some element of avoidance, conflict is not generally experienced (since approach-approach conflicts are readily resolved).

Alcohol and drugs often reduce the avoidance component of conflict, at least temporarily. Examples of behaviors more common under such states may make this point for students. In the long run, though, other types of learning, such as learning new skills, are often necessary for an adequate resolution of conflict.

SUGGESTED READING: Terry, W. S. (2010). A demonstration of approach and avoidance conflicts. Teaching of Psychology, 37. 132–134.

Frustration and Aggression Aggression is evident throughout society, in violent crime, in war, in family violence, and so on. What frustrations may underlie such aggressive behavior? Does the frustrationaggression hypothesis seem adequate to explain these phenomena? What about people who are also frustrated, but whose behavior is less aggressive? Addressing the frustration-aggression hypothesis at the level of real phenomena in the world should sensitize students to the kinds of phenomena the theorists were trying to understand, and make them aware that many other factors may be involved besides simply frustration.

Revised formulations by Berkowitz, cited in the text, are worth presenting. Berkowitz focuses on the importance of situational factors and on negative emotions (such as anger) that mediate the frustration-aggression connection.

SUGGESTED READING: Berkowitz, L. (1989). Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 59–73.

Grossarth-Maticek, R., Eysenck, H. J., & Vetter, H. (1989). The causes and cures of prejudice: An empirical study of the frustration-aggression hypothesis.

Personality and Individual Differences, 10, 547–558.

The Unconscious Neal Miller explains a learning theory understanding of the unconscious in this article, which provides excellent examples for lecture.

SUGGESTED READING: Miller, N. E. (1992). Some examples of psychophysiology and the unconscious.

Biofeedback and Self Regulation, 17, 3–16.

The Scientific Method Dollard and Miller brought many of Freud's ideas into the scientific laboratory to be tested. Neal Miller discusses the importance of the scientific method in the following article, and relates memorable anecdotes from his personal experience.

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SUGGESTED READING: Miller, N. E. (1992). Introducing and teaching much-needed understanding of the scientific process. American Psychologist, 47, 848–850.

Psychobiography If psychobiography is an emphasis of the course, the instructor may wish to supplement the text by presenting John Dollard's advice for writing a life history. It would be useful to guide a discussion about whether particular biographical materials are adequate (for example, materials that students may be reading if they are doing a psychobiography paper).

SUGGESTED READING: Dollard, J. (1949). Criteria for the life history: With analyses of six notable documents. New York: Peter Smith. [Chapter 2 lists the specific criteria proposed for Dollard, which emphasize the importance of culture, including the family.

His caution that even physiological processes such as those related to hunger, do not have an effect directly, but only by influencing behavior in a cultural context (p. 19), remains an important comment for modern personality approaches.]

Sherman, E. D. (1983). Geriatric profile of Eleanor Roosevelt (1884-1962). Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 31, 28–33. [Focuses on Eleanor Roosevelt's later years. This article nicely summarizes her biography.]

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Chapter 11: Kelly: Personal Construct Theory Repertory Grids Kelly's Role Construct Repertory Test is somewhat time-consuming to administer, but there is no better way to enable students to appreciate the concept of "personal constructs." The measurement procedure makes constructs less abstract. On a personal level, simply becoming aware of the constructs that come to mind can be enlightening, without formal scoring. If a quantitative analysis is desired, I suggest computing the similarity between "self" and each other person in the grid by counting the number of cells that are marked the same.

SUGGESTED READING: Tobacyk, J. J. (1987). Using personal construct theory in teaching history and systems of psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 14, 111–112. [Describes a modification of Kelly's Role Construct Repertory Test for use in a classroom demonstration. Other adaptations could be developed using this strategy, providing a way to familiarize students with the REP test without necessarily requiring the higher levels of self-disclosure that the usual instructions would elicit.]

Constructivist Therapy Constructivist therapy is an active current area, with both a clinical and a research literature. One technique, fixed role therapy does not analyze personality into complexes or traits or developmental problems, but rather focuses on a whole person, newly conceptualized.

Students may be encouraged to try this technique informally themselves, creating an image of someone they wish to become, and then pretending to be such a person, to try out the new role.

Alternatively, discussion could focus on the comparison between fixed role therapy and acting.

Students who have theatrical experience may wish to comment on the way their theatrical roles influence life off stage.

SUGGESTED READING: Neimeyer, R. A. (1992). Constructivist approaches to the measurement of meaning.

In G. J. Neimeyer (Ed.), Handbook of constructivist assessment. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Niemeyer, R. A. (1994). The role of client-generated narratives in psychotherapy.

International Journal of Personal Construct Psychology, 7, 229–242.

Invalidation of Constructs A lecture could elaborate on Rokeach's classic study of the three Christs of Ypsilanti in order to illustrate the difference between logic and disconfirmation of a personal construct system.

SUGGESTED READING: Rokeach, M. (1964). The three Christs of Ypsilanti: A psychological study. New York: Columbia University Press.

Kelly’s Historical and Current Influence Kelly’s theory is generally less familiar to students than many of the other theories covered in the text, so an overview of his historical importance may be in order.

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SUGGESTED READING: Guydish, J., Jackson, T. T., Markley, R. P., & Zelhart, P. F. (1985). George A. Kelly: Pioneer in rural school psychology. Journal of School Psychology, 23. 297–304.

Jankowicz, A. D. (1987). Whatever became of George Kelly? Applications and implications. American Psychologist, 42, 481–487. .

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Chapter 12: Mischel: Traits in Cognitive Social Learning Theory Situational Determinants of Behavior vs. Trait Conceptualizations Mischel challenged the overly simplified trait assumption that people behave consistently across situations. There has been a great deal of controversy about this issue, summarized briefly in the text. Many of the references cited in the text provide additional detail that the instructor may wish to present in lecture to expand this portion of the text. It can be argued that people have never, in common experience, presumed a simple relationship between traits and behavior, but have always taken situations into account (Wright and Mischel, 1988).

The challenge for theorists is how to translate this sophisticated common sense awareness of the situational context for behavior into theoretical terms. Simple trait approaches and simple situational approaches both fall short.

SUGGESTED READING: Mischel, W. (1973). Toward a cognitive social learning reconceptualization of personality. Psychological Review, 80, 252–283.

Mischel, W. (1990). Personality dispositions revisited and revised: A view after three decades. In L. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp.

111–134). New York: Guilford Press.

Mischel, W. (1992). Looking for personality. In S. Koch & D. E. Leary (Eds.), A century of psychology as science (pp. 515–526). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Wright, J. C., & Mischel, W. (1988). Conditional hedges and the intuitive psychology of traits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 454–469.

SUGGESTED VIDEO RESOURCE: A conversation between David Brooks and Walter Mischel about psychological science. [Recorded at the APS 23rd Annual Convention (2011). Mischel is interviewed by a prominent PBS news reporter and columnist. 1 hour and 6 minutes] Delay of Gratification Mischel conducted research on preschool children’s ability to delay gratification and the implications of this ego abiity for their personality many years later. This provides an excellent opportunity to discuss longitudinal research. In addition, many brief videos of this research and of replications are readily found on the web, and are sure to bring laughter to the lecture room.

SUGGESTED VIDEO RESOURCE: Kids marshmallow experiment. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6EjJsPylEOY (2:54; re-enactment) Overall Theory and Biography Mischel’s research and theory have evolved over time, from the trait-situation controversy to more elaborate reconceptualization of personality and hot and cold cognition.

Although such progression occurs with all theories, the rich repertoire of publications and his

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continuing work with current issues in personality theory provide an opportunity to comment on the development of theories over time.

SUGGESTED AUDIO RESOURCE: Mischel, W., & Harris, C. W. (1975). An interview with Walter Mischel. New York: Harper and Row. [Audiobook on cassette; discusses several topics, including self-control, personality, and behavioral applications.]

WALTER MISCHEL’S HOME PAGE: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/indiv_pages/mischel/Walter_Mischel.html

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Chapter 13: Bandura: Performance in Cognitive Social Learning Theory Self-Efficacy The concept of self-efficacy has stimulated research and intervention in many fields beyond psychology, including health care, education, athletics, and others. Some of this material could be presented in lecture or by a panel of students, each searching the literature for examples of self-efficacy research in a particular area, in addition to the generalized selfefficacy concept.

SUGGESTED READING: Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37, 122–147.

Jerusalem, M., & Rscwarzer, R. (1995). Generalized Self-Efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston, Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio. Causal and control beliefs (pp. 35-37). Windsor, UK: NFERNELSON. See the description and the scale at: http://userpage.fuberlin.de/~health/engscal.htm [This brief 10-item Likert-type scale could be easily used in a class demontration.]

Reciprocal Determinism The idea of reciprocal determinism, as diagrammed in the text (Figure 13.1 on page 250) is simple, yet powerful. It would be worthwhile to explain how this model is different from simpler models. Trait approaches emphasize the "P → B" component. Behavioral approaches emphasize the "E → B" component. What other components of Bandura's model can be abstracted from it? How can these models be illustrated with people's common sense views about personality? (The text gives an example of students going to the library.) How can the various components be tested empirically?

SUGGESTED READING: Bandura, A. (1978). The self system in reciprocal determinism. American Psychologist, 33, 344–358.

Moral Disengagement Bandura's thoughts on moral disengagement would be particularly pertinent in classes that have considered the free will versus determinism controversy (especially as debated by Rogers and Skinner). Bandura suggests that moral behavior is not something that should be understood simply from an individual point of view. Rather, powerful social influences can be used to influence behavior.

SUGGESTED READING: Bandura, A. (1990). Selective activation and disengagement of moral control. Journal of Social Issues, 46(1), 27–46.

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PART V: The Humanistic Perspective Chapter 14: Rogers: Person-Centered Theory Suggested Lecture Topics Client-Centered Counseling Rogers developed an approach to counseling that trusted the inner, healthy directions of the client's motivation. It may be worth discussing the contrast between this approach and Freud's distrust of subjective experience, which he regarded as distorted by defenses.

Rogers pioneered opening the therapeutic process to examination and research, so it is particularly fitting that his filmed demonstrations of therapy be discussed in class. (See the video suggestions later in this manual.)

SUGGESTED READING: Balch, W. R. (1983). The use of role-playing in a classroom demonstration of clientcentered therapy. Teaching of Psychology, 10, 173–174.

Bohart, A. C., & Greenberg, L. S. (1997). Empathy reconsidered: New directions: in psychotherapy. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Cramer, D. (1990). Towards assessing the therapeutic value of Rogers's core conditions. Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 3(1), 57–66. [Discusses research design issues concerning research on the therapeutic value of Rogers's core conditions of unconditional acceptance, empathy, and congruence.]

Edwards, H. P., Boulet, D. B., Mahrer, A. R., Chagnon, G. J., & Mook, B. (1982).

Carl Rogers during initial interviews: A moderate and consistent therapist.

Journal of Counseling Psychology, 29, 14–18. [Analyzes the filmed interviews with Gloria.]

Hill, C. E., Thames, T. B., & Rardin, D. K. (1979). Comparison of Rogers, Perls, and Ellis on the Hill Counselor Verbal Response Category System. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 26, 198–203. [Considers the filmed case interviews with Gloria.]

Holen, M. C., & Kinsey, W. M. (1975). Preferences for three theoretically derived counseling approaches. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 22, 21–23.

[Considers the filmed case interviews with Gloria.]

Lakin, M. (1998). Carl Rogers and the culture of psychotherapy. In G. A. Kimble & M. Wertheimer (Eds.). Portraits of pioneers in psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 245–258).

Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Lee, D. Y., & Uhlemann, M. R. (1984). Comparison of verbal responses of Rogers, Shostrom, and Lazarus. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31, 91–94.

[Discusses the less well-known interviews with the patient Cathy.]

Logan, R. D. (1988). Using a film as a personality case study. Teaching of Psychology, 15, 103–104. [Considers the case of Gloria.]

Wickman, S. A., & Campbell, C. (2002). An analysis of how Carl Rogers enacted client-centered conversation with Gloria. Journal of Counseling and Development, 81, 178–184.

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Actualization and Self-Actualization As the text points out, the concepts of "actualization" and "self-actualization" are frequently confused. Instructors who wish to clarify them precisely may find the following reading useful.

SUGGESTED READING: Ford, J. G., & Maas, S. (1989). On actualizing person-centered theory: A critique of textbook treatments of Rogers's motivational constructs. Teaching of Psychology, 16, 30–31. [Discusses the distinction between "actualization" and "selfactualization" in Rogers's theory and presents data indicating that introductory textbooks frequently are inadequate in distinguishing these concepts. Offers suggestions for instructors who wish to clarify the concepts.]

Humanistic Education Rogers criticized many practices in traditional education and offered alternatives based on humanistic principles. Rather than treating students as passive, education should treat students as active and responsible. Rather than stressing examinations, other methods of evaluation should be devised. Rather than teaching facts, education should include experiential learning.

SUGGESTED READING: Rogers, C. R. (1969). Current assumptions in graduate education: A passionate statement (Chapter 8, pp. 168–187). Freedom to learn. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.

Subjective Experience in Scientific Psychology Scientific methods require that observations be checked by other observers. Rogers emphasizes the importance of subjective experience for personality. How can such experience be studied scientifically?

In contrast to Rogers, Skinner (Chapter 9) opposed "mentalistic" concepts that could not be objectively observed. He debated these ideas with Rogers. This debate could be considered in this chapter, or earlier (with Chapter 9).

SUGGESTED READING: Rogers, C. R., & Skinner, B. F. (1956). Some issues concerning the control of human behavior. Science, 124, 1057–1066. [Rogers and Skinner debate the role of subjective experience in human psychology, and other issues.]

Rowan, J. (1992). The intellect. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 31(1), 49–50.

[Briefly argues that humanists have sometimes evaluated the intellect more negatively than they should. This suggests an interesting point of view to balance the emphasis on feelings in Rogerian and other humanistic perspectives.]

Assessment of Aspects of Rogers's Theory While Rogers's theory is not primarily concerned with the description of dimensions of personality, it has been the basis for the development of a Feelings, Reactions, and Beliefs Survey, reported in the following references.

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SUGGESTED READING: Cartwright, D., DeBruin, J., & Berg, S. (1991). Some scales for assessing personality based on Carl Rogers' theory: Further evidence of validity. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 151–156. [Describes the Feelings, Reactions, and Beliefs Survey, derived from Rogers's theory, and gives sample items and reliability and validity data.]

Cartwright, D., & Mori, C. (1988). Scales for assessing aspects of the person. PersonCentered Review, 3, 176–194. [Describes the Feelings, Reactions, and Beliefs Survey, derived from Rogers's theory, and gives sample items and reliability and validity data.]

Carl Rogers and Fred Rogers If your students are of the age that has watched Fred Rogers on television, you may wish to compare him with Carl Rogers. As the text says, "Carl Rogers the therapist reminds some of Fred Rogers, the sensitive, accepting neighbor on children's television." The following article gives concrete details of the biographies of both men and of the Fred Rogers' television show that would be the basis of a very interesting class session, whether prepared by the instructor or by a student or group of students, showing tape segments from Mr. Rogers' Neighborhood to illustrate the concepts of Carl Rogers's theory.

SUGGESTED READING: Palmer, E. C., & Carr, K. (1991). Dr. Rogers, meet Mr. Rogers: The theoretical and clinical similarities between Carl and Fred Rogers. Social Behavior and Personality, 19, 39–44.

Optimism or Naivete As the text mentions, some critics fault Rogers for unwarranted optimism about human nature and neglect of evil. This topic could make for interesting class discussion. It could also stimulate consideration of psychology as a descriptive or prescriptive discipline, anticipating themes of humanism and positive psychology in Part 6 of the text.

SUGGESTED READING: May, R. (1982). The problem of evil: An open letter to Carl Rogers. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 22, 10–21.

Rogers, C. R. (1982). Reply to Rollo May’s letter to Carl Rogers. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 22(4), 85–89.

Expressive Art Therapy Carl Rogers’s daughter was an expressive art therapist. The following article presents an interview with her, including reflections on her family of origin.

SUGGESTED READING: Sommers-Flanagan, J. (2007). The development and evolution of person-centered expressive art therapy: A conversation with Natalie Rogers. Journal of Counseling and Development, 85, 120–125.

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Chapter 15: Maslow: Need Hierarchy Theory Measurement of Self-Actualization Self-actualization is measured by the Personal Orientation Inventory, reported in the text, and by a short form in the following suggested reading. Students may be interested to see these items. First, though, it would be interesting to have students suggest questions to assess self-actualization. They may find it more difficult than it would seem. In particular, success in society is not the same as personal self-actualization.

SUGGESTED READING: Jones, A., & Crandall, R. (1986). Validation of a short index of self-actualization.

Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12, 63–73. [Contains a 15-item selfreport measure of self-actualization. Reports the process of scale development, including selecting items from a large initial item pool, examining test-retest reliability and internal consistency, and testing for validity through correlations with other measures. This article would be suitable to prepare for a lecture/discussion on scale validation. The items, themselves, are also interesting.]

Science and Humanism Maslow, among other humanists, calls attention to the limitations of traditional science.

Is this an accurate indictment or a nonscientific stance? Does the accusation suggest that current models of science are limited, or that science per se is the problem? Students and their instructors may wish to debate this issue.

SUGGESTED READING: Polkinghorne, D. E. (1992). Research methodology in humanistic psychology.

Humanistic Psychologist, 20, 218–242.

Smith, M. B. (1994). “Human science”–Really! A theme for the future of psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 34(3), 111–116.

The Hierarchy of Needs Maslow's hierarchy of needs is probably familiar to students from their Introductory Psychology course. Yet they may not have considered the order of the needs in detail. Do they agree that "belongingness and love needs" must be satisfied before "esteem needs"? How can self-sacrifice, such as acts of dangerous heroism, be explained? What are the implications of this need hierarchy for the impact of poverty, and of war, on psychological development?

SUGGESTED READING: Maslow, A. H. (1955). Deficiency motivation and growth motivation. In M. R. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (pp. 1–30). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

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Positive Psychology Additional resources dealing with positive psychology may be of value to students who show interest in the subject.

SUGGESTED READINGS: Christopher, J.C., Richardson, F.C., & Slife, B.D. (2008). Thinking through positive psychology. Theory & Psychology, 18(5), 555-561. doi: 10.1177/0959354308093395 Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2009). The promise of positive psychology. Psychological Topics, 18(2), 203-211. Retrieved from http://hrcak.srce.hr/psihologijsketeme?lang=en Linley, P.A., Joseph, S., Harrington, S., Wood, A. M. (2006, January). Positive psychology: Past, present, and (possible) future. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1(1), 3-16. doi: 10.1080/17439760500372796 Miller, A. (2008, Aug-Nov). A critique of positive psychology – or ‘the new science of happiness.’ Journal of Philosophy in Education, 42(3/4), 591 – 608. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9752.2008.00646.x Peterson, C. (2009, Summer). Positive psychology. Reclaiming Children & Youth, 18(2), 3-7. Retrieved from http://reclaimingjournal.com/ Schneider, K. (2011, January). Toward a humanistic positive psychology: Why can’t we just get along? Existential Analysis: Journal of the Society of Existential Analysis, 22(1), 32-38. Retrieved from http://www.existentialanalysis.org.uk/ Seligman, M.E.P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. New York, New York: Free Press Tan, S.-Y. (2006). Applied positive psychology: Putting positive psychology into practice. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 25(1), 68-73. Retrieved from http://caps.net/index.php?option=com_conten2t&view=article&id=201&Itemid=237 Wong, P.T.P. (2011). Positive psychology 2.0: Towards a balanced interactive model of the good life. Canadian Psychology 52(2), 69-81. doi: 10.1037/a0022511

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Chapter 16: Buddhist Psychology: Lessons from Eastern Culture Meditation Meditation is widely practiced. It may be possible to invite a meditator to class in order to discuss this practice, either from a spiritual point of view or from a health-related perspective.

Studies of binocular rivalry among experienced Buddhist meditators are described in the text. Details and images are available in the following reference, which is freely available online.

SUGGESTED READING: Hankey, A. (2006). Studies of advanced stages of meditation in the Tibetan Buddhist and Vedic traditions. I: A comparison of general changes. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 3, 513-521. Available at http://ecam.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/3/4/513 Buddhism Many resources are readily available to provide background in the Buddhist spiritual tradition. Public (as well as academic) libraries hold books on the Dalai Lama IV (Bstan-dzinrgya-mtsho, as catalogued by libraries) and other well-known Buddhist monks and scholars.

Web sites are abundant, describing both ancient and modern teachings.

Vietnamese Buddhist monk Thich Nhat Hanh, some of whose books are referenced in the text, has a community called Plum Village, in France. Information about this community and other Buddhist topics can be found on his website: http://www.plumvillage.org/ A variety of Buddhist concepts, such as the Middle Way and Karma, are explained through links at the following website: http://www.sgi.org/buddhism/daily-life/daily.html.

Fundamental Buddhist teachings, the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, are briefly described at http://www.thebigview.com/download/buddhism.pdf.

Mind-Body Relationships With the escalation of neuroscience knowledge in recent decades, biological causes have gained an increased appeal in personality, and pervasive medical interventions using pharmaceuticals are consistent with this emphasis on the body as a primary cause of experience.

Is this, as the Dalai Lama asserts, a Western prejudice, ignoring the greater role (in his tradition) of mental causation? Students may wish to engage in this debate, and many will have personal experience with biological interventions (drugs, both medically prescribed and otherwise) in their lives, with a variety of outcomes. In the reading below, several experts discuss the issue of free will as an important mind-brain idea.

SUGGESTED READING: Frith, C., Hite, S., Holland, O., Tsering, G. T., Blackburn, S., Sloman, A., & Cordess, C. (2003, May 10). Sex, brains, robots and Buddhism: Looking for free will. New Scientist, 178(2394), 46–49.

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Chapter 17: Conclusion Overview of Personality Theories Comparison of the strengths and weaknesses of theories is a logical way to end the course. In lecture or as a student assignment, a grid could be prepared listing theorists (rows) and the six criteria of a good theory from Chapter 1 (columns), and assigning scores (+/0/- or some more elaborate rating scale) to evaluate the various theories. This task could be divided into segments, with small groups of students evaluating particular dimensions (or theories) and reporting back to the class, either in person or online. This would be an interesting way of reviewing course material before a comprehensive final examination.

SUGGESTED READING: Boneau, C. A. (1990). Psychological literacy: A first approximation. American Psychologist, 45, 891–900. [Lists 100 most important terms in personality (along with similar lists in other fields of psychology), rated by textbook authors as important. Students might wish to discuss their agreement or disagreement with this list.]

Knapp, T. J. (1985). Who's who in American introductory psychology textbooks: A citation study. Teaching of Psychology, 12, 15–17. [Reports a survey of indexes of 24 introductory psychology books, showing that Freud, Skinner, Bandura, and Erikson were 4 of the 5 most frequently cited authorities. (The fifth was Piaget.)

This could be the basis for a class discussion of the relative importance of various personality theorists.]

Mellor, S. (1987). Evaluation and perceived recall of personality theories by undergraduate students. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 65, 879–883. [Describes a study of the evaluation of personality theories by students in a personality course.

Instructors may wish to replicate this study in their own classes, adapting the list of theorists to be appropriate to their syllabi, and comparing their results with those reported by Mellor. For example, Mellor's students described Freud's and Jung's theories as "bizarre," Allport's theory as "sensible," Kelly's theory as "confusing," and Erikson's theory as "relevant."]

Metaphors Sarbin (1986, pp. 12–15) describes Michotte's experiment in which subjects used very anthropomorphic language to describe the actions of geometric forms. He uses this to illustrate the narrative metaphor, giving examples of subjects' descriptions that could be used in lecture to illustrate this metaphor.

SUGGESTED READING: Sarbin, T. R. (1986). The narrative as a root metaphor for psychology. In T. R. Sarbin (Ed.), Narrative psychology: The storied nature of human conduct (pp. 3–21).

New York: Praeger.

Eclecticism, Pluralism, and Unified Theory How is sense to be made of the diversity of theories in this field? In addition to the text discussion, instructors may wish to present additional material.

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SUGGESTED READING: Hyland, M. E. (1985). Do person variables exist in different ways? American Psychologist, 40, 1003–1010.

Staats, A. W. (1991). Unified positivism and unification psychology. American Psychologist, 46, 899–912.

Psychobiography and Personality Theory Critical analysis of psychobiography would be appropriate to consider. If students have done their own biographical analyses, they have undoubtedly discovered that some theories are easier to apply than others. My experience has been that this ease of applying theories varies with the particular biography analyzed, so that different students find different theories useful.

Does this justify eclecticism or pluralism (as discussed in the text)? Or is there, should there be, some more systematic way of choosing among personality theories?

An interesting way of ending a course which required students to do psychobiographical analyses would be to ask students to make predictions based on various theories which could be tested with the biographies analyzed by the class. For example, an Adlerian prediction would be that second-born people would be rated higher in life achievement than would other birth orders. Students could propose clear questions, based on particular theories, that other students could answer based on their biographical information. Then the overall results could be tallied for class discussion.

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USING THE WORLDWIDE WEB The Internet offers increasing opportunities in education. Some web links are mentioned above in various sections of this Instructor Manual, but the dynamic universe of hyperspace cannot be captured in a printed manual such as this. I suggest links on my personal website: http://www.suecloninger.com The internet provides many resources for teaching. Many of the classic publications are now in the public domain and can legally be reproduced. Many are found at a website maintained by Christopher D. Green: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca The internet can also be used as a source of research data. For example, personal web sites have been analyzed to infer the personality of their owners, in the following study.

SUGGESTED READING: Marcus, B., Machilek, F., & Schütz, A. (2006). Personality in cyberspace: Personal web sites as media for personality expressions and impressions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 1014–1031.

VIDEO SUGGESTIONS These videos are generally available for rental and/or purchase. Note that there are not video suggestions for all of the chapters in the text, and that some may be available in additional formats besides VHS.

Chapter 1 (Introduction) Evaluating Personality. (Insight Media; 45 min.). Provides a basic introduction to personality and intelligence evaluation, including the MMPI, the Rorschach, and the TAT, with discussion of ancient techniques (astrology and phrenology).

Personality. (Insight Media; 1990; 29 min.) Introduces psychoanalytic, social-learning, humanistic, and behavioral perspectives (including Freud, Horney, Adler, Jung, and Bandura).

Personality Theories. (2001). (Insight Media; 30 min.). Discusses the personality of Nelson Mandela from three perspectives: psychoanalytic, humanistic, and social-cognitive.

Theories of Personality. (1994). (Insight Media; 20 min.) Provides a brief introduction to psychoanalytic, humanistic, social learning, cognitive, and trait approaches, and considers consistency.

Chapter 2 (Freud) Dreams: Theater of the Night. (Films for the Humanities & Sciences; in the series "The Brain"; 28 min.). Considers Freud's theory of dreams as part of a comprehensive overview of dreaming.

Physiological research in a sleep laboratory and laboratory investigations using Positron Emission Tomography (PET scan) of brains during dreams are presented.

Freud: The Hidden Nature of Man. (1970). (Insight Media; 29 min.). Dramatic portrayal of Freud's career, showing the social and scientific setting in which his theory of psychoanalysis developed. The film summarizes his theory of psychoanalysis, including the id, ego, and superego, childhood sexuality, the Oedipus complex, and dream interpretation.

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Freud Under Analysis. (1987). (WGBH-TV; Coronet/MTI Film and Video; 58 min.). Covers Freud's contributions, including his theory of the unconscious, childhood experience, and psychoanalytic therapy. Discusses Freud's theory from a cultural, as well as scientific, point of view.

Neurotic Behavior: A Psychodynamic View. (CRM Films; 19 min). Portrays neurotic defense mechanisms in a college student.

The Rat Man. (1974). (Time-Life Film and Video; 54 min). Dramatizes Freud's famous case of obsessional neurosis, which is considered the classic validating case for psychoanalytic theory and method.

The Talking Cure: A Portrait of Psychoanalysis. (Jonathan David Films, AIMS Media; 56 min.). Therapists and patients talk about psychoanalytic treatment. A rare recording of Sigmund Freud is included.

Chapter 3 (Jung) A World of Dreams. (Public Media, Inc.; 60 min.). Interviews Jungian analysts about the how Jungian theory helps understand modern life, including films (Hitchcock's Notorious) and the experience of Vietnam veterans.

Approaches to the Psychology of Personality 6, 7, & 8: Fundamental Concepts (6), Motivation (7), Summary and Historical Development of Major Ideas (8). (Penn State; 3 hrs.) These are three interviews with Carl Jung, covering such topics as persona, introversion and extraversion; Jung’s impressions of Einstein and others; and archetypes and complexes.

Face to Face: Professor Jung. (1972). (British Broadcasting Co.; Pennsylvania State University, Psych Cinema Register; 38 min.; b&w). Interviews Carl Jung in his home at Lake Zurich. He discusses his life and work, including his relationship with Freud.

Great Minds of the 20th Century: Dr. Carl Jung. (Penn State University media sales; 3 hrs.).

This is an interactive DVD, showing interviews of Jung at his home in Zurich in 1957, with internet links for additional information.

The Story of Carl Gustav Jung, Part I: In Search of the Soul. (1972). (British Broadcasting Company; Time-Life Film and Video; 32 min.). A biographical sketch of Carl Jung, from his childhood through his medical education at the Burgholzli Mental Hospital in Zurich.

The Story of Carl Gustav Jung, Part II: Sixty Seven Thousand Dreams. (1972). (British Broadcasting Company; Time-Life Film and Video; 32 min.). Describes Carl Jung's analysis of 67,000 dreams. Includes footage of his African trip, in which he studied tribal rituals, and of his retreat at Bollingen on Lake Zurich.

The Story of Carl Gustav Jung, Part III: Mystery That Heals. (1972). (British Broadcasting Company; Time-Life Film and Video; 30 min.). Covers Carl Jung's older years, including his reactions to the death of his wife and attitudes toward death in general.

The Wisdom of the Dream: C. G. Jung & His Work in the World. (1989). (Public Media, Inc.; 3 vols.; 180 min.). Covers Jung's life and theory in 3 parts. Part 1 covers Jung's early life, from childhood to his split with Freud. Part 2 covers the collective unconscious and archetypes. Part 3 interviews scholars influenced by Jung's theory.

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Chapter 4 (Adler) Birth Order: Sense and Nonsense – An Adlerian View. For ordering information, see http://www.adlerian.us/birth-online.htm

Chapter 5 (Erikson) Erik H. Erikson: A Life’s Work. (Davidson Films; 38 min.) Includes archival materials in a biographical presentation of Erikson’s life and work.

Old Age I: A Conversation with Joan Erikson at 90. and Old Age II: A Conversation with Joan Erikson at 92. (1995 and 1995). (Davidson Films; 39 min. and 30 min.). These two personal interviews with the wife and life companion of Erik Erikson discuss their own aging and his death, the eighth stage of his famous life span theory, and a possible extension of the theory to a ninth stage.

Professor Erik Erikson, Part I. (Pennsylvania State University, Psych Cinema Register; 50 min., b&w). Interviewed by Richard Evans, Erik Erikson systematically describes his eight stages of psychosocial development. Erikson also describes the beginnings of his own interest in psychoanalysis, when he worked as a tutor, teaching art to children in the Freud entourage.

Professor Erik Erikson, Part II. (Pennsylvania State University, Psych Cinema Register; 50 min., b&w). Continuing the interview with Richard Evans, Erik Erikson talks about the libido theory, various resolutions of the identity crisis, and the impact of culture on personality development.

Chapter 7 (Allport) Dr. Gordon Allport, Part I. (1966). (Insight Media; 50 min.; b&w). Richard Evans interviews Gordon Allport about trait theory, the functional autonomy of motives, and his reactions to Freud's theory.

Dr. Gordon Allport, Part II. (1967). (Association Films, Inc.; Pennsylvania State University, Psych Cinema Register; 50 min.; b&w). Continuing the interview with Richard Evans, Gordon Allport discusses personality development, the development of the self, and personality testing.

Chapter 8 (Factor Analytic Trait Theories) Raymond Cattell, Parts I and II. (1966). (Insight Media; 50 min. each; b&w). Raymond Cattell discusses Freud's theory, intelligence, personality measurement, heredity and environment, motivation, attitudes, and the specification equation. In the second part, he continues his discussion, covering psychological testing (Q and P techniques) and psychotherapy.

Chapter 9 (Biological Theories) Lifetalk: Hans Eysenck, Ph.D.—Genius; The decline and fall of psychoanalysis; A rebel with a cause. (1996). (Hillgarth Press; 30 min. each; color). These are tapes of three television interviews with Roberta Russell as host. Eysenck discusses heredity and genius; criticizes psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic therapy as ineffective, based on available research; and describes his own life. For further information, see http://www.robertarussell.com/lifetalk.html The Science of Love. (2002). (Films for the Humanities & Sciences; 3 parts: 52, 51 & 51 min.; color). This Discovery Channel program presents love from a biological and evolutionary

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perspective. Evolutionary material in Part 2 includes material from evolutionary psychologist David Buss and neurobiologist Antonio Damasio (among others).

Chapter 10 (Behaviorism: Dollard and Miller, Skinner, & Staats) B. F. Skinner: A Fresh Appraisal. (1999). (Davidson Films; 40 min.) Includes archival footage in a presentation and evaluation of Skinner’s contributions, discussed in their historical theoretical context.

His Own Best Subject:A Visit to B. F. Skinner’s Basement. (2000). (Davidson Films; 20 min.).

Skinner’s daughter Julie Vargas tours the basement location important in her father’s research, and with her sister, fondly reminisces about their father and his technological applications of his theory.

One Step at a Time: Introduction to Behavior Modification. (1973). (VHS and 16mm.; CRM Films; 32 min.). Implications of behavioral interventions for child development are presented.

Positive reinforcement is used to teach children academic and social skills necessary for successful adaptation.

Dr. B. F. Skinner, Part I. (1965). (Pennsylvania State University; b&w; 50 min.). An overview of Skinner's theory of operant conditioning, including schedules of reinforcement, punishment, teaching machines, and his views on motivation and Freudian theory.

The Power of Positive Reinforcement. (1978). (Portland State Univ., Continuing Education Pr.; 28 min.). Documents behavior modification in occupational settings, including a 3M plant in California, the Valley Fair theme park in Minnesota, and the Minnesota Vikings football team.

Token Economy: Behaviorism Applied. (1972). (CRM Films; 23 min.) Skinner explains the use of positive reinforcement in a token economy. He explains how token economies can be used with the elderly, orphans, prisoners, psychotics, and the mentally retarded. An example is presented at a facility of the Illinois Department of Mental Health.

A World of Difference: B. F. Skinner and the Good Life. (1979). (Time-Life Film and Video; 53 min.). Covers Skinner's behaviorism, the Baby Box in which he raised his daughter in infancy, pigeon research, and other topics. Shows Skinner visiting Twin Oaks, a rural Virginia commune founded on his Walden Two philosophy.

B. F. Skinner and Behavior Change: Research, Practice, and Promise. (Skinner Media/ Penn State University media sales; 45 min.) Skinner and others describe the theory of behaviorism and its practical applications in education and therapy.

Chapter 11 (Kelly) The Psychology of Personal Constructs: An Introduction. (1987). Personal construct psychologist Fay Fransella addressed the Seventh International Conference on Personal Construct Psychology in Memphis, Tennessee, in this program, produced by WJWJ-TV.

Chapter 12 (Mischel) Walter Mischel’s Marshmallow Study. (30 min.) BBC radio program. (AUDIO ONLY)

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Chapter 13 (Bandura) Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory: An Introduction. (2003). (Davidson Films; 30 min). Albert Bandura narrates this introduction to his theory, which includes current and archival materials such as his well-known Bobo doll studies.

Albert Bandura: Parts 1 & 2. (29 min. & 28 min.). (Available from Penn State University media sales). In Part 1, Bandura discusses cognitive behavioral interventions, aggression, and modeling. Part 2 continues with the classic Bobo doll study, media violence, self-efficacy, and moral disengagement.

Chapter 14 (Rogers) Carl Rogers Conducts an Encounter Group. (1970). (American Association for Counseling and Development; 70 min.). Carl Rogers describes an encounter group as it develops and his goals as its facilitator.

Carl Rogers on Marriage: Persons as Partners. (1970). (American Association for Counseling and Development; 28 min.). Carl Rogers discusses factors which lead to successful relationships.

Dialogues: Dr. Carl Rogers, Part I. (1971). (Pennsylvania State University, Psych Cinema Register; 49 min.). An interview in which Carl Rogers discusses client-centered therapy, encounter groups, motivation, Freudian concepts, and other topics.

Dialogues: Dr. Carl Rogers, Part I. (1971). (Pennsylvania State University, Psych Cinema Register; 51 min.). Continues the above interview, discussing education, student protests, and activism versus research in psychology. Rogers evaluates his psychological contributions.

Three Approaches to Psychotherapy (No. 1): Dr. Carl Rogers. (1965). (Psychological Films; 48min.). Carl Rogers discusses the principles of client-centered therapy and demonstrates them by interviewing a patient, Gloria. This film has been the subject of much discussion; references to articles analyzing it are presented earlier in this Teaching Manual.

Three Approaches to Psychotherapy, Series II, Part 1: Client-Centered Therapy.

(Psychological Films; 48 min.). Carl Rogers demonstrates client-centered therapy with a client, Kathy.

Chapter 15 (Maslow) Maslow and Self-Actualization: Part I & II. (1968; Psychological Films; 60 min.; also 2000; Psychological & Educational Films; 54 min.). Abraham Maslow discusses self-actualization, characteristics of self-actualized people.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. (1987, rev. ed.) (Salenger; VHS, 15 min.) Applies Maslow’s theory to managers, supervisors and students.

Chapter 16 (Buddhism) Buddha: The Path to Enlightenment. (2000). (Films for the Humanities & Sciences; VHS; 43 min.; color). Presents the Buddhist ideas of the Middle Way and the Four Noble Truths, through the life of Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha).

Investigating the Mind 2003: Exchanges between Buddhism and the Biobehavioral Sciences on How the Mind Works (2003). (Mind & Life Institute, Berkeley, CA; 4 DVDs, 10 hr.; 51

color). Among the topics discussed by neuroscientists and Buddhists are attention, mental imagery, and emotion.

Investigating theMind 2005: The Science and Clinical Applications of Meditation (2005; 6 DVDs; 799 min.; color). In this 13th conference of the Mind and Life Institute, scientists dialogue with the Dalai Lama and other Buddhists about meditation. Richard Gere narrates the presentation. While this presentation is too long for class purposes, it can serve as a background resource and selected parts could be presented in lecture.

Transformations of Myth through Time: The Wisdom of the East (v. 2, programs 6-10).

(1989). (295 min.). These tapes present mythologist Joseph Campbell’s ideas as they relate to Buddhism and other Eastern perspectives. Tape 7, in particular, focuses on Buddhism.

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