Understanding Human Development Plus NEW MyPsychLab Solution Manual by Ace Test Banks

Understanding Human Development Plus NEW MyPsychLab with eText -Access Card Package, 3rd Edition By Wendy L. Dunn , Grace J. Craig

INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE MANUAL Jayne Rose Augustana College

UNDERSTANDING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT THIRD EDITION

WENDY DUNN Coe College

GRACE CRAIG University of Massachusetts, Amherst

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Preface Introduction, Organization, and Teaching Tips

Introduction This instructor’s resource manual was developed for use with Understanding Human Development, 3rd Edition by Wendy L. Dunn and Grace J. Craig. Human development is a topic in which certain students may have a particular interest, but one in which all students have some personal experience. The experiences of our own development have the potential to add great richness to any course taught on this topic. Likewise, our own ideas about how individuals, civic institutions, social policies, and society in general can best promote healthy development can shape course discussions and the overall experience of the course. Using the theories and research findings presented in the textbook as a basis, this resource manual provides you, the instructor, with suggestions that will allow you to stimulate critical thinking and reflective discussions among your students.

Organization Each chapter in this manual contains the following sections: 1. Key Terms and Concepts These are those essential terms and concepts that are bolded and defined in the textbook. 2. Chapter Outline Outlines, which follow the organization of the headings in the textbook, are provided for each chapter. In addition to providing an overview of the core information covered in the textbook chapter, each outline provides a structure for the teaching resources provided elsewhere in the relevant chapter of this manual. In the left margin of the outline you will find color-coded resource icons, each of v COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

which refers to a resource described elsewhere in the chapter. Each resource icon has been placed at a location of the outline that contains content pertaining to that particular resource. For example, the resource icon  Lecture 2a, History and Its Influence, corresponds to sociocultural influences on development across the lifespan on the outline because Lecture 2a is relevant to this particular section of the textbook. The goal of this organizational strategy is to provide instructors with a quick and easy visual reference for how and when the resources could potentially be used to complement the textbook material. Keep in mind, however, that these are just suggestions. You may find that it would be more useful to you to use Lecture 2a at a different point in the textbook chapter, or perhaps even in different chapter altogether (for those of you who are especially creative)! 3. Lecture Suggestions In this section, you will find suggestions for lectures that complement and expand upon the material contained in the course textbook. 4. Class Activities This section contains ideas for in-class demonstrations and activities for use in the classroom, topics for critical thinking journals, and ideas for out-of-class assignments. Handouts related to the class activities can be found at the end of most chapters. 5. Internet Video Clips As you may have already discovered, the Internet can provide a wealth of video resources. In this section, you will find short descriptions of video clips that relate to the content of the chapter and the corresponding web addresses for those video clips. If the clips described in this manual are not exactly what you were looking for, consider looking for others yourself. Searching for video clips on news websites or YouTube can be a quick and easy process if you know how to look. For example, to find videos on YouTube, go to the website (www.youtube.com) and type in keywords that describe what you are looking for in the box on the bar across the top of the website. Selecting the correct search terms is key. The use of more “technical” psychology terms (e.g., “concrete operational stage” or “Piaget”) increases the likelihood that you will find appropriate educational videos. Once you select a video to view, you will find that a list of “related videos” appears on the right-hand column of the screen, which make searching for additional video clips even easier. Good luck searching! 6. Supplemental Readings: Current Research This section contains a list of research articles published in the journal Current Directions in Psychological Science between February 2006 and June 2009 that pertain to the content of the chapter. Verbatim article abstracts are also included. Articles from the journal are relatively short and accessible – appropriate for most undergraduate students. These readings can serve a variety of purposes. Here are some suggestions: a. Lectures: Current articles can be used to develop lectures on specific topics vi COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

b. Class discussions: Assign readings and discussion questions to the entire class. Conduct a class discussion on the reading. c. Demonstrations: Develop a mini-demonstration of a phenomenon described in the article. d. Interview assignments: Create an assignment for students to interview others regarding their perspectives related to an article topic. Students can then compare the “lay perspective” to the scientific findings and compare why misconceptions exist. e. Research paper assignments: These current articles can serve to generate ideas for more in-depth research papers on specific topics. 7. Lecture Launcher Lecture Launcher video clips have been carefully selected from the Films for Humanities and Sciences library and edited to provide brief and compelling video content for enhancing your lectures. In this section, you can find descriptions of videos, suggested uses, and questions related to each clip. 8. Multimedia Resources At the end of each chapter in your Instructor’s Resource Manual you will see a comprehensive list of videos and simulations correlated to the text by section and page number. These web-based expansions on topics allow instructors and students to watch a video clip, explore a topic, or simulate an experiment. The intext multimedia is not exhaustive—there are many more resources available to instructors and students on-line at http://www.MyDevelopmentLab.com. a. MyDevelopmentLab Video Series Comprehensive, current, and cutting edge, the new MyPsychLab Video Series features over 100 original videos clips covering the most recent research, science, and applications across the general psychology curriculum and utilizing the latest in film and animation technology. Each 4-6 minute video clip has automatically graded assessment questions tied to it. b. Making the most of your resources: What is MyPsychLab? MyPsychLab is a learning and assessment tool that enables instructors to assess student performance and adapt course content. Students benefit from the ability to test themselves on key content, track their progress, and utilize individually tailored study plan. In addition to the activities students can access in their customized study plans, instructors are provided with extra lecture notes, video clips, and activities that reflect the content areas their class is still struggling. Instructors can bring into theses resources to class, or easily post on-line for students to access. c. Assessment and Ability to Adapt MyPsychLab is designed with instructor flexibility in mind—you decide the extent of integration into your course—from independent self-assessment for students, to total course management. Sample syllabi with ideas on incorporating MPL, case studies, as well as data and feedback from

students and answers to FAQ’s are all available online at http://www.MyDevelopmentLab.com.

Using PowerPoint PowerPoint Presentations that reflect the specific content and organization of the Understanding Human Development textbook are available to you to make your class preparation easier and to aid you in organizing your presentation of course material. The presentation slides provide a summary of the main topics covered in each chapter of the textbook. In addition, many of the important textbook graphs and tables appear in the PowerPoint slides, allowing you to review these resources with your students in class. The internet video clips listed in this resource manual and many of the video segments from MyDevelopmentLab are already embedded within the PowerPoint presentations as well. PowerPoint presentations can easily be further customized to support your course goals and teaching style. Add or remove slides or revise content to allow the presentations to work best with your course goals and to best meet your students’ needs. Add your own images, video segments, and links to developmental psychology websites to further tailor your presentation and highlight concepts and ideas that you want emphasize in your course. In the notes sections of the slides in the PowerPoint presentations you will find the same resource icons that appear in the chapter outlines in the resource manual, directing you to lecture ideas, activities, videos, and supplemental readings that relate to the content on that particular slide. Again, the purpose of these icons is to provide instructors with a quick and easy visual reference for how and when the resources and ideas provided in the resource manual could be used to complement textbook material, enhance classroom presentations, and contribute to your overall teaching effectiveness.

Teaching Tips You may want to consider the following teaching suggestions as you prepare your syllabus, the general format of your class, individual class sessions, and evaluation strategies. In addition, consider regularly scouring the internet for others’ syllabi, specific teaching tips, and activities that you might incorporate into your own classes. Finally, consider looking to publications such as Teaching of Psychology and attending teaching-focused sessions of national and regional psychology conferences to connect with other instructors and share ideas. 1. Make your goals known and remind students of them often.

What are your objectives for student learning? Do the course readings, lectures, class activities, assignments, and assessments all relate to these objectives? Strive to always make students aware of why you are asking them to do something and why it is important. 2. Use multiple delivery methods. Vary lecture with small group or whole class discussions, activities, and films. Aim to limit segments of content presentations to 20 minutes or less. Monitor student facial expressions and other responses to assess whether students are engaged. If they are not, make it your aim to reengage them. Consider, for example, breaking up your presentation with a quick think-pair-share question (you pose a question, give students 1 minute to think about their response, 2 minutes to pair up and share their response with a partner, then call on pairs to share responses with the class). 3. Consider teaching “naked”. Dr. José Bowen of Southern Methodist University advocates the use of technology outside of the classroom, but going naked (without technology) during class time. According to Bowen, “Flashy powerpoints with video and synchronous econferences are impressive, but the best reason to adopt technology in your courses is to increase and improve your naked, untechnological face-to-face interaction with students.” Today, a variety of technological tools can help students prepare outside of the classroom to make face-to-face class time more effective. Some of us are excellent lecturers or storytellers, while others excel at leading thought-provoking in-class discussions or debates. Just because a colleague thinks a particular method of teaching is the best doesn’t mean it is the most effective way for you to teach. At the same time, don’t be afraid to try different techniques and teaching methods. If you are comfortable doing so, ask colleagues to come to your classes often to provide another perspective on what seems to work for you and what doesn’t. Also consider videotaping class sessions so you can see your teaching for yourself. 4. Get thematic. Consider organizing particular class periods, lectures, or stages of development according to an appropriate theme to give your students a lens through which to understand the material. For example, you might consider introducing topics from Chapter 5 (Infancy and Toddlerhood: Personality and Sociocultural Development) within the context of the general theme realizing independence. Students can be reminded of this theme during presentations about the development of stranger anxiety, the development of self-awareness, and Erikson’s stage of autonomy vs. shame and doubt. When I’ve taken this approach in my classes, I’ve found that even with chapter topics that are less obviously tied to realizing independence, students still seem to use the theme as a guiding framework to organize and make sense of what they are learning. ix COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

5. Find out what your students think. Don’t wait until the end of the semester to ask students for their feedback about your teaching. Consider asking students about their impressions mid-semester using a midterm evaluation that includes questions about the major aspects of the course (e.g., readings, class time usage, assessment methods, perceived fairness) and anything more specific for which you would appreciate feedback. Once you receive students’ feedback, review it immediately and share with the class a summary of the major findings and, based on the insights you have gained, an explanation of how you will alter aspects of the class that could be improved. If students are dissatisfied with an aspect of the course that, in your view, is important to retain, remind the students of its purpose and why that purpose is valid. Make sure to share with the students the positive feedback as well as the negative and to thank them for their insights. This process can increase students’ perceptions of fairness and help improve teaching in individual classes. Alternatively, consider using one-minute papers toward the end of class periods for which you are unsure whether your method of delivery allowed the material to “sink in.” In a few minutes, students can respond to a simple question such as “What were the most important points you learned in this class?” This method is described in greater detail in the book Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers by Angelo and Patricia Cross. 6. Set high standards and keep them. Make your expectations clear to students at the beginning of the term and don’t back off on the rigor of your expectations. Aim for standards that are clear, fair, and tied to student learning outcome objectives. 7. Find the self that teaches. Parker Palmer’s excellent book The Courage to Teach has a simple premise: “good teaching cannot be reduced to technique; good teaching comes from the identity and integrity of the teacher.” In the guide that accompanies the book, Rachael Livsey writes, “We usually focus on the ‘whats’ and the ‘hows’ of teaching: What subjects shall we teach? What methods shall we use? Those questions are worth asking. But rarely, if ever, do we ask the equally important ‘who’ question: Who is the self that teaches? How does the quality of my selfhood form, or deform, the way I relate to my students, my subject, my colleagues, my world?” As Palmer observes, good teachers “join self and subject and students in the fabric of life.” In essence, we must come to know and accept ourselves as the individual and unique teachers that we are and to know and accept the individual and unique reasons that we choose to teach – to discover where our passion for teaching lies. Once this identity is discovered, it can become central to our teaching and guide a connectedness with our subjects and our students.

Corrections to the Main Text FIGURE 13-15 Percent of Men and Women in the U.S. Civilian Labor Force, 1970–2010. source: Table 2, “Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population 16 years and over by sex, 1970–2010 annual averages,” in Women in the labor force: A databook (2011 edition), U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011, retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlf-databook2011.htm. In Figure 13-15, on page 382, the legend has been corrected in the etext version, and will be corrected in future reprints of this text: The Red line will be changed to blue for Men, and the blue line, red for Women. (Men have a higher labor force participation rate than women do.)

FIGURE 16-6 Life Expectancies at Birth, by Gender and Race 1900–2009 source: Table 22, “Life expectancy at birth, at 65 years of age, and at 75 years of age, by sex, race, and Hispanic origin: United States, selected years 1900–2009,” in Health, United States, 2011, National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), 2012, Hyattsville, MD: Author. In Figure 16-6, on page 453, the legends are again reversed, the top blue line should be red for White Female and the next red line should be blue for White Male. (The other two lines are recorded correctly.)

Chapter One Introduction to Human Development

Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 1, students will know: •

what lifespan development is, and whether stages of development are universal.

•

the guiding themes that help us understand and organize our knowledge of human development.

•

what it means to say that heredity and environment interact as they influence the course of development.

•

how a person’s family and culture shape that person’s developmental path.

•

the changes that occur in the cognitive, sociocultural, personality, and physical domains.

•

the contributions theories of development make to our overall understanding of how human development unfolds.

•

the important ideas associated with the following theoretical perspectives: biological, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive-developmental, and systems approaches.

•

why the study of human development is considered from a scientific perspective.

•

the research approaches developmentalists use in their study of human development.

•

the ethical challenges developmental researchers encounter as they attempt to understand the processes that guide human development.

Key Terms and Concepts Accommodation Adaptation Assimilation Baby biography Behaviorism Bioecological model Biological factors Case study Chronological Classical conditioning Cognitive developmental theory Cognitive domain Cohort effects Collectivist culture Confounding Context Correlation Cross sectional design Culture Data Dependent variable Development Developmental neuroscience Developmental period Developmental psychologists Enculturation Environmental factors Evolution Guided participation Human genome Independent variable Individualist culture Informed consent Institutional review board Interview Laboratory observation Learning Longitudinal design Maturation Natural selection Naturalistic observation

Operant conditioning Personality domain Physical domain Psychodynamic approach Psychosocial theory Quasi experimental method Questionnaire Random assignment Replication Representative sampling Schemes Sequential cohort design Social learning theory Socialization Sociocultural context Sociocultural domain Stages Survey Theory

Chapter Outline I.

Introduction to development A. Lifespan Development

Activity 1a

1. A chronological approach is based on age. a. DEVELOPMENT - changes over time in the physical structure, thought, or behavior of a person as a result of both biological and environmental influences b. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGISTS – Psychologists whose primary interests focus on the study of developmental processes and events c. DEVELOPMENTAL PERIODS - discrete periods of the lifespan during which predictable changes occur d. CULTURE – the set of beliefs, values, and traditions shared by a group of people

 Article 1b

 Article 1c

 Article 1d

e. This textbook is arranged according to a CHRONOLOGICAL scheme, meaning it is organized by age 2. An interactive approach emphasizes the interaction of biology & environment. a. To understand a person’s life it is important to consider both biological and environmental, as well as cultural and personal, interacting events. b. All individuals inherit a set of unique genetic “instructions” that guide how development unfolds. c. People interpret and react to circumstances instead of merely responding to changes in their environment. d. Expectations of a society can influence development. B. Guiding Themes in Human Development 1. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS – the genetic, neurological, or physical conditions that affect the development of an individual 2. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS – the specific situations that an individual experiences and that influence behavior and development 3. SOCIOCULTURAL CONTEXT – the broad context that includes both social and cultural influences

4. Development is best understood: a. by considering changes within particular domains, such as physical, cognitive and sociocultural. b. when considered within a theoretical framework. c. II.

by employing the methods of science.

The Nature of Human Development A. Biology and Environment 1. Most development is the result of successive interactions between biology and experience. a. Theorists used to argue over whether specific aspects of human development were either a function of biology or a function of experience. b. Theorists today debate how much and in what way a given characteristic or behavior is a result of biology or experience. 2. Maturation and Learning a. MATURATION – developmental changes that are linked closely to biological events b. LEARNING – developmental changes that are dependent on a person’s interactions with the environment c. Distinctions between maturation and learning are difficult because most, if not all, developmental events are the result of biology and the environment. B. The Sociocultural Context 1. CONTEXT – the particular setting or situation in which development occurs 2. Society refers to the larger group of individuals within which an individual lives 3. CULTURE – refers to the beliefs, common practices, language, and norms associated with a particular society 4. Historical views of childhood. a. Conceptualizations of childhood and attitudes toward children have varied throughout history b. Little is known about the attitudes of prehistoric civilizations towards children, but the agricultural-based societies of Africa may be similar and they view children as coworkers and contributors. c. In ancient Western civilizations, children were viewed as material possessions and little more 4 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

d. About 1500 AD, the end of the Middle Ages, childhood began to be seen as a period of innocence e. In modern times, attitudes continue to vary with some cultures seeing children as economic assets to be exploited f. Laws defining child abuse, child labor, and compulsory schooling not put into place in U.S until late 19th century  Article 1f

5. Cultural influences on childhood a. Conceptualizations of childhood vary across cultures

 Article 1g

b. COLLECTIVIST CULTURES – the group takes precedence over the individual, and cooperation and group achievement are stressed over competition and individual achievement; foster interdependence c. INDIVIDUALIST CULTURES – competition predominates over cooperation, personal achievement is typically valued more highly than group achievement, and individual freedom and choice receive strong emphasis d. Social, political, and economic factors also influence attitudes about childhood and the treatment of children e. Development must be considered in the context of the broadly defined sociocultural context. C. The Domains of Human Development 1. PHYSICAL DOMAIN – those aspects of development that involve changes in physical shape and size, as well as changes in brain structure, sensory capabilities, and motor skills 2. COGNITIVE DOMAIN – those aspects of development that involve the acquisition of skills in perceiving, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving as well as the intricate development and use of language 3. PERSONALITY DOMAIN – those aspects of development that involve acquiring relatively stable and enduring traits, as well as a sense of self as an individual

 WebVid 1a

4. SOCIOCULTURAL DOMAIN – those aspects of development comprised of socialization and enculturation a. SOCIALIZATION – the teaching by parents and others about how to fit in and function in society

 WebVid 1b

b. ENCULTURALIZATION – learning about culture by observing and absorbing rather than being taught 5. The domains are arbitrary segments of development. The changes & continuities in each domain interact with the changes & continuities in the other domains. 5 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

III.  Lecture 1a Activity 1d

Theoretical Frameworks for Human Development A. The Role of THEORY – an organized, coherent set of ideas that helps us to understand, to explain, and to make predictions 1. No theory is either right or wrong. 2. Different theories provide us with multiple ways to view a subject. 3. DATA – the results from scientific investigation that form the basis for a theory B. Biological views of Human Development 1. Genetics a. Researchers seek to understand how genes are arranged and how they operate to guide development. b. HUMAN GENOME – the entire arrangement of all human genes, mapped by the Human Genome Project

 Article 1a

2. DEVELOPMENTAL NEUROSCIENCE – the study of the development of brain structures and the relationship between brain structures & functions and behavior & development a. Includes study of brain structures associated with memory and problem solving & in the neurological basis of personality. b. Area is in its infancy and growing very rapidly 3. EVOLUTION – refers to the process through which species change across generations a. Evolutionary theory is traced to the ideas of Charles Darwin in the book The Origin of Species (1859/1958). b. NATURAL SELECTION – the theory originated by Darwin of survival of the fittest, where better adapted individuals survive to reproduce, thereby transferring their genes to their offspring and into future generations c. Explanations based on mechanisms of evolution are embraced by developmental psychologists today C. Psychodynamic Views of Human Development 1. PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH – the theory originated by Freud that emphasizes unconscious processes and the importance of early childhood development 2. Freud used case studies of his patients to develop his theory 3. Freud’s views are comprehensive but have exerted their greatest influence in the domain of social and personality development 4. Many important ideas trace their origin to Freud 6 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

a. Human development is determined by the unconscious processes b. Much of our behavior and awareness is influenced by the interplay of three intrapsychic (mental) processes: the id, ego, and superego c. Freud proposed that development proceeds through 5 psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital i.

In each stage, the person’s sexual energies are channeled in different directions and later development depends on how successfully the child moves through the stage

ii. A fixation may develop when a person experiences difficulty with development iii. The fixation may result in a primitive behavior being carried into adulthood d. Freud believed that adult personality was heavily influenced by events that occurred in early childhood 5. Although today’s reaction to Freud’s theory is typically to note its limitations, it is important to recognize that Freud’s ideas continue to shape our understanding of human development. 6. PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY – Erikson’s view that social interactions with others shape the development of personality a. Theory is neo-Freudian b. Core concept of this theory is ego identity, which is a basic sense of who we are as individuals c. Theory differs from Freud’s in that it emphasizes conscious forces and includes stages throughout the lifespan D. Behavioral views of human development 1. BEHAVIORISM – the view that the appropriate focus of psychology should be on observable behavior. Modern behaviorists acknowledge the cognition and emotion play a role, but their emphasis is on the environment. 2. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – a type of learning in which an association is learned between an environmental event and the stimulus response reflex that follows 3. OPERANT CONDITIONING – a type of learning that occurs when an organism is rewarded or punished 4. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY – a view that emphasizes the influence of the social behavior of others on our learning

E. Cognitive views of human development 1. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY – an approach that focuses on the development of thinking, reasoning, and problem solving 2. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development a. ADAPTATION – the process by which organisms change so that they will be more successful in a particular environment b. Piaget noticed that children’s thought is qualitatively different from that of adults. He identified 4 stages that represent these qualitative differences in thinking. c. SCHEMES (or schemas) – Piaget’s term for mental structures that process information, perception and experiences; the schemes of individuals change as they grow d. ASSIMILATION – in Piaget’s theory, the process of incorporating new information into existing schemes e. ACCOMMODATION – Piaget’s term for the process that requires schemes to change when a new object or event does not fit 3. Vygotsky and social cognitive theory a. emphasized the social context in which a large share of children’s cognitive development takes place b. people learn what is transmitted to them through the shared meaning of objects and events c. GUIDED PARTICIPATION – Vygotsky’s concept that people develop understanding and expertise mainly though apprenticeship with more knowledgeable learners F. Integrating theoretical approaches 1. Systems approaches a. focus on systems and how they change and evolve b. ”Systems” have multiple components that interact and serve many functions  WebVid 1c

2. BIOECOLOGICAL MODEL – Bronfenbrenner’s model that emphasizes that human development is a dynamic, interactive process that begins with an individual’s genetic endowment and unfolds over time as a result of interaction with various levels of environment 3. Toward a theory of Lifespan Human Development. The core ideas shared by all theories: 8 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

a. Development is lifelong b. Development is multidimensional c. Development is multidirectional (involves both gains & losses) d. Development is plastic e. Development is context-dependent and historically & culturally embedded f. Development is multidisciplinary IV. The Scientific Approach to the Study of Human Development A. Descriptive Methods  Lecture 1b

1. Case studies

 Lecture 1c

a. CASE STUDY – the compilation of detailed information on an individual, a family, or a community through interview, observations, and formal testing

 Lecture 1d

b. BABY BIOGRAPHY – recording mini milestones of child development c. Case studies are the preferred approach to studying rare conditions or events. But their disadvantages mean that they are not commonly used in developmental research. 2. Systematic observation a. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION – the observational method in which researchers go into everyday settings and observe and record behavior while being as unobtrusive as possible b. LABORATORY OBSERVATION – the observational method in which researchers set up controlled situations designed to elicit the behavior of interest c. Limitations of observational approaches include: 1) some behaviors are difficult to observe, 2) observing a behavior may change it, 3) ethics 3.Questionnaires and surveys a. QUESTIONNAIRE – a paper and pencil method that asks respondents to answer questions about past or present behavior, attitudes, preferences, opinions, feelings, and so forth b. SURVEY – a questionnaire administered to a large group c. INTERVIEW – a questionnaire that is administered verbally, usually in a one-on-one setting

d. The advantage is that a great deal of information can be collected efficiently. e. The disadvantages are related to participants’ honesty, memory, and willingness to participate. f. REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLING – selecting a sample from a larger population so that the sample represents or mirrors the population in every important way 4. Psychological tests a. Often involve the measurement of intelligence or personality traits b. Must be carefully constructed and administered so that accurate results are obtained B. Studying Development Across Time  Article 1e

1. LONGITUDINAL DESIGN – a study in which the same participants are studied at various points in time to see how they change as they age. Limitations include the length of time they take, practice effects, and bias due to participants dropping out. 2. CROSS SECTIONAL DESIGN – a study that compares individuals of different ages at one point in time a. CONFOUNDING – the problem of not being sure whether any obtained differences or trends between cohorts are due to developmental factors or to historical factors associated with different cohort groups b. COHORT EFFECTS – the sociocultural differences between people of different age groups 3. SEQUENTIAL COHORT DESIGN – a research design where several overlapping cohorts of different ages are studied longitudinally C. CORRELATION as a descriptive tool – a research technique that describes the relationship between two variables 1. The correlation coefficient is a number between -1.0 and +1.0 that describes the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables 2. Correlation tells us nothing about causation D. Experimental Approaches: The Study of Cause and Effect 1. Experiments focusing on groups a. RANDOM ASSIGNMENT – placing participants in groups with the hope that the groups will be roughly equivalent 10 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

b. Each group is exposed to a different condition. c. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE – the variable in an experiment that is manipulated in order to observe its effects on the dependent variable d. DEPENDENT VARIABLE – the variable in an experiment that changes as a result of manipulating the independent variable e. QUASI EXPERIMENTAL METHOD – a research method, much like an experiment, which is used when an experiment is not possible, typically when random assignment to groups is not practical f. REPLICATION – systematic repetitions of an experiment to determine if the finding are valid and if they can be generalized E. Summary of research methods 1. Each method has strengths and limitations F. Ethics in developmental research 1. Protection from harm a. No research should have the potential for serious or lasting physical or psychological harm. Under certain circumstances, minimal risk is acceptable. b. INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD – screening committees of research institutions that evaluate all research projects relative to their potential harm to participants 2. INFORMED CONSENT – a clear statement of the procedures and risks, as well as the obligations of both the participants and the researchers. Participants must be free to quit at any time without penalty. Parents must also give consent for minor children to participate. 3. Privacy and confidentiality a. Privacy – personal information about participant is not divulged b. Can publish numbers, not identifying information Activity 1c

4. Knowledge of results

Activity 1b

a. Individuals have the right to be informed of the results

Activity 1e

5.Beneficial treatments – Each participant has the right to profit from beneficial treatments provided to other participants

b. Research must take care to explain results of studies

G. Development in Context

Lecture Suggestions  Lecture 1a.

Theories in Greater Depth

The major theories of development are introduced in chapter one and then presented in greater detail in later chapters. It is often helpful to supplement this introduction with greater depth at the beginning of the semester. The greater depth provides the student with more opportunities to connect the similarities and to notice the differences between the theories. For example, the Behavioral theory emphasizes the role of environmental consequences whereas the Psychodynamic theory. We find that students often are confused by the different theories and are unable to apply them in the relevant sections in the chapters. There are a number of excellent web sources available to help you structure the lecture. For example, http://www.devpsy.org.

 Lecture 1b.

Can Psychology Be a Real Science?

Most beginning students in psychology bring to the course the misconception that psychology research is generally unscientific in nature. Students readily accept the notion that physics, chemistry, and biology are scientific disciplines; however, they find it difficult to accept the fact that psychological research can be scientific ever. A lecture can be developed that sets forth the idea of the scientific method (i.e., observation, prediction via a hypothesis, confirmation or disconfirmation, revision of hypothesis as needed, development of overarching theory). The lecture can discuss how the scientific method can be applied to one or more of the “hard science” disciplines. The lecture can then show that hypotheses in psychological research can be tested in much the same way as the hard sciences.

 Lecture 1c.

Ways of Knowing

Develop a lecture on how we acquire information. Most students have difficulty understanding why they need to understand research methods in order to study psychology. Many students have the idea that psychology is all “common sense.” There are at least 6 ways to acquire knowledge, 5 unscientific and 1 scientific. The unscientific ways are: tenacity, intuition, authority, rationalism, and empiricism. Tenacity involves persistent superstition. This is where beliefs are reacted to as if they are fact. Intuition is not based on any known reasoning or inferring process (e.g., psychics). Authority involves acquiring information from a respected source (e.g., a person, document). The authority is often well known in one area, maybe even an expert, but is often not an expert in the area in which they are providing information. Rationalism involves gaining knowledge through reasoning processes and assumes that valid knowledge is acquired if correct reasoning processes are employed. Empiricism touts knowledge from experience. If something is experienced it must be valid and true. 12 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Each of the unscientific methods has obvious problems, but we use them everyday to acquire information. We then use this information to make decisions that influence our lives and the lives of people around us. The scientific method or process has two major advantages. It uses objective empirical observation that should be independent of opinion or bias. It also has a method for establishing the superiority of one belief or theory over another. The theory that is more precise (operational definitions), more parsimonious, and more testable is deemed as the better theory. Skepticism, the philosophical belief that all knowledge is questionable, is assumed. No scientific fact can be known with 100% certainty. It is often helpful to give the class examples of questions and ask them where they would seek the information to inform their answers. For example, what is the cause of the medical symptoms I am experiencing? What kind of car should I buy? What is the best reading program to teach children to read? How can we reduce the divorce rate? Should antidepressants be prescribed to adolescents? Do video games cause violence?

 Lecture 1d.

Understanding Reliability, Validity, and Operational Definitions

Students often find the research methods information difficult to understand and apply in the real world. In the stop sign activity, the students are asked to design a study to determine what percentage of people stop at stop signs. This activity can be conducted as a class or in small groups. The instructions are provided and then the instructor provides information as it is asked for by individuals in the class or by individual groups. For example, one of the key elements of the assignment is to operationally define stopping. However, many groups or individuals will skip right over this issue until it is pointed out to them. Then the issue of operationally defining stopping in a measurable way becomes a point of interesting discussion. Students are also asked how they can demonstrate the reliability and validity of their measurements and the procedures they plan to use. One solution is to use multiple independent observers. Other factors that be considered include: the sex of the driver, the location of the stop sign, the type of intersection, the weather and conditions. The potential effect of observers standing recording activity at the stop sign can bring in the Hawthorne effect and reactivity. Similar exercise topics include determining how many people use the campus library (it is interesting to define use in this case: for example, does accessing the library from the Internet count or are you trying to determine how long your carpet might last), do females drink more diet drinks than males in restaurants, and do men hold the door open more often than females.

Class Activities Activity 1a.

Activity for the First Day of Class

There are many views on how to conduct the first day of class. How much do I cover? Do I merely hand out the syllabus and leave? We promote the use of activities designed to initiate interaction and discussion in the classroom. Research appears to support this view (e.g., Perlman & McCann, 2002). The following activity is one that has worked well for us in the past. We modify it to fit the particular class and topic. This activity is designed to promote the willingness to discuss multiple views on topics and to set the tone that class discussions will be encouraged as a routine part of class. One-half of the class is assigned to the pro position and the other half is assigned to the con position. The rules for discussions are then outlined. The students are informed that they must be polite to each other both in their verbal interactions and in their nonverbal behavior. They are told that they do not have to agree with the assigned position, but that they must argue for it (no seat changing). There will be no discussion hogs and no bumps on the log. No personal anecdotes are necessary. Other issues, such as whether to talk out or to raise hands are also discussed at this point. A series of statements designed to provoke debate are then presented. I have included some examples below. The sides then alternate presenting their viewpoints. As the discussion dies down for each statement, the instructor can supplement the discussion by providing a brief overview of the area. Some examples of statements include: Love is the best foundation for marriage. Abstinence education is the most effective sex education. Child abuse is only treatable by separating the abusive parent and the child. A child’s behavior is largely determined by genetics rather than upbringing. Retirement should be mandatory at age 65. Television and video game violence cause violence in children. Perlman, B., & McCaan, L.I. (2002). Student perspectives on the first day of class. In R.A. Griggs (Ed.), Handbook for teaching introductory psychology: Vol. 3: With an emphasis on assessment. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Mahwah, NJ, US.

 Activity 1b.

Current Events

Developmental Psychology is everywhere around us. The news is full of examples that can be used in class on a number of topics. I check Internet websites such as CNN.com and Foxnews.com several times per week for interesting national and international news topics. I also make a point of checking the local and state newspapers and TV news websites to look for examples. The students really respond to seeing that the information we are discussing in class is also occurring in the real world around us.

 Activity 1c.

Looking for Psychology in the World Around Us

I encourage students to look for examples of cartoons, TV shows, and magazine articles to bring to class. For example, the students can determine the appropriate developmental levels and ages for toys they find at a store. They can also look for 14 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

examples of different theories in action. It is usually fairly easy to find examples of parenting “dos and don’ts” in a grocery store or large store such as Wal-Mart.

 Activity 1d.

Analyze a Modern Problem from the Perspective of a Major Theorist

Have students pick a modern problem in developmental psychology, such as teenage pregnancy or teen suicide, and analyze the problem from the perspective of one of the major theorists from the history of developmental psychology (i.e., Freud, Erikson, Skinner, Bandura, Piaget, and Vygotsky). Students taking on different perspectives to the issue can stage a debate in which solutions for the modern problem is suggested.

 Activity 1e.

Critical Thinking Journals

Keeping a journal is a good way for students to integrate material from the course with experiences from their own lives. It is important to provide clear directions and expectations for journal assignments. For example, specify a minimum page length and number of entries per week. Students are usually more motivated to make a greater effort if they know the entries will be graded. Bloom’s Taxonomy is a good critical thinking tool to help the students see the different levels of critical thinking that can be used in different situations. Another option is to specify the number of course concepts that need to be covered. Some colleagues recommend taking up the journals on specified days once per week. It is important to provide constructive feedback in the journal entries so that the students see that their effort is being noticed. It is also important to return the journals in a reasonable amount of time.

Internet Video Clips  WebVid 1a

Time 1:57

Interview with UNICEF executive director about the effect of war on children in Gaza: http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/world/2009/01/16/curnow.gaza.children.venem an.intv.cnn (Children bear brunt of Gaza war)

 WebVid 1b

Time 4:43

A short clip from the movie “Children of the Congo”: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xTFR5FpnMZg (Children of the Congo: From War to Witches)

 WebVid 1c

Time 2:45

Description of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=me7103oIE-g 15 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Supplemental Readings: Current Research  Article 1a. Amso, D., & Diamond, A. (2008). Contributions of Neuroscience to Our Understanding of Cognitive Development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 136–141. One major contribution of neuroscience to understanding cognitive development has been in demonstrating that biology is not destiny—that is, demonstrating the remarkable role of experience in shaping the mind, brain, and body. Only rarely has neuroscience provided wholly new insights into cognitive development, but often it has provided evidence of mechanisms by which observations of developmental psychologists could be explained. Behavioral findings have often remained controversial until an underlying biological mechanism for them was offered. Neuroscience has demonstrated promise for detecting cognitive problems before they are behaviorally observable2014and, hence, promise for early intervention. In this article, we discuss examples drawn from imitation and mirror neurons, phenylketonuria (PKU) and prefrontal dopamine, maternal touch and stress reactivity, and nongenetic (behavioral) intergenerational transmission of biological characteristics.

 Article 1b. Belsky, J., Bakersmans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). For Better and For Worse: Differential Susceptibility to Environmental Influences. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 300–304. Evidence that adverse rearing environments exert negative effects particularly on children presumed "vulnerable" for temperamental or genetic reasons may actually reflect something else: heightened susceptibility to the negative effects of risky environments and to the beneficial effects of supportive environments. Building on Belsky's (1997, 2005) evolutionary-inspired proposition that some children are more affected - both for better and for worse - by their rearing experiences than are others, we consider recent work on child vulnerability, including that involving measured genes, along with evidence showing that putatively vulnerable children are especially susceptible to both positive and negative rearing effects. We also consider methodological issues and unanswered questions in the differential-susceptibility equation.  Article 1c. Champagne, F. A., & Mashoodh, R. (2009). Genes in Context: Gene and Environment Interplay and the Origins of Individual Differences in Behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 127–131.

Interactions between genes and the environment are a critical feature of development. Insights into the dynamic interplay between these factors have come from laboratory studies exploring experience-dependent changes in gene function, which illustrate the importance of environmental factors in determining activity of the genome. These studies have implications for our understanding of the origins of individual differences in behavior and may provide new ways of thinking about the transmission of traits across generations. Here we will highlight how these new findings illustrate the importance of putting genes in context.

 Article 1d. Cole, S. W. (2009). Social Regulation of Human Gene Expression. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 132–137. The relationship between genes and social behavior has historically been construed as a one-way street, with genes in control. Recent analyses have challenged this view, by discovering broad alterations in the expression of human genes as a function of differing socio-environmental conditions. The emerging field of social genomics has begun to identity the types of genes subject to social regulation, the biological signaling pathways mediating those effects, and the genetic polymorphisms that moderate socioenvironmental influences on human gene expression.

 Article 1e. Ferrer, E., & McArdle, J. J. (2010). Longitudinal Modeling of Developmental Changes in Psychological Research. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 149–154. In this article, we provide a review of recent advances in longitudinal models for multivariate change. We first claim the need for dynamic modeling approaches as a way to evaluate psychological theories. We then describe one such approach, latent change score (LCS) models, and illustrate their utility with a summary of research findings in various areas of psychological science. We then highlight the most prominent features of LCS models. We conclude the article with suggestions for future research on multivariate models of change that can enhance our understanding of psychological science.

 Article 1f. Ambady, N. & Bharecha, J. (2009). Culture and the Brain. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 149–154.

The goal of this article is to highlight recent work examining how culture affects neural activation. We suggest a framework for cultural neuroscience in which there are two objectives: culture mapping or the mapping function from patterns characteristic of cultures to their neural processing and source analysis or the attempt to determine the sources of observed commonalities and differences. We review links between culture and the brain across fundamental domains of cognitive and social psychology.

 Article 1g. Varnum, M.E.W., Grossmann, I., Kitayama, S., & Nisbett, R.E. (2010). The Origin of Cultural Differences in Cognition: The Social Orientation Hypothesis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 9–13. A large body of research documents cognitive differences between Westerners and East Asians. Westerners tend to be more analytic and East Asians tend to be more holistic. These findings have often been explained as being due to corresponding differences in social orientation. Westerners are more independent and Easterners are more interdependent. However, comparisons of the cognitive tendencies of Westerners and East Asians do not allow us to rule out alternative explanations for the cognitive differences, such as linguistic and genetic differences, as well as cultural differences other than social orientation. In this review we summarize recent developments that provide stronger support for the social orientation hypothesis.

Handout 1-1 Interview on Research Select ____ people you know and ask them the following questions. Be sure to describe each person interviewed as follows: Sex ____

Age ____

Education (highest level completed) _____________

Occupation ______________________

______________________________________________________________________

1. Do you pay attention to research results reported in the news? ____ 2. Do you think researchers should receive government funding? ____ 3. Have you ever participated in a research project? ____ 4. Would you be willing to participate as a participant in a research project? _____ 5. Should researchers use animals to test various drugs or other treatments for use with people? _____ 6. Should prisoners be asked to serve as research subjects? _____ 7. Do you think that there is enough medical research being conducted? ____ 8. Are there other areas that need more research? _____ 9. Do you think there is enough medical research being conducted? _____ 10. Should people suffering from potentially fatal diseases, such as AIDS or cancer, be allowed to volunteer as research participants to test new medications for their disease? ____

Handout 1-2 Research Analysis Read the following abstract and answer the questions below.

(Insert Abstract* here) *The ideal abstract describes a single experiment, rather than a series of experiments.

1. What is the independent variable?

2. What is the dependent variable?

3. Describe the experimental group.

4. Describe the control group.

5. Describe the research population represented by the participants in the research.

6. What were the results of the research?

7. Where was the research published?

8. Who conducted the research?

9. Where are the researchers employed?

Multimedia Resources MyDevelopmentLab – MULTIMEDIA RESOURCES These web-based expansions on topics allow instructors and students to watch a video clip, explore a topic, or simulate an experiment. The in-text multimedia is not exhaustive—there are many more resources available to instructors and students online at www.MyDevelopmentLab.com.

Introduction to Development Category Watch

Title The Features of Emerging Adulthood Across Cultures

Description Describes five features of emerging adulthood.

Duration

Description This is a video regarding the differences between collectivist and individualist cultures.

Duration

Page 3

The Nature of Human Development Category

Title

Watch

Differences Between Collectivistic and Individualistic Cultures

Page

Thoretical Frameworks for Human Development Category

Title

Watch

How the Human Genome Map Affects You

Watch

Eddie Harmon Jones: What excites you about the field of psychology?

Watch

Eddie Harmon Jones: Is there an increasing link between science and psychology?

Watch

Adele Diamond: Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience

Description How does mapping the human genome affect the medical care you receive? A geneticist at Case Western University says it does not mean much at the moment, but very slowly over time medical care will become more personalized, and therapies will take place on the genetic level. Psychologist and neuroscientist Eddie Harmon-Jones of Texas A and M University describes what he loves about the study of psychology and his motivation for understanding why people do what they do. Psychologist and neuroscientist Eddie Harmon-Jones of Texas A and M University talks about evolutionary psychology and how it relates to the study of emotion. Students watch an interview with Adele Diamond, whose research in developmental cognitive neuroscience focuses on the development of the pre-frontal

Duration

Page

Watch

Eddie Harmon Jones: What is the impact of technology on research in psychology?

Watch

Joshua Aronson: What is the relationship between evolutionary theory and psychology today?

Explore

Erikson's First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development

Explore

Erikson's Last Four Stages of Psychosocial Development

Animation

Classic Footage of Erik Erikson

Watch

Eddie Harmon Jones: You seem to be a very critical thinker. Do you think that's typical of the field?

Explore

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

cortex in young children and whether young children can be taught self-regulation and improve executive functioning. She discusses Tools of the Mind, a preschool curriculum based on the theories of Vygotsky and designed to improve executive functioning in pre-schoolers. She also touches on her research involving the competence of children and Piaget's theory of contiguity. Psychologist and neuroscientist Eddie Harmon-Jones of Texas A and M University explains how advancements in technology have had a positive impact on how research is conducted and the number of test subjects researchers are now able to reach via the Internet. Applied psychologist Joshua Aronson of NYU Steinhardt talks about how much he loves the diversity of research topics that exists in psychology and how the evolutionary theory seems to be the most accurate and reasonable way to consider human behavior. Students are challenged with identifying Erikson's first four stages of psychosocial development through a drag and drop activity. Students are challenged with identifying Erikson's last four stages of psychosocial development through a drag and drop activity. This is a video with Erik Erikson discussing intimacy and isolation. Psychologist and neuroscientist Eddie Harmon-Jones of Texas A and M University explains how critical thinking relates to his field and how there is a wide spectrum of how skeptical one can choose to be of research results. This animation shows Piaget's stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage, the concrete operational stage, and the formal operational stage.

13 13

The Scientific Approach to the Study of Human Development Category

Title

Watch

Naturalistic Observation

Watch

Single Mothers

Description This video demonstrates the use of naturalistic observation to study flirting and flirting gestures. This in-depth segment from Nightline 2006 looks at single women who are close to the end of their child-bearing years and still want to have children by whatever means possible. 42-year-old Louise Sloan, who is single and 8 months pregnant, provides a candid interview about what she wants, how she is feeling about being alone and pregnant, and what it means to her to have a child.

Duration

Page

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic QUICK QUIZ 1 QUICK QUIZ 2 INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 1 Understanding Human Development

Multiple Choice Multiple Choice Multiple Choice

Factual

Conceptual

Applied

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3, 8, 9

4, 5, 6 4, 5, 6 4, 6

7, 8, 9, 10 7, 8, 9, 10 5, 7

True/False

140

Short Answer Essay

THE NATURE OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS FOR HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

179 10, 15, 16, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34

Multiple Choice

17, 18, 20, 25, 27

11, 12, 13, 14, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24

True/False Short Answer Essay Multiple Choice

142, 143, 164

True/False Short Answer

144, 145, 146, 150 167

141 162, 163 181, 182, 183 41, 43, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 59, 60, 61, 65, 75, 76, 77, 86, 88, 91, 92, 97, 98, 99 147, 148, 152, 153 166, 170, 171

35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 44, 45, 51, 52, 55, 56, 62, 63, 64, 81, 83, 85, 93, 96

Essay

THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

178

Multiple Choice

111, 114, 118, 123, 124, 125, 132

True/False Short Answer

155, 160

Essay

184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 190 100, 106, 115, 133

156, 157, 158, 159 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177 192, 194, 195, 196, 197

161, 165 180 36, 42, 46, 54, 57, 58, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 78, 79, 80, 82, 84, 87, 89, 90, 94, 95, 149, 151 168, 169 189, 191 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 116, 117, 119, 120, 121, 122, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131 154

193

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic CHANGING PERSPECTIVES: CHILDREN AND WAR CURRENT ISSUES: FRAGILE FAMILIES AND CHILD WELL BEING

Chapter 1 Understanding Human Development Factual

Conceptual

Applied

Multiple Choice

135

136

134

Multiple Choice

137, 138, 139

Chapter Two Heredity and Environment

Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 2, students will know: •

where in our cells genetic instructions are located, and how these instructions are encoded in our DNA.

•

how we inherit traits from our parents, and how those traits are expressed.

•

how environmental forces modify genetic instructions.

•

the kinds of disorders that are caused by problems in how genes are inherited.

•

techniques available to help individuals deal with genetic disorders.

•

why the study of behavior genetics is important in helping us understand gene–environment interactions.

•

why adopted children and twins are of special interest to those who study behavior genetics.

•

how environmental events exert their influence on developmental processes.

•

how one’s family and culture help shape the way that development unfolds.

Key Terms and Concepts Age cohort Alleles Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) Autosomes Base Base pairs Behavior genetics Cells Chromosome Codominance Congenital anomalies Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Developmental niche Dominant Epigenetics Ethnocentrism Gametes Gene imprinting Gene therapy Genes Genetic counseling Genotype Habituation Heritability Heterozygous Homozygous Incomplete dominance Karyotype Meiosis Mitosis Mutation Nonnormative influences Normative age graded influences Normative history graded influences Nucleotides Partial schedules Phenotype Phobia Polygenic inheritance Proteins Punishment Recessive Recombinant DNA technology Reinforcer

Self concept Self efficacy Sex chromosomes Sex linked traits Shaping

Chapter Outline I.

Molecular Genetics A. Human cells 1. CELLS – the smallest self contained structures in the human body 2. Cell membrane allows nutrients and other chemicals to enter and waste products to exit the cell 3. Cytoplasm is the fluid that plays host to specialized structures 4. Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell 5. Endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, and ribosomes are involved in the production of proteins 6. DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID – a large, complex macromolecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus that contains the genetic code that regulates the functioning and development of an organism B. DNA 1. Shaped like a double helix or twisted ladder 2. NUCLEOTIDES – the building blocks of DNA 3. BASE – a nitrogen-carbon-hydrogen component of nucleotides a. adenine b. thymine c. cytosine d. guanine 4. BASE PAIRS – a rung in the DNA ladder; the base adenine pairs only with the base thymine, the base cytosine pairs only with the base guanine 5. Three things specify differences: a. the overall number of base pairs in the DNA molecule is very large. b. different species and different members within a species have different numbers of base pairs. c. the order in which the base pairs occur is important. 6. Only 0.1% of human DNA varies from person to person 7. Race-based markers do not appear to exist in the human genome C. Genes 26 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

1. GENES – the basic units of inheritance that are composed of sequences of base pairs within the DNA of an organism. Human are estimated to have between 20,000 and 25,000 genes D. Protein Synthesis 1. PROTEINS – molecules that perform a diverse array of crucial functions in the human body 2. The process of protein synthesis consists of a complex series of reactions from which hundreds of thousands of different proteins can be constructed II.

Chromosomes, Genes, and Cell Division * CHROMOSOME – a chain of genes visible under a microscope; humans normally have 46 chromosomes * AUTOSOMES – in humans, consists of 22 of the 23 pairs of chromosomes, except those that determine sex *SEX CHROMOSOME – in humans, the 23rd chromosome pair, which determines sex. Exist in two forms: X and Y. *KARYOTYPE – a photograph of a cell’s chromosomes arranged in pairs according to size A. Cell division and reproduction 1. MITOSIS – the process of ordinary cell division that results in two cells identical to the parent cell 2. MEIOSIS – the process of cell division that yields sperm and ova, each including one half of a full set of chromosomes 3. GAMETES – reproductive cells that are formed by the process of meiosis 4. In males, meiosis occurs in the testes 5. In females, meiosis occurs in the ovaries B. From genotype to phenotype 1. ALLELES – a pair of genes found on corresponding chromosomes that affect the same trait 2. GENOTYPES – the genetic code of a given individual 3. Simple dominance and recessiveness a. DOMINANT – in genetics, one gene of a gene pair that will cause a particular trait to be expressed b. RECESSIVE – in genetics, one of a gene pair that determines a trait in an individual only if the other member of that pair is also recessive

c. PHENOTYPE – in genetics, those traits that are expressed in the individual d. HOMOZYGOUS – the arrangement in which the two alleles for a simple dominant recessive trait are the same e. HETEROZYGOUS – the arrangement in which the two alleles for a simple dominant recessive trait differ 4. Combinations of genes a. POLYGENIC INHERITANCE – the inheritance of a trait that is determined by multiple genes b. INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE – the case in which a heterozygous genotype results in a phenotype that is intermediate between the phenotypes of dominant versus recessive homozygous genotypes (e.g., sickle cell anemia) c. CODOMINANCE – the case in which both dominant and recessive alleles are expressed in the phenotype (e.g., AB blood type) 5. SEX LINKED TRAITS – traits that are determined by genes on the 23rd chromosome pair C. The variation of traits among individuals 1. Meiosis and individual variation a. Individual variations occurs in several ways b. When chromosomes separate at the beginning of meiotic division, genetic material randomly crosses over resulting in new recombinant alleles c. Chance determines which half of the chromosome pairs will go into which sperm or ovum. This is called independent assortment. d. Which sperm and ovum unite is also determined by chance 2. Mutation a. MUTATION – an alteration in the DNA that typically occurs during mitosis or meiosis and is therefore transmitted to subsequent cells through cell division b. In mitosis, if a viable mutation occurs early in development, it will be passed along to all the cells replicated c. In meiosis, a mutation is incorporated into the genetic code and passed along to offspring in the sperm or ova D. Gene–Environment Interactions: The study of epigenetics

1. Genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) are in constant dynamic interaction with each other. These interactions occur at many levels. 2. EPIGENETICS: nongenetic factors that influence how genes are expressed III. Activity 2a

Genetic disorders *CONGENITAL ANOMOLIES – also called birth defects; abnormalities that result from genetic and chromosomal problems as well as from exposure to toxins, disease, and such during the prenatal period. Approximately 3% of babies born each year have one. A. Sex linked disorders 1. Occur via dominant-recessive genetic patterns. Such conditions will be seen more commonly in men (e.g., hemophilia, pattern baldness) 2. Sex linked disorders also occur when the gametes do not replicate correctly 3. Chromosomal breakage can also occur; this breakage produces brain deficiencies. Seen in both males and females 4. Fragile X syndrome leads to a form of mental retardation that has become the most common hereditary disorder associated with intellectual disability

Activity 2b

 Article 2a, 2b, 2c

B. Autosomal disorders 1. Occur when the other 22 pairs of chromosomes have defects 2. Down syndrome (trisomy 21) is the most common autosomal disorder, and the second leading inherited cause of intellectual disability 3. GENE IMPRINTING – a phenomenon in which gene expression and phenotype depend on which parent the genes come from 4. Gene imprinting can cause problems if one parent’s genes are defective C. Mitochondrial disorders 1. Mitochondria are small structures in cells that convert food to energy. If they have defective DNA, it can cause a genetic disorder 2. Most often due to mutations, not inheritance, so only one family member will be affected. D. Genetic counseling

 Lecture 2b, 2d

1. GENETIC COUNSELING – a widely available resource that can help potential parents evaluate genetic risk factors in childbearing

and enable them to make choices that reflect their values and circumstances Activity 2c, 2d

2. Often includes the analysis of parental medical records and family histories to construct a genetic pedigree which identifies previous instances of congenital anomalies 3. If it reveals the presence of a heritable genetic disorder, the counselor evaluates the couple’s risk of having a baby with the disorder E. Advances in genetic research and treatment

 WebVid 2a, 2b  Lecture 2c

1. RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY – an assortment of highly sophisticated procedures in which DNA is extracted from cell nuclei and cut into segments; the resulting fragments are then joined to self replicating elements, in essence forming functional gene clones, these are then placed in host bacterial cells to be maintained and cultured 2. GENE THERAPY – an approach to establishing cures for genetic disorders that can be applied at any point from altering the molecular structure of DNA to altering the process of protein synthesis. Involves reinserting genetically altered cells into the person from whom they were harvested 3. Retroviruses are viruses capable of penetrating cells but they do not have adverse effects

IV.

Behavior genetics *BEHAVIOR GENETICS – the study of the relationship between behavior and genetic makeup *HERITABILITY – the extent to which a trait is inherited verses acquired, thus presuming a genetic basis; note that heritability estimates are influenced by the environments in which they are considered A. Adoption and twin studies 1. Studies how individuals who are more-or-less genetically related develop 2. This allows us to understand the relative importance of genetic and environmental determinants of behavior

 Article 2d, 2e

3. Both twin and adoption studies suggest that genetics and environment both play important roles 4. A large meta-analysis concludes that 41% of human behavior is genetically influenced. 5. Special care has to be taken when interpreting results because the degree of environmental effects needs to be considered

A. Basic processes that affect behavior 1. HABITUATION – ceasing to attend or respond to repetitive stimulation; occurs at several levels, from sensation to perception to higher cognition 2. Classical conditioning a. The kind of learning that occurs when one stimulus is associated with another through repeated trials b. PHOBIA – the unreasonable fear of an object or a situation 3. Operant conditioning a. REINFORCER – a stimulus that increases the likelihood that the behavior the reinforcer follows will recur b. PUNISHMENT – a stimulus that decreases the likelihood that the behavior the punishment follows will recur c. PARTIAL SCHEDULES – a procedure in which only some responses are reinforced or punished; produces much stronger habits that continuous reinforcement d. SHAPING – systematically reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior B. Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) 1. Simple learning processes underlie many basic habits 2. APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS – also called behavior modification; a method that uses conditioning procedures to change behavior C. Social learning and the evolving self concept 1. SELF CONCEPT – one’s beliefs and feelings about oneself; defines who an individual is 2. SELF EFFICACY – what a person believes he or she is capable of doing in a given situation VI.

Environment in a broader context: family and culture *DEVELOPMENTAL NICHE – the interaction of components that determines the unique world of each individual. Includes physical & social settings, child rearing customs, and the overall psychology of the caregiver. A. Family systems 1. The way family interacts with each other, especially when children are young, has an intricate and dynamic impact on development

2. Members of the same family do not necessarily experience the same environment. There is also a set of nonshared experiences and relationships 3. The birth of a second child complicates things a. The mother spends less time with the first child b. For the first born, an affectionate relationship with the father tends to become closer c. Conflict with the mother increases for the first born B. The family as transmitter of culture 1. In complex multiethnic societies, the embedding of culture in children is more difficult 2. The cultural traditions of an ethnic minority family may be in conflict with the majority 3. ETHNOCENTRISM – the tendency to assume that our own beliefs, perceptions, customs, and values are correct or normal and that those of others are inferior or abnormal 4. Socialization is a lifelong process through which individuals are taught to function as members of a social group C. Sociocultural influences on development across the lifespan 1. AGE COHORT – group of individuals of similar ages  Lecture 2a

2. NORMATIVE AGE GRADED INFLUENCES - the biological and social changes that normally happen at predictable ages (e.g., puberty, starting school) 3. NORMATIVE HISTORY GRADED INFLUENCES – the historical events that affect large numbers of individuals at the same time(e.g., wars, epidemics) 4. NONNORMATIVE INFLUENCES – the individual environmental factors that do not occur at any predictable time in a person’s life (e.g., divorce, illnesses) 5. Mediating factors – the impact of normative & nonnormative influences often varies according to: a. Age b. Gender c. Ethnicity 6. Human development: an interactive process a. Different backgrounds, different motivations, and different interests need to be considered when thinking about development 32 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

b. It is important to consider the ways in which hereditary and environmental factors that interact to produce the uniqueness of each individual

Lecture Suggestions  Lecture 2a.

History and its Influence

When discussing the difficulties of developmental research in the context of historygraded and age-graded, many of the students in an undergraduate class have difficulty understanding how much the world has changed in the last 100 years. I find it useful to present a series of findings about how health care, life expectancy, etc. have changed over time and how these changes make it difficult to study many seemingly straightforward development issues (e.g., does memory get worse as we age, how do the schools of today compare to those of 30 years ago). The American History website sponsored by Kingwood College (http://kclibrary.lonestar.edu/decades.html) provides a very nice list of cultural events by decade for the United States. The CDC website with the Center for Statistics (http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/) provides very useful statistical information about a number of important health issues. For example, the average life expectancy in 1900 in the US was 47.3 years while in 2007 it was 77.9 years.

 Lecture 2b.

Genetic Counseling

Develop a lecture on the pros and cons of genetic counseling. Genetic counseling is a widely available resource according to the text that can aid potential parents in evaluating the genetic risk factors in childbearing and provide information that can help them make informed decisions. It is important to provide the students with information regarding the information that can be gleaned from this process. This involves providing information about the analysis of family histories as well as the use of prenatal testing. The options available to the potential parents, such as deciding to adopt if the risk of genetic problems is high given family history, should be discussed. The options available to parents if genetic problems are identified through the use of prenatal tests can challenge the parent’s value systems. Questions to be discussed can include: What prenatal tests should be routine? What are the justifiable factors for terminating a pregnancy? What role should insurance companies play in the decision process and in determining the factors that may be considered for terminating a pregnancy? In a broader scope, who should have a say in determining whether parents can terminate a pregnancy? It may be useful to tell the class some examples of reproductive rights manipulations in the U.S. For example, eugenics programs that resulted in the sterilization of the

mentally retarded were legal up through the 1960’s. See information available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization.

 Lecture 2c.

Genetic Treatments, Genetic Engineering, and Cloning

The potential for the availability of genetic treatments has raised a number of interesting ethical and practical questions. Although genetic treatments and cloning are still primarily in the development stages, they hold great promise if certain technical obstacles can be overcome. There is a good section in the Craig textbook on these procedures. The use of genetic engineering, primarily in the form of selective breeding, to modify the characteristics of organisms in agriculture has been practiced for decades. The use of these procedures in humans has sparked much debate and the passage of some laws, even though the technology remains limited. The use of cloning technology to produce organs for transplants or to treat diseases such as Parkinson’s could potentially alleviate the suffering of large numbers of people. Recent movies (e.g., The Island and The 6th Day) have examined the issues of cloning. See these websites for more information. http://www.bionetonline.org/English/Content/sc_leg1.htm http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/genetics_reproduction/cloning.html

 Lecture 2d.

Fertility: When and How to Make it Happen

There are many misconceptions about fertility. Develop a lecture examining the biology underlying successfully getting pregnant and reproduction or the myths associated with sex and pregnancy (Richmond et al., 2001). Topics can include: 1) how easy is it to get pregnant; 2) can you increase your odds of having a boy or a girl; and 3) infertility. For example, most students know that fertility rates decrease with age. However, recent research suggests that the decrease may begin earlier than previously thought. This is interesting because more and more women are delaying child rearing until later ages. The combination is resulting in a higher rate of infertility as couples try to build a family. See these websites and articles: http://www.babyplan.org/uk/fertWindow.asp http://www.chem-tox.com/infertility/ Richmond, D.M., Sabatini, M.M., Krueger, H.L., & Rudy, S.J. (2001). Contraception: Myths, facts, and methods. Dermatology Nursing, 13, 19-26.

Class Activities Activity 2a.

Magazine/Newspaper Survey

Ask students to search through recent issues of magazines and newspapers for articles on genetic research. Students can locate the original research report in order to 34 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

determine how accurately the magazine or newspaper reported the story. Students can present their results either in a written paper and/or a presentation to the class.

Activity 2b.

Living with Down Syndrome & other Developmental Disorders

Ask students to investigate how individuals and families are affected by developmental disorders, such as Fragile X syndrome, Down syndrome, Williams syndrome, etc. Students can make presentations to the class about what life is like for a child born with one of the syndromes described in the chapter. It is likely that some of your students will know individuals with some of these syndromes. The students may be able to share anecdotes about these individuals.

Activity 2c.

Genetic Counseling

Arrange for a professional genetic counselor to visit the class and to explain how couples planning a family are provided with information about genetics and assessed for potential disorders occurring in their offspring. Alternatively, students can consider whether information gained through genetic counseling should be made available to the government and health insurance companies using Handout 2-1. Students can be instructed to interview 3 other people outside of class using this handout and can discuss the various responses in small groups in the next class.

Activity 2d.

Critical Thinking Journals

Imagine you and your partner received information from a genetic counselor that a certain type of birth defect was possible for your children. For example, the counselor estimates that odds are your child has a 10% chance of having a mild birth defect (i.e., one that would cause little hindrance to the child in their quality of life). What would you do? What preparations or decisions would you make? What options would you want available to you? Now do the same thing with a moderate (i.e., one that would cause an impairment in the child’s quality of life that could be handled with additional resources and time) and severe birth defect (i.e., one that would cause a major decrease in the child’s quality of life).

Internet Video Clips  WebVid 2a.

Time: 3:31

Description of different types of genetic testing: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dJuo937gz44 (Genetic Counseling)

 WebVid 2b.

Time: 9:02

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TN9ep4B9Hw0&feature=PlayList&p=C7E239A 945F4C4BA&playnext=1&playnext_from=PL&index=56 (Designer Babies)

Supplemental Readings: Current Research  Article 2a. Amso, D., Casey, B. J. (2006). Beyond What Develops When. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 24–29. One major contribution of neuroscience to understanding cognitive development has been in demonstrating that biology is not destiny that is, demonstrating the remarkable role of experience in shaping the mind, brain, and body. Only rarely has neuroscience provided wholly new insights into cognitive development, but often it has provided evidence of mechanisms by which observations of developmental psychologists could be explained. Behavioral findings have often remained controversial until an underlying biological mechanism for them was offered. Neuroscience has demonstrated promise for detecting cognitive problems before they are behaviorally observable and, hence, promise for early intervention. In this article, we discuss examples drawn from imitation and mirror neurons, phenylketonuria (PKU) and prefrontal dopamine, maternal touch and stress reactivity, and nongenetic (behavioral) intergenerational transmission of biological characteristic.

 Article 2b. Bellugi, U., Doyle, T. F., Järvinen-Pasley, A., Korenberg, J. R., Reilly, J., Reiss, A. L. (2007). Affect, Social Behavior, and the Brain in Williams Syndrome. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 99–104. Williams syndrome (WS) is a rare genetic disorder characterized by intellectual impairment and a distinctive physical and neuropsychological profile. Relative to their level of intellectual functioning, individuals with WS exhibit strengths in language and face recognition, with deficits in visual-spatial cognition. A heightened appetitive drive toward social interaction is a strong behavioral feature. Relative to other neurodevelopmental disorders, WS has a clearly defined genetic basis, together with a consistent neurocognitive profile of strengths and deficits. Thus, this disorder offers unique opportunities for elucidating gene-brain-behavior relationships. We focus on manifestations of the unusual social profile in WS, by examining data within and across levels of cognition, brain, and molecular genetics.

 Article 2c. Widaman, K. F. (2009). Phenylketonuria in Children and Mothers: Genes, Environments, Behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 48–52. Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inborn metabolic error in which metabolism of phenylalanine into tyrosine is disrupted. If the diet of an infant with PKU is not restricted, blood phenylalanine levels are elevated, leading to irremediable brain damage and severe mental retardation. Children with PKU who are placed early and continuously on a low-phenylalanine diet develop normal levels of intelligence, and brain damage is largely prevented. However, if the diet of a mother with PKU is unrestricted during her pregnancy, high phenylalanine levels in her blood can cross the placental barrier and damage the developing fetus in multiple ways. These results demonstrate how genes and environmental factors combine to create prenatal environments that can have profound effects on the growth and development of offspring during infancy and childhood.

 Article 2d. Johnson, W. (2010). Understanding the genetics of intelligence: Can height help? Can corn oil? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 177–182. Although the subject is controversial, identifying the specific genes that contribute to general cognitive ability (GCA) has seemed to have good prospects, at least among psychological traits. GCA is reliably and validly measured and strongly heritable, and it shows genetically mediated physiological associations and developmental stability. To date, however, results have been disappointing. Human height shows these measurement characteristics even more strongly than GCA, yet data have indicated that no individual gene has more than trivial effects and this is also true for corn oil. The potential for environmental trigger of genetic expression, long recognized in evolutionary and developmental genetics, as applied to these seemingly disparate traits, can help us to understand the apparent contradiction between the heritability of intelligence and other psychological traits and the difficulty of identifying specific genetic effects.

 Article 2e. Johnson, W., Turkheimer, E., Gottesman, I. I., & Bouchard, T. J., Jr. (2009). Beyond heritability: Twin studies in behavioral research. Current Directions in Psychological Science,18, 217–220. The heritability of human behavioral traits is now well established, due in large measure to classical twin studies. We see little need for further studies of the

heritability of individual traits in behavioral science, but the twin study is far from having outlived its usefulness. The existence of pervasive familial influences on behavior means that selection bias is always a concern in any study of the causal effects of environmental circumstances. Twin samples continue to provide new opportunities to identify causal effects with appropriate genetic and shared environmental controls. We discuss environmental studies of discordant twin pairs and twin studies of genetic and environmental transactions in this context.

Handout 2-1 Interview on Genetic Counseling

Select 3 people you know and ask them the following questions. Be sure to describe each person interviewed as follows: Sex ____

Age ____

Education (highest level completed) _____________

Occupation ______________________

______________________________________________________________________

1. Do you think everyone should be required to have genetic counseling before having a baby? Why or why not?

2. If genetic counseling indicates that a couple has a chance of having a baby with a genetic disorder, should be the couple be allowed to have a baby? Why or why not?

3. If a couple has a baby after being warned that they have a 25% or greater chance of having a child with a serious genetic disorder, should they be able to use public health services for the child? Why or why not?

4. Do you think that health insurance companies and life insurance companies should be allowed to treat individuals with high probability of developing a genetic disorder differently than those without such a chance, such as charging them more for coverage or dropping them altogether as clients? Why or why not?

5. Do you believe that an individual’s genetic profile should be off-limits to companies? Should it be off-limits to the government? Why or why not?

Molecular Genetics Category

Title

Description

Animation

DNA Molecules

N/A

Duration

Page 37

Chromosomes, Genes, and Cell Division Category

Title

Watch

Twins Separated at Birth, Reunited

Watch

Genetic Predisposition to Alcoholism

Watch

The Big Picture: Genes, Evolution, and Human Behavior

Watch

Special Topics: Epigenetics: A Revolutionary Science

Description Good Morning America 2007 interviews identical twins who were separated at birth. The twins were given up for adoption by their mother, who suffered from mental illness, and were placed in separate homes as part of a twin study to determine the relative influence of nature versus nurture. Neither twin knew she had a twin sister until they were reunited as adults. The interview provides an opportunity to raise ethical concerns associated with some types of psychological research. Psychiatrist Dr. Marc Schuckit of the San Diego Veterans Affairs Medical Center reports on his research findings that a low response to alcohol as a young adult is a powerful predictor of alcoholism. In this video, the history of the nature versus nurture debate is introduced and explained in a way that helps viewers understand why there is cause for disagreement and what scientists are currently trying to determine about nature versus nurture. In this video, we learned about epigenetics and how strong an influence the environment can be on our genetic development, gene

Duration

Page

expression, and behavior.

Genetic Disorders Category

Title

Watch

Down Syndrome

Watch

Human Cloning - The Ethics

Watch

Genetic Counseling

Description This vignette focuses on an interview with a young adult with Down Syndrome (Tim) and his mother (Pam). The clip notes the genetic cause of Down Syndrome and focuses on the common problems associated with Down Syndrome. In particular, this clip emphasizes the learning capabilities of someone with Down Syndrome, and also highlights speech problems that sometimes accompany this disorder.

Duration

Page

N/A A genetic counselor is interviewed. She talks about the purposes of genetic counseling, when genetic counseling is appropriate, and how a genetic counselor works with family members.

Behavior Genetics Category

Title

Watch

The Basics: Genetic Mechanisms and Behavioral Genetics

Description In this video, we learn about the types of things that behavioral geneticists study; we are given a review of basic genetics and inheritance, what correlation of traits means, and what family studies, adoption studies, and twin studies can determine.

Duration

Description Classic footage demonstrating conditioned fear in a baby

Duration

Page

Environmental Influences and Contexts Category

Title

Watch

Classic Footage of Little Albert

Page 54

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic QUICK QUIZ 1 QUICK QUIZ 2 MOLECULAR GENETICS

Chapter 2 Heredity and Environment

Multiple Choice Multiple Choice Multiple Choice

True/False

GENES, CHROMOSOMES AND CELL DIVISION

Factual

Conceptual

Applied

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 5, 8, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 156

4, 5, 6 4, 5, 6, 6, 7, 10, 13

7, 8, 9, 10 7, 8, 9, 10 3, 4, 9, 14

Short Answer

182

Essay

201, 202

Multiple Choice

23, 26, 27, 28, 31, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 50, 51, 53, 55, 56

22, 29, 33, 47, 49, 58

24, 25, 30, 32, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 52, 54, 57

True/False Short Answer

157, 162, 163, 165

159, 160, 161, 164 183, 184, 186, 187, 188 203, 204, 205, 206, 207 63, 69, 72, 77, 78, 79, 85, 86, 95

158 185, 189

Essay

GENETIC AND CHROMOSOMAL DISORDERS

Multiple Choice

True/False Short Answer

BEHAVIOR GENETICS

154

Essay Multiple Choice

True/False Short Answer Essay ENVIRONMENTAL Multiple Choice

INFLUENCES AND CONTEXTS True/False Short Answer Essay

59, 61, 62, 64, 66, 67, 68, 73, 80, 82, 83, 89, 90, 91, 96 166, 170, 172

97, 99, 102, 109

111, 118, 122, 126, 128, 130

167, 169, 171, 173 190, 191

60, 65, 70, 71, 74, 75, 76, 81, 84, 87, 88, 92, 93, 94 168 192, 193

208, 210 98, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110 174, 175 194, 195 211, 212 116, 119, 123, 125

209 100, 101

176 197 213, 215

177 196, 198, 199, 200 214

112, 113, 114, 115, 117, 120, 121, 124, 127, 129, 131

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic ENVIRONMENT IN A BROADER CONTEXT: FAMILY AND CULTURE

Chapter 2 Heredity and Environment

Multiple Choice

Factual

Conceptual

Applied

132, 134, 137, 144

133, 141, 142, 143

135, 136, 138, 139, 140

178, 179

180, 181

216, 218

217

True/False Short Answer Essay

CHANGING PERSPECTIVES: GENETIC ENGINEERING AND CLONING CURRENT ISSUES: THE NEW BABY AND THE EXTENDED FAMILY

Multiple Choice

146

Multiple Choice

148, 149

145, 147

Chapter Three Prenatal Development and Childbirth

Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 3, students will know: •

the major developmental events that take place in each of the three prenatal periods of development.

•

the major trends that guide human development during the prenatal period

•

how maternal risk factors and protective factors affect the course of prenatal development.

•

about critical periods in development.

•

how teratogens interfere with normal prenatal development and the effects of common teratogenic agents

•

the sequence of events that unfold during normal childbirth.

•

how childbirth practices have changed over the years

•

the technological advances that have occurred with respect to pregnancy and how they have changed the practice of childbirth

•

how the mother, father, and newborn adjust to each other.

Key Terms and Concepts Afterbirth Age of viability Amniocentesis Amniotic fluid Amniotic sac Anoxia Apgar scoring system Attachment Birthing center Blastula Breech presentation Cephalocaudal trend Cesarean section Chorionic villus sampling Critical period Dizygotic twins Embryo Embryonic period Episiotomy Fallopian tubes False labor Fertilization Fetal alcohol effects Fetal alcohol syndrome Fetal monitor Fetal period Fetus Fontanels Germinal period Gross-to-specific trend Initial labor Midwife Monozygotic twins Natural or prepared childbirth Neonate Ovulation Placenta Preterm status Primitive reflexes Proximodistal trend Small for date Spontaneous abortion Survival reflexes

Teratogen Traditional childbirth Ultrasound Umbilical cord Uterus Zygote

Chapter Outline I.

Prenatal growth and development A. Trimesters and periods 1. Trimesters are the division of the 9 months of pregnancy into 3 month segments 2. Periods correspond to specific changes in the developing organism a. germinal b. embryonic c. fetal B. Conception and the germinal period 1. GERMINAL PERIOD – after conception, the period of very rapid cell division and initial cell differentiation lasting for approximately 2 weeks 2. OVULATION – the release of an ovum into one of the two fallopian tubes; occurs approximately 14 days after menstruation 3. FALLOPIAN TUBES – two passages that open out of the upper part of the uterus and carry ova from the ovary to the uterus 4. UTERUS – the structure that contains and nourishes the embryo and fetus

 Article 3b

5. FERTILIZATION – the union of an ovum and a sperm; also called conception 6. ZYGOTE – the first cell of a human being that occurs as a result of fertilization; fertilized ovum 7. Differentiation and implantation a. BLASTULA – the hollow fluid filled sphere of cells that forms soon after conception b. Differentiation occurs when the cells begin separating into groups according to their future function c. Some cells form the embryonic disc d. Approximately two-thirds of all fertilized eggs may be lost within the first 2 weeks 8. What causes twins? a. MONOZYGOTIC TWINS – twins that result from the division of a single fertilized ovum

b. DIZYGOTIC TWINS – twins that result from the fertilization of two separate ova by two separate sperm C. The embryonic period 1. EMBRYONIC PERIOD – the second prenatal period which lasts from implantation to the end of the second month after conception; during this period the term “embryo” is used to refer to the developing baby; all the major structures and organs of the individual are formed at this time 2. The supporting structures a. PLACENTA – a disk shaped mass of tissue that forms along the wall of the uterus through which the embryo receives nutrients and discharges waste b. UMBILICAL CORD – the rope of tissue that connects the placenta to the embryo; this rope contains two fetal arteries and one fetal vein c. AMNIOTIC SAC – a fluid filled membrane that encloses the developing embryo or fetus d. AMNIOTIC FLUID – fluid contained in the amniotic sac that cushions and helps protect the embryo or fetus 3. The embryo a. Ectoderm becomes the skin, sense organs, and brain and nervous system b. Mesoderm becomes muscles, blood, and excretory system c. Endoderm becomes the digestive system, lungs, thyroid, thymus, and other organs d. A month after conception the heart is beating and the nervous system is functioning e. During the second month all the structures develop rapidly 4. Spontaneous abortions a. SPONTANEOUS ABORTION – miscarriage; naturally triggered expulsion of the developing child before it is viable b. 90% occur by 12 or 13 weeks c. Increased risk with increased parental age and with exposure to environmental toxins d. Males are more likely to be aborted D. The fetal period  Lecture 3a Activity 3a

1. FETAL PERIOD – the final period of prenatal development, lasting from the beginning of the third month after conception 45 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

until birth; during this period, organ systems mature and become functional  Article 3a

2. FETUS – French term for pregnant or fruitful; refers to the developing baby from the end of the second month of gestation until birth 3. AGE OF VIABILITY – the age at which the fetus has a 50% chance of surviving outside the womb; approximately 24 weeks 4. A variety of factors have contributed to improved infant health and lowered infant mortality in recent years, including access to prenatal care, new medical treatments, and improved standards of living E. Developmental trends 1. CEPHALOCAUDAL TREND – the sequence of growth that occurs first in the head and progresses downward 2. PROXIMODISTAL TREND – the sequence of growth that occurs from the midline of the body outward 3. GROSS TO SPECIFIC TREND – the tendency to react to body stimuli with generalized, whole body movements at first, with these responses becoming more local and specific later II.

Prenatal environmental influences A. Maternal age 1. Teenage mothers have increased risk since their bodies may not be able to sustain a healthy developing child 2. Older mothers are at greater risk for miscarriage

 Article 3e  Article 3f

3. Older women have older ova that could be defective B. Maternal health and nutrition 1. Malnutrition during pregnancy is linked to low birth weight, smaller head size, and smaller overall size 2. Reduced brain development can occur 3. Temporary malnutrition usually has no long lasting effects, but longterm malnutrition can have serious effects 4. Food supplement programs starting at birth can have major benefits, both short and long term C. Prenatal health care 1. 5 or more prenatal visits to a doctor is one of the best predictors of delivering healthy babies 2. Health care has been shown to be effective in reducing infant mortality and premature birth rates 46 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

D. Critical periods in prenatal development

 Article 3c

1. CRITICAL PERIOD – the period of development during which the child is at greatest risk from exposure to a teratogen 2. TERATOGEN – toxic agent of any kind that potentially causes abnormalities in the developing child a. Teratogens during the germinal period typically lead to miscarriage b. Teratogens during the embryonic period have the most dramatic impact on development of organs and physical structures c. Teratogens introduced during the fetal period impact the size or function of the existing structures E. Teratogens and their effects

 Lecture 3c

1. Maternal diseases a. Among the most devastating teratogens are diseases (e.g., rubella) that are contracted by the mother and are passed along to the developing embryo or fetus b. Not all diseases cause problems. Because the placenta keeps the mother’s and baby’s blood supplies separate, it can screen some larger disease molecules and keep them from being passed from mother to baby c. One of the most devastating viruses that can be transmitted from the mother to the baby is HIV which can develop into AIDS d. The vast majority of children infected with AIDS live in Africa e. If treated, mother-to-infant HIV transmission can be reduced to near zero 2. Prescription and over the counter drugs a. Sometimes a drug can be harmless to the mother but dangerous to the baby b. Timing is important: The drug may arrest or interfere with developing organ systems, but not have an affect after development is complete 3. Alcohol

 WebVid 3b  Webvid 3g

a. FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME – a set of congenital abnormalities, including small size, low birth weight, distinctive facial characteristics, and intellectual disabilities that result from maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy 47 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

b. FETAL ALCOHOL SPECTRUM DISORDER (FASD) – similar to FAS, although with milder abnormalities; due to drinking alcohol during pregnancy c. Although increased consumption of alcohol increases the risk of FAS, the U.S. Surgeon General has said that no amount of alcohol consumption is safe during pregnancy 4. Tobacco a. Spontaneous abortion, still birth, and premature birth are significantly more likely if the mother smokes b. Damage to the placenta caused by smoking interferes with nutrient transmission

 Article 3d

c. ANOXIA – lack of oxygen; can cause brain damage 5. Marijuana a. May affect cardiovascular and gastrointestinal systems, cause structural defects (e.g., cleft palate) and lead to cognitive deficiencies (e.g., attention problems) b. May lead to a greater vulnerability to some mental disorders later in life 6. Cocaine and other amphetamine drugs a. Although not all studies find a link, many report that infants exposed prenatally to cocaine have a higher risk of prematurity, growth retardation, mental retardation, and neuromotor dysfunction b. Majority of cocaine- or methamphetamine-exposed infants can be classified as “fragile” c. Long-term effects include higher rates of ADHD, learning disabilities, behavior problems, depression and anxiety d. The effects of teratogens, including amphetamines, are greater in boys than girls e. Discontinuing cocaine use can limit the damage 7. Environmental Pollutants & Radiation a. “Normal” exposure does not cause significant damage but extended exposure or a concentrated dose can disrupt neurological development b. Common environmental teratogens include mercury, lead, and PCBs c. Pregnant women are advised to restrict their consumption of fish (to reduce exposure to mercury & PCBs) and to avoid

settings which expose them to lead (e.g., dishes which have lead-based glazes, some jobs) d. Prenatal exposure to radiation can lead to intellectual disabilities and cancer, especially if exposure occurs during 8-15 weeks which is a significant time for brain development e. Despite these teratogens, most babies begin life healthy because the human body is able to protect against small amounts of toxins III.

Childbirth A. Stages of childbirth 1. Initial labor a. INITIAL LABOR – the first stage of labor, during which the cervical opening of the uterus begins to dilate to allow for passage of the baby b. Average length for the first child is 12–15 hours; for subsequent children it’s 6–8 hours c. FALSE LABOR (Braxton-Hicks contractions) -- contractions that generally diminish if the mother walks 2. Labor and delivery a. Begins once the cervix is completely dilated b. Longer and more intense contractions which push the baby through the birth canal. Lasts an average of 10–40 minutes with the first birth, but is shorter for subsequent births c. The head emerges from the birth canal d. EPISIOTOMY – an incision to enlarge the vaginal opening 3. AFTERBIRTH – the third and last stage of childbirth, typically occurs within 20 minutes after delivery during which the placenta and the umbilical cord are expelled from the uterus. B. Approaches to childbirth

 Lecture 3b Activity 3b

1. The changing views of childbirth a. MIDWIFE – a woman who is experienced in childbirth who assists with home delivery b. TRADITIONAL CHILDBIRTH – hospital labor and delivery 2. Contemporary childbirth practices a. NATURAL OR PREPARED CHILDBIRTH – childbirth based on procedures developed by Fernand Lamaze, that involve 49 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

relaxation, controlled breathing, and a “coach” (i.e., dad, a friend). A main goal is to minimize the use of medication during delivery

Activity 3c

b. BIRTHING CENTER – a more home-like place designed to accommodate the entire birth process, from labor through delivery and recovery. However, medical services are accessible if either the baby or mother needs them. The focus is on maximizing parent-child interaction and promoting family bonding C. Advances in technology

 WebVid 3a

1. Prenatal screening a. ULTRASOUND – a technique that uses sound waves to produce a picture of the fetus in the uterus which enables detection of structural problems (e.g., microcephaly) b. AMNIOCENTESIS – the withdrawal and analysis of amniotic fluid with a syringe inserted into the mother’s abdomen to obtain discarded fetal cells for testing. Typically done between 14–20 weeks

 Lecture 3d

c. CHORIONOIC VILLUS SAMPLING – the withdrawal and analysis of cells from the membranes that surround the fetus, either with a syringe or a catheter. The test can be completed earlier in the pregnancy (typically 10–12 weeks) but has a higher risk of miscarriage than amniocentesis 2. High technology for high-risk pregnancies -- FETAL MONITORS a. External monitors record the intensity of uterine contractions and the baby’s heartbeat by means of two belts placed around the mother’s abdomen b. Internal monitoring is more invasive because a plastic tube containing electrodes is inserted through the vagina and attached to the baby’s head. D. Complications in childbirth 1. BREECH PRESENTATION – the baby’s position in the uterus where the head will emerge last; assistance is sometimes needed in such cases to prevent injury to the infant, including anoxia 2. CESAREAN SECTION – surgical procedure used to remove the baby and the placenta from the uterus by cutting through the abdominal wall

 WebVid 3d

3. APGAR SCORING SYSTEM – a standard scoring system that allows physicians to evaluate an infant’s condition quickly and objectively

4. Premature birth

 WebVid 3c  WebVid 3f

IV.

Activity 3d

a. PRETERM STATUS – an infant born before a gestation period of 35 weeks b. SMALL-FOR-DATE – a full-term newborn who weighs less than five pounds, eight ounces. Fetal malnutrition is one cause The evolving family A. The transition to parenthood 1. Adjustments for the mother a. May feel nauseated, experience fullness or tingling in her breasts b. May be fatigued and emotionally hypersensitive c. Physical discomfort and emotional burden d. Uncertainty about the future e. Wonder whether or not they will be able to fulfill the expectations of everyone who will need them 2. The father’s changing role a. Some may feel left out while others feel excited and proud b. Expectant fathers may also go though some of the symptoms of their wife’s pregnancy 3. Pregnancy in a Changing World a. Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART): medical procedures developed to enable women who experience fertility problem to have successful pregnancies B. The arrival of the neonate 1. NEONATE – baby in the first month of life 2. The trauma of being born a. Normal full term babies are well prepared to cope with the stressful time b. First breaths may be difficult because of amniotic fluid in the lungs 3. Size and appearance a. FONTANELS – the soft bony plates of skull connected by cartilage which do not harden until later in infancy. Their 51 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

flexibility enables the baby’s head to pass through the birth canal but the baby may have a “cone head” appearance b. External genitalia may appear enlarged due to presence of hormones passed to the baby before birth c. Vernix caseosa (a cheesy-looking protective coating) or lanugo hair may be present d. Weighs between 5 pounds 8 ounces and 9 pounds 8 ounces e. Between 19 and 22 inches long 4. The first few days: a period of adjustment a. Periods of coughing and sneezing help clear the mucus and amniotic fluid from the lungs b. Significant adjustments in respiration and blood circulation c. Digestion changes radically as does temperature regulation

 WebVid 3e

d. Reflexes i.

SURVIVAL REFLEXES – biologically programmed behaviors, such as breathing, rooting, and sucking, that are related to the neonate’s ability to survive

ii. PRIMITIVE REFLEXES – biologically programmed behaviors without immediate survival value, but which may have been associated with survival in our evolutionary past (e.g., Moro reflex, palmar grasp) 5. The beginning of attachment a. ATTACHMENT – the reciprocal emotional bond that develops between a child and caregivers b. Establishes the foundation for later social and personality development

Lecture Suggestions  Lecture 3a.

Fetal Rights (Discussing Controversial and Sensitive Issues)

One of the most difficult things to do in many classes is to promote critical thinking discussion, especially of controversial or sensitive issues. Developmental has many such issues. This exercise is designed to promote discussion of a currently “hot” issue with the intent of helping students see the inherent difficulties in designing and implementing social policy reforms and changes. It is important for the students to understand that social policy can have unexpected outcomes and consequences.

When discussing sensitive issues, it is essential to make sure the classroom environment is conducive to expressing opinions and receiving feedback on those opinions. I preface these kinds of activities with a reminder or disclaimer that the intent of this exercise is not to change the beliefs of the student. Each person here is entitled to their beliefs and views. We will be respectful to each other. There is nothing personal about this discussion. We are examining ideas, not people. I (the instructor) am going to play the devil’s advocate. My role is to push and prod you to evaluate the ideas and opinions that are expressed. It is not my job to support any particular idea or viewpoint, but to present as much information as possible for every idea and viewpoint that is expressed. Remember, we are discussing, not arguing.

 Lecture 3b.

Choices for Childbirth

The presentation can discuss how birthing practices have changed over the last century. Prior to the mid-20th century, most infants were born at home with the assistance of a midwife. From the mid-20th century to the present time, most infants in the industrialized world are born in hospitals. Over the last several decades, some couples have chosen natural childbirth over traditional hospital delivery. The lecture can describe the advantages and disadvantages of each type of delivery.

 Lecture 3c.

Birth Defects from Teratogens

The lecture can present an overview of known teratogens and their effects on the developing fetus. Most students are not aware of the numerous ways in which a developing fetus can be affected during pregnancy. Because many college students will become parents either during college or soon after, this information can help them protect their children from exposure to various drugs and toxins.

 Lecture 3d.

Prenatal Screening and Premature Births

With advances in technology used in prenatal screening, the number of premature infants delivered has increased in the U.S. and the number of premature infants surviving into adulthood has also increased. The lecture can review the techniques used to monitor the developing fetus. The lecture can also provide information about how the numbers of premature infants has increased as technology has become more advanced. The lecture can also include a discussion of the possible overuse of Caesarean section.

Class Activities Activity 3a.

Developing a New Law or Social Policy

Tell the students that they are preparing to write a law or new social policy. You will use the following questions to guide you in the process. The purpose of a law is to permit 53 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

the activities that you want to allow while at the same time not permitting the activities you do not want to allow. Balancing these goals can be very difficult. - What rights should a fetus have? - When should the fetus have these rights? - For each right, whose right comes first? (Remember, in law there are no ties.) - Can you murder a fetus? Does our society permit murder? - Can or should you be held responsible for the health of a fetus? After having the group (groups) discussions to examine these questions, I present a variety of scenarios to explore the consequences of the answers to the questions. Here are some examples. - Adults can refuse medications, surgery, blood transfusions, and other medical interventions designed to sustain life. Parents are not permitted to abuse or neglect a child once it has been born. Some experts believe that “protective custody” laws should be extended to protect endangered fetuses. In contrast, others worry that the pregnant woman may lose her personal freedoms. If a woman will die if she does not have surgery, would you force her to have the surgery (hint for the instructor: if the child is viable this is not an interesting question). - The body of a brain-dead woman can be kept alive for weeks using appropriate medical interventions. In some cases this has been done in order to allow a fetus to develop to the point that it can survive after c-section. So far this has been done only when the family wishes. If the family does not want to use these measures to sustain the woman, should we keep the woman’s body alive? What if the woman has a living will stating that she does not want extreme measures used? - If a woman drinks alcohol or smokes during pregnancy is she abusing the child? What if the woman is exposed to secondhand smoke? Will the consequences of abuse laws apply? The following websites provide a variety of viewpoints on these issues: http://reproductiverights.org/en/resources/publications/fact-sheets www.nrlc.org http://bioethics.georgetown.edu/publications/scopenotes/sn14.pdf (this is a little old – published in 1990 – but includes excellent examples of controversial cases related to maternal-fetal conflict

Activity 3b.

Birthing Preferences

Ask students to use Handout 3-1 at the end of the chapter as a guide for interviewing people (without children) about their preferences for the birth of their first child (e.g., home births, birthing centers, or hospital births). The class should pool their data and analyze the results.

Activity 3c.

Cost of Childbirth

Ask students to investigate the cost of childbirth, including prenatal care) in your community, your state, and the nation. Use Handout 3-2 at the end of the chapter for the exercise. You want to add details to the handout, such as room cost, doctor’s fees, car seats, etc.

Activity 3d.

Critical Thinking Journals

Pregnancy is usually a great time for the parents, however, complications can result and children are sometimes born with birth defects. Reflect on someone you know that has a developmental disability or a family that has had a child with a genetic or birth disorder. What kinds of problems has the family experienced and how did they handle them? How do you think you would have handled similar concerns and issues?

Internet Video Clips  WebVid 3a.

Time: 3:23 “Watch the Baby Grow: Ultrasounds week by week during pregnancy” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfgq7WiHbh4

 WebVid 3b.

Time:14:50

Facts about fetal alcohol syndrome and faces of victims: “Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: The Biological Basis http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X9ap3Iimimk

 WebVid 3c.

Time: 5:05

Describes the benefits of kangaroo care: “What is kangaroo care?” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xo6EK6dobNK

 WebVid 3d.

Time: 2:32

Description of the Apgar scale: “OB Nursing: APGAR Assessment” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zY87wohJl9I

 WebVid 3e.

Time 2:30

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gyVLD0hl0XY

 WebVid 3f.

Time: varied

www.babycenter.com/pregnancy-labor-and-delivery There are a wide variety of video clips available at this site, including natural birth, delivery of twins, and water birth. You will need to view some advertising by sponsors prior to viewing the clip.

 WebVid 3g.

Time: 56:74 “Recovering Hope” is a 4 part series produced by the National Organization on Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LCz7C05kTRw

Supplemental Readings: Current Research  Article 3a. Coe, C. L., Lubach, G. R. (2008). Fetal Programming: Prenatal Origins of Health and Illness. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 36–41. Research on young animals and humans has demonstrated the critical importance of the fetal stage as a formative period in normal development. However, the significance of these findings has not always been incorporated into our thinking when trying to elucidate the origins of health and disease. It is not only that babies react to the state of the mother and to salient environmental events while still in the uterus. This stimulation and priming seems to be essential for guiding the optimal maturation of the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems. Experiences during prenatal life also program the regulatory set points that will govern physiology in adulthood. During this malleable maturational phase, these biological processes should be viewed as flexible "learning systems" that guide the developmental trajectory toward health or derail it toward pathology. Our studies on infant primates have shown that the competence of their immune responses and the structure and activity of certain brain regions, as well as many aspects of behavior and emotional reactivity, are strongly affected by the pregnancy conditions of their mothers.

 Article 3b. Goetz, A. T., Shackelford, T. K. (2007). Adaptation to Sperm Competition in Humans. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 47–50. With the recognition, afforded by recent evolutionary science, that female infidelity was a recurrent feature of modern humans' evolutionary history has come the 56 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

development of a unique area in the study of human mating: sperm competition. A form of male-male postcopulatory competition, sperm competition occurs when the sperm of two or more males concurrently occupy the reproductive tract of a female and compete to fertilize her ova. Males must compete for mates, but if two or more males have copulated with a female within a sufficiently short period of time, sperm will compete for fertilizations. Psychological, behavioral, physiological, and anatomical evidence indicates that men have evolved solutions to combat the adaptive problem of sperm competition, but research has only just begun to uncover these adaptations.

 Article 3c. Thomas, M. S. C. & Johnson, M. H. (2008). New Advances in Understanding Sensitive Periods in Brain Development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 1–5. Is a dog ever too old to learn new tricks? We review recent findings on sensitive periods in brain development, ranging from sensory processing to high-level cognitive abilities in humans. We conclude that there are multiple varieties of, and mechanisms underlying, these changes. However, many sensitive periods may be a consequence of the basic processes underlying postnatal functional brain development.

 Article 3d. Jones, H. E., (2006). Drug Addiction During Pregnancy. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 126–130. Drug use during pregnancy is a significant risk factor for compromised child development. National statistics reveal that many pregnant women smoke tobacco (18%), drink alcohol (9.8%), and use illicit drugs (4%). Animal and clinical data show that prenatal alcohol and tobacco exposure have direct deleterious consequences on child development. Recent large multicenter studies have failed to show that prenatal cocaine or heroin exposure causes devastating child consequences when environmental variables are controlled. However, prenatal exposure to both licit and illicit drug use mostly occurs in the presence of environmental and contextual risk factors that together can impede healthy outcomes. Thus, treating these addiction disorders while addressing other lifestyle factors in a comprehensive way is critical.

 Article 3e. Kaiser, S. & Sachser, N. (2009). Effects of Prenatal Social Stress on Offspring Development: Pathology or Adaptation? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 118–121. In nonhuman mammals, the social environment in which pregnant females live is critical for their offsprings' brain development, endocrine state, and social and sexual behavior later in life. Social instability during pregnancy generally brings 57 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

about a behavioral and neuroendocrine masculinization in daughters and a less pronounced expression of male-typical traits in sons. We favor the hypothesis that such behavioral effects of prenatal social stress are not necessarily "pathological" (nonadaptive) consequences of adverse social conditions. Rather, pregnant mothers could be adjusting their offspring to their environment in an adaptive way.

Article 3f. Schetter, C. D. (2009). Stress Processes in Pregnancy and Preterm Birth. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 205–209. Preterm birth (PTB) is of epidemic proportions in the United States, particularly among African Americans. Its consequences range from risk of infant mortality to lifelong disease and disability. Stress is a contributor to preterm labor and delivery. This article summarizes research on stress as a risk factor for PTB. As is evident in considering the complex mechanisms, psychological science has much to contribute to addressing this important health issue.

Handout 3-1 Birth Preferences Survey Select ____ people you know and ask them the following questions. Be sure to describe each person interviewed as follows: Sex ____

Age ____

Education (highest level completed) _____________

Marital Status: _________ Occupation ______________________

______________________________________________________________________ 1. Which of the following do you think is the best place to give birth? Hospital Birthing center attached to a hospital Birthing center separate from a hospital Home 2. Who do you think should be present at the birth? Husband/Father of child Other children Parents of the mother Friends of the mother Childbirth coach Others (Please specify) 3. Which medical personnel should be present at the birth? Medical doctor/obstetrician Registered Nurse Midwife Midwife 4. Should pain-killing medications be given to the woman giving birth? 5. Should fetal monitoring be used during all labors? 6. How far should doctors go to save the life of a newborn child who is at high risk for severe physical or mental disabilities?

Handout 3-2 Cost of Childbirth

Local Community Normal Birth

Complications ______________________________________________________________________ State Average Normal Birth

Complications ______________________________________________________________________

National Average Normal Birth

Complications

Prenatal Growth and Development Category

Title

Watch

Fetal Development

Description This 3-D animation shows what the fetus looks like inside the mother’s womb during the second trimester and the types of physical sensations the mother is feeling during this time.

Duration

Page

Prenatal Environmental Influences Category

Title

Description

Watch

Brain Development and Nutrition

Simulate

Teratogens and Their Effects

Watch

Effects of Prenatal Smoking on Children's Development

Watch

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Sidney

N/A This is a simulation on the effects of teratogens on prenatal development. This segment presents the results of a Chicago research study on the effects of mothers’ prenatal smoking on children’s behavior. Results show that mothers who smoke a half pack of cigarettes a day or more are four times more likely to have children who have conduct disorders or engage in violent behavior. The study tested 177 boys ages 7 to 12 over a six year period. Researchers speculate that smoking alters brain chemicals such as serotonin and possibly changes RNA and DNA structures in the offspring. Marciel Tenike and her daughter Sidney are interviewed about how drinking alcohol while pregnant can affect the unborn child, and how Sidney managed to escape some of the more detrimental symptoms of fetal alcohol syndrome. Ann 61

Page 74

Streissguth, from the University of Washington, and neuroscientist John Olney discuss the importance of avoiding alcohol while pregnant and what exactly alcohol does to the developing fetus.

Childbirth Category

Watch

Title

Watch

Labor Pregnancy and Prenatal Care Across Cultures

Watch

Prenatal Ultrasound

Watch

Conception, Pregnancy, and Childbirth: Dr. Holly Casele, Obstetrician

Watch

Chorionic Villus Testing

Watch

Premature Birth and the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit

Watch

The Newborn's Reflexes

Description

Duration

This is a video about the physical changes preceding labor, including the stages of childbirth. N/A A medical sonographer discusses various prenatal ultrasound techniques, describing how they are performed, and when and why they are performed. The segment shows the sonographer conducting a two-dimensional prenatal ultrasound on a pregnant patient. Dr. Holly Casele talks about the increased chance of pregnancy complications among women of advanced maternal age, including gestational diabetes, high blood pressure, and having a baby with a chromosome abnormality. This report examines a prenatal test called chorionic villus testing (CVS), explaining the procedure as well as its risks and benefits. A nurse who works in a neonatal intensive care unit talks about risk factors for premature delivery and discusses some of the medical services available when premature babies are born. Both the survival and non-survival primitive reflexes are discussed and are demonstrated by Andrea, a newborn. The narrator also discusses the difficulty experienced by pre-term babies because their reflexes may not be well developed, especially with respect to breathing reflexes, temperature regulation, and feeding and swallowing. (Note: This segment includes some scenes of female nudity.)

Page

82 83

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic QUICK QUIZ 1 QUICK QUIZ 2 PRENATAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 3 Prenatal Development and Childbirth Factual

Conceptual

Applied

Multiple Choice Multiple Choice Multiple Choice

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 4, 7, 8, 12, 13, 17, 18, 21, 25, 37, 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 58, 59, 63, 64, 66, 67, 69

4, 5, 6, 7 4, 5, 6, 7 3, 5, 6, 14, 15, 16, 20, 24, 27, 30, 31, 32, 34, 38, 41, 45, 46, 47, 48, 52, 55, 62

8, 9, 10 8, 9, 10 1, 2, 9, 10, 11, 19, 22, 23, 26, 28, 29, 33, 35, 36, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 56, 57, 60, 61, 65, 68, 70, 71, 72

True/False

165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 172, 174, 175, 176, 177 206

170, 171, 173 203, 204, 205, 207, 208 226, 227, 228, 229

209

73, 81, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93, 97, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 105 178, 179, 182, 184, 185, 186

75, 78, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 94, 95, 96, 98, 101, 107 180, 181, 183, 187, 188, 189 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216 230, 231, 232, 233, 234 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 121, 124, 125, 126, 132, 140

74, 76, 77, 79, 92, 106

Short Answer Essay Multiple Choice PRENATAL ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES True/False Short Answer Essay

CHILDBIRTH

Multiple Choice

True/False Short Answer Essay

108, 109, 110, 111, 114, 122, 123, 128, 129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 137, 138, 139 191, 192, 194, 196, 198

190, 193, 195, 197 217, 218, 219, 220, 221 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243

112, 113, 117, 127, 135, 136, 141, 142

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic THE EVOLVING FAMILY

THE EVOLVING FAMILY CHANGING PERSPECTIVES: NURSE-FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS: AN EARLY INTERVENTION PROGRAM THAT WORKS CURRENT ISSUES: KANGAROO CARE FOR LOWBIRTH WEIGHT INFANTS: AN EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH BEING TRIED IN COUNTRIES AROUND THE WORLD

Chapter 3 Prenatal Development and Childbirth

Multiple Choice True/False Short Answer Essay Multiple Choice

Factual

Conceptual

Applied

143, 144, 145, 147, 148, 155 199, 202

152, 153, 154

146, 149, 150, 151, 156, 157

Multiple Choice

143, 144, 145, 147, 148, 155 158, 160

Multiple Choice

164

200, 201 223, 224, 225 244, 245, 246, 247 152, 153, 154 159, 161, 162

163

222 146, 149, 150, 151, 156, 157

Chapter Four Infancy and Toddlerhood: Physical, Cognitive, & Language Development Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 4, students will know: •

the changes that take place in the infants brain that allow for the dramatic developments of the first 2 years of life.

•

the changes in an infant’s general behavior and arousal that typically occur during the first month of life.

•

how the simple form of learning called habituation provides a means to study how infants think.

•

how physical and motor abilities advance during infancy and toddlerhood.

•

The role nutrition plays in early development.

•

the sensory and perceptual abilities the newborn has at birth and how they change during the period of infancy and toddlerhood.

•

which mechanisms appear to explain the infant’s ability to imitate and learn through observation.

•

the major milestones that occur in language learning during the first two years of life.

•

Piaget’s explanation for how the infant develops the ability to think.

•

how we can best explain how children learn to speak and understand language.

Key Terms and Concepts Adaptation Brain growth spurt Category Deferred imitation Fine motor skills Gross motor skills Habituation method Holophrastic speech Kwashiorkor Language acquisition device Marasmus Mirror neurons Newborn Behavioral Observation System Object permanence Overextensions Perception Plasticity Productive language Receptive language Sensation Sensorimotor period Stunting Symbolic representation Telegraphic speech Weaning

Chapter Outline I.

 WebVid 4c

The Developing Brain * BRAIN GROWTH SPURT – rapid growth during infancy in the size of neurons, the number of glial cells, and the complexity of neural connections * PLASTICITY – flexibility of the brain during early development that allows infants and children to more readily recover from brain damage *Plasticity also makes the brain susceptible to environmental influences

II.

The Neonatal Period A. States of arousal 1. There are 6 newborn behavioral states: waking activity, crying, alert inactivity, drowsiness, regular sleep, irregular sleep 2. As newborns adjust to their environment, the daily pattern of these states becomes more regular and predictable 3. By 4 months most infants spend several hours alert and are usually sleeping through the night B. Learning and habituation 1. Neonates quiet down in response to familiar sounds, songs, or lullabies, demonstrating that they remember and recognize sounds that have been comforting in the past 2. HABITUATION METHOD – to study infant perceptual capabilities researchers habituate infants to certain stimuli, then change the stimuli and observe the infants’ response C. Neonatal assessment 1. NEWBORN BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATION SYSTEM – scales used to assess neurological functioning, behavioral capabilities, and social responsiveness of newborns 2. It emphasizes the unique profile of a neonate’s competencies and responses and can aid parents in knowing how to cope with a challenging child

III.

Physical and Motor Development A. Cultural influences on maturation 1. Walking occurs at different times depending on culture 2. Motor development is subject to acceleration or deceleration due to how infants are raised

3. Physical growth and motor development are linked to brain development B. An overview of physical and motor development: the first 2 years

Activity 4a

1. The first 4 months a. Most infants double in weight b. Bodies lengthen and the proportion of head-to-body begins to shift c. Permanent hair grows d. Vision and hearing improve rapidly e. Their own hands and fingers become objects of discovery f. Many reflexes disappear and are replaced by voluntary actions 2. From 5 to 8 months

 Article 4a

a. FINE MOTOR SKILLS – skills that involve the use of the hands and fingers to perform intricate movements; they require depth perception and voluntary motor skills b. GROSS MOTOR SKILLS – skills that involve the larger muscles or whole body to perform more general movements (e.g., crawling) 3. From 9 to 12 months a. Three times heavier than at birth b. Can stand alone and approximately 50% are taking first steps c. New perspective promotes cognitive and perceptual development d. Actively explore and manipulate their environment e. Coordinating motor skills with judgment may be problematic f. Play social games like peek-a-boo 4. From 13 to 18 months a. Weigh 4 times their birth weight b. Almost all children are walking alone c. Can build towers with blocks and write with a pencil d. Feeding themselves has improved e. Many actions are imitations of other’s actions 5. From 19 to 24 months

a. Weigh just over 4 times their birth weight b. Can pedal a tricycle, jump in place, & dress themselves c. Developments in the perceptual, cognitive, motor, & social systems occur together and support each other C. Nutrition and malnutrition

 WebVid 4a

1. STUNTING – failure to achieve full adult height due to malnutrition in childhood. The WHO estimates that 30% of children under age 5 (worldwide) suffer moderate to severe stunting

 Lecture 4c

2. MARASMUS – type of malnutrition caused by an insufficient total quantity of food where muscles waste away and stored fat is depleted; if the duration is short, no long term negative effects result 3. KWASHIORKOR – type of severe malnutrition caused by insufficient protein. In the first 3 years of life, the effects of kwashiorkor can be highly damaging because brain development is directly affected 4. Although children may catch up physically if they receive adequate nutrition, they may continue to have problems with cognition (e.g., attention), behavior (e.g., impulsiveness), and emotion (e.g., depression)

 Lecture 4a

5. Breastfeeding versus bottle feeding a. Major source of protein is the milk given to the infant b. Breast milk is recommended because it is a well-balanced combination of nutrients and other beneficial substances including antibodies from the mother that help combat disease

Activity 4d

c. For the majority of infants in developed nations, bottle feeding causes no problems, but the shift to formula has resulted in widespread malnutrition in developing countries due to its cost and contaminated water d. Even in developed countries, breastfeeding is associated with lower infant mortality as well as reduced rates of obesity, high blood pressure, and diabetes later in life e. Bottle feeding can be expensive

 WebVid 4b

f. A variety of factors influence a mother’s decision to breastor bottle-feed, including cultural factors, the attitudes of one’s peer group, and work settings. 6. Weaning and the introduction of solid foods a. WEANING – the process of shifting the infant’s diet from breast or bottle-feeding to eating and drinking a wider variety of foods. Heavily influenced by culture

b. For most babies in western, industrialized countries, some solid foods are introduced c. Malnutrition becomes an issue because protein amounts are usually decreased. This is most problematic in low-income families IV.

Sensory and Perceptual Development *SENSATION – the translation of external stimuli into neural impulses by a sense organ *PERCEPTION – the complex, active process by which the mind interprets and gives meaning to sensory information. This is limited at birth but develops rapidly over the first 6 months of life A. Vision and visual perception 1. The early development of visual perception a. Newborns focus on objects at a distance of 7 to 10 inches b. Focusing ability improves rapidly but initially fine convergence is lacking. By 3–4 months babies focus almost as well as adults. c. Visual acuity sharpens dramatically in the first 6 months d. Color discrimination improves steadily during the first year 2. Selective attention in visual development

 Article 4j

a. Newborns prefer to look at patterns of moderate complexity, focusing mostly on edges. Around 2 months they begin to scan internal features. b. Newborns are especially attentive to pictures of human faces and show a strong preference for their mothers’ face as young as 2 weeks c. Infants as young as 6 months have difficulty distinguishing faces of other racial groups. This has led to the conclusion that facial recognition is based on shape & feature cues and attention to those cues emerges early in life. d. 2–3 day old infants can imitate facial expressions 3.

Mirror neurons and imitation a. MIRROR NEURONS – a system of neurons in the brain that are active when performing an action and when observing that action being performed by someone else. They enable people to connect what they observe to their own actions and therefore help explain how imitative learning occurs

b. Mirror neurons may also help explain language comprehension and empathy. Malfunctions in the mirror neuron system may contribute to autism 4. Depth and distance perception a. Newborns’ depth perception is limited by their lack of accurate focus b. At 6 weeks, infants can use spatial cues to react defensively. At 4 months binocular vision has emerged and by 5–6 months babies have accurate visually guided reaching c. Visual cliff studies reveal that although babies can perceive depth earlier, the meaning of depth develops later and in a social context B. Hearing and auditory perception 1. Anatomical structures are well developed at birth, although excess fluid is present 2. Infants have fairly well-developed auditory perception within 6 months of life 3. Can localize the sources of sounds within days of birth 4. The early development of auditory perception a. Especially attentive to human speech b. Prefer their mother’s voice C. Taste, smell, and touch 1. Fully operational at birth 2. Have appropriate responses to good/bad smells and tastes 3. Can feel pain D. Sensory integration 1. Information is combined from the different senses and coordinated into perceptions 2. Occurs rapidly and may even be present at birth 3. Becomes refined as development proceeds 4. Abilities increasingly begin to take on a cognitive focus V. Cognitive development A. Perceptual organization and categories

 Lecture 4b

1. CATEGORY – a grouping of different things that have some feature in common

 Article 4c

2. Infants can distinguish between male and female faces and voices, but they do not have conceptual knowledge about men and women 3. Infants organize the world they experience according to the similarities and differences they perceive B. Piaget’s concept of schemes 1. Most influential developmental theorist of the 20th century 2. Schemes are like mental categories that enable the child to organize the world C. SENSORIMOTOR PERIOD - Piaget’s first period of cognitive development during which reflexive schemes are transformed into concepts

Activity 4b

1. ADAPTATION – in Piaget’s theory, the process by which infant schemes are elaborated, modified, and developed. Adaptation involves assimilation and accommodation 2. Sensorimotor stages a. The sensorimotor period is comprised of six discreet stages b. Each stage involves significant advances over previous stages 3. Object play a. The manipulation of objects that provide pleasure b. As infants gain greater motor control, they can do more things with the objects c. As time progresses play becomes more realistic 4. OBJECT PERMANENCE – according to Piaget, the realization by infants beginning at about 8 months that objects continue to exist when they are out of sight. A major accomplishment of the sensorimotor period a. Represents a series of cognitive accomplishments b. Most infants do not develop a mature sense of permanence until near the end of the sensorimotor period c. Studies involving tasks that are simpler for the baby suggest that object permanence develops earlier than Piaget proposed. d. Experience with sensory integration may be an important component of object permanence 5. Imitation

 Article 4h

a. Imitation requires complex thought and develops throughout infancy

b. DEFERRED IMITATION – imitating something that happened hours or even days earlier c. Research shows infants can imitate unfamiliar actions as early as 6 or 7 months old, much earlier than Piaget proposed d. Poor performance on deferred imitation tasks at 9 & 14 months predicted low scores on cognitive skills at 4 years 6. Memory and symbolic representation

 Article 4b

a. Infants appear to have powerful memory for visual events b. Memory is enhanced if movement or music are involved c. SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION – the use of a word, picture, gesture, or other sign to represent past and present events, experiences, and concepts

Activity 4c

d. Pretending begins between 6 and 12 months of age and develops in a predictable sequence. i.

Initially pretend to do familiar actions (11–12 months)

ii. At 15–18 months, toys and other objects are incorporated into these actions iii. At 20–26 months, can pretend objects are something they are not e. Language is the ultimate system of symbolic representation D. Evaluating Piaget’s View 1. His approach led to new experimental techniques and great interest in infant development 2. He emphasized the interaction between maturation and experience 3. View of sensorimotor development has been challenged by subsequent research 4. Infants are viewed as more competent than Piaget believed 5. Overemphasized motor development and did not give enough significance to early perceptual advances VI. Language Development A. The structure and function of language

 Lecture 4d

1, Consists of words which are strung together according to specific rules of grammar 2. Words are made of basic sounds called phonemes 3. RECEPTIVE LANGUAGE – the repertoire of words and commands that a child understands, even though she or he may not be able to use them. 71 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

4. PRODUCTIVE LANGUAGE – spoken or written language or communication. Language production follows the development of receptive language B. Language development in the first year

 WebVid 4d

 Article 4g

1. Undifferentiated cries adapt to convey different meanings 2. Receptive language also develops early 3. Cooing occurs by 12 weeks 4. 3 month-old infants can distinguish between similar sounds (e.g., b and p) 5. Around 6 months, babbling develops. It serves an important social function and promotes the production of phonemes

C. Words and sentences – first words appear around 12 months

 Article 4e  Article 4f

1. Early words and meanings a. First utterances are single words, usually nouns but also some action words b. There are wide individual differences in the rate of language acquisition, but it develops in a regular, predictable sequence c. HOLOPHRASTIC SPEECH – in the early stages of language acquisition, the young child’s use of single words to convey complete thoughts d. OVEREXTENSIONS – the young child’s tendency to over generalize specific words, as when a child uses “Lassie” as the term for all dogs

D. The language explosion 1. At about 21 months the language explosion occurs, regardless of language or culture 2. Linked to toddlers’ increasing skills in categorization and increased attention to the relationship between social cues and words E. Telegraphic speech and early grammar 1. Just before the language explosion, two word phrases to represent ideas are used 2. TELEGRAPHIC SPEECH – the utterances of 18 month olds to 2 year olds that omit the less significant words and include only the words that carry the most meaning 3. Limited in terms of how much information can be conveyed 4. Remarkable similarity across cultures which supports the view that early language development is biologically prewired. F. Theories of language development 1. Imitation and reinforcement views 72 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

a. Children learn language by hearing and imitating b. Parents reinforce children’s language production c. Reinforcement plays a role, but much of speech is original (e.g., “me go”) and has not been imitated nor reinforced 2. Biologically based views a. LANGUAGE ACQUSITION DEVICE – Chomsky’s term for an innate set of mental structures that aid children in language learning. The literal existence of a “language center” in the brain is no longer embraced.

 Article 4d

b. Deaf children who are exposed to no form of language make up their own sign language c. All human languages have some similar features and language develops at about the same time & in much the same way d. Although additional research is necessary, preliminary work has identified specific genes involved in language

G. Cultural aspects of language development 1. Children who grow up in language-rich homes have larger vocabularies

 Article 4i

2. Brain development, cognitive, motor, and perceptual development, and environmental and cultural factors all interact to influence the development of language

Lecture Suggestions  Lecture 4a.

The pros and cons of breastfeeding

The physical benefits of breast feeding for the mother and the developing infant are well documented (Blincoe, 2005). Breastfeeding provides immune system benefits and promotes maximal tooth and jaw development. Mothers also benefit: producing milk burns about 500 calories a day, facilitates shrinkage of the uterus to pre-pregnancy size, and reduces the risk of breast cancer. In spite of persistent popular opinion, any emotional benefits of breastfeeding are not well documented. The CDC website has useful statistics on the percentage of women that breastfeed and other relevant information. According to the 2008 CDC National Immunization Survey (http://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/data/NIS_data/index.htm), 75.0% of all U.S. infants were ever breastfed, 43.8% were still breastfeeding at 6 months of age, and 22.7% were still breastfeeding at 1 year of age. The recommendation is that a woman breastfeed for at least 12 months according to the CDC in order to receive the full benefits. The WHO suggests breastfeeding for at least 2 years. There are a number of cons associated with breastfeeding as well. Many of these are social in nature (McGuiness, 2006). For example, although it is illegal in most states to 73 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

ask a woman to not breastfeed in public or to segregate the mother from other people, it is fairly common practice. The La Leche League website has a list of breastfeeding laws (http://www.lalecheleague.org/law/lawus.html). Breastfeeding limits the mobility of the mother. It is possible to express or pump milk for someone to feed the baby, but this is time consuming. Most employers do not have on-site daycare and mothers typically find it difficult to breastfeed while working. Plus, in order to gauge the social perceptions of breastfeeding, try telling your class that the recommendations are to breastfeed for at least 12 to 24 months. This always gets an enjoyable reaction. Although breastfeeding is a natural process, many mothers have difficulty at first. It is common to experience pain and difficulty with the child latching on. Lactation consultants make excellent guest speakers. They can usually be located through a hospital or pediatricians office. http://www.lalecheleague.org/ http://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/ http://www.healthychildren.org/English/Pages/default.aspx (American Academy of Pediatrics website devoted to breastfeeding) Blincoe, A.J. (2005). Breastfeeding awareness message is getting through. British Journal of Midwifery, 13, 267–267. McGuiness, F. (2006). Community support is key for breastfeeding mothers. British Journal of Midwifery, 14, 2–3. Kim, P., Feldman, R. M., Eicher, L. C., Thompson, N., Leckman, J. F., & Swain, J. E. (2011). Breastfeeding, brain activation to own infant cry, and maternal sensitivity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(8), 907–915. Jolly, K., Ingram, L., Khan, K.S., Deeks, J.J., Freemantle, N. & MacArthur, C (2012).Systematic review of peer support for breastfeeding continuation: Metaregression analysis of the effect of setting, intensity, and timing. British Medical Journal, 344(7844), 1–18.

 Lecture 4b.

Shopping for Toys

This can be done in the group class setting or as an individual assignment. I like to have the students go to a store that carries a wide assortment of toys and answer the questions below. An alternative would be to bring in a variety of toys or advertisements for toys and have the class answer the questions together. I do this assignment or demonstration as part of a lecture about providing educational opportunities for young children. There is a huge market for children’s educational toys, but if you watch many caregivers as they interact with their children they do attempt to educate the child in everyday activities. - Who are toys designed for children under 3 years old marketed to? - Who are toys designed for children over 7 years old marketed to? - For the younger children, what attributes of the toys are the focus of the marketing?

For the older children, what attributes of the toys are the focus of the marketing?

 Lecture 4c.

Global Malnutrition

The presentation can discuss the world-wide problem of malnutrition and how infants are especially vulnerable. The different types of defects stemming from malnutrition in infants can be featured (i.e., marasmus and kwashiorkor). Most students will be surprised that 20–24 percent of American children suffer the effects of inadequate diets. Much of this problem is related to American children receiving food with inadequate nutrition. One can show the nutritional content of some popular foods, which are fed to children. For children under 12 months, the frequent feeding schedule may also contribute to new parents or irresponsible parents failing to feed the infant properly. The World Health Organization homepage is a good source for up-to-date information on global malnutrition (http://www.who.int/nutgrowthdb/en/). An additional source for information is the homepage for the Bread for the World Organization (http://www.bread.org/learn/hunger-basics/hunger-facts-international.html).

 Lecture 4d.

How Language Develops

The lecture can review the contrasting views on how language develops. One view presumes that language is learned like any other skill. An alternative view, which was popularized by Chomsky as well as Lenneberg, is that some aspects of language are innate and facilitate language acquisition. The former view emphasizes the role of nurture in language acquisition. The latter view emphasizes the role of nature in language acquisition. The Linguistic Society of America has resources and publications available at its homepage (http://www.lsadc.org).

Class Activities Activity 4a.

Children’s Daily Patterns

Ask students to use Handout 4-1 at the end of this chapter to interview parents about the sleep, feeding, and crying patterns of their infants. The results should be tallied to determine the most common behaviors.

Activity 4b.

Piaget’s Concepts of Assimilation and Accommodation

Have students form small groups and generate examples of assimilation and accommodation in an infant’s development. Then have the groups generate examples 75 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

of these concepts as they occur in their own adult lives. Use Handout 4-2 for this exercise. Have representatives from each group present their examples to the whole class. You can list their examples on the board or on an overhead projector.

Activity 4c.

Earliest Memories

Most people recall very few events occurring before the age of five. This has been referred to as infantile amnesia. If we retained vivid memory of our earliest months of life, perhaps we would know more about how basic learning took place, such as learning language. Have students form small groups and discuss their earliest memories. Each student should report their approximate age when the event happened and what the circumstance of the event was. Have representatives from each group summarize the group’s results. The activity can be followed by a discussion of the possible explanations for infantile amnesia – brain plasticity, being a leading contender. An alternative view is that early events are not encoded in memory well because the child lacks a basic structure (or schema) in which to organize new information.

Activity 4d.

Critical Thinking Journal

Although the benefits of breastfeeding have been well documented, there is often a public perception that it is something that should be done in private. If you were at a mall or other public place, how would you feel about breastfeeding in an open area (e.g., sitting at a table in the central mall area)? How do you feel when you when you see a mother breastfeeding a child in a public place? Discuss your opinions in terms of encouraging women to breastfeed.

Internet Video Clips  WebVid 4a.

Time: 2:05

A United Nations World Food Program clip on Malnutrition and what it would take to eradicate it http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q5S1c3YA16k&feature=related

 WebVid 4b.

Time: 2:40

UNICEF video on the promotion of breastfeeding in Tajikistan http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aeq2zB2Puh4 WebVid 4c.

Time: 18:29

Alison Gopnik: What do babies think? (TED talk on YouTube) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cplaWsiu7Yg WebVid 4d.

Time: 10:18

Patricia Kuhl: The linguistic genius of babies (TED talk on YouTube) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G2XBIkHW954

Supplemental Readings: Current Research  Article 4a. Adolph, K. E. (2008). Learning to Move. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 213–218. Locomotion moving the body from place to place is one of infants' greatest achievements. In addition to conquering gravity, infants must cope with variable and novel constraints on balance and propulsion. At the same time that they are 77 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

learning to move, changes in infants' bodies, skills, and environments change the biomechanical constraints on movement. Recent work highlights both flexibility and specificity in infants' responses to novel and variable situations, demonstrating that infants are learning to learn as they master locomotion. Within sitting, crawling, cruising, and walking postures, experienced infants adapt their locomotor responses to the current biomechanical constraints on movement. However, what infants have learned about coping with variability and novelty in earlier-developing postures does not transfer to later-developing postures.

 Article 4b. Bauer, P. J. (2007). Recall in Infancy: A Neurodevelopmental Account. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 142–146. Relations between developments in neural structures and changes in memory in infancy are a relatively recent focus of research. Greater knowledge about brain development, as well as methodological advances such as combined use of behavioral and electrophysiological techniques, have led to the generation and testing of specific hypotheses regarding sources of age-related change. Theory and data converge to suggest that the early-stage processes of encoding and consolidation are a significant source of age-related variability in memory early in life. Additional research is needed to determine how these processes change and interact with myriad other determinants of recall.

 Article 4c. Casasola, M. (2008). The Development of Infants' Spatial Categories. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 21–25. Early theories of how infants develop spatial concepts focused on the perceptual and cognitive abilities that contribute to this ability. More recent research, however, has centered on whether experience with spatial language might also play a role. The present article reviews how infants learn to form spatial categories, outlining the perceptual and cognitive abilities that drive this learning, and examines the role played by spatial language. I argue that infants' spatial concepts initially are the result of nonlinguistic perceptual and cognitive abilities, but that, as infants build a spatial lexicon, spatial language becomes an important tool in the spatial categories infants learn to form.

 Article 4d. Gentner, D. & Namy, L. L. (2006). Analogical Processes in Language Learning. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 297–301. The acquisition of language has long stood as a challenge to general learning accounts, leading many theorists to propose domain-specific knowledge and processes to explain language acquisition. Here we review evidence that analogical comparison is instrumental in language learning, suggesting a larger role for general learning processes in the acquisition of language. 78 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

 Article 4e. Golinkoff, R. M. & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2006). Baby Wordsmith. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 30–33. How do infants acquire their first words? Word reference, or how words map onto objects and events, lies at the core of this question. The emergentist coalition model (ECM) represents a new wave of hybrid developmental theories suggesting that the process of vocabulary development changes from one based in perceptual salience and association to one embedded in social understanding. Beginning at 10 months, babies learn words associatively, ignoring the speaker's social cues and using perceptual salience to guide them. By 12 months, babies attend to social cues, but fail to recruit them for word learning. By 18 and 24 months, babies recruit speakers' social cues to learn the names of particular objects speakers label, regardless of those objects' perceptual attraction. Controversies about how to account for the changing character of word acquisition, along with the roots of children's increasing reliance on speakers' social intent, are discussed.

 Article 4f. Newman, R. S. (2008). The Level of Detail in Infants' Word Learning. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 229–232. This article summarizes recent findings on infant word learning and recognition. Infants initially store very detailed representations of words, including details that are not truly necessary for word recognition. As they are exposed to more varied productions of words, they develop more sophisticated knowledge about which details are important, and streamline their representations, allowing them to better recognize words across different contexts, speakers, and environments.

 Article 4g. Swingley, D. (2008). Roots of the Early Vocabulary in Infants' Learning From Speech. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 308–312. Psychologists have known for over 20 years that infants begin learning the speech-sound categories of their language during the first 12 months of life. This fact has dominated researchers' thinking about how language acquisition begins, although the relevance of this learning to the child's progress in language acquisition has never been clear. Recently, views of the role of infancy in language acquisition have begun to change, with a new focus on the development of the vocabulary. Infants' learning of speech-sound categories and infants' abilities to extract regularities in the speech stream allow learning of the auditory forms of many words. These word forms then become the foundation of the early vocabulary, support children's learning of the language's phonological system, and contribute to the discovery of grammar.

 Article 4h. Woodward, A. L. (2009). Infants' Grasp of Others' Intentions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 53–57. The perception of others as intentional agents is fundamental to human experience and foundational to development. Recent research reveals that this cornerstone of social perception has its roots early in infancy, and that it is influenced by the universal, early-emerging human experience of engaging in goal-directed action. Infants' own action capabilities correlate with their emerging tendency to view others' actions as organized by goals. Moreover, interventions that facilitate new goal-directed actions alter infants' perception of those same actions in others. These effects seem to depend on the first-person aspects of infants' experience. These findings open new questions about how doing leads to knowing in the social domain. Article 4i. Nittrouer, S. & Pennington, B. (2010). New Approaches to the Study of Childhood Language Disorders. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 308–313. Not long ago, poor language skills did not necessarily interfere with the quality of a person’s life. Many occupations did not require sophisticated language or literacy. Interactions with other people could reasonably be restricted to family members and a few social or business contacts. But in the 21st century, advances in technology and burgeoning population centers have made it necessary for children to acquire high levels of proficiency with at least one language, in both spoken and written form. This situation increases the urgency for us to develop better theoretical accounts of the problems underlying disorders of language, including dyslexia. Empirical investigations of language-learning deficits largely focus on phonological representations and often ask to what extent labeling responses are ‘‘categorical.’’ This article describes the history of this approach and presents some relevant findings regarding the perceptual organization of speech signals—findings that should prompt us to expand our investigations of language disorders. Article 4j. Smith, L. B. (2009). Changes in Visual Object Recognition Between 18 and 24 Months. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 290–294. Visual object recognition is foundational to processes of categorization, tool use, and real-world problem solving. Despite considerable effort across many disciplines and many specific advances, there is no comprehensive or wellaccepted account of this ability. Moreover, none of the extant approaches consider how human object recognition develops. New evidence indicates a period of rapid change in toddlers’ visual object recognition between 18 and 24 months that is related to the learning of object names and to goal-directed action. Children appear to shift from recognition based on piecemeal fragments to recognition based on geometric representations of three-dimensional shape. 80 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

These findings may lead to a more unified understanding of the processes that make human object recognition as impressive as it is.

Lecture Launcher Video Video Title: Physical Development: The First Five Years Segment Title: Sensory Capabilities Run Time: 2:30 Description: This clip provides a description of neonates’ sensory abilities. Vision is not well-developed at birth; it improves during the first year of life. On the other hand, smell, taste, touch, and hearing are well-developed at birth. Uses:

This clip introduces students to infants’ sensation and perception.

Question:

Can newborn infants feel pain?

Answer: Yes, research has shown that newborn infants are sensitive to touch and can feel pain. Question:

Do newborn infants see?

Answer: Yes, newborn infants can see. However, they are born legally blind. Their vision is not fully developed until after infancy.

Video Title: Intellectual Development: The First Five Years Segment Title: Early Language Development Run Time: 2:00 Description: This segment covers the early stages of language development. The focus of the clip is on word learning. Birth order effects on language development are discussed. Sometimes the youngest child learns to talk late because older siblings communicate for the child. Uses:

The segment can introduce the topic of language development.

Question:

When does the “language explosion” occur?

Answer: The language explosion occurs around 18 months of age. Between 18 and 24 months, children increase their vocabulary at a rapid rate. Question:

When do infants speak their first words?

Answer: On average, infants say their first words around the age of 12 months. The majority of infants produce their first word between 10 and 14 months.

Handout 4-1 Infant Behavior Survey Infant’s sex: _____

Infant’s birth order: _______

1. At what age did your infant sleep through the night on a regular basis? 2. Was your infant breast fed or bottle fed? 3. When did your infant begin to have solid foods (baby cereal, fruit, etc.)? 4. What type of foods did you give your infant first? 5. Did your infant suffer from colic? 6. Would you rate your infant as being an easy or difficult child? 7. When did your infant first try to pull up to a standing position? 8. Which type of locomotion did your infant use first? (crawling, creeping, scooting, bearwalking) 9. When did your infant first walk alone? 10. How would you rate your infant’s activity level? (high, moderate, low)

Handout 4-2 Assimilation and Accommodation 1. Define the concept of assimilation.

2. Define the concept of accommodation.

3. List several ways an infant (birth–two years) displays the use of assimilation.

4. List several ways an infant displays the use of accommodation.

5. List several ways adults display the use of assimilation.

6. List several ways adults display the use of accommodation.

The Developing Brain Category

Title

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The Basics: How the Brain Works? Part 1

Watch

The Basics: How the Brain Works? Part 2

Description In this video, we are introduced to the neuron and what purpose neurons serve in the brain. We also learn about the different parts of the neuron and how neurons communicate with each other. This video explains how the nervous system is divided and how it processes information, the significance of each of the different brain structures, and how neuronal transmission works.

Duration

Description Experiments using habituation have shown that Infants are more capable of keeping track of number than previously thought.

Duration

Description This brief segment notes that the grasp reflex is modified as the baby develops and gains practice in manipulating objects. Fine motor skills improve in infancy, as the baby gains experience with objects. The segment includes footage of young babies and preschool children grasping various objects. A mother describes the feeling of losing a child to Sudden Infant Death Syndrome.

Duration

Page

100

The Neonatal Period Category

Title

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Habituation

Page

102

Physical and Motor Development Category

Title

Watch

Development of the Grasp Reflex

Watch

SIDS

Page

105

106

Watch

Motor Development in Infants and Toddlers: Karen Adolph

Watch

Breastfeeding

Interview with Karen Adolph, Professor of Psychology at New York University, who studies how infants acquire motor skills in order to understand the more general processes of learning and development. This segment presents an interview with a mother (Mary Sherman) committed to breastfeeding her children. Various advantages of breastfeeding are noted, including reduced ear infections, less risk of diarrhea, and possibly a lower susceptibility to other diseases such as diabetes.

107

110

Sensory and Perceptual Development Category

Title

Watch

Gender and Spatial Ability: Nora Newcombe Classic Footage of Eleanor Gibson, Richard Walk, and the Visual Cliff

Watch

Infant Perception

Watch

Tracking Technologies and Infant Perception: Scott Johnson

Watch

Description Interview with Nora Newcombe, Professor of Psychology at Temple University, whose research focuses on memory in early childhood, development of spatial cognition, individual differences in spatial ability, and educational applications. This is a video about infant vision, including distance and depth perception using the visual cliff. This video segment describes the sensory capabilities of the neonate, showing footage of a newborn responding to touch, vocalizations, visual cues, and taste cues. Interview with Scott Johnson, Professor of Psychology at UCLA, whose research focuses on origins and development of perception and cognition in humans.

Duration

Page

113

115

Cognitive Development Category

Title

Watch

Hidden Elephant (Object Permanance)

Watch

The Sensorimotor Stage

Description This video demonstrates object permanence with a mother hiding a toy elephant for her toddler son. The mother hides the elephant under pillows, and her son knows exactly where to find it again. An overview of the sub-stages of sensory motor development

Watch

Susan Goldwin-Meadow: The Role

Interview with Susan Goldin-

Page

118 1:38

118 119

of Gesture in Thinking (APS Player)

Watch

Kimberley Cuevas: Learning and Memory in Infants

Watch

Howard Eichenbaum: Neurological Basis of Memory

Meadow, Professor of Psychology at University of Chicago, who researches the aspects of language development that are more (or less) sensitive to linguistic and environmental input. Students watch an interview with Kimberely Cuevas, whose research focuses on learning and memory in infants. Cuevas and her colleagues developed 3 tasks to test learning and memory in children ages 2 to 18 months, which not only determined how long they can remember how to perform a task but also how context, or environment, influences their ability to learn and remember. Cuevas also discusses infantile amnesia, or childhood amnesia. Students watch an interview with Professor Howard Eichenbaum, whose research on the neurological basis of memory explores how the hippocamupus stores and uses memories. Professor Eichenbaum also discusses different types of memory, including conscious memory, unconscious memory, working memory, episodic memory, and semantic memory, as well as his continuing research on the functional organization of the brain and those brain structures that work together to support the hippocampus.

120

Language Development Category

Title

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Language Learning

Watch

Language Development

Description An examination of babies learning to read This video illustrates a baby's development of speech by showing cooing, babbling, first words, to combining words.

Duration 2:06

Page 121

123

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic QUICK QUIZ 1 QUICK QUIZ 2 THE DEVELOPING BRAIN

THE NEONATAL PERIOD

PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 4 Infancy and Toddlerhood: Physical, Cognitive, and Language Development

Multiple Choice Multiple Choice Multiple Choice

Factual

Conceptual

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 15

4, 5, 6, 7 8, 9, 10 4, 5, 6, 7 8, 9, 10 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14 9, 10, 16

True/False

128, 129

Short Answer

160, 161, 162

Essay

190, 191, 192

Multiple Choice True/False Short Answer Essay Multiple Choice

True/False

17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 29 130, 132

35, 39, 40, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 60, 64, 65 134, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140

Short Answer Essay

SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT

Multiple Choice True/False

67, 68, 69, 70, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 84 141, 142, 144, 145, 147

Short Answer

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Essay Multiple Choice True/False Short Answer Essay

90, 91, 92, 93, 100 148

Applied

18, 23, 26, 28

24, 25, 27

131 164, 165 193, 195 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 38, 44, 45, 52, 55, 56, 61, 62, 63

163 194 30, 34, 41, 42, 43, 46, 47, 66

133

135

167, 168, 170, 171, 172 196, 197, 198, 199, 200 71, 74, 78, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 88 143, 146

166, 169

72, 73, 87

173, 174, 175, 176, 177 201, 202, 203, 204 89, 94, 98

205 95, 96, 97, 99

149, 151, 152 178, 180, 181 206, 207, 209, 210

150 179 208

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 4 Infancy and Toddlerhood: Physical, Cognitive, and Language Development

Multiple Choice

True/False

Factual

Conceptual

Applied

101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 112, 114, 115, 118 153, 159

109, 111, 117, 119

102, 113, 116

154, 155, 156, 157

158

183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189 211, 212, 213, 214

182

Short Answer Essay

CHANGING PERSPECTIVES: SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME AND SHAKEN BABY SYNDROME CURRENT ISSUES: CATS, HORSES AND TIGHT FITS-IS LANGUAGE INVOLVED IN CATEGORY FORMATION?

Multiple Choice

121, 123

120, 122, 124

Multiple Choice

125

126, 127

Chapter Five Infancy and Toddlerhood: Personality and Sociocultural Development Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 5, students will know: •

the role temperament plays in the emotional development of infants and toddlers.

•

what parents can do to ensure that their infant develops a trusting orientation to the world and a strong attachment to them.

•

that “attachment” refers to, and how the development of early infant attachment can influence later development throughout childhood.

•

how infants and toddlers develop a sense of their own autonomy without losing their attachment with their caregivers.

•

how infants’ understanding of others and their concept of the “self” develop during the first two years of life.

•

if fathers can be good “mothers” for their children.

•

how other caregivers, including family members other than the parents as well as child care workers, influence development in infancy and toddlerhood.

•

the special challenges that are faced by the caregivers of infants and toddlers with special needs.

•

how child abuse or neglect influences development and autonomy.

Key Terms and Concepts Autonomy versus shame and doubt Avoidant attachment Child abuse Child maltreatment Child neglect Discrepancy hypothesis Disorganized/disoriented attachment Empathy Failure to thrive syndrome Imprinting Insecure attachment Personality Prosocial behavior Resistant attachment Secure attachment Sibling rivalry Social ecology of child care Social referencing Stranger and separation anxiety Synchrony Temperament Trust versus mistrust

Chapter Outline I.

The Foundations of Personality and Social Development PERSONALITY – the characteristic beliefs, attitudes, and ways of interacting with others A. Emotional development 1. Babies focus first on managing distress and comfort 2. They begin exchanging signals, sounds and smiles with a responsive caregiver 3. Gradually universal, biologically-based basic emotions emerge (e.g., fear, pleasure) 4. Socially oriented emotions (e.g., pride, guilt) emerge in the second year 5. The development of emotion depends on the interactions that occur between infant and caregiver, as demonstrated by the still face experiment 6. If the two way system fails, the emotional development of the infant may be at risk B. Temperament

 WebVid 5a

1. TEMPERAMENT – the inborn characteristic way that infants interact with the world around them 2. Thomas & Chess identified three categories of temperament: easy, difficult, & slow-to-warm up 3. Rothbart’s broad dimensions of temperament a. Effortful control b. Negative affectivity c. Extraversion (also called surgency)

 WebVid 5b II.

4. The “match” between caregiver’s expectations for behavior and an infant’s temperamental style is a determinant of the child’s adjustment The Development of Trust A. Feeding and Comforting 1. A sense of trust is conveyed to the infant through the primary caregiver’s nurturing behavior (feeding and comforting) 2. The way the caregiver reacts to the child impacts, for better or worse, the baby’s sense of trust

3. Cross-cultural comparisons on the development of trust a. Cultures vary widely in child-rearing practices related to sleeping and comforting a distressed baby, but regardless of cultural practices, infants who develop a positive, consistent emotional relationship with their caregiver do fine. b. Neglectful or abusive caregiving sets the stage for relationship difficulties throughout life. c. Healthy adjustment requires a balance in the development of trust and mistrust III.

Attachment A. Studying infant and toddler attachment 1. Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Test assesses the quality of the infant’s attachment to the caregiver. The mother leaves her infant in a room with a stranger and several toys. The behaviors of interest are how the child responds when the mother leaves & then when she returns. Ainsworth found two main types of attachment:

 WebVid 5c

a. SECURE ATTACHMENT – a strong emotional bond between a child and a caregiver that develops because of responsive care giving. Between 60–70% of middle class US babies demonstrate this form of attachment. b. INSECURE ATTACHMENT – the result of inconsistent or unresponsive care giving. 30–40% of middle class US babies fall in this category. There are 3 subtypes: i. RESISTANT ATTACHMENT – characterized by ambivalence toward the mother ii. AVOIDANT ATTACMENT – characterized by avoidance of the mother

 WebAud 5f

iii. DISORGANIZED / DISORIENTED ATTACHMENT – characterized by contradictory behavior and confusion toward the mother. This is considered the most serious form of insecure attachment. B. The effects of attachment 1. Affects personality and social development as early as 18 months of age. 2. Compared to insecurely attached children, securely attached children are more curious, social, independent, and competent at ages 2, 3, 4, & 5. They are better liked by their peers. 3. Securely attached children are better prepared to take on later developmental tasks than insecurely attached children 95 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

4. Behavioral problems in childhood may be linked to insecure attachment C. Explaining attachment 1. Securely attached infants have caregivers who are consistent and responsive. Caregivers who are emotionally rejecting, neglectful, abusive or depressed tend to have insecurely attached babies. 2. Environmental circumstances and learning have a powerful effect on how attachment bonds are established

 Article 5b

3. IMPRINTING – the formation of a bond between some newborn animals and their mothers, which appears to be present at birth and therefore biologically programmed.

 WebVid 5d

4. Harlow’s classic study of baby monkeys demonstrated the critical importance of the quality of the mother-infant bond 5. Bowlby emphasized the reciprocal nature of biologically based and social forces in the development of attachment a. Biologically preprogrammed behaviors occur in both the infant and the caregiver

 Article 5a

b. These behaviors become elaborated through the attachment interactions between infant & caregiver and continue developing for the first few years c. SYNCHRONY – the back and forth interactions between an infant and a caregiver. This is important in the development of attachment as well as other processes (e.g., communication) d. Attachment formed in the first two years of life forms the base for future relationships D. The relationship between attachment and trust

 Article 5e

1. TRUST VERSUS MISTRUST – according to Erikson, the first critical developmental issue that is resolved in the first year of life 2. When attachments are secure, infants can depend on the caregiver to provide for their basic physiological and psychological needs. If these needs are met, trust develops. If not, the result is mistrust. 3. Normal development involves a balance between learning to trust as well as mistrust dangerous situations. 4. Developing trust is key to healthy social and emotional development E. The role of culture in attachment

1. Regardless of culture, infants develop attachment relationships with their caregivers by 8–9 months of age, but the details vary among cultures 2. Parents’ behaviors reflect general cultural values, which are transmitted to children through early socialization 3. Cross-cultural variations occur in whom the infant attaches to

 Article 5d

4. Attachment relationships vary due to the interactions (e.g., social, physical) infants in different cultures have with their caregivers 5. Many cultural and subcultural variations can foster healthy attachment

IV. Separating From the Caregiver STRANGER AND SEPARATION ANXIETY – an infant’s fear of strangers or of being separated from the caregiver. Both occur in the second half of the first year and indicate, in part, a new cognitive ability to respond to differences in the environment DISCREPANCY HYPOTHESIS – a cognitive theory stating that around 7 months infants acquire schemes for familiar objects; when a new image or object is presented that differs from the old one, the child experiences uncertainty and anxiety SOCIAL REFERENCING – the subtle emotional signals, usually from the parent, that influence the infant’s behavior

 Article 5c

A. Social referencing and culture 1. When infants do not know how to react in a situation, they look to the parent for emotional signals 2. Signals from fathers and mothers are equally effective in regulating behavior 3. Parents teach infants the values of their culture 4. Social referencing is used to convey cultural meaning to older infants by including them in social interactions B. The development of autonomy 1. AUTONOMY VERSUS SHAME AND DOUBT – according to Erikson, the second critical developmental issue that is resolved in the second and third years 2. Autonomy refers to toddlers’ need to be independent & separate from their caregiver 3. Children who develop a trusting relationship with the caregiver are better equipped to develop autonomy

4. Toddlers seem torn between a desire to stay close to their caregiver and a desire to be independent 5. Discipline a. Feedback helps children see how their actions affect others. Feedback should focus on behavior, not the child as the object of criticism b. Children with a strong attachment relationship are neither spoiled by attention nor frightened by reasonable limits c. Researchers today no longer consider toilet training a major issue in social and personality development C. The development of prosocial behavior 1. As toddlers continue the separation process they begin to cooperate, share, help, and respond empathetically to emotional distress in others 2. PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR – helping, sharing, or cooperative actions that are intended to benefit others. Develops sequentially in the second year of life. 3. EMPATHY – the ability to understand another’s feelings and perspective. Also emerges in the second year. Closely linked with secure attachment and the treatment the child receives when hurt. D. The development of the self 1. Gradually infants realize they are separate and unique from the world around them. The “rouge test” enables researchers to investigate a baby’s self-recognition.

 Article 5g

2. The growing sense of self produces emotional reactions to others 3. Cross-cultural research reveals significant differences in how self concept develops, but by the middle of the second year all toddlers understand that they are separate beings. 4. By the end of the second year, children’s language is filled with references to the self E. Attachment and separation 1. Attachment and autonomy provide a consistent focus for development in the first two years of life.

V. The Family System: A Broader Context A. Fathers

 Lecture 5d

1. Historically fathers have played a small role in infant care. However, the father’s role is expanding as mothers increasingly work outside the home.

Activity 5d

2. Mothers are still likely to hold infants for caretaking purposes, while fathers are more likely to hold the infant during play

Activity 5a

3. Involved fathers have positive effects on children’s cognitive, language, social, and emotional development

B. Other family members as caregivers

Activity 5b

1. In collectivist cultures care for the infant extends to many other members of the family 2. Older siblings provide information about gender roles and family customs

Activity 5c

3. SIBLING RIVALRY – strife and competition between siblings, such as for parental attention. The degree is influenced by parental response to each child. 4. Grandparents sometimes act as primary caregivers or babysitters 5. Grandparents typically offer more approval, support, empathy, and sympathy, and use less discipline C. .The social ecology of childcare

 Lecture 5a  Lecture 5b Activity 5e

1. SOCIAL ECOLOGY OF CHILD CARE – the overall environment in which child care occurs within and beyond the home. It includes programs and social values. 2. The reasons for the close link to the mother is biological necessity 3.The modernization of refrigeration has allowed mothers to store their milk for later use when they are not available 4. Cross cultural perspectives of child care a. Sweden has an enormous need for child care; it is provided for every family that requests it b. Parents in the USA receive little public support and only receive financial assistance if income is low

VI. Infants and Toddlers with Special Needs A. Infants and toddlers with visual impairments 1. Visual communication between a child and the caregiver is normally a key factor in establishing attachment. The obvious challenge is finding ways for the infant to learn about the world and caregivers to establish a synchronous communication system

2. Visually impaired infants smile later and less often and have fewer facial expressions. The infant’s seeming lack of responsiveness and developmental delays can be devastating for the caregiver. 3. Communication and mutuality could break down so the caregiver is encouraged to speak and sing to their infants as much as possible B. Infants and toddlers with hearing impairments 1. Initially the well-developed visual sense makes up for problems imposed by their hearing impairments 2. At 6 months the communication between caregiver and infant begins to deteriorate 3. Usually it is not known the child is deaf until 2 years of age, and a great deal of communication has been missed 4. If appropriate techniques are used to react to the infants, these children can develop normal social responses and relationships but a severe hearing impairment may threaten the development of healthy attachment. C. Infants and toddlers with severe disabilities 1. This can strain marital ties and may trigger disturbances in other children in the family, but families with close emotional ties can cope effectively 2. Educational programs assist caregivers in providing positive support for the child D. When parenting goes awry: Abuse and neglect

 Lecture 5c

1. CHILD ABUSE – the intentional physical or psychological injuries inflicted on a child by an adult 2. CHILD NEGLECT – the failure of caregiver to respond to or care for a child. Child neglect is often unintentional 3. CHILD MALTREATMENT – any form of domestic violence that affects the lives of children

 WebVid 5e

4. FAILURE TO THRIVE SYNDROME – a condition that may result from malnutrition or unresponsive care giving in which infants are small for their age, often appear emaciated or sick, and typically are unable to digest food properly. By definition, they are in the lowest 3% of “normal” weight 5. Abused children are at risk for physical, cognitive, and emotional impairments that last throughout their lives

 Article 5f

6. If infants develop secure attachment in their first year, abuse during the second year is less damaging, especially if it’s not at the hands of the primary caregiver

7. Abusive or neglectful parents frequently suffer from physical or mental illnesses, including depression and addictions. Many had difficult childhoods themselves 8. Remedies include removing the children from the abusive home or counseling the parent to stop their abusive behavior 9. Programs that provide training and therapy for both parents and children are especially effective 10. Counseling programs can address the underlying social trigger of abuse, such as poverty, drug abuse, and mental illness 11. Formal and informal support interventions can help dysfunctional families

Lecture Suggestions  Lecture 5a.

The Effects of Day Care

Design a lecture about the effects of day care. Understanding the outcomes of day care is important because so many children in the U.S. spend time in day care settings. Approximately 63% of preschoolers spend some time in a regular child care arrangement (http://www.census.gov/hhes/childcare has excellent statistics on this). The effects of day care can be grouped into cognitive and social outcomes, can be considered separately based on age of first attending day care (infants versus older child), and whether the family is eligible for certain programs (e.g., Head Start). In general, children that attend day care score at least as well or higher on cognitive tasks, verbal skills, attachment, and social skills (e.g., Bornstein et al., 2006; Broberg, Wessles, Lamb, & Hwang, 1997; Driessen, 2004). The quality of the day care facility is associated with the outcomes as well such that day cares that provide a more stimulating educational environment are associated with higher cognitive development. Time spent in day care is typically not associated with outcomes, although extreme amounts of time are associated with more behavioral problems and conflicts according to caregivers (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2006). The effects of day care on very young children are more difficult to assess. For an alternative viewpoint see Cook (1999). The effects of day care for children from impoverished families are well documented. Children that attend compensatory programs such as Even Start or Head Start are less likely to have difficulty in school, less likely to drop out of school, and less likely to use drugs (Head Start Impact Study, 2005). Bornstein, M.H., Hahn, C., Gist, N.F., & Haynes, O.M. (2006). Long-term cumulative effects of childcare on children’s mental development and socioemotional adjustment in a non-risk sample: The moderating effects of gender. Early Child Development and Care, 176, 139–156. Broberg, A.G., Wessels, H., Lamb, M.E., & Hwang, C.P. (1997). Effects of day care on the development of cognitive abilities in 8-year-olds: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 33, 62–69. Cook, P.S. (1999). Rethinking the early childcare agenda. eMJA The Medical Journal of Australia, 170, 29–31. Driessen, G. (2004). A large-scale longitudinal study of the utilization and effects of early childhood education and care in the Netherlands. Early Child Development and Care, 174, 667–689. Head Start. (2010). Head Start impact study: Final report. Retrieved http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/opre/hs/impact_study/reports/impact_study/exe cutive_summary_final.pdf NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (2006). American Psychologist, 61, 99– 116.

 Lecture 5b.

Selecting a Day Care: Who Will Care For Your Child?

Many students are concerned about whether to use day care and how to select a day care. In this classroom activity or discussion, I have the students generate possible reasons for using versus not using day care. I have them complete this discussion prior to examining the specifics of choosing a particular day care. We define day care to be anyone other than the parents caring for the child. Some of the reasons the students typically generate for using day care include: staying up to date and maintaining seniority in your profession/career, getting benefits (e.g., insurance, sanity) from work, and exposing the child to other children for social skill development. Reasons for not using day care include: its cost (not making enough to offset day care costs), wanting to be more in control of the child’s environment and controlling exposure to values, and fears of abuse and maltreatment in the day care setting. Then it is time to select a specific day care. It is important to remember that what matters to one person may be not as important to someone else. When asked what factors are important in finding a day care, students typically generate: cost, location (e.g., distance from work), cleanliness, certification and educational activities. Other factors include: child to staff ratio, word of mouth references, friendliness of staff, and facilities available. I encourage the students to think of the things they would look for when they visit a day care. For example, what kinds of materials would they want available for playing, what kinds of things would they want to see on the walls (I like to see evidence of the children’s work), what would they want the staff to be doing? There are multiple sources of information on day cares. The Day Care Hotline website is typical of the kinds of questions most sources encourage asking (http://www.day carehotline.com/day care-business/10-things-to-consider-when-selecting-a-child-careprovider/) ). Each state has different requirements for licensing and conducting criminal background checks on childcare providers. The National Resource Center for Health and Safety in Child Care posts each state’s regulations for health and safety on its website http://nrckids.org/STATES/states.htm.

 Lecture 5c.

Shaken Baby Syndrome

The topic of child abuse is an important one. Students are likely to be parents one day. It is important that they know the current views on the appropriate and inappropriate use physical force with a child. The lecture can describe the physical vulnerability of the newborn and how physicians can tell whether or not an infant has been shaken. The lecture can review the long-term effects that shaken baby syndrome can leave on an infant.

 Lecture 5d.

Changing Gender Roles and Child Care

Child care has traditionally been carried out by women with fathers playing a less central role. The lecture can review the research on how mothers and fathers have traditionally played differed roles in child care and how these roles are now changing, 103 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

with more fathers taking on activities formerly performed by women. The number of single-parent households headed by fathers is also rising (although not rising as much as the number of single-parent households headed by mothers).

Class Activities Activity 5a.

A Father’s Role in Infant Care

Ask the class to interview people different ages about their views regarding the father’s role in infant care. Students can use Handout 5-1. Help the students pool their data, tabulate it, and analyze the results.

Activity 5b.

Cross Cultural Differences in Child Care

Students can present information about child care practices in other countries. Students can work individually or in groups (your choice). Students or student groups can pick countries that interest them or you may provide the list from which they can choose. Some countries with interesting policies include Sweden, France, and Japan.

Activity 5c.

The Role of Siblings on Development of Personality

Ask the class to interview people different ages about their attitudes about the role siblings have on individuals’ personality. Students can use Handout 5-2. Help the students pool their data, tabulate it, and analyze the results.

Activity 5d.

Child Care and Household Duties

In most U.S. families, the mother spends much more time with the young child than the father. The mother assumes most of the daily care duties while when the father is involved they tend to be engaged in play activities. Interestingly, this is even true in couples that were egalitarian prior to the birth of the child. Break students into small groups and instruct them to discuss several families that they know and how child care and household duties are divided within those families. The students can follow up with a journal entry describing how they plan to divide child care duties within their own families.

Activity 5e.

Critical Thinking Journal

When people talk about the quality of day care, they often assume that the home is always better than day care. Discuss some reasons that a day care provider may be better at providing a good environment and experiences for a child compared to the average parent. Ask yourself when does the average parent become an “expert” on three year olds.

Internet Video Clips  WebVid 5a.

Time: 8:26

Interview with Thomas and Chess on the basic styles of temperament http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mgXwCqzh9B8 (About Temperament)

 WebVid 5b.

Time: 4:49

Applied-type description of temperament and the importance of “match” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CyVYQzsQ-CY (Discipline and Temperament)

 WebVid 5c.

Time: 3:15

Ainsworth’s strange situation http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU (The Strange Situation)

 WebVid 5d.

Time: 2:54

Harlow’s test of the importance of contact comfort http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CU9jKlNK1Qc (Harlow Wire Cloth Monkey Experiment)

 WebVid 5e.

Time: 2:34

Shaken baby syndrome http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ulLr3RZb9gY

 WebAud 5f. Stories of unconditional love between parents and children, and how hard love can be sometimes in daily practice. http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/317/unconditional-love

Supplemental Readings: Current Research  Article 5a. Feldman, R. (2007). Parent and Infant Synchrony: Biological Foundations and Developmental Outcomes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 340– 345. 105 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Synchrony a construct used across multiple fields to denote the temporal relationship between events has been applied to the study of mother-infant interaction and is suggested here as a framework for the study of interpersonal relationships. Defined as the temporal coordination of micro-level social behavior, parent-infant synchrony is charted in its development across infancy from the initial consolidation of biological rhythms during pregnancy to the emergence of symbolic exchange between parent and child. Synchrony is shown to depend on physiological mechanisms supporting bond formation in mammals, particularly physiological oscillators and neuroendocrine systems such as those involving the hormone oxytocin. Developmental outcomes of the synchrony experience are observed in the domains of self-regulation, symbol use, and the capacity for empathy across childhood and adolescence. Specific disruptions to the parameters of synchrony that may be observed in various pathological conditions, such as prematurity or maternal affective disorder, are detailed. A time-based, micro-analytic behavioral approach to the study of human relationship may offer new insights on intersubjectivity across the lifespan.

 Article 5b. Hofer, M. A. (2006). Psychobiological Roots of Early Attachment. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 84–88. New laboratory research has revealed a network of simple behavioral, physiological, and neural processes that underlie the psychological constructs of attachment theory. It has become apparent that the unique features of early infant attachment reflect certain unique features of early infant sensory and motor integration, learning, communication, and motivation, as well as the regulation of biobehavioral systems by the mother-infant interaction. In this article, I will use this new knowledge to answer three major questions that have remained unsettled in our understanding of early human attachment: What creates an attachment bond? Why is early maternal separation stressful? How can early relationships have lasting effects? I will discuss the implications of these new answers for human infants and for the development of mental processes. Attachment remains useful as a concept that, like hunger, describes the operation of subprocesses that work together within the frame of a vital biological function.

 Article 5c. Ramsey-Rennels, J. L. & Langlois, J. H. (2006). Infants' Differential Processing of Female And Male Faces. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 59–62. Infants show an interesting asymmetry in face processing: They are more fluent in processing female faces than they are at processing male faces. We hypothesize that such processing asymmetry results from greater experience with female faces than with male faces early in development. Asymmetrical face processing may have long-lasting implications for development of face recognition, development of knowledge structures regarding females and males, and social-information 106 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

processing. We encourage researchers to use both female and male faces in their face-perception research and to conduct separate analyses for female and male faces.

 Article 5d. Patterson, C. J. (2006). Children of Lesbian and Gay Parents. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 241–244. Does parental sexual orientation affect child development, and if so, how? Studies using convenience samples, studies using samples drawn from known populations, and studies based on samples that are representative of larger populations all converge on similar conclusions. More than two decades of research has failed to reveal important differences in the adjustment or development of children or adolescents reared by same-sex couples compared to those reared by other-sex couples. Results of the research suggest that qualities of family relationships are more tightly linked with child outcomes than is parental sexual orientation.

 Article 5e. Simpson, J. A. (2007). Psychological Foundations of Trust. Current Directions in PsychologicalScience, 16, 264–268. Trust lies at the foundation of nearly all major theories of interpersonal relationships. Despite its great theoretical importance, a limited amount of research has examined how and why trust develops, is maintained, and occasionally unravels in relationships. Following a brief overview of theoretical and empirical milestones in the interpersonal-trust literature, an integrative process model of trust in dyadic relationships is presented.

 Article 5f. Kim-Cohen, J. & Gold, A. L., (2009). Measured Gene and Environment Interactions and Mechanisms Promoting Resilient Development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 138–142. Childhood maltreatment elevates risk for antisocial behavior, depression, and other problems over the life span, but a subset of maltreated individuals avoids maladaptive development and shows resilience. Resilience reflects a dynamic confluence of factors that promotes positive adaptation despite exposure to adverse experiences. Recent replicated findings of gene-environment interactions (abbreviated G × E) involving maltreatment have identified two genes, monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) and serotonin transporter (5-HTT), that moderate the association between childhood maltreatment and psychopathology. Accordingly, G × E raise new questions about potential biological mechanisms by which some individuals are able to cope adaptively and function relatively well despite experiencing early adversity. We summarize advances toward greater specification of G × E mechanisms, including genetic and environmental 107 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

moderation of G × E effects and imaging genomics that provide clues regarding resilience processes in development.

 Article 5g. Neiworth, J. J. (2009). Thinking About Me: How Social Awareness Evolved. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 143–147. Humans seem unique in their consideration of others’ goals, motivations, intentions, and needs. But the human form of social awareness did not spring from nowhere; certain mechanisms shared across primates formed the foundation from which these processes derived. A review of recent nonhuman primate research points to particular ancestral mechanisms, including an interest in images moving in synchrony with self, a mirror neuron system that responds in the same way to actions made by the self and by others, and inherited social tolerance that provided the bases for social thinking. Still there is a gap in tracking social awareness from these basic beginnings to the ability to think about self and other with respect to intentions and goals. Comparative and clinical work will fill in this gap and will map brain processes onto social thinking. Article 5 h. Luby, J. L. (2010). Preschool Depression: The Importance of Identification of Depression Early in Development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 91–95. The empirical finding that school-aged children could suffer clinical depression refuted the widely held assumption that this age group would be too developmentally immature to experience depressive symptoms. Currently childhood depression is a well-recognized and widely treated clinical disorder. Following more recent developmental findings emphasizing the emotional sophistication of very young children, scientific studies have demonstrated that depression can arise early in life, during the preschool period of development. Preschool depression is characterized by typical symptoms of depression such as anhedonia; changes in sleep, appetite, and activity level; and excessive guilt. Further, longitudinal continuity of preschool depression into school age has been established, suggesting that preschool depression is an early manifestation of the later childhood disorder. Based on the known efficacy of early developmental intervention in a number of domains and disorders related to the greater neuroplasticity of the brain earlier rather than later in childhood, it is important to identify depression at the earliest possible point. Early intervention strategies for preschool depression that focus on enhancing emotional development are currently being tested. Article 5i.

Badanes, L. S., Dmitrieva, J. W., Enos, S. (2012). Understanding cortisol reactivity across the day at child care: The potential buffering role of secure attachments to caregivers. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, Vol. 27(1), 2012. pp. 156–165. Full-day center-based child care has been repeatedly associated with rising cortisol across the child care day. This study addressed the potential buffering role of attachment to mothers and lead teachers in 110 preschoolers while at child care. Using multi-level modeling and controlling for a number of child, family, and child care factors, children with more secure attachments to teachers were more likely to show falling cortisol across the child care day. Attachment to mothers interacted with child care quality, with buffering effects found for children with secure attachments attending higher quality child care. Implications for early childhood educators are discussed.

Handout 5-1 A Father’s Role in Infant Care Survey Select ____ people you know and ask them the following questions. Be sure to describe each person interviewed as follows: Sex ____

Age ____

Education (highest level completed) _____________

Occupation ______________________

______________________________________________________________________

1. Can fathers provide the same quality of care that mothers provide? 2. Should fathers share equally in the care of an infant? 3. Should fathers be granted custody of infants in the case of divorce? 4. If the father does have sole custody of an infant, would it be better if he lived with a woman (his mother, sister) or hired a female caregiver for the infant? 5. If both the mother and father are available to take care of the infant, which of the following activities should the father do? a. feed the infant b. change diapers c. put the infant to bed d. get up to care for the infant during the night e. take the infant for medical check-ups f. bathe the infant g. play with the infant h. take the infant for walks

Handout 5-2 Siblings Role in Personality Development Survey Select ____ people you know and ask them the following questions. Be sure to describe each person interviewed as follows: Sex ____

Age ____

Education (highest level completed) _____________

Occupation ______________________ When you were a child, how many siblings were you raised with? _______ Where were you in the birth order (e.g., oldest, youngest, middle, 4th of out 6)? _______ ______________________________________________________________________ 1. In terms of personality, are siblings typically more similar or more different?

2. Do all siblings experience sibling rivalry? 3. Does an older sibling’s personality influence the type of personality traits that a younger sibling will develop? 4. Can an older sibling’s personality be changed by the personality of a younger sibling?

5. Do parents tend to push their children to be more similar or more different in terms of personality? 6. To what extent does a person’s personality as a child tend to stay the same or change as they grow older?

The Foundations of Personality and Social Development Category

Title

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Social and Personality Development

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Temperament

Description Interactions with parents and other adults are vital for infants' social and personality development. This video shows the importance of observing and imitating as tools for learning. Describes three different types of temperament in children.

Duration

Description This video shows scenes from the Harlow monkey experiment on complex affection attachment and contact comfort. Researchers placed a cloth mother monkey and a wire mother monkey in a cage with young monkeys to see which mother the monkeys would form an attachment with. The mother of a toddler describes the development of attachment, how her child relies on each parent for specific needs, and the temporary challenges that strong attachment can present for parents, such as difficulty in getting anything done. The importance of secure attachment and the special bond between mother and child are explained here; a young woman who was physically and emotionally abused describes the lasting effects of insecure attachment and how her constant feelings of guilt and

Duration

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131 133

Attachment Category

Title

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Classic Footage of Harlow's Monkeys: Contact Comfort

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Attachment

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Attachment in Infants

Page

139

140

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Ross Thompson: Parent-Child Attachments (APS Player)

distrust interferes with her desire for healthy personal relationships. Interview with Ross Thompson, Professor Psychology at UC Davis, whose work focuses on early personality and socioemotional development in the context of close relationships.

141

Separating from the Caregiver Category

Title

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Separation Anxiety

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Social Referencing

Description This clip (with no narration) shows the anxiety response of a baby boy whose father leaves him with another adult. When the father walks away, the baby begins to cry, and when the father returns and picks the baby up, he is immediately comforted. A brief video of a toddler and adult demonstrates social referencing.

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Self Awareness

N/A

Duration

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141 141 144

The Family System: A Broader Context Category

Title

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Co-parenting, Relationships, and Socioemotional Development: Sarah Schoppe-Sullivan

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Sibling Rivalry

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Child Care

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Lisa: Adjusting to Day Care, Part 1

Description Interview with Sarah SchoppeSullivan, Assistant Professer at Ohio State University, whose research examines family influences on young children's social and emotional development. This is a video outlining the reasons for sibling rivalry. Robin Box, Director of Ball State Child Study Center, talks about what parents look for in a highquality childcare center. Ms. Box emphasizes the importance of a low teacher-child ratio in order to enhance each child’s development and sense of self worth. She also talks about the importance of a developmentally appropriate curriculum and an environment that is safe, provides nutritious food, and encourages appropriate activities. Lisa discusses her decision to put her son Christopher in daycare, her concerns, and her feelings about the experience.

Duration

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146 147

150

Infants and Toddlers with Special Needs Category

Title

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Mathematical Knowledge and Problem Solving: Martha Alibali

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Child Abuse Mandatory Reporting

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Childhood Sexual Abuse

Description Interview with Martha Alibali, Professor of Psychology at University of Wisconsin, whose research investigates the importance of children's gestures, as well as mathematical reasoning and how it changes over time. This video segment presents short interviews with Maddie Cafferty, Childcare Director of the Waypoint Center in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, and Dr. Julie Thomas, pediatrician, who both discuss the ethical and legal requirements associated with mandatory reporting of child abuse. The video segment also shows footage of infants and toddlers in a daycare setting. This video segment is an interview with a 19-year-old young woman, Melanie, who describes in detail the sexual abuse she experienced by Alan, her stepfather, during her childhood (4th grade) and her adolescent years. She describes how her mother found out about the abuse, how Alan was removed from the home for a time, but how Alan came back and the abuse started again. She also talks about how her earlier abuse influences how she responds now to her fiancé, and expresses a sense of anxiety about how she responds sexually to him. She encourages other people who are being abused to tell someone they trust so that it will stop.

Duration

Page

151

153

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic QUICK QUIZ 1 QUICK QUIZ 2 THE FOUNDATIONS OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRUST ATTACHMENT

Chapter 5 Infancy and Toddlerhood: Personality and Sociocultural Development Factual

Conceptual

Applied

Multiple Choice Multiple Choice Multiple Choice

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 3, 11, 12

4, 5, 6, 7 4, 5, 6, 7 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16

8, 9, 10 8, 9, 10 2, 6, 7, 13, 14, 15, 17

True/False

117, 119, 120

115, 116, 118

Short Answer

150, 151

Essay

175, 176, 177

Multiple Choice

18, 20

19, 21, 22, 23, 24

True/False Short Answer Essay Multiple Choice

122

25, 42, 44

True/False Short Answer

124, 129, 130

121, 123 153 178, 179 26, 27, 29, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43 125, 127, 128, 131 157, 158 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185 47, 48, 50, 54, 56, 59, 60, 61, 64, 65, 66 132, 133 160, 161, 162, 163, 164 186, 187, 188

46, 49, 51, 53, 57, 58, 62, 63, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72 134, 137 159

28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 36, 45

Essay

SEPARATING FROM THE CAREGIVER

152

Multiple Choice

52, 55, 71

True/False Short Answer

135, 136, 138

Essay

126 154, 155, 156

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic THE FAMILY SYSTEM: A BROADER CONTEXT

Chapter 5 Infancy and Toddlerhood: Personality and Sociocultural Development

Multiple Choice

True/False

Factual

Conceptual

Applied

73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 81, 83, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93 139, 140, 141, 143, 144, 145, 146

86, 89, 94

79, 80, 82, 84, 85

142, 147, 149

148

165, 166, 167, 168, 169 189, 190

Short Answer

INFANTS AND TODDLERS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

CHANGING PERSPECTIVES: FATHERHOOD IN THE CHANGING AMERICAN FAMILY- WHAT MATTERS? CURRENT ISSUES: INFANT AND TODDLER CHILD CARE

Essay Multiple Choice

96, 100

True/False Short Answer

95, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 105

103, 104

170, 171, 172, 173, 174 191, 192

Essay Multiple Choice

106, 107, 108, 109

Multiple Choice

110, 112

114

111, 113

Chapter Six Early Childhood: Physical, Cognitive, and Language Development

Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 6, students will know: •

what it means to say that human development is integrated, interactive, and dynamic.

•

what role brain maturation plays in major developmental events that characterize early childhood.

•

the distinction between gross and fine motor skills and how each develops during early childhood.

•

the main cognitive achievements of early childhood as outlined by Piaget.

•

what it means to say that play both mirrors and encourages cognitive development.

•

how Vygotsky’s view of cognitive development and the view embraced by information-processing theorists differs from that proposed by Piaget.

•

the changes in memory that occur during the preschool years.

•

how language develops during early childhood.

Key Terms and Concepts Automaticity Collective monologues Conservation Dramatic play Extrinsically motivated behavior Functional subordination Egocentricism Intrinsically motivated behavior Intuitive, or transitional, period Lateralization Myelination Overregularize Parallel play Pragmatics Preconceptual period Preoperational period Private speech Recall Recognition Scaffolding Symbolic representation Zone of proximal development

Chapter Outline I.

Physical Development A. Changes in the body

 Lecture 6a

1. Rate of growth slower than during the first two years, but on average children grow almost 3 inches taller and gain about 4 pounds 12 ounces. Bones develop and harden through ossification 2. Body proportions change dramatically a. Head no longer comprises ¼ of body. By age 16, it is 1/8 of the body’s length b. Children carry a higher proportion of weight in their upper body which gives them a higher center of gravity. This results in them losing their balance more easily B. Brain development 1. The brain growth spurt that began in infancy continues into childhood so the plasticity of the brain continues to be great 2. MYELINATION – the formation of the myelin sheath that surrounds and insulates neurons in the central nervous system pathways. This sheath increases the speed of transmission and the precision of the nervous system. Myelination closely parallels the development of cognitive and motor skills 3. LATERALIZATION – the process where specific skills and competencies become localized in either the left or right cerebral hemisphere a. The left hemisphere controls sensory & motor functions on the right side of the body and vice versa b. Language is primarily controlled by the left hemisphere in right handed people. The right hemisphere is lateralized for spatial processing and for more artistic, creative thought c. The language areas in female brains may be more lateralized which may explain why girls’ language skills develop faster d. Important to recognize that the entire brain is involved in nearly all functioning 4. Handedness is another function that is lateralized

 Lecture 6c

a. 90% of people are right handed, but women are even more likely to show this preference

b. May have a genetic basis c. Handedness is linked to language lateralization in the brain. In left-handed people, language is shared by both sides of the brain 5. Brain development and early intervention

 Article 6e

a. Since early development sets the stage for later maturation, intervention to remedy problems needs to occur as soon as possible b. Quality interventions that occur after age 3 still help even though they are implemented after the critical period for brain development C. Human development: An interactive and individual approach 1. Brain development and other aspects of development interact with and influence each other 2. Malnutrition can limit cognitive development both directly and indirectly 3. Generalized statements about growth may not apply to individual children. Growth is a result of genetics, nutrition & care, and the opportunity to play & exercise

II.

Motor Skills Development A. Gross motor skills 1. AUTOMATICITY – the ability to perform motor behaviors without consciously thinking about them 2. Children’s overall activity level peaks between ages 2 & 3 and then gradually declines. The decline occurs earlier in girls than boys 3. FUNCTIONAL SUBORDINATION – the integration of a number of separate simple actions or schemes into a more complex pattern of behavior B. Fine motor skills 1. Require the coordinated and dexterous use of hand, fingers, and thumb 2. They become increasingly competent in taking care of themselves and carrying out their daily activities as their fine motor skills develop C. Learning and motor skills 1. Readiness implies that necessary prerequisite skills are in place so benefits from training are possible. It is especially important during periods of transition 119 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

2. Practice is essential to all motor development 3. Motor learning is enhanced by attention 4. Ongoing competence feedback for their efforts helps children acquire and refine skills 5. EXTRINSICALLY MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR – behavior performed to obtain explicit rewards or to avoid explicit adverse events

Activity 6a

6. INTRINSICALLY MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR – behavior performed for its own sake, with no particular goal or explicit reward III.

Cognitive Development A. An overview of preoperational thinking

 Article 6f

1. PREOPERATIONAL PERIOD – according to Piaget, the developmental stage associated with early childhood 2. Children explore their surroundings and comprehend new information based on their current level and ways of understanding 3. During this period, children build on schemas developed in the sensorimotor period through accommodation and assimilation of new information B. Preoperational substages and thought (approximately ages 2–7) 1. PRECONCEPTUAL PERIOD – for Piaget, the first part of the preoperational period, which is highlighted by the increasingly complex use of symbols and symbolic play. However, thinking still displays a. Animism b. Reification c. EGOCENTRISM – a self centered view of the world where children tend to see things in terms of their personal point of view and fail to take others’ perspectives. Often demonstrated in the 3 mountains problem

 Article 6a

2. INTUITIVE PERIOD – for Piaget, the second part of the preoperational period, during which children begin to understand causation, as well as to undertake simple mental operations and form a more realistic view of their world. In the intuitive period, children begin to separate mental from physical reality 3. SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION – the use of actions, images, words, or other signs to represent past and present events, experiences, and concepts; marks the emergence of the preoperational period. Seen most clearly in language development and symbolic play. Facilitates social interactions. C. Limitations of preoperational thinking 120 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

1. Despite development of symbolic representation, children have a long way to go before becoming logical thinkers

 WebVid 6d  WebVid 6a

2. Limitations include concreteness, irreversibility, egocentrism, centration, and difficulties with concepts of time, space and sequence D. CONSERVATION – the understanding that changing the shape or appearance of objects does not change their mass, volume, or number 1. Conservation of mass – a child cannot understand that changing the shape of something does not alter its mass 2. Conservation of number – child cannot recognize that number is associated with the actual amount of something and not the space the objects take up

 WebVid 6b  WebVid 6c

3. Conservation of volume a. CENTRATION – the child attends to only one dimension, such as height or length b. IRREVERSIBILITY – the child cannot reverse steps to change an object back to its previous state E. Evaluating Piaget’s theory

 Lecture 6b  Lecture 6d

1. Children’s thinking is not as limited as Piaget described 2. When problems are framed in contexts that are more familiar, they can solve problems using more advanced logic F. Beyond Piaget: Social perspectives

 Article 6g

1. Piaget underemphasized the social aspect in learning 2. ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT – Vygotsky’s concept that children’s cognitive growth develops through participation in activities slightly beyond their competence with the help of adults or older children. The lower limit is determined by the child’s competence when solving problems alone. 3. SCAFFOLDING – the progressive structuring of tasks by parents or others so that the level of task difficulty is appropriate G. The role of memory

 Article 6d

1. Memory processes: A brief overview a. Information processing perspective conceptualizes human memory as operating much like a computer b. Encoding occurs in the working memory which is a component of short-term memory c. Information important enough to be retained is placed in long term memory 121 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

2. Recognition and recall a. RECOGNITION – the ability to correctly identify objects or situations previously experienced when they appear again b. RECALL – the ability to retrieve long term information and memories with or without cues or prompts. These tasks are more difficult than recognition tasks. 3. Developing memory strategies a. Assumed that young children’s difficulties with recall are attributable to poor strategies for encoding and retrieval b. Children do not spontaneously organize or rehearse information like older children and adults do, but they do make efforts to remember things when they are told to do so c. Two critical elements that influence children’s memory: memory capacity & the ability to use multiple strategies d. Studies demonstrate that young children can learn strategies beyond their current repertoire, but not all strategies produce long-term results. The ones that are most effective involve spatial organization e. Children remember better when actively involved or when they verbalize thoughts 4. Memory for scripts a. Children remember better when memories are organized according to the order in which they occur. b. Only after becoming familiar with the event can they reverse the order of the steps c. Children develop scripts for routine events which aids their memory. Scripts are rigid at first, but become more flexible IV.

Language Development A. Words and concepts

Activity 6b

1. Beginning at 18 months, children learn about 9 new words per day. Most children can use 1000 words by age 3. 2. By age 6 they know about 2600 words and can understand more than 20,000

 Article 6b

3. Understanding of concepts is often incomplete 4. Verbs are often replaced with nouns if the child doesn’t know the correct word (e.g., “Mommy, pencil this.”) B. Expanding grammar

1. Children extract the rules of grammar through an active process of listening to the speech of others

 WebVid 6e

2. OVERREGULARIZE – to incorrectly generalize language rules to cases that are exceptions; words typically done by preschool children who are rapidly expanding their vocabularies C. Mastering the subtleties of speech 1. PRIVATE SPEECH – talking aloud to oneself a. Can help children solve problems more effectively. Children skilled in private speech have better social skills and less negative behavior b. According to Vygotsky, private speech helps develop thought. It is a means of practicing how words and things they represent are linked 2. Public speech and pragmatics a. COLLECTIVE MONOLOGUES – children’s conversations that include taking turns talking, but not necessarily about the same topic b. PRAGMATICS – the social and cultural aspects of language use 3. Cross cultural perspective of the pragmatics of speech a. Pragmatics of speech differ throughout the world. For example, U.S. parents focus on satisfying their children’s desires and intentions, German mothers speak in more authoritative ways. The values that underlie these patterns are communicated with modal verbs b. Gestures are a biologically programmed form of communication that are also culture-specific, but cultural differences in gestures appear later in development. D. The influence of parents’ language use 1. Parents provide the earliest and most important guidance in children’s development of language. Parents teach children about categories and symbols, how to translate the complexities of the world into ideas and words, and how standards are interpreted and applied 2. These tools are a scaffold for the child used in understanding the world 3. Language and gender a. Assumptions about gender are embedded into thinking and therefore reflected in language 123 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

b. This causes people to talk differently to male and female children E. Multicultural aspects of language development 1. BILINGUALISM – learning two languages. It reflects social identity. 2. Children who are bilingual in their earliest years show little confusion between the 2 languages 3. The cognitive demand of learning 2 languages is manageable for most young children, especially if each language is used in a different context and by different speakers 4. Most research concludes that linguistically, culturally, and cognitively, it is an advantage to be bilingual. Any disadvantages are due to socioeconomic differences between the groups V.

Play and Learning A. Play and cognitive development

 Article 6c

1. Play is the unique way of experiencing the world by practicing and improving skills. Every aspect of early childhood development is enhanced through play. 2. Exploring physical objects a. Allows children to learn the properties and physical laws that govern objects, increasing feelings of competence b. They learn to compare and classify events and objects, leading to increased understanding 3. Play and egocentrism a. PARALLEL PLAY – the play typically engaged in by 2 year olds, which is characterized by little interaction among the children even though they are in close proximity b. By age 3 or 4, children become less egocentric and are better able to cooperate in play c. Social maturity is relative; some children advance quicker than others

 Lecture 6e

4. Dramatic play and social knowledge a. DRAMATIC PLAY – play characterized by meaningful interactions among children, often including imitation, pretending, and role playing. It begins to develop around age 3–4 and reflects the growth of symbolic representation b. Children who engage in dramatic pretend play are better able to understand another’s perspective and to distinguish appearance from reality. 124 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

c. They also have a clearer definition of self and are more socially and academically competent. d. Allows children to experiment with different roles and to express intense emotions. It enables them to resolve conflicts in ways that they can understand. e. Promotes social and personality development 5. The role of peers a. Mixed age peer groups offer older children the opportunity to practice teaching and caring for younger children b. The younger children can imitate and practice role relations with older children

Lecture Suggestions  Lecture 6a.

Charting Children’s Growth

The lecture can provide the facts regarding the norms for height, weight, and head size for American children. New parents are generally surprised at how often their infants and toddlers are measured and ranked in comparison with other children their own age. Children can be shorter than average or lighter than average, leaving parents to be overly concerned. Some parents even resort to growth hormone injections for older children who appear not to be able to achieve an acceptable height. The percentile ranking system is the primary means of comparison. The National Center for Health Statistics is a good source for up-to-date information (http://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/).

 Lecture 6b.

Piaget’s Theory: Then and Now

The lecture can review the basic stages of cognitive development as envisioned by Piaget. Because Piaget is one of the most important theorists in developmental psychology, it is crucial that students appreciate his contribution to the field. It is also important that they learn about the criticisms that have been leveled against his theory. The notion that children “think wrong” sometimes is a fascinating topic. The concept of animism is also one that is entertaining – a child still influenced by animism believes that a stuffed rabbit is real. Other concepts that can be discussed include egocentrism and centration.

 Lecture 6c.

The Mystery of Left-Handedness

There is no consensus on the causes of left-handedness (or right-handedness). The facts regarding handedness are intriguing. They include:

• • • • • •

Only about 10 percent of the population is left-handed. Males are more likely to be left-handed than females. There is a higher proportion of left-handed people in certain professions and activities, such as architecture, engineering, mathematics, art, chess masters, and performing musicians. There is a higher proportion of left-handed people in prisons and institutions than in the general population. Some have argued that reading disabilities, stuttering, immune diseases, migraine headaches, allergies, eczema, and mental retardation are more prevalent among left- than right-handers. Young people are more likely to be left-handed than older people. One suggestion is that left-handers have shorter lives than right-handers, because they are more accident prone.

A site at the University of Indiana lists famous lefties (http://www.indiana.edu/~primate/left.html).

 Lecture 6d.

Theory of Mind

A lecture can describe recent research on the topic of “theory of mind,” which refers to the ability for one to appreciate the fact that other people have thoughts of their own, rather than everyone having the same thoughts. Research has shown that children develop a theory of mind between the ages of three and four. A number of tasks have been used to test for theory of mind. They have been referred to as false belief tasks. These make very entertaining lecture material, because students are amazed that children younger than four do not answer the question posed by the tasks as adults and older children would. The topic of theory of mind has also been discussed widely because older children and adults with autism fail theory of mind tasks.

 Lecture 6e.

Guest Speaker

The material covered in this chapter can be supplemented with guest speakers with direct experience working with children. The following types of individuals could be recruited for a class presentation. If guest speakers are approached well in advance, most are flattered to be asked and will try their best to do a good job. • • • • •

Someone from the local Head Start Program who can talk about the goals of the program, how it is funded, and the successes and failures he or she has experienced first hand. Someone from a Montessori center to discuss the program with their class. Someone who teaches in a bilingual school or program. Someone who is a speech therapist in an elementary school or communications disorders clinic. A pediatrician or pediatric nurse. 126 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Class Activities Activity 6a.

What Chores Can Children Do?

Many parents expect children to participate in household chores, even from the earliest ages. Ask students to interview people different ages about their attitudes about what they think is an appropriate age for children to perform a series of common household chores. Students can use Handout 6-1. Help the students pool their data, tabulate it, and analyze the results.

Activity 6b.

Children’s Literature

Ask students to evaluate samples of books for preschool children. They can review books for nonreaders (picture books) and books for beginning readers, as well as books that parents might read to children at this age level. The students should present book reviews to the class and hand in a fully developed written report. This exercise gives all the students in the class a chance to hear about some of the books that they may consider using as teachers, child care workers, or parents.

Activity 6c.

Design an Early Education Program

Ask the students to work individually or in groups (your choice) to design a preschool or day care program for preschoolers. They should prepare a written report for you, but you might also have them present their ideas to the class. Some of the things they should consider are the following: • name of the preschool or center • physical description of building and outside areas • type of programs offered • number of children served • number of teachers to be hired • credentials required of teachers • types of toys, materials, supplies, and playground equipment to be purchased • food to be served • sleeping areas (for naps) • cost to parents, if any

Internet Video Clips  WebVid 6a.

Time: 3:13

Demonstration of conservation tasks with preoperational child

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YtLEWVu815o (Conservation) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gnArvcWaH6I&feature=related (A typical child on Piaget’s conservation tasks)

 WebVid 6b.

Time: 0:56

Demonstration of liquid conservation task with concrete operational child http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gA04ew6Oi9M

 WebVid 6c.

Time: 0:58

Deductive reasoning demonstration http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjJdcXA1KH8

 WebVid 6d.

Time: 1:29

Piaget’s three mountains task demonstrating preoperational egocentrism http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OinqFgsIbh0

 WebVid 6e.

Time: 1:58

Learn the common causes and indications of speech and language delays, the importance of early intervention, and tips to promote a child's speech and language development http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uFC4UK5rk4E&feature=related (Childhood Speech & Language Delays)

Supplemental Readings: Current Research  Article 6a. Atance, C. M. (2008). Future Thinking in Young Children. Current Directions in Psychological Science,17, 295–298. The study of future thinking is gaining momentum across various domains of psychology. Mentally projecting the self forward in time (i.e., mental time travel) is argued to be uniquely human and of vital importance to the evolution of human culture. Yet it is only recently that developmentalists have begun to study when, and how, this capacity emerges. I begin by outlining the concept of mental time travel, along with newly developed methodologies to test children's ability to mentally project the self into the future. Data suggest that this ability is in place by ages 4 or 5 but also reveal conditions under which children may experience difficulty accurately predicting their future desires. I conclude by discussing how 128 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

the research on children's mental time travel can be used to further our understanding of the development of future-oriented behaviors, including planning and delaying gratification.

 Article 6b. Bishop, D. V. M. (2006). What Causes Specific Language Impairment in Children? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 217–221. Specific language impairment (SLI) is diagnosed when a child's language development is deficient for no obvious reason. For many years, there was a tendency to assume that SLI was caused by factors such as poor parenting, subtle brain damage around the time of birth, or transient hearing loss. Subsequently it became clear that these factors were far less important than genes in determining risk for SLI. A quest to find "the gene for SLI" was undertaken, but it soon became apparent that no single cause could account for all cases. Furthermore, although fascinating cases of SLI caused by a single mutation have been discovered, in most children the disorder has a more complex basis, with several genetic and environmental risk factors interacting. The clearest evidence for genetic effects has come from studies that diagnosed SLI using theoretically motivated measures of underlying cognitive deficits rather than conventional clinical criteria.

 Article 6c. Pellis, S. M., Pellis, V. C. (2007). Rough-and-Tumble Play and the Development of the Social Brain. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 95–98. Social play that is, play directed toward others is a readily recognizable feature of childhood. In nonhuman animals, social play, especially seemingly competitive rough-and-tumble play or play fighting, has been the most studied of all forms of play. After several decades of study, researchers of play fighting in laboratory rats have pieced together the rudiments of the neural mechanisms that regulate the expression of this behavior in the mammalian brain. Furthermore, the understanding of the organization, development, and neural control of play in rats has provided a model with which to examine how the experiences accrued during play fighting can lead to organizational changes in the brain, especially those areas involved in social behavior.

 Article 6d. Goodman, G. S., Quas, J. A. (2008). Repeated Interviews and Children's Memory: It's More Than Just How Many. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 386–390. A crucial issue in the study of eyewitness memory concerns effects of repeated interviews on children's memory accuracy. There is growing belief that exposure to repeated interviews causes increased errors. In some situations, it may. Yet, several studies reveal increased accuracy with repeated interviewing, even when the interviews include misleading questions. We review repeated-interview 129 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

research in relation to event veracity, interviewer bias, and delay. We conclude that when and how children are interviewed is at least as important for their accuracy as is how many times they are interviewed.

 Article 6e. Hane, A. A., Fox, N. A., Pine, D. S. (2007). Plasticity for Affective Neurocircuitry: How the Environment Affects Gene Expression. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 1–5. We (Fox et al., 2005) recently described a gene-by-environment interaction involving child temperament and maternal social support, finding heightened behavioral inhibition in children homozygous or heterozygous for the serotonin transporter (5HTTLPR) gene short allele whose mothers reported low social support. Here, we propose a model, Plasticity for Affective Neurocircuitry, that describes the manner in which genetic disposition and environmental circumstances may interact. Children with a persistently fearful temperament (and the 5HTTLPR short allele) are more likely to experience caregiving environments in which threat is highlighted. This in turn will exacerbate an attention bias that alters critical affective neurocircuitry to threat and enhances and maintains anxious behavior in the child.

 Article 6f. Hatano, G., Inagaki, K. (2006). Young Children's Conception of the Biological World. Current Directions In Psychological Science, 15, 177–181. What are the components of children's biological-knowledge system before systematic teaching at school? Can this knowledge system be called naive biology? We propose that young children's biological-knowledge system has at least two essential components (a) the knowledge needed to identify biological entities and phenomena and (b) teleological and vitalistic causality and that these components constitute a form of biology. We discuss how this naive biology serves as the basis for performance and learning in socially and culturally important practices, such as health practices and biology instruction.

 Article 6g. Heyman, G.D. (2008). Children's Critical Thinking When Learning From Others. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 344–347. A key component of critical thinking is the ability to evaluate the statements of other people. Because information that is obtained from others is not always accurate, it is important that children learn to reason about it critically. By as early as age 3, children understand that people sometimes communicate inaccurate information and that some individuals are more reliable sources than others. However, in many contexts, even older children fail to evaluate sources critically. Recent research points to the role of social experience in explaining why children often fail to engage in critical reasoning. 130 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Handout 6-1 Appropriate Ages for Household Chores Survey Select ____ people you know and ask them the following questions. Be sure to describe each person interviewed as follows: Sex ____

Age ____

Education (highest level completed) _____________

Marital Status: _________ Occupation ______________________ Do you spend time with children (your own or others’)? ________ ______________________________________________________________________ For each of the following chores or activities, indicate what age a child must be before he or she can be expected to do the task.

1. Help adult pick up toys and put them away.

__________

2. Feed himself or herself with a spoon.

__________

3. Bring an adult an object, such as a shoe or remote control.

__________

4. Use a vacuum cleaner with some help from an adult.

__________

5. Help set the table for dinner.

__________

6. Dress himself or herself with little help from an adult.

__________

7. Fold and put away clean clothes.

__________

8. Take out garbage.

__________

9. Use a feather duster to help dust furniture items.

__________

10. Take a bath by himself or herself.

__________

Physical Development Category

Title

Watch

Special Topics: The Plastic Brain

Description In this video, we learn specifics about how the human brain grows and develops throughout the lifespan and how the brain can remarkably repair itself or compensate after being damaged.

Duration

Description This video details the ways in which children’s brains and bodies are developing in early childhood. Automaticity, fluidness of movement, and development of motor skills are discussed. Reflexes, such as the stepping reflex, give way to gross motor skills such as crawling and walking.

Duration

Description Two children, one in the preoperational stage and one in the stage of concrete operations, solve three different conservation problems, including the beakers problem and the matchstick problem. Following the demonstration, the narrator emphasizes the difference between centration and decentration in operational thinking. In this video, researchers conduct a theory of mind experiment with a

Duration

Page

159

Motor Skills Development Category

Title

Watch

The Growing Child

Watch

Gross Motor Skills

Page

162

Cognitive Development Category

Title

Watch

Concrete Operational Thinking

Watch

Theory of Mind

165 167

Page

pre-school-aged child, then with a grade-school-aged child.

Language Development Category

Title

Watch

Steven Demorest and Steven Morrison: Music Is/Is Not A Universal Language (APS Player)

Watch

Bilingual Family

Description Interview with Steven Demorest and Steven Morrison, professors of music at University of Washington, whose research interests include the psychology of music, crosscultural musical understanding, and sight-singing pedagogy. Spanish-speaking parents discuss the benefits of being bilingual and the methods they use for teaching their son both English and Spanish at home.

Duration

Description This video shows young children engaged in social play and the different styles of play that happen, depending on their age.

Duration

Page

175

177

Play and Learning Category

Title

Watch

Play in Early Childhood

178

Page

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic QUICK QUIZ 1 QUICK QUIZ 2 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 6 Early Childhood: Physical, Cognitive, and Language Development

Multiple Choice Multiple Choice Multiple Choice

True/False

MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Factual

Conceptual

Applied

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 16, 18, 19, 20, 24, 27 139, 140

4, 5, 6, 7 4, 5, 6, 7 2, 14, 15, 17, 21, 22, 23

8, 9, 10 8, 9, 10 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 25, 26, 28, 29

Short Answer

170, 171, 172, 173

Essay

195, 196, 197, 198

Multiple Choice

34, 43, 46

30, 38, 40, 44, 48

True/False Short Answer Essay Multiple Choice

143, 146

True/False

149, 154, 155, 156, 157

144 174, 177, 179 199, 201, 202 54, 56, 67, 68, 69, 74, 77, 80, 82, 84, 85, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101 151, 153, 159

52, 53, 57, 59, 63, 70, 73, 78, 81, 83, 86, 87, 90, 91, 92

Short Answer Essay

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

141, 142

Multiple Choice True/False Short Answer Essay

103, 108, 109, 113, 114, 115, 117, 119 160

180, 181, 182, 183, 186, 187, 188 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212 107, 111, 116, 118 164, 165 190, 192 213, 214, 215, 216

169 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 39, 41, 42, 45, 47, 49, 50, 51 145, 147, 148 175, 176, 178 200, 203 55, 58, 60, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 71, 72, 75, 76, 79, 88, 89, 93, 97, 102 150, 152, 158 184, 185

104, 105, 106, 110, 112 161, 162, 163 189, 191

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic PLAY AND LEARNING

CURRENT ISSUES: A THEORY OF MIND CHANGING PERSPECTIVES: BILINGUAL KINDERGARTEN AND PLAY

Chapter 6 Early Childhood: Physical, Cognitive, and Language Development Factual

Conceptual

Applied

120, 123, 129, 130

121, 122, 125, 126, 132

True/False

124, 127, 128, 131, 133 166, 167, 168

Short Answer

193, 194

Essay

217, 218, 219, 220

Multiple Choice

136

134, 135

137, 138

Chapter Seven Early Childhood: Personality & Sociocultural Development Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 7, students will know: •

what distinguishes fear from anxiety and how young children learn to manage those emotions.

•

why learning to control emotions is such an important developmental event in early childhood.

•

if TV shows, movies, and other media have a negative or positive impact on the development of today’s generation of young children.

•

the developmental progression of prosocial behavior during early childhood.

•

how children resolve the developmental conflict between initiative and guilt.

•

the developmental functions of play and how peer interactions impact social competence.

•

how preschoolers acquire an understanding of rules and concepts.

•

how children come to understand the concept of gender.

•

the parenting styles that lead to the healthiest adjustment for children.

•

the impact of maltreatment on children as well as the demographic patterns of abuse in the U.S.

Key Terms and Concepts Androgynous personality Anxiety Authoritarian parents Authoritative parents Child maltreatment Defense mechanisms Fear Gender Gender constancy Gender identity Gender role stereotypes Gender roles Gender schemes Imaginary companion Indifferent parents Initiative versus guilt Internalization Permissive parents Rationalization Self socialization Sex Shared goals Social competence

Chapter Outline I.

Coping with Feelings and Emotions A. Fear and anxiety 1. FEAR – a state of arousal, tension, or apprehension caused by a specific and identifiable stimulus or situation 2. ANXIETY – a more generalized feeling of uneasiness, apprehension, or fear that has a vague or unknown source 3. Causes of fear and anxiety a. The development of fear & anxiety is linked to cognitive development b. Sometimes the source of fear can be easily identified, but not always c. Even well-adjusted children may express irrational fears that their parents will leave or stop loving them d. Anticipation of punishment can cause anxiety e. Both fear and anxiety can be increased or created by imagination 4. Individual differences in fearfulness and anxiety a. 10–20% of children are “behaviorally inhibited,” meaning that they are withdrawn in unfamiliar situations. They experience higher levels of fear & anxiety than less inhibited children b. There can be long-term effects from these early temperamental differences. Children who are less socially skilled experience more peer rejection and academic problems c. Environmental context – especially quality of parenting – can ameliorate or exacerbate temperamental tendencies 5. Historical, cultural, and developmental influences a. Showing fear in Western cultures is generally frowned on b. A belief exists in Navajo culture that fear is healthy and normal. A fearless child is considered foolhardy c. Fears reflect cognitive development i.

Fears become more abstract as the child gains greater cognitive sophistication

ii. Fear of the dark, being alone, and fear of unfamiliar things now appear at earlier ages compared to 50 years ago iii. The “sequence of fears” is seen across cultures but is more pronounced in boys than girls 6. Coping with fear and anxiety a. Ignoring children’s fears will not make them go away nor does ridiculing them help b. It is best to gently and sympathetically encourage confrontation of a fear c. Reducing unnecessary stress is the best way to reduce anxiety. Daily routines, clear expectations, & decreasing their exposure to violence can help. d. DEFENSE MECHANISMS – the psychodynamic “tricks” that individuals use to disguise or reduce tensions that lead to anxiety e. RATIONALIZATION – deluding oneself by creating reasonable, but false, explanations for events B. Emotional regulation 1. The process of dealing with a wide range of emotions. This is closely related to brain development, especially in the “executive control” areas of the frontal cortex 2. Shame and guilt generally develop during the second & third year of life a. Shame is viewed as a more painful and intense emotion than guilt b. Shame reflects negatively on one’s identity and is associated with the desire to undo aspects of the self c. Guilt involves acknowledging that a behavior performed was wrong, and is associated with wanting to undo these negative behaviors or making reparations d. Research reveals cultural differences in these emotions. For example, although children in all countries experience all 3 emotions, Japanese children were more likely to experience shame, Korean children to experience guilt, and U.S. children to experience pride e. If children do not feel guilt when violating social norms, they are at risk of developing emotional problems and disruptive behavior 3. Learning to restrain emotions 138 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

a. Controlling negative emotions is not the same as not having them; they are an inevitable part of life b. Learning to control anger is especially important. Children who do not learn to do so tend to be less successful in adulthood, both occupationally and personally c. Many cultures emphasize controlling positive emotions as well 4. Sensuality and sexual curiosity a. Most cultures expect restraint when curiosity about the body develops b. Sensual exploration is a natural and vital part of development but families & cultures differ in their reactions to it so children must learn socially appropriate ways to express it II.

Aggression and Prosocial Behavior A. Aggression 1. Physical aggression increases at the beginning of early childhood. It decreases as the child’s verbal abilities improve. It also declines as the child becomes less egocentric and learns conflict-resolution skills 2. Context is important. If aggression is reinforced it will increase. If there are role models who behave aggressively, it can impact the child’s behavior 3. Types of aggression: a. Hostile aggression: behavior intended to harm another person b. Instrumental aggression: behavior not intended to hurt another but does so accidentally c. Assertiveness: standing up for one’s rights 4. Punishment and modeling

 Lecture 7d

a. Punishment can create a tendency to behave aggressively, especially if it is harsh & frequent b. Adults who use physical punishment to curb aggression are modeling aggressive behavior. High levels of physical discipline escalate children’s aggression which typically leads to more physical discipline c. Both physical punishment and genetic risk factors contribute to children’s development of aggression-related behaviors.

This is especially true for boys, who exhibit higher levels of aggression across the lifespan 5. Media and violence a. TV viewing has become a powerful influence on children’s development. More than ½ of US kids have a TV in their bedroom and the average child watches 28 hours per week

 Lecture 7c

b. Television programming has become a major socializing force in the U.S.

 WebVid 7b

c. Exposing children to large doses of violence on TV teaches them to think of aggression as a commonplace and acceptable way of dealing with frustration and anger and desensitizes them to the effects of violence d. Some researchers have concluded that the effects of violent media are small. However, some children may be more susceptible than others

 Article 7a Article7f  Article 7f  WebVid 7a

e. Violence is not the only problematic behavior that is modeled on TV. Racial and sexual stereotypes are portrayed as well as increasingly graphic sexual content f. Television can also have positive influence on children’s thoughts and actions. Positive behaviors can be taught and positive themes such as cooperation, sharing, friendship, and persistence can be interwoven into programs

B. Prosocial behavior 1. Prosocial behaviors are actions that are intended to benefit others a. Children who are able to regulate their emotions are more prosocial b. Culture impacts the degree of cooperation and competition shown by children, especially as they grow into middle childhood 2. The roots of prosocial behavior a. Because reward, punishment, and modeling affect aggression, it is natural to assume that they affect helping and sharing behavior b. Modeling prosocial behavior is a powerful way to encourage the behavior, especially if the model is nurturing or has a special relationship with the child c. Encouraging role playing to help children think about how another person might behave can encourage prosocial behavior III.

The challenge for the 2 year-old is to develop a sense of autonomy without triggering feelings of shame and doubt A. Initiative versus guilt 1. INITIATIVE VERSUS GUILT – according to Erikson’s theory, 3 to 6 year old children’s primary developmental conflict which focuses on the development of mastery and competence 2. The key to healthy development is to achieve a balance between initiative and guilt 3. Guilt is triggered by the newly forming conscience. Some degree of guilt is inevitable, but excessive guilt can dampen the child’s initiative 4. Children need to master their environment to feel competent and successful. This can be difficult to achieve if the child has a chronic illness/disability or if the environment is chaotic/dangerous 5. A child who fails to develop a secure self concept will have difficulty achieving in school and in establishing successful relationships with peers IV.

Peers, Play, and the Development of Social Competence A. The role of imaginary companions 1. IMAGINARY COMPANIONS – invisible companions that children create and pretend are very real 2. 65% of children have imaginary companions. Those who do are more sociable and creative 3. Children who are more imaginative master symbolic representation more easily which is key to understanding complex, abstract concepts B. Cultural variations in play 1. Since social roles and values differ from one culture to another, the specifics of play also differ by culture 2. Competitive games are virtually nonexistent in some cultures like the former Soviet Union; instead cooperative games are emphasized 3. In cultures where survival depends on motor skills, physical skill games are emphasized C. Social competence and the development of social skills 1. SOCIAL COMPETENCE – the ability to initiate and maintain satisfying reciprocal relationships with peers

2. Socially competent children are more popular with their peers and have more satisfying relationships with adults 3. Four components of social competence a. Emotional regulation (the most important) b. Social knowledge c. Social skills d. Social disposition 4. Popular children are more cooperative and interactive and generally display more prosocial behaviors. Unpopular children tend to be aggressive or withdrawn. Popularity is quite stable over the years 5. Children abused or neglected by their caregivers are more likely to be rejected by their peers. Other factors that contribute to low popularity include being aggressive, being singled out as “different” by one’s peers and being sheltered by parents 6. Adults can teach social skills through modeling and encouragement, they can support opportunities for successful social experiences, and they can provide opportunities to play with other children V.

Understanding Self and Others A. Social concepts and rules 1. INTERNALIZATION – the process of incorporating the values and oral standards of one’s society into one’s self concept, or understanding, of oneself 2. Social concepts in friendships a. Although younger children enjoy each other, they don’t clearly understand friendship until middle childhood when cognitive and social development have progressed to the point where relationships can be built on mutual trust b. Children demonstrate growing awareness of social concepts when they engage in arguments c. As children move through early childhood, their understanding of social concepts expands d. The ability to develop friendships indicates a growing understanding of themselves B. Self-concept 1. Self-understanding is linked to the child’s understanding of the social world

2. As children develop, they increasingly define themselves in the context of their relationships with others 3. Self-evaluations are often a direct reflection of what other people think of them 4. The early influence of others can have a powerful effect on the development of the basic elements of a person’s self-concept C. Self and gender 1. GENDER IDENTITY – the knowledge of who we are as male or female 2. SEX – the genetic and biological determination of whether we are male or female 3. GENDER – a conceptual understanding of being male or female, which is largely defined by culture 4. GENDER ROLES – roles we adopt that correspond to cultural definitions and expectations about being female or male 5. Male/Female differences during early childhood a. Males are born slightly longer and heavier b. At birth girls have slightly more mature skeletons and are more responsive to touch c. Girls develop verbal skills slightly faster than boys. Boys are somewhat more aggressive d. Many stereotyped gender differences in sociability, selfesteem, motivation to achieve, or even rote learning do not exist e. Gender differences identified in early research appear to be shrinking as roles for men and women become more flexible 6. Androgyny a. The view that all people are capable of developing a wide range of traits; “masculine” and “feminine” are separate dimensions, not opposites b. ANDROGYNOUS PERSONALITY – personality type that includes characteristics that are both masculine and feminine traits c. Androgyny is more likely to develop if parents model and approve of those behaviors 7. The development of gender identity

Activity 7a

a. Children learn to label people as either boys or girls by age 2½ , then they develop definitions of what traits are associated with gender

Activity 7b

b. GENDER ROLE STEREOTYPES – rigid ideas about what is appropriate male or female behavior

 WebVid 7c

c. GENDER SCHEMES – the concepts that define how a person thinks about the behaviors and attitudes that are appropriate for males and females. It develops as the child’s cognitive abilities increase

 WebAud7d

d. GENDER CONSTANCY – the older child’s understanding that a person’s gender is stable and stays the same despite changes in superficial appearance e. SELF-SOCIALIZATION – process by which children are intrinsically motivated to acquire values, interests, and behaviors consistent with their gender and culture f. Younger children insist on clear gender rules but by age 5–6 they are comfortable with more flexible gender categories g. Parents – especially fathers – influence children’s ideas of gender, both directly and indirectly

VI.

Family Dynamics A. Parenting styles

 Lecture 7a

1. Four parenting styles a. AUTHORITATIVE PARENTS – parents who combine a high degree of warmth, acceptance, and encouragement of autonomy with firm but flexible control; they encourage communication and negotiation in rule setting within the family b. AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS – parents who are highly controlling, show little warmth, and adhere to rigid rules; in families headed by authoritarian parents, children contribute little to the family’s decision making process c. PERMISSIVE PARENTS – parents who exercise little control over their children but are high in warmth d. INDIFFERENT PARENTS – parents who neither set limits nor display much affection or approval 2. Effects of different parenting styles

 Article 7b

a. Children reared by authoritative parents have been found to fare well in most respects. They are self-reliant, have higher self-esteem, and do well in school

b. Authoritarian parents tend to produce withdrawn, fearful children who are dependent, moody, unassertive, and irritable c. Permissive parents produce rebellious, aggressive, self indulgent, impulsive, and socially inept children. Permissive parenting by mothers has been associated with behavior problems

 Article 7d

d. Indifferent parents produce children who tend to show high expression of destructive impulses as well as delinquent behavior. These children have the poorest outcomes

 Article 7e

e. Culture is important. What qualifies as “warmth” or “control” will vary by cultural context B. Discipline and self-control 1. Setting rules and limits and enforcing them varies across cultures and from one time period to another 2. The goal is for children to establish their own self-control of behavior and emotions 3. The key is for parents to make an emotional connection with the child in order to help him/her to understand and control feelings 4. The negotiation of shared goals a. SHARED GOALS – a common understanding between parents and children about how family interactions will be conducted and what their outcomes will be. Promotes family harmony and intimacy b. Families that are unable to achieve shared goals must negotiate everything C. Sibling dynamics 1. Siblings can be devotedly loyal, despise each other, or form ambivalent love/hate relationships 2. Siblings raised in the same family are likely to have very different personalities. Environmental effects are largely specific to each child than common to the family 3. Birth order a. Few -- if any -- important and consistent personality differences result from birth order b. Any effects of birth order on intellectual ability are more likely associated with the role of the first born since this child benefits from all of the parent’s attention

c. Younger siblings often show an advantage in physical skills because they try to keep up with their older siblings d. Average IQ differences related to birth order are small. However larger effects emerge if you look at family size and intellectual achievement. Those effects are primarily due to the negative correlation between SES and family size D. Child maltreatment: Abuse and neglect

 Lecture 7b

CHILD MALTREATMENT – “any act, or failure to act, on the part of a caretaker or parent that results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, or sexual abuse or exploitation of a child, as well as situations that present an imminent risk of serious harm” (CAPTA definition) Mandatory reporters of abuse are those responsible for children’s welfare (e.g., teachers, physicians) 1. Physical abuse and neglect a. Physical abuse often occurs at the hands of the parents, but many cases are note reported to the authorities b. Child maltreatment is seen across cultures and many of the risk factors are common (e.g., children under age 4, lack of family support, unrealistic expectations of children) c. Boys are more often victims of physical beatings, girls of infanticide, sex abuse, neglect, and forced prostitution d. The most common form of abuse is neglect, the failure to provide for the child’s basic needs. Mothers are more likely to be responsible. It is often associated with poverty. It can be intentional, but can also result from a lack of resources or knowledge about appropriate child care e. Younger children sustain more serious injuries than older ones f. Sexual abuse is rarely at the hands of the parent or a stranger. Stepfathers and other males in the family are more likely to be the perpetrators 2. Psychological abuse a. Always accompanies physical abuse but can occur on its own

Activity 7c

b. Maltreatment damages the parenting relationships that should be nurturing and trustworthy; when this occurs, almost every aspect of psychological development is negatively affected 3. Effects of child abuse

 Article 7c

b. Self-esteem can be irreparably damaged and the child may have a difficult time trusting people c. Risk of psychological problems increase for adults who were abused as children d. Children have trouble controlling their emotions and behavior and are less socially competent e. Abused children are not socialized in positive ways and they may learn defiance, manipulation, and other problem behaviors as ways of escaping maltreatment 4. Causes of child maltreatment a. Ecological models are helpful because they recognize the complex multifaceted issues involved b. Parents who abuse their children may have learned abusive behavior from their own parents c. They may have unrealistic expectations for their children d. Stress due to poverty, unemployment, or social isolation increases the risk of abuse e. The incidence of abuse has declined in recent years due to (1) a stronger national economy (2) increased effectiveness of drug treatments for mental illness and (3) increased effectiveness of child abuse prevention efforts. May have children who pose special challenges (e.g., difficult temperament, physical or mental disabilities) f. Can be addressed through parent education programs that provide social support and teach non-abusive methods of discipline

Lecture Suggestions  Lecture 7a.

Parenting Styles

Because most students generally assume that permissive parents are the best, a lecture that reviews the research on parenting style is both a surprising one for students, but also an important one because most will be parents one day. The following websites provide some basic information: • • •

http://www.npr.org/2010/12/27/132288846/parenting-style-plays-key-role-in-teendrinking?ft=1&f=1030 http://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/files/jrf/parenting-outcomes.pdf http://www.parentingscience.com/parenting-styles.html 147 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

 Lecture 7b.

What is Abuse? http://helpguide.org/mental/child_abuse_physical_emotional_sexual_neglect.htm www.acf.hhs.gov Develop a lecture examining the definitions of child abuse, its symptoms, and cultural factors in determining what is child abuse, and what steps can be taken to reduce its incidence. Child abuse affects millions of children every year in the U.S. Legal definitions of child abuse and neglect for states are outlined at the following website: http://www.childwelfare.gov/can/defining/state.cfm. Physical abuse is defined to be the physical injury or maltreatment of a child under the age of 18 by a person who is responsible for the child’s welfare under circumstances which indicate that the child’s health or welfare is harmed or threatened by. Other forms of abuse are emotional and sexual. The National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect defines emotional abuse as: "acts or omissions by the parents or other caregivers that have caused, or could cause, serious behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or mental disorders. In some cases of emotional abuse, the acts of parents or other caregivers alone, without any harm evident in the child's behavior or condition, are sufficient to warrant child protective services (CPS) intervention. For example, the parents/caregivers may use extreme or bizarre forms of punishment, such as confinement of a child in a dark closet. Less severe acts, such as habitual scapegoating, belittling, or rejecting treatment, are often difficult to prove and, therefore, Child Protective Services may not be able to intervene without evidence of harm to the child." It is useful to include a discussion of the responsibility that different professionals have for reporting suspected child abuse and of the symptoms of abuse. For example, mental health professionals and teachers are typically required by law to report suspected abuse directly to the police. It is not enough to report it to a supervisor. In about 18 states anyone who suspects abuse is required to report it (http://www.childwelfare.gov/systemwide/laws_policies/statutes/manda.cfm). Abuse symptoms include: anger and rage, anxiety or fears, changes in behavior or school performance, cuts and bruises, and hard to believe stories about how accidents occurred. What is abuse and how does it differ by culture? Child abuse is defined in terms of community standards. The community can be a town, a state, or a nation. What one group considers abusive may not be considered abusive by another group. For example, many people consider spanking to be abusive, but it is a common practice in the U.S. Verbal abuse in the form of ridicule and taunting are also common. One group may consider it abuse to refuse to vaccinate a child because it places the child at risk of severe harm. However, some individuals do not believe in certain medical interventions because of their religious convictions. Male circumcision can be considered abuse since it serves no medical purpose according to the 1999 American Academy of 148 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Pediatrics circumcision policy statement (http://www.cirp.org/AAP/). Female circumcision or female genital mutilation is banned in minors in some Western countries. This form of body modification or mutilation refers to a number of procedures that are usually carried out for cultural, not medical, reasons. It is only common in parts of Africa and in some minority groups in some Middle Eastern countries. It is one thing to have a child abuse law. It is another to label something as child abuse. I asked a police officer how he knew when to arrest someone for child abuse. He replied, “You just know it when you see it.” What is the difference between abuse and discipline? http://www.childwelfare.gov/can/defining/disc_abuse.cfm#discipline is a useful website for the distinction. Provide a series of examples and ask the class how they would respond to the child’s behavior. For example: How would you respond to a child that was caught playing with matches? How would you respond if you caught your child in a lie? How would you respond if you caught your child smoking tobacco? How would you respond if you caught your child using drugs (e.g., meth)? How would you respond if you caught your child having sex in the house? How would your answers differ based on the age of the child, the sex of the child, and the number of times they had been caught in this activity?

 Lecture 7c.

Debate over the Influence of Television

There has been a good deal of debate over the effects of television on children and adults. A growing body of work shows that children can learn by observing. While most research has focused on the negative effects of watching television, there is also research showing that there are also positive effects of watching television. There are a number of websites that can be consulted for up-to-date information: • • •

The University of Michigan Health System (http://www.med.umich.edu/yourchild/topics/tv.htm) American Academia of Pediatrics (http://www.healthychildren.org/english/search/pages/results.aspx?k=media&s=h ealthychildren.org) Children’s Educational Television (http://www.parentstv.org/ptc/facts/mediafacts.asp)

“Consuming Kids: The commercialization of childhood” is an excellent video on the marketing directed towards children. It raises questions about the ethics of such marketing as well as the impact on the health and well-being of children.

 Lecture 7d.

Bullying and Bullying Prevention

Bullying in schools has received a great deal of attention in the media. One reason is because there appears to be a connection between bullying and school violence. Victims of bullying may be likely to retaliate violently. Early in childhood children develop the ability to regulate their emotional responses and to develop complex knowledge about dealing with people (i.e., social competence). It is possible that teaching children how to deal with a variety of social situations can help them avoid being victimized by bullying or responding to bullying in a violent manner. The following websites provide up-to-date information on bullying and bullying prevention: • • •

Stop Bullying Now (http://www.stopbullying.gov) California Department of Education (http://www.cde.ca.gov/ls/ss/se/bullyres.asp) Safe Communities, Safe Schools, University of Colorado (http://www.colorado.edu/cspv/safeschools/)

Class Activities Activity 7a.

Gender Socialization

Students can break out into small groups to discuss how modern society socializes young girls and boys to be feminine or masculine. Students can take 10 to 20 minutes to generate their ideas. Have representatives from each group present their examples to the whole class. You can list their examples on the board or on an overhead projector. If students have difficulty, you can prime them with the following list of societal situations/pressures. • • • • • • • •

Baby clothes Baby toys Children’s books Birthday parties Television shows Playground games School situations Occupations

Activity 7b.

Sex Role Concepts of Adults Compared to Children

Ask students to interview children and adults about their beliefs about the masculinity and femininity of specific jobs or activities. Students can use Handout 7-1. Help the students pool their data, tabulate it, and analyze the results.

Activity 7c.

Critical Thinking Journal

Child abuse is sometimes difficult to identify. Many times we see events on the news and think that we would have responded differently. Discuss a situation that you observed between a child care provider and a child that you considered to be abusive. Describe the event. Why would you characterize it as abusive? How did you feel as you observed it? How would you have handled the situation differently if you had been the care provider?

Internet Video Clips  WebVid 7a.

Time: 4:06

Kids & Electronic Media: Tips for Parents

Tips for parents on making electronic media impact their child positively, not negatively http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FNtK8jNiyvY

 WebVid 7b.

Time: 2:55

Violent Video Games and TV shows: New Studies – VOA Story Discusses recent research on the effects of violent media on aggression in children and the controversy surrounding what to do about it: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yx0X61jT5dw

 WebVid 7c.

Time: 2:12

Interviews with children to demonstrate the development of an understanding of gender identity: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VZb2len6f18 (FSzLzido)  WebAud 7d.

Time: 12:00

Dan Savage describes his son’s rigid understanding of gender roles and how that impacts the boy’s attitudes towards his gay fathers’ marriage. http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/293/a-little-bit-ofknowledge?act=2

Supplemental Readings: Current Research  Article 7a. Anderson, C. A., Bartholow, B. D., Carnagey, N. L. (2007). Media Violence and Social Neuroscience: New Questions and New Opportunities. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 178–182. Decades of research have demonstrated that exposure to violence on television can cause increases in aggression. The recent emergence of violent video games has raised new questions regarding the effects of violent media. The General Aggression Model (GAM) predicts that exposure to violent media increases aggressive behavior through one of three primary pathways (arousal, cognitions, and affect). Past psychophysiological research has supported GAM but has been limited to examining arousal-related variables. Recent advances in social neuroscience have opened the door to investigations of exposure to violent media on cognitive and affective components and their neurocognitive underpinnings. Neuroscience tools have the potential to provide answers to the new questions posed by recent advances in media technology.

 Article 7b. Davies, P. T. & Woitach, M. J. (2008). Children's Emotional Security in the Interparental Relationship. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 269– 274. In response to the societal premium placed on understanding the difficulties faced by children from high-conflict homes, emotional security theory aims to understand precisely how and why interparental discord is associated with children's psychological problems. One of its main premises is that interparental discord increases children's vulnerability to mental illness by undermining their sense of safety or security in the context of the interparental relationship. In this article, we highlight the main assumptions of a new ethological formulation of emotional security theory and its predictions and findings regarding the organization, precursors, and consequences of individual differences in children's emotional insecurity. We conclude with a synopsis of the value of the new formulation for future work.

 Article 7c. Pollak, S. D. (2008). Mechanisms Linking Early Experience and the Emergence of Emotions: Illustrations From the Study of Maltreated Children. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17 (6), 370–375. Emotions are complex processes that are essential for survival and adaptation. Recent studies of children and animals are shedding light on how the developing brain learns to rapidly respond to signals in the environment, assess the emotional 152 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

significance of this information, and in so doing adaptively regulate subsequent behavior. Here, I describe studies of children and nonhuman primates who are developing within emotionally aberrant environments. Examining these populations provides new insights on the ways in which social or interpersonal contexts influence development of the neural systems underlying emotional behavior.

 Article 7d. Suitor, J. J., Sechrit, J., Plikuhn, M., Pardo, S. T., & Pillemer, K. (2008). Within-Family Differences in Parent and Child Relations Across the Life Course. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 334–338.

Despite a powerful social norm that parents should treat offspring equally, beginning in early childhood and continuing through adulthood, parents often differentiate among their children in such domains as closeness, support, and control. We review research on how parent-child relationships differ within families, focusing on issues of parental favoritism and differential treatment of children. We begin by examining within-family differences in childhood and adolescence and then explore differentiation by older parents among adult children. Overall, we find considerable similarities across the life course in the prevalence, predictors, and consequences of parents' differentiation among their offspring. Article 7e. Pomerantz, E. M. & Wang, Q. (2009). The Role of Parental Control in Children’s Development in Western and East Asian Countries. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 285–289. Decades of research in Western countries such as the United States have supported the idea that parental control undermines children’s psychological development. In recent years, investigators have asked whether this is also true in East Asian countries such as China, given that several aspects of East Asian culture have the potential to make children more accepting of parental control. We review research indicating that the effects of parental control on children’s psychological functioning are similarly negative in the United States and China, the two countries where most research on this subject has been conducted. However, we also highlight specific contexts in which the effects may be stronger in the West.

Article 7f. Greitemeyer, T. (2011). Effects of Prosocial Media on Social Behavior: When and Why Does Media Exposure Affect Helping and Aggression? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 251–255.

Helping and aggression are core topics in social psychology. So far, abundant evidence that violent media decreases helping and increases aggression has been collected. However, recent theoretical and empirical work has demonstrated that the media may also increase prosocial outcomes and decrease antisocial outcomes. In fact, exposure to media with prosocial content increases the accessibility of prosocial thoughts, empathy, and helping behavior and decreases aggression and aggression-related cognition and affect. The present article reviews this research and provides an overview of when and why media exposure instigates helping and reduces aggression.

Handout 7-1 Masculinity/Femininity Survey Data on Person Interviewed:

Age: ______

Sex: _______

Label each of the following as masculine (like a man) or feminine (like a woman). 1. wearing pink 2. wearing blue 3. cooking hamburgers on a grill 4. baking cookies 5. cleaning house 6. changing a baby’s diapers 7. driving a truck 8. doing yard work 9. watching sports on TV 10. owning a dog 11. owning a cat 12. reading a book for fun 13. becoming a doctor 14. becoming a nurse 15. getting into a fist fight 16. crying in front of other people 17. teaching kindergarten 18. coaching a football team 19. watching soap operas on TV 20. likes playing games with kids

Coping with Feelings and Emotions Category

Title

Watch

Emotion Regulation in Early Childhood

Watch

James Coan: Emotion Regulation (APS Player)

Watch

Michael Cohn: Positive Emotions (APS Player)

Description This segment includes brief interviews with preschool childcare workers and a set of parents who discuss the ways in which young children learn to control their emotions. Video footage of preschool-age children is presented to demonstrate how children in this age group display negative emotions. Interview with James Coan, Assistant Professor of Psychology at University of Virginia, whose research interests include the neuroscience of emotional expression and individual emotionregulation capabilities, as well as the social regulation of neural processes underlying emotional responses. Interview with Michael Cohn, a graduate student in social psychology at University of Michigan, whose most recent study includes injecting positive emotions into people's daily lives and tracking long-term changes in their health, relationships, and overall success.

Duration

Description My Psych Lab discussion on learning aggression Footage of an experiment where an adult is modeling aggression (hitting) on a Bobo doll in a very

Duration

Page

189

190

Aggression and Prosocial Behavior Category Watch

Title In the Real World: Learning Aggression

Watch

Classic Footage of Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

Page 191

192

Watch

Television Violence

Watch

Competition in Friendships

specific way in front of a child. The child learns from watching this behavior and soon thereafter begins hitting the Bobo doll in the exact same way. The experiment proves that children learn to use physical punishment on others by observing adults. Dr. John P. Murray discusses media violence and its impact on children. This is a video about cultural differences in achievement involving competition.

3:59

193

195

Understanding Self and Others Category

Title

Simulate

Closer Look: Motivation

Watch Watch

Gender Differences: Robert Sternberg The Basics: Sex and Gender Differences

Description This dynamic, multi-level simulation defines motivation and introduces students to the main theories of motivation. The need to belong and the effects of ostracism are also explored. Students may follow their interest forwards and backwards through this simulation, connecting with the content at their own pace. Robert Sternberg discusses the gender differences that exist is some mental abilities, but qualifies these differences as being relatively specific. He concludes that generally the stereotypes do not exist, and when they do exist they reflect group averages rather than the abilities of specific individuals. My Psych Lab discussion on sex and gender

Duration

Description An overview of Baumrind's parenting styles

Duration

Page

202

203 203

Family Dynamics Category

Title

Watch

Parenting Styles

1:52

Page 206

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic QUICK QUIZ 1 QUICK QUIZ 2 COPING WITH FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS

Chapter 7 Early Childhood: Personality and Sociocultural Development Factual

Conceptual

Applied

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 4, 6, 9, 12, 13, 14, 17, 32, 34, 36, 37, 39 176, 178, 179

4, 5, 6, 7 4, 5, 6, 7 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 11, 15, 18, 19, 20, 25, 26, 41 174, 175

8, 9, 10 8, 9, 10 10, 16, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 38, 40 177

Multiple Choice

42, 48, 49, 52, 53, 56, 58, 61, 62

210, 211, 212, 213, 214 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241 43, 44, 45, 50, 51, 54, 55, 66, 68

46, 47, 57, 59, 60, 63, 64, 65, 67

True/False Short Answer Essay

182, 185

Multiple Choice Multiple Choice Multiple Choice

True/False Short Answer Essay

AGGRESSION AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR

DEVELOPMENTAL Multiple Choice CONFLICTS True/False Short Answer

PEERS, PLAY, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL COMPETENCE

Essay Multiple Choice

True/False Short Answer Essay

69, 73, 74, 75, 77 188

91, 93, 96, 98, 99

190, 191, 193

180, 183, 184, 186 216 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249 70, 71, 72, 76, 78, 81 187, 189 218, 219 250, 251 83, 84, 88, 90, 95, 100, 101

192, 194 220, 221 252, 253, 254

181 215, 217

79, 80, 82

85, 86, 87, 89, 92, 94, 97

222

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE

Chapter 7 Early Childhood: Personality and Sociocultural Development

Topic UNDERSTANDING Multiple Choice SELF AND OTHERS True/False

Factual

Conceptual

Applied

103, 105, 106, 109, 111, 113, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123 197, 200

104, 114, 115, 122

102, 107, 108, 110, 112, 116

196, 198, 199

195

Short Answer Essay

FAMILY DYNAMICS

Multiple Choice

True/False

126, 128, 129, 130, 131, 140, 142, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 158, 159, 162, 166, 167 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208

Short Answer Essay

CHANGING PERSPECTIVES: ELECTRONIC MEDIA: IS IT CHANGING THE WAY THAT CHILDREN GROW UP? CURRENT ISSUES: ONE PATHWAY TO SOCIAL COMPETENCE

Multiple Choice

168, 169

Multiple Choice

173

223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260 125, 132, 137, 138, 139, 145, 164, 165

124, 127, 133, 134, 135, 136, 141, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 160, 161, 163

209

229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 235 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268 170, 171

234

172

Chapter Eight Middle Childhood: Physical and Cognitive Development Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 8, students will know: •

how a typical child’s body changes during the period of middle childhood.

•

the health-related risk factors relevant for children during the grade school years.

•

Piaget’s explanation of the thought processes of a grade school child.

•

how memory develops during middle childhood.

•

how language and literacy skills develop between the ages of 6–12.

•

the best way to define intelligence.

•

the most important adjustments children face when they begin school.

•

the factors associated with academic success in middle childhood.

•

how intellectual disabilities are defined as well as the philosophy that guides the education of these children.

•

the symptoms associated with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorders as well as the likely causes and appropriate treatments.

Key Terms and Concepts Achievement motivation Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Autism Autism Spectrum Disorders Concrete operational period Control processes Deviation IQ Intellectual disability Intelligence quotient Learning disorders Metacognition Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale

Chapter Outline I.

Physical and Motor Development A. Physical growth and change 1. Growth is slower and steadier than during the first two years of life 2. There is wide variability in growth. Not all children mature at the same rate 3. Girls tend to be shorter and lighter than boys until age 9 4. Boys and girls are equally strong during middle childhood but there are substantial individual differences in body size and proportion which can impact the child’s body image and selfconcept 5.

Skeletal maturation a. Periods of rapid growth may produce growing pains – episodes of stiffness and aching that are particularly common at night b. Overly stringent physical training can cause injuries because the skeleton and ligaments are not mature c. Baby teeth begin to be lost around age 6

B. Motor skills development 1. Gross motor skills a. Locomotor skills are well in place by age 5 and are expanded upon during middle childhood b. Boys are more athletic than girls but that’s a function of opportunity and cultural expectations. 2. Fine motor skills a. Also develop rapidly during middle childhood, especially if practiced b. Complex skills like writing and hand/eye coordination improve with practice c. Developing mastery over their bodies can help children gain feelings of competence and self-worth C. Brain development 1. Neural plasticity remains high 2. Brain size peaks at age 10.5 for girls and 14.5 for boys. Total brain size is about 10% larger in boys. 160 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

3. The volume of the cerebellum peaks around the beginning of adolescence and then begins to decline. It plays a role in both autism and ADHD 4. Lateralization of the brain becomes more pronounced during school years 5. Corpus callosum increases in size and improves in function, allowing for greater coordination between activities controlled by each hemisphere 6. Different patterns of growth occur for white vs. gray matter D. Health

 Lecture 8b

1. Physical fitness a. Defined as the optimal functioning of the heart, lungs, muscles, and blood vessels b. U.S. Department of Health standards for physical activity recommend 60 minutes of physical activity every day for children and teens c. Classes in school should aim to not only increase the children’s skill and overall level of physical activity, but also aim to establish healthy active patterns or behavior that will carry through into adulthood

 WebVid 8b Activity 8c

2. Obesity a. 19% of US children between 6–11 are obese. Obesity is associated with serious medical, social, and psychological consequences b. Peers may reject or stereotype overweight children which can result in a negative self-image 3. Asthma a. This is the most prevalent chronic condition in US children b. There is a higher incidence among African Americans, boys, and people in the Midwest and South 4. Accidents and injuries a. Motor vehicle accidents cause more child deaths than the six other major causes of death combined

 Article 8a

b. Half of all childhood deaths result from injuries and accidents. They are also the leading cause of physical disabilities in children

c. Accidental deaths among children have dramatically decreased in the last 30 years d. As children grow, they engage in increasingly dangerous activities. Their physical skills may exceed their cognitive understanding of the risks 5. Psychological disorders and mental illness a. 20% of children between the ages of 9–17 have a mental disorder with at least mild functional impairment

Article 8e

b. Some disorders, such as autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, are most commonly diagnosed in childhood c. Under-recognition of mental illness as a major problem of childhood is a concern d. Treatment decisions can be difficult due to a lack of research on the effectiveness of options II.

Cognitive Development A. Piaget and concrete operational thinking 1. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL PERIOD – for Piaget, the third stage of cognitive development; begins between age 5 to 7. The child is able to perform mental operations, such as conservation, decentration, and reversibility, on objects that are concrete and that can be directly experienced 2. Comparing preoperational and concrete operational thinking a. preoperational i.

From age 2 to age 7

ii. Thinking style is rigid and static, irreversible, focused on the here and now, centered on one dimension, egocentric, and focused on perceptual evidence b. concrete operational i.

From age 5 to age 12

ii. Thinking style is reversible, flexible, not limited to the here and now, multidimensional, less egocentric, marked by the use of logical inferences, and marked by the search for cause and effect relationships c. the transition from preoperations to concrete operations does not happen overnight. It requires 162 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

experience in manipulating and learning about objects. 3. Piaget and education a. Children’s learning can be accelerated through instruction, but Piaget believed that children are better off when they learn at their own pace b. He also thought learning is best when children are intrinsically motivated rather than explicitly rewarded for success c. Children learn best by actively exploring and solving problems in realistic contexts B. Memory and metacognition

 Article 8b

1. CONTROL PROCESSES – strategies and techniques that enhance memory; these develop throughout middle childhood 2. METACOGNITION – the intellectual process that enables people to monitor their thinking and memory; thinking about thinking. This begins around age 6 and continues to develop through adolescence C. Language and literacy development 1. Language a. Language learning is not complete. Vocabulary continues to increase as well as mastery of more complex grammar (e.g., passive voice) b. School assists and structures some of the child’s language development. The language used at schools is more formal than that used at home c. Language helps to structure thought which facilitates problem solving d. Children’s habits of thinking and speaking are applied more generally to other areas of their daily life 2. Literacy

Article 8f

a. Skills in reading and writing grow out of the child’s language skills b. The recognition that oral and written language are connected has led to the whole language approach to literacy

c. Emergent literacy: The notion that the skills associated with oral and written language develop in infancy and improve over the years d. Reading develops in a social context. Children’s social interactions lay the groundwork for their literacy D. Individual differences in intelligence 1. Measuring intelligence

 Lecture 8a

a. STANFORD BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE – the revised version of Binet’s original intelligence test that is widely used in the United States today. Test items involve problem solving, word definitions, and general knowledge b. INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT – an individual’s mental age divided by chronological age, which is multiplied by 100 to eliminate the decimal point c. DEVIATION IQ – the approach used today that assigns an IQ score by comparing an individual’s test score with the scores of the other people in the same age range d. Intelligence tests are not perfect. They are not perfectly reliable and scores can be influenced by environmental factors. Intelligence also varies by culture – what marks “intelligence” in one society may be very different from another. e. IQ tests measure current functioning. A popular misconception is that they measure potential. 2. The nature of intelligence a. Gardner’s eight types of intelligence i.

Linguistic – sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meaning of words and the function of language

ii. Logical mathematical – facility for logical and numerical operations and complex reasoning iii. Spatial – ability to perceive the visual spatial world accurately and to manipulate those perceptions iv. Bodily kinesthetic – ability to control one’s body movements and to handle objects skillfully

v. Musical – ability to produce and appreciate the characteristics of music, such as rhythm, pitch and timbre vi. Interpersonal – ability to correctly interpret and appropriately respond to the moods, temperament, and motivations of the other people vii. Intrapersonal – ability to correctly understand one’s own feelings and moods and to appreciate one’s own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligence viii. Naturalist – ability to classify plants, animals, and features of the natural environment and to make appropriate responses to each b. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory i.

Theory emphasizes practical aspects of intelligence that are important in coping with real-world problems

ii. Types of intelligence •

Componential intelligence – the skills measured by “typical” IQ tests

•

Experiential intelligence – the ability to cope with new, unfamiliar tasks

•

Contextual intelligence – the commonsense ability to successfully adapt to the environment

3. Cultural issues in intelligence testing a. Minority groups tend to score lower on traditional intelligence tests but this is due to differences in social and economic circumstances

 Lecture 8d

b. When children move to environments with more opportunity and when families emphasize school success, children’s academic performance generally improves III.

Learning and Thinking in School A. New demands and expectations 1. The greater the gap between what is expected at home and what is expected in the classroom, the more difficult the child’s adjustment will be

2. Success depends on their family background, the school environment, and their own individuality 3. Children are expected to learn the complex social rules that govern the social life of the classroom 4. Teachers spend a significant amount of time on classroom management, but children learn the most in classrooms where the teacher spends more time on learning activities B. Developing competent learners and critical thinkers 1. Greater emphasis on teaching learning and thinking skills 2. Educational psychologists recommend a range of teaching strategies that emphasized remembering, reasoning, reorganizing, relating, and reflecting 3. Small group activities are effective at teaching students to develop critical thinking skills

Activity 8a

C. Success in school 1. Perceived academic self-concept predicts educational attainment, even after family structure, socioeconomic status, and actual academic performance are taken into account 2. Low academic self-confidence is associated with a negative perception of social acceptance by peers 3. ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION – an internalized need to persist toward success and excellence 4. Gender differences and school success a. Girls tend to outperform boys in verbal skills and boys do better in quantitative and spatial tasks although those differences are decreasing over the years b. Could be due to brain development c. Social expectations influence their behavior d. Mathematics and science have been traditionally viewed as male subjects while literature and language as female subjects

Article 8g

e. Motivation for learning is influenced by the ways that teachers and parents encourage children i.

Activity 8b

Boys are more likely to adopt a “learning” orientation and girls a “performance” orientation

ii. A critical goal is to encourage children to develop a “learning” orientation because it relates to persistence 166 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

iii. Praise directed toward the child’s effort is critical for the development of a positive academic self-concept IV.

 Article 8c

Intellectual and developmental disabilities A. INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY – disorder that is characterized by significantly subaverage intellectual functioning and self help skills, with onset prior to age 18. Affects 2–3% of the population 1. In many cases, causes are unknown. The most common known causes are Down Syndrome, Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder, and Fragile X Syndrome 2. Context is important – a person may function better in some situations than others. Supports can also improve performance 3. Each person must be recognized as having specific abilities & challenges 4. Individuals are sometimes categorized by the severity of their impairment: Mild (IQs between 55–70), Moderate (40–55), Severe (25–40) and Profound (below 25) B. LEARNING DISORDERS – disorders that are associated with difficulty in acquiring some specific academic skills but not others despite normal intelligence and the absence of sensory or motor disabilities; may occur in areas such as reading, writing, or math. 80% are boys 1. A reading disorder: dyslexia a. Involves incorrectly perceiving letters and words b. Children with dyslexia remain stuck in the early stages of reading. They also have broader languagebased problems c. Generally understood to be a disorder involving how speech sounds are processed in the brain, specifically underactivation of the neural networks in the left hemisphere devoted to reading 2. Helping children with learning disorders a. More effective if it begins early in life b. Includes carefully sequenced tutorial instruction c. Improvement of the child’s confidence is necessary C. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

 Lecture 8c Article 8h

1. ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER – disorder that involves the inability to keep focused on

something long enough to learn it, which often is accompanied by poor impulse control a. Most researchers agree that ADHD involves irregularities in dopamine operation b. Possible causes include both hereditary and environmental factors (e.g., malnutrition, prenatal exposure to drugs)

 WebVid 8a

c. Treating children with ADHD i.

Respond to stimulant drugs

ii. Also respond to modification of the environment to make it less confusing iii. Programs applied consistently by loving, concerned, responsible caregivers generally produce better outcomes D. AUTISM AND AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS (ASD) – a category of developmental brain disorders that involve disturbances in social interaction, communication, and behavior. Symptoms must be present before the age of 3.

 Article 8i  Article 8d  WebVid 8c

1. Middle childhood is an especially important time for children with ASD since typical advances during these years include the development of meaningful social relationships and academic skills 2. The cause of ASD is unknown but genes appear to play an important role. A theory currently receiving support is that these disorders involve a general lack of connectivity among the various regions of the brain 3. There is no cure, but treatments rely on Applied Behavioral Analysis, family counseling, and sometimes medication. Early intervention is key

Lecture Suggestions  Lecture 8a.

The History of Intelligence Testing

Most students are familiar with the IQ test; however, most students are not aware of the long and interesting history of the intelligence testing movement. A lecture can discuss how the original IQ test was developed by Binet and how Terman adapted the IQ test to be used for testing American children. The IQ test played an important role at Ellis Island, in that it determined who could be admitted. 168 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

There were laws barring individuals scoring low on the test to be granted entry into the U.S. The following web sites provide up-to-date information on this topic. • •

Indiana University’s Human Intelligence Page (http://www.intelltheory.com/) George Mason University’s History Matters Page (http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/4960/)

 Lecture 8b.

Physical Education in Schools

Over the last decade, the physical fitness of children has received a great deal of attention from the media. Children and adults are becoming heavier, while many public schools have eliminated physical education programs. This lecture could present the national recommendations for activities for young children. The lecture can also remind students of the possible long-term negative effects of leading an inactive lifestyle. The following web sites provide up-to-date information on this topic. • • •

President’s Council on Physical Fitness (http://www.fitness.gov/) American Heart Association Page (http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/) National Association of Health and Fitness (http://www.physicalfitness.org/)

 Lecture 8c.

Who Is Diagnosed with Attention Deficit Disorder?

The topic of attention deficit disorder still strikes a nerve among most people in middle America. There are those who believe it is not a real disorder. These individuals believe that the diagnosis serves as a medical excuse for badly behaved children. On the other hand, the scientific community increasingly views the disorder as real, brain-based, and very responsive to drug treatment. The lecture can focus on the practice issue of how children get diagnosed. The diagnosis may be prompted by behavioral problems or difficulties in school. Research shows that boys are diagnosed at higher rates than girls. It remains unclear whether the sex difference in the prevalence of the disorder is a sex difference in the occurrence of the disorder or is due to bias in the diagnosis process. The following websites provide up-to-date information on this topic. •

The National Institutes of Mental Health Page http://www.nimh.nih.gov/topics/topic-page-adhd.shtml

•

Web MD Page http://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/guide/diagnosing-adhd and http://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/guide/adhd-overview

•

Center for Cognitive Liberty & Ethics Page http://www.cognitiveliberty.org/makingchoices/ritalin.htm 169 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

 Lecture 8d.

Guest Speaker

Psychologists who are involved in IQ testing of school children could visit the class and describe what the full-blown IQ test involves. Of particular interest to students would be anecdotes regarding children who perform exceedingly well or exceedingly poorly. Most students would not have spent much time with low IQ individuals, such as those with Down’s syndrome, Fragile X or William’s syndrome. Students would likely find it interesting to have the psychologist talk about the seemingly “simple tasks” that some individuals cannot perform. A ‘Q & A’ session could follow.

Class Activities Activity 8a.

Mainstreaming Special Needs Students

Ask students to research the controversy over the mainstreaming of special needs students into classrooms with students without special needs. After students have conducted ample research on the subject, conduct a classroom debate. Some of the topics that can be used in the debate include: •

Does mainstreaming cause the students without special needs to progress more slowly through material or to receive less attention from the teachers than they otherwise would?

•

Does mainstreaming improve the likelihood that students with special needs will have a higher quality of life later on because of the socialization experiences that they have in mainstream classrooms?

•

Are there any circumstances in which it would be inappropriate?

•

Could mainstreaming lead to parents deciding on putting their children in private schools?

Activity 8b.

Role of Socioeconomic Status on Cognitive

Development Students can form groups or work independently to analyze how the socioeconomic status of a child’s parents can influence a child’s cognitive development. Children exposed to educational toys, games, and activities are likely to gain skills that children without such advantages will not. Children exposed to a variety of social situations (e.g., museums, trips, air travel, sporting events, etc.) may gain social skills that children without such advantages will not. So much of what one learns about the world is not learned through books during

the hours that school is in session. Students can present their ideas to the class and/or in a written assignment turned into you.

Activity 8c.

Critical Thinking Journal

Childhood obesity is a national epidemic in the U.S. Lawmakers, parents, and educators are calling for healthier food choices in schools. One proposal that has been carried out in many schools is to replace soft drinks and candy in vending machines with healthier food choices. Some schools have even placed junk food off-limits in the school. This means that children cannot bring junk food for lunch or have cupcakes at school parties. Discuss these policies in terms of their implications for teaching children to make good decisions. For example, when the children you knew growing up were not allowed to eat junk food or watch TV at their house, what did they often want to do when they came to your house?

Internet Video Clips  WebVid 8a.

Time: 2:49

ADHD: A child’s diagnosis A woman describes the process of her son being diagnosed with ADHD, then being diagnosed with ADD herself http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fej6ckcIPyg

 WebVid 8b.

Time: 3:19

Obesity Report Card – CBS News Describes New Jersey’s initiative to combat childhood obesity using health report cards http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BXvDI3Lh9xQ

 WebVid 8c.

Time: 9:26

An unscripted, unedited interview between a mother and her almost-8year-old son, Cameron. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ludzl-UEcPg&feature=related (Cameron interview – when his Asperger’s Syndrome was much milder)

Supplemental Readings: Current Research  Article 8a. Plumert, J. M., Kearney, J. K., Cremer, J. F. (2007). Children's Road Crossing: A Window Into Perceptual and Motor Development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 255–258. Most research on perceptual-motor development has focused on changes occurring during infancy and toddlerhood. In this paper, we describe our work on the development of perceptual-motor development during late childhood and early adolescence in the context of an important applied problem: bicycling across traffic-filled roads. Specifically, we have examined the gaps between cars that children and adults accept when bicycling across intersections, using an immersive, interactive bicycling simulator. This work highlights both methodological advances in using immersive, interactive virtual environments to study perceptual-motor functioning as well as theoretical advances in understanding the problem of moving the self in relation to other moving objects. We conclude with ideas for future research and practical implications of this work.

 Article 8b. Ghetti, S. (2008). Rejection of False Events in Childhood: A Metamemory Account. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 16–20. Knowing how to identify events that we never experienced is an important skill: This ability enables us to reject such events as part of our past and thus reduces the risk of creating false memories. Recent research highlights the involvement of metamemory processes in this domain. I review empirical evidence pertaining to the functioning and development of the memorability-based strategy, a specific mechanism rooted in metamemory. The substantial development of this mechanism during childhood can provide an account for children's vulnerability to falsememory formation.

 Article 8c. Plomin, R., Kovas, Y. (2007). Learning Abilities and Disabilities: Generalist Genes, Specialist Environments. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 284–288. Twin studies comparing identical and fraternal twins consistently show substantial genetic influence on individual differences in learning abilities such as reading and mathematics, as well as in other cognitive abilities such as spatial ability and memory. Multivariate genetic research has shown that the same set of genes is largely responsible for genetic 172 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

influence on these diverse cognitive areas. We call these "generalist genes." What differentiates these abilities is largely the environment, especially nonshared environments that make children growing up in the same family different from one another. These multivariate genetic findings of generalist genes and specialist environments have far-reaching implications for diagnosis and treatment of learning disabilities and for understanding the brain mechanisms that mediate these effects.

 Article 8d. Tager-Flusberg, H. (2007). Evaluating the Theory-of-Mind Hypothesis of Autism. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 311–315. Two decades ago, the theory-of-mind hypothesis of autism was introduced by Baron-Cohen and his colleagues; this theory provided a unified cognitive explanation for the key social and communication symptoms in that disorder. I evaluate the theory-of-mind hypothesis in light of studies that have addressed several key questions: Do children with autism develop theory-of-mind concepts? How can we explain why some children with autism pass theory-of-mind tasks? Do deficits in theory of mind account for the major impairments that characterize autistic disorder? Current research supports the view that autism involves delays and deficits not only in the development of a theory of mind but also in additional aspects of socialaffective information processing that extend beyond the traditional boundaries of theory of mind.

 Article 8e. Van Goozen, S. H. M., Fairchild, G., Harold, G. T. (2008). The Role of Neurobiological Deficits In Childhood Antisocial Behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 224–228. Childhood-onset antisocial behavior is an important predictor of chronic and serious forms of antisocial behavior in later life. Both biological and social factors are involved in the development of abnormal behavior. We examine the underlying role of stress-response systems in the link between early social adversity and juvenile antisocial behavior, and propose that children with genetically and/or perinatally based neurobiological deficits have problems in activating these systems and therefore experience difficulties in regulating affect and behavior. Underactivity or attenuated reactivity of the stress-response systems may predispose antisocial individuals to seek out stimulation or take risks, and thereby explain deficits in learning and socialization. Further investigations of neurobiological functioning in antisocial children might not only indicate which children are more likely to persist in behaving antisocially but also guide the development of new interventions.

Hulme, C. & Snowling, M. J. (2011). Children’s Reading Comprehension Difficulties: Nature, Causes, and Treatments. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 139–142. The goal of reading is to extract meaning from text, and this depends upon both decoding and language-comprehension skills. Recently there has been growing interest in children who can read accurately but have poor comprehension. Reading-comprehension impairment is relatively common, although it often goes unrecognized in the classroom. Children with readingcomprehension impairment have a range of oral-language weaknesses, which impede their comprehension of both written and spoken language. Recent studies indicate that these underlying oral-language difficulties can be ameliorated by school-based interventions, which can, in turn, improve both reading- and listening-comprehension skills. Early interventions to reduce such language-learning weaknesses potentially have very important educational, social, and economic implications.

 Article 8g. Poortvliet, P. M. & Darnon, C. (2010). Toward a more social understanding of Achievement Goals: The Interpersonal Effects of Mastery and Performance Goals. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 324–328. The current article presents an overview of recent research into social outcomes that accompany the pursuit of achievement goals. On the basis of investigations in various subdisciplines of psychology, we conclude that mastery goals—striving to improve one’s own performance—lead to investments in exchange relationships, endorsement of reciprocity norms, and active efforts to integrate different opinions. In contrast, performance goals— striving to outperform others—may result in rather maladaptive social behaviors. We point to three promising avenues for future research: Social consequences of achievement goals could be studied from a multiple-goal perspective, different levels of analysis should be taken into account, and the role of status differences should be examined.

 Article 8h. Nigg, J. T. (2010). Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Endophenotypes, Structure, and Etiological Pathways. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 24–29. Several lines of research are revising our picture of attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). I highlight four emerging themes. First, models from temperament and personality research have been fruitful in 174 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

clarifying the basic pathways to ADHD and their relation to typical development. Second, many kinds of attention are normal in ADHD, but cognitive control and vigilance are not. These last two are among present candidates for clinical markers that may help identify causes of ADHD. Third, any one cognitive marker pertains to only a subset of the ADHD population; the syndrome’s heterogeneity increasingly is a focus of research. Fourth, along with energetic pursuit of genes related to ADHD, resurgent interest in environmental causes of ADHD is notable. New insights into environmental effects are illustrated by recent data concerning lead exposure and ADHD.

 Article 8i. Ingersoll, B. (2011). Recent Advances in Early Identification and Treatment of Autism. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 335-339. Currently, autism spectrum disorders (ASD) can be reliably diagnosed between the ages of 2 and 3 years. Efforts to identify symptoms of ASD in younger children are underway. Recent evidence suggests that children with ASD show reduced rates of early nonverbal social-communication skills by about 12 months, although diagnosis before age 2 remains a challenge. These early social-communication skills can be improved with targeted intervention, and doing so may produce broader improvements in later-emerging skills. Research is beginning to explore the use of these interventions with toddlers, with some success. Despite these advances, much is still unknown about the early presentation of ASD or the best way to intervene.

Physical and Motor Development Category

Title

Watch

Kindergarten: Ready for Success

Watch

The Problem of Childhood Obesity

Watch

Autism: Dr. Kathy Pratt

Description This segment follows a kindergarten in North Carolina, noting that more children are not prepared for school, in part because the curriculum is more rigorous now than in earlier times and in part because parents are sending their children at younger ages. Pediatrician Dr. Marcia Dworkind discusses the nationwide epidemic of childhood obesity and measures that can be taken to prevent it. Dr. Kathy Pratt defines autism and its unique characteristics and distinguishes it from behavioral disorders or emotional disturbance.

Duration

Page

220

226

227

Cognitive Development Category

Title

Watch

Conservation of Liquids

Watch

Conservation

Description An experiment involving three preschool-aged children illustrates how Piaget’s conservation task works. One little boy in particular is absolutely sure there’s more in the taller glass and is excited he has “created science.” An experiment illustrating Piaget’s conservation tasks. Children of different ages demonstrate preoperational thinking with conversation of liquids. Conversation of numbers and practical applications on conversation are also shown using quarters and crackers.

Watch

Development of Social

Social cognition is defined and 176

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228

228 228

Cognition

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The School-Age Child

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Literacy

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Early Literacy Development: Frederick Morrison

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Successful Intelligence: Robert Sternberg

Watch

Mother-Child IQ Correlation

children are interviewed about how they are developing the skills of social inference, social responsibility, and social regulation. This is a video about interactive learning, schools, and Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Robin Box, Director of the Ball State Child Study Center, discusses how this center is organized to help children to develop literacy skills. Then a teacher at the Muncie Public Library (Denise Gawrys) talks about how the library is structured to help 7- to 9-year-olds develop literacy skills. Children in both facilities are shown engaged in literacy building activities. The importance of the development of early reading skills is emphasized. Interview with Frederick Morrison, Professor of Psychology at University of Michigan, whose research focuses on the nature and sources of literacy acquisition in children during the transition to school. Robert Sternberg discusses his theory of successful intelligence, which takes into account analytical, practical, and creative abilities in determining someone's intelligence. New research indicates a correlation between a mother’s IQ and the IQ of her children, regardless of how many children she has. Interestingly, the more children the mother has, the lower her IQ tends to be.

229

231

232

233

Learning and Thinking in School Category

Title

Watch

The Preschool Years: Egocentrism

Description This video shows Piaget’s classic experiment on egocentrism in action—the mountains study— where a child is placed in front of a plaster mountain scene and they are asked to describe what they see and what the experimenter sees. The response, and whether the child can put themselves in someone else’s shoes, depends on the age of the child.

Duration

Page

236

Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Category

Title

Watch

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Dr. Raun Mel

Watch

Dyslexia Detector

Description Dr. Raun Mel defines attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and talks about subtypes of this disorder including the hyperactive-impulsive type, the inattentive type, and the mixed type. Dr. Mel gives brief examples of the behaviors associated with these symptom profiles. This segment shows a child participating in a research project at Georgetown University that uses MRI scanning technology to investigate how the brains of children with dyslexia work. Dyslexia is briefly described, with the comment that about 10% of children have reading difficulties. The value of early intervention in achieving positive outcomes is stressed.

Duration

Page

244

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic QUICK QUIZ 1 QUICK QUIZ 2 PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 8 Middle Childhood: Physical and Cognitive Development

Multiple Choice Multiple Choice Multiple Choice

True/False

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Factual

Conceptual

Applied

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 5, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 19, 20, 21, 24, 27, 28 132, 133, 135

4, 5, 6, 7 4, 5, 6, 7 3, 6, 9, 13, 15, 17, 22, 25, 26, 29

8, 9, 10 8, 9, 10 4, 7, 11, 18, 23, 30

Short Answer

152, 153, 154

Essay

171, 172

Multiple Choice

True/False Short Answer

31, 39, 40, 44, 46, 51, 52, 53, 58, 65, 66, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78 136, 138

Essay

LEARNING AND THINKING IN SCHOOL

Multiple Choice

82, 83, 85, 87, 89, 93

True/False Short Answer

INTELLECTUAL AND DEVELOPMENT DISABILITIES

134

Essay Multiple Choice

True/False Short Answer Essay

35, 36, 37, 38, 41, 42, 54, 55, 57, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 69, 77, 79, 80, 81 137, 139, 140, 141 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160 172, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178 84, 91, 92, 95, 98, 99

151 32, 33, 34, 43, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 56, 60, 67

86, 88, 90, 94, 96, , 97

142, 143, 144 161, 162, 163, 164 100, 103, 104, 106, 111, 112, 116, 117, 119, 122, 123, 124, 126 145, 146, 147, 148, 149

179, 180, 181, 182 101, 102, 105, 107, 109, 114, 115, 120

150 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170 183, 184, 185, 186, 187

108, 110, 113, 118, 121, 125

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE

Chapter 8 Middle Childhood: Physical and Cognitive Development

Topic Multiple Choice CURRENT ISSUES: OBESITY IN CHILDHOOD – AN OUTCOME OF OUR CHANGING LIFESTYLE? Multiple Choice CHANGING PERSPECTIVES: EARLY EXPERIENCE – DO ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTS CAUSE PERMANENT EFFECTS?

Factual

Conceptual

Applied

129

127, 128

130, 131

Chapter Nine Middle Childhood: Personality & Sociocultural Development

Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 9, students will know: •

the events in middle childhood that enhance or detract from the child’s developing self concept.

•

what Erik Erikson perceived to be the central developmental issue in middle childhood

•

the difference between self-esteem and self-concept, and the factors that are linked to higher self-esteem in middle childhood.

•

the three components of social cognition and how each helps children to understand the social world.

•

how children of different ages think about questions of right versus wrong.

•

how friendships change during middle childhood and why friendships are important for children this age.

•

the factors linked to popularity in middle childhood.

•

how a child comes to develop a sense of ethnic identity.

•

ways parents can help children to cope with stress.

•

what developmental issues are posed for children when family structure changes.

Key Terms and Concepts Coregulation Discrimination Industry versus inferiority Moral absolutism Moral dilemmas Moral realism Moral relativism Morality Peer group Prejudice Reconstituted family Resilient children Self esteem Self regulated behavior Social cognition Social inference Social regulations Social responsibility

Chapter Outline I.

Personality Development in an Expanding Social World A. Three perspectives on middle childhood 1. Social-learning view 2. Psychodynamic view 3. Cognitive-developmental view B. Self-concept Throughout middle childhood, self-concept becomes more realistic and accurate. They use trait descriptors to compare themselves with their peers and draw conclusions about themselves. C. INDUSTRY VERSUS INFERIORITY – In Erikson’s theory, the third stage of development in which the child attempts to establish a sense of personal competence and mastery D. SELF ESTEEM – One’s attitude toward oneself, which can range from positive to negative

 Lecture 9a

1. Context is important. For children raised in cultures where formal education is expected, self-esteem is correlated with academic achievement 2. Self-esteem is a reciprocal process. Children do better if they are confident and their confidence increases if they are successful. 3. To encourage self-esteem, parents should find activities in which the child can be successful 4. Praise can be a double-edged sword. Too much praise, or praise that doesn’t reflect real achievement, can be harmful.

II.

Social Knowledge and Reasoning A. The development of social cognition 1. SOCIAL COGNITION – thought, knowledge, and understanding of the social world a. SOCIAL INFERENCE – an individual’s guesses and assumptions about what another person is feeling, thinking, or intending. This is also termed social perspective taking. b. SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY – an individual’s obligations to family, friends, and to society c. SOCIAL REGULATIONS – the customs and conventions that govern social interactions

2. All 3 aspects of social cognition are involved in the development of the ability to make moral judgments B. The development of morality 1. MORALITY – a person’s ideas about fairness and justice and right and wrong 2. Moral realism and moral relativism a. MORAL REALISM – Piaget’s term for the first stage of moral development; children believe in rules as real, indestructible things, not as abstract principles. Unable to consider intentions; base judgments solely on outcomes b. MORAL RELATIVISM – Piaget’s term for the second stage of moral development; children realize rules are created and agreed upon cooperatively by individuals and can change if necessary. Intentions are more important than the actual outcomes. 3. Kohlberg’s preconventional, conventional, & postconventional reasoning.

 WebVid 9a

a. MORAL DILEMMAS – in Kohlberg’s research, stories in which individuals are asked to judge whether a character’s behavior was moral or immoral b. As development proceeds, moral decisions become more abstract and increasingly based on internalized principles. c. Preconventional – stage 1 and 2 – obey rules in order to avoid punishment and obey rules to obtain rewards or to have favors returned d. Conventional – stage 3 and 4 – conform to win the approval of others and conform to avoid disapproval or dislike of others e. Postconventional – stage 5 and 6 – abide by laws of the land for the community’s welfare and abide by universal ethical principles, which may or may not conform to society’s laws or expectations 4. Critiques of Kohlberg’s theory a. Difficult to follow procedures and scoring b. Argument that his research investigates moral attitudes and not moral behavior. From a practical standpoint, moral behavior is more important. c. Kohlberg’s model is too inflexible. Moral judgments are based on many factors, including the ability to empathize with others. 183 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

d. The most controversial critique is his stance of MORAL ABSOLUTISM – any theory of morality that disregards cultural differences in moral beliefs 5. Gender differences in moral development a. Kohlberg based his theory on male subjects b. Carol Gilligan proposed 2 types of moral reasoning: one based on justice and the other based on caring c. Boys are trained to strive for independence while girls are taught to nurture and care which impacts their judgments of right & wrong. III.

Peer Relationships A. Functions of friendship

 Lecture 9c

1. Help children learn social concepts and social skills 2. Allow the child to develop self-esteem 3. Children’s concepts of friendship change as they develop 4. Close friendships are different among girls versus boys 5. Children with stable, satisfying friendships have better attitudes toward school and achieve more B. Developmental patterns in friendship 1. Selman’s stages of friendship development a. Stage 1 – friendship is based on physical or geographic factors and children are self centered with no understanding of the perspectives of others b. Stage 2 – friendship begins to be based on reciprocity and awareness of others’ feelings and friendship begins to be based on social actions and evaluation by each other c. Stage 3 – friendship is based on genuine give and take and friends are seen as people who help each other; mutual evaluation of each other’s actions occurs and the concept of trust appears d. Stage 4 – friendship is seen as a stable continuing relationship based on trust and children can observe the friendship relationship from the perspective of a third party 2. Model shows how cognitive advancement – specifically the ability to take another’s perspective -- sets the stage for social and personality development 3. Critics argue that friendships are more complex and involve more changes than Selman’s model proposes 184 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

C. PEER GROUP – a group of three or more people of similar age who interact with each other and who share norms and goals 1. Developmental trends a. Peer groups take on greater significance when children reach ages 10 to 12 and typically develop a more formal structure

 Article 9d

b. Separation of the sexes becomes noticeable c. Peer pressure becomes more effective and conformity to group norms becomes important 2. Peer group conformity

 Lecture 9d  Article 9a

a. Some children become dependent on their peer group to meet their needs of belonging and social support b. Children who conform most often are especially sensitive to social cues and tend to self-monitor. They tend to have feelings of inferiority and to be more anxious and dependent.

 Article 9c

c. Peer group conformity can be positive: e.g., it can encourage academic motivation

 WebVid 9b

d. Can sometimes encourage behavior that is destructive. In childhood popularity is associated with aggressiveness in both boys & girls.

 Article 9c, 9e Activity 9d

3. Popularity within the peer group a. Children who have good emotional control and cooperative are more popular. b. Academic and athletic abilities contribute to popularity. c. Overly aggressive or timid children are unpopular with peers d. Day care experiences in early childhood may play a role in the link between popularity and aggression in middle childhood e. Experiences with peers influence children’s academic performance as well as how they feel about themselves f. Peer acceptance can be influenced by teacher feedback D. In-groups, out-groups, and prejudice

 Article 9f

1. PREJUDICE – a negative attitude formed without adequate reason and usually directed toward people because of their membership in a certain group 2. DISCRIMINATION – treating others based on prejudice 3. The development of ethnic identity

a. Develops during early childhood

Activity 9c

b. Reflects the culture in which the child is raised c. Ethnic identity is a complex concept that is only gradually acquired d. Understanding group differences and what it means to be a member of the group requires social cognition that only comes with cognitive development e. Belonging to a group with members like oneself increases self-esteem in childhood f. Belonging to a disadvantaged culture (e.g., poverty, violence) can produce conflict, anger & anxiety

IV.

Family Influences in Middle Childhood A. Parent-child interactions and relationships 1. Effectively monitoring their children’s activities and behavior is an important parental role. Well monitored children earn higher grades and are more likely to develop friendships with peers who are not delinquent 2. SELF-REGULATED BEHAVIOR – behavior that is controlled and directed by the child rather than by parents, teachers, or other external forces 3. COREGULATION – the development or a sense of shared responsibility between parents and their children 4. Less stress economically, socially, and emotionally can make parenting easier B. The changing nature of the family 1. Families and stress

 Lecture 9b Activity 9a

a. When stress is chronic and extreme, children and adults may develop symptoms, such as nightmares, fearfulness, depression, anxiety, trouble with concentration, aggressive behavior, or blunted emotions b. Stress is better dealt with when events do not pile up c. Children’s perception or understanding of the event influences how stressful it is d. When family and social support is available stress becomes more manageable e. Some children are more resilient and are better able than others to deal with stress due to their temperament

f. RESILIENT CHIDREN – children who are able to overcome difficult environments to lead socially competent lives. Typically these children were “easy” babies who had secure attachments to caregivers.

 Article 9g

2. Stress and single parenting a. Single parents are especially vulnerable to stress because of lack of social support and economic resources b. Economic hardship impacts a mother’s psychological functioning and her ability to effectively parent c. Because punishment is more frequent, their children are then more susceptible to cognitive distress and depression d. Social support and clear rules and expectations for children can help them deal more effectively 3. Children of divorce

 WebVid 9c, 9d Activity 9b  Lecture 9e

a. 40-50% of all marriages in the US end in divorce b. Divorce is more traumatic for children when parents are hostile; the amount of change in the child’s life and level of parental emotional support also play a role c. Immediately after a divorce children are likely to exhibit behavioral difficulties, anxiety, depression, and low self esteem. Parents can help by setting clear limits and sticking to familiar routines

Activity 9e

d. RECONSITITUTED FAMILY – also known as stepfamily; a family where a mother or a father with children has remarried to produce a new family. This can create additional challenges for children.

 Article 9b

e. Most children whose parents divorce cope successfully.

Lecture Suggestions  Lecture 9a.

Developing Self-Esteem

The topic of self-esteem will be somewhat familiar to students. In the popular media, the notion that it is important to have healthy self-esteem has been widely covered. The notion that some children have low self-esteem and that low self-esteem is associated with negative outcomes. On the other hand, some researchers have pointed out that among those children who have carried out violent acts at school, such as shooting and killing teachers and fellow students, self-esteem was not low, but irrationally high. The

research questioned the notion that high self-esteem leads to nothing but positive outcomes. The following links provide up-to-date information: • • •

National Association for Self-Esteem (http://www.self-esteem-nase.org/research.php) National Network for Childcare (http://www.nncc.org/Guidance/self.esteem.html) Katz, L. (1993). Self-esteem and narcissim: Implications for practice. Available from the ERIC Digest (http://www.ericdigests.org/1993/esteem.htm).

 Lecture 9b.

The Changing Family

Your lecture can provide basic statistics about the composition of families in the United States and other industrialized countries. Starting with stats from the 1800s or early 1900s will provide students with an opportunity to think about the economic pressures on families over the last century or so, rather than focusing primarily on changes occurring since the 1960s. In the popular culture, media reports frequently suggest that the changes occurring in the American family are negative changes, needing to be curbed. However, research provides evidence that loving families are positive entities, even when they do not meet the definition of the traditional nuclear family. Since the late 1980s and 1990s, the traditional nuclear family may even have been somewhat of a myth, especially for low socioeconomic groups. • •

•

Forum on Child and Family Statistics. America’s Children in Brief: Key National Indicators of Well-being, 2012. (http://childstats.ed.gov/americaschildren/index.asp). American Academy of Pediatrics. Myth of the Perfect Family (http://www.healthychildren.org/english/family-life/family-dynamics/Pages/ThePerfect-Family.aspx?nfstatus=401&nftoken=00000000-0000-0000-0000000000000000&nfstatusdescription=ERROR%3a+No+local+token)

 Lecture 9c.

Peers and Friendship

The ability to form social relationships is key to achieving a high quality of life. Research with adults shows that having social support (i.e., friends) is strongly related to good health. Learning how to develop and maintain friendships is something that occurs during childhood. In your lecture, you can discuss what is known about children’s friendships. You can also present details about those children who struggle with social relationships. The most extreme examples are children with autism. The following web sites provide up-to-date information. • •

New York University Child Study Center (http://www.aboutourkids.org/families/keeping_kids_healthy/social_life) PBS Parents Guide to Going to School (http://www.pbs.org/parents/experts/archive/2006/12/childrens-friendships.html)

 Lecture 9d.

Conformity and Prejudice

Children and adults are extremely sensitive to pressures to conform. During middle childhood, children become aware of more and more ways in which conformity may be suggested by the peer group. There are brands of clothes that are cool to wear and those that are not cool to wear. There are hairstyles that are desirable, and those that are not. What music one listens to or what television shows one watches can determine whether a child fits into a popular social group or is excluded. The exclusionary practices that lead to cliques during school can also lead to social groups reinforcing prejudicial beliefs about other groups and individuals. The following web site provides some information on this topic. •

Tolerance.org Page. Hidden Bias (http://www.tolerance.org/hidden_bias/tutorials/index.html)

 Lecture 9e.

Blended Families

Many students may be unaware of just how common blended families and other nontraditional families have become in the United States and elsewhere in the world. Your lecture can provide information about how the composition of families has changed over the last several decades and how research shows that children thrive in a variety of types of families. The following web sites provide up-to-date information: • American Academy of Pediatrics. (http://www.healthychildren.org/English/family-life/family-dynamics/types-offamilies/Pages/default.aspx) • Familypride.org (http://www.familypride.org/site/pp.asp?c=bhKPI7PFImE&b=392481)

Class Activities Activity 9a.

Family Rituals

Ask students in the class to interview adults of various ages about their family rituals and traditions both now and when they were children. Use Handout 9-1 as a guide. Help the students pool their data, tabulate it, and analyze the results.

Activity 9b.

Children’s Bill of Rights

Ask students to develop a bill of rights for children in middle childhood. It should include all the things that they believe children have a right to have, such as health care, schooling, as well as home life and parenting. Students should be encouraged to consider the conditions of the children’s neighborhoods and any other relevant influences.

Activity 9c.

Evaluating Advertisements

Students can evaluate advertisements from magazines or television for the role models that they provide for children in middle childhood. Students can determine what the most frequent types of role models are displayed to children of this age and whether the types of role models vary as a function of type of product being advertised. Students can present their findings to the class and provide a written assessment to you.

Activity 9d.

Were You a Popular Kid?

Students can break off into small groups to discuss the extent to which they were popular as children and whether they considered themselves popular in high school and now as college students. They should discuss the extent to which they believe being popular as a child is related to being popular later in life, being well-adjusted adults, and being a happy adult. A representative from each group can report the central themes and conclusions from the group’s discussion.

Activity 9e.

Critical Thinking Journal

Divorce is more traumatic for children when parents are hostile. If you were having difficulties in your marriage or in a divorce situation, how might you take steps to reduce the effects of bickering and hostility on the child? What kinds of rules might you put into place regarding when and where discussions and disagreements would be handled?

Internet Video Clips  WebVid 9a.

Time: 4:18

Interviews with people of various ages providing responses to Kohlberg’s Heinz dilemma: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zY4etXWYS84 (Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory)

 WebVid 9b.

Time: 3:51

ABC news video provides information on cyberbullying: http://abcnews.go.com/Video/playerIndex?id=3563260 190 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

 WebVid 9c.

Time: 1:45

Two girls describe their experiences of their parents’ divorce: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DRkXi2t9O0Y (Dealing with Divorce)

 WebVid 9d.

Time: 2:32

Scene from the documentary In My Room: girl describes how she has been affected by her parents’ divorce: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XS3c3342UCc (Divorce Story: In My Room Documentary)

Supplemental Readings: Current Research  Article 9a. Cohen, G. L., Garcia, J. (2008). Identity, Belonging, and Achievement: A Model, Interventions, Implications. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 365369. In this article we discuss how social or group identities affect achievement. We also present a model of identity engagement that describes how a salient social identity can trigger psychological threat and belonging concerns and how these can produce persistent performance decrements, which through feedback loops can increase over time. The character of such processes may be revealed only over time because they are recursive in nature and interact with other factors in chronically evaluative social environments. Finally, we address how this model helped in the development of successful interventions.

 Article 9b. Rhodes, J. E. & DuGois, D. L. (2008). Mentoring Relationships and Programs for Youth. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 254-258. Mentoring is one of the most popular social interventions in American society, with an estimated three million youth in formal one-to-one relationships. Studies have revealed significant associations between youth involvement in mentoring relationships and positive developmental outcomes. These associations are modest, however, and depend on several intervening processes. Centrally important is the formation of close, enduring connections between mentors and youth that foster positive developmental change. Effects of mentoring programs likewise typically have been small in magnitude, but they increase systematically with the use of program practices likely to support relationship development. Gaps between research and practice are evident both in the indiscriminate use of the 191 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

term mentoring in the prevention field and in a focus on the growth and efficiency of mentoring programs at the expense of quality. Continued expansion of effective mentoring will require a better alignment of research and practice.

 Article 9c. Graham, S. (2006). Peer Victimization in School: Exploring the Ethnic Context. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 317-321. This article provides an overview of recent research on peer victimization in school that highlights the role of the ethnic context—specifically, classrooms' and schools' ethnic composition. Two important findings emerge from this research. First, greater ethnic diversity in classrooms and schools reduces students' feelings of victimization and vulnerability, because there is more balance of power among different ethnic groups. Second, in nondiverse classrooms where one ethnic group enjoys a numerical majority, victimized students who are members of the ethnic group that is in the majority may be particularly vulnerable to self-blaming attributions. The usefulness of attribution theory as a conceptual framework and ethnicity as a context variable in studies of peer victimization are discussed.

 Article 9d. Killen, M. (2007). Children's Social and Moral Reasoning About Exclusion. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 32-36. Developmental research on social and moral reasoning about exclusion has utilized a social-domain theory, in contrast to a global stage theory, to investigate children's evaluations of gender- and race-based peer exclusion. The socialdomain model postulates that moral, social-conventional, and personal reasoning coexist in children's evaluations of inclusion and exclusion, and that the priority given to these forms of judgments varies by the age of the child, the context, and the target of exclusion. Findings from developmental intergroup research studies disconfirm a general-stage-model approach to morality in the child, and provide empirical data on the developmental origins and emergence of intergroup attitudes regarding prejudice, bias, and exclusion.

 Article 9e. Van Goozen, S. H. M., Fairchild, G., Harold, G. T. (2008). The Role of Neurobiological Deficits In Childhood Antisocial Behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 224-228. Childhood-onset antisocial behavior is an important predictor of chronic and serious forms of antisocial behavior in later life. Both biological and social factors are involved in the development of abnormal behavior. We examine the underlying role of stress-response systems in the link between early social adversity and juvenile antisocial behavior, and propose that children with genetically and/or perinatally based neurobiological deficits have problems in activating these systems and therefore experience difficulties in regulating affect and behavior. 192 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Underactivity or attenuated reactivity of the stress-response systems may predispose antisocial individuals to seek out stimulation or take risks, and thereby explain deficits in learning and socialization. Further investigations of neurobiological functioning in antisocial children might not only indicate which children are more likely to persist in behaving antisocially but also guide the development of new interventions.

 Article 9f. Bigler, R. S. & Liben, L. S. (2007). Developmental Intergroup Theory: Explaining and Reducing Children's Social Stereotyping and Prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 162-166. Social stereotyping and prejudice are intriguing phenomena from the standpoint of theory and, in addition, constitute pressing societal problems. Because stereotyping and prejudice emerge in early childhood, developmental research on causal mechanisms is critical for understanding and controlling stereotyping and prejudice. Such work forms the basis of a new theoretical model, developmental intergroup theory (DIT), which addresses the causal ingredients of stereotyping and prejudice. The work suggests that biases may be largely under environmental control and thus might be shaped via educational, social, and legal policies.

 Article 9g. Kim-Cohen, J., & Gold, A. L. (2009) Measured Gene-Environment Interactions and Mechanisma promoting Resilient Development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(3), 138-142. Childhood maltreatment elevates risk for antisocial behavior, depression, and other problems over the life span, but a subset of maltreated individuals avoids maladaptive development and shows resilience. Resilience reflects a dynamic confluence of factors that promotes positive adaptation despite exposure to adverse experiences. Recent replicated findings of gene–environment interactions (abbreviated G × E) involving maltreatment have identified two genes, monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) and serotonin transporter (5-HTT), that moderate the association between childhood maltreatment and psychopathology. Accordingly, G × E raise new questions about potential biological mechanisms by which some individuals are able to cope adaptively and function relatively well despite experiencing early adversity. We summarize advances toward greater specification of G × E mechanisms, including genetic and environmental moderation of G × E effects and imaging genomics that provide clues regarding resilience processes in development.

Handout 9-1 Rituals and Family Traditions Survey Person Being Interviewed: Sex: _____ Age: _____ Marital Status: ____ Number of Children: _____ Number of Grandchildren: ____ Do you live close to your children: ____

Section I What rituals or traditions do you remember from your childhood? For each one named, record the following: Type of ritual: Who initiated it? Was it religious, ethnic/racial, or unique to your family? Did you enjoy it?

Section II What rituals or traditions did you provide for your own children? For each one named, record the following: Type of ritual: Who initiated it? Was it religious, ethnic/racial, or unique to your family? Did you enjoy it? Do you still participate in it with your children?

Social Knowledge and Reasoning Category

Title

Watch

Kohlberg and the Heinz Dilemma

Description Children respond to a hypothetical moral dilemma.

Duration

Description This is a video about the gender differences in the development of friendships during middle childhood. Boys and girls of different ages talk about how they were bullied in school. The narrator, Kandy Keller, an elementary school counselor, talks about differences in how boys and girls are bullied and gives advice to children for dealing with bullies at school. A highly verbal and insightful girl talks about her experiences being bullied. She notes the mental pain that bullies inflict on other children and describes how her parents suggested she deal with the girls who bullied her. Interview with Brett Laursen, Professor of Psychology at Florida Atlantic University, whose research concerns parent-child and peer relationships during childhood and adolescence.

Duration

Description This is a video about cultural differences in parenting styles.

Duration

2:07

Page 225

Peer Relationships Category

Title

Watch

Friendship During Middle Childhood

Watch

Peer Acceptance

Watch

Bullying

Watch

Child and Adolescent Friendships: Brett Laursen

Page

258

259

260

261

Family Influences in Middle Childhood Category Watch

Title Parental Control of Friendships in India

Page 265

Watch

Developing Independence in Middle Childhood

Watch

A Family with Two Fathers

Watch

Being a Single Parent

Watch

Pam: Divorced Mother of NineYear-Old, Part 1

Watch

Pam: Divorced Mother of NineYear-Old, Part 2

Watch

Family Interaction

This video segment describes how parents can encourage the development of self-regulated behavior in their children, noting the value of family interactions. Interviews with one set of parents and their young daughter show the frustrations parents feel when friends begin to influence children in a negative way. Two gay men and their adopted son Riley are interviewed about their experiences. This segment presents an opportunity to discuss the issues involved in gay marriage and gay adoption. A recently divorced mother talks about her commitment to parenting her two young children and how important it is to create consistency and balance within her family. Pam discusses the effects of her divorce on her children, particularly her nine-year-old daughter. While she seemed to adjust initially, she developed extreme separation anxiety. Pam discusses the progress that her daughter has made over the past year, as well as advice for parents experiencing a divorce or separation. This video examines how the hectic lives and busy schedules of parents and children have led to a decline in family dinners, and to a decline in family interaction. The video also discusses the emotional, educational, and psychological benefits of eating together.

265

266

268

269

271

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic QUICK QUIZ 1 QUICK QUIZ 2 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN AN EXPANDING SOCIAL WORLD

Chapter 9 Middle Childhood: Personality and Sociocultural Development Factual

Conceptual

Applied

Multiple Choice Multiple Choice Multiple Choice

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 6, 9, 13, 14, 22

8, 9, 10 8, 9, 10 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 12, 16, 18, 19, 20

True/False

129

4, 5, 6, 7 4, 5, 6, 7 1, 2, 10, 11, 15, 17, 21, 23 128, 130, 131, 132

Short Answer

161, 162, 163, 164

Essay

187, 188, 189, 190

Multiple Choice SOCIAL KNOWLEDGE AND REASONING True/False Short Answer

24, 26, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 44, 51, 54

27, 30, 37, 40, 41, 43, 46, 48, 50, 52, 53, 55

25, 28, 31, 38, 39, 42, 45, 47, 49

134, 137, 138

133, 136, 139 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198 58, 59, 63, 67, 69, 72, 73, 74, 77, 78, 79, 83, 88 142, 143, 147, 149, 150 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206 92, 93, 97, 99, 103, 113

135

Essay

PEER RELATIONSHIPS

Multiple Choice

56, 57, 60, 62, 68, 70, 75, 80, 85, 86

True/False

140, 141, 144, 145, 146, 148, 151

Short Answer Essay

FAMILY INFLUENCES IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Multiple Choice

89, 96, 102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 110, 111, 112, 116, 117, 118, 119

True/False

152, 154, 156, 158, 160 184

Short Answer Essay

153, 155, 157, 159 180, 181, 182, 183, 185, 186 207, 208, 209, 210, 211

61, 64, 65, 66, 71, 76, 81, 82, 84, 87

90, 91, 94, 95, 98, 100, 101, 108, 109, 114, 115, 120, 121, 122

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE

Chapter 9 Middle Childhood: Personality and Sociocultural Development

Topic Multiple Choice CURRENT ISSUES: FRIENDS AND ENEMIES, BULLIES AND VICTIMS – THE SOCIAL LIFE OF SCHOOL Multiple Choice CHANGING PERSPECTIVES: FAMILIES COPING IN DIFFICULT CIRCUMSTANCES

Factual

Conceptual

123

124, 125

126

127

Applied

Chapter Ten Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 10, students will know: •

if adolescents from different historical times or in cultures around the world experience the period of adolescence and emerging adulthood in the same way.

•

the features of the developmental niche that US adolescents occupy today.

•

the physical changes that take place at adolescence, particularly those associated with puberty.

•

why adolescents focus on issues of body image and ways these concerns are expressed.

•

if it is better to sexually mature before or after most of one’s peers.

•

how sexual practices and expectations have evolved over the past 6 decades.

•

how the brain changes during adolescence and emerging adulthood.

•

what formal operations are and how cognition develops during adolescence.

•

what adolescent egocentrism is and how it is linked to the changes in cognitive development that teenagers and emerging adults typically experience.

Key Terms and Concepts Adolescent growth spurt Androgens Anorexia nervosa Bulimia nervosa Emerging Adulthood Estrogen Formal operations Hormones Imaginary audience Marginal group Menarche Personal fable Progesterone Puberty Rites of passage Same sex orientation Secular trend Sexual double standard Testosterone

Chapter Outline I.

Adolescent Development in a Cultural and Historical Context *RITES OF PASSAGE – symbolic events or rituals to mark life transitions, such as from childhood to adult status.

Activity 10a

1. Adolescents are sensitive to the social world around them 2. The social context in which development occurs must be considered in understanding adolescence. *EMERGING ADULTHOOD – In industrialized cultures, the transitional developmental period that bridges the end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood; typically between ages 18 and 25. 1. The adolescent period can be divided into early adolescence, later adolescence, and emerging adulthood 2. Entry into adulthood varies considerably from person to person A. Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood in the United States Today 1. Adolescents and emerging adults are largely age segregated, that is, they interact mostly with other people of their same age and much less with younger children or adults. a. This separates the younger adolescent from younger children and thus deprives them of the opportunity to guide and tutor those who are less knowledgeable b. This also separates them from adult culture and they lack the chance to learn jobs by working with adults 2. Adolescents are largely economically dependent on their parents 3. Adolescents are deeply affected by, and develop strong opinions about, the events of the time in which they live 4. Adolescents are influenced by images projected by the mass media a. They accept tragedy, sexuality, and brutality in a matter-of-fact way b. Adolescents tend to gravitate to the more grisly, counterculture aspects of media programming 5. Characteristics of emerging adulthood a. Identity explorations b. Instability, uncertainty, & challenge 199 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

c. Self-focused perspective d. Feelings of “in-between” e. Age of possibilities II.

Physical Development and Adaptation A. Physical Growth and Change 1. The biological hallmarks of entry into adolescence are a marked increase in the rate of growth, rapid development of the reproductive organs, and the appearance of secondary sex characteristics (e.g., body hair) 2. Some changes are the same for both boys and girls – increased size, strength, and stamina. Most changes are sex specific (e.g., body fat) 3. The physical changes are largely controlled by HORMONES, bio-chemical substances that are secreted into the bloodstream in very tiny amounts by internal organs called endocrine glands; hormones exert an effect on particular target organs or tissues a. Male & female hormones are present in both sexes b. ANDROGENS are male sex hormones; TESTOSTERONE is the most important androgen c. ESTROGEN and PROGESTERONE are both female sex hormones d. The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland are the two areas of the brain that maintain the balance of hormones. i. The hypothalamus initiates growth and eventual reproductive capability ii. The pituitary gland (“master gland”) produces both growth hormones and some trophic hormones e. Conventional wisdom suggests that adolescence is a period of “raging hormones” but if such behavior occurs, it’s the result of a complex set of factors 4. The increase in hormone output is followed by the ADOLESCENT GROWTH SPURT, a period of rapid growth in physical size and strength, accompanied by changes in body proportion B. PUBERTY is the attainment of sexual maturity in both males and females 200 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

1. Changes in boys a. Growth of testes and scrotal sac b. Growth of pubic, facial, and underarm hair c. Body growth d. Growth of penis e. Change in voice f. First ejaculation of semen g. Increased output of oil and sweat producing glands 2. Changes in girls a. Breast development b. Growth of pubic and underarm hair c. Body growth d. MENARCHE – the time of the first menstrual period e. Increased output of oil and sweat producing glands 3. A SECULAR TREND – a historical trend toward earlier sexual maturation has occurred 4. Nutrition, health & genetics influence the onset of puberty

 Lecture 10b  WebVid 10a  WebVid 10d, 10e  Article 10a

C. Body Image and Adjustment 1. Adolescents belong to a MARGINAL GROUP: a group between cultures or on the fringe of a dominant culture that typically exhibits an intensified need to conform 2. Concerns about body image a. ANOREXIA NERVOSA – an eating disorder in which a person is obsessed by thoughts of an unattainable image of perfect thinness; can result in death b. BULIMIA NERVOSA – an eating disorder characterized by bingeing and purging c. Satisfaction with body image is lower for girls than boys at all ages. Lowest point is age 13 for girls and 15 for boys. 3. Early and late maturers a. Girls mature on average 2 years earlier than boys b. Late maturation can be problematic for boys because being smaller than peers puts boys at an athletic and a social disadvantage 201 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

c. Early maturation in boys can be advantageous athletically and socially, but also problematic i. The learning of valuable skills may be skipped ii. Associated with alcohol abuse d. Early maturation is rarely a benefit for girls i. They have fewer opportunities to discuss their physical and emotional changes with friends ii. They are significantly more likely to experience psychological distress over their maturity (e.g. lower self-esteem) iii. They also may miss valuable childhood psychological development and be pressured in to early sexual behaviors e. Late maturation in girls means that they develop approximately the same time as most boys. This makes them more popular with peers III.

Gender Identity and Sexual Practices A. Six Decades of Changes in Sexual Practices 1. Before the mid-1960s most young people felt premarital sex was immoral

Activity 10c

2. In the late 1960s and 1970s sexual attitudes changed partly because of the development of birth control 3. SEXUAL DOUBLE STANDARD is the view that sexual activity is more permissible for boys than for girls. Increasingly rejected since the 1970’s 4. SAME SEX ORIENTATION is the sexual attraction toward members of one’s own sex. Increasingly accepted 5. A sexual revolution was in full swing during the late 1970s. This affected girls’ behavior more than boys’ 6. In the 1980s the revolution in changing sexual norms began to decline and conservative attitudes increase 7. The 1990s ushered in stability in sexual attitudes 8. Emerging sexuality must be integrated into the adolescent’s developing sense of self-concept B. Factors that Influence Early Sexual Relationships 1. The age at which a person first becomes sexually active varies modestly by gender and considerably by ethnicity

2. Sexual activity is also associated with the adolescent’s family situation a. Adolescents from two-parent families have less and later sexual experience than those from single-parent families b. High quality parent-child communication has been correlated with adolescent sexual abstinence and with safe sex practices c. Peers are influential. If peers are sexually active and if that is perceived as “high status” teens tend to engage in more risk behaviors d. Early maturation is associated with earlier sexual activity C. Consequences of Adolescent Sexual Behavior 1. Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) a. One of the most serious problems of adolescent sexual activity b. Half of the new cases each year occur in adolescents. It’s estimated that by age 24, 1/3 of sexually active young adults will have an STD, most commonly genital herpes and chlamydia c. To understand teen pregnancy one must consider cultural forces, especially race and ethnicity 2. Why teenagers become pregnant

 WebVid 10b, 10c

a. 7-8% of teenaged girls ages 15-19 become pregnant and 16% of those 20-24. b. 22% of girls and 15% of boys do not use contraception at first intercourse c. Adolescents feel uncomfortable making demands of their partner in times of high excitement and some are ambivalent about becoming sexually active d. Pregnancy rates began declining in 1992 for all ethnic groups 3. The Effects of Early Parenthood a. For the mother i. Less likely to marry the father of their first child ii. More likely to become divorced

iii. More likely to spend twice as much time as a single parent prior to age 30 iv. More likely to drop out of school and thus to work more hours at a lower rate of pay v. Less likely to earn a high school diploma by age 30 vi. Must deal with their own personal and social development while dealing with a baby vii. Early motherhood combined with early marriage leads to more problems b. For the father i. Less likely to earn a high school diploma ii. More likely to work in a blue-collar occupation iii. More likely to experience lower income levels iv. More likely to engage in delinquent and criminal behaviors v. More likely to have marital problems c. For the Child i. More likely to be born premature and of low birth weight ii. More likely to experience serious or life threatening medical conditions at birth iii. Less likely to receive quality medical care and nutrition iv. Less likely to receive necessary emotional support and cognitive stimulation so they show slower cognitive growth v. More likely to drop out of school vi. More likely to become involved in delinquent and criminal behaviors vii. More likely to bear children out of wedlock d. For society i. Increased financial burden to taxpayers and extended families ii. Additional strain on the resources of governmental programs and systems IV.

A. Brain Development in Adolescence 1. Brain Imaging a. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) technologies are providing researchers a clearer look at how brain cells develop b. Children’s brains contain more nerve cells than the adult brain will retain c. Important changes continue to occur within the brain long past childhood 2. Changes in the Adolescent Brain a. A second wave of neural pruning occurs. Gray matter levels at the age of 25 b. White matter increases until the age of 40 which means that the ability to think efficiently continues to increase c. The processes of pruning and increasing myelinization first start in the back of the brain end in areas that control decision making and problem solving

 WebVid 10h

d. Regions of the brain involved in self-awareness and self-concept change considerably during the teenage years. These changes correspond with adolescent selfconsciousness and susceptibility to peer influences 3. The Influence of Hormones on the Brain a. Hormones tend to target areas of the brain related to emotional regulation such as the amygdala i. When the amygdala is triggered, emotions become volatile

 Lecture 10d  Article 10b

ii. Stimulus-seeking behavior results b. The emotional outbursts in teen behavior may be the result of the pace with which different regions of the brain mature B. Piaget’s Period of Formal Operations

 Lecture 10a  WebVid 10g

1. Formal Operational Thought a. FORMAL OPERATIONS – Piaget’s final stage of cognitive development that is characterized by the ability to reason hypothetically and think about abstract concepts b. Logical and systematic hypothesis testing is the hallmark of formal operations

c. Adolescents also show an increasing ability to plan and to think ahead d. They have second order thought which means that they can maneuver between reality and possibility as well as look for links between relationships

 WebVid 10f

2. Expanding Piaget’s View a. Changes in thinking, referred to as information processing functions, also occur. These involve the development of increasingly effective strategies b. Not all individuals attain the abilities associated with formal thought c. Those who attain it do not use it consistently C. The Scope and Content of Adolescent Thought 1. Examining the World and the Family a. Adolescents contrast their ideal parent with the real parent; parents then have a difficult time meeting the adolescent’s expectations b. Teens tend to battle for their independence through means of negotiation c. Teenagers with the strongest sense of themselves as individuals have parents who offer guidance but allow teens to develop their own points of view d. Adolescents develop an increased concern for social, political, and moral issues. They see themselves in a broader context 2. Adolescent Egocentrism a. Teenagers assume that other people are as fascinated with them as they are with themselves

Activity 10b

b. IMAGINARY AUDIENCE – adolescents’ assumption that others are focusing a great deal of critical attention on them c. PERSONAL FABLE – adolescents’ belief that they are so special that they should be exempt from the laws of nature, that nothing bad can happen to them, and they will live forever d. Adolescent egocentrism and self-centeredness is based, to some extent, in reality

e. Egocentric thinking is not confined to adolescence and can reemerge later as a coping mechanism during times of transition 3. Decision making in Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood a. Adolescents make many decisions based on logical processes but emotions impact many decisions. Emotional processing is called “hot.” b. Iowa Gambling Task research shows that adolescents choose riskier, less effective strategies than either younger children or adults.

 Lecture10c

c. Adolescent MRIs show higher activation in the reward areas of the brain 4. Moral Development in Adolescence a. The cognitive changes that occur during adolescence contribute to moral development as well b. Some adolescents may not have the moral framework and cognitive skills to deal with real world pressures until they are older c. By their teens, most U.S. teens have arrived at Kohlberg’s conventional level d. Presenting a child with increasingly complex moral issues creates disequilibrium forcing the child to resolve contradictions

Lecture Suggestions  Lecture 10a.

Formal Operational Thought in the Adolescent

Research has shown that there is a link between formal operational thought and adolescent moral reasoning and moral behavior. Formal operational thought enables the adolescent to deal with abstract concepts, make interpretations, and use hypothetico-deductive reasoning. Some researchers have suggested that unless the adolescent is exposed to the idea that other people have rights, the formal operational thought will lead the adolescent into a way of thinking described by Kohlberg as postconventional morality, which refers to one having ethical principles with no concern for personal consequences. Many of the most atrocious armies in the history of the world have enlisted and indoctrinated young children as fighters. Coming of age in such a violent environment can turn otherwise typical teens into killing machines. Amnesty International’s Page contains information about the global problem of child soldiers (http://web.amnesty.org/pages/childsoldiers-index-eng).

 Lecture 10b.

Body Image during Adolescence

For many decades, researchers and educators have focused on the body image issues affecting teenage girls. Eating disorders, such as bulimia and anorexia nervosa, affect a substantial percentage of young girls and adult women. There has been an increase in the numbers of males diagnosed with eating disorders and body image disorders, such as bigorexia (i.e., compulsive body building). The lecture can deliver information about the body image issues that teens face as well as these extreme disorders. The following web sites provide up-to-date information. • • • •

National Association for Anorexia Nervosa and Related Disorders http://www.anad.org/get-information/about-eatingdisorders/?gclid=CPDGmMPN07ECFbEBQAodHHIAlA Teens want to bulk up. http://menshealth.about.com/cs/menonly/a/bigorexia.htm National Eating Disorders Association (http://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/)

 Lecture 10c.

Risk Taking during Adolescence

Researchers have recognized that the decision-making skills of adolescents differ from those of adults. It is possible that the differences stem from adolescents having less mature brains than adults; the brain continues to develop well into the 20s. The poor decision-making skills of adolescents appear to explain why adolescents sometimes take risks that older adults would not. The accidental death rates for adolescents are high. Teens and young adults also commit a substantial percentage of all crimes. The lecture can discuss the idea that the adolescent brain leads to adolescents making unwise decisions. The following web sites provide up-to-date information. •

• •

U.S. Department of Health and Human Service. Adolescent Decision Making: Implications For Prevention Programs (http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/adolescent99/intro.htm) Beckman, M. Crime, Culpability, and the Adolescent Brain (http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?scid=17&did=1112) PBS Frontline. Interview with Jay Geidd (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/teenbrain/interviews/gied d.html

 Lecture 10d.

Guest Speaker

Individuals who work in occupations that bring them into contact with troubled teens would make ideal speakers. Communities may have agencies for teens who get in trouble with the law or who are admitted for psychological problems. 208 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Judges, lawyers, or social workers who work in the family court system could be recruited as speakers. Your college students will be unlikely to have been in much trouble as adolescents. Some may find stories of adolescence gone awry to be surprising. A ‘Q & A’ session could follow.

Class Activities Activity 10a.

Attitudes About Teens

Ask your students to interview adults of various ages about their attitudes toward today’s teens. Use Handout 10-1 for this survey. Students can add questions to the survey, if they wish. You can assist the class in formulating new questions as well as tabulating and analyzing the data.

Activity 10b.

The Focus on Appearance by Teens

Students can break off into small groups to discuss why teens seem to be so focused on their appearance. Students can discuss whether the appearance focus is greater for girls than boys and whether the appearance focus has increased for boys over the last several decades. Students can discuss whether the appearance focus is primarily caused by the broader culture or something that occurs to varying degrees across all cultures. A representative from each group can report the central themes and conclusions from the group’s discussion.

Activity 10c.

Critical Thinking Journal

The sexual double standard is the view that sexual activity is more permissible for boys than for girls became less endorsed in the 1970’s according to the Craig text. Do you think the sexual double standard is still in place? Is it OK for women to ask a guy out? Is it OK for women to enjoy sex? Do men still expect to be more experienced sexually at marriage?

Internet Video Clips  WebVid 10a.

Time: 2:32

Scene from the documentary In My Room: girl describes her experience with and reasons for self-cutting: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mkiZZHmW9f8 (Cutting Story: From In My Room documentary)

 WebVid 10b.

Time: 1:57

Associated Press news story describing a “pregnancy pact” between 17 teen girls in a town in Massachusetts: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6shsEeSuL3 (Official: Mass.Teens Make Pregnancy Pact) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6shsEeSuL3s&feature=relmfu (Did 17 Girls Make Pact to Get Prenant?)

 WebVid 10c.

Time: 5:22

CBS news interview with teenage mother from high school where a number of her classmates made a “pregnancy pact”: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bnHSnlhZ2ZA (Teen Mom Talks Pregnancy)

 WebVid 10d.

Time: 11:18 Interviews with a young woman with an eating disorder and the mother of a woman who died from one http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=87P2loH02E8 (Eating Disorders Documentary)

 WebVid 10e.

Time: 2:23

Tyra Banks interviews a teenage girl about her struggle with anorexia: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JixbTHj6FKY

 WebVid 10f.

Time: 15:59

TEDxWilliamsport talk by Dr. Derek Cabrera: How Thinking Works: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dUqRTWCdXt4

 WebVid 10g.

Time: 1:46

Discussion of formal operational thought http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lw36PpYPPZM

 WebVid 10h.

Time: 40:43

Sarah-Jayne Blakemore’s presentation on how the social brain develops during adolescence http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xd8NB6kEs84 (The Social Brain)

Supplemental Readings: Current Research  Article 10a. Klump, K. L. & Culbert, K. M. (2007). Molecular Genetic Studies of Eating Disorders: Current Status and Future Directions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 37-41. We review association studies that have examined the genetic basis of eating disorders. Overall, findings suggest that serotonin, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and estrogen genes may be important for the development of the disorders. These neuronal systems influence behavioral and personality characteristics (e.g., anxiety, food intake) that are disrupted in eating disorders. Future studies would benefit from larger sample sizes and inclusion of behavioral and personality covariates in analyses. Consideration of the mechanisms of genetic effects and interactions between genes and environment is also needed to extend conceptualizations of the genetic basis of these disorders.

 Article 10b. Pollatsek, A., Fisher, D. L, & Pradhan, A. (2006). Identifying and Remedying Failures of Selective Attention in Younger Drivers. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 255-259. Newly licensed drivers are disproportionally involved in fatal crashes, and there is evidence that failure to attend to potentially relevant information is a major contributor to this problem. Corroborating this, in controlled scenarios on a driving simulator, we have found that younger drivers attend to (i.e., fixate) target regions in the virtual world that contain information about potential risks much less frequently than do more experienced drivers. We have developed a PC-based training program that substantially improves younger drivers' attention to these regions in the driving simulator and have recently replicated these training results on the road in a real driving situation.

Handout 10-1 Attitudes About Teens Select ____ people you know and ask them the following questions. Be sure to describe each person interviewed as follows: Sex ____

Age ____

Education (highest level completed) _____________

Marital Status: _________ Occupation ______________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________ Please answer yes or no to the following questions. 1. Adolescents should spend more time in school. 2. Adolescents should have to work for their extra money. 3. Adolescents should not be allowed to work because they take jobs away from people who are trying to support a family. 4. Adolescents should be required to do volunteer community service. 5. Most adolescents are sexually active. 6. Adolescents should NOT be given birth control to prevent pregnancies. 7. Most adolescents waste a lot of time. 8. Adolescents account for most of the crime in my community. 9. Adolescents are fun and I enjoy their company. 10. I remember my adolescence as the best time of my life. 11. Most adolescents are careless drivers. 12. Most adolescents do not take advantage of their right to vote. 13. Adolescents over _____ years of age should be allowed to drink alcoholic beverages. 14. Many adolescents use drugs.

MyDevelopmentLab – MULTIMEDIA RESOURCES These web-based expansions on topics allow instructors and students to watch a video clip, explore a topic, or simulate an experiment. The in-text multimedia is not exhaustive—there are many more resources available to instructors and students on-line at www.MyDevelopmentLab.com.

Physical Development and Adaptation Category

Title

Watch

Development of Dating in Boys Versus Girls

Watch

Sexuality in Adolescence: Pregnant Teen

Watch

Adolescent Sexuality: Deborah L. Tolman

Watch

Body Image and Eating Disorders

Watch

Anorexia Nervosa: Tamora

Watch

Eating Disorders

Description This is a video about the gender differences in attitudes and behaviors of young adolescents. A teen mother describes her hopes, fears, and regrets now that she has a baby. Interview with Deborah Tolman, Professor of Psychology at San Francisco State University, whose studies have focused on adolescent sexuality, gender development, and gender equity, as well as research methods. This video segment shows interviews with a few young women who talk about their quest for thinness, their experience in dealing with an eating disorder, and their coping techniques to mask their concerns about their own body image. Statistics about the prevalence of eating disorders and dieting are mentioned. This interview is with a very articulate, bright, 18-year-old girl who speaks openly and with great hindsight about her experience with anorexia. She describes the “power” she felt when she didn't eat and how her passion for singing and for life eventually became more important than her need to feel powerful. She also emphasizes the crucial role that her nutritionist has played in getting her well. In this news report, a pathologist expresses his concern for teens with eating disorders and shows viewers the detrimental effects this disease has on their bodies. The terms "anorexia" and "bulimia" are defined.

Duration

Page

280

283

Gender Identity and Sexual Practices Category

Title

Watch

Adolescent Sexual Behavior

Watch

Dating in Adolescence

Watch

Sexually Transmissible Infections: Ken, STI Counselor

Watch

Teen Pregnancy

Description This is a video about adolescent sexual behavior and pregnancy. A teen boy and girl are interviewed about what dating means at this age, how they balance it with their friendships, and the physical and emotional expectations that arise. The subject of prom is used as a springboard for the discussion. Ken, an STI counselor, discusses the dangers of STIs, including chlamydia and HPV, and how exposure to an STI ups the risk for contracting HIV. An overview of adolescent sexual behaviors and teen pregnancy including a profile of a pregnant teen.

Duration

Description An adolescent describes how he was influenced by one of his peers to vandalize his neighbor’s property, and the consequences of his crime. Next, residential Treatment Director George Estle defines risky behavior and explains the many reasons why some adolescents act out and how parents can nurture their children to avoid this. He also talks about the positive external structure the inpatient residence creates to teach adolescents how to make better decisions. This is a video about adolescent independence. This is a video about cultural differences in education. This is a video about interracial relationships and the effects on adolescents. This is a video about adolescence and imaginary audiences.

Duration

Page 286

286

287

6:19

288

Cognitive Changes in Adolescence Category

Title

Watch

Risk Taking and Delinquency

Watch Watch

Adolescence: Social Changes Adolescents' School Experiences

Watch

Western Influences on the World's Societies

Watch

Imaginary Audience

Page

292 294 295

295 296

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic QUICK QUIZ 1 QUICK QUIZ 2 ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT IN A CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND ADAPTATION

Chapter 10 Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development

Multiple Choice Multiple Choice Multiple Choice

Factual

Conceptual

Applied

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 4, 7, 11

4, 5, 6 4, 5, 6 1, 2, 6, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18

7, 8, 9, 10 7, 8, 9, 10 3, 5, 9

True/False

147, 148, 149, 150

Short Answer

181, 182, 183

Essay

204, 205

Multiple Choice

True/False

19, 21, 22, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 45, 48, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 60 151, 152, 153, 154, 156, 157, 158, 159

Short Answer

GENDER IDENTITY AND SEXUAL PRACTICES

Essay Multiple Choice

True/False Short Answer Essay

64, 65, 72, 74, 83, 84, 85, 88, 91, 94, 95, 96, 99, 100, 101 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168

20, 24, 26, 33, 51, 58

180 23, 25, 28, 41, 42, 46, 47, 49, 50, 57, 59

155, 160 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190 206, 207, 208, 209 62, 63, 67, 79, 80, 81, 97, 98

161, 162, 169 191, 192, 193, 194, 195 210, 211, 212, 213

61, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 82, 86, 87, 89, 90, 92, 93

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic COGNITIVE CHANGES IN ADOLESCENCE

Chapter 10 Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development

Multiple Choice

True/False

Factual

Conceptual

Applied

102, 105, 107, 108, 110, 113, 115, 117, 119, 126, 130, 135, 136 170, 174, 176, 178, 179

103, 104, 106, 112, 114, 116, 123, 124, 125, 132, 133, 134

109, 111, 118, 120, 121, 122, 127, 128, 129, 131, 137, 138

Short Answer Essay

CURRENT ISSUES: DIET AND EXERCISE – BUILDING A HEALTHY LIFESTYLE OR AN EATING DISORDER? CHANGING PERSPECTIVES: HOW ADOLESCENTS AROUND THE WORLD SPEND THEIR TIME

Multiple Choice

139

Multiple Choice

143, 144, 145

171, 172, 173, 175, 177 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 203 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222 140

201, 202

141, 142

146

Chapter Eleven Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: Personality & Sociocultural Development

Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 11, students will know: •

the sociocultural forces that shape the transition from childhood to adulthood and how young people in developed countries move through this period.

•

the factors involved in developing autonomy.

•

what an “identity crisis” is and how it is linked to the formation of a secure self-identity.

•

which factors exert the most influence on the formation of one’s identity.

•

the most important roles that parents play during the teenage years.

•

why adolescents place so much importance on how their peers regard them and how electronic media impact peer relationships.

•

the roles friends play during adolescence and emerging adulthood and how friendships change as teenagers mature

•

the reasons why risky behavior tends to be a normal part of adolescence for most teenagers and emerging adults.

•

whether risky behavior is more common today than in previous generations. how adolescents typically cope with the pressure they feel during the teenage years.

•

Key Terms and Concepts Clique Commitment Crowd Delinquents Diffusion status Foreclosure status Identity achievement Identity crisis Identity formation Identity versus identity confusion

Interdependence Moratorium status Self-regulation Social comparison Social reference groups

Chapter Outline I.

Developmental Tasks of Adolescence *Period of “storm and stress?”

Activity 11a  Lecture 11b  WebVid 11a

1. Research shows that most adolescents are emotionally healthy and well-adjusted 2. However, many individuals do experience more conflict, greater extremes of mood, and riskier behavior during this period 3. This conclusion is supported cross-culturally 4. There is little evidence to support the notion of a “generation gap” *Most theorists agree that adolescents must confront two major tasks 1. Achieving autonomy and independence from their parents 2. Forming an identity A. Achieving Autonomy 1. SELF-REGULATION – in adolescence, making one’s own judgments and regulating one’s own behavior 2.INTERDEPENDENCE – reciprocal dependence, where both parties depend on each other B. Forming an identity 1. IDENTITY FORMATION – gaining a sense of who you are and how you fit into society

2. SOCIAL REFERENCE GROUPS – narrow or broad groups with which people identify, and in so doing, help to define themselves 3. Erikson’s concept of identity a. IDENTITY VERSUS IDENTITY CONFUSION – for Erikson, the critical developmental task for adolescents, which focuses on forging an answer to the question, “Who am I?” b. The adolescent tries out various alternative identities as they attempt to sort through the options to make sense of who they are c. If they do not decide, they withdraw and become isolated or they conform to expectations of whoever exerts the greatest power over their lives 4. Modes of identity formation a. Erikson believed that identity formation involved an IDENTITY CRISIS – a period during which individuals grapple with the options available and ultimately make a choice and commitment as to which path their lives will take b. James Marcial defined the types of identity formation into four modes, or identity statuses i.

COMMITMENT – for Marcia, the part of identity formation that involves making a personal investment in the paths one chooses

ii. FORECLOSURE STATUS – the identity status of those who have made commitments without going through much reflection or exploration iii. DIFFUSION STATUS – the identity status of those who have neither gone through an identity crisis nor committed to an occupational role or moral code. They are avoiding the issue. iv. MORATORIUM STATUS – the identity status of those who are currently in the midst of an identity crisis or decision making period v. IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT – the identity status of those who have gone through an identity crisis and have made commitments c. Influences on identity formation

Patterns of identity development are consistent across cultures and ethnic groups

ii. Age and gender influence identity formation. With increasing age, there are fewer people in Identity Diffusion or Foreclosure iii. Gender differences are decreasing as opportunities for men and women are becoming more equal C. Identity formation, culture, and context

 Lecture 11c

1. Collectivist societies place much less emphasis on autonomy and more on a child becoming and remaining interdependent with others 2. Western societies stress becoming a distinct, relatively autonomous individual as opposed to becoming a contributing member of a cooperative group 3. The timing at which different statuses emerge differs among cultures 4. Identity formation may be more difficult when one belongs to a group that is defined as being outside the majority culture D. “Generation Me” 1. Members of this generation are individualists who are primarily interested in their own lives and happiness 2. Several large surveys have found that their most important life goal is “being well-off financially” 3. However, these generational differences could be due to differences in life experiences, not values per se II.

Family Dynamics A. Intergenerational communication *Research shows that there is much less conflict between adolescents and their families than often assumed *Conflict occurs more frequently in early adolescence than in later adolescence and is typically over minor issues (e.g., chores, curfew) 1. Family alliances a. Family alliances shape behavior before adolescence i. Alliances are natural and healthy ii. A close bond between one parent & a child that excludes the other parent is disruptive. 219 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

2. Parenting styles and parental monitoring a. Three primary parental styles: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive

Article 11h

b. Mothers and fathers influence teenagers in different ways. Harshness, intrusiveness, or inconsistency on the mother’s part leads to behavioral & emotional problems in the adolescent c. More mothers now work out of the home and more children are now raised with absent fathers which changes the roles of all members of the family d. Children in the same families often have different experiences with parents during adolescence e. Adolescents are influenced by their parents’ conflict resolution style f. In later adolescence, parental control gives way to parental monitoring which contributes to more positive behavior and better relationships III.

Peer Relationships During Adolescence A. Social comparison

Activity 11c

1. SOCIAL COMPARISON – evaluating yourself and your situation relative to others 2. Teens define themselves in a diverse peer arena made up of many different kinds of young people 3. In early adolescence they focus on appearance and personality characteristics. Many relationships lack intimacy. 4. Teens seek fewer close friendships and more loose friendships

 Article 11b

5. Intimacy in adolescent friendship involves sharing personal feelings and concerns. It increases during adolescence and, as it does, teens turn to friends instead of parents for advice. 6. Correlational research suggests that violent and sexual media adversely impacts teen behavior. 7. Little research has been conducted on the long-term impact of social media on friendships B. Cliques and crowds 1. CROWD – adolescent peer group with perhaps 15 to 30 members

Activity 11b

2. CLIQUE – adolescent peer group with as few as 3 members or as many as 9; more cohesive than a crowd. Members typically are similar in background and interests.

Activity 11d

3. Loners (approximately 20% of teens) are those who do not belong to identifiable cliques or crowds. When it is voluntary it can provide creativity and relief from pressure. 4. Adolescents who are different from their peers can find identity development to be challenging. 5. Involuntary aloneness can lead to feelings of isolation & depression. C. Dating

Activity 11e

1. Adolescence is a stage of testing, imagining, and discovering what it is like to function in mixed groups and pairs 2. Young adolescents look for dates who are physically attractive, dress well, and are liked by others 3. Older adolescents are less superficial and are more concerned about personality characteristics and the person’s plans for the future. D. Peers and parents: A clash of cultures 1. As peers replace parents as the primary socializing force in a teenager’s life, parents become concerned about the characteristics of the peers 2. If the peers’ values and worldviews are different than the parents would prefer, the process of identity formation can be filled with turmoil. 3. One example involves the pressures that second-generation Indian Hindu adolescents face 4. Tension is highest when the gap is big and the importance of the values is central IV.

 Article 11c

Risk and Resilience in Adolescence A. Risk taking 1. Many adolescents engage in sex, possibly without protection or with multiple partners, drive recklessly, abuse drugs and/or are violent 2. Adolescents’ judgment may not be fully developed and they may not understand the risks they are taking

3. Adolescents who take risks are more likely to have a history of aggression, to be impulsive, and to have low school achievement. 4. When they develop self-esteem, competence, and belonging they are less likely to engage in risky behavior B. The use of tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, and other drugs

 WebVid 11b

1. Mostly prevalent in latter part of teenage years and in early adulthood 2. Tobacco

 Article 11a

a. Smoking becomes alluring because it is a perceived symbol of maturity b. Rates of smoking among teens have declined since the 1970s, but more than half of high school seniors still try smoking c. In the past, boys tended to smoke more and earlier, but the gender gap has narrowed. Girls often cite weight control as their reason for smoking. d. Occasional use in high school often develops into a serious habit 3. Alcohol a. Alcohol is a depressant; large doses or excessive use can result in physical impairment and health-related problems b. Alcohol is perceived as a symbol of maturity and adulthood c. High school alcohol consumption has declined modestly since the early 80s but binge drinking in 1825 year olds is still problematic. d. Driving while under the influence of alcohol is very risky, yet a quarter of 21–25 year olds report doing it. e. Alcohol consumption by young people varies according to age, ethnic, religious background, and locality. Recently gender differences have disappeared. 4. Marijuana a. The third most widely used drug in the U.S. b. Marijuana’s adverse effects on thinking, problemsolving, and memory can last for several days or weeks 222 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

c. Marijuana is an addictive drug 5. Other drugs a. Use of cocaine, heroin, LSD have been relatively low b. Designer drugs like ecstasy became popular at raves in the late 90s but use has now dropped c. Methamphetamine can be produced from commonly available products C. Delinquency 1. DELINQUENTS – people under age 16 or 18 who commit criminal acts. The age cutoff varies by state and by the nature of the crime. 2. Associations between crime and living in disadvantaged or stressful environments have been noted

 Lecture 11a

3. Other factors include family characteristics (e.g., neglectful parents) the mass media and adolescents’ desire to be members of delinquent peer groups D. Sexual abuse of adolescents 1. Abuse is a problem for many adolescents, both male and female; 11% of girls and 4% of boys have been forced to have sexual intercourse, most often by someone the victim knows. 2. Girls a. In early adolescence the most common form is between a female and an older adult male relative or family friend

 WebVid 11c

b. Older adolescents are sometimes subjected to date rape c. Sexually abused and traumatized girls often feel depressed, guilty and ashamed d. The effects of abuse are often long-term. It can impact self-identity and the ability to form healthy relationships 3. Boys a. Most likely to be abused by a male who is not a family member b. Feel particularly ashamed when forced to engage in same-sex acts and they were powerless to defend themselves

Stress, Depression, and Coping A. Depression 1. At any time about 8% of adolescents are suffering from moderate to severe depression

 Article 11e

Depression is genetically linked, and may be due to differences in brain development. About twice as many female adolescents have the disorder as do males

3. Depression is also linked to psychological variables. Low self-esteem is the strongest predictor of depression in both males and females during adolescence 4. An interactive approach a. Many psychological disorders result from a combination of risk factors that interact, including biological, psychological, and social systems variables b. Depression can be treated effectively with prescription drugs and psychotherapy 5. Adolescent suicide

Lecture 11d

 Article 11d

a. Suicide rates have quadrupled for ages 15 and 19 since 1950s. Suicide is the third leading cause of death among adolescents. b. Often it is not just a response to one disturbing event, rather the context of long-standing personal or family problems c. “Copycat suicides” are more likely in adolescents because of the belief that the future is beyond their control d. It is estimated that 90% of people who commit suicide had a diagnosable mental illness B. Risk factors for psychological problems 1. Teenage sexual activity

 Article 11f

2. Abuse of alcohol 3. Antisocial and unproductive behavior 4. Poor school performance C. Protective factors and coping responses 1. For adolescents whose lives have been easy, most risk factors are minor problems and positive adjustment is a likely outcome 224 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

2. Problematic adjustments are usually the result of experiencing several negative risk factors along with the interactions among them 3. Good intellectual functioning and appealing personalities, strong positive family support, good schools, and favorable organizations are likely to be associated with adolescents who can deal effectively with bad circumstances 4. To help teens move through adolescence we should (a) support and strengthen families (b) encourage adolescents to develop expertise in some area and (c) ask teens to contribute to others’ welfare

Lecture Suggestions  Lecture 11a.

High School Dropouts

There has been a recent rise in the numbers of high school students leaving school before receiving a diploma. The rates are highest among minority students. Because research shows that dropouts are at higher risk of committing crimes and ending up in prison, some believe that lowering the dropout rate might lead to a decrease in the prison population in the U.S., which has also risen over the last decade. The lecture can focus on the type of student that is at risk for dropping out of high school and the factors associated with failure to thrive in high school (e.g., socioeconomic, substance abuse, home life, physical and/or sexual abuse). The following websites provide up-to-date information. • •

Child Health USA 2011 (http://mchb.hrsa.gov/chusa11/popchar/downloads/pdf/c1114.pdf) National Survey on Drug Abuse and Health (http://www.samhsa.gov/data/nsduh/2k10MH_Findings/)

 Lecture 11b.

Adolescent Firsts

The teenage years are a time of firsts – first infatuations, first sexual encounters, first experimentations with alcohol and possibly drugs. Teenagers learn to drive, take on their first paid employment, and by 18 years of age are expected to begin voting. Teens are also expected to plan a future, deciding on whether to go to college and if so, what course of study to pursue. Teens also must decide when to begin living apart from parents, establishing their own apartments. Adults may not take into account just how dramatically life changes for adolescents from the age of 12 to 18. The lecture can review the numerous changes that teens are expected to navigate smoothly.

 Lecture 11c.

Adolescents in Other Cultures

Every culture has its own norms for how teens make the transition from childhood to adulthood. Coming-of-age rituals were sometimes used in ancient cultures and are still used in some cultures in the developing world. There are rituals that will be somewhat familiar to your students, such as sweet sixteen parties, debutante “coming out” balls, Bar/Bat Mitzvahs, and Quinceañeras. Recently, media outlets have reported on female circumcision and ceremonies in which young boys endure physical abuse (a form of hazing) as they enter the rank of adult male. The following websites provide some information on these and related topics. • • •

Rites of Passage in America (http://hsp.org/blogs/thats-history/hazingrituals-are-not-rites-of-passage) Religoustolerance.org (http://www.religioustolerance.org/wicpuber.htm) United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (http://www.irinnews.org/webspecials/FGM/45986.asp)

 Lecture 11d.

Teenage Suicide

Use handout 11-1 to review the warning signs for depression and suicide risk in adolescents. Suicide rates for teens have risen over the last several decades. Gay and lesbian teens are especially at risk for experiencing depression and attempting suicide. For students in your class, this information will help them know how to spot friends and family members who are experiencing depression and may be at risk for suicide. Be sure to include in your lecture information about what one should do if one thinks a friend or family member may be attempting suicide. The following websites provide some suggestions. • •

National Institute of Mental Health (http://www.nimh.nih.gov/topics/topicpage-suicide-prevention.shtml) National Strategy for Suicide Prevention (http://www.samhsa.gov/prevention/suicide.aspx)

Class Activities Activity 11a.

Typical Teenage Blues

Parents frequently point out that as their children pass into adolescence, they go from being sweet and sociable kids to moody, withdrawn teens. Students can break off into small groups to discuss whether they experienced these typical teenage transitions. Did they become the typical moody, withdrawn teen? Have students share with one another what issues tended to cause them the most trouble when dealing with parents. Did parents not want them to grow up or be independent? A representative from each group can report the central themes and conclusions from the group’s discussion.

Activity 11b.

Students’ Personal Experiences with Cliques

Students can break off into small groups to discuss the types of cliques and social groups that existed in their high schools and middle schools. Students can discuss which groups they belonged to or were excluded from and why. Students should try to make lists of the types of clothing, behaviors, activities, etc. that distinguished social groups from one another. A representative from each group can report the central themes and conclusions from the group’s discussion.

Activity 11c.

Teen Role Models

Ask your students to interview teens about teen role models. Use Handout 11-2 for this survey. Students can add questions to the survey, if they wish. You can assist the class in formulating new questions as well as tabulating and analyzing the data.

Activity 11d.

Teen Slang

Students can break off into small groups to discuss current teen slang. You can use Handout 11-3 to illustrate how slang changes from generation to generation. A representative from each group can report the central themes and conclusions from the group’s discussion.

Activity 11e.

Critical Thinking Journal

When would you let your adolescent begin to date? Discuss the types of dates and at what age you would let them begin dating. For example, dating can be in groups that meet at a designated place or as a couple that goes somewhere in a car. What effect would the sex of the adolescent play? Would you have a double standard for males and females?

Internet Video Clips  WebVid 11a.

Time: 3:02

Documentary clip from Student Voices on teen suicide: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jth2wj7TBAE (Student Voices: Teen Suicide)

 WebVid 11b.

Time: 2:24

Clip from Real Life Teens showing teens talking about their views on drugs and alcohol: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fngTyXMh2bk (Real Life Teens: Abuse Beyond Marijuana and Alcohol)

 WebVid 11c.

Time: 4:46

News clip: Teen Sex Can Brand You Sex Offender : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LAsvQ_MLpQU (Teen Sex = Sex Offender?)

Supplemental Readings: Current Research  Article 11a. Heatherton, T. F., Sargent, J. D. (2009). Does Watching Smoking in Movies Promote Teenage Smoking? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 63–67. Compared to adolescents with low exposure to smoking in movies, those with high exposure are about three times as likely to try smoking or become smokers. We have observed this effect in nationally representative samples using cross-sectional and longitudinal designs. This effect remains statistically significant after controlling for numerous other traditional risk factors, such as personality, parenting style, and sociodemographics. Indeed, the movie-smoking exposure effect on adolescent smoking initiation is greatest among those traditionally considered at lower risk for smoking, such as those low in sensation seeking and those whose parents do not smoke. In this article, we consider possible moderators and mediators of this important media effect as well as health-policy implications. The takehome message is that eliminating smoking in movies may prevent a substantial number of adolescents from smoking.

 Article 11b. Valkenburg, P. M. & Peter, J. (2009). Social Consequences of the Internet for Adolescents: A Decade of Research. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 1–5. Adolescents are currently the defining users of the Internet. They spend more time online than adults do, and they use the Internet for social interaction more often than adults do. This article discusses the state of the literature on the consequences of online communication technologies (e.g., instant messaging) for adolescents' social connectedness and well-being. Whereas several studies in the 1990s suggested that Internet use is detrimental, recent studies tend to report opposite effects. We first explain why the results of more recent studies diverge from those of earlier studies. Then, we discuss a viable hypothesis to explain the recent findings: the Internet-enhanced self-disclosure hypothesis. Finally, we discuss some contingent factors that may deserve special attention in future research.

 Article 11c. Steinberg, L. (2007). Risk Taking in Adolescence: New Perspectives From Brain and Behavioral Science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 55–59. Trying to understand why adolescents and young adults take more risks than younger or older individuals do has challenged psychologists for decades. Adolescents' inclination to engage in risky behavior does not appear to be due to irrationality, delusions of invulnerability, or ignorance. This paper presents a perspective on adolescent risk taking grounded in developmental neuroscience. According to this view, the temporal gap between puberty, which impels adolescents toward thrill seeking, and the slow maturation of the cognitive-control system, which regulates these impulses, makes adolescence a time of heightened vulnerability for risky behavior. This view of adolescent risk taking helps to explain why educational interventions designed to change adolescents' knowledge, beliefs, or attitudes have been largely ineffective, and suggests that changing the contexts in which risky behavior occurs may be more successful than changing the way adolescents think about risk.

 Article 11d. Nock, M. K. (2009). Why Do People Hurt Themselves?: New Insights Into the Nature and Functions of Self-Injury. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 78–83. Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a prevalent but perplexing behavior problem in which people deliberately harm themselves without lethal intent. Research reveals that NSSI typically has its onset during early 229 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

adolescence; most often involves cutting or carving the skin; and appears equally prevalent across sexes, ethnicities, and socioeconomic statuses. Less is known about why people engage in NSSI. This article presents a theoretical model of the development and maintenance of NSSI. Rather than a symptom of mental disorder, NSSI is conceptualized as a harmful behavior that can serve several intrapersonal (e.g., affect regulation) and interpersonal (e.g., help-seeking) functions. Risk of NSSI is increased by general factors that contribute to problems with affect regulation or interpersonal communication (e.g., childhood abuse) and by specific factors that influence the decision to use NSSI rather than some other behavior to serve these functions (e.g., social modeling). This model synthesizes research from several different areas of the literature and points toward several lines of research needed to further advance the understanding of why people hurt themselves.

 Article 11e. Hammen, C. (2009). .Adolescent Depression: Stressful Interpersonal Contexts and Risk for Recurrence. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 200–204. High rates of diagnosable depression in adolescence, especially among young women, present challenging clinical and research issues. Depression not only portends current maladjustment but may also signal risk for recurrent or chronic depression and its associated impairment. Because depression is most often a response to stressful events and circumstances, it is important to understand the stress context itself. Individuals with depression histories are known to contribute to the occurrence of interpersonal and other stressors at a high rate, and for young women particularly, the occurrence of interpersonal stressors and conditions in turn predicts recurrences of depression, in a vicious cycle. Interpersonal dysfunction in early adolescence predicts the likelihood of continuing maladaptive functioning in peer, family, romantic, and parenting roles. The transmission of depression from one generation to the next involves not only heritable factors but also the likelihood that depressed youth become caught in life contexts of marital and parenting discord that portend dysfunction for their offspring and continuing depression for themselves.

 Article 11f. Ge, X. & Natsuaki, M. N. (2009). In Search of Explanations for Early Pubertal Timing Effects on Developmental Psychopathology. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 327–331. Early pubertal maturation has been identified as a potential risk factor for internalizing and externalizing problems during adolescence. However, questions about the mechanisms that link early pubertal timing and psychopathology remain. In this article, we describe four hypotheses that 230 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

explain the effects of early pubertal maturation. The hormonal influence hypothesis predicts that an increase in hormones at puberty leads to increased psychopathology. The maturation disparity hypothesis focuses on the gap between physical, social, and psychological maturation in early maturers that exacts the toll on individuals' adjustment. The contextual amplification hypothesis proposes that experiencing early pubertal transition in a disadvantaged context increases the risk for psychopathology. Finally, the accentuation hypothesis maintains that preadolescent vulnerabilities and challenges during early pubertal transition together increase problems. This article concludes with a consideration of how these hypotheses individually and collectively generate new lines of research linking early pubertal maturation and psychopathology.

 Article 11g. Suitor, J., Sechrist, J., Plikuhn, M., Pardo, S. T., Pillemer, K. (2009).WithinFamily Differences in Parent-Child Relations Across the Life Course. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 334–338. Despite a powerful social norm that parents should treat offspring equally, beginning in early childhood and continuing through adulthood, parents often differentiate among their children in such domains as closeness, support, and control. We review research on how parent-child relationships differ within families, focusing on issues of parental favoritism and differential treatment of children. We begin by examining within-family differences in childhood and adolescence and then explore differentiation by older parents among adult children. Overall, we find considerable similarities across the life course in the prevalence, predictors, and consequences of parents' differentiation among their offspring.

 Article 11h. Piko, B. F., & Balazs, M. A. (2012). Authoritative parenting and adolescent smoking and drinking. Addictive Behaviors, 37, 353-356. While peer influences have often found to be a risk factor in terms of adolescent substance use, parental variables may continue to serve as an adaptive and protective function, although the role of parents is more latent and controversial. Therefore, the main goal of this paper was to investigate the role of authoritative parenting style and other family variables in adolescents' smoking and drinking. Using a sample of Hungarian youth (N=2072; age range between 12 and 22; Mean=15.4 years, S.D.=1.8 years; 49,2% males) logistic regression analyses confirmed that authoritative parenting style (particularly responsiveness) and positive identification with parents may serve as a protection, whereas negative family interactions may act as a risk factor. These relationships are particularly decisive in case of monthly prevalence of drinking and both lifetime and current prevalence of smoking. Gender differences are slight (namely, parental control for boys, whereas responsiveness for girls seem to be more relevant), however, 231 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

the role of certain parental variables may change with age. Although parental control tends to decrease among high school students, it even serves as a greater protection for those whose parents continue providing parental monitoring.

Handout 11-1 Adolescent Depression and Suicide Danger Signals for Depression 1. A general and lasting feeling of hopelessness and despair. 2. Inability to concentrate, making reading, writing, and conversation difficult. 3. Changes in physical activities, such as eating and sleeping. Frequent physical complaints with no evidence of physical illness. 4. Loss of self-esteem, which brings on continual questioning of personal worth. 5. Withdrawal from others due to immense fear of rejection. 6. Threats or attempts to commit suicide. 7. Hypersensitivity to words and actions of others and general irritability. 8. Misdirected anger and difficulty in handling most feelings. 9. Feelings of guilt in many situations. 10. Extreme dependency on others. Warning Signs of Potential Suicide 1. Withdrawal from contact with others. 2. Sudden swings in mood. 3. Recent occurrence of a life crisis or emotional shock. 4. Personality change. 5. Gift-giving of cherished belongings. 6. Depression and helplessness. 7. Aggression and/or risk taking. 8. Direct threats to commit suicide.

Handout 11-2 Role Models for Adolescents Survey Personal Data for Interviewee: Sex: ______

Age: _____

Ethnic Group: _______

________________________________________________________________ Who do you consider a role model for yourself?

In what ways does this role model influence what you do or think?

Who do you think other people your age consider important role models?

In what ways do the role models of other people your age influence what others do or think?

Handout 11-3

Teen Slang Then and Now 1920s Loot (money) Mash (love affair) 1930s Jerk (obnoxious person) Nervous Nellie (timid) 1940s Hubba Hubba (expression of delight) Dame (woman) 1950s Beatnik (one alienated from society) Keen (swell, good) 1960s Chick (young woman) Groovy (excellent) 1970s Dude (guy) Funky (soulful) 1980s Fly (attractive) Funky (bad as in a funky smell) 1990s Bad (good) Hangin’ (being with friends)

Family Dynamics Category

Title

Description A teen girl talks candidly about her parents' expectations that she go to college versus her own interests, and how difficult it can be to balance all of these things. This is a video about cultural differences and role development.

Adolescence: Identity and Role Development Adolescence: Identity and Role Development and Ethnicity Adolescence: Identity and Role Development and Sexual Orientation

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312 312

This is a video about adolescents and sexual orientation.

313

Peer Relationships During Adolescence Category

Title

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Peer Groups in Adolescence

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Adolescent Cliques Conflict with Parents in Adolescence

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Description An overview of the influence of peer groups on developing adolescent identity. Adolescents explain the different cliques that exist at their school and the typical behavior of each clique. This is a video about adolescence and parental conflicts.

Duration

Description Dr. Jean Obert discusses heroin and how people not only become addicted to the drug but also to the lifestyle. She also points out the pattern in popularity of certain drugs at certain times in our country. My Psych Lab video on teenagers and risk taking.

Duration

2:42

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316 317

Risk and Resilience in Adolescence Category

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Substance Abuse: Dr. Jean Obert Special Topics: Risky Behavior and Brain Development

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Stress, Depression, and Coping Category

Title

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Coping with Grief

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Depression

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Sarah: Depression

Watch

Jutta Joormann: Interaction of Cognition and Emotion (APS Player)

Description Children who have lost parents to disease, murder, and suicide are shown in group therapy; one little boy who lost his mother in a car accident is interviewed. Helen, an 83-year-old woman who has been struggling with depression since childhood, speaks candidly about how her depression was treated in the 1950s, using electric shock and sedative injections. Sarah, a young adult, talks candidly about her seemingly inescapable depression and anxiety and how cutting herself was the only way she found to make herself feel calm. Interview with Jutta Joormann, Assistant Professor of Psychology at University of Miami, whose research interests include the identification of cognitive risk factors for depression, research on the comorbidity of anxiety and depression, and research on social phobia in adolescents.

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TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE

Chapter 11 Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: Personality and Sociocultural Development

Topic Multiple Choice QUICK QUIZ 1 Multiple Choice QUICK QUIZ 2 DEVELOPMENTAL Multiple Choice TASKS OF ADOLESCENCE True/False

Factual

Conceptual

Applied

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 9, 13, 15, 17, 20, 25, 27, 29, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39 141, 142, 143

4, 5, 6, 7 4, 5, 6 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 12, 14, 16, 19, 30, 31

8, 9, 10 7, 8, 9, 10 5, 8, 10, 11, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 28, 32, 38

Short Answer Essay

FAMILY DYNAMICS

PEER RELATIONSHIPS DURING ADOLESCENCE

Multiple Choice

48, 49, 50

True/False Short Answer Essay Multiple Choice

149, 152

54, 55, 56, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 74, 77, 78, 79

True/False Short Answer Essay

RISK AND RESILIENCE IN ADOLESCENCE

Multiple Choice

True/False Short Answer Essay

83, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 94, 95, 97, 101, 102, 104, 105, 106, 109, 110, 111, 117, 118 160, 162, 163, 164, 166, 168, 172

144, 145, 146, 147, 148 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183 204, 205, 206, 208, 209, 210 42, 43, 45

207 40, 41, 44, 46, 47, 51, 52, 53

150, 151 184, 185, 186 211, 212, 213 61, 70, 73, 75

57, 58, 65, 72, 76

153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159 188, 190, 191, 192

187, 189

214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219 98, 99, 100, 107, 108, 112, 113, 115, 116

80, 81, 82, 84, 88, 91, 92, 93, 96, 103, 114, 119, 120

161, 165, 167, 169, 170, 171 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199 220, 221, 222, 223, 224

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic STRESS, DEPRESSION, AND COPING

CURRENT ISSUES: A KEY COMPONENT OF SELFDEFINITION CHANGING PERSPECTIVES: FAMILY OBLIGATION AND ASSISTANCE DURING ADOLESCENCE

Chapter 11 Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: Personality and Sociocultural Development Factual

Conceptual

Applied

Multiple Choice

121, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 130, 131

129

122, 123, 132

True/False

174

173, 175, 176

Short Answer

200, 201, 202, 203

Essay

225, 226, 227, 228, 229

Multiple Choice

133, 135

134

Multiple Choice

136

137, 138, 139, 140

Chapter Twelve: Young Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 12, students will know: •

how normative & idiosyncratic events shape human development.

•

if adults who are born in the same year are always the same age.

•

if young adults in the United States have become more, or less, physically fit in recent years.

•

how attitudes toward sexuality and sexual behavior have changed since the 1970s.

•

how sexual orientation affects how a person experiences young adulthood.

•

how the thought processes used by young adults differ from those that guide adolescent cognition.

•

the differences between stage and context models of development.

•

the primary developmental tasks most young adults confront.

•

Gould’s perspective on how individual’s cognitions and world view change during young adulthood.

Key Terms and Concepts Age clock Biological age Bisexual Contextual paradigms Dialectical thought Emotional intelligence (EQ) Gay Homophobia Idiosyncratic events Intimacy versus isolation Lesbian Life structure Normative events Postformal thought Psychological age Sexual orientation Social age

Chapter Outline I.

Introduction

 Lecture 12b

A. Adulthood is the part of the lifespan in which changes become both less predictable and more variable

Activity 12b

B. Major turning points are more defined by personal, social, and cultural events than by age or biological events C. NORMATIVE EVENTS – events, and the transitions that surround them, that occur at relatively specific times in the lifespan, which most people in an age cohort experience, such as marriage and retirement D. IDIOSYNCRATIC EVENTS – events in the lifespan that are unanticipated, such as the death of a spouse, that are not commonly shared by others. They can cause considerable stress and readjustment of a person’s life both personally and socially II.

Perspectives on Adult Development A. Age clocks and social norms 1. AGE CLOCK – a form of internal timing used as a measure of adult development; a way of knowing whether we are progressing too slowly, too quickly, or “on time” in terms of key social events that occur during adulthood 2. People have built in expectations, constraints, and pressures for various periods of our life. Cultural norms define how we evaluate our lives and the lives of others. 3. Cultural norms not only vary across cultures, but also across time. The most significant historical change is the increasing length of the lifespan. 4. Age clocks are more flexible now that they previously were 5. Three components of age a. BIOLOGICAL AGE – an individual’s position with regard to his or her expected lifespan

Activity 12d

b. SOCIAL AGE – an individual’s current status as compared with cultural norms c. PSYCHOLOGICAL AGE – an individual’s current ability to cope with and adapt to social and environmental demands B. Contextual paradigms

1. CONTEXTUAL PARADIGMS – theories that emphasize the interaction of numerous environmental, social, psychological, and historical factors that influence development 2. Contextual approaches apply throughout the lifespan, but are most important in adult development III.

General Physical Development A. Strength and stamina 1. Most cultures capitalize on peak vitality, strength, and endurance by sending their young to do battle, be athletes, or fashion models, and expecting women to have children during these years 2. Organ functioning, reaction time, strength, motor skills, and sensorimotor coordination are at the maximum in the early to mid 20s. The major functional drop-off of most body systems occurs after age 40. 3. Decline in physical skills are most noticeable in emergency situations when physical demands are extreme

 Lecture 12d

B. Fitness and health 1. By and large, young adulthood is a healthy period 2. Physical fitness a. Striated muscles achieve their maximum physical strength b. Peak leg strength comes between age 20 & 30 c. Improvements in exercise training and diet have increased performance levels d. An increasing percentage of people report getting little or no exercise on a regular basis. Obesity is the second leading cause of preventable death 3. Death rates among young adults

 Lecture 12a

a. Lower than any other age group due to advances in medicine b. Drop in AIDS deaths due to new combinations of effective drugs 4. Disease, disability, and physical limitations a. Many diseases that will cause trouble later in life begin during this time b. Symptoms may not be present even though disease could be in the initial stages 241 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

c. Disabilities are particularly difficult during early adulthood since people could get overwhelmed by the limitations that result from their disabilities during this future-oriented period d. Americans with Disabilities Act requires companies to make reasonable accommodations for those who are disabled. People can’t be fired because of a disability alone. Facilities and services used by the public must be handicapped accessible. IV.

Sex and Sexuality A. Fertility 1. Fertility reaches its peak during late adolescence and early adulthood. 2. Men continue to produce sperm throughout life span 3. Female ovulation is stable between age 25–38 4. Increasing numbers of women have children in late 30s and 40s when they are emotionally and financially more secure 5. If becoming pregnant is difficult, techniques such as in vitro fertilization can be used to enhance fertility B. Sexually transmitted diseases

 WebVid 12a

1. Chlamydia causes urinary tract infections in men; also responsible for testicular infections. In women, it can cause inflammation of the cervix and fallopian tubes. Easily treated with antibiotics, but failure to treat can result in permanent damage 2. Gonorrhea can cause sterility and other chronic problems if left untreated or treated at an advanced stage 3. Genital herpes is a group of viruses and affects about half a million new people a year. It is not curable.

 WebVid 12b, 12c

4. AIDS is caused by a virus that destroys the body’s immune system and is considered a terminal disease

 Article 12a

5. Syphilis can cause severe problems such as sterility and even death 6. Trichomoniasis is caused by a parasitic infection. It is very common and also treatable by antibiotics. C. Sexual attitudes and behavior

 Article 12b

1. Vast majority of adults in the U.S. are monogamous 2. 1/3 have sex at least twice a week, 1/3 several times a month, and 1/3 a few times a year or not at all 242 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

3. Married couples have the most sex and are more likely to have orgasm during sex 4. There are only minor variations across ethnic groups with regard to frequency of sex 5. Highest frequencies are reported by people in the 20s and 30s 6. Satisfaction with sex is not closely tied to having an orgasm 7. Use of condoms has increased 8. Masturbation and oral sex are increasingly common D. Sexual identity and sexual orientation 1. SEXUAL ORIENTATION – The direction of a person’s sexual interest toward, and sexual activity with, members of the same, opposite, or both sexes. 2. LESBIAN – a female with sexual orientation toward other females 3. GAY – a male with a sexual orientation toward other males 4. BISEXUAL – a person who is attracted to both males and females 5. Origins of same-sex orientation

 WebVid 12d

a. Likely that it results from a complex interaction of heredity and environment, but male homosexuality and female homosexuality are different phenomena b. Some research suggests that families with gay siblings have a particular gene sequence for male homosexuality, but there is no link for female homosexuality c. Social factors may also contribute 6. Understanding sexual orientation

 Article 12c

a. It is not an either-or thing; it is best thought of as a continuum b. Gay males, lesbians, and bisexual people are individuals and stereotypes do not apply to all of them c. They are at a higher risk of distress, depression, substance abuse, and suicide 7. HOMOPHOBIA – prejudice, aversion, fear, and other negative attitudes held by individuals and directed toward lesbians, gay men, and/or bisexuals. More common among heterosexual men than heterosexual women.

 WebAud 12e V.

8. As society becomes more accepting of nonmajority sexual orientation, it is becoming a less important factor in overall development. Cognitive Development in Adulthood A. Beyond formal operations 1. People early in their college years interpret the world in a simpler, more dualistic manner 2. By the end of college, thinking style emphasizes tolerance for competing points of view and self-chosen ideas 3. DIALECTICAL THOUGHT – thought that seeks to integrate opposing or conflicting ideas and observations B. POSTFORMAL THOUGHT – thinking that goes beyond the simpler, more logic-driven approach seen in formal operational thinking: 1. Defined as thought that is heavily contextualized and includes consideration of not only logical, but also social and interpersonal issues 2. Typically involves both cognitive and emotional aspects in problem solving 3. Thinking changes as young people move into adulthood by becoming more reflective and complex C. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EQ) – the term given to those aspects of the intellect that relate to understanding others’ and one’s own emotions and emotional responses 1. Some research shows that it could make a difference in personal effectiveness 2. Other research suggests that it overlaps with IQ and the personality traits of conscientiousness and stability D. Schaie’s stages of adult thinking 1. Acquisitive period – acquisition of complex structures for understanding the world 2. Achieving period – using intellectual abilities to pursue a career and choose a lifestyle 3. Social responsibility – use of cognitive abilities to solve problems for others in the family, community, or on the job 4. Executive functions – address complex multidimensional issues 5. Reorganization – reallocate their time from work to other activities and find meaning in non-work related aspects of life

6. Reintegration – making sense of life as a whole and exploring questions of purpose 7. Legacy creation – finish the business of their lives 8. He emphasized the flexible use of intelligence in different ways at different life stages. VI.

 Lecture 12c

Frameworks for Understanding Adult Development A. Stages and contexts 1. Stage-based approaches emphasize the commonalities of development, they focus on the ordered sequence of events associated with particular age ranges 2. Context models focus on the specific experiences that shape each individual’s life 3. A blending of stage and contextual approaches is probably most useful B. Havighurst’s developmental tasks

Activity 12a

1. Tasks of early adulthood include selecting a mate, starting a family, and getting starting in an occupation 2. Tasks of middle adulthood include achieving adult social responsibility, maintaining an economic standard of living, developing leisure activities, and adjusting to physiological changes of middle age 3. Tasks of older adulthood include adjusting to decreasing health, retirement, the death of a spouse and meeting social obligations C. Erikson’s theory of development 1. INTIMACY VERSUS ISOLATION – a crisis in young adulthood characterized by the conflict between establishing a mutually satisfying relationship with another person as opposed to failing to find such an intimate relationship 2. Stage of intimacy is dependent on how individuals grapple with the construction of a clear sense of personal identity D. Levinson’s seasons of man’s life

Activity 12c

1. LIFE STRUCTURE – the overall pattern that underlies and unifies a person’s life 2. A person must master four developmental tasks a. Defining a dream of what adult accomplishment will consist of b. Finding a mentor 245 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

c. Developing a career d. Establishing intimacy 3. Season’s of a woman’s life a. Role conflict involving trade-offs between career and family b. Difficulty finding a mentor since fewer women mentors are available c. The stage of the family life is a better indicator of transitions for women than age per se d. Due to conflicting personal goals, career immersion often does not occur until middle age E. The limitations of normative models 1. When societal changes occur, the model must adapt to new roles that emerge. Normative models may have trouble keeping pace. 2. Social expectations and broad societal trends must be considered by the perspective F. Gould’s transformations in early adulthood

 Article 12d

1. Adults must challenge and resolve certain basic assumptions that characterized thinking earlier in life 2. Age 16–22 a. False assumption – I’ll always belong to my parents and believe in their world b. Resolution – young adults must construct their own identity that parents cannot control 3. Age 22–28 a. False assumption – doing things my parents’ way will bring results; if I fail, they will rescue me b. Resolution – accept responsibility for one’s own life; become less self-centered and more disciplined 4. Age 28–34 a. False assumption – life is simple and controllable and there are no major contradictions within me b. Resolution – begin to recognize unfulfilled needs and begin to develop their interest and values. Put their faith in disciplined, well-directed work. 5. Age 35–45 246 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

a. False assumption – Fear that all of one’s goals won’t be accomplished b. Resolution – accept unfairness and pain of life; let go of need for safety G. A Closing Comment 1. The notion of stages obscures the stable aspects of personality development 2. Stage approaches pay little attention to unpredictable life events 3. Stage approaches undervalue multiple contexts 4. Stages may not generalize beyond a particular cohort within a particular setting

Lecture Suggestions  Lecture 12a.

Leading Causes of Death in Early Adulthood

Your lecture can present the basic facts about the causes of death and injury in early adulthood. Students are likely to be somewhat surprised about how the risks for certain types of disease and injury decline so rapidly as one ages. The following web page provides information about this topic: Department of Health and Human Services (http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/lcod.htm).

 Lecture 12b.

What is Maturity?

Your lecture can address the question of whether all adults reach the level of functioning that we think of as maturity. It is possible that very few people are able to acquire all of the characteristics associated with maturity (e.g., financial independence, emotional stability, wisdom, the capacity to become a mentor to younger people).

 Lecture 12c.

Are There Really Stages during Adulthood?

The various theories of development describe both childhood and adulthood as occurring in stages. Your lecture can review the stage-theories for adulthood and pose the question of whether a stage-analysis is appropriate. What are the alternatives? Are stages associated with chronological age or with major life events?

 Lecture 12d.

Healthy Habits For Life

Your lecture can present the basic facts about maintaining a healthy lifestyle (e.g., calories per day, amount of activity per week, preventative medical care). You may also include information about what America’s oldest people have in common. The New England Centenarian Study provides some very interesting information (http://www.bumc.bu.edu/centenarian/).

Class Activities Activity 12a.

Planning a Family

Students can break off into small groups to discuss when they would like to start a family. If there are students who have already begun their families, these students can lead the discussions in their groups. They can discuss what factors influenced their own decisions to start a family. Students should also consider whether their family-starting decisions differ from their parents and grandparents. Is society changing at all in when young adults are expected to start their families? A representative from each group can report the central themes and conclusions from the group’s discussion.

Activity 12b.

Young Adults on Television and in Movies

Students can form groups or work independently to analyze how young adults are portrayed on television and in movies. Students should attempt to identify aspects of young adulthood that are portrayed accurately in these programs as well as aspects of young adulthood that are portrayed inaccurately. Students may make their presentations to the class and/or complete a written assignment that can be turned in to you.

Activity 12c.

Interviewing Older Adults about Their Early Adulthood

Ask your students to interview older adults about their recollections of being a young adult. Use Handout 12-1 for this survey. Students can add questions to the survey, if they wish. You can assist the class in formulating new questions as well as tabulating and analyzing the data.

Activity 12d.

Critical Thinking Journal

In the 1950s, high school graduation was a big deal, with only about 60% of those in the U.S. graduating from high school. In contrast, dropout rates today are about 15%. More and more people are also going to college. Discuss the way that social age may be changing and the effects that this may have on how individuals judge their current status as compared with cultural norms. For 248 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

example, the average age of marriage and having a first child is increasing. Factor in that biological age has also increased.

Internet Video Clips  WebVid 12a.

Time: 3:06

CNN report on rising STD rates and the disproportionate effects on women and minorities: http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/health/2009/01/13/cohen.std.rates.up.c nn

 WebVid 12b.

Time: 1:34

CNN report on rising rates of HIV/AIDS in Washington D.C.: http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/politics/2009/03/17/verjee.aids.report.cn n

 WebVid 12c.

Time: 9:46

Overview of the AIDS epidemic in Africa from the video Hope in the time of AIDS: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mogTwwepces

 WebVid 12d.

Time: 8:15

Excerpt from 60 Minutes nature vs. nurture sexual orientation debate: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Osw05HGe5I&feature=PlayList&p=75 A12E1782A4D814&playnext=1&playnext_from=PL&index=23

 WebAud 12e.

Time: 24:00

The story of how the American Psychiatric Association decided in 1973 that homosexuality was no longer a mental illness: http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/204/81-words (Click on Act One)

Supplemental Readings: Current Research  Article 12a. Albarracín, D., Durantini, M. R. (2006). Empirical and Theoretical Conclusions of an Analysis of Outcomes of HIV-Prevention Interventions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 73–78. Over two decades of HIV-prevention attempts have generated a most impressive ecological data set for the test of behavioral-change and persuasion theories in the domain of condom use. An analysis of this evidence has yielded five important empirical and theoretical conclusions. First, interventions are more successful at achieving immediate knowledge and motivational change than they are at achieving immediate behavioral change. Second, the immediate motivational change decays over time, whereas behavior change increases over the same period. Third, interventions that engage audiences in particular activities, such as roleplaying condom use, are more effective than presentations of materials to passive audiences. Fourth, interventions consistent with the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior, with self-efficacy models, and with information-motivation and behavioral-skills models prove effective, whereas interventions designed to induce fear do not. Fifth, expert intervention facilitators are more effective than lay community members in almost all cases. When populations are unempowered, expert facilitators are particularly effective, and they are most effective if they also share the gender and ethnicity of the target audience.

 Article 12b. Cooper, M. L. (2006). Does Drinking Promote Risky Sexual Behavior? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 19–23. The present review argues that, popular lore notwithstanding, the welldocumented association between usual patterns of alcohol use and risky sex reflects multiple underlying processes that are both causal and noncausal (spurious) in nature. It is further argued that even alcohol's acute causal effects on sexual behavior are more variable than they are commonly assumed to be. Drinking can promote, inhibit, or have no effect on behavior, depending on the interplay of factors governing behavior in a particular situation and the content of individually held beliefs about alcohol's effects.

 Article 12c. Savin-Williams, R. C. (2006). Who's Gay? Does It Matter? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 40–44.

To answer the question "Who's gay?" and its logical follow-up, "Does it matter?" researchers usually define homosexuality with reference to one of three components or expressions of sexual orientation: sexual/romantic attraction or arousal, sexual behavior, and sexual identity. Yet, the three components are imperfectly correlated and inconsistently predictive of each other, resulting in dissimilar conclusions regarding the number and nature of homosexual populations. Depending on which component is assessed, the prevalence rate of homosexuality in the general population ranges from 1 to 21%. When investigators define the homosexual population based on same-sex behavior or identity, they enhance the possibility of finding a biological basis for homosexuality and a compromised mental health (suicidality).

 Article 12d. Roberts, B. W., & Mroczek, D. (2008). Personality Trait Change in Adulthood. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 31–35. Recent longitudinal and cross-sectional aging research has shown that personality traits continue to change in adulthood. In this article, we review the evidence for mean-level change in personality traits, as well as for individual differences in change across the life span. In terms of mean-level change, people show increased self-confidence, warmth, self-control, and emotional stability with age. These changes predominate in young adulthood (age 20-40). Moreover, mean-level change in personality traits occurs in middle and old age, showing that personality traits can change at any age. In terms of individual differences in personality change, people demonstrate unique patterns of development at all stages of the life course, and these patterns appear to be the result of specific life experiences that pertain to a person's stage of life.

Handout 12-1 Older Adults’ Memories of Their 20s

Personal Data of Interviewee: Sex: _____

Age: _____

Educational Level: _________

Occupation: ______

Marital Status: _________

Number of children: _______

Number of Grandchildren: _________

1. Looking back on your 20s, how do you remember the time? Was it mostly positive or negative?

2. What were your major concerns/worries then?

3. How did you spend most of your time?

4. What were your goals then?

5. Did those goals remain your goals as you got older? Or did your goals change? If so, why did they change?

6. What advice do you have for anyone who is now in their 20s?

Perspectives on Adult Development Category

Title

Watch

Experiences of a Nontraditional College Student

Description Kim, a "non-traditional" student at age 51, is interviewed about her reasons for returning to college and her experiences as an older student.

Duration

Page

334

General Physical Development Category

Title

Description

Watch

Young Adulthood: Health, Mak

Watch

AIDS

N/A This segment poses several factbased questions about AIDS to a series of college-aged students. Their answers reflect a lack of awareness about the basic facts associated with the AIDS epidemic. Psychologist Denise Boyd speaks to the importance of knowing the facts about AIDS.

Page 338

341

Sex and Sexuality Category

Title

Watch

Straightening Out Homosexuals

Description 20/20 2001 investigates the “Exodus” groups, a religious-based organization that promotes the idea that gay men can be ?reformed? so that they are no longer gay. Alan Chambers, a man who claims he was formerly gay but now has changed his sexual orientation, is interviewed. Other people interviewed present a variety of comments about the ?success? of the work of the Exodus group, which views homosexuality from a

Duration

Page

346

religious perspective.

Watch

Prejudice

This segment from Primetime 2006 shows an experiment on prejudice and racism and uses the inside of a rigged up cab as the laboratory. An undercover Primetime employee poses as a cab driver and rattles out racist comments as he drives, hoping to find someone to tell him to stop.

347

Cognitive Development in Adulthood Category

Title

Watch

What's In It for Me?: The Myth of Multitasking

Description Do you multitask? In this video, students are interviewed about their multitasking habits and why they feel the need to do more than one thing at a time. Professor Clifford Nass of Stanford University explains what his research tells us about the downsides of multitasking and some ways in which we can improve our concentration and emotional intelligence.

Duration

Page

351

Frameworks for Understanding Adult Development Category

Title

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Workforce

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Gender Roles in the Family: Florence Denmark Young Adulthood: Work, Jessica

Description Two men in their 20s talk about the paths that led them to their current jobs and the goals they had set for themselves. One of the men is optimistic about his future and plans to go to graduate school, while the other seems to feel let down and “stuck.” Psychologist Florence Denmark talks about gender roles in the family and how they are changing. Men and women are now sharing the responsibilities or work and home in ways that were never imagined in the past. It is now common for men to help with household responsibilities and childrearing, and many women work outside the home.

Duration

N/A

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354

355 356

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic QUICK QUIZ 1 QUICK QUIZ 2 PERSPECTIVES ON ADULT DEVELOPMENT

GENERAL PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

SEX AND SEXUALITY

Chapter 12 Young Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development Factual

Conceptual

Applied

Multiple Choice Multiple Choice Multiple Choice

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 12, 17

4, 5, 6 4, 5, 6, 7 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 13, 18, 22

7, 8, 9, 10 8, 9, 10 4, 6, 7, 11, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20, 21

True/False

128, 129, 130

126

127, 131

Short Answer

162, 165

163, 164

Essay

191, 192, 193, 194

Multiple Choice

23, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40

24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 37

True/False Short Answer

133, 136, 137

132, 134, 135 166, 167, 168, 169, 170 195, 196, 197, 198 44, 45, 55, 59, 67

Essay Multiple Choice

True/False

43, 46, 47, 48, 49, 52, 53, 56, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148

Short Answer Essay

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADULTHOOD

Multiple Choice

75, 76, 77

True/False Short Answer

149, 152

Essay

171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205 74, 80, 81, 82, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 95 150, 151, 153 178, 180, 181, 182, 183 206, 208, 209, 210

27, 28, 33, 41, 42

50, 51, 54, 57, 58

73, 78, 79, 83, 84, 85, 91, 93, 94

179 207

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE

Chapter 12 Young Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development

Topic Multiple Choice FRAMEWORKS FOR UNDERSTANDING ADULT DEVELOPMENT True/False

Factual

Conceptual

Applied

103, 107, 110, 111, 113, 115

98, 99, 100, 102, 109, 112, 114

96, 97, 101, 104, 105, 106, 108, 116, 117, 118

155, 156, 158

Multiple Choice

119, 120

154, 157, 159, 160, 161 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216 121

Multiple Choice

122, 123, 124

125

Short Answer Essay

CHANGING PERSPECTIVES: HISTORY, CULTURE, AND THE INFORMATION AGE CURRENT ISSUES: THE CHANGING FACE OF HIV/AIDS

Chapter Thirteen: Young Adulthood: Personality & Sociocultural Development

Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 13, students will know: •

how the self is generally defined by young adults.

•

how friendship in young adulthood differs from love.

•

what love is, and why it is especially important to young adults.

•

how choosing a romantic partner differs for young adults living in the United States versus other cultures around the world.

•

the changes in marriage trends in the United States and in other parts of the world.

•

the main features of the transition that occurs when a person becomes a parent.

•

why single-parenting is becoming more common in the United States and the special challenges associated with this form of parenting.

•

how people decide which career or job will be the best choice for them.

•

how work in the United States has been changing for women over the past several decades.

•

how family members’ roles have changed as women have entered the work force in increasing numbers.

Key Terms and Concepts Career counseling Conditions of worth Decision/commitment Dual-earner couple Extrinsic factors Family leave Intimacy Intrinsic factors Occupational cycle Passion Self-actualization Unconditional positive regard

Chapter Outline I.

Self, Family, and Work A. The personal self 1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs a. Emphasized the needs that individuals must meet as they strive to reach their unique potential and sense of self b. SELF ACTUALIZATION – realizing one’s full development by utilizing one’s talents and abilities c. Hierarchy of needs from bottom to top – physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness, esteem needs, self-actualization 2. Rogers’ unconditional positive regard a. As we develop, others often impose conditions of worth onto us b. CONDITIONS OF WORTH – conditions others impose upon us if we are worthwhile as human beings; these often involve the withdrawal of affection and approval unless the person’s behavior conforms to another’s expectations c. UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD – warmly accepting another person as a worthwhile human being, without reservations or conditions of worth 3. Modern perspectives on the self a. Csikszentmihali proposes that flow – a mental state of complete absorption – motivates us to do our best b. Often builds on the work of Maslow and Rogers and focuses on the positive aspects of human experience c. Identity is considered fluid and changes throughout life in response to one’s roles and development of personality B. Self as family member 1. Gaining independence from parents in early adulthood is linked to parental attachment. Those with secure, supportive relationships achieve independence more easily 2. Areas of independence: emotional, attitudinal, functional, conflictual

3. Achieving independence involves cultural dimensions 4. 90% of US women and men indicate that family roles are most important to their identity C. Self as worker 1. Jobs often define our status, income, and prestige. They are an important context in which identity develops 2. EXTRINSIC FACTORS – satisfaction in the form of salary, status, and other rewards for work 3. INTRINSIC FACTORS – satisfaction workers obtain from doing the work in and of itself 4. Workers whose jobs emphasize intrinsic factors report more job satisfaction and higher motivation and personal involvement with their jobs II.

Forming Close Relationships A. Adult friendships 1. Friendships are characterized by strong positive emotional attachment, need fulfillment, and interdependence 2. Adult friendships that last over time have reciprocity and mutuality B. Couple formation and development 1. Since the 1950s, norms related to couple formation have weakened 2. Sternberg’s triangular theory of love a. Suggested that love has 3 components b. INTIMACY – the feeling of closeness that occurs in love relationships

 Article 13f

c. PASSION – refers to physical attraction, arousal, and sexual behavior in a relationship d. DECISION/COMMITTMENT – the realization of being in love and the establishment of a commitment to maintain it e. Love can be comprised of various combinations of intimacy, passion, & decision/commitment. f. The type of love that characterizes relationships changes over time. The length of the relationship and the individuals’ personalities also have an impact. 3. Choosing a romantic partner

a. According to stimulus-value-role theory, mate selection is motivated by each partner’s attempt to get the best possible “deal”

 Article 13b

b. If the mutual first impressions are favorable (the stimulus stage), the couple progresses to value comparison and see if their interests, attitudes, beliefs, and needs are compatible, then they determine if they can function long term (the role stage)

 Article 13d

4. Arranged Marriages a. This is the norm in many parts of the world. They are crafted with religious, cultural, and financial goals in mind b. They are generally NOT forced marriages. Young people in these cultures typically agree with the practice C. Marriage

 Lecture 13c

1. About 90% of people in the US will marry at some point in their lives, but marriage patterns and rates are changing dramatically. 2. Marriage is expected to provide emotional sustenance, sexual gratification and financial security 3. Marriage is defined by culture (e.g., dowry, multiple wives)

Activity 13c

4. Same-sex marriage is prohibited by law in most states 5. Interracial marriage has become more prevalent D. Cohabitation 1. Defined as living together without a binding legal contract. Has increased 15-fold since 1970. 2. Entails the same relationship-building tasks that married couples face 3. Cohabiting heterosexual couples experience more tension than either married heterosexual or gay/lesbian couples 4. Only 1/3 of cohabiting couples actually marry 5. Cohabiting couples who have a strong sense of personal identity, economic & social support, and realistic expectations fare best. E. Gay and lesbian couples 1. Usually situation is necessarily described as cohabitation since most states deny them the right to marry

2. Their relationships are more similar to married couples than cohabiting heterosexual couples 3. Adoptions are becoming less prohibitive because research shows children raised by homosexual couples are very similar to those raised by heterosexual couples. F. Staying single

 Article 13a

1. Marriage rates dropped beginning in the 1970s and have remained low, although it varies by racial and ethnic group 2. There is a trend for young adults to stay single, although it may simply mean postponing marriage 3. Possible reasons: a. economic hardship b. unwanted consequence of being unable to find a partner c. desire to avoid the potential constraints and problems of marriage III.

The Family Life Cycle and Adult Development A. The family life cycle 1. Not all adults experience all the major events in the adult life cycle and there is considerable variability in the impact of any particular event on different people 2. Parenthood is event in the typical family life cycle B. The transition to parenthood

Activity 13b

1. For new parents disruption of sleep and other routines, financial drain, and increased tension and conflicts can become problems 2. Parenthood is irrevocable since parents do not “divorce” their children

 WebVid 13c

3. Women characteristically adjust their lifestyle to give priority to parenting and family roles 4. Men characteristically intensify work efforts to become better providers 5. Some couples experience greater marital satisfaction after the birth of a child but sexual problems, less communication, and increased conflict occur in many marriages

6. Social support, marital happiness, & the baby’s characteristics all influence the parents’ adjustment to their roles. C. Coping with children’s developmental stages 1. Each critical period for the child produces a critical period for the parents 2. Parents may deal more effectively with a child at one stage than another 3. As the child ages, parents must also renegotiate their relationship D. Single parenthood * In 2010, 26.5% of families with children were headed by a single parent. * Single parenting is associated with increased stress, especially financial stress. 1. Single-mother families

 WebVid 13b

a. The rising divorce rate is one contributor to the frequency of single mothers b. Births to unwed mothers is another contributor 2. Single Mothers and Poverty a. Single mothers consistently earn less than single fathers and are twice as likely to be in poverty b. This is particularly problematic for those belonging to disadvantaged racial and ethnic groups c. The PRWORA was implemented to assist mothers on welfare become independent self-sufficient workers 3. Single-father families a. Less likely to occur than single mother families but the number is growing b. Most have taken on extensive parenting roles before the divorce c. Although they usually are better off financially, many have the same feelings of loneliness and depression that single mothers have

IV.

THE OCCUPATIONAL CYCLE – a variable sequence of periods or stages in a worker’s life – from occupational exploration and choice, through education and training to novice status, and to promotions and more experienced periods 261 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

A. Stages of occupational life

Activity 13e

1. Havinghurst’s Model a. Identification with a worker b. Acquiring basic habits of industry c. Acquiring an identity as a worker d. Becoming a productive person e. Maintaining a productive society f. Contemplating a productive and responsible life 2. Model was developed in the 1960s but it still contributes to our understanding of how people select careers a. Today, most people don’t work in one job entire career b. Work today has become increasingly technical B. Gaining a place in the workforce 1. Formal and informal preparation a. Formal includes structured learning in high school, vocational training programs, college, as well as on the job training b. Informal includes adopting the attitudes, norms, and role expectations that are appropriate to a job 2. Expectation meets reality a. A reality shock occurs when the job begins and novices learn that their expectations were unrealistic b. This shock can cause a period of frustration as the worker adjusts to the new situation 3. The role of mentors a. Mentors perform teaching and training roles b. They serve as models for social behavior and work related behavior c. It can be difficult for women in high-level or technical careers to find mentors because of the relatively few women available at upper levels in those fields 4. Achievement at midcareer a. This is when work becomes routine and job-related expectations are clear

b. Climbing the ladder of success is not as easy as expected and frustration can occur c. Some reevaluate their work at this point and change to a new occupation

 Article 13c

C. Careers and career choices 1. CAREER COUNSELING – a field that attempts to match the talents and interests of individuals to the characteristics of a job 2. Holland’s theory of careers a. Individuals can be categorized into six career-related personality types and jobs can be categorized into the personal characteristics they require b. These types include: i.

Realistic

ii. Investigative iii. Artistic iv. Social v. Enterprising vi. Conventional c. The key is to match the person to the job because people work best in jobs that match their interests and personality D. Occupational choice and preparation 1. Sometimes people choose a job for reasons other than personality-fit (e.g., during a recession or time of high unemployment) 2. Sometimes family pressure determines their choice of a career 3. The need to support a spouse or children may cause constraints

 WebVid 13a

4. Gender and ethnicity can also limit career options E. Gender and ethnicity 1. Women and minority groups are over-represented in lower status jobs and under represented in high status jobs 2. Blacks and Hispanics are less likely to finish high school than Whites and therefore can’t compete for jobs that require more education 263 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

3. Women may limit their choices if they question their competence in science 4. Women may choose careers that allow the flexibility to raise a family 5. Discrimination is another explanation for these occupational patterns V.

Activity 13d

Work and Gender A. Changes in women’s work patterns 1. In the 1950s, 1 in 3 women were in the labor force 2. Today 3 in 5 women are in the labor force 3. Women have made advances in the professions

Lecture 13b

4. Traditional women’s professions still have extremely high percentages of women 5. Women still hold the majority of lower paying jobs 6. Overall, women also still make less money than men (81 cents for every man’s dollar) B. The many meanings of work 1. Primarily, women participate in work for economic necessity 2. They also find satisfaction in employment outside the home 3. Working women tend to be physically and psychologically healthier C. The role of women in careers 1. Women follow a variety of career patterns 2. Many women interrupt work at least temporarily to take care of children whereas men rarely do so 3. Myths include that women in managerial, professional, or technical positions are less willing to take risks, and that women do not want, need, or expect the same salaries as men. Women tend to choose occupations that allow for more flexibility. 4. These myths can contribute to real gender disparities in pay and working conditions 5. Women who describe themselves as career-oriented are much happier when employed full-time. The life satisfaction and self-esteem of women who are not career-oriented is not impacted by their employment status. D. The dynamics of dual-earner couples 264 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

1. DUAL-EARNER COUPLE – a married or unmarried couple sharing a household in which both contribute to family income as members of the paid labor force

 Lecture 13a

2. Advantages include a higher total income which can provide a higher standard of living (e.g., a better place to live, a better education for children)

 Article 13e

3. Stress and role conflicts can also occur

Activity 13a

5. How fair each spouse perceives the distribution of labor in the family is more important than the actual distribution.

4. Dual-earner couples rarely share household chores equally. Women still tend to have the primary responsibility for housework and child care

6. Role conflicts arise when people attempt to meet both work and family responsibilities 7. There is still some social disapproval of women who choose to work when their children are young, especially if their economic need is not acute. 8. FAMILY LEAVE – leave required by law for the purpose of dealing with family affairs and problems. Typically not paid. 9. Work may buffer family-related stress and be a stabilizing influence

Lecture Suggestions  Lecture 13a.

Working Mothers and Fathers

In today’s economy, families are faced with difficult choices about childcare. Many families choose or must have both parents with jobs outside of the home. Your lecture can discuss the statistics related to parents working outside the home. You can show what most already know – more mothers are working outside of the home. There has been an increase in fathers staying home while mothers work outside of the home. Your lecture can pose the question – will these trends continue? What will the national trends be in 10 or 20 years in the future? The following websites provide some up-to-date information. • • •

U.S. Census. Childcare arrangements (http://www.census.gov/hhes/childcare/data/sipp/2010/tables.html) Families and Work Institute (http://www.familiesandwork.org/) Population Reference Bureau. How involved are fathers in raising children? (http://www.prb.org/articles/2000/howinvolvedarefathersinraisingchildren.a spx) 265 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

 Lecture 13b.

The Politics of Family and Work

Recent legislation on family leave in the United States has become a political issue. Family leave provides individuals with time off from work (often unpaid) to care for a family member who is ill. Basic family leave has been routine in European countries. However, the business community has resisted it here in the U.S. The following websites provide some up-to-date information. • • •

Family and Medical Leave Act in 1993 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_leave) U.S. Department of Labor (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_leave) National Coalition to Protect Family Leave (http://www.protectfamilyleave.org/)

 Lecture 13c.

Guest Speaker

Invite a professional marriage counselor to speak to your students about the common issues that cause difficulties for couples and the typical approaches to these problems. You can find such professionals from the Family and Marriage Counseling Directory (http://family-marriage-counseling.com).

Class Activities Activity 13a.

Division of Labor by Married Couples

Ask students in your class to interview married couples about their views regarding the roles of men and women in marriages. Use Handout 13-1 for this survey. Assist your students in pooling, tabulating, and analyzing their data. Instruct students to interview husbands and wives separately. Sending students out in teams could facilitate this. While one student interviews the husband, the second student can interview the wife.

Activity 13b.

Analysis of Parenting Magazines

Students can work in groups or independently to analyze parenting magazines. They can discuss the extent to which parenting magazines are geared toward fathers or mothers. What activities are recommended by the magazines? What topics are routinely discussed? To what extent are children and families in the magazine from various ethnic groups? Ask students if they are surprised by some of the suggestions for parenting practices described in the magazines. Students can present their results to the class and/or prepare a written assignment for you.

Activity 13c.

What is the Purpose of Marriage?

The textbook provides a number of purposes of marriage, including the provision of emotional sustenance, sexual gratification, and financial security. Have students form groups and brainstorm reasons why people get married (you may need to remind them that their lists need not been reasons why they would or did get married). Once lists are created, groups should consider the degree to which each reason is viewed as socially acceptable and provide a rank ordering of the reasons accordingly. Following this part of the activity, ask the students to share with the class the reasons that were at the top and bottom of their lists. Discuss whether there are any reasons that underlie the decision to get married that the students view as being unacceptable. Are there any that are necessary for successful marriage, in the students’ view?

Activity 13d.

Critical Thinking Journal

Read the section in the Craig text on work and gender. The text notes that working women tend to be physically and psychologically healthier. It also notes that there is still some social disapproval of women who choose to work when their children are young and that women tend to have the primary responsibility for housework and child care. In terms of having a career (job) and a family, what do you think is the best time in the lifespan for a woman to have a child? Would you answer this question differently for a man? Discuss the implications of your answers.

Activity 13e.

Developmental Tasks of Middle Adulthood

Using Havighurst’s developmental tasks for middle adulthood, ask students to provide examples of each developmental task of middle age. Ask students to generate both positive and negative examples.

Internet Video Clips  WebVid 13a.

Time: 1:58

Debate on whether the military’s don’t ask, don’t tell policy should be repealed: http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/politics/2009/05/20/am.costello.dadt.cnn?iref=v ideosearch (Repeal Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell?)

 WebVid 13b.

Time: 2:51

NBC Nightly News excerpt on challenges posed by absent fathers: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1SUo2w2SRhM (NBC Nightly News: Desperately seeking dad) 267 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

 WebVid 13c.

Time: 1:40

A woman describes how she balances work, family, and graduate school: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bN1B25Toas0 (Find a balance between school, work, & family)

Supplemental Readings: Current Research  Article 13a. DePaulo, B. M., Morris, W. L., (2006). The Unrecognized Stereotyping and Discrimination Against Singles. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 251–254. A widespread form of bias has slipped under our cultural and academic radar. People who are single are targets of singlism: negative stereotypes and discrimination. Compared to married or coupled people, who are often described in very positive terms, singles are assumed to be immature, maladjusted, and self-centered. Although the perceived differences between people who have and have not married are large, the actual differences are not. Moreover, there is currently scant recognition that singlism exists, and when singlism is acknowledged, it is often accepted as legitimate.

 Article 13b. Finkel, E. J. & Eastwick, P. W. (2008). Speed-Dating. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 193–197. Scholars have recently begun to harness the immense power of speeddating procedures to achieve important and novel insights into the dynamics of romantic attraction. Speed-dating procedures allow researchers to study romantic dynamics dyadically, with regard to potentially meaningful relationships, and with strong external validity. This article highlights the strengths and promise of speed-dating procedures, reviews some of their most exciting contributions to our understanding of the social psyche, and illustrates how scholars can employ speed-dating and its straightforward variants to study topics relevant to diverse subfields of psychological science.

 Article 13c. Judge, T. A. (2009). Core Self-Evaluations and Work Success, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 58–62.

Core self-evaluations (CSE) is a broad, integrative trait indicated by selfesteem, locus of control, generalized self-efficacy, and (low) neuroticism (high emotional stability). While only a decade old, research on CSE suggests that it explains much of the overlap among these trait measures, while also predicting many work and other applied outcomes better than the individual traits. Individuals with high levels of CSE perform better on their jobs, are more successful in their careers, are more satisfied with their jobs and lives, report lower levels of stress and conflict, cope more effectively with setbacks, and better capitalize on advantages and opportunities. Though research on individual self-concept traits such as self-esteem and locus of control should continue, researchers interested in these traits should consider the advantages of CSE in its relation to success in work and in life.

 Article 13d. Rusbult, C. E. & Finkel, E. J., & Kumashiro, M. (2009). The Michelangelo phenomenon, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 305-309. This paper reviews theory and research regarding the Michelangelo phenomenon. The Michelangelo model suggests that close partners sculpt one another's selves, shaping one another's skills and traits and promoting versus inhibiting one another's goal pursuits. As a result of the manner in which partners perceive and behave toward one another, each person enjoys greater or lesser success at attaining his or her ideal-self goals. Affirmation of one another's ideal-self goals yields diverse benefits, both personal and relational. The Michelangelo model and supportive empirical evidence are reviewed, the phenomenon is distinguished from related interpersonal processes, and directions for future work are outlined.

 Article 13e. Repetti, R., Wang, S., & Saxbe, D. (2009). Bringing it all back home: How outside stressors shape families’ everyday lives. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 106–111. Families are dynamic systems that are permeable to influences from the outside world, such as daily stressors at work and at school. Our research uses naturalistic methods to investigate how family interactions change in response to such experiences and how other family members contribute to that process. We argue that the shortterm effects of daily stressors on family dynamics can have cumulative, long-term implications for family health and functioning. Naturalistic studies that incorporate daily diary, observational, and physiological measures can offer new insights into families’ everyday stress responding and coping processes.

 Article 13f. Simpson, J.A., Collins, W. A., & Salvatore, J.E. 2011). The impact of early interpersonal experience on adult romantic relationship functioning: Recent findings from the Minnesota longitudinal study of risk and adaptation. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 355–359. Adopting an organizational view on social development, we have investigated how interpersonal experiences early in life predict how well individuals will resolve relationship conflicts, recover from conflicts, and have stable, satisfying relationships with their romantic partners in early adulthood. We have also identified specific interpersonal experiences during middle childhood and adolescence that mediate the connection between how individuals regulated their emotions with their parents very early in life and how they do so as young adults in their romantic relationships. We discuss the many advantages of adopting an organizational view on social development.

Handout 13-1 Roles in Marriage Survey Personal Data for Interviewee: Age: ______

Sex: ______

Marital Status: _______

Number of children: ______ Number of Years Married/Cohabitating: ________

For each of the following tasks, indicate which ones you take primary responsibility for in your household and which your spouse handles most of the time. If any task is generally handled by both of you equally, answer “both.”

Household chores: Laundry ____________ Cooking ____________ Cleaning ____________ Dish washing ________

Household Repairs: __________ Outside Maintenance: ________ Grocery Shopping: ___________ Yard care: __________________

Paying Bills: _________ Family correspondence: _______________ Child care chores: Transportation: _______________ Help with homework: __________ Infant care: Feeding:_________ Diaper changing: ________ Bathing: _________ Discipline: _______ Car/Vehicle Care: _____________ Pet care: _____________________

Forming Close Relationships Category

Title

Watch

Changes in Friendship with Age

Watch

Triangluar Theory of Love: Robert Sternberg

Description This is a video about cultural differences in friendships. Robert Sternberg outlines his triangular theory of love, which conceptualizes love as being comprised of intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment. The type of love one experiences is defined according to the relative contributions of these three components.

Duration

Page 365

366

The Family Life Cycle and Adult Development Category

Title

Watch

Adoption: Jane Marie and Dale

Watch

Challenges of Becoming a New Parent

Description This news report follows the story of Jane Marie and Dale and their adoption of two children from Russia. This couple discusses pregnancy, breastfeeding, and the challenges that parenthood presents to them.

Duration

Description This segment describes the "Discover Me" web site that matches people to jobs based on their personality characteristics. The system follows the same logic as the person/job-fit model proposed by John Holland. This is a video about choosing careers that match personality.

Duration

Page

374

375

The Occupational Cycle Category

Title

Watch

Discover Me: Match Personalities to Careers

Watch

Career and Personality

Page

377 377

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic QUICK QUIZ 1 QUICK QUIZ 2 SELF, FAMILY, AND WORK

FORMING CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS

Chapter 13 Young Adulthood: Personality and Sociocultural Development

Multiple Choice Multiple Choice Multiple Choice

Factual

Conceptual

Applied

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 3, 4, 7, 13, 22

4, 5, 6, 7 4, 5, 6, 7 2, 5, 10, 11, 20

True/False

124, 125, 127

8, 9, 10 8, 9, 10 1, 6, 8, 9, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23 126

Short Answer

157, 158

156, 159, 160

Essay

189, 190, 191, 192

Multiple Choice

True/False

24, 26, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 47, 48, 49 132, 136

Short Answer Essay

THE FAMILY LIFE CYCLE AND ADULT DEVELOPMENT

Multiple Choice

55, 56, 57, 59, 61, 62, 63, 66, 67, 69

True/False

137, 138

Short Answer Essay

THE OCCUPATIONAL CYCLE

Multiple Choice

83, 94

True/False Short Answer

146

Essay

25, 27, 28, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 43, 45

29, 32, 46, 50, 51

128, 129, 131, 133, 134, 135 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202 60, 64, 65, 68, 70

130

139, 140, 141, 142, 143 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208 72, 75, 77, 78, 82, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93 144, 145, 147, 148 175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181 210, 211, 213

52, 53, 54, 58

71, 73, 74, 76, 79, 80, 81, 84, 86

177 209, 212

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic WORK AND GENDER

Chapter 13 Young Adulthood: Personality and Sociocultural Development Factual

Conceptual

Applied

Multiple Choice

95, 98, 99, 102, 103, 111, 112

101, 104, 110, 113

True/False

149, 150, 152, 154, 155

96, 97, 100, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 114, 115 151, 153

Short Answer Essay

CHANGING PERSPECTIVES: LIVING TOGETHER OR LIVING ALONE CURRENT ISSUES: JUGGLING WORK AND FAMILY ROLES – THE SPECIAL CHALLENGE FOR LOWINCOME, DUALCAREER COUPLES

Multiple Choice

116, 118

Multiple Choice

121, 122

182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219 117, 119

120

123

Chapter Fourteen: Middle Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 14, students will know: •

how people in middle age generally approach this period of development – as the best part of their life or the beginning of decline.

•

if there is such a thing as the midlife crisis.

•

the changes in physical functions associated with the middle adult years.

•

how the climacteric is typically experienced by men and women.

•

how sexuality changes when men and women reach middle age.

•

common health related problems of people in midlife.

•

how habits established earlier in life begin to assert their effects in middle adulthood.

•

the cognitive changes associated with the middle adult years.

•

how middle-aged adults begin to adapt to the mild cognitive declines associated with middle age.

Key Terms and Concepts Climacteric Command generation Crisis model Crystallized intelligence Declarative knowledge Fluid intelligence Menopause Osteoporosis Procedural knowledge Sensuality Transition model

Chapter Outline I.

Development in Middle Adulthood A. Prime time or the beginning of the end?

Activity 14b

1. Theorists disagree on whether or not it is a time of new fulfillment or a period of dissatisfaction 2. COMMAND GENERATION – a term for the generation of middle-aged people; reflects the idea that this age group makes most of the policy decisions that affect our lives 3. Most people experience a sense of ambivalence during period B. Midlife crisis: is it real?

Activity 14a

1. CRISIS MODEL – the view that changes in midlife are abrupt and often stressful 2. According to Levinson, the midlife crisis occurs between the ages of 40 and 45 and occurs in 75% of males. Subsequent work led him to conclude that the pattern is similar in women. 3. TRANSITION MODEL – the view that changes in midlife are gradual and midlife crisis is not the norm 4. Most longitudinal studies do not support the occurrence of midlife crisis 5. Major transitions occur in life but not in a specific time period. They seem to occur in response to specific events. 6. In middle adulthood, people begin to take stock of their lives C. Perceptions and realities at midlife 1. Research suggests that that middle age is the best time in life since the rates of general distress are low and health is generally good. 2. Research also suggests that the midlife crisis is the exception and not the rule 3. Those who are most likely to experience a midlife crisis tend to avoid introspection and use denial to avoid thinking about their changing lives 4. Midlife crises are more likely in people who are affluent. II.

1. Sensation a. Decline in visual acuity b. Hearing loss c. Decline in taste, smell, and pain sensitivity 2. Motor Skills and Reaction time a. Slow decline in reaction time b. Learning new motor skills can be difficult 3. Internal changes a. Slowing of the nervous system. b. Stiffening and shrinking of the skeleton c. Loss of elasticity in the skin and muscles d. Accumulation of subcutaneous fat e. Decrease in heart and lung capacity B. CLIMACTERIC – the broad complex of physical and emotional symptoms that accompany reproductive changes in middle adulthood, affecting both men and women 1. MENOPAUSE – the permanent end of menstruation; occurs in middle adulthood and may be accompanied by physical symptoms and intense emotional reactions 2. Physical changes and symptoms of menopause a. Generally occurs between 45 and 55 b. Ovulation becomes erratic and then stops. The changes take place over 7–8 years; menopause is a process c. Hot flashes and night sweats occur due to the decrease in estrogen levels 3. Emotional effects associated with menopause a. Feelings of depression and a sense of being less feminine occur in a small proportion of women. Those who experience depression earlier in life are more susceptible to problems at menopause b. Most women do not respond negatively c. Many women feel freer and more in control of their own lives d. The cultural context of menopause affects women’s reactions

4. Long-term effects a. OSTEOPOROSIS – the loss of bone mass and increased bone fragility in middle adulthood and beyond b. There may be a link between menopause and heart disease

 WebVid 14a

5. Hormone replacement therapy a. Estrogen and/or progesterone supplements alleviate the unpleasant symptoms of menopause

 Lecture 14c

b. Could increase chance of heart disease c. May prevent onset of Alzheimer’s d. Now recommended that women consult their physician to tailor an appropriate treatment program 6. Changes in men a. No single, abrupt event comparable to menopause in men b. Approximately 50% of men over 40 will experience some erectile dysfunction (impotence) c. Originally thought of as primarily a psychological problem but new research indicates a physiological basis d. Prescription drugs can remedy it in 60–80% of men C. Sexuality in the middle years

Activity 14c

1. Frequency of sexual activity generally slows 2. Lack of opportunity and physical problems lead to this decrease 3. Men may experience an increase in sexual anxiety due to job stress and boredom with a long-term sexual partner 4. Due to menopause, women may require longer to reach orgasm 5. Recent national surveys found that adults in midlife are still engaging in sex and enjoying it. However, at age 50 women report less physical and emotional satisfaction than men 6. More emphasis placed on sensuality 7. SENSUALITY – hugging, touching, stroking, and other behaviors that may or may not lead to sex III.

A. The cumulative effects of health habits 1. Good health habits a. In part, longevity is attributable to good health habits b. A balanced diet, exercise, and health care can extend adulthood 2. Poor health habits a. Most chronic disorders begin to develop long before they are diagnosed b. Smoking can contribute to cancer, emphysema, arteriosclerosis, and hypertension. Estimated that 20% of deaths are related to smoking c. Heavy use of any drug has long-term consequences d. Being overweight is a contributor to a variety of health-related problems. It is now the second largest preventable cause of death and disease

 Lecture 14a

B. Stress and health 1. Stress plays a role in many diseases of middle adulthood 2. Stress is a normal part of life and takes place in a social context 3. How an individual perceives an event is an important cause of stress. People also vary in their ability to handle stress 4. Stress is additive. If multiple events occur at the same time, the impact is worse 5. Increased stress is connected to heart disease, diabetes, stomach ulcers, and some cancer 6. Stress also results from the accumulation of “hassles” C. Ethnicity, poverty, and health 1. People who live in more stressful conditions have poorer health and earlier death. This is true throughout life, but is especially evident in the middle and older age groups

 Article 14b

2. Blacks and Hispanics are more likely to die from heart disease, hypertension, cancer, diabetes, and AIDS than Whites 3. This could be due to lack of health care, increased exposure to stress, and a high rate of poverty 4. The Affordable Care Act seeks to extend health care benefits to people in the US who formerly were without care

IV.

Cognitive Continuity and Change A. Fluid versus crystallized intelligence 1. CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE – accumulated knowledge and skills based on education and life experiences; also referred to as cognitive pragmatics 2. FLUID INTELLIGENCE – abilities involved in acquiring new knowledge and skills; also referred to as cognitive mechanics. Reflects neurological functioning 3. Crystallized type remains higher and can even increase in middle age 4. Fluid type begins to diminish in adulthood and gets worse with age, but those results may be an artifact of crosssectional studies that compared people from very different cohorts

 Article 14a

5. Implications for intellectual functioning a. Most adults maintain a high level of functioning throughout middle adulthood b. A decline is most likely to be seen in tasks involving speed c. General slowing is not noticed since adults compensate by an increase in efficiency and general knowledge d. Keeping mentally active maintains cognitive functioning e. A major influence on cognition in adulthood is the wealth of past life experience B. Experience and Expertise 1. DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE – factual knowledge; knowing what 2. PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE – action-oriented knowledge; knowing how to 3. Accumulation of knowledge can compensate for cognitive declines 4. Experience cannot reverse age related declines, but can compensate for them 5. Aging involves a trade-off: As one skill declines, another improves C. Cognitive skill in the workplace

1. People who have a high degree of occupational selfdirection have a higher degree of intellectual flexibility 2. Workers need intellectual flexibility in today’s workplace

 Lecture 14b, 14d

3. Companies often offer training programs to help workers update knowledge

 WebVid 14b, 14c

4. Engaging in complex tasks is key to maintaining high levels of intellectual functioning

Lecture Suggestions  Lecture 14a.

Stress and Health

Your lecture can focus on what is known about the relationship between stress and health. Middle adulthood is a time for stress, either because of children or older family members requiring care. There are financial stressors and also emotional stressors in the case of death of loved ones or divorce. Maintaining good health in middle adulthood requires adults to be skilled at managing their stress levels and seeking help when the stress becomes overwhelming. The following websites provide some up-to-date-information. • • •

Centers for Disease Control. Stress at work http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/99-101/ Mayo Clinic health information website http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/stress/SR00001 National Institute of Mental Health fact sheet on stress http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/stress/fact-sheet-onstress.shtml

 Lecture 14b.

Aging Workers

As the population ages a larger percentage of the population will be 60 years of age or above. More workers will work into the years previously considered the ages of retirement. This will be an international trend. In the U.S., many older workers will be forced to continue working because of the problems with social security insurance and the rising cost of health care. Your lecture can present this information to your students. You may choose to pose the question – When do you plan to retire. The following websites provide up-to-date information. • •

U.S. Census. Working Beyond Retirement Age (2008) http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/laborfor/Working-Beyond-RetirementAge.pdf The Urban Institute. Unemployment statistics on older Americans 280 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

• •

http://www.urban.org/publications/411904.html Department of Labor. Facts about Older Workers http://www.dol.gov/wb/factsheets/Qf-olderworkers55.htm Social Security Online. Find your retirement age http://www.ssa.gov/pubs/ageincrease.htm

 Lecture 14c.

Hormonal Stages in Adulthood

Middle adulthood is a time for many physical changes. Those occurring in women are well-known. Menopause is a time for drastic hormonal changes and also marks a time when women must begin serious monitoring of estrogenrelated ailments, such as heart disease and osteoporosis. Men also go through hormonal changes during middle adulthood. Some have suggested that men go through a phase called “maleopause.” Levels of testosterone in older men appear to be related to memory performance. The following websites provide some up-to-date information: • •

Mayo Clinic. Menopause http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/menopause/DS00119 National Institutes on Aging http://www.niapublications.org/agepages/menopause.asp and http://www.nia.nih.gov/newsroom/2004/01/low-free-testosterone-levelslinked-alzheimers-disease-older-men

 Lecture 14d.

Guest Speaker

Invite a professional career counselor to speak to your students about the difficulties faced by older workers when they are downsized and must change professions. You can find such professionals in your local yellow pages. You can also ask someone from your local employment agency to serve as a speaker.

Class Activities Activity 14a.

Midlife Crisis Debates

Divide the class into two groups. One group of students is to take the crisis view of mid-life and the other group is to take the transition view. Students in each group should be given some time outside of class to research their assigned view point and then be ready to have the debate on a specified date.

Activity 14b.

Media Portrayal of Middle Adulthood

Ask students in the class to collect examples of portrayals of middle adulthood in television programs and movies. With movies, it is possible for students to compare contemporary portrayals with those from the 50s, 60s, and 70s. Students can analyze the roles that adults tend to take and stereotypes that appear to reoccur. Students can present their results to the class and/or submit a written assignment to you.

Activity 14c.

Critical Thinking Journal

Sexual drive and frequency tend to naturally decline in middle adulthood in ways that are not associated with poor health. What effects do you think the marketing of drugs such as Viagra have on the perception of normal aging processes? Does our society think it is OK to grow old?

Internet Video Clips  WebVid 14a.

Time: 5:05

Video on the usefulness and the risk factors related with bioidentical hormone treatments for menopause: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ItyGSbpe0Pk (Menopause Hormone Therapy)

 WebVid 14b.

Time: 2:39

CBS News report on how companies are coping with an aging workforce http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dIuzaXvvBV0&feature=related (Companies Cope with an Aging Workforce)

 WebVid 14c.

Time: 4:58 Describes a program that aims to attract and retain older workers at Scottsdale Healthcare: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lAD_yF4SPe0 (Baby Boomers www.azpbs.org/horizon)

Supplemental Readings: Current Research  Article 14a. Blanchard-Fields, F. (2007). Everyday Problem Solving and Emotion: An Adult Developmental Perspective. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 26–31. Despite cognitive declines that occur with aging, older adults solve emotionally salient and interpersonal problems in more effective ways than young adults do. I review evidence suggesting that older adults (a) tailor their strategies to the contextual features of the problem and (b) effectively use a combination of instrumental and emotion-regulation strategies. I identify factors of problem-solving contexts that affect what types of problem-solving strategies will be effective. Finally, I discuss how this identification of factors affects what we know about developmental differences in everyday problem-solving competence.

 Article 14b. Cutrona, C. E., Wallace, G., & Wesner, K. A. (2006). Neighborhood Characteristics and Depression: An Examination of Stress Processes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 188–192. Neighborhoods with poor-quality housing, few resources, and unsafe conditions impose stress, which can lead to depression. The stress imposed by adverse neighborhoods increases depression above and beyond the effects of the individual's own personal stressors, such as poverty and negative events within the family or workplace. Furthermore, adverse neighborhoods appear to intensify the harmful impact of personal stressors and interfere with the formation of bonds between people, again increasing risk for depression. Neighborhoods do not affect all people in the same way. People with different personality characteristics adjust in different ways to challenging neighborhoods. As a field, psychology should pay more attention to the impact of contextual factors such as neighborhoods. Neighborhood-level mental health problems should be addressed at the neighborhood level. Public housing policies that contribute to the concentration of poverty should be avoided and research should be conducted on the most effective ways to mobilize neighborhood residents to meet common goals and improve the context in which they live.

Development in Middle Adulthood Category

Title

Watch

Longitudinal Study: Aging Well

Watch

Susan Charles: Emotion Processes and Aging (APS Player)

Description This is a video about a longitudinal study of aging well. Interview with Susan Charles, Associate Professor of Psychology at UC Irvine, whose research examines emotional processes across the adult lifespan.

Duration

Description A physician (Dr. Johanna Abernathy) and a nurse practitioner (Ms. Terry Frieden) in an office where cosmetic surgery is performed discuss the common procedures that currently are used to address various cosmetic problems, including hair removal, Botox injections, skin resurfacing and tightening, and spider vein removal. The laser procedure shown involves the removal of spider veins from a middle-aged woman’s legs. The physician also describes some of the reasons why the use of cosmetic procedures is increasing. A wife and husband both in their early 40s are interviewed about the physical changes they have experienced as they have entered the stage of middle adulthood. They discuss changes in physical health and stamina, the need to prepare better for physical exercise, the physical symptoms they

Duration

Page 393

393

Physical Continuity and Change Category

Title

Watch

Cosmetic Surgery

Watch

Physical Changes in Middle Adulthood

Page

395

396

Watch

Cognitive Changes Secondary to Menopause in Middle Adulthood

Watch

Menopause

experience that are associated with aging, the changes they observe in their appearance, and their general attitudes about maintaining physical health during the middle adult years. A profile of a middle-aged woman with climacteric-related memory problems. A menopausal woman discusses symptoms of menopause.

Watch

Estrogen and Memory

N/A

399

Watch

Middle Adulthood: Health, Jeff

N/A

399

2:07

396

3:29

397

Disease and Health Category

Title

Watch

Urban Sprawl and Obesity Gender Differences in Stress Vulnerability

Watch

Description Can your choice of neighborhood have a critical impact on whether you become obese? World News Tonight 2004 looks at how urban sprawl has created a dependence on driving, rather than walking, to do daily errands and thus may lead many people to become physically inactive and obese. Discuss of stress level differences between the genders

Duration

Page

406 406

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic QUICK QUIZ 1 QUICK QUIZ 2 DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Chapter 14 Middle Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development Factual

Conceptual

Applied

Multiple Choice Multiple Choice Multiple Choice

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 7, 12, 13, 17, 18

4, 5, 6, 7 4, 5, 6, 7 3, 4, 5, 10, 14

8, 9, 10 8, 9, 10 2, 6, 8, 9, 11, 15, 16, 19

True/False

128

127, 129, 130

Short Answer Essay

PHYSICAL CONTINUITY AND CHANGE

Multiple Choice

True/False

20, 21, 23, 24, 26, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 37, 41, 48, 49, 57, 58, 60, 62, 65, 68, 69 131, 133, 134, 142, 143

Short Answer

Essay

DISEASE AND HEALTH

Multiple Choice

True/False Short Answer

Essay

74, 75, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 96 145, 147, 150, 152, 154, 155, 156

166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172 204, 206, 207, 208, 209 32, 36, 47, 50, 51, 54, 55, 59, 64, 66

132, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216 70, 71, 72, 76, 77, 84, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97, 98 144, 146, 148, 149, 151, 153, 157 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225

205 22, 25, 27, 28, 29, 38, 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 52, 53, 56, 61, 63, 67

73, 95

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic COGNITIVE CONTINUITY AND CHANGE

Chapter 14 Middle Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development Factual

Conceptual

Applied

Multiple Choice

99, 100, 101, 103, 106, 112

104, 105

True/False

159, 165

119, 121, 122

102, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118 158, 160, 161, 163, 164 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203 226, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232 120, 123

124, 125

126

Short Answer Essay Multiple Choice CURRENT ISSUES: WHY ARE SOME GROUPS AT RISK? Multiple Choice CHANGING PERSPECTIVES: RETRAINING FOR TODAY’S TECHNOLOGICAL JOBS

162

227

Chapter Fifteen: Middle Adulthood: Personality & Psychosocial Development Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 15, students will know: •

how well the theme “continuity and change” describes the adjustments that adults make in middle adulthood.

•

what theorists imply when they note that generativity is the primary developmental task of middle adulthood.

•

the differences that exist in how men and women react to middle age.

•

the important ways by which midlife adults can be considered “the generation that runs things.”

•

how parents typically respond when their last child leaves home.

•

the challenges presented when the parents of midlife adults or children and grandchildren need assistance.

•

how friendships in middle adulthood differ from those developed during earlier periods of the lifespan.

•

how adults cope with divorce and remarriage when they occur at midlife.

•

how career paths typically unfold in middle adulthood and the occupational challenges some midlife adults face.

•

if personality development in middle adulthood is marked more by stability or by change.

Key Terms and Concepts Empty nest Generativity versus self absorption Job burnout Kinkeeper Launching of adolescents Blended family Role conflict Role strain

Chapter Outline I.

Personality Continuity and Change A. The tasks of middle adulthood a. The stage of middle adulthood is defined as much by tasks as by age b. Erikson’s Generativity versus Self-Absorption a. GENERATIVITY VERSUS SELF-ABSORPTION – for Erikson, the overarching task of middle age where adults develop either the feeling that they have contributed in worthwhile ways or that their lives have not been worthwhile b. People act within three domains: i.

Procreative – giving & responding to their children

ii. Productive – integrating work with family iii. Creative – contributing to society on a larger scale c. When a sense of generativity fails to develop, stagnation and boredom are often the result c. Extending Erikson’s view a. Peck argued that Erikson’s stages placed too much emphasis on earlier stages of life b. Peck developed new ideas about the conflicts that each person goes through, focusing on middle and older adulthood B. Personal reactions to middle adulthood

 Lecture 15b

a. Men’s reactions a. Most men have developed routines that allow them to successfully cope with problems b. Realize that both family relations and job roles important c. Men today usually experience middle adulthood in the same ways as women b. Women’s reactions

a. Women tend to report major life transitions at 3 points: the early child rearing years, when their children leave home, menopause b. Many women’s goals vary considerably from those associated with traditional roles c. The timing of key life events also defines their status, lifestyle, and options at middle adulthood d. ROLE CONFLICT – occurs when the demands from one role conflicts with the demands of other roles (e.g., family demands conflict with work) e. ROLE STRAIN – an overload of demands within a given role, such as being a mother or father f. Both midlife men and women experience greater wellbeing if they have multiple roles c. Goals and choices a. In middle adulthood, reassessment of priorities and reflection on whether original goals have been met occurs b. Finding a way to contribute to other people allows a healthy adjustment II.

Family and Friends: Interpersonal Contexts A. The generation that runs things a. Responsibility of middle age means people have to view accomplishments realistically b. They must live in the present

Activity 15c

c. KINKEEPER – the role assumed by middle aged people that includes maintaining family rituals, celebrating achievements, keeping family histories alive, reaching out to family members who are far away, and gathering the family together for holiday celebrations – all of which helps keep the family close B. Relationships with adult children a. Launching of adolescents and young adults a. LAUNCHING OF ADOLESCENTS – parents letting go of older adolescent children so that they can assume responsible adult roles b. Some families are better at letting go than others; cultural factors may impact this 290 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

c. Parents must learn to accept who their children are b. The “Boomerang Generation” a. Today nearly 22% of emerging adults live with their parents. The primary reason is the economy b. In most cases, having an adult child move home is positive. In some cases, a returning adult child can violate parents’ expectations, straining the relationship c. Empty nest a. EMPTY NEST – the period in the family life cycle that occurs after the last child has left home b. Can be difficult if the partners have grown apart over the years, but more often marital satisfaction increases c. Most couples still rely on each other for emotional support d. Marital satisfaction based on different things than during earlier stages, but most middle-age parents thrive d. Mutually reciprocal relationships

 Article 15a

a. As children reach adulthood they establish a reciprocal relationship with their parents b. Children need to distance themselves to see their parents in a realistic way; this can hurt the parents’ feelings c. If the relationship between parents and children is positive in childhood and adolescence, it is easier to establish a reciprocal relationship C. Relationships with aging parents a. The reciprocal exchange of assistance a. Lasting social, emotional, and material exchanges exist between adult children and parents b. How children behave toward their parents depends on stage in the family life cycle, life expectancy, gender, ethnicity, social class, and family history b. Role reversals a. Middle-aged adults become the generation in charge

b. Parents may be in poor health, retired, or in need of financial aid c. Resentment can occur if both generations don’t accept this role change as a part of the life cycle c. Caring for elderly parents

 WebVid 15a

a. Only a small percentage of caregivers use formal services (e.g., nursing homes). Most care for aging parents at home. b. For most middle-aged caregivers, responsibility can be both rewarding and stressful c. Daughters and daughters-in-law are more likely than male family members to care for aging parents D. Becoming a grandparent a. Majority of people in the U.S. become grandparents during middle age. The average age for women is 50 and for men it is 52

 Lecture 15c

b. Grandparents can help raise children without the daily responsibilities of being a parent

 Lecture 15d  WebVid 15c

c. Important roles of grandparents include: a. Being there b. Family national guard c. Arbitrator

 WebVid 15b, 15d

d. Maintaining the family’s biography d. Today 10–11% of grandparents are raising their grandchildren E. Friendship: A lifelong perspective a. Friends are especially important for people who do not marry or have children by providing intimacy b. Most complex friendships occur in late middle-age c. People at this stage are likely to appreciate the unique characteristics of their friends d. Sex differences: women consider reciprocity & intimacy and men consider similarity to be most important in choosing friends e. Middle-aged friendships today are more heterogeneous with respect to gender and ethnicity

III.

A. Marriage, Divorce and Remarriage

 Lecture 15a

a. Why couples divorce a. Appears preferable to an unhappy relationship b. Usually a gradual process of emotional distancing

Activity 15d

c. Women are usually the initiators of divorce b. Coping with life after divorce a. Financial hardship affects both men and women i.

Women who were homemakers face the greatest financial strain. They may need to enter the workforce if they were not already working or work more hours if they had a job

ii. Men may need to work longer hours b. Grief and mourning over the loss of an intimate relationship occurs, even if the marriage was unhappy c. Disruption of normal routines also occurs d. Divorce in middle adulthood can be especially difficult. May have to do things considered more appropriate for people in early adulthood (e.g., dating, return to school) c. Starting a new life a. May feel like they have a new chance at life after divorce b. May have problems relinquishing their previous roles c. May be unready to manage financial and legal matters d. Within 2 or 3 years many individuals experience considerable improvement in well-being e. Divorced people who develop new intimate relationships are more likely to adjust positively d. Marriages that succeed

Activity 15a Activity 15b  Article 15d

a. Both males and females list “my spouse is my best friend” as the primary reason for remaining married b. Usually satisfied with their sex lives, but this is not a primary factor in happiness or marital satisfaction c. Usually have learned to communicate effectively, which is a key reason for marriage’s benefits

B. BLENDED FAMILIES – a family in which partners with children have remarried or formed a cohabiting relationship; also called a step family a. Blended families in perspective a. Now more commonly a result of marriage-divorceremarriage instead of marriage-death-remarriage b. Contact with the former spouse can cause difficulties c. Previously widowed stepparents report more positive relationships with each other and with their children than do previously divorced stepparents d. Second marriages have more open communication and greater acceptance of conflict b. Learning to live in a blended family

 WebVid 15e

a. For most stepparents, discipline is greatest difficulty b. The stereotype of the stepchild being neglected is inaccurate c. Taking time to develop mutual trust, affection, and closeness to the child helps form a workable relationship d. Trying to compete with the stepchild’s biological parent often leads to failure IV.

Occupational Continuity and Change A. Job change and stress 1. Job loss a. After job loss it can be difficult to find another job with comparable pay & benefits, but emotional problems may outweigh the loss of income b. Responses include anger, protest, bargaining, and depression c. More difficult for middle-aged than younger adults

 Article 15c

d. Those who cope best take loss in stride and don’t turn their anger inward 2. JOB BURNOUT – the emotional exhaustion that often affects people in high stress professions and trades a. Prevalent among individuals in the helping professions, especially those who are idealistic and high in neuroticism b. General cause is lack of rewards 294 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

c. Not the result of incompetence or personal failings, but a function of the situation d. Can minimize burnout by being realistic in expectations and goals 3. Midcareer reassessment a. Occurs for a variety of reasons (e.g., non-promotion, undesirable job) b. A shift in values and goals can also lead to a change in career V.

 Article 15b

Continuity and Change in the Structure of Personality A. The five factor model – Personality can be well described by assessing five traits a. Emotional stability b. Extraversion c. Openness to experience d. Agreeableness e. Conscientiousness B. Stability or change? a. Considerable consistency in personality across adulthood, even cross-culturally b. Agreeableness and conscientiousness increase through early and middle adulthood c. Emotional stability increases more for women than men d. Personality can be shaped by life events and personality shapes our perception of events e. Middle adulthood is characterized by both stability and change

Lecture Suggestions  Lecture 15a.

Reducing Divorce: The Process of Divorce Reform

The divorce rate in the U.S. is about 50%. A number of states have developed programs to reduce their divorce rates by reforming the divorce process. For example, covenant marriage programs are designed to make it more difficult to obtain a divorce. In 1997, Louisiana became the first state to pass a covenant marriage law. Covenant marriage is presented as an option at the time of the 295 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

marriage. One part of the program requires the couple to receive counseling prior to marriage and prior to obtaining a divorce. Another makes it more difficult to receive a quick divorce and no-fault divorces are not an option. Abuse, adultery, and long periods of separation are still considered. So far very few couples have selected the option of covenant marriage. One of the major criticisms is its religious nature. Most of the research suggests that if the parents can stay together and minimize the amount of bickering and tension seen by the children it is better for the children. However, many couples are not able to do this and the option of divorce may be more realistic. The section on divorce in the Craig text provides good background information on this. Additional information can be provided concerning spouse abuse. The topic of divorce reform lends itself to discussion. Students usually know someone who was raised in a divorced family. Have them generate the pros and cons of staying married and of getting divorced from the perspective of the adults and the children. Under what circumstances should people get divorced? Table 15-7 in the Craig text contains a useful list of myths associated with marriage and divorce. There are many websites with a variety of agendas that sponsor information on divorce and divorce reform programs. I have included several below that include a variety of viewpoints. You can check out the divorce laws in your state or have students compare and contrast the divorce requirements for different states. The website (http://www.divorcesource.com/info/divorcelaws/states.shtml) provides a good starting point for accessing different state’s divorce laws. Divorce Reform: http://www.reformdivorce.org/what-is-divorce-reform.html http://patriot.net/~crouch/divorce.html#anchor21907205 http://www.divorcepeers.com/ Covenant Marriage: http://marriage.about.com/cs/covenantmarriage/a/covenant.htm Comprehensive divorce website: http://www.divorceinteractive.com Spouse abuse: http://www.rsacc.org/

 Lecture 15b.

How Do Men and Women React to Middle Adulthood?

A woman who is 40 in 2004 can expect to live 40.4 more years. A man can expect to live another 34.6 years. Some of the issues that face men and women at this point in development are similar. For example, career evaluations are common. This is an excellent opportunity to examine the message that is sent to 296 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

middle aged persons in the media and in stereotypes (e.g., midlife crisis). What roles are males supposed to use to evaluate their life up to this point? What about females? What now? Table 15.1 illustrates Peck’s issues of adult development. Have the class decide which of these tasks they see as relevant to the adults they know.

 Lecture 15c.

Grandparents as Parents

Your lecture can focus on the reality that some older adults face – becoming the primary caregivers for their grandchildren. When one’s children (for whatever reason) cannot do it alone, grandparents often step in to help. The following websites provide some information on the topic. •

• •

U.S. Census. Co-resident Grandparents and Their Grandchildren: Grandparents Maintaining Families (http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0026/twps00 26.html) Adoption.com (http://parenting.adoption.com/parents/grandparents-asparents.html) AARP. Grandparenting (http://www.aarp.org/families/grandparents/)

 Lecture 15d.

Grandparents’ Rights Following their Children’s Divorce

In recent years, there’s been some attention to the issues of grandparents’ rights to visit their grandchildren following the divorce of the children’s parents. Several court cases have upheld the rights of grandparents to have basic rights to see and to communicate with their grandchildren. Your lecture can take the view that as the population ages and as divorce rates continue to be high, this issue will become increasingly important. The following websites provide some information on this topic. •

Expertlaw.com http://www.expertlaw.com/library/child_custody/grandparents_rights.html

•

Nolo.com http://www.nolo.com/legal-encyclopedia/grandparent-caretaker-visitationrights-29548.html

•

Grandparents’ rights: http://www.grandparentsrights.org/ http://www.grandparents.com/family-and-relationships/grandparentsrights/dograndparentshavetherightstheyshould

Class Activities Activity 15a.

What Makes a Successful Marriage?

This activity is useful for several reasons. It is a good way to introduce the idea that the factors that make up a successful relationship change with time. For example, Sternberg’s theory of love discusses the different kinds of relationships that characterize many marriages. It also provides students an opportunity to share their opinions on the topic and also to share their observations of the different marriages they have seen. In many cases it also leads to additional topics such as how to encourage healthy relationships. I have the students divide into groups and then give them what seems like a very simple and straightforward task. They are to list and then rank order the 10 most important factors in a successful marriage. Some ties may be acceptable, but only one factor may be ranked as most important. There are a number of creative responses that emerge. Unfortunately, one factor that often does not even make most lists is communication. Sternberg’s Theory of Love: Robert Sternberg’s article for the Tuft’s University Magazine where he is Dean of the School of Arts and Sciences Sternberg, R. J. (1997). Construct validation of a triangular love scale. European Journal of Social Psychology, 27, 313–335. Sternberg, R. J. (1998). Cupid's arrow. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sternberg, R. J. (1998). Love is a story. New York: Oxford University Press. Sternberg, R. J., Hojjat, M. & Barnes, M. L. (2001). Empirical tests of aspects of a theory of love as a story. European Journal of Personality, 15, 199–218. http://www.answers.com/topic/triangular-theory-of-love

Activity 15b.

Debate Over Compulsory Pre-Marital Counseling

Divide students into two groups. Have each group research the topic of premarital counseling. One group should take the viewpoint that it should be required to reduce the divorce rate. The other group should take the viewpoint that it should not be required.

Activity 15c.

Maintaining Family Contacts

Students can form groups to discuss the norms in maintaining family contacts in their families. Who generally arranges social gatherings? Who sends birthday 298 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

cards and gifts? Who calls whom regularly? Do kinkeeping duties generally get done by females? Ask students to discuss their own kinkeeping activities and those of their parents and grandparents. A representative from each group can report a summary to the class.

Activity 15d.

Critical Thinking Journal

Spousal abuse is becoming an epidemic. What advice would you provide to a close friend whose husband has a history of beating her? Would you know where to seek help? Reflect on how you think you would respond and how you would react if the friend refused to follow your recommendations. Keep in mind that many women that are abused leave their spouses multiple times. Why do you think they return?

Internet Video Clips  WebVid 15a.

Time: 4:51

Describes the challenge of transitioning to becoming caretakers of our elderly parents: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YTiDDwrcBYU (Aging Parents)

 WebVid 15b.

Time: 8:34

Bill Cosby comedy clip describing the change that occurs as people become grandparents (also talks about the difference between fathers and mothers): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tt33zqib2qk (Bill Cosby – Grandparents)

 WebVid 15c.

Time: 5:35

Grandparents raising grandchildren when their children are unable to do so.: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PNM0r4ZxQJ8 (Raising Grandchildren)

 WebVid 15d.

Time: 2:05

Describes the situation of one grandmother caring for her grandchildren: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XAdYJOLEWJI (Grandparents Step in to Raise Grandchildren)

 WebVid 15e.

Time: 1:04

Recommendations for dealing with the stress of divorce and blended families during the holidays: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YbmqYCRVlWQ (Stress Reduction for the Holiday Season)

Supplemental Readings: Current Research  Article 15a. Hampson, S. E. (2008). Mechanisms by Which Childhood Personality Traits Influence Adult Well-Being. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 264–268. Children's personality traits have enduring effects that shape adult wellbeing. In particular, childhood conscientiousness influences core aspects of adult well-being: health, friendships, and mastery. Research is now examining the mechanisms by which early personality traits initiate and sustain particular life paths. These include mediating and moderating mechanisms that may operate during critical developmental periods or may build cumulatively over time. Future research would benefit from testing theoretically derived mechanisms for different traits and examining variables as they change over time, using both short- and long-term longitudinal designs over different life stages.

 Article 15b. Roberts, B. W. & Mroczek, D. (2008). Personality Trait Change in Adulthood. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 31–35. Recent longitudinal and cross-sectional aging research has shown that personality traits continue to change in adulthood. In this article, we review the evidence for mean-level change in personality traits, as well as for individual differences in change across the life span. In terms of mean-level change, people show increased self-confidence, warmth, self-control, and emotional stability with age. These changes predominate in young adulthood (age 20-40). Moreover, mean-level change in personality traits occurs in middle and old age, showing that personality traits can change at any age. In terms of individual differences in personality change, people demonstrate unique patterns of development at all stages of the life course, and these patterns appear to be the result of specific life experiences that pertain to a person's stage of life.

Repetti, R., Wang, S. & Saxbe, D.(2009). Bringing It All Back Home: How Outside Stressors Shape Families' Everyday Lives. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 106–111. Families are dynamic systems that are permeable to influences from the outside world, such as daily stressors at work and at school. Our research uses naturalistic methods to investigate how family interactions change in response to such experiences and how other family members contribute to that process. We argue that the short-term effects of daily stressors on family dynamics can have cumulative, long-term implications for family health and functioning. Naturalistic studies that incorporate daily diary, observational, and physiological measures can offer new insights into families' everyday stress responding and coping processes.

 Article 15d. Roisman, G.I. (2009). Adult Attachment: Toward a Rapprochement of Methodological Cultures. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 122–126. Attachment security in adulthood is not profitably conceptualized as a single, monolithic construct. It is reflected both in adults' confidence in themselves and others in close relationships (as noted by social-personality psychologists) and in their ability to successfully construct a coherent life narrative about childhood experiences with primary attachment figures (as emphasized by developmental psychologists). Evidence suggests that measures tapping these forms of attachment-related variation represent the underlying structure of adult attachment similarly, in that both may be best captured by two continuously distributed, albeit correlated dimensions tapping anxiety and avoidance. Nonetheless, differing approaches to measuring adult security demonstrate weak empirical overlap, and emerging evidence suggests that each is associated with personal and interpersonal outcomes central to attachment theory in empirically distinct ways. Discussion focuses on how recent insights2014in combination with needed experimental and longitudinal data can help reconcile the developmental- and social-psychological literatures on adult attachment.

Family and Friends: Interpersonal Contexts Category

Title

Watch

Changing Parent-Child Relationships

Watch

Family Relationships in Middle Adulthood Across Cultures

Watch

Becoming a Grandparent

Description This video includes interviews with three adults in different stages of life. The first is a mother in her late thirties who talks about how having children has changed her life and priorities, about the things you give up when you have children, and about the fears that come with being a parent and watching your own parents get older. The second is a man in later adulthood whose children have left the home. He discusses having an "empty nest" and how life for him and his wife has changed since their children left. He also talks about how his role in his mother's life has changed since his father passed away. The third is a single, retired woman who discusses how she remains active and enjoys having more time to spend with her family. http://visual.pearsoncmg.com/myde velopmentlab/crosscultural/episode 11/index.html?clip=3&tab=tab0A discussion of family relationships across cultures Grandparents of two different families describe the joys and challenges of being primary caregivers to their grandchildren.

Duration

Description A couple who has been married for 59 years describes their marriage and what has kept them together. They explain how marriage was when they were first married differs

Duration

Page

420

422

425

The Changing Family Category

Title

Watch

Leroy and Geneva: Divorce is Not a Choice

Page

430

from the view of marriage today.

Watch

Blended Families

Members of one blended family are interviewed about the changes and struggles they experienced before and after the new marriage. Both parents and children are interviewed about their adjustment to the new blended family structure.

431

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE

Chapter 15 Middle Adulthood: Personality and Sociocultural Development

Topic Multiple Choice QUICK QUIZ 1 Multiple Choice QUICK QUIZ 2 Multiple Choice PERSONALITY CONTINUITY AND CHANGE True/False

Factual

Conceptual

Applied

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3, 6, 13, 14, 15, 22, 27

4, 5, 6, 7 4, 5, 6, 7 8, 11, 12, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 30

8, 9, 10 8, 9, 10 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 16, 17, 18, 19, 28, 29

126

128, 129

127, 130

152, 153, 154, 155, 156 177, 178, 179, 180

151

31, 32, 37, 38, 41, 43, 45, 46, 50, 51, 52, 55, 57, 64, 67, 69, 70, 71

35, 36, 40, 49, 54, 56, 59, 63, 65, 66, 68

33, 34, 39, 42, 44, 47, 48, 53, 58, 60, 61, 62

133, 135, 136, 137

131, 132, 134 157, 158, 161, 162, 164 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188 72, 74, 75, 76, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 88, 89 142, 144

Short Answer Essay Multiple Choice FAMILY AND FRIENDS: INTERPERSONAL CONTEXTS True/False Short Answer Essay

THE CHANGING FAMILY

Multiple Choice

73, 77, 83, 85, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94

True/False

138, 139, 140, 141, 143

Short Answer Essay

OCCUPATIONAL Multiple Choice CONTINUITY AND CHANGE True/False Short Answer Essay

97, 98, 99

146

165, 166, 167, 168, 169 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195 101, 102, 103, 104, 105 145, 147 170, 172 196, 197, 198, 199

176

159, 160, 163

78, 86, 87

95, 96, 100, 106

171

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN THE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY

CURRENT ISSUES: STUDYING GENERATIVITY IN AFRICAN AMERICAN AND WHITE U.S. FAMILIES CHANGING PERSPECTIVES: BLENDED FAMILIES – THEMES AND VARIATIONS

Chapter 15 Middle Adulthood: Personality and Sociocultural Development Factual

Conceptual

Multiple Choice

107, 109, 110, 112, 117

108, 111, 113, 114, 115, 116, 118

True/False

148, 149, 150

Short Answer

173, 174, 175

Essay

200, 201, 202, 203

Multiple Choice

121, 122

Multiple Choice

124

Applied

119, 120

123, 125

Chapter Sixteen: Older Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 16, students will know: •

the positive and negative stereotypes that people typically hold of the elderly.

•

the ways in which each of the four decades of older adulthood typically differ.

•

how the body changes during the four decades that define older adulthood.

•

the typical health problems people face as they age.

•

the problems associated with drug use among the elderly.

• •

the theories that are used to explain why people grow old and die. how thinking and memory change as a healthy person moves through older adulthood. how older adults compensate for brain-related declines in their cognitive processes.

• •

differences between normal aging and senility.

•

how having a stroke or mini-stroke, or developing Alzheimer’s disease, changes one’s ability to move through older adulthood.

Key Terms and Concepts Ageism Alzheimer’s disease Atherosclerosis Biological clock theories of aging Cataract Dementia Filial piety Glaucoma Hypertension Nonagenarians Octogenarians Pathological aging factors Senescence Septuagenarians Stochastic theories of aging Stroke Visual acuity Wisdom

Chapter Outline I.

Aging Today A. Ageism and stereotypes

Activity 16a, 16d

1. AGEISM – the widely prevalent negative attitudes which many people hold of older adults, that overvalues youth and degrades older people 2. A sociocultural perspective a. FILIAL PIETY – the veneration given to the elderly in Asian cultures and other cultures, which is manifested in cultural traditions, as well as in everyday encounters b. In many religions, elderly are considered to have great wisdom c. Developing nations are now seeing an unprecedented sizeable group of older people. Today in the U.S. 1 out of 8 people is over 65. By 2030 it is predicted to be 1 out of 5 3. Is ageism alive and well?

 WebVid 16g  Webvid 16h  Webvid16i

a. In the U.S. people still use ageist stereotypes. The stereotypes are often harshest for older women. The negative images may reflect cohort differences, not age per se b. Attitudes towards older people are often ambivalent. Older people are often seen as both wise and senile, kind and grouchy, concerned for others and inactive and unsociable c. These perceptions of older adults are commonly found in other cultures and may partially match reality 4. Responses to changes in appearance a. Many older adults – especially women – turn to beauty aids to look younger b. Since 1997 there has been a 500% increase in plastic surgery procedures B. Four decades of later life

 Lecture 16a

1. Young-old: ages 60–69

a. This stage is accompanied by a major transition in roles b. Income often reduced by retirement or reduced work hours c. Retirement is a key developmental transition. One must adjust to the loss of activities & relationships associated with work and develop a satisfying postretirement lifestyle d. Society reduces expectations of people in their 60s 2. Middle-aged-old: ages 70–79 a. SEPTUAGENARIANS – people in their 70s b. Stage often characterized by significant illness and loss c. Increasingly larger proportions of adults in their 70s are in good health 3. Old-old: ages 80–89 a. OCTOGENARIANS – people in their 80s b. Most people in the age group are frail but not necessarily disabled or totally dependent on others c. Group is the fastest growing one in the U.S. population which is putting a strain on health-care systems and Social Security 4. Very old-old: ages 90 and over

 Lecture 16d

a. NONAGENARIANS – people in their 90s b. Changes that shape life for people in their 90s occur gradually c. Those who survive to be this age typically only experience minimal cognitive decline and could be healthier than people 20 years younger

 Article 16e

5. Aging: In perspective a. Older adults are not a cohesive group but, rather, are a collection of subgroups b. There are wide individual differences. Each person experiences older adulthood in a different way II.

The Physical Aspects of Aging PATHOLOGICAL AGING FACTORS – the cumulative effects that result from earlier events and lifestyle choices – accidents, previous illnesses, or bad health habits – that may accelerate aging 307 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

A. The changing body 1. Appearance a. Gray or thinning hair b. Shift in posture c. Changes in skin, including deepening wrinkles

 Lecture 16c

d. Changes in appearance are related to genetics and lifestyle choices 2. Muscles, bones, and mobility a. With age, people are weaker, shorter, and less able to maintain balance b. Strength and endurance decrease c. Decline can be delayed by high intensity exercise training d. Osteoporosis can contribute to problems with mobility 3. Internal organs a. Reduced functioning of most internal organs b. Particularly problematic are changes in the heart. Heart and other muscles decrease in strength and efficiency c. Reserve capacity of heart, lungs & other organs also decreases with age, especially in extreme heat or cold

Article 16l

4. Sleep problems a. With age, people sleep less and spend less time in deep sleep b. Insomnia – inability to sleep c. Sleep apnea – repeated waking due to interruption or pauses in breathing d. Usually can be treated with medication or change in habits 5. The senses a. All senses generally become less efficient as we age b. Taste is least affected c. HYPERTENSION – abnormally high blood pressure, sometimes accompanied by headaches and dizziness

d. 40% of men and 30% of women over 65 report trouble with hearing. e. Hearing problems are worse when coupled with visual problems

 Article 16f

f. CATARACT – the clouding of the lens of the eye that obstructs light and thereby limits vision g. GLAUCOMA – an increase of pressure within the eyeball that can result in damage and the gradual loss of vision h. VISUAL ACUITY – the ability to distinguish fine detail i.

Concerns about declining eyesight lead to anxiety about the ability to drive

6. The brain and nervous system a. DEMENTIA – a result of diseases associated with older age that includes a broad array of cognitive deficiencies, such as impaired learning and memory ability, a deterioration of language and motor functions, a progressive inability to recognize familiar people and objects, frequent confusion, and personality changes b. In “normal” aging the brain decreases in weight. The shrinkage is greatest in the frontal cortex c. Fewer connections among neurons may cause lower brain weight d. Primary cognitive effect of aging is a general slowing of responses, but for most people this is manageable because they develop compensatory strategies B. Health, disease, and nutrition 1. Chronic health problems a. Chronic diseases are lasting or recurring b. Most common are hypertension, arthritis, and heart disease

 WebVid 16b

c. Obesity leads to many problems including type 2 diabetes d. Chronic health problems largely reflect the body’s decreased ability to cope with stress e. Sociocultural factors also play a part 2. Nutrition

a. Older adults are frequently overweight and undernourished. They eat too much but don’t get adequate nutrients b. ATHEROSCLEROSIS – hardening of the arteries, which is a common condition of aging caused by the body’s increasing inability to use excess fats in the diet; responsible for many of the heart conditions prevalent among older people; these fats are stored along the walls of arteries where they restrict flow of blood when they harden c. Dietary deficiencies can be remedied by vitamin supplements 3. The misuse of prescribed medication a. Serious intentional drug use is not a major problem among older adults, but an abundance of medications are prescribed to the elderly b. Medication errors occur frequently, especially if several medicines are involved c. Failures to report all medications to physicians d. Body chemistry may shift & action of drugs may change e. The rapid increase in drug costs is a serious challenge for many older adults III.

The Causes of Aging SENESCENCE – the normal aging process, not connected with the occurrence of disease in an individual; refers to the universal biological process of aging A. Theories of Aging

 WebVid 16a

1. Stochastic theories a. STOCHASTIC THEORIES OF AGING – theories suggesting that the body ages as a result of random assaults from both internal and external environments. Sometimes called “wear and tear” theories b. Free radicals left over from cellular processes react with other chemical compounds causing damage c. Toxins & radiation could cause cellular damage d. Age inhibits repair mechanisms that counterbalance damage

e. These theories don’t explain why the body’s internal repair abilities decline nor why exercise is beneficial rather than another form of “wear and tear” 2. Biological clock theories a. BIOLOGICAL CLOCK THEORIES OF AGING – theories suggesting that genetic programming determines the pace and process of aging b. Telomeres become shorter with cell division leading cells to fail to reproduce & die. This is referred to as the Hayflick limit c. Another theory suggests that there is a cellular pacemaker controlled by hypothalamus or pituitary gland that controls aging IV.

 Lecture 16b

Cognitive Changes in Advanced Age A. Understanding various aspects of cognition 1. Speed of cognition

Activity 16b

a. Older people have slower reaction times, perceptual processing, & cognitive process in general

Article 16k

b. Attributable to neurological changes associated with aging c. Also due to the different strategies that older people use. For example, older people value accuracy and therefore make fewer guesses d. Compensation for the loss of speed usually occurs by using more effective strategies 2. Memory

 Article 16c

a. Sensory & short-term memory decline slightly or not at all b. Aging processes related to sensory memory can pose difficulties if attending to several channels of information at once c. Working memory declines but effective strategies can limit effects

 Article 16d

d. Episodic long-term memory declines but may be due to slower processing speed e. Semantic long-term memory is largely unaffected by age

f. Memory decline is associated with shrinkage of frontal lobes yet, brain tends to compensate for declining size g. Schaie’s Seattle Longitudinal study suggests that cognitive abilities change little with age and can be compensated for 3. Wisdom a. WISDOM – an expert knowledge system that focuses on the practicalities of life and that involves excellent judgment and advice on critical life issues, including the meaning of life and the human condition; wisdom represents the capstone of human intelligence

Activity 16c

b. Wisdom is assessed by posing dilemmas and evaluating how a person’s responses approach the 5 criteria of wisdom-related knowledge i.

Factual knowledge

ii. Procedural knowledge iii. Life span contextualism iv. Value relativism v. Recognition and management of uncertainty c. Wisdom requires mature cognitive processes, social intelligence, openness to experience, and exposure to positive role models B. Cognitive decline 1. Dementia

 Article 16b

a. Chronic confusion, forgetfulness, and accompanying personality changes b. Unable to cope with routine tasks c. Not just an aspect of growing old, results from specific causes 2. Environmental Factors

 Article 16g, 16i

a. Poor health b. Non-stimulating environment 3. Cardiovascular and circulatory problems a. STROKE – blockage of blood to a region in the brain, which can cause brain damage, called multi-infarct dementia

b. Atherosclerosis is one cause of strokes c. Maintaining a regular program of exercise is one of the best ways to protect against events that produce mental and physical decline d. ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE – a disease that causes dementia due to a progressive deterioration of brain cells, especially those in the cerebral cortex. 5th leading cause of death among those over 65

 WebVid 16c, 16d, 16e, 16f  Lecture 16e

Memory impairment

ii. Language disturbance

 Article 16h

iii. Motor impairment iv. Inability to recognize objects or people v. Impairment in executive functions vi. Gradual and continuous onset vii. Cause not fully known, but genetic links have been identified for both early-onset and later onset forms of Alzheimer’s disease viii. Autopsies reveal cortical shrinkage and neural disorganization among those with Alzheimer’s ix. Drugs can alleviate symptoms of memory loss C. Compensating for an aging mind

 Article 16a

1. Reorganize & adjust sense of self in response to changes in mental abilities 2. Higher education and sustained overall activity is linked to the ability to compensate 3. Select fewer tasks on which to focus 4. Devote more attention to the tasks they select

 Article 16j

5. Optimize their outcomes, compensating for poorer skills by relying on others

Lecture Suggestions  Lecture 16a.

Redefining Old Age

The older adults of today and in future generations will differ a great deal from the older adults of previous generations. With increasing life spans and also with better health, older adults will be doing more, working longer, and remaining active members of society. There will be greater expectations placed on older 313 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

adults as a group. In the future, the older adults who may want to spend their time sitting on the porch in the rocking chair will be viewed as abnormal. Your lecture can focus on how old age is changing and will continue to change. What will your students’ older years be like? The following websites provide some information on the topic. • • •

National Council on Aging (http://www.ncoa.org) American Association for Retired Persons (www.aarp.org) National Institute on Aging (www.nia.nih.gov)

 Lecture 16b.

Changing Cognitive Abilities Over the Lifespan

As we age, we all experience a general slowing. There is a misconception that the declines associated with aging are enormous. Your lecture can serve to clarify this misconception. Fluid intelligence does decline somewhat as we age; however, crystallized intelligence increases. Some aspects of memory decline as we age; others remain relatively stable. The following websites provide some information on this topic. • •

University of California, San Francisco (http://memory.ucsf.edu/) AARP. Memory and Aging (http://www.aarp.org/health/brain-health/info03-2011/gray-matters.html; http://www.aarp.org/health/brain-health/info10-2011/brain-age-related-memory-loss.html)

 Lecture 16c.

Sexuality and Today’s Older Adults

The number of people who live longer than 70 years of age is increasing and will continue to increase. The general health and vitality level of older people is also improving. As a result, older adults are socializing more than in previous generations. Following the death of spouses, dating happens and remarriage happens. There is also a growing problem of seniors being infected with sexually transmitted diseases, such as diseases caused by HIV. The following websites provide some information about this topic. • About.com (http://aids.about.com/cs/aidsfactsheets/a/olderhiv.htm) • Global Action on Aging (http://www.globalaging.org/health/us/2004/hiv.htm) • CBS News Seniors and HIV Awareness (http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/10/14/health/webmd/main649369.s html)

 Lecture 16d.

Who Grows Very Old?

Recent studies have focused on those individuals who live to a very old age (above 100 years, which is a group referred to as centenarians). The results of these studies have found a great deal of variability in the habits and attitudes of these individuals. The studies aimed to determine whether some set of 314 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

characteristics defined this group. Do all centenarians eat similar foods? Do all centenarians take similar vitamins, nutrients, medications, etc.? The results have identified four basic commonalities: 1) regular activity; 2) involvement in community; 3) purpose in life; and 4) a spiritual life. The following websites provide some information on this research. •

New England Centenarian Study (http://www.bumc.bu.edu/centenarian/overview)

•

Gerontology Research Group (http://www.grg.org/calment.html)

 Lecture 16e.

Alzheimer’s Disease

Most students will have heard about Alzheimer’s disease. Some may even have had a family member diagnosed with it. However, there is still a great deal of confusion about the disease, how it is diagnosed, and how it differs from normal aging. Students often believe that the memory loss associated with Alzheimer’s is normal as we age, but it is not. Students often believe that Alzheimer’s can be diagnosed easily with either a brain scan or blood test, but it cannot. There are also many new treatments being developed, so your lecture can include some information about the hope that is out there in finding a drug that slows the progress of the disease or cures the disease.

Class Activities Activity 16a.

Stereotypes of Older Adults in Film

Students can form groups or work independently to analyze how popular films perpetuate stereotypes of older men and women. Students can find films to discuss in which older men and women are portrayed as frail, feeble, physically disabled, senile, self-centered, boring, talkative, old-fashioned or grouchy. Students can also be challenged to find modern portrayals that do not perpetuate these common stereotypes. They can present results to the class or in a written assignment to you.

Activity 16b.

Driving and Old Age

Ask students to research the issue of driving and old age. After students have conducted ample research on the subject, conduct a classroom debate. Some of the topics that can be used in the debate include: •

Should there be an age at which a person should be tested yearly in order to maintain a driver’s license?

•

Should there be an age at which people are no longer to drive?

•

If older adults are not allowed to drive, what means of transportation are to be provided for them (if any)?

•

If older adults are restricted from driving, should other types of individuals also be restricted, such as individuals with severe ADHD?

Activity 16c.

Mandatory Retirement

Ask students to research the issue of retirement and the looming social security crisis. After students have conducted ample research on the subject, conduct a classroom debate. Ask students to debate the advantages and disadvantages of a mandatory retirement age, such as 65 or 70 or 75.

Activity 16d.

Critical Thinking Journal

Individuals over 60 years old comprise more of the population in the U.S. than ever before. Discuss the effects this may have on ageism. Do you think the cultural values relative to aging will change to value older adults or that the older adults will seek to hold onto their youth?

Internet Video Clips  WebVid 16a.

Time: 12:57

60 Minutes news excerpts explains research on how red wine can prevent disease and slow the aging process: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R3TGKOQeTrc (Wine Rx)

 WebVid 16b.

Time: 2:56

Description of the symptoms of diabetes: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7TA5UGY3Joc&feature=related (Symptoms of Diabetes: Diabetes #2)

 WebVid 16c.

Time: 3:51

Boy describes book he wrote to help other kids understand Alzheimer’s disease by describing his experiences with his grandmother: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MAyB-MdzXsg (Boy writes about Grandmother’s Alzheimer’s Disease)

 WebVid 16d.

Time: 2:00

Artists depicts the experience of Alzheimer’s disease through selfportraits: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p1xPyrHDYbM (Painter shows Alzheimer’s through art)

 WebVid 16e.

Time: 1:09

Scenes from the film Grace showing the progression of Alzheimer’s disease as Grace struggles to remember the words of the song Jesus Loves Me: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7wbYEK7O14E (Grace: The path of Alzheimer’s Disease)

 WebVid 16f.

Time: 3:14

Accessible description of how Alzheimer’s disease affects the brain: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Wv9jrk-gXc

 WebVid 16g.

Time: 2:06

A segment of stereotypes of aging by stand-up comedians: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kT95JPBr30s (Images of Aging in stand-up comedy by Kelly Larson)

 WebVid 16h.

Time: 3:17

The founders of the Old Women’s Project discuss ageism and demonstrates how they are making their activist voices heard: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Sb5SJhiC8o (Look us in the eye: The old women’s project)

 WebVid 16i.

Time: 2:26

Trailer for a film about ageism in the workplace: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h_B7vneLvL8 (Cut back: Facing ageism)

Supplemental Readings: Current Research  Article 16a. Cappell, K. A., Reuter-Lorenz, P. A.& Cappell, K. A. (2008). TI: Neurocognitive Aging and the Compensation Hypothesis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 177–182. The most unexpected and intriguing result from functional brain imaging studies of cognitive aging is evidence for age-related overactivation: greater activation in older adults than in younger adults, even when performance is age-equivalent. Here we examine the hypothesis that age-related overactivation is compensatory and discuss the compensation-related utilization of neural circuits hypothesis (CRUNCH). We review evidence that favors a compensatory account, discuss questions about strategy differences, and consider the functions that may be served by overactive brain areas. Future research directed at neurocognitive-informed training interventions may augment the potential for plasticity that persists into the later years of the human lifespan.

 Article 16b. Gatz, M. (2007). Genetics, Dementia, and the Elderly. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 123–127. The most unexpected and intriguing result from functional brain imaging studies of cognitive aging is evidence for age-related overactivation: greater activation in older adults than in younger adults, even when performance is age-equivalent. Here we examine the hypothesis that age-related overactivation is compensatory and discuss the compensation-related utilization of neural circuits hypothesis (CRUNCH). We review evidence that favors a compensatory account, discuss questions about strategy differences, and consider the functions that may be served by overactive brain areas. Future research directed at neurocognitive-informed training interventions may augment the potential for plasticity that persists into the later years of the human lifespan.

 Article 16c. Hayne, H., Richardson, R. (2007). You Can't Take It With You: The Translation of Memory Across Development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 223–227. Despite evidence for memory skill early in development, the evidence reviewed here shows that early-acquired memories, in rats and humans, are frozen in time. That is, in the absence of opportunities for updating, early memories are only expressed via responses or words that were 318 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

available at the time of encoding. We discuss the theoretical importance of these findings and their potential clinical and forensic implications.

 Article 16d. Jacoby, L. L., Rhodes, M. G. (2006). False Remembering in the Aged. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 49–53. Researchers studying human memory have increasingly focused on memory accuracy in aging populations. In this article we briefly review the literature on memory accuracy in healthy older adults. The prevailing evidence indicates that, compared to younger adults, older adults exhibit both diminished memory accuracy and greater susceptibility to misinformation. In addition, older adults demonstrate high levels of confidence in their false memories. We suggest an explanatory framework for the high level of false memories observed in older adults, a framework based on the theory that consciously controlled uses of memory decline with age, making older adults more susceptible to false memories that rely on automatic processes. We also point to future research that may remedy such deficits in accuracy.

 Article 16e. Kajantie, E. (2008). Physiological Stress Response, Estrogen, and the Male and Female Mortality Gap. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 348–352. Whether one is male or female is one of the most important predictors of how long one is likely to live and what diseases one is likely to encounter. Researchers have long been puzzled by the mechanisms that could underlie such profound sex differences. Recent findings suggest a key role is played by physiological stress responses—how men and women respond differently to psychosocial stressors in everyday life. This review focuses on two important physiological stress systems: the hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal axis (which regulates the stress hormone cortisol) and the autonomic nervous system. The general pattern is that between puberty and menopause, the responses of these systems to experimental psychosocial stress are lower in females, and their changes with menopause, estrogen administration, and pregnancy have suggested that estrogen plays a key role in regulating stress responsiveness. This review presents a hypothesis that mechanisms that regulate these sex differences have been driven by evolutionary pressures to transform information about prevailing environmental conditions to the fetus, through maternal stress, to adjust its development to circumstances it will encounter in extrauterine life.

 Article 16f. Madden, D. J. (2007). Aging and Visual Attention. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 70–74 Older adults are often slower and less accurate than are younger adults in performing visual-search tasks, suggesting an age-related decline in attentional functioning. Age-related decline in attention, however, is not entirely pervasive. Visual search that is based on the observer's expectations (i.e., top-down attention) is relatively preserved as a function of adult age. Neuroimaging research suggests that age-related decline occurs in the structure and function of brain regions mediating the visual sensory input, whereas activation of regions in the frontal and parietal lobes is often greater for older adults than for younger adults. This increased activation may represent an age-related increase in the role of top-down attention during visual tasks. To obtain a more complete account of agerelated decline and preservation of visual attention, current research is beginning to explore the relation of neuroimaging measures of brain structure and function to behavioral measures of visual attention.

 Article 16g. Sherwin, B. B. (2007). Does Estrogen Protect Against Cognitive Aging in Women? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 275–279. Although there is evidence from randomized controlled trials that estrogen therapy protects against aspects of cognitive decline that occur with normal aging in women, findings from the Women's Health Initiative Memory Study and from some cross-sectional and longitudinal studies failed to find neuroprotective effects of estrogen in older women. There is growing empirical support for the critical-period hypothesis, formulated in the attempt to resolve these discrepancies. It holds that estrogen therapy has protective effects on verbal memory and on working memory only when it is initiated closely in time to menopause, whereas starting treatment many years following menopause does not protect and may even be harmful. Supporting evidence for this hypothesis from basic neuroscience and from animal and human studies is evaluated for its ability to explain the inconsistencies and to describe the conditions under which estrogen may protect cognitive function in aging women.

 Article 16h. Storandt, M. (2008). Cognitive Deficits in the Early Stages of Alzheimer's Disease. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 198–202. Evidence from longitudinal, experimental, and neuroimaging studies converge to indicate that psychological functions other than episodic memory are affected very early in the course of Alzheimer's disease and, indeed, may predate or influence the apparent memory deficits. Changes in 320 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

personality and difficulty in executive function, especially in terms of attentional and inhibitory control, are especially prominent. Deficits in other types of memory (i.e., semantic memory, conditioning) can also be detected in the early stages of the disease. It is time to update existing diagnostic criteria for this form of dementia in terms of current knowledge of multiple and interacting brain systems.

 Article 16i. Stine-Morrow, E. A. L. (2007). The Dumbledore Hypothesis of Cognitive Aging. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 295–299. Cognitive aging is often characterized as a process in which two competing forces determine individual development: a genetically driven senescence process that engenders declines in mental mechanics; and an accumulation of life experience that augments cultural, pragmatic, and knowledge-based competence. The considerable variability in the level and rate of change in complex intellectual activities (e.g., language understanding) is often accounted for in terms of individual differences in abilities associated with these forces. I argue that choice in how effort is allocated may be an essential determinant of cognitive change over the life span—both directly, in the form of attentional engagement, and indirectly, as it sculpts neural substrates that give rise to component abilities.

 Article 16j. Von Hippel, W. (2007). Aging, Executive Functioning, and Social Control. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 240–244. Aging is associated with atrophy of the frontal lobes of the brain, which are the seat of executive functions. Because successful social functioning often requires executive control, aging can lead to unintended social changes via deficits in executive control. In this article I review evidence that, due to losses in executive control, aging leads to increased prejudice and social inappropriateness and, under certain circumstances, increased depression and problem gambling. I then discuss theory and research suggesting possible interventions that might ameliorate unwanted social changes brought about by executive decline.

 Article 16k. Hertzog, C. & Dunlosky, J. (2011). Metacognition in later adulthood: Spared monitoring can benefit older adults' self-regulation. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 167–173. Metacognition includes two key concepts: monitoring of internal states and adaptive use of control strategies based on that monitoring. We review studies that indicate that aging does not materially affect the accuracy of elementary forms of monitoring encoding and retrieval states in episodic321 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

memory tasks, even though it does influence episodic memory itself. Spared monitoring accuracy can therefore serve as a basis for older adults’ use of compensatory strategies to achieve learning goals despite the influence of aging on mechanisms of learning. Metacognitive-intervention studies based on this premise show greater effects on learning than do traditional strategy-training approaches. Use of strategies for selfregulation, informed by monitoring, may be an important tool for older adults’ effective cognitive functioning in everyday life.

 Article 16l. Vitiello, M. V. (2009). Recent advances in understanding sleep and sleep disturbances in older adults: Growing older does not mean sleeping poorly. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 316–320. Despite commonly held assumptions, growing older does not necessarily result in disturbed or unsatisfying sleep. There is no reason to assume, a priori, that the sleep of an older adult is necessarily problematic; in fact, many high-functioning older adults are satisfied with their sleep. When the various factors that can disrupt sleep poor health, primary sleep disorders, poor sleep-hygiene practices (e.g., irregular sleep schedules and poor sleeping environments), and so on are screened out, optimally or successfully aging older adults, assuming they remain healthy, can expect to experience little further change in their sleep and are not likely to experience excessive daytime sleepiness and the concomitant need to nap regularly during the day. Nevertheless, the majority of older adults, who are not optimally aging, suffer significant sleep disturbances from a variety of causes. Fortunately, our growing understanding of how sleep changes with aging and of the causes of these changes is informing ever-improving treatments for these disturbances, thereby helping to ensure that growing older does not mean sleeping poorly.

Aging Today Category

Title

Description

Duration

Page

Watch

Aging and Culture

N/A

442

Watch

Aging Stereotypes

443

Watch

Successful Aging, Independent Lifestyle: Thelma, 81 Years Old

N/A This is an inspiring interview with a very active 81-year-old woman named Thelma who likes to be in charge of her life. She describes her typical week, what she does for fun, how important exercise is, the benefits of keeping the mind busy, and the overall importance of keeping yourself moving and thinking, no matter what age you are.

447

The Physical Aspects of Aging Category

Title

Watch

Coping with Diabetes

Description A woman with Type 2 diabetes is interviewed. She talks about the disease and how she copes with it, and shows how she uses an insulin pump to help maintain her insulin level. Statistics about the prevalence of diabetes are also mentioned.

Duration

Description This video segment includes a detailed explanation by a dermatologist (Dr. John Wollner) about how sun tanning is linked to the development of skin cancer and other changes in the skin. Dr. Wollner notes that most sun damage is done before the age of 18, although the negative health

Duration

Page

447

The Causes of Aging Category

Title

Watch

Effects of Sun Tanning on Skin

Page

457

consequences are usually seen much later in life, usually during or after middle age. He also explains why fair-skinned people are more vulnerable to skin cancers and comments on the safety of tanning beds. Also shown are brief interviews with teenage girls about why they tan themselves, even though they know they may be damaging their skin.

Cognitive Changes in Advanced Age Category

Title

Watch

Living Better Living Longer

Watch

Alzheimers and Dementia

Watch

Alzheimer's Smell Test

Watch

Speaking Out: Alvin: Living with Dementia

Watch

What Happens with Alzheimers

Description World News Tonight 2005 reports on recent discoveries in the genetics field, where researchers think a single gene, E4, may be responsible for longer life. Centenarians Neddine Parker and Reuben Landau are interviewed, along with Dr. Thomas Perls of the Boston University Medical Center. An examination of Alzheimer's disease including the plaques and tangles affecting the brain. A memory disorder researcher discusses how Alzheimer’s patients lose their memory of smells and how the “smell test” he developed may help to predict the early onset of the disease. Alvin, an aging artistic genius, is living with the early onset of dementia. His partner and colleague are interviewed about his enormous contributions and the changes they have noticed in him related to dementia. Diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease is associated with the development of beta-amyloid plaques (proteins) in the brain. This segment outlines a study that examined healthy older individuals over time until their death. Results suggest that those who ultimately developed amyloid plaques also showed small cognitive declines or difficulties typical of dementia. Thus, deposits of these amyloid plaques do not appear to be a normal consequence of aging, but rather are most likely associated

Duration

Page

458

1:48

462

465

with brain disease, such as Alzheimer’s. These results suggest that cognitive tests may be able to identify those individuals at high risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease.

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic QUICK QUIZ 1 QUICK QUIZ 2 AGING TODAY

Chapter 16 Older Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development

Multiple Choice Multiple Choice Multiple Choice

True/False

THE PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF AGING

Factual

Conceptual

Applied

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 6, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18, 23, 25, 28, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41 144, 145, 148

4, 5, 6, 7 4, 5, 6, 7 3, 8, 10, 11, 13, 15, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 27, 29, 32, 33

8, 9, 10 8, 9, 10 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 19, 30, 31

Short Answer

175, 176, 177

Essay

202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209 43, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 65, 66, 68, 70, 71, 72, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 84, 85, 86, 87 155, 156, 159, 161

Multiple Choice

44, 45, 46, 52, 55, 56, 59, 61, 69, 74, 76, 81, 83

True/False

151, 152, 153, 154, 157, 160

Short Answer Essay

THE CAUSES OF AGING

143, 146, 147

Multiple Choice True/False Short Answer Essay

88, 89, 92, 95, 96

179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217 97 162, 163, 164 187, 188, 189 218, 219, 220

174

42, 57, 58, 60, 62, 63, 64, 67, 73, 82

149, 150, 158 178

90, 91, 93, 94

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic COGNITIVE CHANGES IN ADVANCED AGE

Chapter 16 Older Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development Factual

Conceptual

Applied

Multiple Choice

98, 102, 108, 111, 117, 120, 121, 127, 129, 132

104, 105, 109, 110, 113, 122, 123, 124, 125

True/False

171, 172

99, 100, 101, 103, 106, 107, 112, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 126, 128, 130, 131, 133 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 173 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 199, 200, 201 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230 137, 139

Short Answer

Essay

CHANGING PERSPECTIVES: DIABETES – WILL TYPE 2 DIABETES BE THE NEW LIFESTYLE DISEASE EPIDEMIC? CURRENT ISSUES: WISDOM – CROSSCULTURAL OR CULTURE SPECIFIC?

Multiple Choice

134, 135, 138

140, 141, 143

198

136

Chapter Seventeen: Older Adulthood: Personality & Sociocultural Development Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 17, students will know: •

how the status passage from middle adulthood to older adulthood differs from earlier developmental transitions.

•

what Erik Erikson meant when he identified the critical conflict of older adulthood as one of integrity versus despair.

•

how older adults adapt to and cope with the changes that come with advancing age.

•

the changes – good and bad – that retirement typically brings.

•

how older adults adapt to the typical changes in family structure that accompany this stage of the lifespan.

•

how older adults typically cope with loss.

•

how the age structure of the U.S. population is changing and the impact this will have on society and social programs.

•

the pros and cons associated with the two major government supported social programs for older adults – Social Security and Medicare.

•

what options are available when older adults need assistance in living and how families should choose among them.

Key Terms and Concepts Integrity versus despair Medicare Retirement maturity Social Security Status passages

Chapter Outline I.

Activity 17a

Introduction A. STATUS PASSAGES – the changes in role and social position that occurs when a person enters adolescence, becomes a parent, retires, or becomes a widow or widower B. Status passages associated with older adulthood are typically associated with losses of power, responsibility, and autonomy C. Events that define status passages often less important than the way they are interpreted

II.

Personality and Aging A. Developmental tasks in older adulthood 1. Erikson’s stage of integrity versus despair a. INTEGRITY VERSUS DESPAIR – according to Erikson, the final developmental task in the lifespan when people think about how their lives have fulfilled their earlier expectations b. Adjustment to older adulthood includes need to reflect on past events, searching for themes that give their life meaning c. Most older adults adjust quite well to this stage of life d. Older adults have regrets balanced against a sense of a life well-lived. Integrity predominates over despair 2. Maintaining identity a. Establishing ego integrity requires a firmly-established identity b. A consistent identity involves a balance between assimilation and accommodation B. Emotional development in older adulthood

 Article 17a  Article17d Article 17f

1. This stage is usually experienced as one of continued emotional growth 2. Satisfaction with interpersonal relationships is typically greater than at other ages 3. Awareness of fragility of human life leads to greater investments in emotionally close relationships 4. Sense that time is fleeting usually deepens and can cause rich mix of sadness and joy

Activity 17b

5. Older adults attend more to positive information than negative, which is referred to as the positivity effect 6. Emotional stability increases in this stage C. Continuity and change in older adulthood 1. Continuity and change in personality a. Theorists differ on balance assigned to continuity vs. change b. Personality largely established by early adulthood c. Well -being has been conceptualized as being comprised of six components: self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, personal growth d. Some components increase, others decrease, and some are stable with age e. Health, finances, and adjustment to retirement all have an important impact on changes in later adulthood 2. Coping styles

 Article 17c

a. Appear to become increasingly mature as we grow older

Article 17e

b. Older adults more passive and focused on emotions instead of active and focusing on specific problems c. Coping strategies become more androgynous with age d. Differences in coping tend to reflect the particular circumstances of the individual’s life D. Successful aging 1. Social comparison plays a crucial role in maintaining positive outlook

 Article 17b

2. Older adults who compare their situations to those of other older people modify their perspectives accordingly 3. Health, money, social class, marital status, adequacy of housing, amount of social interaction, and transportation influence life satisfaction 4. Involves maintaining physical and cognitive functioning & being engaged in productive activities III.

A. Adjusting to retirement

Activity 17c

1. Attitude toward work is first important influence on the experience of retirement

 WebVid 17a

2. If very devoted to work, leisure activities may seem superficial

 WebVid 17b

3. Economic status is the second major factor. Although most older adults in the US have sufficient money on which to live, women – especially minority women -- are more likely to be poor 4. This could possibly be due to lower wages during working time which results in lower social security benefits and less savings 5. Health is the third factor that plays a role in satisfaction with transition to retirement B. Retirement options 1. Older adults often prefer to continue working, but for fewer hours 2. Careful financial planning before retirement is important 3. Most people adjust positively to retirement, especially if they are prepared. Income, a place to live, adequate savings, and plans for further work are factors considered before retirement 4. RETIREMENT MATURITY – a measure of how well prepared a person is to retire IV.

Family and Friends: Interpersonal Contexts A. When parenting is over 1. When children leave, family relationships change 2. Decreased stress and increased feelings of satisfaction occur when children leave home 3. Couples with marriage as the emotional center of their lives are generally among the most satisfied 4. Relationships with children and grandchildren a. Most adults report frequent contact with children and grandchildren b. Grandparenthood often seen as one of the most satisfying roles of older adulthood c. Kinship patterns have undergone change due to high rates of divorce and remarriage 331 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

B. Caring for an ill spouse 1. When illness temporary, relatively easy to make adjustments 2. When illness is terminal, caregiving can consume caregiver’s life 3. Despite stresses, caregivers often report gratification from providing care C. Widows and widowers 1. Living arrangements a. Women less likely than men to remarry b. Women tend to survive their spouses c. Living alone involves practical & psychological challenges d. The prospect of being alone causes loneliness leading people to seek out companionship 2. Social support

 WebVid 17e

a. Widowers less active in social organizations b. Widows have an easier time maintaining a social life c. Typically depend heavily on their children, but having children become more involved can cause problems d. Sibling relationships are often close so siblings can help older adult adjust to loss of their spouse e. Friendships can provide similar support, but older adults do not feel they can make the same demands on friends as family

 Lecture 17a

U.S. Social Policy and Older Adulthood A. The demographics of aging 1. Older adults are becoming a much larger proportion of the population. Now 1 in 8 people is a senior adult; estimated to be 1 in 5 by 2050

Activity 17d

2. SOCIAL SECURITY – a U.S. government pension program of forced savings through payroll deductions from working adults’ income and corporate contributions, with money disbursed to the adults after they reach a certain minimum age, usually at retirement 3. MEDICARE – a U.S. government program subsidized by taxes that provides payment for many basic health care services and drugs needed by older adults

4. Social Security provides the largest proportion of retirement income for older adults 5. A concern is the long-term funding for both SS and Medicare 6. Public housing does not accommodate the requirements of older adults B. Lifestyle options for older adults

 Lecture 17b

1. Nursing homes a. Placement can be temporary or long-term

 WebVid 17c

b. Care received can vary widely in quality c. People often experience anxiety and dread before entering a nursing home d. Children often feel guilty e. Loss of independence, identity, & control over daily routine can lead to apathy, passivity, bitterness, or depression f. Assisted living centers growing in popularity – older adults live in own apartments and receive help to meet daily needs 2. Day-care centers for older adults a. For families who care for older relative at evening & night b. Allow family to maintain a normal work schedule c. Also provide stimulating & agreeable environment for older adults d. Usually cost is not covered by health insurance so it may be cost prohibitive for some families 3. Other options

 WebVid 17d

a. Retirement communities allow adults to maintain own home, while living in communities comprised of other older residents b. “Home sharing” can meet the older person’s needs while keeping them in age integrated groups c. Community services can sometimes allow people to stay in their own homes and still get some limited support C. Goals for the care of older adults 1. Older adults are a varied group 333 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

2. Gray Panthers and AARP giving older adults a better selfimage 3. Larger proportion of older adults does not imply a larger or unfair burden on the rest of society

Lecture Suggestions  Lecture 17a.

The Politics of Aging

Your lecture can focus on the increasing political activism of older adults in the U.S. Organizations like AARP and the Gray Panthers have brought the concerns of older adults to our lawmakers and to the media. In the future, the power of such organizations is likely to increase as their membership increases and the lawmakers recognize that it is unwise to neglect these very important constituents. Your lecture can focus on some of the national policies that such organizations have played an important role in supporting.

 Lecture 17b.

When Living Alone is No Longer an Option

Families often postpone the difficult decision about an older relative’s living situation until the decision is forced upon them due to a major health crisis. Your lecture can focus on what the options are for older adults. Most people think of nursing homes as the primary answer; however, there are more options nowadays for older adults. Retirement communities and housing developments are on the rise. There are assisted living communities that provide options for independent living as well as constant care. Students will likely find this information eye-opening.

Class Activities Activity 17a.

Roles in Late Adulthood

Ask the class to interview people in late adulthood about their roles in family and social life. Students can use Handout 17-1. The class should pool their data and analyze the results.

Activity 17b.

Magazine Advertisements

Students can either work in groups or independently on a project in which they analyze how businesses market to older adults. Students should locate ads for products advertised both in magazines with younger and older readerships. Students should analyze the differences in how the products are presented to the two audiences. Most public libraries and some college libraries receive a wide

variety of print magazines. Students can present their results to the class and/or submit a written assignment reporting their findings.

Activity 17c.

Retirement Planning

Ask students to describe their retirement plans. If they have trouble doing so, ask them prompting questions such as the following: • • • • • •

At what age do you plan to retire? Will you work at all after you retire? Where do you want to live after retirement? Who will be living with you (or who will you be living with)? How will you support yourself? How much income will you need to live comfortably?

Their responses may not be realistic, and that can lead to a class project in which they find out alternatives that are available to senior citizens in their state or region. For example, many people have an unrealistic idea of how much they will be getting in social security benefits.

Activity 17d.

Critical Thinking Journal

The status of social security has been a hot political topic for decades. As people live longer and more and more people draw from social security, the money that each individual has at their disposal may decrease. Discuss ways that younger people can be better prepared for retirement. What plans do you have? When do you anticipate beginning to prepare for retirement?

Internet Video Clips  WebVid 17a.

Time: 2:50

Ben Stein provides some straight-up talk about the concerns of retirees and how to get started on retirement planning: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3eAo3IwJx0A&feature=related (Ben Stein talks retirement: Part 1)

 WebVid 17b.

Time: 5:54

Describes how the economic gender gap follows us into retirement: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_PdHnY0KN6Q (Retirement income security and older women)

 WebVid 17c.

Time: 2:37 335

Scientific findings regarding the benefits associated with the use of therapy animals in hospitals and nursing homes: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q2JXs0XN7WY (Pet therapy in hospitals)

 WebVid 17d.

Time: 3:00

Interview focusing on the benefits of an alternative to nursing home care: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oqStJrxSX1o (Eye to Eye: Quality Elder Care at Less Cost (CBS News))

 WebVid 17e.

Time: 5:31

Short film of elderly father asking adult son questions while sitting on a park bench; points out the importance of patience in relationships with children as well as with adults: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mNK6h1dfy2o (What is that?)

Supplemental Readings: Current Research  Article 17a. Cacioppo, J. T., Hawkley, L. C. (2007). Aging and Loneliness: Downhill Quickly? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 187–191. Levels of loneliness are relatively stable across most of adult life, but correlates of loneliness show age differences. We review evidence of age differences in associations between loneliness and individual differences in health behaviors, stress exposure, physiological stress responses, appraisal and coping, and restorative processes. The effects of each of these pathways endow loneliness with the capacity to accelerate the rate of physiological decline with age. Additional research across the lifespan is required to understand the nature of accrued loneliness effects on health behavior and physiology in the short and long term.

 Article 17b. Gutchess, A., Park, D. (2006). The Cognitive Neuroscience of Aging and Culture. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 105–108. Research into the cognitive neuroscience of aging has revealed exciting and unexpected changes to the brain over the lifespan. However, studies have mostly been conducted on Western populations, raising doubts about 336 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

the universality of age-related changes. Cross-cultural investigation of aging provides a window into the stability of changes with age due to neurobiology, as well as into the flexibility of aging due to life experiences that impact cognition. Behavioral findings suggest that different cultures process distinct aspects of information and employ diverse informationprocessing strategies. The study of aging allows us to identify those agerelated neural changes that persist across cultures as well as the changes that are driven by culture-specific life experiences.

 Article 17c. Lachman, M. E. (2006). Perceived Control Over Aging-Related Declines: Adaptive Beliefs and Behaviors. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 282-286. The belief that people are in control of desired outcomes, including those associated with aging, is a hallmark of American culture. Nevertheless, older adults are less likely than the young to believe there are things that can be done to control aging-related declines in areas such as memory. Within age groups, individual differences in control beliefs are related to cognitive performance, health, and well-being. Mechanisms linking perceived control and positive outcomes include adaptive behaviors such as strategy use and physical activity. There is some evidence that control beliefs can be modified in later life, as illustrated in an intervention for fear of falling. Further work is needed to examine the antecedents of perceived control in later life and the implications of control beliefs in other agingrelated domains.

 Article 17d. Urry, H. L., & Gross, J. J. (2010). Emotion Regulation in Older Age. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19. 352–357. Older age is normatively associated with losses in physical, cognitive, and social domains. Despite these losses, older adults often report higher levels of well-being than do younger adults. How can we explain this enhancement of well-being? In this article, we consider one possible explanation, namely, that older adults show enhanced emotion regulation. Specifically, we propose that older adults achieve well-being by selecting and optimizing particular emotion regulation processes to compensate for changes in internal and external resources. With this framework in mind, we suggest several directions for future research.

 Article 17e. Fingerman, K. L., & Charles, S. T. (2010). It Takes Two to Tango: Why Older People Have the Best Relationships. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 172–176.

Older adults report more positive feelings and fewer problems in their relationships than do younger adults. Prior theories have focused on aspects of the older adult (e.g., social cognition, motivation) to explain these findings. We propose a social input model to explain why older adults describe themselves as having better relationships. This model maintains that older adults’ reports of positive social ties reflect both their own actions and those of their social partners. When adults of any age find themselves in a tense interchange with an older adult, they minimize tensions to facilitate positive emotional experiences. These behaviors may stem from perceived time remaining in the relationship, forgiveness or abrogation of blame, and stereotypes of aging. Findings suggest socioemotional regulation in late life involves actions on the part of both older adults and their social partners.

 Article 17f. Ong, A. D. (2010). Pathways linking positive emotion and health in later life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 358–362. Numerous changes in physiological functioning accompany the aging process. Gradual declines in fundamental aspects of the neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, and immune systems contribute to increased risks for morbidity and mortality. Importantly, alterations in physiological processes are not invariant with age but are influenced by individual differences in vulnerability and resilience that accrue across the life span. In this review, I focus on what is known about positive emotion as a contributing factor in lowering morbidity and mortality in older adults. I describe plausible pathways that may underlie the association between positive emotion and health and review illustrative studies examining these pathways. The findings point to new research questions that pose important research opportunities.

Handout 17-1 Roles of People in Late Adulthood Select ____ people you know and ask them the following questions. Be sure to describe each person interviewed as follows: Sex ____

Age ____

Education (highest level completed) _____________

Number of Children: ______ Number of Grandchildren: _________ ________________________________________________________________ Which of the following roles are a part of your life right now?

Primary Caretaking for grandchildren (and/or children) Part-time caretaking for grandchildren (and/or children) Caring for an ill spouse Caring for a parent Caring for other older family members Caring for other young family members Working full time for someone else (in what capacity?) Working full time – self-employed (in what capacity?) Working part time for someone else (in what capacity?) Working part time – self-employed (in what capacity?) Volunteering (in what capacity?) Participating in religious or community organizations Regular exercise activities Other activities:

Personality and Aging Category

Title

Watch

Getting Old

Description This video looks at different cultures and attitudes toward aging.

Duration

Description Mary and George, both in their 70s, talk about the challenges they have had adjusting to retirement and the things they have found to fill their time that make them feel connected to the community and emotionally fulfilled.

Duration

Page 477

Retirement: A Major Change in Status Category

Title

Watch

Transitioning to Retirement: Mary and George

Page

481

Family and Friends: Interpersonal Contexts Category

Title

Watch

Caring for an Ill Spouse

Description A husband and wife in middle adulthood discuss how the serious and recurring illness of the wife has caused each of them to focus on their lives and their family. Both partners talk candidly about illness, and the husband describes his thoughts about being left alone if his wife were to die. They also share how their children were involved in helping the family cope with the mother’s illness. Although this couple is coping with illness in middle age, rather than in older adulthood, many of the same themes and challenges are apparent. (Note: This segment was filmed by the couple’s daughter, while she was a college student

Duration

Page

483

working on a video filming project.)

U.S. Social Policy and Older Adulthood Category

Title

Description

Watch

Caring for Alzheimers Patients

N/A

Duration

Page 489

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic QUICK QUIZ 1 QUICK QUIZ 2 PERSONALITY AND AGING

Chapter 17 Older Adulthood: Personality and Sociocultural Development

Multiple Choice Multiple Choice Multiple Choice

True/False

Factual

Conceptual

Applied

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 3, 5, 12, 13, 22, 28, 29, 32, 33, 36, 38 111, 112, 115, 116, 119, 123, 124

4, 5, 6, 7 4, 5, 6, 7 4, 11, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 24, 25, 26, 27, 30, 31, 34, 35 113, 114, 117, 118, 120, 121, 122 149, 150, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187 40, 42, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51

8, 9, 10 8, 9, 10 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 20, 23, 37

Short Answer Essay

RETIREMENT: A MAJOR CHANGE IN STATUS

Multiple Choice

39, 43, 44, 45, 46, 52, 53

True/False Short Answer

126, 128, 131

Essay Multiple Choice FAMILY AND FRIENDS: INTERPERSONAL CONTEXTS True/False Short Answer Essay

55, 56, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 68, 70, 78 133, 134

127, 129, 130 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193 65, 66, 67, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79 132, 135, 136, 137 165, 166, 167, 168, 169 194, 195, 196, 197, 198

125 151

41, 54

57, 58

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic U.S. SOCIAL POLICY AND OLDER ADULTHOOD

Chapter 17 Older Adulthood: Personality and Sociocultural Development Factual

Conceptual

Applied

Multiple Choice

80, 81, 82, 85, 86, 87, 88, 92, 93, 98

83, 84, 89, 90, 91, 94, 97, 99, 100, 101

95, 96

True/False

138, 142, 144

102, 103

139, 140, 141, 143, 145, 146, 147, 148 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205 104, 105

107

110

Short Answer

Essay Multiple Choice CURRENT ISSUES: PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING IN LATER ADULTHOOD Multiple Choice CHANGING PERSPECTIVES: ASSISTED LIVING – THE IN-BETWEEN CHOICE FOR FRAIL, OLDER ADULTS

106, 108, 109

Chapter Eighteen: Death and Dying

Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 18, students will know: •

how the consideration and study of death has changed during the past 50 or 100 years.

•

how most people in Western cultures think about death and how they react to it.

•

how knowledge of one’s own death serves to enhance one’s self-esteem and serves as the basis for inspiration.

•

how a terminally ill person and his/her caregiver can best cope with the knowledge that death is imminent.

•

which trajectories of dying are most desirable and how suicide fits into a discussion about the trajectories associated with dying.

•

what characterizes a humane death, and how we can make death more humane.

•

methods individuals can employ to gain some control over the circumstances that will surround them as they die.

•

what factors influence how people deal with grief and bereavement.

•

what special circumstances are associated with the death of a child.

•

how death can be considered part of the lifespan.

Key Terms and Concepts Active euthanasia Anticipatory grief Assisted suicide Bereavement Bereavement overload Chronic grief End-of-life care Grief work Hospice Living will Medical power of attorney Palliative care Passive euthanasia Right to die Submissive death Suicidal erosion

Chapter Outline I.

 Lecture 18c

Thoughts and Fears of Death A. Denial of death 1. Denial is an imperfect method of coping with death 2. For health care professionals, important to maintain contact with patients after a terminal illness has been diagnosed 3. Assistance of loved ones is especially important when person dying is young 4. Denial is an initial reaction to the prospect of death, not the end-stage of coping B. Reactions to death 1. Anxiety and fear are an appropriate response 2. Death giving meaning to life is also a common reaction 3. Many older people report low levels of anxiety about death 4. People with a strong sense of purpose in life fear death less 5. There are significant differences in how people react to death C. Managing the anxiety associated with one’s own death

Activity 18a

1. Our biologically-motivated desire for life is in direct contradiction with our knowledge that we will die at some point 2. Terror management theory suggests that we cope with terror of death by developing self-esteem & becoming competent, attached, & important to others 3. Death can be a force that encourages us to move forward in our lives 4. Terror management theory may be more relevant for younger adults II.

Confronting One’s Own Death A. Death as the final developmental task

Activity 18d

1. Death prompts a kind of life review which often leads to personal growth

 WebVid 18e

2. In coping with the reality of death, we can make decisions about what is important and who we really are B. Stages of adjustment 345 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

1. Kübler-Ross focused on coping strategies used by the dying: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance

 WebVid 18d

2. Many are critical of her approach because it lacks scientific rigor 3. Critics argue that not all people experience all stages nor experience them in the same order 4. However, it is a useful model for reminding us that people will have different reactions to death 5. Caregivers must also adjust to death. Those with supportive relationships do better, as do those with optimism and who practice religious beliefs C. Coping with terminal illness

 Article 18a

1. Caregiver may be physically and emotionally drained 2. Course of an illness can affect people’s reactions to the dying process 3. Sudden death means little time for life review 4. Considerable pain, limited mobility, or complex medical intervention may leave a person with little energy to adjust to death D. Alternative trajectories 1. Ideal trajectory is to be healthy to the age of 85 and then to die painlessly and suddenly 2. Death does not conform to an ideal trajectory 3. People with diseases like AIDS often subject to a unique trajectory 4. Suicide a. SUBMISSIVE DEATH – suicide where people simply let themselves die by not caring for themselves b. SUICIDAL EROSION – an indirect form of suicide by engaging in high risk activities, such as excessive drinking, smoking, or other drug use c. Greatest proportion of suicides are committed by older men. Reasons include terminal illnesses and an inability to adjust to “vital losses” III.

The Search for a Humane Death *Allowing terminally ill people control over the decisions that affect their care is beneficial

A. HOSPICE – a philosophy of care designed to help people with a terminal illness live out their days as fully and independently as possible by giving the needed care, counseling, support, pain management, and other assistance for people with a terminal illness and their families

 Lecture 18b  WebVid 18a  Lecture 18a

B. RIGHT TO DIE – the view that death is a right to be exercised at the individual’s discretion 1. ACTIVE EUTHANASIA – taking steps to bring about another person’s death, specifically in cases of terminal illness. In the U.S., this is considered to be murder a. ASSISTED SUICIDE – providing people with a terminal illness the means to end their own life, such as by allowing them to self administer a lethal drug 2. PASSIVE EUTHANASIA – withholding or disconnecting life sustaining equipment so that death can occur naturally a. LIVING WILL – a legal directive signed by a person indicating that the person does not wish that extraordinary measures be employed to sustain life in case of terminal illness b. MEDICAL POWER OF ATTORNEY – a legal document by which a person authorizes another to make life or death medical decisions 3. PALLIATIVE CARE – care that attempts to prevent or relieve the emotional distress and physical difficulties associated with a life threatening illness 4. END-OF-LIFE CARE – care that specifically addresses the concerns and the circumstances associated with impending death 5. In 1997 American Medical association new guidelines to provide quality care to people at end of life IV.

Grief and Bereavement * BEREAVEMENT -- the process during which people cope and eventually come to terms with a loved one’s death

Activity 18b Activity 18c  Article 18b

A. Grieving 1. GRIEF WORK –dealing with the emotional reactions to the loss of a loved one 2. Grieving tends to follow a predictable course: shock, active grief in the form of weeping, yearning for the deceased, loss of interest in normal pursuits, adjustment to their new life circumstances 347 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

 WebVid 18b

3. The grieving process enables the person to accomplish important psychological tasks 4. ANTICIPATORY GRIEF – grief experienced as people emotionally prepare themselves for the death of a loved one, as in cases of prolonged terminal illness 5. Social support from others who have shared the experience can help with grieving 6. BEREAVEMENT OVERLOAD – a stress reaction experienced by people who lose several friends or loved ones during a short period of time; often characterized by depression 7. CHRONIC GRIEF – an ingrained, pathological mourning process in which the person never overcomes the grief B. Bereavement in cross-cultural perspective 1. Western cultures emphasize a rational response as recovering and returning to normal as quickly as possible 2. Other cultures stress maintaining a bond with the deceased C. Rituals and customs

 Lecture 18d

1. Funerals & memorial services common & can impart a sense of order, decorum, & continuity 2. Survivors take comfort from the rituals 3. Rituals make the end official and are helpful in dealing with grief D. The death of a child 1. Caregivers and loved ones play a major role in managing the circumstances surrounding the death 2. Death rates for infants and children have fallen dramatically so a child’s death is unexpected and the tragedy seems especially acute 3. Special circumstances apply if a family member has an intellectual or developmental disability E. Grieving when a child dies 1. Grieving is particularly intense 2. Children grieving the death of a sibling may not have an understanding of death and make the questions difficult to address 3. Channeling energy toward causes that support the social good can cause some relief 348 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Completing the Life Cycle A. Death marks the end of a person’s life cycle. Some cultural practices make the link between birth and death more explicit B. Death can inspire and transform the lives of those who remain C. Death is part of nature D. Although many people experience similar developmental events that provide common themes across lifespan development, each person’s life and developmental patterns are unique

Lecture Suggestions  Lecture 18a.

The Right to Die

Just as fetal rights sparks interesting debate and opinion in the prenatal unit, the right to die and euthanasia spark interest with the elderly. Dying has become more complicated than it used to be. Not long ago, most people died from illness at home. Now, most people die in hospitals or institutions where dramatic measures are taken to prolong life until there is no “reasonable” opportunity for recovery. Most people probably want every effort made to prolong their life. In contrast, others may deem heroic measures, the prospect of terminal illness, or the prospect of severe reduction in quality of life to be not worth it. Technology and other advances in medicine have created choices and decisions for dying patients and their families. Basic questions about the dignity of death and what comprises a “good” death are now topics of debate in legal and ethical circles. What kinds of treatment do most people receive? Families rate the quality of care provided during end-of-life situations more highly when hospice is involved in the home than when hospice is not involved, when the person dies in a hospital or a nursing home (Teno et al., 2004). About 71% of Americans die in hospitals and other institutions (National Center for Health Statistics, 2002). The percentage of patients in hospitals that receive life-sustaining treatment in the three days prior to death depends on the type of treatment involved (Lynn et al., 1997). For example, about 40% are fed by a tube whereas about 25% were put on a ventilator. Over 50% receive either attempted, resuscitation, are put on a ventilator, or fed by a tube (Lynn et al., 1997). A useful to way to conceptualize the right to die debate is to divide it into three perspectives for the sake of discussion. One division is: (1) Recognizing the right to die with dignity, with a physician’s assistance, (2) focusing on giving comfort and recognizing the patient’s preferences, and (3) reaffirming the commitment to preserve life http://www.publicagenda.org/charts/majorities-americans-say-people-have-rightend-their-own-life-if-they-have-incurable-disease-or-suffer-great 349 COPYRIGHT © 2013, 2010, 2007 BY PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

http://www.publicagenda.org/blogs/personal-political-and-assisted-suicide http://www.publicagenda.org/charts/assisted-suicide-laws-us There are many legal issues that vary dramatically from state to state. Check out the legal status of living wills and advance directives in your area http://www.caringinfo.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3289 Ask the class what they would want done in different situations (e.g., if they or a loved one were in a persistent vegetative state or were experiencing debilitating pain). National Center for Health Statistics (2002). Deaths by place, age, race, and sex: United States, 1999-2002. Lynn, J., Teno, J.M., Phillips, R.S., Wu, A.W., Desbiens, N., Harrold, J., Claessens, M.T., Wenger, N., Kreling, B., & Connors, A.F. (1997). Perceptions by family members of the dying experience of older and seriously ill patients. Annuals of Internal Medicine, 126, 97–106. Teno, J.M., Clarridge, B.R., Casey, V., Welch, L.C., Wetle, T., Shield, R., & Mor, V. (2004). Family perspectives on end-of-life care at the last place of care. Journal of the American Medical Association, 291, 88–93.

 Lecture 18b.

Hospice Care

The lecture can provide a historical overview of hospice care, how it developed and how common it is today in the United States. Some students in the course may have experienced hospice care with loved ones, such as grandparents. I have found that each semester there are several students who have lost older relatives to diseases, such as Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s disease. The following websites can be consulted for up-to-date information. Hospice websites: http://www.hospicenet.org/ http://www.hospicefoundation.org/ http://www.nhpco.org/

 Lecture 18c.

Denial of Death

The lecture can present the ironic fact that while death is the most certain thing in life most people choose not to think about death and typically do not plan for death. Most Americans die without a will, without funeral arrangements made, and without specifying caretakers for their underage children. The lecture can

discuss cultural differences in planning for or being in denial of death. Is this denial of death an American phenomenon? http://dying.about.com/od/cultureanddeath/Cultural_Perspectives_on_Death_Dyi ng_and_Bereavement.htm

 Lecture 18d.

Guest Speaker

Most students have not yet faced many of the issues associated with death and dying. A variety of professionals face death routinely in their work (e.g., funeral directors, doctors, nurses, nursing home workers, hospice workers). A speaker representing one of these occupations can share their experiences with students followed by a ‘Q & A’ session.

Class Activities Activity 18a.

Views of Death

Ask students to use Handout 18-1 at the end of the chapter as a guide for interviewing people about their views of death. The class should pool their data and analyze the results.

Activity 18b.

Views About Grief

Ask students to use Handout 18-2 at the end of the chapter as a guide for interviewing people about their views about grief. The class should pool their data and analyze the results.

Activity 18c.

Analysis of Obituaries

Ask students to collect obituaries from contemporary newspapers (local, regional, or national) and newspapers from 50 or 100 years ago. Most libraries have access to archived newspapers. The students can be asked to consider some or all of the following questions: • What types of information are listed in the obituaries of today • and those of the past? • Do obituaries of men and women seem to appear at equal frequencies? (In fact, research shows that more obituaries are printed for males than females and for white than for members of ethnic groups). • What social value does the obituary appear to have? • Who is generally responsible for placing an obituary in a newspaper for a loved one?

Students can present their findings to the class as well as in a written assignment to you.

Activity 18d.

Critical Thinking Journal

Write your obituary. How old do you want to be when you die? What are your life’s goals and how do you see yourself obtaining them? Discuss how you would rate your life if you do not achieve some of your goals. Think about the things you have learned earlier in the course (e.g., successful relationships, satisfying career). What are things you can do to maximize your chances of achieving your goals?

Internet Video Clips  WebVid 18a.

Time: 2:24

Hospice care described by staff from the Mayo Clinic: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_dhQ_VxyhQs (Choosing Hospice – Mayo Clinic)

 WebVid 18b.

Time: 5:58

A woman describes her grieving process after the death of her grandmother: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KytKn9sorJ8 (A Grieving Process)

 WebVid 18c.

Time: 2:41

Elisabeth Kübler-Ross talks about children and death and the meaning of spirituality: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ry4iIegZrU (Dr. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross – on Children and Death)

 WebVid 18d.

Time: 4:34

A little girl experiences the 5 stages of grief after her goldfish dies: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bcNQGNUncd4 (Stages of Grief)

 WebVid 18e.

Time: 1:44:09

Carnegie Mellon professor Randy Pausch: The Last Lecture: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j7zzQpvoYcQ

Supplemental Readings: Current Research  Article 18a. Martire, L. M., Schulz, R. (2007). Involving Family in Psychosocial Interventions for Chronic Illness. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 90–94. Interactions with close family members have consequences for the emotional and physical well-being of individuals who are dealing with a chronic physical illness. Therefore, inclusion of a close family member in psychosocial interventions for chronic illnesses is a logical treatment approach that has the potential to boost the effects of intervention on the patient and also benefit the family member. However, randomized, controlled studies indicate that such family-oriented interventions generally have small effects. The efficacy of these treatment approaches might be enhanced by targeting specific interactions that emerging research identifies as promoting or derailing healthy behaviors and by better incorporating strategies from family caregiver interventions. In addition, family-oriented interventions should be more fully evaluated, by assessing the benefits for both patients and family members. Future research in this area can tell us much about how and when to involve family in treatment of specific chronic illnesses and, in turn, may inform conceptual models of the impact of family interactions on health.

 Article 18b. Neimeyer, R. A., & Currier, J. M. (2009). Grief therapy: Evidence of efficacy and emerging directions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 352–356. The loss of a loved one carries serious consequences for the physical and emotional well-being of many of the bereaved. It is therefore not surprising that to mitigate the impact of loss and promote successful adaptation, various forms of grief therapy have been proposed. However, controversies about the effectiveness of bereavement interventions have arisen, in part because previous reviews have relied on small samples of studies, which makes drawing inferences about the evidence base for bereavement interventions precarious at best. Drawing on a recent comprehensive analysis of over 60 controlled studies, we attempt to offer a more definitive view, and we discuss moderators associated with more effective bereavement interventions. Finally, we conclude by considering several theoretically informed approaches that hold promise for the further refinement of evidence-based therapies for bereavement complications, and we suggest some future directions for grief research and intervention

Handout 18-1 Views of Death Survey Select ____ people you know and ask them the following questions. Be sure to describe each person interviewed as follows: Sex ____

Age ____

Education (highest level completed) _____________

Occupation ______________________ 1. If you found out that you had only six months to live, how would you like to spend that time?

2. If you could choose how you would die, what do you think would be the ideal way to die?

3. What do you think would be the ideal age to die?

4. Do you fear dying? If so, what do you fear most? If not, why do you think you do not fear death (when so many others do)?

5. What do you think happens after death?

6. What is your age now? 7. What is your occupation? 8. What is your marital status (check one):___ single ___ married ___ divorced 9. Number of children____________ 10. Number of grandchildren/great grand children_______________ 11. Are you male or female (check one):

___ male

12. Have you ever made a will? (check one): ___ yes

___ female ____no

Handout 18-2 Views about Grief Survey Select ____ people you know and ask them the following questions. Be sure to describe each person interviewed as follows: Sex ____

Age ____

Education (highest level completed) _____________

Occupation ______________________

Most people will experience a death of a friend or family member at some point in their life. It is normal to experience grief over such a loss. There can be a great deal of variability in how quickly people bounce back from grief to resume a “normal” life routine. For each of the following types of losses, how long do you think people usually take to grieve? (How long will it take people to get back to a normal life routine?)

1. Loss of a classmate by a high school student 2. Loss of a boyfriend or girlfriend by teenager or young adult 3. Loss of a fiancée by a young adult 4. Loss of a spouse (when marriage was less than 1 year) 5. Loss of a spouse (when marriage was around 5 years) 6. Loss of spouse (when marriage lasted around 20 years) 7. Loss of a child (during delivery) 8. Loss of one-year-old child 9. Loss of two-year-old child 10. Loss of teenage child to cancer 11. Loss of teenage child to car accident 12. Loss of teenage child to suicide

Thoughts and Fears of Death Category

Title

Watch

Children's Perception of Death

Description This is a video about children coping with death.

Duration

Description This segment presents an interview with Leanne Burrack, Nurse Manager of a Hospice of Mercy, who talks about the goals and typical structure of hospice care.

Duration

Description A woman named Peggy talks about her experiences at the time her husband died. This interview with a funeral director explains how funerals are coordinated, why funerals are so important for the living, and what the definitions are for grief and mourning. Two men each describe a typical funeral ritual in their respective religious cultures, Judaism and Islam. The Jewish ritual is described by a man who has recently lost his father. The Islamic ritual is described by a college-aged student who discusses both the Islam teachings about the significance of death and the funeral rituals common to this religious tradition.

Duration

Page 497

The Search for a Humane Death Category

Title

Watch

Hospice Care

Page

504

Grief and Bereavement Category

Title

Watch

Death of a Spouse

Watch

Death, Grief, and Mourning

Watch

Jewish and Islamic Funeral Rituals

Page

509

511

512

Four Decades of Later Life Category

Title

Watch

Centenarian

Description This video recaps the life of a 102year-old woman.

Duration

Page 512

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic QUICK QUIZ 1 QUICK QUIZ 2 THOUGHTS AND FEARS OF DEATH

Chapter 18 Death and Dying Factual

Conceptual

Applied

Multiple Choice Multiple Choice Multiple Choice

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 2, 3, 7, 10, 11

4, 5, 6, 7 4, 5, 6, 7 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 13, 14

8, 9, 10 8, 9, 10 9, 12

True/False

118, 120, 121, 122, 124

119, 123

Short Answer Essay

CONFRONTING ONE’S OWN DEATH

Multiple Choice

18, 19, 31, 33, 34, 37, 39, 40, 43

True/False

125, 129, 130, 131

Short Answer Essay

THE SEARCH FOR A HUMANE DEATH

Multiple Choice

True/False

54, 57, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 68, 75, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88 134, 136, 138, 140, 143

Short Answer Essay

GRIEF AND BEREAVEMENT

Multiple Choice

True/False Short Answer Essay

89, 93, 96, 100, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 109, 110 148, 150, 152

155, 156, 157, 158, 159 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 35, 36, 38, 46, 48, 49, 5-, 51, 52, 53 126, 127, 128, 132, 133 161, 162, 163 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191 55, 56, 64, 67, 71, 73, 78, 79

135, 137, 139, 141, 142 164, 165, 166, 167, 168 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200 99, 107

144, 145, 146, 147, 149, 151 169, 170, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210

22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 41, 42, 44, 45, 47

160

58, 59, 69, 70, 72, 74, 76, 77, 80, 81, 86

90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 97, 98, 101, 108

171

TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE Topic COMPLETING THE LIFE CYCLE

CURRENT ISSUES: SEARCHING FOR MEANING IN NATURAL DISASTERS, ACCIDENTS, TERRORISM, AND PERSONAL TRAGEDIES CHANGING PERSPECTIVES: HUMANE ENDOF-LIFE CARE FOR CHILDREN WHO ARE DYING AND FOR THEIR FAMILIES

Chapter 18 Death and Dying Factual

Multiple Choice

111, 112

True/False

154

Conceptual

153

Short Answer

178

Essay

211, 212, 213

Multiple Choice

113, 114

Multiple Choice

116, 117

115

Applied