PUSH PLANAR
04
RACHEL MEI-LAN TAN
PUSH PLANAR WEEK 04 09/23/2015
00 WALL 01 MATERIAL WALL 02 PUBLIC PROGRAM 03 WITHIN THE WALL 04 SPACE MAKING WALL 05 BEHAVIORAL WALL 06 DIVIDING WALL 07 WALL + FRAMES 08 WALL + STAIR 09 WALL + CORRIDOR 10 WALL + FACADE 11
Wall RECENT TRENDS IN HOUSING MINIMAL SPACE
+If traditionally the city is made of walls and streets, then the modern city is increasingly shaped by circulation, a tendency that has diminished the rich experience of moving through urban space. Circulation does not simply move bodies, but subtly forces them to follow predefined trajectories. We no longer move fromm place to place, but from A to B: everything that exceeds these points of departure and destination is nullified by the compulsion to flow within given channels. (DOGMA, A City Made of Walls) +The instrument of this project is the nature of the wall as an archetype. The archetype is a concrete gesture that, in a particular instance, exhibits an alliance between the basic grammar of architecture and its porject: it has the authoritative quality of the prototype, but no the normativity of a masterplan. Whether applied to organising the relationship between built space and
open space, the provision of green areas, the articulation of topography, or the enclosure of different conditions, the archetype of the wall elaborates paradigmatic actions that are capable of yielding new spatial combinations. And it ir precisely the archetype of the wall taht is fundamental to Piranesi’s Campo Marzio. +A FIELD OF WALLS. Piranesi’s fascination with the architecture of walls is clearly illustrated by the content of his first book of antiquities. Among the plates is the famous analysis of Rome’s fortifications. For Piranesi the Auerialian wall is the most significant remnant of ancient Rome. Around 1/5 of his account is devoted to a detailed description of the wall, mentioning each of its gates, their names old and new, and their relation to the old and modern Roman roads leading to them. A group of drawing deal with topic of the Roman wall and its intersection with the system 4
A
limitless
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B
defined
A
partition
divided
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B
inhabitable
constrained limited
A
C
B
partition subdivision
channeled
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of aqueducts that criss-cross the space of the city -- supplying Rome with water of good quality from a number of distant mountain sources. Piranesi was interested in not just the arched bridges but in the entire system. Antichita Romane. + The physicality of the aqueducts dictates the urban form and represents the visible structure of the city, demonstrating a clear alternative settlement principle, the maps of Nolli and Bufalini reduce the physical space of the street to a mere diagram, framing the conditions for the city to unfold following its productive and reproductive processes. Additionaally, aqueducts and walls are of great interest for attempt to trace the logic of Piranesi’s urban project because they articulate or the first time his interest in the structural values of Roman building. + The architecture of the walls - whether a foundation wall or an emerging element - is always detailed with great precision, revealing what could be defined as an antiorder and an antitypological approach towards architecture. +For Piranesi, the basic element of the city is the wall, in the form of enclosures, rooms, colonnades and aqueducts. What is emphassised is the obstructive nature of the walls asas something that contains, defines, channels, constrains, limits, stops, articulates, and dividides. +Our project radicalises this aspect of Campo marzio by superimposing 15 walls onto the original plan. +This city made of walls reintroduces a spatiality in which movement is liberated from the predetermined trajectories of streets. In fact, our project proposes a city form that does the opposite of a city made of streets : it defines clear limits, while leaving the rest undetermined. The wall is understood as something that forcefully limits space but also, by remaining resolutely itself, leaves its surroundings free. In this way, FIELD OF WALLS reclaims the possibility of defining space without resorting to a directive modus operandi.
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STILL TO STUDY: 00 WALL TYPOLOGIES
SCREEN / WOVEN WALL PARTITION WALL OCCUPIABLE WALL AQUEDUCTS DEFENSIVE WALL DIGITAL WALL SECTIONS THICKNESSES PROGRAM
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STILL TO STUDY: 01 MATERIAL WALL FABRIC BRICK STONE WOOD EARTH SECTIONS THICKNESSES PROGRAM
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Public EXPLORING ALL COMPONENTS OF THINNESS AND PROVIDE IT FOR THE WEALTHY -- HOW CAN THIN CONTRIBUTE TO THE PUBLIC IS THIS IN FACT A VALID SOLUTION ?
+ Once an area has been enclosed, the space between the structures is covered by a 10m high transparent roof supported by a 10 x 10 grid of columns. In this way the entire enclosure is transformed into a continuous interior composed of a variety of streets, squares, doorways, galleries, corridors and rooms. +The interior is conceived as a vast open ‘living room’ where social exchange and production occur within the same place. Rooms inside the walls are designated as spaces of rest, solitude and seclusion. They will be used, transformed, reused, and eventually destroyed by their inhabitants. +A key inspiration to this work was Cedric Price’s POTTERIES THINKBELT project from the mid 1960’s, which converts the rusting railway netword of industrial North Staffordshire into a learning apparatus that is flexible and mobile, with
the capacity to continually adapt to technological advances. Ironically within the post-fordist scenario of contemporary capitalism, Price’s vision is no longer a project for the future but a description of the reality of today. Price’s attempt to counter the decline of an indusstrial site by transforming it into an educational campus (unconsciously) anticipates the passage from a fordist to a post-fordist mode of production. By relying on the existing rail network, he proposed to go beyond the traditional campus typology, taking the territory and its transport connections as the new scale of the learning process. Moreover, the strict separation of disciplines is questioned by calling for the development of interchangeable units that would allow the learning process to be constantly reshaped in response to the demands posed by economic change. Integrate knowledgeflexibility-territory into a single system. 12
STILL TO STUDY: 02 PUBLIC PROGRAM TYPES OF PROGRAM TYPES OF PUBLIC SPACE -WHAT HAPPENS WHEN DIVIDEDALREADY THIN STRUCTURES 03 WITHIN THE WALL 04 SPACE MAKING WALL 05 BEHAVIORAL WALL 06 DIVIDING WALL 07 WALL + FRAMES 08 WALL + STAIR 09 WALL + CORRIDOR 10 WALL + FACADE
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EDUCATION
COMMUNITY
FACILITIES/ INFRASTRUCTURE
STATION BATHROOM MARKET WATER FILTRATION VENDING MACHINE
CHURCH CINEMA PLAYGROUND PARK CEMETARY STAGE
GARDEN AQUARIUM LIBRARY
CHURCH + MARKET CINEMA + AQUARIUM PLAYGROUND + STATION + GARDEN PARK + WATER FILTRATION + BATHROOM
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WATER FILTRATION
PARK
BATHROOM / FOUNTAIN
RELIGIOUS GATHERING
BACK HOUSE
MARKET
CINEMA CORN DRYING
GRAIN STORAGE
VENDING / DISTRIBUTION
PLAYGROUND
STATION
GARDEN
WATER STORAGE
CINEMA
CINEMA AQUARIUM
RESTAURANT
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STILL TO STUDY: PROGRAMS WHICH REQUIRE A PATH DIAGRAM A TYPICAL “X” AND TRANSFORM IT TO LINEAR “X” eg: a CHURCH to LINEAR CHURCH HISTORICAL PUBLIC SPACE REFERENCES IDEA OF SCREEN - JAPANESE SCREEN + CINEMATIC SCREEN + TV SCREEN EXISTING THIN PROGRAMS
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PUBLIC SPACES A PUBLIC SPACE IS WHERE DIFFERENT PROGRAMS MEET PARK MARKET SQUARE DESTINATION/TOURIST ATTRACTION/MONUMENT PATH
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PARKS / GARDENS CHAMP DE MARS PLACE DE LA REPUBLIQUE PARC DE LA VILETTE MONTMARTE CENTRAL PARK HIGHLINE PALEY PARK PEOPLE’S PARK PARK GUELL
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MARKET WEGMANS KREUZBERG - BERLIN CHEESE MARKET - ALKMAAR, HOLLAND BERLIN - CHRISTMAS MARKET BERLIN - FLEA MARKET TSUKIJI - FISH MARKET - TOKYO BAAZAR - ISTANBUL NATIVE AMERICAN POW WOW ZURICH - MARKT BRIDGE
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SQUARES (FROM BIGGEST TO SMALLEST) XINGHAI SQUARE - DALIAN CHINA - 1,100,00 M2 TIANANMEN SQUARE - BEIJING, CHINA - 440,000M2 MILLENIUM PARK - CHICAGO, USA - 99,000M2 PLACE DE LA CONCORDE - PARIS, FRANCE - 86,400M2 KIM II-SUNG SQUARE - PYONGYANG, N KOREA, 75,000M2 RED SQUARE - MOSCOW, RUSSIA - 73,000 M2 PRACA DOS TRES PODERES - BRASILIA, BRAZIL - 26,400M2 PIAZZA SAN MARCO - VENICE, ITALY - 12,128M2 SEAGRAM PLAZA SAN GIMIGNANO OLD TOWN SQUARAE - PRAGUE MECCA
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DESTINATION/TOURIST ATTRACTION MONUMENT LAS VEGAS STRIP RIO DI JANEIRO BEACH THE RHINE - BASEL - ZURICH HOTSPOTS WIFI WATER FEATURES WATERFALLS VILLA D’ESTE PALEY PARK BELLAGIO HOTEL ZURICH LAKE - PERIMETER LAKE COMO TUVALU - SINKING ISLAND AMSTERDAM - BOAT /BRIDGE CIRCULATION HAMAM - ISTANBUL OLYMPIC POOL OLYMPIC DIVING BOARD SETUP BEIJING WATER PARK MOSCOW - SOVIET POOL - FOUNDATION PENGUIN POOL - OVE 22
PATH - PASSAGE - GATE GREECE - STEPS WITH RESTAURANTS SPANISH STEPS VILLA LANTE - FOUNTAIN STEPS ZURICH - BRIDGE ATLANTIC ROAD - NORWAY WILDLIFE OVERPASS GREAT WALL OF CHINA SI-O-SE POL BRIDGE - IRAN TOWER BRIDGE - LONDON YU GARDEN - SHANGHAI SKATEPARK - SWEDEN AQUEDUCT AURELIAN WALL THAILAND - FLOATING MARKET FOUNTAINS VILLA LANTE - DINING TABLE-FOUNTAIN TRAIN 23
DIAGRAMMATIC PLAN
DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION
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WATER FILTRATION
PARK
BATHROOM / FOUNTAIN
RELIGIOUS GATHERING
BACK HOUSE
MARKET
CINEMA CORN DRYING
GRAIN STORAGE
VENDING / DISTRIBUTION
PLAYGROUND
STATION
GARDEN
WATER STORAGE
CINEMA
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AQUARIUM
CINEMA
PROGRAMS WHICH REQUIRE A PATH STATION - TRAINS - METRO - PLANE DOCK - BOAT, KAYAK PIER BRIDGE CANAL LOCKS / DAMS BILBOARD AQUEDUCT RUNWAY GEOLOGICAL BORDERS - US/MEXICO MOUNTAIN SPORTS - SKI - SNOWBOARD GONDOLA STAIRS - SANTA MONICA ELECTRIC LINES - TELEPHONE POLES GAS PIPLINE BIKE -PATH HIGH TUNNEL FARMING CONVEYER BELTS SPICE DRYING CLOTH/LEATHER DYING PAPER INDUSTRY CULVERT
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PROGRAMS WHICH CAN BE CONVERTED TO A PATH CHURCH MARKET - GROCERY STORE - DRUG STORE LIBRARY GALLERY - MUSEUM GARDEN FARM - HYDROPONIC - AQUAPONIC RICE PATTY STORAGE - DATA STORAGE - SHIPPING CONTAINERS - GRAIN SWIMMING POOL SKATE PARK TRACK - HUMAN - BICYCLE - CAR PLAYGROUND CEMETARY PRISON BEEHIVE MOAT
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VISUAL DISTANCE OR PATH CINEMA STAGE WINDOW - VIEW TOWER - OVERLOOK
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COLLAGES OF MODELS WITH SCALE AND PROGRAM
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COLLAGES OF MODELS WITH SCALE AND PROGRAM
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In the Shadows
PAUL GOLDBERGER : ONE57 SHADOW : VANITY FAIR
TOO RICH, TOO THIN, TOO TALL ? THE RISE OF SKINNY TOWERS - SPIRES HOW TO CREATE A DIVISION THAT IS LIGHT PERMISSIVE
These days, it is not just a woman who can never be too rich or too thin. You can say almost exactly the same thing about skyscrapers, or at least about the latest residentiaal ones going up in New York City. Ever taller, ever thinner, the new condo towers racing skyward in Midtown Manhatten are breaking records for everything, including price ($95 million condos). As shadows creep across Central Park.
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The spires of San Gimignano were privatised and built by warring family clans. These private towers were the beginning in the markation of public space - in the medieval town square.
a premium price for views at 1,396 feet tall. The social and economic problems of these spires are symbols of income inequality. They are built mainly for the population of the global super rich, people who live in the Middle East, China, Latin America who travel between London and Shanghai and Sao Paulo and Moscow. This population has always existed but it’s only in the last decade that developers have put up buildings specifically with these buyerese in mind. This condiminium market allows for the idea of space as a tradable commodity. They are places to park your cash as well as yourself and maintain your privacy in the bargain. As put by “the equivalent of bank safe deposit boxes in the sky that buyers can put all their valuables in and rarely visit”
New York City is now building architecture in the form of ultra-thin spires in the surrounding area of Central Park. In 1834 - Richard M. Upjohn finished the Trinity Church - the city was one of spires, but each spire stood to express a sacred cause and spiritual dimension. If we fast forward to Manhatten in 1934 and buildings like the Rockafellar Center, thin and vertical architecture marked great public urban space; the Empire State Building’s vertical dominance offered a public observatory deck. No such public space will be offered by the present privatised spires. Not only do they deny public access to the top and cast long shadows on the street (which they so claim to minimize) they will be seldom occupied, as these $90 million apartments are financial instruments and not for the everyday life.
Proposed for miniscule plots, SHoP’s latest design sits on a piece of land measuring only 13 meters in width. Two blocks south of Central Park where the population density reaches over 70,000 people per square mile. It will soar 411 meters above ground, 30 meters taller than the Empire State Building. This slice of a building also contains sky-high palatial residences and maximizes their floor space while minimizing their urban footprint that deal with restrictive site limitations.
The latest way of housing the rich in luxury apartments are transforming the streeetscape of Midtown and Lower Manhatten as they transform the skyline even more. “Pantheon-worthy pads” -- condos go from $7 million to $80 million in Raphael Vinoly’s 432 Park Ave. It will house 104 luxury condos for the world’s wealthiest homebuyers with
And yet, in other ways, these buildings are absolutely characteristic of New York, which has a long and honorable tradition of skinny towers: the Flatiron 33
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SAN GIMIGNANO, ITALY : PRIVATE FAMILY TOWERS
35 MIDTOWN ci. 2018: NEW YORK TIMES
157 W 57th St.
111 West 57th St.
432 Park Ave.
217 W 57th St.
53 West 53rd St.
220 Central Park S
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MIDTOWN SPIRES : PAUL GOLDBERGER : VANITY FAIR 1000’
One World Trade Empire State
Chrysler
53 West 53rd St. Time Warner
157 W 57th St.
111 West 57th St.
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432 Park Ave.
43 E 60th St
217 W 57th St.
217 W. 57th St. : ATELIER CHRISTIAN de PORTZAMPARE
1000 ft.
4000 ft. LONG SHADOW
217 W. 57th St.
SHADOW LENGTH WILL BE 3/4 OF A MILE LONG.
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SHADOWS ACROSS THE PARK : BEFORE AND AFTER DEVELOPMENT (4PM sEPTEMBER 21ST)
BEFORE
AFTER
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CENTRAL PARK AMENITIES AND SHADOWS : MAS NYC : HE ACCIDENTAL SKYLINE
HECKSCHER BALLFIELDS
PARK DRIVE.
CAROUSEL
ZOO
HECKSCHER PLAYGROUND
THE POND
BILLY JOHNSON PLAYGROUND
MERCHANT’S GATE
Building (1902), the now demolisehd Singer Building (1908), the Metropolitan Life tower (1909), and the Woolworth Building (1913).
since all of the new buildings are relatively close to Central Park, the southern portion of the park will be striped in shadow.
If there is any saving grace to this tsunami of towers, it is in their very slenderness. From a distance they read as needles and their thinner waistlines cast thinner shadows as well. These shadows are no casual matter,
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TO STUDY: HOW CAN WE IMPORVE TRANSPARANCY CREATE WALLED DIVISIONS THAT ARE LIGHT PERMISSIVE
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Torque Countertorque STIFFNESS OF A VERTICLE THROUGH TORQUE
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Fauna Structures
SIDNEY GORDON : TUNNEL MAZE
TREES - STRONGER THAN BUILDINGS PAPER THIN LEAVES FROM THE GROUND VS. FROM THE SKY
The geometry of a leaf is paper thin. Yet there is a difference between the leaves that grow from a tree (sky) and the leaves that grow from the ground. The structure of a tree is it’s main root system, which gets pinched into the a singular line (the trunk) at the level of the ground. As the trunk grows up, the branches grow out (tertiary structure) and the leaves follow reaching for the perimeter of the total form. The leaves widen in plan to allow for maximum sun exposure but remain thin in section for lightness. The form is altered to allow for wind to pass and to cantilever from it’s branch system. The structure of a fern is also it’s main root system. Yet instead of having a singular branch, it has multiple spines that reach out vertically. The branches individually achieve height instead of being brought up by a tree trunk. Their vertical orientation must must strengthen them naturally much
more than that of a tree since they are directly defying gravity in the Z dimension. The leaves of a fern are very thin and long, contrary to the roundness of a tree. It is their multiplicity through thin leaves that are stretched in one dimension that allow the to collect area as well as allow for wind to pass through easily. Afterall, after the hurricane it is the structure and strength of a palm that outlives the manmade structures that blown away.
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GRAVITY
STRUCTURE STRUCTURE
GRAVITY
STRUCTURE STRUCTURE
GRAVITY
LEAVES REACH OUT LEAF SURFACE AREA MAXIMIZED IN 2D FORM MODIFIED FOR WIND
STRUCTURE
GRAVITY
LEAVES REACH OUT LEAF SURFACE AREA MAXIMIZED IN 1DGRAVITY FORM MODIFIED FOR WIND
STRUCTURE STRUCTURE
BRANCHES REACH OUT HORIZONTAL STRENGTH SINGULAR TRUNK
BRANCHES REACH UP VERTICAL STRENGTH MULTIPLE TRUNKS
PINCHED AT GROUND LEVEL BRANCHING ROOT SYSTEM
PINCHED AT GROUND LEVEL BRANCHING ROOT SYSTEM
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STRUCTURE
ROBERT J. GARGIULE : STALAGMITE CAVE
GRAVITY
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SIDNEY GORDON : TUNNEL MAZE
55 ROBERT J. GARGIULE : STALAGMITE CAVE
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LEAVES THE BUILDING AS A LEAF CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS SLIME MOLD
TO STUDY: HOW LEAF STRUCTUREADAPT ACCORDING TO CLIMATE IE : DESERT, TUNDRA, TROPICAL, CHAPARALL CIRCULATION IN PLAN - ROWE ANALOGY LEAF AS BUILDING ANALOGY THINNESS - DIRECTIONALITY STRUCTURE - TORQUE, CURVATURE
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STIFFNESS
DIMENSIONALITY
STRUCTURE
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STIFFNESS
DIMENSIONALITY
STRUCTURE
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LADDER CLIMBING 65
OCEANS UNDERWATER LEAVES AND STEMS ARE FLEXIBLE TO MOVE WITH WATER CURRENTS SUBMERGED PLANTS LACK STRONG WATER TRANSPORT SYSTEM (IN STEMS) -- INSTEAD WATER, NUTRIENTS, AND DISSOLVED GASES ARE ABSORBED THROUGH LEAVBES, DIRECTLY FROM THE WATER ROOTS AND ROOT HAIRS REDUCED BECAUSE THEY ARE USED TO ANCHOR AND NOT ABSORB NUTRIENTS
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DESERTS DRY LESS PRECIPITATION OR CONCENTRATED RAINFALL HOT AND COLD ABUNDANT DIRECT SUNLIGHT SOIL IS SANDY AND ROCKY, UNABLE TO HOLD WATER WIND IS STRONG GROUND HUGGING SHRUBS SHORT WOODY TREES LEAVE ARE REPLETE (PACKED WITH NUTRIENTS) ADAPABLE PLANTS - STORE WATER FOR LONG PERIODS OF TIME ABILITY TO STAND HOT WEATHER SUCCULENTS STORE WATER IN THEIR STEMS AND LEAVES LEAVES WITH HAIR HELP SHADE THE PLANT, REDUCING WATER LOSS LEAVES TURN THROUGHOUT THE DAY TO EXPOSE A MINIMUM SURFACE AREA TO THE HEAT SPINES DISCOURAGE ANIMALS FROM EATING WAXY COATING ON STEMS AND LEAVES REDUCE WATER LOSS SLOW GROWING - REQUIRES LESS FOOD AND WATER SWOLLEN, SINY, TINY LEAVES THAT ARE RARELY BRIGHT GREEN JUMPING CHOLLA CACTUS SILVERY SPINES PROVIDE SHADE SPINES ROOT THEMSELVES AND GROW I INCH SPINES HIDE THE STEM SPINES PREVENT ANIMALS FROM EATING THEM STEMS ARE SEPERATED INTO SEGMENTS THAT STORE WATER - SEPERATES EASILY SO WATERSOURCE IS NOT GONE MOHAVE TURPENTINE BUSH PRICKLY P AIR BRITTLE BUSH SAGEBRUSH
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DESERTS DROUGHT IS CONSIDERED THE SINGLE MOST DEVASTATING ENVIRONMENTAL STREES LEAF AREA IS THE RATIO OF LEAF AREA TO GROUND AREA - DROUGHT DECREASES LAI IN CROP PLANTS IN GENERAL. IT ALSO SUPRESSES LEAF EXPANSION AND TILLERING.
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TUNDRA COLD YEAR ROUND SHORT, COOL SUMMER LONG SEVERE WINTER LOW, EVERGREEN VEGETATION NO TREES GROWING IN PERMANENT SOIL - PERMAFROST EVAPORATION IS SLOW LITTLE PRECIPITATION SNOW IS NOT WATER LONG DAYS DURING GROWING SEASON, LONG NIGHTS DURING WINTER PLANT LIFE IS DOMINATED BY MOSSES GRASSES AND SEDGES SMALL, LESS THAT 1FT TALL LOW GROWING DUE TO LACK OF NUTRIENTS -- BEING LOW TO THE GROUND HELPS KEEP THE PLANTS FROM FREEZING PLANTS ARE DARK IN COLOR, SOME ARE EVEN RED, WHICH HELPS ABSORB SOLAR HEAT COVERED IN HAIR TO KEP THEM WARM GROW IN CLUMPS TO PROTECT ONE ANOTHER FROM WIND AND COLD DISH LIKE FLOWERS THAT FOLLOW THE SUN, FOCUS MORE ON SOLAR HEAT AT THE CENTER KEEPS THE PLANT WARM
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JUNGLES (TROPICAL) SUMMER RAINY SEASON 80-180 INCHES PER YEAR COOLER “WINTER” DRY SEASON ABUNDANCE IN WATER CAN CAUSE PROBLEMS SUCH AS PROMOTING THE GROWTH OF BACTERIA AND FUNGI -- WHICH IS HARMFUL TO PALNTS HEAVY RAINFALL INCREASES RISK OF FLOODING, SOIL EROSION, RAPID LEACHING OF NUTRIENTS IN THE SOIL ---> POOR SOIL TROPICAL RAINFOREST IS THICK - NOT MUCH SUNLIGHT PENETRATES TO THE FLOOR PLAANTS AT THE TOP OF THE CANOPY MUST BE ABLE TO SURVIVE 12 HOURS OF SUNLIGHT EVERY DAY OF THE YEAR DENSE VEGETATION DOMINATED BY TREES LAND OVERGROWN WITH TANGLED VEGETATION OPEN VEGETATION DUE TO LACK OF SUNLIGHT LARGE LEAVES CARNIVOROUS PLANTS DRIP TIPS AND WAXY SURFACES ALLOW WATER TO RUN OFF, TO DISCOURAGE THE GROWTH OF BACTERIA NAD FUNGI BUTTRESSES AND PROP AND STITLT ROOTS HELP HOLD UP PLANTS IN THE SHALLOW SOIL PLANTS CLIMB ON OTHER TO REACH THE SUNLIGHT BROMELIADS AND EPIPHYTES (PLANTS THAT LIVE ON OTHER PLANTS) COLLECT RAINWATER THROUGH A CENTRAL RESERVOIR FROM WHICH THEY ABSORB WATER THROUGH HAIR ON THEIR LEAVES
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TAIGA (BOREAL FOREST) COLD WINTERS WARM SUMMERS SOME PERMAFROST DRAINAGE IS POOR DUE TO PERMAFROST ABUNDANCE IN LAKES, SWAMPS, BOGS 20 INCHES OF PRECIPITATION PER YEAR SOIL IS ACIDIC AND MINERAL POOR FLOOR COVERED IN LAYER OF PARTIALLY DECOMPOSED CONIFER NEEDLES MANY TREES ARE EVERGREEN SO THEY CAN PHOTOSYNTHESIZE RIGHT AWAY WHEN TEMPERATURE RISE NEEDLE LIKE LEAVES WHICH SHAPE LOSES LESS WATER AND SHEDS MORE SNOW EASILY THAN BROAD LEAVES WAXY COATING ON NEEDLES PREVENT EVAPORATION NEEDLES ARE DARK IN COLOR ALLOWING MORE SOLAR HEAT TO BE ABSORBED TREES HAVE BRANCHES THAT DROOP DOWNWARD TO HELP SHED EXCESS SNOW
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DECIDUOUS (TEMPERATE) FOUR DISTINCT SEASONS - SPRING, SUMMER, AUTUMN, WINTER HOT SUMMER FREEZING WINTER RAIN IS PLENTIFUL, 30-50 INCHES PER YEAR MADE UP OF LAYERS OF PLANTS FOREST CANOPY CAN BE 100 FEET TALL UNDERSTORY CONTAINS SMALL TREES AND YOUNG TREES UNDERSTORY TREES ARE SHADE TOLERANT SHRUB LAYER IS UNDER CARPETING THE FOREST FLOOR IS THE HERB LAYER WITH WILDFLOWERS, MOSSES, AND FERNS FALLEN LEAVES, TWIGS, DRY PLANTS COVER THE GROUND DECOMPOSE, AND HELP ADD NUTRIENTS TO THE SOIL TREES ARE DECIDUOUS (DROP IN AUTUMN AND GROW NEW IN THE SPRING) THIN, BROW, LIGHT WEIGHT LEAVBES THAT CAN CAPTURE A LOT OF SUNLIGHT TO MAKE A LOT OF FOOD FOR THE TREE IN WARM WEATHER WHEN WEATHER GETS COOLER, THE BROAD LEAVES CAUSE TOO MUCH WATER LOSS AND CAN BE WEIGHTED DOWN BY TOO MUCH SNOW, SO THE TREE DROPS ITS LEAVES
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GRASSLANDS (PRAIRIE) HOT SUMMER COLD WINTER RAINFAILL IS UNCERTAIN, DROUGHT IS COMMON DARK, RICH SOIL - GOOD FOR FARMING AND GRAZING GRASS DOMINATED TREES AND LARGE SHRUBS ARE RARE WILFLOWERS GROW WELL DURING A FIRE, ABOVE GRASS PERISHES BUT ROOT PORTIONS SURVIVE TO SPROUT AGAIN PRAIRIE TREES HAVE PARK TO RESIST FIRE GRASS HAS NARROW LEAVES WHICH LOSE LESS WATER THAN BROAD LEAVES GRASS GROW FROM THEIR BASE, NOT FROM THE TIP, SO ITS NOT PERMANENTLY DAMAGED BY GRAZING ANIMALS OR FIRE GRASS TAKES ADVANTAGE OF EXPOSED, WINDY CONDITION AND ARE WIND POLLINATED SOFT STEMS ENABLE PRAIRIE GRASS TO BEND IN THE WIND PRURPLE NEEDLEGRASS WILD OATS FOXTAIL RYEGRASS BUFFALO GRASS -PROVIDE FOOD FOR ANAIMALS
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RIVERS PLANTS HAVE AIR SPACES IN THEIR STEMS TO HELP HOLD UP THE PLANT IN WATER PLANTS HAVE LEAVES THAT FLOAT ATOP THE WATER, EXPOSING THEM TO SUNLIGHT IN FLOATING PLANTS, CLOROPHYLL IS RESTRICTED TO UPPER SURFACE OF THE LEAVES WAXY TOP TO REPEL WATER PRODUCES SEEDS THAT FLOAT UNDERWATER LEAVES AND STEMS ARE FLEXIBLE TO MOVE WITH WATER CURRENTS SUBMERGED PLANTS LACK STRONG WATER TRANSPORT SYSTEM (IN STEMS) -- INSTEAD WATER, NUTRIENTS, AND DISSOLVED GASES ARE ABSORBED THROUGH LEAVBES, DIRECTLY FROM THE WATER ROOTS AND ROOT HAIRS REDUCED BECAUSE THEY ARE USED TO ANCHOR AND NOT ABSORB NUTRIENTS
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*CAN TURN THE PAGE FAST
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Geometry Test
TO STUDY: DO MATERIAL TESTS - TENSIONING A 2X4 POST TENSIONED STEEL MAKE MORE MODELS ACCORDING TO LEAF SYSTEM PHOTOGRAPH MODELS AND COLLAGE FOR SCALE
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END