Stories of poles, who changed the world

Stories of Poles, who changed the world

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POLACY INSPIRUJĄ

Orignators of the project: Bartosz Brzyski, Paweł Grzegorczyk, Piotr Kaszczyszyn, Tomasz Turejko Editorial office: Piotr Kaszczyszyn Graphic design: Rafał Gawlikowski Correction: Karolina Wyciślik

This publication is made possible with the financial support of the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the framework of the project:: “Support for the local and civil dimension of polish foreign policy 2016”

STORIES OF POLES, WHO CHANGED THE WORLD

Table of Contents

7

9

13

stanisław ulam Solitare, that change the fate of the world

jan czochralski The Polish Father of world’s electronics

kazimierz funk Who discovered vitamins?

16

20

23

ludwik hirszfeld A, B, AB, 0

Rudolf Weigl Patriot with a vaccine in his hand

Ignacy Łukasiewicz Polish advisor of Rockefeller

28

32

36

bronisław piłsudski Polish advisor of Rockefeller

Paweł z Włodkowic Pawel from Poland

Joseph Conrad Joseph Conrad it is just a nickname

39

47

51

Józef Retinger The “grey eminence” of the United Europe

Maksymilian Kolbe Weird Max

siostra faustyna A simple girl from Polish countryside

55

62

68

rafał lemkin Ludwik Rajchman The Poles who defended human rights

Józef bem A Pole who defended Aleppo

Ernest Malinowski With head in the clouds

RESEARCHERS: S TA N I S Ł AW U L A M JAN CZOCHRALSKI KAZIMIERZ FUNK LUDWIK HIRSZFELD RUDOLF WEIGL IGNACY ŁUKASIEWICZ B R O N I S Ł AW P I Ł S U D S K I

7 · STANISŁAW ULAM

SOLITARE, THAT CHANGED THE FATE OF THE WORLD MARCIN MOŻEJKO

I would like to introduce you to a Pole who has changed the course of the twentieth century two times. And no, I will not write about Lech Wałęsa, John Paul II or Józef Piłsudski. I will tell you the story of Stanisław Ulam.

The interwar period was a kind of a „golden age” of Polish science. Established in Warsaw, the logical-mathematical school associated with such names as Waclaw Sierpinski and Alfred Tarski celebrated triumphs in Europe and the world. Lviv group, centered around Stefan Banach and Hugo Steinhaus had an even greater reputation. It was there, in the atmosphere of the cafe „Szkocka” where Stanislaw Ulam sailed on the waters of the scientific world.

It was all due to fathers old school book He came from a wealthy Jewish family, and from a young age has been showing an amazing capability in the sciences. Initially, his area of interest was physics, but later, under the influence of an algebra book that he found in his father’s collection, he started to gradually move his attention towards abstract mathematics. Thanks to that, during his studies, the fate brought him together with a group of Lviv scholars gathered around Stefan Banach.

Unfortunately, due to the uncertain situation of academics of Jewish origin in pre-war Poland, influenced by his friend John von Neu-

mann he decided to leave to the United States.

After his contract expired he hovered between Lviv, European cities and the US. During these travels, the World War II has begun. Interestingly, Ulam sailed with his brother to America in the last boat before the start of the War. In the US, because of the tragedy of his friends and family who stayed in Poland, Ulam has fallen into a deep nervous breakdown. At the top of this, he was going through financial problems. Therefore, when John von Neumann re-entered his life by offering him a job in a project aimed at the creation of the atomic bomb (Manhattan Project), he willingly agreed to it.

This decision affected next quarter century of his life, moreover, it also influenced the fate of the entire world. Since the start of his work, Ulam has been focused on the so-called Superbomb Project, which today we call the hydrogen bomb.

Éminence grise of the hydrogen bomb During his work on the project, he experienced an event that we can confidently compare to the apple falling on Newton’s head. While Ulam was recovering from a serious brain disease to return to the high intellectual form, he was playing solitaire and experimenting with the game.

He began to wonder about the probability with which a given set of cards can give a solitaire. As it is a mathematically complicated problem, he was considering whether or not he could solve it in a practical way - simply by drawing another set of cards and counting how many of them create the correct systems. Unfortunately, he faced a huge problem

8 · STANISŁAW ULAM

He hit the jackpot. The same method applied to processes that take place when bomb blast, has brought fantastic results. First, it indicated that the path designated by the leading investigator - Edward Teller, can not lead to success; Ulam then proposed a method which effectively speeded up the work. His exact contribution we can not be judged - the files are still classified. This, however, made him recognized as one of the fathers of the hydrogen bomb. What’s more, it completely changed the strategic plans of superpowers during the Cold War. They avoided a nuclear conflict, for that the exchange of blows with the weapon so powerful, could lead to the destruction of mankind. In this way, solitaire saved us from probably the last and final world conflict.

As for the fate of the ‚solitare’ counting method - the generalized scheme of calculations up to today celebrates triumphs in almost every field of science, giving a simple recipe to obtain reliable results foroften extremely complex calculations. From its „hazardous” beginning it was called the „Monte Carlo method”.

Well, the fate of Ulam is not only a contribution to the creation of the most destructive weapon in the world. The second time he changed the course of history was when he advised President John F. Kennedy to set the flight to the moon as a next challenge for the American people. Nothing comes true without dreams, so you should remember about Ulam, not only as the father of the atomic bomb but also as the godfather of the Apollo program.

Stanisław Ulam

- the total number of different combination of cards is, in fact, greater than the number of atoms in the Milky Way. He had to find a way around it. Then he came up with an idea brilliant in its simplicity - he calculated the number of checked draws that would give him a very credible result and entrusted the calculation to the recently invented computers.

9 · JAN CZOCHRALSKI

THE POLISH FATHER OF WORLD’S ELECTRONICS TOMASZ TUREJKO

Intel, Samsung, Toshiba and many more of the biggest factories producing integrated circuits in the world, up to this day use the “CZ technique” in order to obtain silicon single crystals.

They make a key element in constructing TV sets, telephones, microwaves, computers, laptops, tablets and many more electronic devices Jan Czochralski was the first to use this method of „kenneling” crystals and semiconductors , known in the world – he was the most-time mentioned Polish scientist in world’s scientific literature; a man who, at the sight of his teacher, torn his maturity exam diploma to become, a few years later, one of the most respected chemists in the world.

Until these days he is considered the father of world’s electronics, known and respected almost in every scientific units in Europe and the United States. Paradoxically – he is mostly forgotten in his motherland for which he was once able to sacrifice his scientific career.

Jan Czochralski was born in 1885 in a large family of Great Poland craftsmen. His father was a carpenter and himself studied at a teachers’ seminar. According to family tales, young Czochralski was to tear apart his maturity exam diploma standing in front of his professor, saying: „Please bear in mind that

there were never more unfair grades given to anybody than these!” From other reports we can derive that he was thrown out of the house by his father when the windows on the attack were blown away. This was to be a chemical experiment which Czochralski used to conduct in home conditions.

Finally, in 1904, young Czochralski left to Berlin without a diploma of graduating school, with no money and connections but with great passion to study. Over there he started job at doctor Hebrand’s pharmacy where he continued his research and experiments. Two years later he began his first scientific job at the lab of the company called Kunheim & Co. In 1907 he took over the position of the director and production inspector of the copper refinery which belonged to a big Berlin consortium Allgemeine Elektrizitats Gesellschaft (AEG).

Not long after he married Marguerita Haase – a Dutch pianist from a very wealthy family with whom he had three children.

The biggest discoveries occur by accident In 1916, Czochralski made a discovery that gave him enormous publicity in the world of science. According to the popular anecdote, it happened by pure accident. One evening, tired Czochralski was making notes of the earlier made observations. B his by distraction and inattention the tip of your pen instead of the ink he put into the crucible with the tin. When he pulled it back, there was a tin wire thin as a hair stretching from the nib. Czochralski, intrigued with the observation of the phenomena, conducted further research. It turned out that this „wire” is

10 · JAN CZOCHRALSKI

a long and perfectly shaped crystal. The completed by the chemist method consisted of pulling the crystalline embryo gradually out of the melt in a way providing controlled and stable crystallization of this material on the surface. Hence obtained crystal had a perfect structure, thanks to which it had the same physical properties all over its length. This process of obtaining monocrystals initially aroused interest only among a narrow group of metal experts.

A practical use of this method took place only 40 years later. This technology (properly enhanced) is nowadays used by big consortiums that produce electronic devices.

No matter if you, dear reader, have opened this article on your computer, laptop, smartphone – you are using a device constructed thanks to the discovery made by Jan Czochralski. It wasn’t, however, what gave Polish chemist his first fame and fortune.

Poland > USA In 1917 Czochralski was nominated the director of a metallurgic lab in Frankfurt upon Mein where together with his team he was looking for new alloys for the production of bearings. Another problem was the fact that after the I World War, there was an embargo put on Germany on selling strategic materials including the tin.

In 1924 Czochralski patented the alloy composition which did not include the tin and could perfectly serve for producing sliding rail bearings. The Polish chemist called his new invention „metal B”. It became simply priceless for the sanctioned German economy. It quickly turned out that such produced bearings are cheaper and more efficient than all previous technologies.

Czochralski’s patents were bought e.g. by the United States, the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, France, Great Brittan and Poland.

Almost the entire world used Czochralski’s alloys until the 60’s when sliding bearings were replaced with roller bearings. Czochralski made a fortune on selling metal B and his patents. In 1926 he was elected the chief of German Metal Society. He was a consultant of the world’s biggest corporations, e.g.

French Schneider-Creusot, Czech Škoda, Swedish Bofors, or the English Metal Institute. During that time he received a lucrative offer from an automobile company Ford. Moving to the United States to work for America’s great corporations would open a way for Czochralski to a wonderful scientific career and probably not only just a single Nobel Prize. The Polish chemist decided, however, to reject the offer.

In 1928 Czochralski moved to Poland after a personal invitation sent by President Moscicki (also a chemist).

Until this day it remains unsettled, what were the motives of actions of the Polish scientist. Some believe that it was an „evacuation” of the Polish chemist who was allegedly linked with Polish intelligence and facing being exposed. Another theory says that he got an even more lucrative offer to work at a university which he could not do in Germany nor the USA as he did not have a maturity exam diploma. In 1928 Czochralski only had a diploma of a technical engineer which he got due to posting the function.

It was, however, not an academic degree.

Poles quickly tackled the problem. In 1929 Czochralski received a honoris causa degree at the Warsaw University of Technology and soon President Moscicki gave him the title of a professor.

Jan Czochralski took the position of a director of an especially for him created Metals and Metallurgy Cathedral at Warsaw University of Technology. His workshop was (as for Polish condition standards) very modern, well-equipped and received huge financial donations. The problem was the issue of his citizenship. The Polish scien-

11 · JAN CZOCHRALSKI

tist probably gave up his German passport after returning to Poland, yet it was never accepted by the German side. Therefore, until the end of the II World War, he had a double citizenship which was later to be used against him. His workshop at the university received a large shipment from the army, Czochralski himself cooperated at that time with the Polish intelligence. Big money and a privileged position at the university aroused envy among many scientist with diplomas. The leader of the opposition was clearly Professor Witold Broniewski, who publicly accused Czochralski of dishonesty, questioned his scientific achievements and even accused of activities not in favor of the Polish country. The case ended up in court, where Broniewski lost.

In 1932 Czochralski bought a mansion on Nabielak Street in Warsaw. Discussion panels were held there with the presence of artists, literates and scientists. The Polish chemist funded scholarships for the most talented students of the university and generously supported various cultural and scientific enterprises, e.g. reconstruction of Chopin’s house in Zelazowa Wola or the dig in Biskupin. The Polish chemist did not avoid luxury – he built a fantastic villa in his hometown of Kcynia and named it after his wife – Margowo. Always elegant, he wore expensive suits, drove a modern car and privately was a friend of Moscicki and his family.

A war hero without a gun After the outburst of the II World War, Czochralski, as a German citizen was granted a permission to establish a Department of Materials Research at the Warsaw University of Technology and later a few other scientific research units. Professor employed Polish scientists there, this way protecting a big part of the university elites form being transported to camps.

Czochralski also had his prewar lab which the Germans did not rob after invading Warsaw in September 1939. Formally, this works produced materials for Wehrmacht.

In practice, this activity was, due to Czochralski’s orders, sabotaged and delayed and the workers passed some of the produced equipment to the Polish independence underground movements. The National Army unit operating on the same area as the works also helped with it.

Thanks to his influences Czochralski pulled dozens of Poles out of German prisons and concentration camps, including the future Warsaw University Professor– Marian Świderek and Professor Stanisław Porejko.

During the occupation, Czochralski still organized „literate Thursdays” in which e.g. Leopold Staff, Ludwik Solski or Kornel Makuszyński took part. After the fall of the Warsaw Uprising, Czochralski, making use of the special badge he received from the Germans, carried a great deal of equipment away from the ruined city.

In 1945 the Polish Professor was accused of cooperating with the Germans and arrested. Put into prison, he was later found innocent after a few months. Despite being exonerated he never enjoyed an easy life.

University Senate, dominated with by his enemies, passed a law in December 1945 which excluded him from professors’ community. Later, new authorities took care of removing his achievements and history from the books and awareness of the Poles and the history of science. Humiliated, he left to his hometown Kcynia where he opened a small factory producing cosmetics under the name „Biom”. Despite an offer to work in Vienna he decided not to leave Poland and remained there for the rest of his life. This is how a genius autodidact and creator of the basics of world’s electronics, at the fall of his life, engaged himself in producing shoe paste and cough powder.

12 · JAN CZOCHRALSKI

The Polish father of world’s electronics In more or less the same time in the United States, scientists from Bell Laboratories discovered his works on the way of crystal growth from 1916 and called it „ Czochralski’s method”. An era of semiconductors, electronics and information technology began.

In April 1954 Gordon Teal’s team from Texas Instruments constructed the first transistor from a silicon crystal made with the use of Czochralski’s way. The Polish chemist un-

meful law from 1945. Even after the changes in political system, professor was never given back his good name. Everything changed only in 2011 when a document was found in the Archives of New Acts that confirmed his cooperation with the National Army intelligence. For a lot of those having doubts in scientist’s innocence, it became the ground for his full rehabilitation. It happened on 29 June 2011 when the Senate passed a law to restore Professor’s good name.

Microprocessors by Intel and AMD fortunately did not make it until that moment. On 22 April 1953 officers of the Security Office came to his house in Kcynia and performed a brutal revision in his house. Tearing apart the parquet, destroying belongings and relentless treatment of the professor caused a heart attack. Transported to the hospital in Poznan he died the same day. The Polish chemist was buried on a cemetery in his hometown but the authorities did not allow to put his name on the grave. He rested in peace in an anonymous grave until 1998 when board with the name „Jan Czochralski (1885-1953) a world famous chemist and materials expert, professor and honoris causa doctor at the University of Technology in Warsaw”.

In 1993 the Senate of The Warsaw University of Technology rejected cancelling the sha-

On 7 December 2012 Polish Parliament passed the law to name year 2013 The Year of Jan Czochralski. It occurred on the day of the 60th anniversary of chemist’s death. This many years were needed for the Republic to clear this great Pole, patriot and one of the greatest scientists of our times off the accusations. A man without whom there would be no modern day electronics.

13 · KAZIMIERZ FUNK

WHO DISCOVERED VITAMINS? TOMASZ TUREJKO

At the beginning of the XX century, humanity already knew vaccines for tetanus, plague and cholera. Though many diseases were curable, there were still numerous medical challenges to overcome.

One of them was avitaminosis which resulted in various severe and incurable diseases like beri-beri, rickets, scurvy or anemia. It was when a new chapter in biochemistry was written by Kazimierz Funk – a great Polish scientist who at the age of 16 passed the maturity exam, four years later graduated with Ph.D. in biology and at the age of 27 has made the most tremendous marks in the history of medicine. Funk discovered the vitamin.

Kazimierz Funk was born in 1884 in the family of a Warsaw dermatologist. Since his early years he showed high talents thanks to which – using his private teacher’s assistant – he passed the maturity exam at the age of 16 and left to continue his studies in Switzerland. At the University of Bern he studied under the eye of professor Stanisław Kostanecki, the creator of the plant dyes theory.

Four years later he successfully defended his Doctor’s thesis and began his own scientific research. Between 1904 and 1906 he worked at the Pasteur’s Institute in Paris, later in the Cathedral of Organic Chemistry at the Berlin University (1906-1910). It was there where he got acquainted with medical research ha-

ving been performed on mice which fed only with carbohydrates and proteins stopped their growth. Inspired by these attempts he soon started similar examination, this time on dogs. He proved that animals which were given even a little doze of milk began to grow again. He therefore proved that milk contains a substance which is crucial for normal growth (today we know that these substances were vitamins A and D). Since 1910, Funk had worked at Preventive Medicine Institute of Lipster in London where he began studies on the reasons for severe and then-incurable disease of beri-beri.

Rise, pigeons and the world revolution in medicine During his research he used experiment of a Dutch doctor, Christian Eijkman, who proved that chickens fed only with husked rice experience a paralysis similar to beri-beri.

Yet those animals that are fed with rice bran remain healthy. Funk drew a conclusion that bran must contain a substance needed for healthy growth of people and animals. In London institute he examined rice bran for long months and performed experiments on pigeons and in 1911 he distinguished a substance that contained amine group NH2. As it turned out, it was „life-sustaining” ingredient. A year later, the Polish scientist called his discovery „vitamin” which comes from latin words vita – life and amina – chemical solution that contains an amine group.

The substance discovered by Funk is today known as vitamin B1 and can be found e.g. in milk. Hence, the “life-sustaining amine” has been discovered and revolutionized world’s medicine.

At the same time dr Funk stated that a lack

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of vitamins (avitaminosis) may lead not only to the beri-beri disease but also to other illnesses as scurvy or rickets. He, therefore, undermined the view which said that the only reason for diseases are nosogenic organisms.

It turned out that diseases may be caused both by the presence of unwanted microorganisms and substances as well as a lack of needed substances for a human being. This resulted in a change of approach towards cu-

its immunity. The Pole had also undertaken work on hormones (as the first man he produced synthetic adrenaline improving the salvarsan he committed to a more efficient fight against the then-reigning epidemic of syphilis in the USA. In 1923 Ludwik Rajchman came to The United States – a Polish doctor and bacteriologist who offered Funk a job at the National

Institut Pasteur in Paris; Funk worked here over the period 1904-1906 ring diseases caused by avitaminosis; special interest was paid to dieting, and the pharmaceutical industry started to produce vitamins as drugs. It was possible thanks to Frank’s further research who began to discover next vitamins and indicate which foods they can be found in. Even before the First World War, the Polish scientist compiled the first vitamin concentrate from cod’s liver which was given to people with “life-sustaining substance” shortage.

During the War, Kazimierz Funk spent time in The United States where he conducted further research on vitamins. He proved that they can not only be used to prevent diseases but also defend the organism against infections and bacteria by significantly increasing

Hygiene Institute in Warsaw. The same year the inventor of vitamin was already back to independent Poland and became the director of Biochemical Lab. He there continued his research on vitamins and hormones. Their result was isolating the insulin and digestive enzyme. Thanks to this, Poland has become the third producer of insulin in the world (after Denmark and Great Britain).

During the interwar the scientist has published a lot of scientific papers, among which was the revolutionary Die Vitamine from 1924. He participated in numerous symposiums and scientific conferences. At that time, Danish scientists who were in awe of his ground-braking achievements, have submitted Funk’s candidature for the Nobel

15 · KAZIMIERZ FUNK

Prize. Altogether, Kazimierz Funk was nominated to the Nobel Prize award four times – twice in the field of chemistry and twice in medicine. Unfortunately he was never granted the Prize.

In 1927 he left to France once again. There he e.g. isolated the B3 vitamin (also known as the nicotine acid) and took another research on hormones which effect was isolating androsterone and discovering properties of estrogen and testosterone. How close these researches were is shown by the results of experiments conducted by Kazimierz Funk’s successors. In the 60’s the proved that the examined over decades vitamin D is actually a….steroid hormone, among which testosterone and estrogen – described by Polish scientist – can also be found.

In the eve of the II World War outbreak, Kazimierz Funk again migrated with his family to the United States where he became the main consultant of the American Vitamin Association in New York. He continued his further research on hormones and insulin there as well as the possibility of their therapeutic use in medicine. He spent last years of his life on cancer diseases causes. In the worldwide scale dr Funk was a true pioneer in his area and his observations shed a light on further research for his successors.

Pole, who has saved millions of human lives Kazimierz Funk’s heritage for contemporary medicine is priceless. The discover of vitamins has revolutionized scientific theories on dieting. It led not only to neutralization of a great deal of fatal diseases tormenting millions all over the world but also significantly widened the perspective of using diet as a preventive tool, by providing your body with all the needed ingredients for maintaining good condition and counteraction for potential illnesses. To appreciate Polish scientist’s input into the development of medicine, the

Polish Institute of Art and Science funded the Kazimierz Funk’s Award in 1995 which is given annually to scientists of a Polish origin.

What’s worth mentioning is the fact, that e.g.

Hilary Koprowski – the creator of the first oral vaccine for polio virus – has been among the awarded. polio. Both men have made a groundbraking leap in medicine, they were both Polish and both of them were honored in this symbolical way by the history. In 1992 Polish Post put on the market a stamp with Funk’s image which to this day remains one of very few attempts to commemorate a great person in such way.

Unfortunately, despite such impressive achievements, Kazimierz Funk and his discovery remains only a curiosity for some circles of people. Polish high school graduates can easily tell the nationality and identity of the discoverer of polonium or radium but they will have a hard time answering the question who discovered a substance which is nowadays used and well known by millions of people all across the world. Every time a vitamin is mentioned, we are talking about a discovery of a great Polish scientist, Kazimierz Funk, who thanks to his hard work and determination has saved millions of human lives.

16 · LUDWIK HIRSZFELD

A, B, AB, 0 JORDAN SZOŁDRA

Every scientific field he had taken up ended with a „-logy”. His work was far from brilliance but one can’t deny its effectiveness and significance.

and future author of multiple works in the fields of pediatrics, immunology and nematology. In many of his statements, Hirszfeld proven his love and affection towards his wife. He assured that „the source for the lyrics is not a harem but longing for one woman…Don Juans are usually no poets.”

It all started from dogs Is your blood type A? Perhaps it’s AB? The discovery of the rule of inheriting blood types and names for these are achievements of a Polish scientist, Ludwik Hirszfeld. Fatherhood tests? Hirszfeld again. Research on the origin and blood kinship of people from different continents? Hirszfeld, for the third time. Besides his scientific achievements, the Polish doctor was also a man ready to risk his own life to rescue others. This text describes a long forgotten hero, Ludwik Hirszfeld.

Hirszfeld was born in Warsaw on 5 August 1884 in an assimilated Jewish family. His father was a wealthy industrialist, Stanislaw Hirszfeld and his mother’s name was Żaneta Ginsberg. Bronisław Hirszfeld, a chemist and independence activist, who also was his uncle, had largely influenced Ludwik’s life. Young boy, thanks to him, paid interest to politics and the actions of Polish Socialistic Party, he even got arrested for a while for participating in secret Polish history lessons. After graduating from the school in Lodz, he left to Berlin in 1902 to begin his medical studies in Würzburg. Two years later he moved to Berlin where he got fascinated by bacteriology and serology. At that time, he also met and later married Hanna Kasman, who was also a medicine student

In 1907 he successfully defended his doctor’s thesis on agglutination of blood particles.

The newly named doctor left to Heidelberg where he met Professor Emil von Dungern.

During the work at the Cancer Research Institute in Heidelberg they conducted examinations on dogs, looking into their serologic features and proving that they are inherited in a specific way. After a while following 1910, while already researching at the Serology Institute, the scientists decided to perform first tests on human volunteers.

Despite the fact that the existence of different blood types was discovered by an Austrian, Karl Landsteiner, it was Hirszfeld and von Dungern who found out the rule of inheriting groups in accordance to Mendel’s terminology: division to groups A, B, AB and 0. Their research also led to the introduction of first ever parental tests. Hirszfeld also described, basing on purely logical symptoms, a serologic conflict between the mother and the fetus, which was later confirmed after the discovery of the Rh factor.

While leaving the sterile laboratory In 1911 Hirszfelds moved to Zurich, where Ludwik took a job at the Hygiene Institute, while Hanna started working in Children’s

17 · LUDWIK HIRSZFELD

After the war began, Serbian government has turned to the international community of doctors for help in fighting epidemics tormenting the over-4-million population.

Hirszfelds reacted to the appeal and headed to Serbia. After reaching the place they were shocked by the scale of this humanitarian catastrophe. As Hirszfeld himself described: „It’s enough to say that 1 out of 4 million people were sick and out of 360 doctors almost all were sick and 126 died. There were cases when unconscious people were mistakenly put on piles of dead bodies”. Despite all difficulties they managed to prepare a vaccine which turned out to be a game-changing weapon in the fight against the spotted fever epidemic. This achievement got him the order of St. Sawa.

When in October 1915 armies of central nations broke the front, Hirszfeld, alongside the backing off Serbian army, went through Albanian mountains to the Adriatic coast.

A large part of the Serbian army had never made it there due to low temperatures and lack of food. The couple decided to do it despite government’s suggestions to surrender to the Austrians – as doctors they would not have been in any danger. Thanks to their loyalty, Hirszfelds won the sympathy and remembrance of many Serbians.

Later the doctors went back to Zurich where they eventually didn’t stay for too long. Following Serbian government’s invitation they quickly traveled to Greece where Hirszfeld was managing the Contagious Diseases Clinic in Thessaloniki and trained doctors and the medical staff. Also in Greece, the Jewish doctor made the discovery of typhoid bacil-

Ludwik Hirszfeld

Clinic under the supervision of Emil Feer, who discovered the effects of quicksilver poisoning. In the year of the Great War outburst, at the age of 30, Hirszfeld received his habilitation, mostly for his input in research on anaphylaxis and anaphylo-toxins and their coagulations with blood.

18 · LUDWIK HIRSZFELD

lus C, named after him salmonella hirszfeldi.

Is it confirmed, that we all have the common predecessor?

may be inherited from ancestors who survived given diseases was later confirmed by other scientists.

The Hirszfelds also got back to Ludwik’s old passion – research on the existence of blood types depending on the origin and nationality. By taking care of various soldiers, Ludwik got a chance to check his hypotheses.

He then distinguished 3 categories related to blood type groups and human’s origin: European linked with group A; Asian linked with group B and the middle one where the number of people with a given group was about the same. He proposed an indicator called the Biochemical Index of Hirszfeld (IBH) – the higher it is, the more group A in the population, the lower it is, the more people with group B will occur. Highest IBH levels were found in bodies of English and French soldiers, the lowest however in those of Hindu and Vietnamese soldiers. Basing on this research, which today might seem totally simple and obvious, a scientific branch has emerged and which began to track common origin of masses – seroanthropology, which nowadays is based on advanced DNA research DNA.

Since 1924 Hirszfeld had been lecturing at the Pharmaceutical Department, the Doctors Department of Warsaw University and the National School of Hygiene. His lectures usually brought in crowds of students.

He interpreted his success in a very simple way: „Who wants to ignite others, must first be blazing himself”. One of his main features was definitely his sincerity, he also was a demanding master, which can be perfectly depicted by a quotation: „If a young man, after receiving the topic of research, after 3 months still does not know more than the professor in this field, is a loser”.

After coming back to independent Poland in 1919, Ludwik converted himself to become a Christian as he though, that being a Polish citizen means that you should also be Catholic. He organized the Department of Sera and Vaccines in Warsaw and took over the management. After merging with the National Hygiene Institute in 1924 he got the position of Bacteriology and Experimental Medicine Department director. Between 1926 and 1933 he also posted the function of a director and actual manager of the Institute. It was then when he had his second habilitation, this time in bacteriology and immunology, while in 1931 he was named a Professor on Warsaw University. He was then especially interested in the topic of inheriting immunity for contagious diseases.

His hypothesis suggesting that immunity

Full worldwide fame came to him in 1928 when during a National Hygiene conference at the League of Nations, it was decided that blood type groups will be named according to Hirszfeld and Dungern.

The occupant one can fight with a hypodermic During various congresses, Hirszfeld had been watching the slow increase in fascism supporters, also among his colleagues. In his book, History of one life he mentions Leon Lattes, an Italian Jew, a pioneer in court serology and his subservient acts towards Mussolini on the conference in Rome in 1935.: „He seemed like a big, sly cat purring from pleasure. Apparently, it was as indispensable as burning incenses for ancient Caesars.

About scientists later collaborating with the occupants he said that „the betrayed more than just their Motherland – they betrayed dreams and hopes of the entire humanity” During the II World War outbreak, Hirfszeld turned his vocal dissatisfaction into firm actions. Already in September 1939 he proposed Polish authorities to create a blood donation and transfusion facility. After the

19 · LUDWIK HIRSZFELD

German occupation started, all his positions were revoked from him – instead he was offered professor’s jobs in Germany which he refused. His friends living abroad tried to persuade him into fleeing the country and offered help, however to no avail. “My wife’s mother had no funds to live, a man very close to us – in a concentration camp and his family left with no protection. In such conditions, how could I just throw everything and leave it to the fate?” – he explained his decision.

On 20 February 1941 he was forced to move to the Warsaw Ghetto, despite being given Yugoslavian citizenship by King Peter II who this way tried to save the Polish Scientist.

During his stay at the ghetto he conducted scientific research, gave lectures for students and spread the knowledge on hygiene and contagious diseases prevention. Thanks to the vaccine, trafficked into the ghetto and sent from Lviv by Professor Rudolf Weigl, he secretly cured spotted fever patients.

He escaped from the ghetto a day before the planned deportation to a death camp in July 1942, thanks to the help of good-willing Arian friends who gave Hirszfelds false worker’s identities and papers. He lived with a false name, and with a false ID provided by the resistance movement he pretended a disinfectant specialist. At the beginning of 1943 Hirszfelds went through their biggest tragedy, when their 23-year-old daughter Maria died. After a while they managed to get to southern Poland where they were hiding at various homes.

“I believe that people can be better” In 1944 Hirszfeld participated in organizing the Marie Curie’s University in Lublin where he was nominated a vice chancellor and microbiology professor. A year later he moved to Wroclaw to help in building the structures of their university, especially the Doctors Department, of which he became the

dean and as well as a medicine microbiology professor. He wanted to come back to Warsaw, however after a short stay there he admitted that living in the capital city brought back too many sad memories. Between 1948 and 1950 he led the scientific council for blood donations (established by the management of the Polish Red Cross). In 1950 he was nominated for Nobel Prize for explaining the phenomena of serologic conflict between the mother and the baby. He also was one of the first members-founders of The Polish Academy of Science.

Just like before the war, his lectures brought in crowds of students. As dr Janina Wartenberg, who cooperated with Hirszfeld in Wroclaw, says, despite the horror of war he was a cheerful and friendly man: “We felt that each one of us is significant to him. «Poor child – he used to say – you look miserable, perhaps you take a few days off?” He was a friend of Pawel Jasienica, who described his life in Tales of a live matter. He’s always been an optimist. A few hours before his death he said these words: „I believe that people will be better”. He died on 7 March 1954 and was buried on St. Wawrzyniec cemetery in Wroclaw, where 10 years after that his beloved wife Hanna also had her funeral.

Nowadays Ludwik Hirszfeld is an almost completely forgotten man. What is worse, if he is ever remembered, it is mostly outside of Poland. Only a few streets, squares or medical units were named after him. Polish Post once released a stamp with his image.

Remembering the opening quote, we should ask ourselves this question – is it only that much good will that Polish people can generate in the XXI century?

20 · RUDOLF WEIGL

PATRIOT WITH A VACCINE IN HIS HAND TOMASZ TUREJKO

The main aim: overcome typhus

If the man was of American, German, or Jewish nationality, he would certainly be world famous.

A biologist, four times Nobel Prize candidate, inventor of the world’s first effective vaccine against typhus and a man with a big heart, who risked his own life to save thousands of people from certain death.

Until the early twentieth-century typhoid fever was a disease that was gathering cruel harvest wherever it appeared. All attempts to prevent epidemics ended in failure and many prominent scientists have lost their lives, trying to fight with the dangerous disease. In this situation, Rudolf Weigl has chosen an extremely difficult goal: to defeat typhoid fever, which decimated the soldiers at the war front. After the Great War, he continued his research at the University of Lviv. The beginning was not easy.

The first vaccine, still imperfect, prof. Weigl tried on himself, and indeed paid a price with his own health. His painstaking research ended in success, however. Prof. Weigl invented the world’s first vaccine against typhus. The solution was brilliant in its simplicity and showed great artistry and scientific genius of Polish professor.

Above all, great patriot, a Pole by choice, with his heart in Lviv. Simply a man who living in hard times accomplished absolutely extraordinary things. Who is that? It’s Rudolf Weigl, one of the most forgotten heroes of our history.

Rudolf Weigl was born in 1883 in the Austrian family. After the early death of his father, he was brought up in Polish culture and tradition. Under the influence of his stepfather Joseph Trojnar (a professor in a Syrian secondary school), he became interested in the natural science. Weigl graduated from the natural sciences at the University of Lviv in 1907, where over the following five years, he achieved a doctorate and habilitation. During World War I, he was drafted into the army as a parasitologist. That was where he first saw the large scale of the typhus problem among soldiers fighting.

Professor Stefan Kryński who assisted Weigl’s vaccine development explained the circumstances of its invention: „At that time the Brazilian microbiologist, Dr. Rocha-Lima, discovered the germ causing this disease. However, it could not be grown in the laboratory which has stopped the development of the vaccine. The germ of typhus is a so-called rickettsia that although is a bacteria does not grow on artificial nourishment, but like viruses multiply only inside living cells. A clothing louse is an intermediate host and carrier of the germ. Weigl came up with the idea to use the insect to breed the germ and this way get the opportunity to produce a vaccine. The biggest problem was the way of how to artificially infect the insect. That is where Weigl’s

21 · RUDOLF WEIGL

great talent for experimenting came with an enormous help. He made a glass tube tapered at the end to the thickness of a hair, truncated obliquely as a device that allowed him to inject the germ into the intestine of the insect, where it could intensively multiply. The vaccine was produced from the crushed and properly cleaned infected intestine.”

In 1920, Rudolf Weigl became a professor of Jan Kazimierz University and head of the Department of General Biology, Faculty of Medicine, where he continued his research on his anti-typhus vaccine. Lviv Research Institute of Typhus Fever and Viruses founded by Professor was visited by researchers from all over the world seeking to discover the secrets of biological knowledge and to learn research methods. Weigl became world famous due to a vaccination campaign against typhus in the Belgian Catholic missions in China. Thanks to the campaign many missionaries, but also thousands of Chinese were saved. For his achievements, he received the highest honor from the Pope - the Order of St. Gregory, Belgian decorations, membership in many scientific institutions, and his candidacy was issued for the Nobel Prize. In 1930, Professor Weigl was awarded the Order of Polonia Restituta. January 18, 1937, Lviv City Council awarded Weigl with the Scientific Award of the City of Lviv for work he contributed to natural sciences in 1936.

Lice saved from deportation In 1939 the professor helped in controlling the epidemy of typhus in Abyssinia. Being well aware of the fact that Poland is threatened by war, he stopped the work and returned to his homeland. He has not ended research typhus during the occupation. The problem of combating the disease was of great importance for both occupants of the Polish lands, who tried to transform the research laboratory at the production center.

During the first Soviet occupation of Lviv (September 22, 1939 - June 29, 1941), vaccine production has been greatly expanded, partly because the Soviets transferred a school building for this purpose.

In the institute, the professor tried to employ people threatened by mass deportations to Siberia and Kazakhstan. At the turn of June and July 1941, after the Germans entered Lviv and murdered a group of 25 Polish professors and several members of their families, after the closing of all the universities and schools by the occupants, the situation in which Lviv scientific community has found itself was critical. The new occupant, interested in combating typhus among soldiers of the Wehrmacht, ordered the professor to continue the research on a vaccine. Then the professor proved that he is not only an outstanding scientist but also a great patriot, who even in times of great trial, refused to renounce his nationality. Rudolf Weigl firmly rejected the lucrative offer of new German authorities to conduct the research in Berlin, combined with the promise to support his candidacy for the Nobel Prize in the exchange for signing the Deutsche Volksliste.

To General SS F. Katzmannow who was offering him to sign the document, the professor replied: „A man only once in a lifetime chooses his nationality. I have already chosen. „ Despite the insistence and threats from the German side, prof. Weigl never renounced his Polish nationality. His response to the German proposal was as follows: „As a biologist, I know the phenomenon of death, and often think about death, because life has become so sad and hopeless. So can you do me a favor and kill me or you have to accept me as a Polish professor of Polish nationality. „ Prof. Weigl took on the task of driving institute for the needs of the German army.

Polish scientist saw this as the opportuni-

22 · RUDOLF WEIGL

ty to help a large group of unemployed and destitute professors and assistants from the closed Lviv university. Professor deliberately employed individuals who were at most risk of reprisals from the German occupier. Thanks to the undertaken work, these people received legal documents, that let them move freely around the city which facilitated their participation in clandestine organizations in Lviv, and beyond. Institute, using its privileged position, employed many scholars and intellectuals (including mathematics Stefan Banach, botany Stanislaw Kulczyński, poet Zbigniew Herbert, composer and conductor Stanislaw Skrowaczewski, actor Andrzej Szczepkowski the writer and diplomat Miroslaw Zulawski), numerous Home Army(AK) members and Jews to protect them all from death and deportation to concentration camps.

Then, the help of so-called „Lice feeders” was used on a mass scale. Thousands of volunteers using special tiny devices were feeding lice on their bodies (it was absolutely safe and did not harm people who took part in it, even the wife of the professor Sophia took part in it). This process enabled the production of vaccines on a large scale.

Officially, all were made to satisfy the needs of the German army. The professor, however, organized the production of many more vaccines which completely illegally and in complete secrecy before the German authorities were handed over to the partisans, civilians and Jews imprisoned in the Warsaw, Lodz and Lviv ghettos. That help was very risky, and the professor himself almost every day risked his life trying to selflessly support the victims of the German occupation.

Today it is estimated that Rudolf Weigl, during his activity in the occupied Lviv, saved approx. 5,000 representatives of Lviv scientific community (also Jewish scholars, including Ludwik Fleck and Mr. and Mrs. Meisl), university and high school students threatened by deportation to the Germany

as well as resistance fighters. That’s over 4 times more people saved than in the factory of worldwide recognized Oskar Schindler.

In contrast to the German entrepreneur, prof. Weigl is a character almost completely unknown, both in Poland and around the world.

There is only one monument which remained after him After the war, he lived in Krakow and continued his studies, first at the Jagiellonian University, and later - until his retirement in 1951 at the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan. He died on August 11, 1957, in Zakopane, was buried in the Alley of the Meritorious at Rakowicki Cemetery in Krakow. The new communist authorities underrated professor Weigl. Not only that, they effectively thwarted granting him the Nobel Prize in 1948, to which he was nominated by the Swedish Academy. Falsely maligned to collaborate with Germany, he had to wait long to finally be recognized for his services both in Poland and in the world. In 2003 he was posthumously awarded by the Israeli Institute Yad Vashem with the Medal of the Righteous Among the Nations.

The professor is commemorated in Wroclaw, where a modest monument to his memory was founded by his students, alumni and staff. A modest stone with a plaque this way Poland and the world commemorated a wonderful man with a great heart, an outstanding scientist, a Pole by choice and a passionate Polish and Lviv patriot who risked his own live to save thousands of people during the occupation, whose discovery has saved many thousands of lives on around the world, the man who simply acted humanly in the inhuman times.

23 · IGNACY ŁUKASIEWICZ

POLISH ADVISOR OF ROCKEFELLER TOMASZ TUREJKO

There is a risk that Ignacy Lukasiewicz will be downgraded to a person of just one image: a homely inventor of the petroleum.

Meanwhile, this Polish pharmacist is a person whose biography is so packed with achievements it could be used to make a few extra ones as well: he was a pioneer in world’s petroleum industry, the first man ever to have performed crude oil distillation using scientific methods, founder of the world’s first crude oil platform and a rare type of social-focused philanthropist, a positivist, vivid politician and a man of great mind and even greater heart.

Ignacy Łukasiewicz was born in 1822 in a poor gentry’s family. His father took part in Kosciuszko’s Uprising and his parents generally bred him with patriotic and democratic spirit. Unfortunately, it was his father’s premature death and hence poor financial situation that made Łukasiewicz stop education at 4th grade of gymnasium and starting a job.

Good command of German and Latin as well as vast knowledge in chemistry field led Łukasiewicz to a job at a chemist’s, initially in Łańcut, later in Rzeszow.

A pharmacist crude oil

experimenting

with

This was the time when he joined a patriotic organization and was arrested for alleged illegal conspiracy activities and put to pri-

son. After being held there for two years and going out in 1848 he took a job at Lviv’s best pharmacy called „Pod Gwiazdą” run by Piotr Mikolash. Łukasiewicz showed a great deal of hard work. He was a quick-learner and easily acquired new skills and experience. It was then when he completed the „Manuscript” – an over-270-page piece including prescriptions for over 120 drugs in alphabetical order, most of which were ointments but also recipes for lacquers, varnishes, fireworks, hair growth stimulators, and even for the production of chocolate.... The variety of these recipes indicates how vast his scope of interest was. All receipts were written in German and Latin. It surely was an extraordinary work, especially because it was written by a simple pharmacist’s assistant.

In order to get the master’s degree in pharmacy he had to graduate from the university first. The Governor of Lviv denied Łukasiewicz leave to Krakow, it was only Mikolash’s endorsement which enabled him to go start his studies. Łukasiewicz did not have a lot of money. His studies and costs of living was quite costly and lasted for two years. Łukasiewicz was never discouraged by these adversities and thoroughly went through the entire study material in … just one year. Unfortunately, university’s authorities did not allow him for an early term to pass all exams. The Polish pharmacist was offered the position of director in an alum factory and only attended classes from time to time. He traveled to Vienna for his fourth and last semester and passed the closing exam and finally, in 1852 got his Master’s.

In the same year he went back to Lviv where one of the groundbreaking moments of

24 · IGNACY ŁUKASIEWICZ

his life took place. Mikolash’s pharmacy was visited by Drohobycz’s Jews who came with a proposal to buy already distilled oil. Following his supervisor’s request, Łukasiewicz and his fellow colleague Jan Zeh started the tedious work and experiments on crude oil.

They were initially certain that they were looking for a substance to be used in pharmaceutical production. It later turned out that after cleaning the oil they were left with a light-yellow distillate which properties were similar to the expensive imported Italian product called oleum patrea album.

constructor often stayed in his lab overnight when conducting consecutive experiments on crude oil. So was he doing that night. After hearing about the situation, Łukasiewicz quickly packed his lamps into a bag and delivered them to the hospital’s operating room.

Doctor Zaorski performed a complicated operation and the patient survived. This was the world’s first ever operation under artificial light.

The gloom was illuminated

Not long after that, the Lviv’s hospital bough 500 kilos of petroleum from the firm. It was the world’s first ever petroleum purchase.

Polish scientists patented their invention in Vienna and Łukasiewicz’s petroleum started to become a point of interest for the Austrian Railways. A year later he moved to Gorlitz where he continued his pharmaceutical work connected with numerous experiments on crude oil. Further revolutionary inventions were merely a matter of time. Between 1853 and 1854 in Gorlitz shone the world’s first street lamp. In the same year (1854) Łukasiewicz established cooperation with Tytus Trzeciesk and opened… the world’s first petroleum mine in Bóbrka, small town close to Krosno. Two years later, in 1856, Łukasiewicz opened the first crude oil refinery in Ulaszowice next to Jasło. Next distilleries were opened in Klęczanay (1858), Polanka (1861) and in Chorkowka (1865).

Mikolash, Zeh and Łukasiewicz established a company and decided to introduce the new product to the European market. Unfortunately, there was no big demand for the good offered by Lviv’s pharmacists. Mikolash, woeful, gave up his shares. Łukasiewicz, however, never gave up. If there was no demand for his product, then he decided to create one! The Pole decided to use the new oily substance to for lighting. In the same year he managed to separate oil from petroleum (he derived from experiments of another Polish chemist – Filip Walter, who conducted this process as the first man in the world!).

In 1853 Łukasiewicz alongside with a tinsmith from Lviv, Adam Bratkowski constructed world’s first oil lamp which shined for the first time in Mikolash’s pharmacy in March 1853. The real breakthrough took place a few months after. On 31 July 1853 a seriously ill patient, Władysław Cholecki, was brought to the Central Hospital in Lviv. The entire nightshift staff was called to full attention as an immediate surgery had to be performed.

The problem was that it was already dark and the candles could not light up the room to an extent where it would be possible to safety operate. It seemed like the patient is not going to make it. Suddenly, one of the staff members ran to Lukasiewicz’s pharmacy after the order from Dr Zaorski. The Polish

First ever street oil lamp, first oil mine and first refinery

Łukasiewicz has always employed distinctive experts thanks to which his enterprise continuously expanded. Engineer H. Walter replaced manual oil well digging with impact drilling. By bringing improved drilling equipment from Germany he accomplished mechanization of crude oil production and significantly improved enterprise efficiency.

In the same year, Edwin Drake and Wiliam Smith, who were long considered pioneers of the oil business, made first oil drillings in

25 · IGNACY ŁUKASIEWICZ

Pennsylvania. A new chapter in petroleum industry has therefore begun. Americans entered the market and – as it later turned out – dominated it for long upcoming years.

At the same time, when United States citizens made their first steps in the oil industry, Łukasiewicz’s mine in Bóbrka employed over

100 workers and made a revenue of 20 thousand zlotys a year. In the petroleum field, Łukasiewicz was a respected authority of international fame. Even entrepreneurs from the United States were visiting his mines, where they derived from his great knowledge.

In 1863 Łukasiewicz financially aided the Ja-

Ignacy Łukasiewicz’s bust in front of the Museum of Oil and Gas Industry

26 · IGNACY ŁUKASIEWICZ

nuary Uprising and after it was over he provided shelter for its participants. In mid and late 60’s he sold petroleum wholesale to almost every corner of Europe. In 1873 during an exhibition in Vienna, the International Commission granted him a medal for his achievements of petroleum and asphalt and an honorary diploma for his achievements in the petroleum industry. Not long after, he became the first chairman of the Polish Petroleum Industry.

Politics at the service of oil Ignacy Łukasiewicz was not only an entrepreneur but also a slick politician. In years 1877-1881 he held the position of deputy to the National Parliament in Galicia. He was one of the main promoters of the petroleum industry in the parliament. A few resolutions in this case were made, the law was changed concerning mines which now could be invested in by private businessmen. In 1880 after his proposal, the National Parliament granted first serious funds for drilling in the Gorlitz area. Also, thanks to his initiative, the Parliament has passed funds for scholarships in the field of mining and oil technologies, as well as for creating the first oil department at Krakow’s Technical Academy. His achievement was also lowering taxes for Galician entrepreneurs and putting toll on imported oil from Romania and the United States.

ka and in Bóbrka he opened schools for girls, paid tutors and enabled the local community to educate their children on a high level. To prevent usury he organized special saving accounts that would give short-term loans to workers with no interest to be paid in a few installments. Łukasiewicz also gave loans to people who worked at delivering the oil to the refinery. The money were used for purchasing and maintenance of horses and wagons used for work and paid off in small, weekly installments. Łukasiewicz also paid great care to his employees. He organized Galician first beams for workers. Participating in the beams was obligatory and a 3% tax from each salary was guaranteeing workers access to free medicine, doctors, illness funds, pension and benefits for lost family members.

Reports made by Caesar’s and King’s officials controlling Łukasiewicz’s enterprises are astonishing. One of them – Edward Windakiewicz wrote about this region only good words. Roads and bridges were the best in the entire Galicia, the enterprise functioned in a model way and the workers had … bacon during breaks! In the middle of the XIX century it was quite uncanny. But this is not over!

In late 70’s, when his company was bringing biggest income, Łukasiewicz freely decided to give up most of his shares to his fellow coworkers, leaving himself just enough to provide for the family.

Workers eat bacon

Rockefeller in Galicia

Ignacy Łukasiewicz is not only an entrepreneur, constructor and slick politician. He is also (or, perhaps, predominantly) a great philanthropist who, thanks to his activities, changed the lives of thousands of Galicians.

After his business started to bring in bigger money, Łukasiewicz started financing building of schools, roads, bridges, hospitals and churches on a large scale. He financially supported nationalistic and independence-fighting organizations. He fought with poverty, alcoholism in the region. In Chorków-

Unfortunately his family was not exactly large. Besides the beloved wife, Łukasiewicz had one daughter who died very early. This traumatic event influenced all his later life when he supported children in Galicia to the fullest extent he could by organizing schools and hospitals for them. He also financially aided churches, both Catholic and the Uniate. How much of an incredible man he was let speak the fact that he never dreamed of becoming a monopolist on the market. He often offered people help in creating new firms

27 · IGNACY ŁUKASIEWICZ

which might have been his competition, simply said! There was no term as „business secret” in his dictionary. He abstained from money and richness to gratuitously share with others. One of the corporations he had with Zieliński brothers collapsed due to differences in views. Łukasiewicz wanted his work to serve humanity. He was against using it for particular interests and accumulating excessive wealth.

One legend connected with one of Americans’ visits to Łukasiewicz is especially worth mentioning. The Polish inventor showed all his secrets of his enterprise to the Americans; the entire production process, from mining to distilling. The American are said to want to pay him for sharing the insights, however Łukasiewicz never accepted any money.

The American who is said to have been visiting Łukasiewicz’s enterprise on that day was … John Rockefeller himself. The American entrepreneur was to call the Pole „crazy” – he’s got precious knowledge and he’s just giving it out for free? This is exactly the kind of man Ignacy Łukasiewicz was and in this case he was so much different than the future American oil magnate. Pope Pius IX named him Pope’s Chamberlain in 1873 and gave St. Gregory’s order. These are the highest possible distinction a secular person can receive from the Pope.

A romantic positivist Ignacy Łukasiewicz died from pneumonia on 7 January 1882. His funeral turned into a spontaneous manifest with over 4000 participants. Poles, Ukrainians and Jews appeared jointly and severally. All of them came to commemorate a men who changed their and their families’ fates forever but most of all the fate of the entire region which was engaged in producing „the black gold” Ignacy Łukasiewicz was a positivist and a romantic at once.

A positivist, as thanks to his hard work he achieved a worldwide success (this is exactly how one should describe his achievements). Moreover, he singlehandedly funded the infrastructure development of the area, aided the poor, build schools and hospitals, supported churches and patriotic organizations. A romantic, because he believed in great ideas, in their kindness and honesty, had belief in the people and that’s why everything he did in life he did thinking about others. Perhaps it seems a little naïve of him, yet it’s beautiful in its sincerity.

A good point of this story should be words of his close partner, August Gorayski, which he said at the funeral of the Great Pole: „There were a lot of greater, louder people than him, but you won’t find a more virtuous one.

Somebody once said that God uses the simplest ways to show the most important things and that’s why he chose this simple man to become the creator of such a great invention. It is our national duty to preserve his name for all future generations and pass his inventions to all successors”.

28 · BRONISŁAW PIŁSUDSKI

THE ONE WHO REMAINS IN THE SHADOWS TOMASZ TUREJKO

Once he was one of the most famous Polish scientists around the world. Scientific publishers from all continents devoted over a thousand publications to write about him and his accomplishments.

As prof. Alfred F. Majewicz - one of the greatest Polish linguists - said in one of the interviews „this is the rare case of a scientist who has reached the final result.” Research, which he conducted, and materials that he collected, were so great, that no one - neither earlier nor later - achieved a similar success. Bronislaw Pilsudski, one of the greatest ethnographers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, up to this day is considered in Sakhalin(Russia) as a local hero.

Both, his work for the local population and the results of his work for the world heritage are simply invaluable. In Poland, he still remains in the shadow of his one year younger brother, Joseph. Nevertheless, in many places around the world, he is the most famous representative of the family, whose achievements surpassed even his brother’s.

Siberia does not always mean a death sentence In 1887, Russian revolutionary organization „Narodnaya Volya” formed a conspiracy, the purpose of which was the assassination of

Tsar Alexander III. Alexander Ulyanov, brother of Vladimir(later known as Lenin) was among the conspirators. Bronislaw Pilsudski also took part in organizing of the coup.

The conspiracy was detected, and the participants judged. Ulyanov was sentenced to death and executed. Pilsudski was sentenced to 15 years of hard work in Sakhalin, a Russian island in the North Pacific Ocean.

From that moment he began a journey that changed his fate forever. Pilsudski initially worked as a lumberjack, then as a carpenter, and finally he went to the office of a prison (Sakhalin lacked educated people). In the office he met another exile, a Russian ethnographer Leo Sternberg, who quickly introduced Pilsudski to the secrets of their profession.

The older brother of the Marshal Joseph almost immediately began a research on the indigenous customs, gathering ethnographic collections, doing numerous photographs and compilating the language dictionaries of the local population. Seeing the progress in his studies, the Russian government has eased his sentence to 10 years with the condition that Pilsudski has to remain in Siberia. Shortly thereafter he opened a school in Sakhalin where he taught local children. It should be noted that Pilsudski was sent for the exile in a very young age (he was 21 years old). Thanks to that he quickly interacted with his pupils and later the local community. In return, the children taught him their language, crucial in his later scientific work.

In 1899 Pilsudski moved to Vladivostok, where he worked in a local museum. During this time he prepared the ‚Far Eastern’ part of the Russian exposition at the World Exhibition (Expo), held in Paris in 1900.

29 · BRONISŁAW PIŁSUDSKI

In 1903 the Imperial Academy of Sciences delegated research on the customs of the Sakhalin’s communities (the Ainu, Gilyak, Orok and Mangun) to Pilsudski. For Bronislaw Pilsudski, it was the beginning of the most important period in his scientific career and, as it turned out, also in his personal life.

Only recordings left from that world In the next two years Pilsudski traveled all around Sakhalin. His main place of residence was the village of Ai, where he married a local girl named Shinhinchou - relative (niece or niece) of chief Bafunke Kimura, who bore him two children. At that time, Pilsudski began research on the culture of the

Ainu people photographed by B. Piłsudski Ainu. Along with another exile - Waclaw Sieroszewskim - he went to the island of Hokkaido, where using Edison’s phonograph he gathered unique sound recordings of Ainu language, their traditional rites, religious rituals, prayers, which he then saved on 100 wax cylinders. It was one of the first times in the history where the human voice was recorded for scientific purposes. Unfortunately, the subsequent fate of Pilsudski resulted in wax cylinders with recordings of Ainu folklore laying for decades in the attic of a

tenement in Cracow. Found in the 80s they were sent to Japan, where Sony has developed a special laser receiver to read the recorded sound. After many years, ethnographers could hear the language, which was then almost extinct. Ainu people lived in East Asia for thousands of years. In time, they were pushed out to the islands by the Japanese expansion from the south and the Russians from the north. In the 20s and 30s, Ainu people were subject to strong Sovietization.

The Communist government consistently fought with their culture, language and customs, which eventually led to eradication of the Ainu identity and disappearance of their folklore. A small part of this community that survived the Sovietization assimilated over time with the Japanese. It is estimated that only several dozens of people around the world may use the language of the Ainu.

This means that culture is practically non-existent, and its restoration after many years is only possible thanks to innovative at that time research of Bronislaw Pilsudski.

That is why his scientific achievements in this matter should be considered complete. No one after him has not made, nor, for obvious reasons, no longer can make similar discoveries and collect similar materials.

One hundred years after Pilsudski visited Sakhalin, Ainu culture and language can be only seen only in his photos and heard only on his recordings.

Up to 1905 Pilsudski founded several schools for the local community. The fruit of his ethnographic work was, inter alia, the development of dictionaries, where he translated more than 10 000 words of the Ainu language, 6 000 from Gilak language and 2 000 from Orok and Mangun languages. Within a few years of his activity, he made over 300 photographs, wrote rich descriptions of the Ainu culture and customs, including musical culture as well as local stories and legends.

His legacy is now in the Special Collection of Scientific Library PAU and the Polish Academy of Sciences. The Ainu recordings can also

30 · BRONISŁAW PIŁSUDSKI

be heard at the Center for Culture and Technology „Manggha” in Cracow.

The university diploma should not be the decisive one In 1906 Pilsudski illegally left the Far East, leaving forever the Ainu, as well as his wife and two children (chief of the tribe refused the woman to leave their homeland, which would be against the local custom).

In the same year, the Polish scientist went to Japan, where in the circumstances of the Russo-Japanese War he tried to go in the footsteps of his brother and attempted to establish friendly relations with the Japanese. The result of his actions was, among others, establishing of the Japanese-Polish Society and the first cultural exchange between the two nations. After a short stay in Japan, Pilsudski returned to Poland, where he tried to start a new life. He continued his ethnographic work in Podhale and contributed greatly to building the Tatra Museum.

His close friends reportedly tried to get him the chair of ethnography at the Jagiellonian University. Despite the outstanding achievements of the Polish scientist, university authorities refused to assign him to that post. It turned out that one of the greatest ethnographers in the world whose achievements had already been well known in many scientific circles... has not completed higher education. He tried to study in the West, but for financial reasons never graduated from college. During World War I Bronislaw Pilsudski supported the activities of Roman Dmowski and the Polish National Committee, which placed him as the real opposition to his brother - Joseph. On 21 of May 1918, his body was fished out of the Seine. Most probably it was a suicide.

The hero everywhere except from Poland His scientific achievements are well known and appreciated in many places in the world.

You can see a monument of Bronislaw Pilsudski in Sakhalin where Institute for Rese-

arch on Pilsudski Heritage keeps releasing new books and publications about him. Unfortunately, this also has its price. In all these publications Pilsudski appears as a „great Russian scientist.”

He also has an important place in Japan.

In Japanese school textbooks, you can find information about the Polish scholar, and his great scientific achievements. Japanese even made one musical for children based on sounds recorded by Pilsudski (Tales stored on uncle Pilsudski’s wax cylinders). Unfortunately Bronislaw Pilsudski can not count on such a memory in Poland. Until now, his legacy in the country is maintained by a small group of scientists (including the aforementioned prof. Alfred F. Majewicz), which writes publications about him in Polish.

Unfortunately, despite such great achievements, he has not found his place in Polish textbooks. In 2002, the Polish Post issued a stamp with the image of Bronislaw Pilsudski. In 2008, the Polish National Bank issued gold and silver coins with the image of Pilsudski to commemorate the Polish ethnographer. The only documentary about Bronislaw Pilsudski called ‚Orzeł i Chryzantema’ was directed by Jacek Wan and released in 2011. I would recommend it to anyone who would like to deepen the knowledge of this great and forgotten Polish hero, who in Polish history remained in the shadow of his younger brother.

SPEAKERS AND WRITERS: PAW E Ł W Ł O D K O W I C JOSEPH CONRAD JÓZEF RETINGER MAKSYMILIAN KOLBE S I O S T R A FA U S T Y N A R A FA Ł L E M K I N I L U D W I K R A J C H M A N

32 · PAWEŁ WŁODKOWIC

PAWEL FROM POLAND BARTOSZ BRZYSKI

A man about whom we don’t know when exactly he was born and when he died. He lived almost 600 years ago and, until recently, we could read about him more in the libraries of London, Vienna, Paris or Prague. One of the greatest intellectuals in XV century Europe, modestly named Pawel from Poland. The history of Paweł Włodkowic is a tale about an important part of Polish, European and the Church’s history.

What do we know nowadays? Not too much.

Paweł Włodkowic was born around 1370 on the areas of Plock diocese as a son of a nobleman, Włodzimierz from Brudzyn. He derived from the A descendant of the Dolega’s who were in charge of possessions in Dorzyn land.

It was probably for the place of birth and vicinity of these lands to the ones occupied by the Teutonic Knights that made Wlodkowic devote a vast part of his professional career to the dispute between Poland and the Teutonic Order.

This conflict will be undergrowth with the feeling of great harm made by the Teutonic to the border population, and Włodkowic will not mince his words calling the order „heretics” and a „sect” inside the Church. In his youth, Włodkowic educated himself in the Plock cathedral school which probably was

one of the reasons for which he entered the clerical state. Thanks to his talents, he continued studies at the Charles University in Prague to later gain consecutive scientific grades; firstly as a bachelor of basic sciences, later as a master of liberal arts and in 1396 as a bachelor of canonic law.

After a short episode in the role of lecturer at the university in Prague, thanks to his earlier received priestly ordination, he came back to his motherland and began posting the Church function as canonist in Plock. Not long after that, probably after bishop’s encouragement, he left to begin law studies in Padova, where he learned to become an observer and the Council of Pisa in 1409. Therefore, thanks to educating himself both in the law matter as well as faith, he not only became a great moralist but also gained priceless skill of transferring religious sensitivity to the ground of statutory law. He this way was able to defend his theses both in front of the Church hierarchy and great lawyers.

After coming back to Poland and becoming a curator and Krakow’s canonist, as a representative of Prince Janusz Mazowiecki, he went to Buda, where in front of Cesar Sigismund of Luxembourg he mediates in the dispute of Poles against the Teutonic Knights. These were the beginnings of the activity thanks to which Włodkowic will become a part of contemporary history books – as a mediator and defender of the Polish raison d’état in the presence of the emperor and the Pope. After Buda, Włodkowic, asked by the Polish king, mediates on behalf of Samogitians, asking the Pope for protection from the Teutonic Knights. At the end of 1414 he leaves for four years for an incredibly important Council of Constan-

33 · PAWEŁ WŁODKOWIC

ce which is to end the Western Schism. There Włodkowic presents the Polish point of view on the actions of the Teutonic Order and the policy of Church, as it is.

Against the era The turn of the fourteenth and fifteenth century is the era of holy wars. It is also the time

them and the one who starts them must be punished as the provocateur. The Church may not convert anyone using invasion as „the war essentially cannot be the cause of faith.”

Włodkowic modernized and moved the term of just war from theoretical considerations to the European conflicts of his times, which had previously been considered e.g. by St. Thomas Aquinas. For Włodkowic even the sole concept

The Council of Constance of cult of the knights, who sang praises in songs and epics, in a heroic way were to show their features – bravery, dedication, heroism, honor and the sacrifice for the cause. Pacifism was something foreign to the then European society. The sword was also not averse by the Church. Against the beliefs of the era came Paweł Włodkowic saying that „nor the Pope nor the Emperor can lawfully give someone permission to invade infidels, harness them and occupy their country unconditionally and directly for spreading the religion”. He condemned war both as a sign of evil undermining the moral order, and most of all as breaking God’s laws written in the Decalogue, more precisely in God’s fifth commandment. If it’s the human who is the cause for all wars, therefore, the human should put an end to

of militant faith was contradictive to the Gospel, but ultimately it was the factitious use of it by the Teutonic Knights, to name just one example. The accusations which the Polish priest formed against the Teutonic Order were very serious, while the defense of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom – furious, So he writes about the harm made by the Teutonic Knights: „Many various harm made to the king and the churches and other people of this kingdom has been proven, but as well as terrible and criminal acts of those brothers. And there’s no one sane who disbeliefs that these are the works of the darkness, contradictive to our religion.”

Therefore, the opposite of war is peace. Włodkowic defines it primarily as a as the fulfillment

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of the divine law and one of the moral code rules. Just like the war is synonym to evil, the peace is synonym for good. This peace should be realized both on the ground of single unit relations as well as those of countries and nations, sanctioned by respecting agreements and treaties. We, therefore, reach a postulate to organize international relations, in those time rather inter-nations according to the idea of peace which we today find as basic in relation between countries, supervised by the United Nations Organization.

A forerunner of human rights In his works, Włodkowic also cared for the term of nation and country. He granted the

owner, therefore he is to govern to the favor of the crowds and with respect for the law.

These days, when thinking of the creator of nation’s law, we name Hugo Grotius. We do it mainly because throughout the ages, Pawel Wlodkowic’s works were covered by dust of oblivion, although he outrun the author of the law of war and peace by over 200 years.

Simultaneously, Włodkowic devoted much space in his works to the human as a unit and its place in the community. As a Christian he grants both believers and infidels with equal deserved rights of dignity. These include the freedom to live, to property, faith, country and motherland. One may not, therefore, discriminate infidels, expel them from the family lands, hurt by order, vio-

All the credit for creating “Law of Nations” is unjustly given to Grotius same laws both to the Germans, the Russians and the Samogitians, as belonging to the same „God’s flock”. He stood for particularly small nations, defending their right to separate faith and self-determination. A country, according to Włodkowic, should be based on law and rightfulness and the authorities stated and organized by the country. The emperor is the main manager, not an

lence or coercion. The idea of human rights was, hence, born long before the fathers of Renaissance.

The Pope is not a king The turn of the fourteenth and fifteenth century, the Western Schism, fight of two or even three „Popes” simultaneously for the throne

35 · PAWEŁ WŁODKOWIC

of Peter. In such, not entirely helpful political-intellectual atmosphere Włodkowic had to function. In such circumstances the ostracism seems a quite acceptable price paid for spreading beliefs not too “compatible” with the then era. The mad at him Teutonic Knights accused him of heresy and the Pope threatened with a curse. Włodkowic, dedicating his work to the institutional dimension of the Church, played with fire. Literally, as it was the Council of Constance on the 6 July 1415 witnessed the burning at the stake of Jan Hus. Despite all that, Paweł Włodkowic did not ceased proclaiming his views. By getting back to the roots – the Scripture and the Fathers of the Church – he remained that the power of the pope must have a different form than the power of a king. The Pope, as the successor of the Christ on Earth, should have respect of the Cesar himself. The only right standing above the Pope’s right is the right of Christian justice to which Wlodkowic appealed, showing a different from the leading one doctrine of the Church.

After getting back from Constance, Wlodkowich settles in Krakow posting the function of the Vice-Rector of the Cracow Academy.

However, after only a year he has to undertake mediator’s duties once more – this time he found himself on a convention in Wroclaw, negotiating with the Teutonic Knights. Due to unfavorable for Poland outcome, in 1420 he writes a legal memorial Oculi and travels to Rome with and appeal to Pope Martin V, getting a cancellation of the verdict. He still cannot forgive the Teutonic Knights their used practices complaining in a letter to the king’s advisor, Zbigniew Oleśnicki: „When the lordship Władysław, king of Poland, with his armed legions, played far beyond the kingdom, the sacrilegious hands of these wicked people suddenly without notice of the King, having broken treaties of peace and violating a solemn agreement, which even in Barbaric nations are subject to the law and much respected, while rejecting the recently conc-

luded and changing it to mere disagreement, invaded the most Christian Polish Kingdom and plundered it with most severe cruelty and immense more than pagan hostility, not saving any gender nor age”.

In 1424 Włodkowic joins the commission for beatification of Princess Jadwiga and settles as the pastor of the parish church of St. Egidius in Kłodawa. He died probably in 1435 in Krakow.

Włodkowic outran the UN During his life, Włodkowic answered fundamental questions for the secular and ecclesiastical power. Does a Christian and a pagan have the same rights? Are the Decalogue orders only valid for Christians? When a Christian can be in state of war and if ever? Can you spread religion with force or perhaps the infidels have an equal right to have their own, even pagan, country. How to solve such conflicts?

However, this pioneer of religious tolerance remained single in his beliefs. It took ages of bloody experience, in particular the hecatomb of World War II, for Włodkowic’s writings to go to international jurisdiction. Nowadays, UN’s regulations only allow war in two cases: defensive war, when human life is in danger and in the situation of emergency of the nation’s life Anna Wesołowska in the foreword to the book devoted to Włodkowic wrote: „The character and the work of Pawel Włodkowic remained forgotten for hundreds of years. […]

Simply said, the Polish educational system remains silent on Wlodkowic throughout the entire educational lifespan, just like the media, also not too much is known about him across Polish professors and intelligence.

Well, how can they know?” Wlodkowic should be remembered as he was a role model of a scientist, priest, Polish and European citizen an – most of all – a person.

36· JOSEPH CONRAD

JOSEPH CONRAD IT IS JUST A NICKNAME ALICJA WIELGUS

Joseph Conrad’s life flew by spent mostly on books and the sea. His journeys were proving dedication to the navy since he turned 17.

Literature? „Because of the lack of other things to do” – as the he says. When reading „The Heart of Darkness” again, we should remember that its author derives from a shabby town called Berdyczow. And although he left Poland early, he never lost contact with his compatriots, and – what’s even more important – he never lost interest towards his motherland.

Jozef Konrad Korzeniowski was born on 3 December 1857 in Berdyczow. His father – a fanatic democrat, mother – a passionate patriot. Apollo Korzeniowski was an example of multi-talented man; he earned a living by writing, interpreting, publishing and was also engaged into the independence movement activities. Ewa came from a wealthier family of Borowski, among which one of the brothers, Stefan, was an actual leader of the January Uprising in its initial stage, while the other one, Tadeusz, hade barely any belief nor found any sense in militaristic activity.

At the age of 12 lat Konrad became an orphan, his mother died two ears before, both of the parents suffered from tuberculosis.

At first, his grandmother, Teofila Bobrowska, took care of the boy and later his uncle, Tadeusz Bobrowski, took over, until the end

of Konrad’s days. After most of his closest people passed away, Konrad dwelled in Krakow, later in Lviv.

However, it quite quickly turned out that the fate will bring young Korzeniowski out on the sea for the rest of his life. Among a couple of different hypotheses that try to find the reason for boys’ farewel those that say about the hope to improve his health, while being under the pressure of uncle Tom’s expectations are said to be closest to the truth. Not long after he left, Korzeniowski wrote a letter to his friend: „ […] I shall always bear in mind that I have been sent on this journey to Krakow by You: «Remember – You have said – wherever you shall swim, you will end up in Poland!» I have not forgotten that – and I shall never will!”

As far as Congo With such motto went Konrad on his first sea journey ever, on a sailing ship called „Mont Blanc”,thanks to which he found himself on the islands of the Caribbean Sea in 1875. On his next journey he went not as a passenger anymore, but an apprentice, he swam all over to Martinica and Haiti before coming back to Le Havre. A job at the French fleet stood no problem to him – Korzeniowski has been fluent in French since he was a youngster. The time spent in France was a social life blooming period for Conrad, but also time of falling into debts, first symptoms of depression due to which (probably) he tried to commit suicide.

Three years later, Korzeniowski stood his foot on the English gorund, in 1886 he became its’ citizen. Konrad served 8 years on

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British fleet, among his greater trips we know of are Australia, Malayan Archipelago and India. The experiences brought from that period made his first novels’ hero’s stories. Korzeniowski’s biggest achievement within the navy field was being nominated as the captain of the „Otago” barge.

A year later, Korzeniowski went back to Europe to find out the Russian serfdom has been brought to an end. It paid a great meaning for his profession as he now could seek engagements on the land; which he actually accomplished – had been working at London’s Barr, Moering&Co, of which he also was one of the shareholders.

1889 was a significant year for the ex-navy and future writer due to two reasons. Firstly, it was a time when Conrad started his first novel – Almayer’s folly. Secondly, also at that time, after 23 years, he visited his home. Staying for a few days in Warsaw, he later travelled to Ukraine. After receiving news about him being offered the position of a river steamer commander he left and not long after was already in Boma. Unfortunately, after reaching the place, it turned out that „Florida” ship, which was to be under Korzeniowski’s hand, has been damaged. Konrad’s relationship with Company director in Congo, Camille Delcommune, have never been decent which eventually led to an early cancellation of the contract.

Besides, Korzeniowski was tormented by febra attacks, thus he made up the decision to come back to Europe.

The to-be-writer for long had a hard time “waking up” after the African “civilization mission”. Only at the end of 1891 he joined the crew of a ship heading towards Australia. During one of the cruises he met John Galsworthy, with whom he established a strong bound of friendship. Maybe it was thanks to this writer that Conrad has started to talk about the literature more often and more seriously.

Literature in exchange for swimming Korzeniowski went back to his family lands when he drove to Kazimierowka, the dwelling place of his uncle. His bound with the country was a little loosened after Tadeusza Bobrowski’s death in 1894. Thanks to the inheritance, which provided financial security, Conrad could focus on his career as a writer. In 1895, a first novel signed with a nickname „Joseph Conrad” was published. It didn’t take long for the second one as the An Outcast on the Islands appeared to public view in 1896.

After getting married with Angielika Jessie George, the family of Korzeniowski made a

Joseph Conrad in 1916 move to Bretagne. It was the place where Conrad continued his writing work. Following years turned out to be a time of intense writing, also due to financial problems.

During that time two of their children were born: Borys Alfred i John.

Conrad’s worldwide popularity has been dated since releasing of his novel which is, on the other hand, not said to be one of his greatest. This piece is called Chance, and it

38 · JOSEPH CONRAD

was printed in series in American „New York Herald”. Despite the fact, that the writer has previously published e.g. The Nigger of the ‘Narcissus’ , tom A Narrative and Two Other Stories, Lord Jim, Nostromo, Typhoon or Under the Western Eyers it was the Chance which led him out of financial situation and provided a stable life.

During his life, Korzeniowski visited Poland once more, in 1914. It was a time of military mobilization and Conrad, as a citizen of a foreign country, was under the fear of being interned. Korzewniowscy’s friends, however, took good care of them and enabled a two-month stay in Zakopane Two years later, Conrad submitted a memorandum to the Brithis Ministry of Foreign Affairs regarding rebuilding of free Poland with an access to the sea – the time spent in his motherland has once again sparkled his patriotic feelings and woke up the spirit in Korzeniowski to take care of Polish business. In his last years, Conrad was spending more time on his motherland’s matters. His correspondence with fellow citizens livened up, also he spent a great doze of time translating his novels to Polish. What’s interesting is the fact, that his wife and sone mentioned that at the dawn of his days, Conrad spoke about settling back in Poland. He, however, died of a heart attack on 3 August 1924.

What did Józef Korzeniowski write about?

When taking on the topic of Conrad’s works, it is hard to skip the part of literature tradition of which he has been taking inspiration. Although he held a firm position in English literature, he didn’t find it very inspirational. Only Shakespeare could have inspired his creation. Polish romantic literature and French prose were especially significant for Conrad. From the first one he derived moral issues, hero types and philosophical-political divagations.

Conrad himsefl admitted in one of his interviews that: „My Polish identity[…] I took to my works through Mickiewicz and Słowacki”.

Among the most commonly covered topics

by Conrad are e.g. human’s solemity, cutlural-based confilcts, community and the duties it impacts. In his first works like An Outcast of the Islands or the unfinished Sisters infleunces of the age can also be found. One can feel the atmosphere of discouragement, feeling of disintegration, or even death.

Next novels, also considered mature are Youth and The Heart of Darkness. Conrad’s best works include Lord Jim, Nostromo, Secret Agent i In the Western Eyes. The writer confronts against the problem of guilt and compensation, honor, truth. He takes up the thread of capitalism in semi-colonial countries, he cares about the society and criticism of revolutionary populism. A work totally dedicated to Polish affairs is Prince Roman. Conrad, as he promised in his letter to a friend, never forgot about Poland, also in his literature.

Conrad’s writing is a deep analysis and obeservation of people in critical situations. In his novels there are heros – human types put in model situations. Despite they are often featured with solemnity, Conrad puts an emphasis on what brings people together, connects them instead of dividing them. It cannot be said that the writer ever was a moralist as he never gave ready solutions.

Nevertheless, he evolved around moral ideals, such as honor, loyalty, courage. For a lot of people Conrad appears as a marinistic writerbut his works are way richer in content than that.

39 · JÓZEF RETINGER

THE “GREY EMINENCE” OF THE UNITED EUROPE BARTOSZ WÓJCIK

To count those Poles who played equal roles as him in the XX century history you would need fingers on only one hand. None of the other persons was considered half as much controversial.

Yet the controversy was, we have to add, held within quite narrow circles as he remains an almost anonymous character.

For some – an insanely ambitious cosmopolitan with mythomaniacal tendencies, representing interests of the masonry and foreign espionage; for others – one of the fathers of the United Europe, a flamboyant politician and Polish patriot who has „seen things wider”, not cursing the reality in the meantime. Nevertheless, Józef Hieronim Retinger – as we speak about him – had awakened not only mistrust or hatred, but predominantly an ultimate respect among his rivals. Without any doubts he also was a unique example on the European political map of the previous century.

When he died in 1960, his personal secretary, Jan Pomian, wrote: „Like an impresario, he needed others to play main roles of a spectacle while he cast himself as the gray eminence sitting behind the scene.” And independently from the assessment of intentions Retinger had, this quote perfectly sums up the rough way of this mysterious man to which the term “grey eminence” has stuck to, which is in his own mind quite of a compliment.

Independent Poland crucial for the European balance He started this mentioned way in 1906 when, thanks to the help of Władysław Zamoyski who took care of him, he ended up in France where he began studies at the École des Sciences Politiques and at the Sorbonne.

Simultaneously, being very well educated (despite the age of only 20), he enters Paris artistic society circles which was significantly facilitated by his family connections – his fellow family of Godebscy ran one of the top artistic saloons in the city upon the Sequana River. It was when Retinger first showed his interpersonal skills and established contact with some influencing names which in time would become his trademark. He starts, however, with people of culture, Ravel, Mauriac or Valery, to name a few.

At the same time, he does not neglect his studies, thanks to which at the age of 20 (!) he successfully defends his thesis at the Sorbonne becoming the youngest Ph.D. in literature in Europe. He then already starts thinking about his future in politics which leads him to take on further education in this field. During the next 2 years he studies at Universities in Munich, Florence and London to come back to Krakow in 1910. But not for long. In 1912 he becomes one of the three emissaries of the National Council of Gales whose job is to promote the “Polish affair” in western countries.

He does so in England by publicizing the topic of Prussian oppression and by putting emphasis on Polish independence movement.

Taught by his experience, in order to increase his influence he starts to enter the community of people of culture. He, therefore, meets Joseph Conrad a.k.a. Józef Korzeniewski. Wri-

40 · JÓZEF RETINGER

ter’s „rating” goes meaningly up while the relationship quickly becomes friendship, what Retinger rapidly uses in a sneaky own way, to befriend the Prime Minister of Great Britain, Herbert Asquith, at the brink of the Cold War, as well as the well-known although still young politician, Winston Churchill. In parallel, his influence in France becomes more significant which is best proven by the fact that the foreword to the publication of the 29-year-old from Poland had been written by … the reigning diplomacy boss, Stephan Pichon.

It is also when Retinger begins to pay more serious interest in the matter of uniting Europe under the leadership of Paris and London. This is the direction where all his efforts towards the „Polish affair” go. He opts more openly to support those two capital cities in order for Poland to from their allied Russia, suggesting that the resurrection of The Republic of Poland based on western democracy will guarantee an equal European balance. In his (literally his as he singlehandedly made decisions at that time) actions he goes far by suggesting the Allied governments to put a new country under their protectorate. Despite the fact he was only nearly 30 and actually without any political background, the Russian diplomacy, after being informed about “young rebel’s” activities, decides to intervene by demanding Retinger’s expulsion from both these countries, which eventually happens as Paris and London yield to the pressure. Shortly after that, the young politician finds himself on the other side of the table with…the Polish side by criticizing the idea to create the Polish army reinforced by captives who hitherto fought on the German-Austrian side, by saying that in case when their soldiers being enslaved, they would be treated as fugitives and shot.

A short break in Mexico And here Retinger’s exile begins, of which the most important element will be the stay

in Mexico where he will become an advisor of a revolutionary Elias Calles’s government. Due to the radical anticlerical views of that office, which was not once punished by the West for communizing, this thread is often used as a starting point for its criticism. Retinger himself said that for such bad press Mexico should thank Washington into influence of which the radical and independence-driven policy of Calles struck, mostly in the oil industry. He also pointed that Bolshevik’s agitators were at that time massively extradited from Mexico.

The American Authorities did not hide his significant role in improving the relations with the northern neighbor which took place as a result of the diplomatic action he led. A symptomatic report was published

by Aleksander Janta-Połczyński in London’s „Wiadomosci” in one of many of his emigrant’s debates over the „grey eminence”: „In order to show the level of his relationships, we need to remind that people with whom Retinger spoke in the USA regarding representing Mexico’s interests were: Herbert Hoover, and Felix Frankfurter” [the former is the future president of the USA and the latter – a judge of the Supreme Court].

However the „bilateral” relation between Retinger & Washington were a lot worse.

During the same visit he was arrested and considered persona non grata. The United States demanded his expulsion from Mexico’s territory, however Mexican authorities decidedly turned down those demands. When Calles became president, as a recognition for his actions, Retinger was named the only of his advisors who left Mexico just as poor as he came to. And it was true, Retinger never put any emphasis on the financial side and incomes, however he vividly exposed his influence, trying to boast about all the time. It were the contacts that he treated as his personal asset, repeatedly exaggerating its scale.

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Mr Reringer reckons, that all Poland’s fate was already determined The interwar was a time of relative steadiness for the „private politician” – as Retinger slowly began to be called. As his bans from visiting England and France were taken down, he chose London for his “headquarters”. He also often visited Warsaw and Paris. By maintaining great relations with the Labor Party which in 1924 took over power, he lobbied for their cooperation with the Polish Socialistic Party of which he was a specific international representative. Within the scope of this activity he e.g. arranged visits of Polish socialists to laborers ministers, including Prime Minister MacDonald. Besides, his influence in international trade union’s centers went up due to his activity in Mexico.

However, the interwar is also a time of getting back to the idea of uniting. Initially Retinger tried to push it in Poland where he met no bigger enthusiasm, and apparently not being treated seriously. England offered way better perspectives for that. As he wrote: „At the beginning of the XIX century, some ideas were successfully spread by some kinds of agreements between various people in various countries. It appeared to me that we could use a similar method.” Seeing a way to tackle economic problems and bring long-lasting peace in uniting, he persuaded very powerful laborer, Edmund Morel, to his concepts. Was it a meaningful character? The best answer would the information that it was then when he defeated Winston Churchill in the elections. However, shortly after the win he died, hence leaving Retinger without the “engine” of his plan...

It still remains a mystery how he allegedly committed himself to the idea of establishing Abd el Karim in Morocco. This accusation, very popular in upcoming years among Polish emigrants, had been made for example by Stanisław Cat-Mackiewicz. No sources confirming his actual participation in the rearming this

revolt aimed at Spain and France. According to the biographer of the „grey eminence” Bogdan Podgórski, it cannot, however, be excluded. Especially since Abd el Karim applied for such help to European left-wing groups.

It is still equally probable that the inspirer of such rumors was Retinger himself, as he had a tendency to over-estimate his role and spread and aura of mystery around himself.

The second part of the 30’s is a time when he concentrates all his activity entirely on supporting the anti-remedial opposition which he co-established under the name Front Morges, by constantly travelling on the London – Paris – Warsaw – Prague. Despite the suspicion he arouses in its top politicians, he was treated with esteem. After Munich conference, Wincenty Witos said in his diaries: „Mr. Retinger in his letter to London assesses the situation very pessimistically. His reports I, however, do take very seriously as his forecast had repeatedly been almost 100% accurate. I believe, Poland’s fate has been decided”.

September’s defeat and French catastrophe ironically create Retinger a great opportunity. In all the chaos that emerged from the continuing fall of “the biggest European power” he can, like no one else, remain cold-blooded.

It is him who takes actions to persuade Churchill to the necessity of saving Polish army left in France with General Sikorski on top, who he treated as a „true statesman”, but on the other hand – which definitely plays a role here – a person sympathizing with unification ideas. He was granted such permission and made his way across Channel La Manche in a dedicated plane with staff (!), where he managed to find Sikorski, despite the overwhelming chaos. Next day Sikorski commanded evacuation and headed to London with Retinger. Since that moment, through the next 3 years, the maverick diplomat will be one of the closest companions of the general, opening unreachable for other Polish politician’s door.

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British agent, Berlin’s man, the spy of Russia and the servant of the pope This is the moment where it’s worth to think about the most controversial of all issues – where did all the firm protection of Retinger came from? A dominating thesis in “Polish London”, which remains alive till these days, was the belief that he is a high-level British espionage agent. And really, it could seem probable. However this theory is disproved

by MI6 documents, forwarded on demand of Polish intelligence in 1943. Published by Professor Jan Ciechanowski as well as materials on Retinger made by British Foreign Office between 1941 and 1945. They stated that London has blown the disguise of Retinger on their own, by suspecting him of activities in favor of Germany, Poland and Comintern, yet none of the versions was later proved. On the other hand – the French saw a man of Vatican in him; the Americans – Mexican intelligence agent, while Beria messaged Stalin in April 1945: „According to the information we have, Retinger is an agent of the English intelligence”. „Too much for just one man” – these were President Ryszard Kaczorowski’s comments after years.

Was Retinger an agent, then? Everything suggests that until 1945 he was not a full-time at of any of the services. Yet it’s almost certain – as a few researchers have written – he may be treated as a political influence agent, both English working with Polish government and Polish working with the English one. Retinger’s acts do not make it easier to answer the questions, as he never referred to any of those issues in order to keep up the mystery around him. Treating by some people as a proof the answer to one tricky question asked by Tomasz Arciszewski (- „So how many intelligence agencies do you serve at, because the rumors point three? – Only two: The Polish and the English. There’s no third one.”) comes from – as claimed by Bogdan Podgórski, a biographer of the „private politician” – not knowing Retinger, who when felt attacked, often

ran to mocking the adversary. Things look different for the other issue, raised in relation to his vast influence areas, which is belonging to the masonry. There are many indications that Retinger was a high-level member of the lodge called „Les Renovatours” which belongs to the Great French East. It is also known that in early 30’s he applied for admission to the Great National Polish Lodge which had significantly stronger influences on the areas of Poland. According to MI6 information, he was to post an important position in the Zion „B’nai B’rith”, although that would counter his view stated on the Jewish case. He was never a fan of establishing the country of Israel, to say the least.

Intermarium project did not work out Under the wings and with the support of General Sikorski, Retinger again started pushing his concept of uniting post-war Europe. What is important is that the spokesperson for this idea was Polish Diplomacy Commander in Chief, August Zaleski. Retinger, considering the topic of uniting the entire continent as a blurred vision and utopian at that time (1940 – B.W.), acted twofold – on one hand he worked towards establishing a federation of Middle-Eastern European nations of which the fundament was to be Poland and Czechoslovakia; and on the other – by promoting the analogic idea among politicians from smaller countries of the western part of the continent, Scandinavia and the Balkans. The other – as he believed – such post-war organisms were to balance the position of the biggest European players and be a starting point for further integration on the economic ground, which basis was, in his mind, a unified toll system. Retinger’s desired state was to bring a possible conflict to a state where it’s no longer economically profitable.

Using the fact that governments of almost all occupied countries moved to London, he proposed an initiative to organize periodic meeting of prime ministers, which were held

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– within the Inter-Ally Council created on his request – since 1940 in the house of Polish government. In his mind it was to empower Poland’s position and emphasis Sikorski’s role in the taken on initiative. As a result of these actions, a famous incorporation of the Rules of the Act of Constitutional Union of Poland and Czechoslovakia and a year later – a declaration of incorporating rules of the future Balkan Union, announced by governments of

After years, Retinger summed it up this way: „I think I am right saying that the first proposal

by Benelux emerged from our debates over federation blocks”. Was he actually correct? It’s a real struggle to say. It is a fact, though, that already in 1943 the participants of the mentioned conferences signed an agreement to incorporate the makeshift monetary system, and a little later – the treaty to establish the Benelux.

Józef Retinger (on the far left) with general Sikorski Yugoslavia and Greece. Retinger planned to adopt other countries of the region into the organism and finally – uniting them, which would result in completing the idea of Istmus.

At the same time he opted for popularizing the mention idea in the United States where in 1941 a Central and Eastern Europe Planning Council was established associating a large number of intellectuals from interested countries. It was characteristic that a Pole was the leader of it – Feliks Gross – and he was connected the Polish Socialistic Party.

In the house of the Polish government conferences were held with participation of the leaders of smaller western countries – mostly Belgium and the Netherlands. To show their significance let’s mention the fact that among the participants were such politicians as Paula-Henry Spaak or Paula van Zeeland.

Year 1943 turned out, however, tragical for Retinger’s forced concepts of the future of Middle-Easter Europe. After revealing the Katyn genocide and breaking relationships with the Soviets, the federation idea started to be clearly sabotaged by Moscow which managed to make Czechoslovakia – Poland’s biggest partner – retract from it. July 1943 brought another calamity – the death of General Sikorski, who provided a proper significance for the project. According to different reports, Retinger was said to having grieved for that loss personally.

It was he, who betrayed general Sikorski This tragedy, however, has also brought more suspicions on the “grey eminence”. In „Polish London” they started – as the truth was – to put emphasis on the fact that the tragic trip

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of the Head Chief was the only one since 1940 in which his equally influential yet not liked – especially after signing the Sikorski–Majski Treaty – assistant. This should put light on his connections with probable assassins. And yes, this one definitely works for one’s imagination. It is, however, wise to have a closer look at two remarks of the biographer, Bogdan Podgórski: Retinger took part in both previous flights of Sikorski during which his and all other passengers’ lives were endangered; according to independent reports from the Polish side, Retinger did not take part in that flight at the initiative of the General himself.

When it comes to the possible co-responsibility of Retinger, his „opponents” often cite the words of Sikorski himself, which according the report of Professor Kot, he was to pass to the politician before his journey to Moscow, where he was made an ambassador: „I warn our very strictly about this tramp. I have no idea who does he work for. I am not going to send him there and take my responsibility.

How much and with whom is he going to intrigue – I cannot predict.” It is often skipped, however, that, according to Professor Kot, Sikorski said these words in the state of strong irritation (a pretty common thing in Sikorski-Retinger relations). It’s enough to mention that the “cousin of the devil” – as the advisor was called by the General – put a written resignation letter from his position six times.

Also the report of one of the closest people to Sikorski, the then-minister of national defense, General Kukiel should be quoted: „I have not a single doubt that Retinger was a man stupendously attached to General Sikorski.

He cared about the versatility of General’s British connections. It was more of a man of good will than Polish people thought [...]”.

After General Sikorski’s death, Retinger was advising his successor, Prime Minister Mikolajczyk, however they did not go along too well. What still remains under the shadow of a mystery is the Retinger’s mission in occupied Poland, which he was formally offered

to him by Mikolajczyk, yet – as many signs indicate – the real initiative was on the side of western forces? Its aim was – according to various reports – to check the actual social moods and attitudes in Polish underground’s management; according to some others – convincing leaders of the Underground Nation to accept necessary concessions to achieve an agreement with the Soviet Union, therefore gaining support for Mikolajczyk’s policy; according to more other sources – checking possible ways of continuing the underground activities under the Soviet occupation. It is, however too vast of a topic, worth a separate article. Enough to say that during that time failed – what arouses more doubts (!) – attempts to get rid of him were made by both some factors from the National Army as well as the National Defense Forces. It is characteristic that the oldest skydiver in the history of World War II (he was 58 at the moment of jump), was coming back from the mission partly paralyzed. Even more – that right after arrival at London, according to the report of his fellow, an emissary of the Polish government, Tadeusz Chciuk, he was personally visited by e.g. English Diplomacy Commander in Chief, Anthony Eden, member of Churchill’s war office – Stafford Cripps and the director of Special Operations Executive, mayor Collin Gubbins.

To end this thread we can cite a part of report made by the Foreign Office based on Retinger’s testimony: „[...] he expresses an opinion that Poland will support Mikolajczyk in reaching an agreement with Staling, even if it takes losing Vilnius but not for the price of Lviv. He claims [Retinger – B. W.] that in this case, there’s much more unanimity among Poles in the country than those abroad, and the Polish National Independence Committee represents only 2% (sic! – B.W.) of the population, although as a result of freeing from the Soviets, this percentage may rise to 15%, but not more [...]”. It does not seem as a legitimate report on the social attitudes among a tenaciously-tempered nation. Was it the way he

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tried to convince the British to come back to the concepts from 1943, inclined towards supporting Poland in Lviv’s case, under the condition of giving up on Vilnius? It’s impossible to say.

The missing “founding father of the European Union” At the fall of 1945, Retinger – formally not representing any institution! – comes with an initiative to organize a humanitarian mission for the destroyed Poland. He therefore makes contact with Stafford Cripps and Hugh Dalton, then on the position of – in the right order – the minister of Commerce and minister of Treasury in Clemens Atlee’s office. As a result, the British government accepted aid in “food, clothes, household goods, field kitchens and pontoon bridges”, estimated for 4 million pounds. Retinger himself gains a great excuse for turning up in Poland. It seems probable that he intended to gain influences in the circles of Temporary National Unity Government. Despite many talks with politicians of the likes of Władysław Gomułka, Hilary Minc or, once more, Stanisław Mikołajczyk, being accused of working for the English intelligence, he is forced to leave communistic Poland.

Since 1946 Retinger had gone back to his idee fixe once more and this time for good. He led many talks with European politicians. He also lobbied in the United States, where he got with the help of the American ambassador in London – Averell Harriman. As a result of Retinger’s actions the Independent Economic Cooperation League is established. However, in the light of growing popularity of unification ideas, a couple of other organizations in this field start to pop up parallel. Facing its high fragmentation, Retinger finds it necessary to coordinate their efforts. And with such aim he starts to act by throwing a conference in the summer of 1947, which results in establishing the International European Unity Movement Coordination Committee. Winston Churchill

is voted the honorary chairman, Duncan Sandys the president, and the role of the secretary was given to the Pole, who is delegated right away to negotiate towards obtaining the necessary support for the idea from the Holy See. A hierarch with whom he conversed on this matter was cardinal Montini – the future Pope Paul VI. Another important event at which the „grey eminence” played an important role was the called in 1948 European Congress in Hague.

During the party, unlike the organizational negotiations, Retinger remains in the background (as he tended to). Main parts are played by Winston Churchill, Alcide de Gasperi, Paul-Henry Spaak and Paul Ramadier. Poland was also participating, represented by Edward Raczyński and Stanisław Mikołajczyk.

As an aftermath of agreements made at the congress, half a year later the European Movement is established and which at its first conference enacts the Declaration of Political Rules of the European Union. This movement of which Retinger is– as you may have guessed – a secretary, advocates for a need to establish the European Council, European Gathering, the European Human Rights Court of Justice and to prepare a European program for using raw materials, regulating its market and coal and steel industry products. This last postulate, as Bogdan Podgórski claims, „was listed in Schuman’s plan published in 1950”.

The establishment of The European Council in 1949 is on one hand an extremely fortunate finale of long-ongoing Retinger’s efforts; on the other – a moment when as a person not representing any country he starts to lose his significance. He will still become, along with the future prime minister of Great Britain, Harold Macmillan, an initiator of establishing the Eastern Europe Commission at the Council and he will later fight for its survival. A disappointment that will bring further reduction of his position in the unification movement will be Churchill’s attitude which will make him start, after regaining power and contrary

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to his announcements, to back off from the “unification direction” he previously supported, which made room for “continental” patrons led by Jean Monet and Robert Schuman.

They are to press a kind of reset button on the European integrity case which will later result – basing on the experiences from previous integration attempts that ended up in establishing The European Council – signing the Paris treaty in 1951, which enabled establishing the European Coal and Steel Community.

same time the leader of its Executive Committee.

The role of the „grey eminence” in establishing the Group is best depicted by an Italian diplomat, Pietro Quaroni, who participated in meetings preceding the initial convention: „He was probably the only one of us who actually studied the problem from both sides of the Atlantic Ocean and had set views and beliefs on this issue. The old schemer had such a nice way of being that we accepted anything he wanted”.

Retinger is not named among the „fathers of united Europe” nowadays. But do his achievements predestine him to be on that list?

I am not going to attempt to answer this question. It is, however, undoubted that among Polish people proclaiming unification ideas, no other was even close to the role which our mysterious world’s citizen from Krakow. Paula-Henry Spaak’s opinion is worth citing here: „An extraordinary character [...]. Intelligent, active, a bit mysterious, [...]. During the war he sparkled discussion which the Poles, the Dutch, the Norwegians and us, the Belgians were holding in order to establish new boundaries between us. After the war, continuing his efforts, he became one of the creators of the United Europe. His name should always be among its pioneers.

In 1958 Retinger was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize. Throughout the years, besides his political activity which I tried to describe, he also was engaged in publishing. What’s important is the fact, that its major part was devoted to promote Poland and the Polish input into European culture, therefore such positions as – published in Great Britain – All about Poland or the published in France– La Pologne et l’Equilibre European may be found in the bibliography.

And even conspiracy theories are because of him Józef Retinger’s last political project was establishing a forum that will enable a transnational dialogue between the elites of the European and American worlds. It was after his initiative when after two years of preparations, the first gathering of influential bodies representing both sides of the Atlantic took place in 1954. The venue for this meeting was... „Bilderberg” hotel and the gatherings started to be held periodically. Retinger remained a general secretary of the uncertain Bilderberg’s Group, often called the World’s Government, until his last days, being at the

Józef Hieronim Retinger was person that aroused emotions and controversy, both in the past as nowadays. One must simply accept such conditions. What is crucial is the fact that this character should arise such emotions in millions instead of only a few closed circles of people and I hope this article will help achieving that, even in the smallest possible way. A part of the conversation with another booster of the unification idea and privately Retinger’s friend, Denis de Rougemont – who speaks more than some of the devoted elaborates – will make a nice closing to the whole story: –Tell me, Joseph, they say you are a mason, an Intelligence Service, CIA and Vatican’s agent as well as a friend of the communism. Sometimes they even add that you’re Jewish and a sodomite. What should I reply to that?

–Tell them that’s not everything.

47 · MAKSYMILIAN MARIA KOLBE

WEIRD MAX PIOTR KASZCZYSZYN

The whole life of Father Maximilian Maria Kolbe was a proof that things can be different. Different than revolutionary communism, different than fascist and Nazi ‘aristocracy of the trenches.’

Kolbe’s radical thinking was based on two ideals: Mother of God and poverty. His integral yet simple idea of work which meant a harmonious mix of spiritual, physical and intellectual effort have never ceased to inspire, just as his creative attitude towards coincidence.

Both these things led him to points that changed his life. Fighting for souls, by accident he created probably the biggest press empire of the time in Poland.

Working-class childhood Łódź was impressive. In the stretch of three decades (1865-1897) its population grew by 850%. At the end of the 19th century the population was 314 000. At that time it was one of the most important cities of the region, leading in industrialization and urbanization.

Two smaller towns near łódź were developing rapidly: Pabianice (27 000) and Zduńska Wola (16 000).

Rajmund Kolbe was born in 1894 in this industrial surrounding, probably in Pabianice, as the second of the three sons of Marianna and Juliusz Kolbe. Both parents came from Zduńska Wola, but they moved to Pabianice after they got married. Rajmund’s father was a we-

aver – their first home was a room divided with a screen: kitchen and weaver’s workshop on one side; beds, closets and a prie-dieu before the icon of the Mother of God on the other.

In Pabianice Juliusz employed an assistant, which suggests the family business was quite prosperous. Soon they opened a small grocery shop run by Marianna (working part-time as midwife). Rajmund helped her in the shop.

Religious upbringing, modest and ordered family home, craft and industrial environment of Pabianice shaped the first years of Kolbe’s life. This social background would also shape his views on the meaning of work in human’s life.

Meaning out of coincidence Can anybody plan their life? A look at Kolbe’s biography proves otherwise. Instead of clinging desperately to our detailed plans we should rather accept coincidences that shape our lives and engage in a game with our fate. The balance between planning and chance is key.

Such uncontrolled control does not mean lack of purpose, it only means flexibility in our life choices. In Kolbe’s life there were at least four life-changing ‘coincidences.’

The first was triggered by a scolding from his mother. As a child Rajmund was rather quarrelsome. Once Marianna said to him ‘Mundziu, I have no idea what will become of you.’ But on the other hand, Rajmund was also sensitive.

He treated his mothers words seriously and started praying at home before the icon of the Mother of God of Częstochowa. Soon Marianna noticed a change in his behavior: Rajmund became calmer and more focused, and often cried during his prayers. When the concerned mother asked ‘What happened to you, why

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are you crying like a girl?” the boy confided that he saw Mother of God offering him two crowns: white, symbolizing purity, and red, meaning martyrdom. He chose both. The future would confirm this extraordinary vision.

The next life-changing event was more ordinary. One day Marianna sent Rajmund to a pharmacy to get some fenugreek. Kolbe, who was around 9 at the time, asked for it in Latin impressing the druggist so much, that Mr. Kontowski offered the boy private lessons for free. Kontowski bought him necessary books and paid exam fees so Rajmind could enroll at the local trading school. Everything he had learned there about administration and finance would prove very useful in his later work.

Then again, the third coincidence was of religious kind. On the Easter of 1907 Minor Conventual friars visited Pabianice. In his sermons, Father Peregryn Haczela invited boys to join the Conventual Franciscan minor seminary in Lwów. Later that year, Rajmund and his older brother Franciszek illegally crossed the border of the Austro-Hungarian Partition and went to Lwów to enroll at the seminary. Thus, Kolbe started his journey to the two crowns he saw in the vision.

But it could have ended quite quickly. As soon as 1910 Rajmund started having second thoughts about his calling. What is the best way to serve the Virgin Mary? Would not an army uniform be better than monk’s habit?

Fighting for Polish independence could at the same time mean sacrificing his life to God. When young Rajmund was contemplating leaving the seminary, his mother came to visit him bringing unexpected news. His youngest brother, Józef, also decided to join the convent and now Marianna could finally fulfill her childhood dream by joining a convent as well. What is more, also her husband Juliusz decided to go to become a monk. After hearing the news things became clear to Rajmund, and on the 4th of September 1910 he became Fr. Maximilian.

A radical with a miraculous medal in his hand A clenched fist should serve as a symbol for the political atmosphere of the interwar period. The old world order falling to pieces, people traumatized in pointless battles, searching for alternatives to capitalism, creating the idea of a „new man” – all this constituted the foundation for fascism and Nazism. The survivors, the ‘aristocracy of the trenches” as historian Jan-Werner Müller put it, were building a new order based on physical power and violence. In these uncertain times, Fr. Maximilian was to offer his own idea of radicalism.

However, before the outbreak of the Great War Kolbe was sent to Rome to continue his studies in the Pontifical Gregorian University. Hearing some rumors about Italian women flirting with men on the streets he was reluctant to go – it was his purity that was on stake. All in all, he decided to go. The rumors proved to be false, so he stayed in Rome through the war studying philosophy and theology.

In the catholic thought of the time, one idea was gaining popularity again: the ideal of a knight. It was promoted in Poland by Polish scouts and in France by Lèon Gautier of the well known Ecole des Chartes; the pope re-established some of the old military orders.

And thanks to Maximilian Kolbe and six other monks, the pope established the Militia Immaculatae – Army of the Immaculate.

Kolbe’s idea was to bring people to God through intercession of the Virgin Mary. Most importantly, he saw the world from the spiritual perspective, so different from fascist statolatria.

Secondly, the Army of the Immaculate completely rejected violence and fought only by means of prayer and intellectual persuasion. The only „shots” fired by the Militia were miraculous medals with Virgin Mary, inspired by visions and dogma of the Immaculate Conception.

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Fr. Maximilian based the Militia’s agenda on four constituents: example, prayer, suffering and work. Convinced that even the most beautiful ideas should have practical effects on the reality, Kolbe intended to bring back the radical attitude of the first Franciscans. Times had changed, but the goal remained the same.

And so, as soon as 1927 the number of Militia’s members was 100 000, half of them in Poland.

„We need to convert this cinema” Ill with tuberculosis almost all his life, a monk with no money of his own created a catholic media empire.

It all started with a thought of a monthly periodical. At first, it was only meant to help the Kraków branch of the Militia with their spiritual formation. However, Fr. Kolbe was always ambitious, and so the plain bulletin quickly evolved in his head into a devotional periodical. To make this dream come true, he needed two things: money and a printing press. The first issue of ‘The Knight of the Immaculate’consisting of 16 pages, no covers, was published in Kraków in January 1922. Without any strategy for distribution, Kolbe and his friends simply handed it out to people as they passed by. It was possible thanks people of good will contributing to the cause. When Kolbe was sent to a Franciscan convent in Grodno, an American monk, fascinated by Kolbe’s passion, gave him an old printing press soon nicknamed „Babcia” („Granny”). Fr. Maximilian was determined to use modern means to fight for human souls. There was no point in sticking to the old ways. Press, radio, cinema – all these were to him tools that could and should be used for God’s glory.

Pope Pius XI had lamented that the greatest scandal of the nineteenth century was that the Church had lost the working class. Coming from industrial background, Fr. Kolbe had a response to that: he created a simple periodical for peasants and workers. Some of the pictures inside it presented monks working with a

printing press, showing a new ideal of a friar-worker. Now work and progress were to serve God.

Spiritual enterprise Niepokalanów A breakthrough came in the year 1927. The periodical was growing and there was not enough space in Grodno monastery. Soon Fr. Kolbe found out that, due to state agricultural reforms, duke Jan Drucki-Lubecki was parceling his estate in Teresin near Warszawa. Predictably, the ambitious monk persuaded the duke to give the land to Grodno Franciscans.

This event marked a new period in the history of „The Knight of the Immaculate.”

The beginnings were difficult. Friars started building their new monastery in winter, again thanks to somebody’s help: duke Seweryn Czetwertyński gave them two carriages of wooden planks that allowed them to built one barrack and a chapel. Seeing their extraordinary dedication and hard work, local peasants soon came to help them. Those harsh months were a real test for the ideal of friars-workers, and a new element, radical poverty, was added to their agenda. Fr. Kolbe named that place Niepokalanów – the place of the Immaculate.

Both Niepokalanów and „The Knight” were growing rapidly until the WWII. In 1938 the circulation of the periodical reached 1 million, a number unthinkable for Polish press at the time. In 1935 Fr. Kolbe decided to create a catholic tabloid titled “Mały Dziennik”. He was invited to broadcast on the radio, where he spoke of peaceful faith and the search of true happiness. Not long after that, he built a broadcasting station in Niepokalanów.

Niepokalanów became not only a monastery, but an enterprise. It had its own seminary, and in 1936 it was home to 300 fathers and 600 friars. In the late 30s, Fr. Kolbe grouped them into sections to employ their personal abilities; some worked in the administrative area, some dealt with provision, others supervised

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the spiritual formation of Militia Immaculatae in Poland and around the world. The monastery had its own fire brigade and a fleet of cars and bicycles. They lived off the income from selling „The Knight” and donations, being the first socially founded magazine in Poland.

Different man is possible The only issue of „The Knight of the Immaculate” in the wartime was published with great effort in 1940: even Hitler occupying Poland would not stop Fr. Maximilian. His own article in that issue was titled „Truth.” He wrote: „Nobody can change the truth, one can only search for it, find it and accept it, and follow it in his life. Follow the path of the truth in everything, particularly in matters concerning the ultimate goal of life.” This path was to lead Fr. Kolbe to Auschwitz.

It seems most fitting that this Knight of the Immaculate should face the evil world created by the Nazis in Auschwitz. The world with no hope for redemption, where man was reduced to a number tattooed on his arm.

On the 17th of February 1941, early in the morning, two cars came to Niepokalanów carrying five Germans, some of them wearing SS uni-

forms. At first they put him in Pawiak prison in Warsaw, then in the concentration camp Auschwitz-Birkenau. Even there Fr. Kolbe preached the Gospel and shared his scraps of bread with his fellow prisoners.

A few days after one of his „sermons” a prisoner escaped the camp. The rules were simple – ten men must die for him. After a day-long assembly, lagerführer Fristsch picked ten men to be starved in an underground bunker. Suddenly, one of them cried ‘My poor wife and children!’; his name was Franciszek Gajowniczek. And then one more prisoner stepped out of the line and approached Fritsch. ‘I want to die for one of them,’ said Fr. Maximilian Kolbe.

—But why? asked the SS man.

—I am old and very ill. My life is useless now.

—For which one?

—This man. He has a wife and children.

—Who are you?

—A catholic priest.

—Alright. Go then.

On their way to the starving bunker, Kolbe supported one of his inmates. There was singing and prayer heard from the bunker as Fr. Maximilian led his brothers in rosary prayer. The day before the feast of the Assumption an executioner named Bock entered the cell. All this dying was taking too long, the Nazis preferred it well-organized and effective. Fr. Kolbe was sitting on the floor, his back against the wall.

Looking Bock in the face, he calmly raised his hand to receive the deadly injection.

Fr. Maximilian Kolbe’s remains were cremated the next day, exactly on the feast of the Assumption of Mary. Thus, he obtained the both crowns.

Farher Maximilian Kolbe

51 · SIOSTRA FAUSTYNA

A SIMPLE GIRL FROM POLISH COUNTRYSIDE KAMIL SIKORA

If someone expects a tale about heroism or bravery, great achievements in science or art., then – I am warning you in advance – will not be satisfied. Because Mother Faustina is an example, maybe the biggest, that every one of us – even the least talented, or the less fortunate – may become an inspiration for future generations.

She was born on 25 August 1905 in Głogowiec (under Russian supremacy, nowadays in Lodz Voivodeship) as the third child of Stanisław Kowalski and Marianna, previously Babel.

She spent her youth in a house built by her father. Supporting a large family – as Marianna Kowalska gave birth to 10 children – with only 3 hectares of fields and father’s small structural workshop was close to a miracle.

Not much is known about future nun’s early years. In her own Diary she barely mentions her family home. After years, her siblings and mother mentioned that she resembled her father a lot: „She was eager to help in all kinds of work. Never said no to anybody”.She was a dad’s favorite – unlike her, Faustina’s brothers or older sisters who didn’t know where father is hiding his double-barrel shotgun In 1917 Helena began her education in Świnice. When crossing school entrance she already knew how to read. A nearly 3-year period

of education wasn’t much of a struggle for her. Teasing by her classmates because of her flimsy clothing were compensated by her good grades and compliments from teachers.

The stopped her educations after a few years as she had to make room for younger children.

Since her early years, Helena had to face first mystical experiences. Sleepless nights and attempts to find understanding of siblings and parents often ended up in failure. Helena, however, was certain that those weren’t only previsions or phantasmagorias of a few-year-old girl. She heard a voice calling her to start a different kind of life for the first time at the age of 7, which she mentions in her Diary.

Young Helena was aware that these are not the topics she wants to bring over the dinner table – she, therefore, found herself alone with her experiences. Nevertheless, she had a belief that her future, despite parent’s objections, will be in a convent.

Something changed at the moment of the First Communion. The then 9-year-old Helena started to avoid company. The Eucharist became a very important part of her life. And even if she couldn’t go to the church during the week and on Sundays (because she had nothing to wear), she tried to be as close as possible, even by sitting in the garden with her prayer book.

At the age of 16, which was a normal situation at large families, Helena left to the city to make more money. She spent a year working as a servant in Rogi, later also in Aleksandrowo and Lodz. The seeing that took place in 1924 affirmed her belief that she should devote her life to Jesus. She often encounte-

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red rejection, both from her parents (Helena was their most beloved and best child, also obedient and hard-working), as well as from her convent supervisors. The reason was even more prosaic: the dowry she was supposed to bring into the monastery she could not afford.

Revelations? Give me a break.

She eventually joined The Convent of Sisters of Holy Mother’s Mercy on 1 August 1925at the age of almost 20. Postulate, novitiate, temporary profession and in the end her perpetual vows to Helena, and by then Maria Faustina, she adopted on May 1, 1933 in Krakow.

This 8-year period was no bed of roses. After only 3 weeks since joining the convent, Faustina considered resigning as she thought not enough time was spent on prayer and meditation and too much on everyday duties; what is more, during that time the postulate’s master was Sister Janina Bartkiewicz, who led with a strict hand and in the atmosphere of fear. Faustina, however, endured in her submission to Jesus.

In her convent life she had many different functions, from a cook and garden-taker to a door-lady or shop assistant in a bakery. She spent the postulate in Skolimowo and Jozefowo. After the first Investiture and first temporary vows she dwelled in Vilnius, Warsaw, and later in the newly-built monastery building in Grochow. Later she moved to Płock, Kiekrza, Biała, again to Vilnius and Krakow where she stayed until her last days. On her photographs from that period we can see a young smiling woman who totally devoted her life to serving others.

Her first revelation took place on 22 February 1931 in the Sanctuary of Divine Mercy in Plock. It was then, when she hear a command to make a painting signed Jezu, ufam Tobie – I trust you, Jesus. The author of the first image was Eugeniusz Kazimirowski. The first person to whom Father Sopoćko – her spiritual

guide – turned was the painter, a Bernardine Franciszka Wierzbicka. The nun, however, refused. Therefore, Father Sopoćko turned to … his neighbor, mentioned Vilnius’s painter, Kazimirowski. His workshop which was located in the building occupied by the painter and Father Sopoćko became a regular visiting place for Faustina. The painting was completed in 1934 (the exact date is not certain).

For the young nun who only finished a few grades of primary school, such mystical experience left a deep scar. Her spiritual guides were e.g. Father Józef Andrasz (a Jesuit) and Father Michał Sopoćko (founder of the Gathering of Sisters of Merciful Jesus). It was after the request of the latter when Sister Faustina began to write down her revelations, giving a birth to the famous Dairy. The reason for writing down Faustina’s experiences was quite prosaic – neither her spiritual guide nor Faustina herself wanted to postpone the holy confession. Writing down Jesus’s revelations was to help both Faustina as her guide who in his mission took the direction of St. John: he didn’t treat in in a specific way and never asked about any details.

Faustina herself had to prove him that these are not only effects of her imagination (we should remember, it was on Father Sopocko’s request when they performed psychological tests to show Faustina’s psychic state). The story of the Diary also deserves a few words of comments. Father Sopoćko himself swore that he never interfered with the content of the texts, although he many times took Faustina’s writings to go through them. The nun wrote whole six notebooks which she later burned under the alleged angel’s request who turned to be an evil spirit. The now-existent Diary is not kept in a chronological order as Faustina only recreated it asked by the Father.

Mysticism is a rather mysterious branch of theology. The same can be said on individual revelations. The goal of Christian mysticism

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is to meet God during your earthly life. Nobody believed in Faustina’s stories. Painting a picture, founding a new convent, writing a diary. That was too much.

The answer to the mystery of evil Despite all that, Sister Faustina, submissive to Jesus’s will, never ceased spreading what he told her. Message for the whole world can be summed up by this sentence: God is merciful. Merciful love is God’s biggest attribute.

But what does it exactly mean?

It is hard, though, to link love with mercy, although these two terms are close to each other. We would say that mercy is love’s answer to evil’s mystery. It is no simple emotion, it is a real action in a world full of unfairness. Biblical tales about the merciful Samaritan, the prodigal son or the Good Shepherd show this relation between the mercy giver and the one who received that mercy.

And there is no pity nor humiliation in such activity. The scene of washing apostles’ feet in the Cenacle is often brought as example here, forgetting that this is where the mercy can be found: God comes down to our world as a human not only to co-exist with us but to actually enter this „swamp” and clear us from the sins. It is a searching for the lost sheep happening here and now. Apart from political or religious views, gender, skin color, education level or age. It is just the first element – reaching out with a hand.

The second one is help in coming out of the darkness of a sin. As John Paul II wrote: „Mercy appears in its proper and full shape as a reappraisal, as uplifting, as getting the good from all layers of evil in the world and in humans.” And also: „The cross makes the most profound condescension of God to what man – especially in hard and painful times – calls his fate”. The Cross is like a touch of eternal love to the most painful wounds of man’s earthly existence. In order to fully understand the range of merciful love we should have a

look at Jesus’s sacrifice on the cross. But again – the full extent of this attribute can be only seen at the empty tomb in the morning of Resurrection. Bishop Ryś, during one of his catechesis in the Year of Mercy cited another priest who said that „he pukes with all this mercy already”. Because everyone writes and talks about it so much. Anyway, this is a mystery hard to understand in contemporary world. Such is the message of the Diary and of Faustina’s entire life. „Shall no soul have fear to come close to Me, even if her sins appear as scarlet. My Mercy is so great that no mind, whether man’s or angel’s, shall deepen it.” The Secretary of Divine Mercy died on 5 October 1938 after a long and tormenting illness. She as buried on the Lagiewniki cemetery. Her beatification and canonization was made by Pope John Paul II – respectively in 1993 and 2000.

From Vilnius to the Philippines This is how this text could end, yet it was only after her death where miracles started to happen. The Diary is perhaps the most-often translated Polish work of all times. Despite the fact, that Faustina only finished 3 grades of primary school, her writing is nice and clear. Right before her death, the to-be-saint said: „I feel very well that my mission does not end at the moment of my death, but will rather start then”. Paradoxically, it was the outburst of the II World War, a year later, committed to spreading the cult of Divine Mercy.

Initially, its center was located in Vilnius, but later – through pictures with lyrics of Chaplet of Divine Mercy – the message got to as far as Siberia, Kazakhstan, or the army which was being established by General Anders.

The cult grew from the bottom up, even though it was not approved by the Church. At first, due to Father Sopoćko and Father Andrasz, Faustina’s message was spread across Poland, later also abroad. It took half a century for the Church to come up with a positi-

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ve reply. People engaged in those activities were primates: Hlond, Wyszyński, or later the Pope John Paul II. It was because of the last mentioned one that they sped up the beatification process of Faustina. Examinations of genuineness of the supernatural character of the Diary also took long years. It is worth mentioning, there was an analysis which became the theological fundament of the mass to the name of Divine Mercy by Father Ignacy Różycki (eventually, his work covered over half a thousand pages).

when writing his second encyclical Dives in misericordia, he did not derive from the Diary. The entire Faustina’s text was examined by him only after the homicide attempt (13 May 1981).

Today the cult of Divine Mercy is known all across the world. Krakow’s Lagiewniki Sanctuary is visited by over two million people annually, pilgrims from over 90 countries.

A special advocate and promoter of Divine Mercy cult was John Paul II. Passing the holiday of Divine Mercy and devoting the world to Divine Mercy is an achievement of the Polish Pope. What’s interesting is that the Pope, Faustyna Kowalska, 1938

At 3 p.m. drivers of buses in Brazil, Mexico or the Philippines stop to say a Chaplet of Divine Mercy together with the passengers. These are the countries of South America, who after Krakow are the biggest cult places of Divine Mercy. The sanctuary in Rwanda became a place where over tribal divisions people seek forgiveness and… mercy. The first Apostolate of Divine Mercy was founded by a Marian, Father Walter Pełczyński in the state of Massachusetts.

Faustina was a simple girl from the countryside due to which we nowadays celebrate the holiday of the Divine Mercy, say the Chaplet of Divine Mercy prayer, look at the Painting or read the Diary. We can only wonder, how this is possible that it was her who was chosen to spread this peculiar message. Her biography reflects the lights and shadows of faith.

She was often accused of visionary, hysteria and mental illness, eventually it was for her cause why the cult of Divine Mercy is now present across the world. Until the end, she was obedient to these words: Jesus, I have trust in You.

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THE POLES WHO DEFENDED HUMAN RIGHTS TOMASZ TUREJKO

The UNO treaty on preventing and punishing crimes of genocides and the humanitarian organization UNICEF are one of the most important and renowned tools of the international public law concerning protection of human rights.

The authors of the two ventures were Polish scientists, one of the biggest promoters of human rights protection in the world, but most of all, utmost social activists, who devoted their lives to serving the humankind.

Rafał Lemkin, a Polish lawyer of Jewish origin, a tireless defender of human rights, an outstanding representative of the „Lviv’s school of criminal law” and the creator of one of the most important treaties of the international criminal law. He was the first to introduce the term of „genocide”, and his treaty gave base to go after the initiators of the most barbaric criminal offenses against humanity.

Lemkin was born in 1900 in a village called Bezwodne on the Grodzieńszczyzna region.

After graduating from middle school in Bialystok and serving the army in 1919-1920, he began his studies on the Faculty of Law at the University of Jan Kazimierz in Lviv. It was there, where – under the leadership of a penalist, Julius Makarewicz – earned a doctorate in law. Professor Makarewicz was one of the biggest specialists in criminal law, not

only in Poland, but in Europe. The Polish Penal Code written in 1932 (also known as the Makarewicz’s Code) was one of the greatest accomplishments of the Polish law system and one of the most modern penal laws in then Europe as well.

Lemkin was therefore educated on one of the best penal faculties in Poland under the eye of the greatest Polish penal law specialists of that period. After graduation, he travelled across Europe for a few years, continuing to educate himself at universities in Germany, France and Italy. Since 1929 he worked as a prosecutor. He took part in Codification Commission works which resulted in creation of the mentioned criminal code.

He was also a correspondent-member of the International Bureau for the Unification of Criminal Law. He could speak nine languages and read fourteen. Already in the 30’s, the Polish young lawyer was acknowledged on the international stage; he was invited to join conferences on the unification of criminal law in 1931 in Paris, in 1933 in Madrid and in 1935 in Copenhagen. Rafal Lemkin could be proud of all these achievements only before turning 40.

Against barbarity In the history of humankind, there were not many lawyers, who openly opted against crimes later called „genocides”. The pioneer of humanitarian law in this scope, not only in Poland, but in Europe, was Paweł Włodkowic, who at the Council of Constance in 1414 publicly condemned the massacre made by the Teutonic Knights on Prussians and Yotvingians, on the grounds that the pagan civilization also has rights to retain their

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culture and beliefs. Lemkin decided to follow-up to this tradition of Polish humanitarian law ideas and presented his proposals in a paper on the mentioned conference in Madrid in 1933.

According to different sources, Lemkin either went to the conference personally or sent his paper to be read by a lecturer. In his article, the Polish lawyer outlined five new types of crimes, two of which that he found most important he called “barbarity” and “vandalism”. Lemkin used the term “barbarity” to name destructive actions towards members of a particular religious, ethnic or racial community. “Vandalism”, in turn, was used by Lemkin to name destroying great arts, historical artifacts and goods, religious cult places made by these communities.

The paper had to be anti-German and was an answer to the persecution policy carried out by Hitler’s Germans against the Jewish community. According to some reports, the German delegation representatives were laughing heavily during the reading of the paper to eventually leave the room.

Lemkin encouraged the League of Nations in his paper to establish a treaty to enable prosecuting crimes against humanity. Hague conventions from the Hague Conventions of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century did not prevent many war crimes that happened during the I World War. During that time, the Turks committed a cruel crime on the Armenians and in the 30’s Stalin’s purges and the Great Famine in Ukraine left millions of dead in The Soviet Union.

The innovative and deeply humanistic proposals of the Polish lawyer did not meet full understanding of politicians who were at that time responsible for nations’ fates. There was a popular belief that crimes committed far from Middle Europe are something “normal” that results from the lack of civilization development of those communities.

In practice, it was all about something else.

World’s mightiest nations having colonies in almost every corner of the world were also responsible for numerous acts of “barbarity” against indigenous communities occupying both Americas, Australia and Africa.

This topic quickly came back when the mentioned barbarian acts occurred in Western Europe.

Back to Mongolian Era In mid- and late 30’s, Lemkin dismissed himself from prosecutor’s job and opened his own law office in Warsaw. At the brink of World War II outburst, he warned the Jews about the upcoming danger. He fled Warsaw himself in 1939 and went to Sweden via Lithuania, where he continued his research at the university in Stockholm. In 1941 he went to the United States and began a new stage in his career there.

The II World War revealed her true face only in its first days, and the target of destructive totalitarian regime were both military men as well as civilians. Only two months after German invasion on Great Britain, Winston Churchill said: „Since the Mongolian invasion on Europe in the XVI century, there were never such methodical, ruthless slaughters of such scale. […] ”We are witnessing an unnamed crime”. Of course, such character of massive massacres wasn’t unknown to Churchill. In the first half of the XIX century, British colonialists almost completely slaughtered Tasmanian aborigines during the so called black war.

There were many such examples in the history, made by e.g. Spaniards in Southern and Latin America, the Americans in the United States against Native Indians, or the Belgians against Congo residents. This time, these massacres happened in Europe and their victims were not citizens of overseas colonies but native Europeans. As it turned out later, it didn’t remained with no influence on the international protection of human rights.

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Genocide means killing people Lemkin taught law at the University of Northern California. He also posted the function of legal advisor in various governmental institutions in the USA, for example the Department of War. He listened carefully to news coming from Europe, where the Germans carried out their barbarian policy of extermination almost all across the occupied-by-them Europe. The Germans have murdered 40 members of his family in Europe among whom were both his parents.

During that time Rafał Lemkin wrote his most renowned works called Axis Rule in Occupied Europe. It was published in Washington already in 1944. In was in this book, where he first used the term „unnamed crimes” made by the Germans in occupied Europe.

The term „genocide”, which is translated into Polish as ”human-race-killing” derived from two words: Greek genos (race, strain) and the Latin (to kill). In his works, Lemkin understood genocide in a broad way: not only as physical annihilation of national, ethnical, religious or political groups but also destroying a language, culture, holy sites or even promoting alcoholism and gambling.

The term „genocide” spread across the world during the trial of war criminals who faced accusations at the International Military Court in Nurnberg. Lemkin participated in this trial as the advisor of Supreme Court judge in USA, Robert H. Jackson, the main US prosecutor. Although Nazi malefactors were judged for crimes against humanity, war crimes and crimes against peace, it was the term „genocide” was stated in the acts to a big extent in accordance with the definition proposed by Lemkin. The Polish lawyer thought, that this made the content of the indictment more indulge the true nature of crimes made by the Germans. Interestingly, the term „genocide” was also used in the indictment by a Soviet prosecutor, Roman

Rudenko, who such named the … Katyn massacre. Of course, the Soviet Nation had accused the Germans of committing this crime when facing the Nurnberg Court of Justice.

The judges issued no statements in this case due to „lack of evidence”.

On 11 December 1946, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution recognizing the genocide as a crime under international law. For Lemkin, it was just the beginning.

The Polish lawyer not only wanted to punish people who formerly committed such crimes. His goal was, most importantly, to prevent such cases from happening in the future. For two years, neglecting all other duties, he lobbied among the UN diplomats for establishing an international treaty on genocide. The case wasn’t easy and all attempts of reaching an agreement were torpedoed e.g. by the Soviet Union which was against including crimes of political reasons into the term of genocide. It was connected to Joseph Stalin’s concerns over the fact that he himself might be at some point called to account on the same reasons for the purges he made in the past. The international community reached a compromise and Rafal Lemkin soon accomplished his goal.

On 9 December 1948, the UN General Assembly unanimously voted for enacting the „Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide”. Nowadays, 147 countries back that Convention. After the decision of the General Assembly, Rafal Lemkin burst into tears on the corridor of the UN headquarters. He then said: „The Convention must become a powerful tool of the international community”.

A forgotten hero The long and bumpy road of Rafal Lemkin ended up as success (as it later turned out – not to a full extent). The representative of Lviv’s penal code idea, a Doctor at a Polish university, wrote one of the most important conventions of the international law. Short-

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ly after announcement the decision, Lemkin lobbied for quick enacting of the convention which happened in 1951. For his outstanding accomplishments in the field of protecting human rights he was awarded many times. In 1955 the federal government handed Lemkin Cross of Merit of West Germany.

Maybe it was a form of reimbursement for the Polish lawyer, whose family members were slaughtered by the Germans...

In the years 1950-1959 Rafał Lemkin was seven times nominated to the Nobel Peace Prize. Unfortunately, due to completely senseless reasons he was never granted this prize. He died suddenly, forgotten in 1959.

His funeral was attended by… seven people.

For a long time, the genocide convention was a dead law. The first institution in the history to issued statements in cases of people accused of genocide was the Tribunal of Rwanda, which was established in 1994.

In 1998, the Rome Statute brought to life the International Criminal Court in Hague – the first ever permanent court established to prosecute single citizens for the biggest crimes against humanity. Despite all that, the international community still has many problems with judging people suspected of committing crimes of genocide, which is indicated by the examples of the massacre in Darfur or the crime of the so called Islamic Country.

A lot of such biographies end up with words: „they were acknowledged only after death”.

This time it happened differently. The character of Rafał Lemkin is almost completely unknown in Poland, while he is, however, one of the greatest lawyers of our history.

In numerous foreign essays he is depicted as an American scientist. Poland had a long time not asking for his son back. Only in 2013, the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs founded the International Rafal Lemkin’s Award for people who contributed to enhancing the mechanisms of preventing mass crimes.

Let’s hope it is one of the first steps the Polish

nation has made to remind the world about this outstanding lawyer from the Lviv’s University.

Ludwik Rajchman The name Ludwik Rajchman say absolutely nothing to a lot of people. On the other hand, almost everyone has heard of the UNICEF. It was Rajchman – a Polish bacteriologist and social activist of Jewish origin was behind the idea and the creator of the most-recognized humanitarian organization in the world. The road of its construction was not so easy, though.

Rajchman was born in 1881 in Warsaw in a Jewish family, long assimilated and meritorious family for the Polish culture. His father, Aleksander (along with Julian Kronenberg) was the main initiator of the building of Warsaw philharmonic, and in the years 19011904 he was the first director of the National Philharmonic. Rajchman’s mother – Melania (maiden name Hirszfeld) was a renowned publicist and activist for the case of women’s rights. Sister, Helena, was one of the leaders of Polish social pedagogy and his brother, Aleksander – was an outstanding mathematician at Lviv’s school.

Ludwik began medical studies at the Jagiellonian University in Krakow. After getting the diploma, he completed bacteriology course at the Pasteur’s Institute in Paris. After a short stay in Krakow, he went abroad again.

Since 1910 he deepened his epidemiologic studies in London. After the outburst of the I World War he became a bacteriologist in the Medical Research Council in London. Rajchman committed himself also to patriotic activities. Since 1916 he was a member of the Polish Information Committee who acted as a representative of the Polish independence movement in Great Britain. After regaining independence by Poland, he came back to his motherland, where he continued to work as a bacteriologist. In 1919 he established the

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Warsaw Central Institute of Hygiene, which in 1923 was renamed to become the National Institute of Hygiene. Rajchman held the position of the first director there. He employed a lot of bright Polish co-workers bacteriologists among which was e.g. Kazimierz Funk – the future inventor of vitamin.

A doctor with no borders Ludwik Rajchman also acted on the international stage. Thanks to his scientific research undertaken in London, the Polish doctor was already a well-known and acknowledged bacteriologist in Europe in 1920. In 1921 he became the manager Health Section of the League of Nations, and later, until 1939, he posted the function of director of Health Organization of the League of Nations.

It was also a personal success for Ludwik Rajchman – he managed to put the topic of health in the center of an international arena. During that time he continued his research on controlling infectious diseases and epidemics, standardization of principles of nutrition, as well as protecting children and the disabled. In 1921 the Polish bacteriologist along with Doctor Norman White completed a report on the epidemic situation in the USSR. This report was a beginning of cooperation of the Bolshevik Russia with the League of Nations in the field control of infectious diseases.

Thanks to these actions, it was possible to overcome the epidemic of infectious diseases in almost entire Eastern Europe in 1923.

Rajchman travelled across many countries trying to develop the scope of medical care Section e.g. in Asian countries. In 1930, he went to China for the first time. The Polish bacteriologist had established an incredibly strong bound with this country, to a point where he even became friends with Chiang Kai-Shek and his family. The result of his works in the Middle Kingdom was e.g. founding the National Institute of Hygiene in China, based on the organization established in

1923 in Poland. Created and managed by Rajchman institutions were the first attempts to organize an international protection of health. For his work he was acknowledged all across the world.

After the outburst of the II World War, Rajchman left to the United States where he tried to draw some attention to the dramatic situation of the Polish intelligence and the extermination policy run by the Germans in Eastern Europe. He e.g. managed to organize food and medicine reinforcements for Poland. Rajchman also became China’s special representative in the USA, also striving for help for the Middle Kingdom country.

After the II World War he was a member of the Polish delegation it Potsdam led by Bolesław Bierut (earlier until 1944 he cooperated with the government in exile in London). Thanks to his efforts, Poland became a beneficiary of the international aid of UNRRA organization (of which he was one of the founders). As part of the aid, Poland received a substantial amount of medical equipment and tools, which enabled scientific research and production of antibiotics (in the years 1945-1947 Poland totally received 2 million tons of various products turnover, especially agriculture and construction machinery, locomotives, as well as clothing and food). About how valuable Rajchman’s support was, let be illustrated by the fact that the second biggest beneficiary of this program was China, so close to his heart.

Protecting children’s rights After establishing the UN, Rajchman constantly strived among diplomats from all over the world for founding an international fund for children. He earlier initiated the foundation of the World Health Organization in Geneva.

On 11 December 1946, thanks to efforts of the Polish bacteriologist, the UN General Assembly voted for founding the United Na-

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tions International Children’s Emergency Fund, shortly – UNICEF. Rajchman became the first director of the newly-established organization which aim was to bring help to children in the scope of feeding, health protection as well as education.

It definitely was a great triumph for the Pole but also a great victory of dignity, nobility and solidarity. Every year UNICEF’s aid spread wider to more and more countries of the world. In 1953 was permanently incorporated into the United Nations as a permanent agenda, and in 1965, the UNICEF was granted the Nobel Peace Prize. Nowadays it is one of the most recognized humanitarian organization in the world, active in over 190 countries and saving around 7 million of children’s every year.

Rajchman’s big mission had come to an end.

He entered the international politics as a bright bacteriologist, who began the fight against ongoing epidemics in Europe and the world after the I World War. 30 years later he led one of the biggest humanitarian organizations in the world. Surely UNICEF was the works of his life and a wonderful crowning of his magnificent work. Last years of his life Rajchman spent with his family in his French house where he died in 1965. Interestingly, although our compatriot spent a great deal of his life abroad, he never adopted emigrant’s status and until death retained Polish citizenship.

Refusing the „easy and cozy life” Ludwik Rajchman’s great granddaughter, Marta Balińska later wrote in his biography: „Rajchman represents the entire generation of Poles born at the end of the XIX century, fervent and progressive patriots, deeply involved in social reform. […] It was also typical for Rajchman that, while not yearning for praise nor popularity during his life, he was always ready to accept the risk of defeat. He committed himself with «eyes wide

open», to use his own expression, to many «enterprises connected with adventures», as he didn’t want too «easy and boring life».

The biographies of Rafał Lemkin and Ludwik Rajchman shouldn’t be perceived only as Polish input into the development of human rights and the United Nations Organization.

In the light of their history we should also emphasize how much of hard work they put into achieving their lifetime goals. This kind of attitude stood against the „easy and cozy life” and thanks to it, the born in Bezwodna son of tenant of land estate became one of the pioneers of the international penal law and the creator of one of the most important conventions protecting human rights.

Hence, Rafał Lemkin cried in the corridor of the UN headquarters. It was then when he realized that, despite many obstacles, he achieved to accomplish something big. Both men experienced in different ways the evil, which world wars brought for humanity and two massive totalitarian systems of the XX century. Both decided to commit their lives to serving humans and left the Earthy life in belief that the effects of their hard struggle and determination will enable to make our world a little better.

SOLDIER: JÓZEF BEM

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A POLE WHO DEFENDED ALEPPO BARBARA SZEWCZYK

He marched in the front line in many places in Europe and beyond, always with Polish affair on his mind. A Pole who defended Aleppo from Bedouins’ attacks.

A Pole who is better remembered and loved upon River Danube, not upon The Vistula.

Born and Christianized in Tarnow, died as a Muslim in Syria. Often left alone and despised. The hero – Józef Zachariasz Bem. He was one year old when I Republic of Poland eventually disappeared from the map.

After his father, a mathematician, (also a teacher and advocate) he inherited an exact-sciences-oriented mind and already as a teenager studied to become an engineer at the School of Elementary Artillery and Engineering in Warsaw. He did not have to wait long for first experience on the battlefield – as an 18-year-old he committed himself in Napoleon’s campaign against Russia and their allied Prussians.

His big passion was artillery. He was a pioneer in conducting experiments with Congreve rockets in Poland. Those were much lighter rockets from the known cannons and thanks to this fact they were much more mobile.

This knowledge led to publishing the works called Uwagi o rakietach zapalających.

Thanks to his experiments first rocket artillery forces were established in the army of Polish Kingdom. The new weapon spread panic across Russian army (especially among

their horses), during the battle of Olszynka Grochowska w during November Uprising.

It was the first time when the Russians encountered such weapons.

In Bem’s life periods of organic work intertwined with a soldier’s fate. Bem, as the commander, made his mark with tremendous bravery and unwavering faith in success of the Polish case and at the same time he was accused of taking care only about his life and sacrificing lives of his soldiers. „I demand utmost obedience!” – said to his soldiers as their new chief to gain initial respect. He knew he had to take risks if he wanted to win.

Bem also had less fortunate moments in his life, for example when he was arrested for hiding his relations with the Masonic lodge, participating in a duel and financial misstatements at the time he served the army of the Polish Kingdom. After one year of imprisonment he left to Greece where he decided to work for this country to develop its economy.

When taking care of the goods of Potoccy, he introduced fresh technical solutions. He build a sugar refinery, distillery, paper mill and new heating systems in palaces. Fascinated by latest technical discoveries he analyzed how a steam machine works and later published a text on them. He also planned some more elaborate works but never had a chance to finish it due to coming of the awaited November Night. Bem interrupted his positivistic life on Galicia’s countryside and headed to Warsaw to stand shoulder-to-shoulder with other romantics (after putting on the uniform).

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The battle frenzy Poles were divided, as usual. Already during the first night of 29 November 1830 not everybody started to fight. The feverish youth from officer’s school, directed themselves to the city center calling all Polish people to grab their weapons but the citizens were closing doors and windows when seeing them.

Generals opposed that and chaos emerged,

-horses battery whose witty tactics surprised the Russians and spectacularly defeated them. This is how Bem earned his name in the battle of Iganie.

His second achievement was the reckless charge during the battle of Ostroleka. The battle, although lost, turned out a personal victory of Bem as he protected the Poles from complete defeat. He was nominated a colo-

Battle of Olszynka Grochowska not all military units went on to insurgents’ side. Bem reached Polish battalions only in February 1831, a day after the bloody battle on the outskirts of Warsaw – the battle of Olszynka Grochowska. He became the major of a light-horse battery but never had trust in commanders of the entire Uprising. First Józef Chłopicki, then Jan Skrzynecki – both men of merit at Napoleon’s wars – were never fans of insurrection. The first one wanted to make a deal with the Tsar while the other hesitated till the last moment with attacking, instead of standing eye-to-eye with the enemy. When eventually (though quite unexpectedly) both armies stood face to face, it was mostly Bem who opted for an immediate attack. Promoted to the rank of major, during the battle acted like in a frenzy. He led the mobile light-

nel and a brigadier general. All in all, Warsaw didn’t make it under Russian pressure. An odd episode of city’s history was the general being late for the battle of Wola. He later explained that nobody informed him. Start of the battle was announced to him as cannon fired. When he got to the place, his batteries which were to stay in reserves, were already distracted.

Eternal outsider „Bem only knew the term of a lost battle, but not a lost campaign” – these are the words of the biographer and former Hungarian diplomat in Warsaw and Krakow, Istvan Kovacs.

Bem never surrendered, even after the Upraising fell and actively acted in favor of the Po-

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lish soldiers who were looking for a shelter in Europe. He tried to raise funds to bring them to France – allied with them, which held a second home for wounded Poles, where he attempted to establish a Polish army that would keep the independence battle alive.

He anticipated a serious European conflict that would help the Polish case. He didn’t, however, know that it would take almost an entire century for that to happen. He was the ideological fantasist. The emigration was so divided that there was no way a unity and setting a common goal could occur. He then joined Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski trusting that he would support (especially financially) his idea of creating a 10-thousand-soldiers Polish army on emigration, although he did not appreciate prince’s attitude towards all reforms. Czartoryski – an influential aristocrat – thought that power should remain in the hands of aristocracy while maintaining the feudal system.

Bem, however, whose family received knighthood only after his birth, had ideas of social liberation. He stated that liberated peasants will support the independence activities. He, therefore, was more of a match with the Polish Democratic Society. Its members, however, after time of Bem’s activity in Hotel Lambert, didn’t want to cooperate with him anymore.

When analyzing Bem’s life history one can be moved by a fact that he stood alone with most of his fantastic ideas and actions, for which he only faced ostracism. It happened due to forming Polish legions in Portugal.

Bem fired up for this idea trusting his own thought that Poles should actively participate in every European conflict as each one of them might burst out and become an international affair. He also thought that they should not back off from the combat trip.

This idea met a great deal of criticism. The Poles, having in mind Napoleon’s wars, didn’t want to fight for not their own matter anymore. Moreover, our main character started

having financial trouble as he was unable to collect refunds for spendings Czartoryski made during the creation of a Polish unit. He challenged one of the ministers to a duel, for two months he was even kept in the Portuguese custody, after which he had been expelled from the country.

He was despised, and in addition to the debts he had to slightly move away from the emigration’s environment. As a consequence, he directed his efforts again towards positivistic activities. He founded a technical society that was to educate Polish people in exile and help them find jobs.

He believed that they should study especially modern technologies, such as modern weapons, new ways of constructing roads and bridges and using steam-powered units.

He dreamed of his fellow citizens to later spread that knowledge to the motherland and to work for its glory, which is proved by these words: „ (...) Polish people who now have an opportunity to study abroad all fields of science, art, crafts and professions, should consider a duty to prepare their sons fitted and talented to serve their country (…)”.

For yours and our freedom The time of his biggest successes was about to come. It was nearly 1848 – the European Spring of Nations, which was a series of armed instances against liberation, both by authorities of the foreign monarchy as well as lords’ authorities. The ideas of social reforms, such as enfranchisement of peasants and equality towards the law mixed with national liberation ideas. Józef Bem finally met a favorable towards the Poles and himself ground – Hungary. He fleed there after losing the Vienna Revolution. It turned out that Lajos Kossuth – commander-in-chief of the Hungarian army – already at the beginning of his career understood Polish people and their efforts towards independence fight. He then said that the Poles fight „not only for their

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Bem became Hungarians’ national hero. Under his commandment, the Hungarian army defeated the Austrians over 30 times!

For a moment it seemed that Hungarians are capable of freeing themselves from Habsburgs’ shackles. Bem’s winter campaigns in 1848/49 allowed for conquering Transylvania. This winning streak was, however, ended by the failure connected with Russian reinforcements which came requested after the Austrian-Russian agreement. The insurgents lost their chances being several-times outnumbered in the clash with the enemy. General Bem – now a commander of the Hungarian army – was taken alongside other captives to the refugee camp in Turkey.

In service for the Muslim imperium The refugees’ fate was rather unknown as governments of both Austria and Russia demanded their extradition. The Turkish lieutenant colonel submitted a proposal of soldiers joining the Turkish army which would provide them protection but was equal to converting to Islam. Bem wasn’t a big Catholic and also believed that the Turkish-Russian war will soon come, therefore he instantly accepted the offer – as one of the few. As in many times of his life, also now he had to face harsh criticism of his fellow citizens, there were, however, some that understood such deed. In such unusual way was he described in a private letter by a poet, Zygmunt Krasiński: „Bem was just a soldier and in the moment when the war was near, he grabbed the crescent as it were a fuse to a freshly-prepared cannon.”

Despite such actions, the pressure – especially coming from Russia – didn’t stop. The Tsar demanded Istanbul to move Bem as far from the capital as it was possible. He knew his

Józef Bem

country but also for Europe’s freedom who’s threatened by the northern colossus with shackles. (…) The Polish case is a case of the whole Europe. (…) Thou who shall not respect a Pole (…), shall not respect his own country”.

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unshaken ambition and chose to rather avoid the potential influence of the Polish general on the Turkish army. He was resettled to Aleppo, areas of Syria nowadays, and at that time the Ottoman Empire. „Aleppo became for Bem what the island of Saint Helena for Napoleon” – wrote Istvan Kovacs. Refugees were unable to contact with the citizens and were only allowed on the streets under the eye of guards.

Despite further being degraded and facing difficulties, Józef Bem wasn’t idle and once again became a positivist. He spent the time of peace on creating new plans and implementing new actions. This time, he spent time on designing a new organization of the Turkish army and building fortifications, still bearing in mind the upcoming conflict with Tsar’s Russia (he wasn’t so wrong – the Crimea War began 4 years later). To mention some tangible actions, he managed to build a saltpeter mine which resources he allegedly discovered and which was used to produce explosives. He brought Poles to work, as well.

Hence, he finally got support from Turkish Porta from whom he received the rank of a general.

His last military achievement was defeating rebellious Bedouins who attacked Aleppo, probably aiming to plunder the city. A well-planned by Bem defense using the artillery, of course, totally pushed the rebels away.

Józef Bem died unexpectedly in late 1850 suffering from Asian malaria. He was buried on a Syrian cemetery, carried by Hungarian internees. One of the witnesses stated that “the veteran should have been treated with more respect”, also wrote that „the funeral was not in a military style. (…) Turkey lost their biggest hope in him, which they could not use properly. Aleppo, in turn, had lost its savior”.

A tomb on Corinthian columns His quiet funeral seems a sad ending of his life as an eternal rebel, whose great visions met any support so rarely. However, after many

years, they decided to properly honor the hero.

In 1926 attempts to bring the body of the Pole from Syria to his independent motherland. It was completed three years later. The body was exhumed and transported across Europe to his hometown of Tarnow where he was buried with all the honors. He was especially warmly greeted in the capital of Hungary.

The mausoleum, in which Józef Bem’s body was buried, is an outstanding monument. It’s a sarcophagus supported by six Corinthian columns, placed over Strzelecki Park in Tarnow.

On each side of the sarcophagus was written the hero’s name in Polish, Hungarian and Turkish language. The mausoleum is surrounded by stones as symbols of cannon balls. They are linked by chains melted from cannons. It’s an untypical place of burial connected with a legend. It is said that a Muslim cannot be buried on a non-Muslim ground, therefore his body could not be laid on any of the Polish cemeteries. Bem not only is buried over the ground, but also over water. He floats in the air just like his fantastic visions, so misunderstood by many.

Józef Bem never got married nor had any children. Not much is known about his personal life. After reading his memoirs and letters one can feel he was a visionary as well as a type of loner. He was not discouraged by defeats and numerous wounds from battles. He was brave but also relentless, he considered no victims, and he took risks. Achieving the goal was the most important – fighting back the independence of Poland. And what was meant to be means to achieve it – supporting other nations in the fight against oppressors – turned out to be his biggest accomplishment. Karma wanted this man to become more of a hero for the country upon the Danube River that the one upon the Vistula River.

ENGINEER: ERNEST MALINOWSKI

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WITH HEAD IN THE CLOUDS MACIEJ DULAK

One of the greatest engineers of the XIX century whose works were largely debated over by the scientific press all across the world. The creator of Trans Andean rail and several iron paths in France, Alger, Peru or Ecuador.

The builder of fortifications and defender of Callao harbor. An honor citizen of Peru, philanthropist and great patriot who, when several thousand kilometers away from his family town of Wolyn, never forgot about his origin. How did it happen that Ernest Malinowski achieved all that in South America?

Everything started from the values forged into him by his parents from the very early years. Ernest’s father was a Napoleon’s officer, a marshal of nobility and a respected citizen. He raised his son in a patriotic tradition and by supporting education he showed how learning was important to him. Malinowski showed above-average intellectual skills being one of the greatest graduates of Krzemieniecki Gymnasium. During studies, there was a special program delivered at the unit – the so called ideal citizen who is well-educated, physically fit and with impeccable morals as well as a type of a “globetrotter”.

His home and school shaped Malinowski for his entire life. Such wrote in his notes Władysław Folkierski, a son of Malinowski’s partner:„ (...) he was not one closed in his trade

specialist but a man of thorough education to the extent where none of the modern technological advancements was unknown to him. Foreign languages: English, French and Spanish he spoke fluently, as almost like a native, he spoke with no foreign accent (…) and was capable of writing grammatically correct and in an elaborate way: being, on the other hand, well-acquainted with both classical as well as modern literature in all these three languages.”

A patriot from afar In 1830, as a result of the outburst of the November Uprising, after five years of studying, Ernest was forced to quit his education. His father was, on the other side, picked for the so called Junta, which was the council of the Podolski Patriotic Society. He engaged himself in preparations of the Podole Uprising, to later – after getting to Warsaw – become a deputy.

Due to his young age, Ernest (born in 1818) could not take active part in the uprising.

It is said, though, that he was engaged in forwarding father’s commands coming from Junta. In May 1832 along with his father and brother, Ernest left to France, where he continued his education at Lycèe Louis-le-Grand.

Just like in Poland, so abroad, Ernest showed himself as an outstanding student, which enabled him to begin his studies at a prestigious university of a military-technical profile called Ecole Polytechnique. It was not a random choice and we should now come back to patriotic values in which Ernest was raised. As Malinowski’s biographer, Danuta Bartkowiak, our main character guided him-

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self with some unusual motivation – he believed that acquiring knowledge in the field of arming might be useful in case of potential comeback to the home country and battle for the independence. Malinowski made such attempt during Revolutions of 1848, but eventually he didn’t make it to Krakow on time. Last stage of Malinowski’s education was the time at Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées, where together with his older brother, Rudolf, donated their scholarship money earned for outstanding scientific achievements to poorer compatriots who wanted to educate themselves yet having no funds to cover their tuition. They were doing that despite losing all their wealth they had in the country before.

With head in the clouds After studies, Ernest Malinowski committed himself in France to work at road, railroad, channel constructions and river regulation.

In January 1852 he achieved the rank of conducteurembrigade de 2e classe. In the same year, after 14 years of work in France as a land engineer, he left to work in Peru, which enabled him to use the knowledge he gained during studies, especially at constructing new railroad connections and achieving financial independence.

It is worth mentioning, that already in 1826 in Peru the first company was founded, which was to conduct particular examination on constructing a railroad between Lima and Callao (13,7 km). It was only a year after the first locomotive was constructed by George Stephenson, which is considered as the beginning of the railway industry.

In Peru, Ernest Malinowski was engaged in multiple railway projects, such as Lima – Chorrillos, Pisco – Ica or Chimbot – Huaraz connections, where he experienced work in the high mountains, where altitude differences were as high as 3000 meters, for the first time. His biggest dream and a project that

gave him worldwide fame was the Trans-Andean railway connecting the Andes, rich in saltpeter, copper, zinc, silver and lead with Lima and the harbor in Callao.

This project was of high economical-social priority and nation’s integration and further development was dependent on its completion. Building a railroad through the Andes slowly became Malinowski’s obsession; during his many trips across the country he completed its project and presented it to the government in 1859. The authorities of Peru liked the idea, especially Manuel Pardo, the future president and friend of the Polish engineer. The initiative of building a railroad in such tough conditions was initially torpedoed by engineers from all over the world, among which were those from Great Britain who were at that time considered experts in this field. This project truly was one of the most difficult of its kind and involved more serious challenges than in the case of building railroad in the Alps since the middle of the XIX century. A large part of the route was in fact running through a narrow and steep gorge with walls inclined 45 to 65 degrees to the horizon. It limited the possibility of using long bows that enabled overcoming differences in altitude, and it should be remembered that in those times, locomotives were only capable of overcoming the inclination only 4% and such had to be included in Malinowski’s project.

In 1869, Malinowski submitted a completed project with pricelist attached, based on which Peruvian authorities signed an official contract with Henry Meiggs who funded the entire project and also employed Malinowski. We should correct that although Meiggs was really engaged in funding and organizing the construction, by many of the writers that examined his person, he is also considered the designer of the path, which is not true and unfair for Malinowski as the American did not have a sufficient engineer’s degree.

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Beating world’s records The construction was started in 1870 and the mapped out path turned out to be so precise, that there was no need to make changes during the works. In order for the Central Trans-Andean Railway to be constructed, Malinowski introduced a zigzag system of rails that enabled to overcome the steepest sections on the relatively small distance.

Only first 54 km of the railroad were straight (the entire road was 219 kilometers long), later Malinowski, due to the geographic conditions, had to design an entire system of tunnels and bridges. Altogether, there were as much as 62 tunnels of the length of 6 km and 61 bridges (sources state from 30 to 60) of the length of over 1800 meters.

His achievements during the construction enabled him to be listed on the world list of records twice. The first of his biggest endeavors was the highest pillar of the bridge (76, 81 meters), which the central support of the Verruca’s overpass was built at an altitude of 1,670 meters above the sea level. The pillar was a crate construction build in the United States and the picture was later present on every bridge building course. Malinowski’s genius and his creativity enabled him to employ sailors to his construction site, who were able to easily move on ropes on high levels.

His second record-breaking achievement was the Galer’s Tunnel which was drilled at the altitude of 4768 meters above the sea level and its length was more than 1100 meters. It was the first time in history when such an advanced project was completed on such altitude.

Overall, constructing tunnels was conducted in a totally different way than those e.g. in the Alps. Due to high costs of pumping compressed air into drilling machines, they only used dynamite. What is interesting is that despite a less accurate method and a need to design the tunnel in a bow-shape (to overcome altitude differences) when starting works from both sides of the rock, the error was no bigger than 1 centimeter.

The Project of Central Trans-Andean Railway was a big challenge both in the aspect of overcoming technical problems, tough weather conditions as well as logistic processes. At nights the temperature was falling down to -14 degrees to raise up to 26 during the days. Additionally, there were around 10 000 people working at the construction site, including Indians, who were used to work in high mountains and moved freely wherever regular workers could not reach.

All workers should be provided with food, tools, not to mention all necessary materials to finish the construction. Looks easy, doesn’t it? Then let’s consider that Malinowski could only use … mules. Even during the construction, Ernest stuck to his principles and when his workers were fearing a reduction in salaries, he protested himself, threatening that he will join the strike. The construction was stopped in 1878 due to the conflict with Chile, and Malinowski had to migrate to Ecuador. He came back in 1886 to find partially damaged and plundered railroad. This was no obstacle that could stop him from completing his lifetime project in 1893, he worked as a technical advisor himself.

Pole’s original project was mentioned in British „Engineering” magazine and a separate piece on this topic was written by Eglinton J. Mongomery (A Railroad in the Clouds) in an American magazine „Scribner’s Monthly”.

Until these days, the Central Trans-Andean Railway is considered one of the highest in the world and connects the coast of Peru with the rich in resources areas of the Ands.

Peru’s Hero When mentioning Ernest Malinowski, we cannot omit his contribution to Peru’s battles with the Spaniards.In the 60’s after the events in hacienda del Talambo and after conquering the rich in guan Chincha islands by the Spanish, a revolution started in Peru

71 · ERNEST MALINOWSKI

which in consequence led to President’s Antonio Pezet’s withdrawal from power and declaring war by the Peruvians. The new government began preparations to defend the country by establishing a military headquarters and specialists among which Ernest Malinowski could be found. The plan assumed locating many heavy batteries along the coast over the bay and their movement after

reliefs shows the Polish engineer who passes the plans of defending the harbor over to the minister of war, José Gálvez. Ernest Malinowski has been loyal to the values he got from home. How to be a Polish patriot in Peru? For example by helping your compatriots who land in this country looking for a job. Similarly he acted in France. Ernest Malinowski died on 2 March 1899 and was buried

Peru post stamp in honor of Bronisław Malinowski taking each shot which made an illusion of a larger number of available cannons. The line Lima – Callao was to serve for a road of transporting the wounded and the specially designed cranes allowed for faster lifting and loading the cannons. As the head director of fortification works, Ernest Malinowski took direct part in the battle and, as he wished, he was designated to defend one of the fortifications – Santa Rosa. In the morning of 2 May1866 a battle broke out during which the Pole showed high strategic-organizational skills and his fortification fired one of the decisive shots that destroyed the broadside of a modern Numancian battleship. The Peruvians defended their independence and Ernest himself was ordered a medal and a diploma, he also gained status of an honor citizen of Peru and the public considered him a national hero. In Lima there was a monument built to commemorate the defenders of Callao, and one of the

with honors on Lima’s cemetery called today the Presbitero Maestro. In honor of his achievements, President of Peru, José Pardo y Barreda, ordered to raise an obelisk made of marble over his grave. In Poland, the person of Malinowski is appreciated, especially among railway communities. 9 June 2016 Freightliner PL gave E6ACTd-101 locomotive the name of Ernest Malinowski, and the prize for the most interesting product and technical innovation used in railway industry at the International Trako Railway Fairs is the statue with an image of the monument of the great engineer which was created in 1999 in Peru at the highest point of the Trans-Andean railroad.

72 · AUTORZY

AUTHORS BARTOSZ BRZYSKI editorial secretary of jagiellonski24, member of the Jagiellonian Club MACIEJ DULAK member of the editorial of jagiellonski24, interested in transportation PIOTR KASZCZYSZYN deputy chief editor of jagiellonski24, member of the Jagiellonian Club MARCIN MOŻEJKO student of Mathematics and Informatics at the Warsaw University, since one year he deals with an artificial intelligence. He cooperates with the Jagiellonian Club since Oct. 2014.

KAMIL SIKORA member of the editorial of jagiellonski24. He studies political science at the Jagiellonian University and theology at the Pontifical University of John Paul II. He is editor and analyst of the Demagog project.

BARBARA SZEWCZYK film director. She graduated from the Lodz Film School and the New York Film Academy in New York. She is the author of several short feature films, animation and documentaries. She is a winner of several film awards.

JORDAN SZOŁDRA student of Far-East Studies at the Jagiellonian University, member of Far East Scientific Organisation of the Jagiellonian University and Closer to Asia organisation.

TOMASZ TUREJKO law student at the University of Silesia. He is a passionate historian, with a special interest in the fate of Poles in the East.

ALICJA WIELGUS member of the editorial of jagiellonski24. He cooperates with Kulturatka.pl and Theatre for You. BARTOSZ WÓJCIK member of the editorial of jagiellonski24, member of management board of the Warsaw Jagiellonian Club.

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