Raimondo Villano - book: Elements on art and history of pharmacy balances, weights & measures

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Raimondo Villano

CHIRON

Elements on Art and History of Parmacy CHIRON

Copy n. _____________

The autor __________________________

CHIRON FOUND. Praxys dpt

Elements on art and history of pharmacy © Copyright Raimondo Villano © Research, creation, cover by Raimondo Villano.

All right reserved. No part of this book shall be reproduced in publications and studies without root’s citation. No part of this book shall be stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by ani means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher.

Editorial: Prof. Dott. Maria Rosaria Giordano.

Editors: mobile 338 59 60 222; e-mail: farmavillano@libero.it Advisor executive: Francesco Villano Editions Chiron Found. - Praxys dpt. © 2011 Chiron Foundation, via Maresca 12, scala A - 80058 Torre Annunziata (Napoli) Phone. 081 861 22 99 Fax 081 353 29 81 website: www.chiron-found.org Sales: Prof. Dott. Annamaria Giordano mobile 347 61 71 669.

E-mail: annamaria.g10@alice.it; http://www.chiron-found.org Print LP - Napoli.

First Edition in December 2004.

Second Edition in January 2005.

Third edition in April 2006.

First published in English in Mars 2011.

This volume, with no serial number and signature, shall be deemed counterfeit.

ISBN 978-88-904235-36.

CDD 615 VIL ele 2011 LCC R131-687

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Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

Caro Dottor Villano, ho letto con molto interesse ed apprezzamento il Suo libro “Arte e Storia della Farmacia”.

Rappresenta certamente un valente contributo alla Storia della farmacia ed ai suoi uomini che hanno rappresentato una struttura determinante alle cure degli uomini attraverso i secoli.

Mi auguro di poterLa incontrare in qualche prossima riunione accademica a Napoli o a Roma.

Con i più cordiali saluti.

Comm. Prof. Dott. Angelo Capparoni Presidente Accademia di Storia dell’Arte Sanitaria

Chiarissimo Dottor Villano, ho avuto modo di leggere ed apprezzare il Tuo testo - Arte e Storia della Farmacia - è scritto con stile piacevole e soprattutto con estrema chiarezza; è il testo ideale per chi vuole conoscere una Disciplina tanto affascinante quale la Storia della Farmacia.

Una copia verrà conservata, per i posteri, nella Nostra secolare Biblioteca.

Ti ringrazio ancora per il capitolo che hai voluto riservare al Nostro Nobile Collegio e, confidando in una Nostra futura collaborazione, mi complimento vivamente con Te. Nell’anno del Collegio 577 Il Presidente Dott. Gian Carlo Signore

Gentilissimo Dottor Villano, mi congratulo con Lei vivamente per la Sua interessante ed elegante opera “Cenni di arte e storia della farmacia”, contributo culturale che certamente figurerà nella nostra biblioteca come volume di referenza.

Prof. Rodolfo Paoletti, Preside della Facoltà di Farmacia dell’Università di Milano

Gentile Cav. Villano, (…) sono certa che il suo libro sarà una gradita sorpresa anche per i numerosi giovani israeliani che scelgono l’Italia come meta dei loro studi in Farmacologia.

Simonetta Della Seta, Direttore Istituto Italiano di Cultura di Tel Aviv, Israele

49

51

53

To my son Francis, a small admirable scholar of Egyptian history and those who trust in the ethics for a profession to improve quality of life.

Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

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CONTENTS Presentations

13

Preface

17

Historical notes

21

Old recipes and ancient remedies

21

Prescription contraceptive from the "Ebers Papyrus" Recipe for diagnosis of pregnancy by "Papyrus Berlin Amaroco Kos Toothpaste Headaches, due to the heat, especially the Sun Dandruff care Affections of the throat Respiratory diseases Stomach ailments Medicines for hair and skin conditions of the crown Muscerda anti hair loss Elettuario bay Infusion guaiac (or Holy Wood) Emploi Crusta panis Fat rate Hiera composite Mitridatum Medication Roman Arab aphrodisiac potion of formic acid Recipes of the School of Salerno Recipe for stones Recipe for hair removal Prescription painkillers and anticalcolosi Clinical use of urine Therapeutic use of dung Epitima friendly Remedy for hemorrhoids Remedies for skin cosmetics Tamarind Treacle Oil Beeswax Honey Oil Oil Sugar Oil Human Skull Magisterium of red coral Footbath antigelonico of Sennerto Of asthma Sennerto Powder Antigout Benedictine Pistoia Applications aphrodisiac electricity Blood Example of animal products that the chemist must have in its pharmacy Drug minerals used by the Greeks and Romans Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

113 113 114 114 114 115 115 115 115 116 117 117 117 117 118 118 118 118 119 119 120 120 120 121 121 121 121 122 122 122 125 125 125 125 127 127 127 127 127 128 128 129

7

Study of botany Herbaria figured Herbaria in impression Dried Herbals Major herbaria Italian Wax Botanical Aloe

131 131 132 132 133 133 134 135

Instruments and laboratory techniques - Laboratory Techniques Distillation Production of strong acids Distillation (by G. B. Della Porta) Distillation in the sun Heating and temperature misurement The degrees of Fire Bain Marie, or Marino, and vapor - Laboratory instruments

135 135 135 136 137 138 138 139 139

Scales, weights and measures

142

Mortars

147

Glass The glass pharmacy

148 149

Vessels The art of majolica Neapolitan majolica Majolica Cerretese Ceramic Castle Deruta pottery Other production

153 153 154 156 156 157 158

Pharmacies Officina Profumo-Farmaceutica S. Maria Novella Pharmacy Camaldoli Hermitage Pharmacy Pitti Pharmacy banner of the Moro Pharmacy Certosa del Galluzzo Pharmacy of the Boar Pharmacy of the Deer Pharmacy Paturzo Pharmacy Molteni Hospital Pharmacy S. Fina Pharmacy "Del Campo" Pharmacy "Lucerne" Old Pharmacy "Canto alle Rondini" Old Pharmacy Betti Pharmacy Serafini Pharmacy La Fenice Pharmacy "to give St. Marks" Pharmacy Hospital for Incurable Diseases

159 161 162 163 163 163 164 164 164 165 165 165 166 166 166 167 167 167 167

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Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

Specialty Pharmaceutical

169

Pharmaceutical Advertising

171

Noble College Universitas Aromatariorum Urbis Structure and activities Main publications Prize "Superior Gold"

176 176 177 177

Italian Academy of the History of Pharmacy Executive Regional delegations Calendar of recent years Main activities Magazine and Newsletter Editorial Guidelines Statute Foundation "Pier Paolo Daniele" Competition "Christopher Masino" for the History of Pharmacy International Congress of History of Pharmacy

178 178 178 179 181 182 183 183 184 185 186

Museums Museums in the World Museums in Italy Apothecary jars Apothecary jars in some Italian museums Museum collections: • Aboca Museum of Sansepolcro (AR) • Old Corvi rewarded Pharmacy • Married Anna and Angelo Beccarello • Pharmacy Museum Picciola 1799 - 1999 • Pharmacy Museum of Brixen / Bressanone

188 188 194 196 197 198 198 198 199 199 200

Aphorisms and curiosity

201

Addresses of teh History of pharmacy Internet address Postal addresses

203 203 203

References Books Media Books Magazines Communications to Congress Conferences Articles Web Sites Thesis

204 204 205 205 205 206 206 207 207

ù

Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

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Nobody knows his profession

“

unless he knows the story” Johann Wolfgang von Göethe

Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

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Presentation

T

he new book by our colleague Raymond Villano richly illustrated with a gorgeous collection of data and facts about the past of our profession from the earliest times until today.

The work offers a presentation of ideas through the history of pharmacy and pharmaceutical literature but also of Italian and European laws, preparation of medicines,

and

materials

used

for

their

preparation

by

pharmacists.

This vast fresco of the author is accompanied by a multitude of practical information on historical pharmacies, museums and structures in the history of pharmacy in the world and in Italy of interest to many enthusiasts of the history of pharmacy. But at the same time, Dr. Villano also effectively addresses the wide audience of pharmacists revealing to people a broad way that leads to cultural and historical knowledge of the pharmacy.

Prof. Dr. Franรงois Ledermann President of the International Society for the History of Pharmacy

Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

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Presentation

I

t's not often the case in person, exercising a profession, I also feel the need to possess, in addition to the contents of which it consists and the logic that governs it, including the historical dimension.When this happens, it means that the

expertise of the professional field have risen to intellectual needs broader and more articulated, in a word: culture have become such.

Such is the case of Raymond Villa, which gives us further evidence of his inexhaustible curiosity and his professional commitment with this work, the fruit together, of painstaking research and intellectual passion. Was well known for its reliability through careful research and diligent other proofs of his industry insight and time to examine with the broad realities of our time (I think especially towards the Global Information Society, 1996) and now that very seriously,rekindles passion and involvement in human search for ways that his profession has changed over the centuries by trial and experiments that have marked and characterized the performance of the same cultural history of mankind.

The history of pharmacy, in fact, heard and presented as the struggle that mankind has struggled against physical illness, committed, under the dramatic urgency of suffering, their faith is in divine and the resources of his genius, so that the adventurous tale of attempts successful or denied the experience is identical with man's journey into the dimension of time to the laborious conquest of civilization as slow but inexorable liberation from subjection to the hostile forces of nature and as a gradual but also unstoppable domination of nature. Hence the fascination of a search that will win over not only the interests of employees at work but also, perhaps above all, how many for the first time, as happened to me, facing a horizon stranger who turns out to pleasant surprise harmoniously complements that of the historical and literary studies. If we consider the rich documentation of the professional institutions, civil and political as well as the variety of objects produced by the advance pharmaceutical science historian, you will be more extensive and satisfactory use of fatigue Villano made by offering the vision of many evidence (books, drawings,

Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

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museums, etc.).'s long journey man by the heroic solitude of the origins of modern comfort care valetudinarian.

So we are grateful to the Author of giving us the fruit of his labor can enrich our poor knowledge of the long and difficult man advanced on the path of civil progress with the discovery of an aspect of his achievements so far remained on the margins ofcommon knowledge.

Prof. Antonio Carosella Literary critic

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Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

Preface

F

aced with the disintegration of complex societies, as expressed by Salvatore Settis, can be questioned with more acute our present knowledge allows us to open up its sense of the classic elements of story, which never cease to say what

they have to say that persists as background noise even when the current rule as incompatible (Calvin) and, having overcome its own ruin and could show his greatness mutilated more attractive to their full integrity, they are both time and memory capacity project. The inferred fragmenta it pereant (John, ch. IV), reconstruction of fragments of the past, long and difficult, which sometimes are not enough tracks, one hand can enhance the awareness of having inherited a welldeserved privilege by our fathers and 'On the other hand, gathering the threads of this same noble heritage, can project into the future today, due to a rapid development of the profession rather than a succession of this is, in fact, almost a present. According Cantoni1, mainly because Italians often historians tell the story almost entirely of political life, the common awareness of the past, the memory of it comes out deformed, and therefore attention to this. But when this is characterized by a weak policy, the question arises of a reconstruction of this historical time that is not limited solely to a sequence of political action, moreover, at least with recent evidence, not ideologically motivated.

And this, the length of time between the twentieth century, the "short century" according to Eric J. Hobsbawm, begun in 1914 and already completed in 19892, and the early years of Century XXI, which was not chronologically started when he was already under way, is characterized by a common weakness for totalitarian hypertrophy

after

decompression

or

compression

by other

areas

of life.

That grows in humus, therefore, interest in the life "politics" as politicallyconditioning that is the ebb, whether voluntary or promoted, is accompanied by the application of different quality within that unfolds between curiositas and

Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

17

studiositas on everything is not politics and history, or on its characters and permanent changes in its course.

If this question remains unanswered and is disappointed by the official authorities, which are most universities, there is legitimate room for corporate initiatives, ie initiatives of those who are curious and scholars of the past of his own business, while satisfying the public interest .

While acceptable reflection of the importance of the Johann Wolfgang Goethe completion of their professional knowledge by the knowledge of its intrinsic history, when considered certainty gained profi-cuamente can undoubtedly lead to herald in a remote future, the enormous potential for training on their academic disciplines and professional historian can deploy in implementation projects of even broader than, though valuable, of modern times.

In the development of the History of Pharmacy as a scientific discipline are central to the definition of its object of study, its implications on many issues, the demarcation of borders and relations with neighboring or related disciplines. To correctly identify the object of this discipline, therefore, must take into account that the term "Pharmacy" is used to identify both a technical and scientific profession that area: it meets a definition in the various preparatory activities, storage and dispensing of medicines and technical-scientific as the result of an intersection of various disciplines such as Biology, Chemistry, Medicine, having as the relationship between drugs and living organisms.

In this view, whatever point of view, the core of its meaning is the medicine.

It would be a stretch, therefore, conclude that the subject of History of Pharmacy is the profession and the pharmaceutical medicine. It is not, therefore, to study a medicine as such, nor to study a drug in the abstract but to study a number of different relationships between people and civilizations. Paraphrasing M. Bloch, therefore, the History of Pharmacy is the discipline that studies the relationship between man and medicine. It is this relationship that defines its subject, while its rich domain that shows in all its breadth the importance of this discipline in training future professionals in medicine. In this conceptual framework, the pharmaceutical profession continues to be important as in the past.

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Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

The areas of the discipline of History of Pharmacy as defined above, namely the transformation of theories and concepts in relation to medicines and the transformation that occurred in relation profession-drug-companies, are indeed traditionally the two dominant forms of supervision of History Pharmacy: a History of Science and the other linked to the Economic-Social History.

Currently, the main address of pharmaceutical history is the synthesis between these two perspectives that consider the technical specifications of work but are integrated to enable a comprehensive understanding of medicine in human history. The next component integration in the history of science rather than the part next to the Economic-Social History, in each case using methods and techniques identical3 is a problem of relatively recent approach and is largely be the result of the impact of the change it can be seen growing interest and appreciation for Clinical Pharmacy.

The attempt here is to be doing, in conclusion, is to stimulate curiosity about the depth of the issues mentioned and Food is responsible for keeping alive the past from which we come at the same time as our father and our son, we can not Moreover, escape from history, or accept that history is made of silence to no end, then, we silence4 below. Engage, even in the relentless race to the future, research applied to the recovery of historical knowledge of the essence and reason of their profession, carefully assessing achievements and mistakes, is - to paraphrase Kaplan consciousness is absolutely necessary because we realize the recognition, of finding oneself, of being.

History, in fact, as a "category" of thought, is an inexhaustible source of reflection and critical education exercise, attention and power that is pushing forward is a sense of life, life as one of the pharmacist, but perhaps often misunderstood rich with meaning, full of varied and multiple large part of the great cultural history, civil, economic, political and social of all time.

Raimondo Villano

Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

19

Notes 1 John Cantoni - The monastery and monastic pharmacy - No Christianity 270, 1997.

2 See Eric J. Hobsbawm, The Age, trans. com., Rizzoli, Milan 1995.

3 To study the sources the History of Pharmacy largely applies essentially the same method and the same techniques of historical sciences. The historical method historical criticism is developed in different techniques. The critical documents is to determine rigorously the value of testimony and information if compared to other historical sources. The first stage, the critical external or authenticity, is to determine if a document is authentic or fake or if it is an original or a copy. It is generally divided into a critique of origin (which includes a determination of the author, place and date of preparation) and a critique of Reconstruction (which aims to reconstruct the original text of a document containing, for example, transcription errors ). The internal criticism or credibility is concerned to determine the accuracy of information contained in a document through five steps: critical interpretation (which merges with part of hermeneutics and through who is concerned to learn the content of the text) critical competence (which determines the quality of the text through the author's assessment of the ability to know and understand the facts), criticism of truthfulness (which examines the possible existence of false), rigorous criticism (which identifies the inadvertent errors in the description of facts), and verification of testimonials (which compares the information contained in the text with other available evidence). The use of historical criticism, along with the use of ancillary sciences gives the story its character as a science that should not be confused with experimental science, it is impossible to riproduduzione of historical phenomena in order to prove the hypothesis of, for example, a chemical phenomenon.

4 Carlos Fuentes, author, Mexico City.

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Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

“If fear or sadness lasts for a long time, this is something melancholic�

Hippocrates, Aphorisms (VI, XXIII)

BALANCES, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES The scale

O

n Conci1 read about the records of one of the most indispensable tools": Libra a"flat"). According to known in the East Neolithic age. In the age of metals, probably through Crete. Among the various inscribed in the Palace of Knossos II millennium BC) there is also that of arm, one foot vertical support). Another document of Kivik probably Bronze budget document Egyptian. In scales to support knew hanging kind exist in the Museum of Bilancetta gold tomb at lever is formed bullion, gold hold very thin plates. Scales sliding on the arms probably the Jews

balance of pharmacy "is very ancient typical and pharmaceutical (from Lat. Lanx and historians, the balance was already Europe, however, would come only in the islands of Cyprus and hieroglyphic signs of a tablet (first half of the second the scale (equal is the tombstone (Sweden), from the late Age. Large the is also addition to the the old age also scales. Of this National Athens, two found in a Mycenae: the by a thin gold wire always

with weights were well known to Babylonians. The used to arm balances equal and unequal, with free weights and sliding: and also sling pocket. Balances are recorded in the

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Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

Talmud... domesticated, with rocker empty, containing mercury, such as moving from the goods, cooperated very well with the dealer to cheat the buyer. No copy of scales Greek historical age there is still preserved. Do not miss instead figured monuments, including one of the oldest is the cup of Cyrenaica Arcesilaus (preserved in the National Library in Paris, where the king is represented Arcesilaus supervising the weighing and preparation of packages sifio, the famous drug formed the wealth of Cyrene and which remains the botanical origin is unknown, despite the research of many modern botanists). The scale corresponds to the Greek Etruscan, at least as can be inferred from the figured monuments (cysts and vases engraved). The Romans used scales with equal arms, bĂ­lanx (Trutina pounds and so the balance indicate that the scales), and arms unequal scales. Romans is due the introduction of the index (examen) located above the lever. There are many monuments figured these scales and also many specimens recovered from the excavations (Pompeii). Also preserved specimens of combination balance and equal arm scales (National Museum of Naples) with counterweight cursor fusiform, flowing on one arm. Judging by the number of copies left, the scale, coming from Campania, has been used more than the balance in equal arms. Greek and Roman scales - scales and pounds - remained in use in pharmacies until very recently. Blown glass, the hydrostatic balance combines the principle of buoyancy to that of Galilean small balance. To measure the different densities of fluids through the number of fragments of glass added or subtracted to find the balance arm.

Weights and measures In speaking of scales must also remember the units of weight were used in the past. The unit most commonly used are of Greek origin. In Greece itself the unit of measurement varies according to area and the geo-politics. But the definition of the various measures is the subdivision of a sub-unit but not on a decimal-based duodecimal, originally from the Mesopotamian which probably created the first attempts to adjust the measures in a uniform manner. All measurements of weight, volume, linear surfaces, resulting from the first measurements of space in a second phase of the development of knowledge and the relationships between human groups measurements of space are linked to those specific volume (which is always a space) and then the relationship between space (volume) and a sense of gravity that makes sense is the weight that the absolute specific gravity of various substances. You can imagine how the ancient craftsmen would use volume measures to indicate the quantity of various substances to prepare medicinal substances and other materials, like paints walls of buildings or caves or ceramics, textile dyes and so on.

Noting that equal volumes of different materials had a different weight, and this is a very primordial sense, at least for certain substances, it is preferred to introduce the measure in units of weight. In ancient Greece there was a complex structure of units of measurement for weight and other physical quantities. The value and weight of the unit changes with the times and areas, the "weight basis" had the talent, depending on the target called "Euboeans (Euboea) or" Eginetico (Aegina), for the most old, then after the reform Soloniana (seventh century BC) was called "Solons". The weight of the Attic talent, after the seventh century was calculated at around 26.20 pounds, was Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

143

applied primarily to weigh the silver, war damage to the city defeats during the frequent battles were established in thousands of talents of silver pay to the winner. A talent was divided into 60 Mine, a mine (436.60 g) was divided into 100 drachmas. The name drachma will serve as the unit of measurement for millennia, until we practically Italian unity and the introduction of the metric system, the drachma was the currency of modern Greece until the introduction of the Euro.

Furthermore, the word drachma became the common language drama, contribute to the formation of the name Gram (with the grain). A drachma Greek classical age, for both coin weighing, into the system called "eginetico" but accepted that said "Euboean" and finally "penthouse", weighed about 4.366 g. In turn, the drachma was divided into six Oboli (approximately 0.728 g), the Pence, for minimum weight measurements were further divided into 8 Calculations corresponding to about 0.091 grams.

The Romans built a weighing system, based on numerical relationships a bit different. Contact the greek world, mergers between systems and in some areas there was coexistence. The Roman system is interesting because in many technical and medical texts are found both the units and those Greek and Roman because its traces remain in the system in the Anglo-Saxon world (in current transactions). Talent and Mina served the Romans for large units of weight and the weight was definitely more a pound (Libra), equivalent to 327.456 grams, which was divided into 12 ounces (Uncia), equivalent to 27.288 grams, in the Anglo-Saxon there is also a fluid ounce (Fluid Ounces) for liquids and the same term was used per unit of linear measurement and area. Both Pound Ounce that were further divided: one for the weights and the second grossest and the most accurate. The pound was also known as Iron (As), which is one of the oldest units, 1 / 11 pounds was the Deunx (300.168 g) 1 / 12 the Dextans, 1 / 9 the Dodrans and so on. Among the most frequent units in the texts and pharmaceutical technicians found: Semis or Semissis, or half a pound (163.728 g), or TriĂŤnte Triens, one third of a pound (109.152 g) and Quadrans Teruncius or a quarter of a pound (81.864 g). Ounce is always used for many subdivisions, but the most frequent and interesting are undoubtedly the Semuncia, half ounce (13.644 grams), the Sextula, almost one quarter ounce of the corresponding Greek drachma, the Scripulum (which during thetime to become the scruple unit used widely in the late Renaissance Cookbooks and later), a twentyfourth of an ounce, or 1.137 g. Finally, we find the shrunken Pence, to 0.5685 g. and, as a unit smaller, the Siliqua corresponding to third of the Obolo (and thus a centoquarantaquattresimo ounce), ie 0.1895 g. The Greeks built, therefore, a measurement of weight very effective, articulate and precise, while the Romans had to supplement it by adding weights "average" to relate some of their units to those of Greece, especially for accurate weighing. The Greeks had units smaller and therefore more suitable for more precise measurements. In fact, with the conquest of the Hellenistic world by Rome occurred in this field of so-called loss of technology. From the medical works of Celsus, Dioscorides, Galen and Pliny states that the Roman pound was divided into 12 ounces 288 96 Drama Scruples.

Between the Greek and Roman units of measurement of volume in the liquids2, then, were: Cocliarion, lat. Coclearius, which "spoon": 0.56 ml, 9.12 ml keme; Mystron 11.40 ml 22.80 ml Kocc; Kiatos, CIAT 45.60 ml Oxybafon, acetabulum 68.40 ml

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Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

Tetarton, Quartarius (1 / 4 of sextary) 136.80 ml kotyle, Triblyon, Hemina 273.60 ml Zestes, the most famous Sestarius 547.20 ml; Koiso, Congius 3.28 liters; SemiModius 4.381 itri only Roman Modius8.75 liter only Roman Amphorein Metretes 39.39 liters (Greek); Amphora Quadrantal 26.26 liters (Roman); Culeus only Roman Roman 525.26 liters only. The Coclearius (the name derives from the greek Cocliarion and probably refers to an ancient usage of snail shells to pick up substances) was only used in classical Greece and the Hellenistic world for misuremolto precise, in the Roman world using the Culeus, units for transport and transactions almost "industrial". Widely used in Roman times were the sextaries (pint) and Moggio (8.75 liters); indeed and Semi-Modius Modius units are typically Roman. Again there is a "loss of accuracy" technological era through the Hellenistic to the Roman Empire. Only during the principality of Antonini (Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Commodus), the period in which he worked Galen (160-199 AD), there was a partial recovery of the great Hellenistic science.

In the Byzantine Empire after the fall of Western Roman Empire, there emerged a new monetary unit, resulting from solid gold and had two names have become important Nomisma (probably from "Nummus" Latin) and Bisanti, which became the currency gold more important in the Mediterranean until the Arabs do not undermine the primacy.

The Arabs did and managed to beat the competition with their main Bisanti gold coin, the dinar, which derives its name from the Latin denarius, but its weight (4.25 g) comparable to the drachma. How weight, the Dinar was normally used in pharmaceutical Cookbooks instead of drachma and the important innovations were the dirham (a silver coin of 2.97 g) and the Rub a quarter of a dinar of 1.06 g. Cookbooks are also in the Aureus, corresponding to 1.5 drachmas (which is about 6.75 g.). The text "speeches" of Mattioli (1573) which is the most important commentary of the work "De Materia Medica" of Dioscorides Pedace (Anazarbus born in Cilicia in the first century. AD) we read the names and amounts of weight according to Dioscorides and also how we must understand the measure of things solid and liquid. Before the introduction of the metric system there were no uniform criteria regarding the values of weight, capacity and length. The system of weight or pharmaceutical product in use throughout the Middle Ages and beyond was based on the Roman system where the pound with its subdivisions was the usual measure. The Pavia Louis Valentino Brugnatelli in its General Pharmacopoeia of 1807 shows the weights of pharmaceutical use, expressed in grains, which "are used Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

145

throughout the kingdom". In the second half of the nineteenth century, in Italy every state had its own metric system and you should always specify whether a pound or a drachma were Milanese or Florentine, or Neapolitan, comparing the various systems that metric already invented and widely disseminated, there is as, for example, Pound range between 301.224 g (Venice) and 340.456 g (Modena), while the drama from 2.672 g (Naples) to 3.546 g (always in Modena). Over the years, the drachma was gradually reduced more or less the value of the dirham Arabic and belittled the units can be seen as an attempt to adapt to a more accurate measurement. Also, Pound and Ounce Roman unit of weight and are therefore equipped ab Origo greater "legal authority". Wheat, which is then half chalcone, reflects the need for greater accuracy. Pounds, ounces, drams, grains, with the introduction of the metric system were converted into grams, grains and milligrams. There were, however, significant weight fluctuations of values between the various Italian cities. From Pharmaceutical Military Code of 1862, we read that in Pavia 1 pound corresponded to 326.793 g. Also on Brugnatelli us back in his Pharmacopoeia next to the signs used in medical prescriptions empirical weights were used.

Notes 1 Julius Conci (1934), "Pages of History of Pharmacy" Victory Editions Milan. Reprint of 1994, the Venetian publisher, Conselve (PD). Brugnatelli L.V. (1807), "Pharmacopoeia General use of modern medical dictionary that is of pharmaceutical preparations - Medical simple and compound used in our time and in accordance with new theories medicinal chemistry. Pavia, typography From John Hair.

2 Luigi Granelli - "The old unit - Pharmacy News, September 2004.

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Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

Synthetic profile of the t author Born in 19960. Roles:M B Manager Villano Intern national Bussiness Team m; CEO Chiron Editor,, h honorary meember (2013) and honorrary memberr (2013) andd Associate Professor in n History off H Healt Admiinistration Pharmaceutic P cal Departm ment of Ruuggero II U University - Studiorum m U Universitas ( (BR, Miamii, Florida, USA, U 2014), Diplomatic Advisor A Aerec,Trader since 1976,, K Knight SMO O of Malta, President P hum manitarian Foundation F C Chiron since 1985, memb ber Internat..

Group of Study S ISHP History Phharmacopoeiaas-Bern. Aca ademy: History Art off Health-Min nistery B.C.,, already Ponntifical Tiberrina, Studies Melitensi, Medical M Trad dition Smithssonian Instituution-USA, International I l Society Hisstory Pharmaacy, Italian Pharmacy History, H Neap politan Sociiety History Homeland, honorary off Noble Chem mical Pharm maceutical College.

C Oveer 100 confeerences andd chairman in dozens of o congress..

Collaborates with impoortant nationnals and interrnationals Jo ournals. Is Addvisory Boarrd Member for f americann Editor DPC C, which pubblishes in more m than 1550 Nations. Study: classsic; degree aand enabling g: Pharmacyy (1985); certtified coursess of: Officinaal plants, Coosmetics tech hnical, Corpoorate securityy, Haccp, History, Sociall Doctrine off the Church, Theology. Degrees D h.c.: Human and d Social Scieences (2009);; History and d Philosophyy (2010); Scieences of the Communicaation (2013). Master h.c..: Science Medical M Ethiccs (2010). It was: author,, organizer annd chairmann Safety couurse for manaagers, gettin ng High Patrronages by C Chief of Statte and ONU U (2000), Seccretary Interrnational Coommittee Biothecnologiies Wabt-Unnesco 2008--13, membeer of Worldd Academy Biomedical B T Technology (U Unesco 20077-12), 11 yeaars in Scientiific Board foor safety of health of IBD D (responsiblee company of o safety of Tribunals Appeals A Cou urt Naples), Board memb mber of Beau umont Onluss Foundation for cancer researh r with Prefect of Naples N (2011-12). 32 year partner aand owner of o pharmacy..

Member sinnce 1990, Seecretary at agge 29 1990-995 and Presid dent 2000 Rootary Club P Pompei-Oplon nti-Vesuvio;; in Commetttees of Italy:: Professionaal Etic, Mondial Action, Informatic; among the m many internaational roles:: Pompeii. Carthage archheology; Com mmittee Prizze Magna Grecia.

G Presiddent in Napooli, national coordinatorr and foundeer Youngs Pharmacists P Federation;; national Representativ R ve Federativve Pact of Pharmacists.

P .

Assistant roole Pharmacyy Phaculty of o Naples (19985-90), pro ofessorship Lembo L - Supperior Institutt of Health)..

Internation nals awards: Diploma off Honor for exceptional Services on an individuaal basis in th he 5 Avenuess of Action byy Rotary Inteernational Prresident (Evaanston 2001: only 100/yeear/1,5 milionn member); Reward R Antii Crime-Taskk Force Rotaary Italy, Albbany, former Yugoslavia, S. Marine (Zurich ( 20011); Sapientia a Mundi-Eticc (Rm 2008); Legion Union of Gold-W Work (Rm 20010); Veritass in Charitatte-Religion ((2011); Bonifface-Culturee and Societyy (2011); Nattionals awarrds: Aesculappius-Health Patron. Counncil of Minissters (Rm 19 987); LXVIIII Piccinini-R Research (Rm m 2006); LX XV Stramezzi-Health (Rm m 2007); Caapitolino-Huumanitarian activity a (Rm m 2010); Tibeerin-Science and Culturee (Rm 20122); LXXIV SeronoS Histoory (Rm 2012), Aerec-C Culture (Rm m 2013); Rew ward by Certif ificate of meerits public ittalian Health h (DPR 20133). Author oof over 630 publications p s sanitary, prrofessionals, scientifics, historicals, religiosus; over 50 boooks with prestigious publishers ass Zanichelli, with sponsoorships from m the Minisstry of Cultu ural Heritagge,Unesco, R Rotary, Univ versity, etc.,, present in italians Libraries (includding: Quirinaale, Nationall Science Acccademy, Ministries) and d of over 400 Nations (inncluding: Naational Instittute Health--USA, Natio onale de Fraance, Congrress UK), in n Istituts off Culture, unniversity, muuseums;a youur book debbuted to the Fair of Frannkfurt. Cataalogs: 2000 Outstandingg Intellectualss IBC-Cambbridge since 2010; Opacc Sbn with over o 130 woorks; Card oof Authority by Ministryy BAC. Varioous books are appreciateed from authhorities, inclu uding more times t the Heead of State and a the Holyy Father. * * * Some book ks: Gobal society of information, 19996; Rotary for fo Men, 20001; Managem ment safety in i Pharmacyy (pres. Dr. Renzulli, allready Safetty Advisor of ONU, 2004); 2 Pharrmacy art aand history (pres. PhD D Ledermann,, Presid. Inteernational Soociety Historyy Pharmacy,, 2 edit., 20006); History aand activity of o SMOM (44 edit., 2007); Pharmaceuutical meridiaans between secular ethiics and cathoolic moral (ppres. PhD Tarrro, Bioethicc National Commettee, 3 edit., 20088); Thesauruus Pharmaccologicus (prres. Presid. Italians Phaarmacist Dr..

Mandelli 20009); Time caarved in the silence of etternity. Diacrronic reflections on invesstigation forr the memoryy of homo faaber (pres. eminent hisstorian Fra’ von Lobsteein and crittic PhD Caarosella, 6 repr., r 2010);; Pharmaceutical Activitties Kingdom m of Naplees (pres.: Preesid. It. Ac. Pharmacy H History Dr. Corvi, C 2010);; i digital tim mes (pres. Mons.

M Trafn ny, Presid. Dpt D Science-Faith Pontiffical Culturee Logos and theophany in Council, 20012). Amongg the 40 mu ultimedia: Perfume P of times.Art t annd pharmacyy history (paatron. AISF,, 2002); Influuence A/H1N N1 (patron. Unesco, U 2009)).

REFERENCES Books • Champier S. - Le Myrouel des Appothiquaires et Pharmacopoles; Item les Lunectes des Cyrurgiens et Barbiers - P. Mardichi, Lione, 1525 circa; • Dioscoride P. - Materia Medica verso Rullio, Venezia, 1538; • Galeno C. - De Simplicium medicamentorum facultatibus, verso Gaudano, Lione, 1547; • Galeno C. - De Antidotis, XVI secolo; • Lisset Benancio (Sébastien Colin) - Declaration des Abuz et Tromperies Que Font les Apothicaires - Michel Jove, Lione, 1556 ; • Mattioli - Discorsi, Venezia, 1557; • Galeno C. - Methodus Merendi, Edizione Generale, Venezia, 1565; • Galeno C. - De Remediis paratu facilibus libèllus ab Huberto Bariando Philiatro latino sermoni traditus, Venezia, 1565; • Della Porta G.B. - Della Magia Naturale, Napoli, 1587 (vers. italiana); • Avicenna - Canone della Medicina, verso Alpago, Venezia, 1595; • Galeno C. - De Antidotis, XVI sec.; • Galeno C. - De Compositione medicamento rum secundum locos, raccolta danneggiata XVI sec.; • Galeno C. - De Compositione medicamentorum secundum locos, XVI secolo; • Galeno C. - De Compositione medicamentorum per genera, XVI secolo; • Avicenna - Canone della Medicina, verso Alpago, Venezia, 1595; • Della Porta C. - De distillatione - Rev. Camere Apostoliche, Roma, 1608; • Mesué, Collectorio, Venezia, 1612; • Antidotario Romano, Edizione, 1612; • Weickard A. - Pharmacia Domestica, Daß Ist: HaußApoteck - Erasmo Kempffern e Johannes Theobald Schönwetter, Francoforte, 1628; • Della Porta G.B. - Magia Naturalis, Lione, 1650 (vers. latina); • Harvey G. - The Family Physician, and the House Apothecary - T. Rooks, Londra, 1676; • Cristini - Pratica Medicinaleet Osservazioni, Bologna, 1680; • Ricettario Fiorentino, Edizione 1696; • Donzelli G. - Teatro Farmaceutico Dogmatico e Spagirico, Yenena, 1737; • Capello G.B. - Lessico Farmaceutico Chimico Venezia, 1745; • Castelli B. - Lexicon Medicum Graeco-Latinum, Padova, 1762; • Lemery N. - Farmacopea Universale, Bassano, 1786; • Lavoisier A.L. - Trattato elementare di Chimica - Venezia, 1791; • Ricettario Sanese, Siena, 1795; • Orosi G. - Formulario farmaceutico officinale e magistrale, Livorno, 1853; • Benedicenti - Malati, medici e farmacisti - 1866; • Gilbert É., La Pharmacie à Travers les Siècles: Antiquité, Moyen Âge, Temps Modernes, Vialelle, Tolosa, 1886 ; • Thompson C.J.S. - The Mystery and Art of the Apothecary – J. Lane the Bodley Head, London, 1929; • Conci G. - Pagine di Storia della Farmacia - Vittoria, Milano, 1934; • Prevet F. - Histoire de l’Organisation Sociale en Pharmacie - Librairie Recueil Sirey, Paris, 1940 ; • Pedrazzini C. - La Farmacia italiana nella storia e nell’arte - IGAP Editrice, Milano, 1964;

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• Mariacher G. - Vetri italiani del ‘600 e ’700 - Milano, 1965; • Donatone G. - Maiolica napoletana dalle origini al sec. XV- Storia di Napoli, vol. IV, 1974; • AA.VV. - Dossier pubblicità - Panorama Farmaceutico, Supplemento, Anno V, n.1, 1982; • FMR mensile di Franco Maria Ricci - aa. 1982 - 1983 - 1984 - FMR Editore; • AA. VV. - Per una storia della farmacia e del farmacista in Italia: Sicilia - Schema Schiapparelli, Bologna, 1983; • FMR mensile di Franco Maria Ricci - aa. 1982 - 1983 - 1984 - FMR Editore; • KOS rivista di cultura e storia delle scienze mediche, naturali e umane dirette da Massimo Piattelli Palmarini - n. 1 - Franco Maria Ricci Editore, febbraio 1984; • L. Colapinto, G.B. Bettòlo, C. De Vita, E. Cicconetti, O. Mazzuccato, C. Sciorilli L’Universitas Aromatariorum, Edizione speciale Merk Sharp & Dohme Italia, 1985; • Masino C. - Voci di Spezieria secoli XlV-XVIII, Italian Academy History of Pharmacy, Piacenza, 1988; • Gara A. - Tecnica e tecnologia nelle società antiche, Nuova Italia Scientifica, Roma, 1994; • Giannelli L. - De Compositione medicamentorum, da «L’Erborista» no. 6, Ottobre 1994; • Corvi A., Riva E. - La farmacia monastica e conventuale - Pisa, 1996; • Laghi A. - Vetri da farmacia - Menarini Otc, Cantini Editore, 1998; • Boccanera F., Laghi A. - Farmacie storiche in Toscana - Regione Toscana, 1998; • Russo L. - La Rivoluzione dimenticata, Feltrinelli, Milano, 1996-1999; • A.I.S.F. - Acta 34° Congressus Internationalis Historiae Pharmaciae - Firenze, ott. 1999; • AA.VV. - La spezieria, medicamenti e arte farmaceutica nel Veneto dal Cinquecento ad oggi Università degli Studi di Padova, Antilia, 2002; Multimedial books • Villano R. - Il profumo del tempo. Cenni di arte e storia della farmacia - 2^ edizione, 1^ ristampa Eidos/Italian Academy History of Pharmacy/D.2100 - Italy Rotary International, Firenze, dic. 2002.

Magazines • Civiltà Farmaceutica 1972/1975 (mensile); • Farmacia Regioni 1978/1989 (mensile); • Panorama Farmaceutico e supplementi 1979/2002 (mensile); • Collegamento 1980/2002 (mensile); • Farmacia Ottanta - intera serie (mensile); • Il Farmacista Moderno 1981/2002 (mensile); • Il Farmacista F.O.F.I. 1982/1990 (trimestrale); • Tema Farmacia - intera serie (mensile); • Pro Pharmacopoea - ed. Min. Sanità - intera collana (periodico); • Doctor Farmacia - intera serie (mensile); • Chemist 1996/1999 (mensile); • Punto Effe - intera serie (mensile); • Farma Mese - intera collana (mensile); • Pharmacy - intera serie (mensile); • Calendario 2000 Collezione Bayer; • Calendario 2003 Collezione A.I.S.F..

Communications to Congress • Russo A. - Botanica farmaceutica antica tra storia, leggende e pratica - Congressus Internationalis Historiae Pharmaciae, Piacenza settembre 1988; Raimondo Villano - Elements on art and history of pharmacy

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• Merlo E. - Gli speziali milanesi nel ‘700. Storie di antidoti e affari di droghe, in Corporazioni e Gruppi Professionali nell’Italia Moderna - Atti del Convegno, Roma, 26-27 settembre 1997; • Zardin D. - Fraternità, mestieri: intrecci e parentele nella costituzione delle trame di base della società europea. Alcune premesse - in Corpi, «fraternità», mestieri nella storia della società europea, Atti del Convegno, Trento, 30 maggio -1 giugno 1996 (Roma, 1998); • Cingolani E. - Il Ricettario Fiorentino e le disposizioni relative alla professione farmaceutica - 34° Congressus Internationalis Historiae Pharmaciae, Firenze 20/23 ottobre1999; • Torricelli G. - L’arte degli Speziali di Firenze - 34° Congressus Internationalis Historiae Pharmaciae, Firenze 20/23 ottobre1999; • Morandi A.E. - La Sinossi di Farmacopea omeopatica edita dall’Istituto Omeopatico Italiano - 34° Congressus Internationalis Historiae Pharmaciae, Firenze 20/23 ottobre1999; • Sironi V.A. - Da spetiale a farmacista: funzione scientifica e ruolo politico di una figura professionale nell’Italia risorgimentale e post-unitaria - 34° Congressus Internationalis Historiae Pharmaciae, Firenze 20/23 ottobre1999; • François Chast - Relazioni sul tema dei rapporti Stato/Farmacia: L’affare Lafarge Congresso Internazionale di Storia della Farmacia - Lucerna, Switzerland, ottobre 2001.

Conferenze • Kristensen - Ruolo della Farmacopea Europea nel processo regolatorio - Convegno su Quality: a strategic element in the success of a company, Portofino Vetta - Dompé S.p.A., 17.05.2003; • Lazzi G. - L’alambicco dell’alchimista - Serata AISF, Firenze, 30.11.2003; Articles • Pallavisini A. - Le ricette del Collega di Ur - Collegamento, 5/1982; • Fremito C. - Il glorioso Amarcord della professione - Panorama Farmaceutico, 10/1983; • Raitano A. - I medicamenti degli antichi Romani - Collegamento, marzo/aprile 1988; • Masino C. - La dottrina della segnatura - Collegamento, marzo/aprile 1988; • Corvi A. - L’alba del farmaco - Collegamento, 10/1990; • Corvi A. - Il Ricettario Fiorentino - Collegamento, 10/1991; • Colapinto L. - Tutto ha avuto origine dall’ordinanza di Federico II - Farmacia Regioni, 1-2/ 1992; • Cingolani E. - La Farmacopea italiana dal 1892 ad oggi - Pro Pharmacopoea, 3-4/1992 • Cingolati E. - La Farmacopea a Firenze - Pro Pharmacopoea, 3-4/1992 • Boccetto C. - Le tradizioni di Torino - Farmacia Regioni, 10/1992; • Leopardi G. - Da I a IX edizione della F.U.: 100 anni di sanità in Italia - Pro Pharmacopoea, 4/1993; • Marchisio S. - Grazie Ser Niccolò - Pharmacy, ottobre 1993; • Cantoni G. - La farmacia monastica e conventuale - Cristianità n. 270, 1997; • Catalani P. - Tempi bui, ma non troppo - Punto Effe, ottobre 2000; • Panichi G. - In viaggio con gli Etruschi - Punto Effe, ottobre 2000; • Mezzera R. - L’amarcord di un farmacista - Punto Effe, aprile 2001; • Corvi A. - Viaggio nel tempo - Farma Mese, 10/01;

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• Peruzzi G. - Nuovi strumenti per la lettura dei semplici agli albori della scienza nuova A.I.S.F. Atti e Memorie, Anno XX, N.3, dicembre 2002; • Canova G. M.- La cultura universitaria padovana e la nascita del realismo dell’immagine botanica - A.I.S.F. Atti e Memorie, Anno XX, N.3, dicembre 2002; • Cappelletti E. - I semplici vegetali negli erbari veneti quattrocenteschi - A.I.S.F. Atti e Memorie, Anno XX, N.3, dicembre 2002; • Peruzzi G. - Nuovi strumenti per la lettura dei semplici agli albori della scienza nuova A.I.S.F. Atti e Memorie, Anno XX, N.3, dicembre 2002; • Giannelli L. - Alopecia, un problema antico - Farmacia News, febbraio 2003; • Giannelli L. - Alle origini dell’Alchemia - Farmacia News, aprile 2003; • Catellani P.- La Croce di Sant’Elena - Punto Effe, settembre 2003; • Catellani P.- Farmacisti o attori? - Punto Effe, settembre 2003; • Giannelli L. - Manualetto per la preparazione di rimedi facili - Farmacia News, ottobre 2003; • Farma Mese - Continuità nella tradizione - gennaio 2004; • Corvi A. - Perché a Bressanone - Farma Mese, gennaio 2004; • Giannelli L. - Gli Egizi e la “Scienza nascosta” - Farmacia News, marzo 2004; • Barberi M. - Quando a salute e malattia ci pensavano gli speziali - Farma News, 14.05.04; Website • cadnet.marche.it/farmacia; • chifar.unipv.it/museo; • diocesi.genova.it; • dipbot.unict.it; • eikonos.it/roccavaldina/farmacia; • elbuenosaires.com.ar; • emmeti.it/arte/toscana; • eurialo.cib.na.cnr.it; • farm.unipi.it; • home.swipnet.sc/pharmhist/museer; • imolanetwork.com; • imss.florence.it; • landferie.dk/pics/sc/detgamle.apotek.htm; • museionline.com; • nobilecollegio.com; • rettorato.unito.it; • mega.it/ita/gui/epo/medalb.htm; • edscuola.com/archivio/alchimia.html; • galileo.imss.firenze.it/multi/luoghi/oggetti/iimsso.html; • galileo.imss.firenze.it/multi/luoghi/indici/ipersona.html; • thais.it/scultura/sch00075.htm; • mega.it/ita/gui/monu/bo.htm; • galileo.imss.firenze.it/multi/luoghi/oggetti/imspecoo.html; • www.unifi.it/unifi/msn/main_eng.htm; • galileo.imss.firenze.it/multi/luoghi/oggetti/imbotano.html; • chifar.unipv.it/museo/storia_Farm_Pv/St_farmacia_Pv.htm; • medlav.unimo.it/dida/storimed.HTM#Ilrinascimentoscientifico;• medithema.it/testi/storia/sto14_1.htm; • medithema.it/testi/storia/indice.htm; • galileo.imss.firenze.it/farmacie/ifi1.html; • chim1.unifi.it/group/education/montalve/montalve.htm; Thesis • Giordano M. R. – Key historical developments and prospects of Pharmacy – University Federico II of Naples, Faculty of Pharmacy - Thesis completed in Pharmacognosy, AA 2003-04.

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