The Ramaz Science Publication Winter Edition / January 2021
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Table of Contents Reinventing Vaccines by Ariella Goloborodsky ’23 Pg. 3 Birds Vibration Sensors by Daniel Kalimi ‘23 Pg. 6 Ferrofluids by Eric Kalimi ’22 Pg. 8 Is Our Galaxy Unique? by Eric Kalimi ‘22 Pg. 10 Smart Glasses by Eric Kalimi ‘22 Pg. 12
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World’s Smallest Microchip by Ron Alweiss ‘22 Pg. 14 Save the Date by Samantha Sinensky ‘21 Pg. 16 Clean Energy: Is it more than just solar panels? by Sarah Silverman ’24 Pg. 18 How Kids’ Immune Systems Can Evade Coronavirus by Sydney Eisenstein ’22 Pg. 20
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Reinventing Vaccines Updates on the Covid-19 vaccine have become one of the most popular topics in news outlets around the world today. Recently*, two large American biotechnological companies, Pfizer (partnered with BioNTech) and Moderna, have been testing their vaccine candidates, and have both announced over 90% efficacy. This has lit a spark of international hope that the consequences of the pandemic will start to lessen. What many people don’t know is that Pfizer and Moderna are not only leading us out of the current pandemic, they are starting a new era in the medical world—one of reinvented vaccines. Pfizer, BioNTech and Moderna are making mRNA-based vaccines, which has never been done before. In the past,most vaccinations have been made from inactivated, or weakened, versions of the virus they were combatting. To understand how these vaccines work, one needs to understand the human body's immune system. The immune system is a vast network of cells, tissues and organs that defend a body against many bacteria, viruses and toxins. Leukocytes, also known as white blood cells, are key players in the immune system. Macrophages, types of leukocytes, travel through your body swallowing all encountered foreign bacteria, germs or dying cells, but usually, they leave behind antigens1. Another type of white blood cells, B-lymphocytes, travel through our bodies searching for antigens and destroying them. Our body also sends T-lymphocytes to attack host cells that have been infected. Tlymphocytes also help the B-lymphocytes make antibodies that can attack familtier antigens that can come in the future. Traditional vaccines work by injecting an inactivated disease that triggers your immune system to send white blood cells to produce antibodies against the disease. These antibodies remain in your body so that if your body is ever infected with the real disease, the antibodies will identify the disease and help fight it. Instead of following the traditional vaccine template, Pfizer, BioNTech, and Moderna, are using mRNA to make their vaccines. This method will teach our cells to make proteins that can prompt our bodies to make antibodies, and therefore, protect us from the virus. mRNA are strands of genetic material that are synthesized in the nucleus containing instructions for making proteins. mRNA is made through a process called Transcription, in which an enzyme called RNA-polymerase, comes into the nucleus and connects RNA bases to the DNA. The RNA bases are then bonded together to form mRNA. Then, the mRNA leaves the nucleus and travels to the cytoplasm where it attaches to a
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ribosome. In a process called Translation, the ribosomes read the code on the mRNA and use its “instructions” to build specific proteins. So, how could mRNA be used to make vaccines? Replicating the exact mRNA structure of the virus’s protein coat and injecting it into a person's body will cause their cells to replicate this protein and launch an immune response. The immune response leads to production of antibodies. The Coronavirus has a “spike protein” which is found on its surface. The vaccines created will be injected into one’s upper arm and their muscle cells immediately begin to create this protein. Once the cell is finished making the protein, it destroys the mRNA, which prevents any chance for the mRNA to interact with our DNA. Our immune systems recognize the unknown protein and begin creating antibodies. mRNA vaccines have many benefits, ranging from creating antibodies without the virus entering one’s body to preventing mutations of the virus to enter our bodies. Less than 8 hours ago, the FDA had authorized the Pfizer vaccine for emergency use. In the next week, over 2.9 million doses of the vaccine are expected to be shipped out. The full effects of the vaccine have not yet been seen, but everyone is eager to see if they will be productive in ending the harmful consequences of this pandemic. Beyond this, the medical communities are eager to see if they can begin using mRNA to make other vaccines. This may just be the beginning of a new era in vaccinology!
Ariella Goloborodsky ’23 * This article was written in early December, when the coronavirus vaccines were just released.
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References https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/why-are-mrna-vaccines-so-exciting-2020121021599 https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/different-vaccines/mrna.html https://www.wsj.com/articles/moderna-and-pfizer-are-reinventing-vaccines-starting-withcovid-11605638892
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Birds Vibration Sensors To some, birds are just another irrelevant animal that share this planet with humans, but a closer look into the biology and anatomy of these amazing creatures, specifically the way they eat, is undeniably fascinating. Birds like ibises and kiwis find food by poking through the ground and eating little creatures they find writhing in the soil or sand. Originally, people thought that they found their food through trial and error, but scientists have recently discovered that these birds have special cells in their beaks that can sense vibrations from their prey. This phenomenon is similar to the echolocation of dolphins and whales, but here, the waves received by the birds go through the earth, as opposed to bouncing off the objects in the air. Besides, for the sheer awesomeness of this ability, it also gives insight into the evolution of birds. Birds like Ostriches and emus that don’t get food the way kiwis or ibises do, have beaks with a similar interior structure. There are spaces for where these cells would normally be, but there are none. This raises the question: how long has this amazing prey detection mechanism been around? After analysis of the bones and beaks of many ancient birds, scientists found that the beaks and head structure of lithornithids were nearly identical to that of kiwis, ibises and sandpipers, showing that birds have been able to probe through the dirt for food for tens of millions of years. At the end of lithornithids’ development, the ancestors of ostriches and emus lost the vibration sensing ability, leaving them with only similar bone structure and a lack of the special cells. Animal biology is an extremely complex field of science; it is difficult to answer basic questions like “why?” or “how?” for certain. Discoveries like these help in the understanding of these animals on a whole different level.
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Daniel Kalimi ‘23
References https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/04/science/bird-beaks-touch.html https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2375824/ https://www.earthlife.net/birds/touch-2.html# https://askabiologist.asu.edu/echolocation# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982216312143#
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Ferrofluids Ferrofluids are a specific type of liquid that behave unlike any other liquid found in nature. When the fluid is near a magnetic field, it immediately jumps to form many smooth spikes uniformly on the surface. The man-made substance is made up of three main parts: the magnetic nanoparticles, nonmagnetic liquid carrier, and a surfactant. The magnetic nanoparticle, usually iron, makes the substance reactive to the magnets. If the particles were in a liquid untreated, they would group together and separate from it. To prevent this, the nanoparticles are coated with a surfactant that suspends the particles throughout the liquid. Because of the strong surface tension of water, the nonmagnetic liquid carrier makes the shape of the spikes extremely smooth and uniform. In the 1960s, a NASA engineer named Steve Pharell invented the first ferrofluid. His goal was to find a new way to transport fuel in a zero gravity area like space. Since the fuel was stationed in a tank without gravity, it was very difficult to pump the fuel into the rocket engine. Pharell's idea was to add magnetic particles into the fuel to move it using magnetism. Once the magnetic fluid became attracted to a strong magnetic field in the tube connected to the engine, it could be easily pumped into the engine despite the weightless environment.
Although the original purpose of ferrofluids was for rocket fuel, their applications are being tested for new medical treatments. Current cancer treatment methods like chemotherapy and radiation
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are not specific enough to treat tumor cells selectively. Using ferrofluid's magnetic capabilities, cancer medications can be targeted to a specific area inside the body by mechanically moving a magnet. A treatment called magnetic fluid hypothermia uses this technique to target medicine-infused ferrofluids at tumors. After reaching the target, the treatment requires temperatures to rise to 42-46 degrees Celsius to heat up the newly exposed cancer cells and alter the receptor molecules on the cells’ surface which makes it easier for the body's natural killer cells to recognize them. Scientists created this technology decades ago to enhance space travel capabilities. They never could have perceived that their invention would one day have a biomedical application with the potential to directly save the lives of countless people. Let this serve as an example for why science and the pursuit of knowledge is so important: the applications of even the most specified technologies are limitless.
Eric Kalimi ’22
References http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Ferrofluids https://www.theverge.com/2018/6/12/17449910/ferrofluid-magnetic-nanoparticlesbiomedicine-nasa-invention-cancer-infections-neurons https://www.czferro.com/blog/2014/10/27/history-of-ferrofluids https://www.news-medical.net/health/Ferrofluid-and-Cancer.aspx
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Is Our Galaxy Unique? The Catholic Church ostracized Galileo for suggesting that the Sun is the center of the solar system as opposed to the Earth. Centuries later, it is scientifically accepted that Galileo’s theory is correct and that the Church’s view was biased based on “self-centered” beliefs. Now that astronomy is much more developed thanks to advanced telescopes and space travel, scientists understand much more about our galaxy and the countless others surrounding it. Given the context of the Church’s exceptionalist views, is it unreasonable to think that the Milky Way differs from other galaxies? NASA believes that the Milky Way is a galaxy like any other. It is filled with stars, gas, and dust that will eventually form new stars and is overflowing with dark matter. Like all galaxies, it is held together by a black hole at our galaxy’s center that creates a strong gravitational force. The shape of this galaxy isn’t unique either; like ⅔ of all other known galaxies, the Milky Way is a spiral. In short, there doesn’t seem to be any fundamental structural difference between this galaxy and others. SciNews brings new evidence that brings light to the uniqueness of the Milky Way. According to the new data from Sloan Digital Sky Survey’s Apache Point Observatory Galactic Evolution Experiment (APOGEE), during the early stages of the Milky Way’s creation, the Milky Way collided with another galaxy called Heracles about 10 billion years ago. APOGEE studied the chemical components and velocities of several stars within the Milky Way and found that the properties of some stars were so different from others that they had to have come from another galaxy. This evidence suggests that ⅓ of the Milky Way is composed of the remnants of the Heracles galaxy. In contrast to many other galaxies, which had very calm early stages, the Milky Way’s early development was interrupted by crashes with other galaxies. Our home galaxy is similar to others in many ways, including both its spiral structure and content, but there may be some older distinctions between the Milky Way and the surrounding galaxies. The Milky Way’s beginnings were rocked by crash collisions with neighboring galaxies that left stars in our galaxy’s spiral. At the end of the day, all galaxies form by the collection of dust particles; even though the Milky way endured a destructive collision with another galaxy, its underlying features are not unique.
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Eric Kalimi ’22
References https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-are-galaxies http://www.sci-news.com/astronomy/heracles-galaxy-09132.html
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Smart Glasses For the past few years, people have relied on computers and cell phones to provide wireless connectivity and imaging wherever they go. However, with the continued popularity of smart wearables, tech companies are looking for ways to integrate the abilities of smartphones and laptops into glasses. Google introduced the first of these products in 2013 but eventually discontinued them because of a lack of consumer desire and practicality. With global technology on an exponential increase in efficiency, other companies can work on their own versions of smart glasses. Smart glasses have many of the abilities possessed by phones and more, including sound, microphone, camera, and projector system. Many concept designs have speakers that rest on the ends of the glasses so the audio can transfer through ear bone conduction and a microphone that rests on one of the hinges for conversations and hands-free voice searches. Some renderings include a small camera attached to the temple area of the glasses that can constantly record a first-person view of the world. A semi-transparent projection system allows wearers to view displays without obscuring their view of the real world achieves the main goal of smart glasses, to view texts and images without separating from the world around them. The applications of smart glasses are extensive and beneficial in several areas of life. Since the glasses are available to take pictures and record videos at all times, keeping a documented library of photos becomes a simple and hands-free task. With the implementation of augmented reality, the entertainment industry will create new virtual reality games, and training programs can increase productivity through simulated experiences. Commerce and advertising will be maximized by smart glasses compatible billboards that give extra information to interested users. Although the use of glasses for blind people may seem pointless, smart glasses could actually be very useful as a tool to warn users about obstacles. This technology could also help the hearing impaired by recognizing the words of others and displaying them as subtitles before the person's eyes. To make smart glasses popular, users will need to learn both how to operate the glasses and how to respond to the large influx of data they will receive from them. In areas like Great Britain, governments banned smart glasses while driving because they increased distraction while on the road; all users must be wary of distractions caused by the glasses. Also, many customers are uncomfortable
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with the idea of having a camera attached to their glasses that could potentially record them and others around them without consent. As with all emerging technologies, the population has to become more comfortable with the drawbacks associated with smart glasses before they can see the overwhelming benefits they present. The concept of high-tech glasses with the ability to replace cell phones is still one of the future, but as time progresses, it is becoming closer to reality. The world of possibilities that this new technology offers is not far away; innovation always leads in the direction of advancement.
Eric Kalimi ’22
References https://www.allaboutvision.com/eyeglasses/smart-glasses/ https:www.vs.inf.ethz.cheduFS2014UCSreportsHermannSchweizer_SmartGlassesTechnolog yApplications_report.pdf
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World’s Smallest Microchip Engineers and scientists from the University of Texas at Austin discovered a more efficient approach to optimizing and redesigning the memory of a microchip. These researchers developed the chip based on a previous model created two years ago dubbed the atomrister, known for possessing just a single layer of atomic thickness. That model was the smallest version they had manufactured hitherto. However, researchers figured out that they could reduce the cross-sectional area as well. According to Deji Akinwande, a professor at UT at Austin and one of the creators of the new and improved microchip, "The scientific holy grail for scaling is going down to a level where a single atom controls the memory function, and this is what we accomplished in the new study." With this valuable information, they were able to reduce the size of the microchip down to one square nanometer: the smallest the world has ever seen. These researchers determined the physics that allowed the microchip to run as fast and as small as it was. Defects, also known as holes in the material, increased the density of the microchip, allowing it to function at such a minuscule size.“When a single additional metal atom goes into that nanoscale hole and fills it, it confers some of its conductivity into the material, and this leads to a change or memory effect,� Akinwande stated. Containing smaller processors allow for more compact phones and computers, requiring less energy for the microchip to work and providing fast speed for the user. This device falls under the category of memristors, which is a specific area of memory research that deals with abolishing the third point to connect an electric current. By only needing two points, engineers can design microchips for smaller sizes as well as more storage. These microchips can utilize an enormous capacity of 25 terabits per square centimeter, which is 100 times more memory per high-density layer than usual flash memory devices. The uses of the microchip have only just begun shaping the world. From phones and computers to diagnosing diseases to computational models of the mechanics of the brain, microchips have only breached the surface of their endless potential.
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Ron Alweiss ’22
References Pti. “'World's Smallest Atom-Memory Unit Created'.” The Economic Times, Economic Times, 29 Nov. 2020, economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/worlds-smallest-atom-memoryunit-created/articleshow/79473304.cms?from=mdr. Service, Tribune News. “World's Smallest Atom-Memory Unit Created.” Tribuneindia News Service, 29 Nov. 2020, www.tribuneindia.com/news/schools/worlds-smallest-atom-memory-unitcreated-177522. “World's Smallest Atom-Memory Unit Created.” UT News, 19 Nov. 2020, news.utexas.edu/ 2020/11/19/worlds-smallest-atom-memory-unit-created/.
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Save the Date The next time you peruse the fruit selection in a marketplace in Israel, you might want to consider something a little less fresh, say 2000 years old. Scientists were successful in reestablishing ancient Judean date trees from 2000 year old seeds discovered on Masada. This was a process 15 years in the making, finally “bearing fruit” in Ketura, Israel to revive fruits of a different era. Dr. Sarah Saloon, a researcher in natural medicine, joined forces with Dr. Elaine Solowey, an expert on arid agriculture, to uncover and to germinate seeds found during archeological digs. In 2005, the scientists planted the date seed found at Masada, taking extra precautions for its survival, including providing warmth, hydration, plant hormones, and enzymatic fertilizer. After a few weeks of tender, loving care, Saloon and Solowey were shocked when they noticed a small shoot beginning to emerge from the soil. Unlike many plants that contain both male (stamen) and female (pistil) reproductive parts, date palm trees yield flowers that are either male or female. Tree gender can only be assessed once the tree yields flowers. The date seed that was discovered developed into a male tree. For propagation, female trees were needed for pollination, and eventually to produce dates. This male date tree was named “Methusaleh” after the biblical character known for longevity. Methusaleh was useless at providing two-millennia old dates without a female partner. After extensive seed searching and planting, the researchers found a perfect female match; a seed from a burial cave near Jericho. This seed was carbon dated to between the first and fourth centuries B.C.E., becoming one of the oldest known seeds to ever be germinated. The ancient seed germinated and sprouted into a vibrant, healthy plant. After six years of growth, flowers were produced. Dr. Solowey gathered the pollen from Methusaleh and brushed it onto the pistillate flowers of the female tree. Fertilization occurred and dates developed. Scientists at the University of Montpellier in France determined that newly developed dates were like a date variety that was common in the Middle East, stretching from Mesopotamia to Pakistan. There is discussion to mass produce this “old-new fruit,” and market it to the Christian world as “the dates that Jesus ate.”
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Samantha Sinensky ’21
References Kershner, Isabel. “Aided by Modern Ingenuity, a Taste of Ancient Judean Dates.” The New York Times, 7 Sept. 2020, www.nytimes.com/2020/09/07/world/middleeast/israel-judean-datesagriculture.html. Sallon, Sarah, et al. “Germination, Genetics, and Growth of an Ancient Date Seed.” Science, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 13 June 2008, science.sciencemag.org/content/ 320/5882/1464.full. Sallon, Sarah, et al. “Origins and Insights into the Historic Judean Date Palm Based on Genetic Analysis of Germinated Ancient Seeds and Morphometric Studies.” Science Advances, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1 Feb. 2020, advances.sciencemag.org/content/ 6/6/eaax0384.
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Clean Energy: Is it More Than Just Solar Panels? When people hear the term "Clean Energy," what usually comes to their minds are solar panels, wind turbines, and countless other expensive nonrenewable alternatives. Scientists at the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) in Saint-Paul-lez-Durance, France have decided to tackle this problem head-on. They have proposed using the power of nuclear fusion to produce lasting and sustainable energy. So what is nuclear fusion? It is the process in which two light atoms come together to form a heavier atom. This reaction produces a tremendous amount of energy that can theoretically be harnessed to provide sustainable and renewable electricity. Will it work? Is it possible that this type of basic chemical reaction can lead to a new future in clean energy? These are the types of questions the scientists at ITER are trying to solve. This 25 billion dollar project, arguably one of the most expensive physics initiatives in modern history, is funded by the European Union, China, India, Japan, South Korea, Russia, and the U.S. Many leading scientists are skeptical of the program. They feel that it is a waste of time and money and resources could be better spent elsewhere. However, many feel that this is just the beginning of a new branch of practically applied physics. The current plans estimate that the reactor will be completed and hopefully active by 2035. Fusion energy has the potential to change the world as we know it. If the program succeeds without a hitch, it could signal a new age in physics research. Fusion produces no greenhouse gases or byproducts and can theoretically create much more energy than the leading contenders today. The future of worldwide energy seems bright, and it's all thanks to a particle smaller than what meets the eye.
Sarah Silverman ’24
References “Assembly of World's Largest Fusion Reactor Begins in France.” France | Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera, 28 July 2020, www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/7/28/assembly-of-worlds-largest-fusion-reactorbegins-in-france.
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Delbert, Caroline. “The World's Largest Fusion Reactor Finally Begins Assembly.” Popular Mechanics, Popular Mechanics, 28 July 2020, www.popularmechanics.com/science/energy/ a33449184/largest-fusion-reactor-iter-tokamak-assembly-begins/. Moskowitz, Clara. “World's Largest Fusion Reactor Begins Assembly.” Scientific American, Scientific American, 1 Dec. 2020, www.scientificamerican.com/article/worlds-largest-fusion-reactorbegins-assembly/.
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How Kids’ Immune Systems Can Evade Coronavirus Young children are usually the epitome of contracting and spreading viruses; surprisingly, a small percentage of young children have been infected with Covid. Furthermore, children who have been infected with Covid are less likely to experience severe symptoms. Children are more likely to be asymptomatic or experience mild symptoms if they contract SARS-CoV-2. Generally, children encounter more pathogens than adults so their innate immune responses are quicker. Donna Farber, an immunologist at Columbia University, says, “Children are very much adapted to respond - and very well equipped to respond - to new viruses.” Some children develop Covid symptoms and antibodies, but never test positive for the virus on a RT-PCR test. One study showed that three siblings under the age of ten developed antibodies but never tested positive on a RT-PCR test, despite being in close contact with their parents who tested positive. In a different study of 32 adults and 47 children, Farber and her colleagues found that children mostly developed antibodies aimed at the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, which the virus uses to enter cells. Adults also developed the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein but additionally developed antibodies against the nucleocapsid protein. The nucleocapsid protein is vital for viral replication and is released in significant quantities when a virus is widespread in the body. Farber says that the fact that children lack antibodies against the nucleocapsid protein indicates that they are not experiencing widespread infection. Childrens’ immune systems are able to eradicate the virus before it largely replicates. Melanie Neeland, an immunologist at the Murdoch Children’s Research Institute in Melbourne, Australia, says that a child’s immune system sees the virus, “and it just mounts this really quick and effective immune response that shuts it down, before it has a chance to replicate to the point that it comes up positive on the swab diagnostic test.” Farber hypothesizes that children can neutralize the virus because their T cells are naïve. T cells are part of the adaptive immune system, which recognizes pathogens. She says that children’s untrained T cells might lead to children having a greater ability to respond to new viruses.
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Dr. Betsy Herold, a pediatric infectious disease expert at Albert Einstein College of Medicine, has found that children with Covid and adults with Covid differ because children have much higher blood levels of two immune molecules, interleukin 17A and interferon gamma. Dr. Herold suggests that those molecules protect younger children against severe respiratory disease. Interleukin 17A may help children prevent the virus’s attempts to evade the body’s innate response. There are four other coronaviruses that infect humans, with symptoms similar to a cold. Children contract more seasonal coronaviruses so it is possible that their antibodies for other coronaviruses might give them some protection from SARS-CoV-2. Other researchers have suggested that children receive a smaller dose of the virus than adults because they have less ACE2 receptors (which the virus uses to access cells). Researchers suggest that there is not one reason why children’s immune systems can evade Covid, rather there are many possible factors. “I don’t think anyone in the field knows why the disease is less robust in extremely young animals or humans,” says Ralph Baric, a coronavirus researcher at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Researchers have suggested that plasma from people who’ve recovered from COVID-19 could be transfused into patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 to treat them. “We will eventually age out of this virus,” says Dr. Michael Mina, a pediatric immunologist at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Epidemiology in Boston.
Sydney Eisenstein ’22
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King, Anthony. 2020. “Possible Biological Explanations for Kids’ Escape from COVID-19”, TheScientist. https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/possible-biological-explanations-for-kidsescape-from-covid-19-67273 Mandavilli, Apoorva. 2020. “How Do Children Fight Off the Coronavirus?”, The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/25/health/coronavirus-children-immune.html Nogrady, Bianca. 2020. “How kids’ immune systems can evade COVID”, Nature. https:// doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-03496-7
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We are grateful to the scientific community for giving us hope to emerge from the winter hibernation and look forward to enjoying the rites of spring and summer. We now have a vaccine and a new appreciation for approaching all future challenges scientifically. We, at BreakThrough, are committed to keeping you informed on all scientific innovations.
EDITORS Samantha Sinensky ’21 Sydney Eisenstein ’22
FACULTY ADVISOR Ms. Lenore Brachot
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