

Breakthrough The Ramaz Science Publication Fall Edition / November 2016
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Table of Contents Extinction Stopping Technology by Daniella Feingold ‘20 Pg. 3 CRISPR Identifies Potential Gene Targets to Hobble HIV by David Grinberg ‘19 Pg. 4 EQ-Radio: Sensing Emotions by Abigail Huebner ‘18 Pg. 5 Bionic Eye Creates a Bright Spot for the Blind by Daniel Jaspan ‘17 Pg. 6 The Shrinking Ice Cap by Daniel Jaspan ‘17 Pg. 7 New in Biotech: Engineering Robots for CP by Moselle Kleiner ‘17 Pg. 9 Dark Matter Complications by Moselle Kleiner ‘17 Pg. 10 Zika vs. CMV by Kyla Mintz ‘18 Pg. 13 Crohn’s Disease by Alexandra Schreiber ‘17 Pg. 15 Vantablack by Oriya Romano ’17 Pg. 16 BREAKTHROUGH - NOVEMBER 2016
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Extinction Stopping Technology More and more technology is being made to help keep endangered species alive, through collecting data. Some inventions help animals by alerting people where the animals are. For example the Smart Collar can be used to record an animal’s movements, which can help scientists learn more about the species and perhaps help them stop animals from clashing with humans. Another version of this technology is one that alerts farmers when elephants in Kenya are encroaching on their fields. A mobile SIM card is attached to each of the elephants and sends a text message to the farmers when the elephants are near. This allows the farmers to protect their fields before the elephants arrive, so that their fields and the elephants will not be harmed in any way. Other innovations don’t just help researchers know the location of the animals, but also collect information on the animals in their different environments. The BeetleCam is a remote-controlled camouflaged camera on wheels that allows scientists to observe different species without disrupting them. Another invention is one that can identify many bird calls at a time. This helps to alert researchers on how a species is changing, due to other factors, such as pollution. A remote-controlled helicopter is no longer considered a toy, but a way to collect mucus coming out of a whale’s blowhole for testing. Normally, scientists would have to get tissue samples through ways that could possibly injure the whale, but now this is no longer necessary because of the mini helicopters. A new fishing hook capable of stopping Sharks from hooking on instead of the intended fish seems to be the most impressive of the inventions. However the SMART hook is based on rather simple concepts. Sharks are able to sense electrical fields in the ocean, so the fishing hooks are covered in a metal that releases volts of electricity into the water. This assists in keeping Sharks away from the lures. More technology is being invented each day to help keep animals alive, but there is always more that can be done. It is important for our environment that we keep all animals alive for many different reasons. One of them being that it could seriously affect the food chain if a species completely dies out. Right now it seems that the most efficient way to keep our environment safe is through innovation. Daniella Feingold ‘20
Works Cited "Technology : TreeHugger." TreeHugger, n.d. Web. 10 Nov. 2016.
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CRISPR Identifies Potential Gene Targets to Hobble HIV Scientists reported to the magazine, Cell Reports, that they researched 45 genes to try to identify any gene that has to do with the infection by the HIV virus, which causes AIDS when it attacks T-cells. When the scientists wanted to edit the genes to see which changes protected T cells against HIV, they built separate CRISPR assemblage of multiple molecules each time. First of all, CRISPR is an acronym for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, ehich means that they are segments of prokaryotic DNA containing short repetitions of base sequences. Each repetition is followed by short segments of “Spacer DNA” (a.k.a. A region of non-coding DNA between genes) from previous exposures to a bacteriophage virus or plasmid. Scientists have discovered that using jolts of electricity open up cells. From this, scientists can keep sending CRISPR complexes into hundreds of thousands of T-cells isolated from blood. Geneticist Nevan Krogan and Immunologist Dr. Alexander Marson tested T-cells mutated with CRISPR edits to see if they kept out the HIV infection. They unearthed half a dozen genes that either stopped the HIV infection completely or partly. Scientists hope that using CRISPR could prevent or even cure AIDS. There are many therapies that make sure the virus does not become sporadic, but they only treat the disease instead of curing it. This causes a lot of stress on patients who will now be forced to take antiretroviral drugs for the rest of their lives. In CRISPR’s clinical trials, Sangamo Biosciences has found that patients’ viral load fell, and in some cases, stayed nominal even without HIV/AIDS drugs. I believe that CRISPR will become a tool that could be exploited in the future. Once people realize CRISPR’s capabilities, the possibilities to cure diseases, expand STEM cell research, and even designing genetically modified “super babies” will be possible. However, we still have a long road ahead of us before any drug is available for pick up at a local Duane Reade. David Grinberg ‘19
Works Cited Kurtzman, Laura. "Researchers Use CRISPR to Accelerate Search for HIV Cure." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 25 Oct. 2016. Web. 10 Nov. 2016.
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E-Q Radio: Sensing Emotions Reading minds has always been something that only exists in sci-fi movies. However, with the EQ-Radio, we are one step closer than we’ve ever been. The EQ-Radio, recently invented at MIT, is a small wireless device that can read human emotions. It uses Frequency Modulated Carrier Waves, a radar technique that picks up heart contractions and breathing acceleration and uses these things to classify human emotion into one of four categories: happy, sad, excited and angry. The heartbeat and breathing data are combined by this machine onto a graph, showing if the emotion is positive or negative and which category it would fall into. With 87% accuracy, the EQ-Radio could be used for many things. Mood detection could help with so much. Lighting and music can automatically adjust themselves based on your mood, giving new skills to “smart” devices. Health care systems can monitor depression before the patient is even aware of the depression, and many significant health care applications could exist due to the fact that it provides a mechanical, as opposed to an electric, way to monitor hearts. Filmmakers and producers can get immediate and real feedback on the reactions to their films. Although mood detection existed before the EQ-Radio, it involved being physically connected to wires and patches which sensed your mood (such as ECG monitors). Some scientists, such as Dimitrios Hatzinakos from the University of Toronto, have their doubts about the ability of the EQ-Radio to work in real-life situations. However, lead researcher Dina Katabi is sure about the abilities of the EQ-Radio, and even plans on using it in her own company. Katabi’s company, Emerald, will use this device to help with their wireless signals that detect falls among elderly people. Although right now the EQ-Radio can only detect the four basic moods, Fadel Adib, one of its designers, explains that “it’s a way to start,” and from there, “moving forward we can develop techniques to understand better the different classes of subclasses of emotion.” Abigail Huebner ‘18
Works Cited Gent, Edd. "Device Can Read Emotions By Bouncing Wireless Signals Off Your Body." LiveScience. Purch, 4 Oct. 2016. Web. 10 Nov. 2016.
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Bionic Eye Creates a Bright Spot for the Blind A wireless brain implant bypasses the optical nerve and goes straight into the brain to light up the area responsible for vision. Over the past several years, people with a degenerative eye disease could regain some vision through a high-tech prosthetic system. Patients went from complete blindness to seeing crude outlines of objects and people. Second Sight, the company responsible for creating the bionic eye, is developing neuropathology that promises to do the same for millions worldwide who are blind from other causes. Recently the company pronounced they had completed a successful proof of concept study at UCLA. A team there sent wireless signals to the brain of a blind patient through a simple device. This produced few spots of light in her brain. Second Sight president and CEO Will McGuire told the Seeker that "It told us that yes, you can stimulate the visual cortex, you can produce a spot of light, and the patient can see that spot and localize it.” Those results are informing the creation of a new product for artificial vision called Orion I that the company hopes to begin testing next year. Orion I differs from Second Sight's current Argus II system, which has FDA approval to treat patients in the advanced stages of a deteriorating disease that destroys the retina known as “retinitis pigmentosa”. McGuire explained that eventually, a person can’t tell the difference between the sun shining versus an overhead light. Second Sight, which has offices in California and Switzerland, has treated around 200 patients with the Argus II. McGuire said that just under 400,000 people worldwide have legal blindness from retinitis pigmentosa. However, an estimated six million people globally are blind for other reasons including cancer, trauma, glaucoma and diabetes. In those cases, the eye or optical nerve is completely nonfunctioning, even with stimulation of the retina. Instead, the Second Sight team wants to bypass the retina and go straight to the surface of the brain responsible for vision. Daniel Jaspan ‘17
Works Cited Danigelis, Alyssa. "Bionic Eye Creates a Bright Spot for the Blind." Seeker. Discovery News, 4 Nov. 2016. Web. 10 Nov. 2016.
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The Shrinking Ice Cap: “Human CO2 emissions put Arctic on track to be ice-free by 2050” A major issue that is rising is the shrinking of Arctic sea ice. The emissions of carbon dioxide by the average American is responsible for shrinking the Arctic sea ice by nearly 50 square meters each year. That’s the implication of a new study that finds that each additional metric ton of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere directly results in a 3-square-meter loss of sea ice. Dirk Notz, a climate scientist at the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology in Hamburg explained that now we can finally grasp how each human contributes to the tangible consequences for the global climate system. Thanks to research, an individual’s impact on Arctic sea ice extent can now be estimated. Each metric ton of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere shrinks the average late-summer ice cover by about 3 square meters. Here is a chart of the carbon dioxide emission for 6 countries.
T. TIBBETTS [Source: Oak Ridge National Laboratory] Globally, humans are responsible for the release of 36 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide annually. With another trillion metric tons, the Arctic Ocean will have a completely iceless summer — possibly the first in 125,000 years. Many estimate that this threshold will be crossed before 2050 with the current rate of carbon dioxide emissions. Diminishing ice at the top of the world threatens Arctic species, can spread pollution and could open the region to transpolar shipping. In 2012, Arctic sea ice hit a record low: just 3.39 million square kilometers, far below the average of 6.22 million square kilometers set from 1981 through 2010. How quickly the ice will continue to disappear remains unclear.
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This simple relationship between emissions and ice loss stems from one similarly straightforward mechanism – as CO2 concentrates in the atmosphere, it strengthens the greenhouse effect, sending some heat back to Earth that would otherwise escape into space. This increases the amount of ice-warming infrared radiation hitting the Arctic, causing the outermost edge of the sea ice to escape northward, where less sunlight hits the planet, and reducing total ice coverage. This issue is a growing threat for us as humans. It can create issues such as: creating additional heat on the earth because more is being absorbed, sea levels will grow, ocean circulation can change and lastly it can affect winter weather. Daniel Jaspan ‘17
Works Cited Sumner, Thomas. "Human CO2 Emissions Put Arctic on Track to Be Ice-free by 2050." Science News. Disqus, 03 Nov. 2016. Web. 10 Nov. 2016.
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New in Biotech: University of Oklahoma Engineers a Robot for Infants with Cerebral Palsy Infants with cerebral palsy (CP) struggle to crawl as a result of brain damage that affects their muscle control. Notes Thubi Kolobe, a physical therapist and researcher at the University of Oklahoma: because of their impairments, children with CP often give up attempting to move across the floor, which is further to their detriment because as they stop trying, the brain no longer builds and reinforces the necessary connections required for their development of motor skills and spatial awareness. In Dr. Kolobe’s words, “if you don’t use it, you lose it.” Spurred by research demonstrating the benefits of early intervention, she and her colleagues have come up with an answer to this problem: an interesting device to promote crawling for infants with CP. The Self-Initiated Prone Progression Crawler (SIPPC) combines a high-tech baby outfit with a three-legged robotic contraption on wheels that is endowed with a machine-learning algorithm. Sensors in the onesie which detect its wearer’s kicks or shifts in weight subsequently cause the robot to launch a platform in the same direction, boosting the baby across the floor. On a technical level, the contraption is composed of an EEG cap and a motion-control module which performs the detections, in addition to the onesie and support platform.
Credit: Scientific American – Brown Bird Design; SOURCE: “NOVEL ASSISTIVE DEVICE FOR TEACHING CRAWLING SKILLS TO INFANTS,” BY MUSTAFA A. GHAZI ET AL., IN FIELD AND SERVICE ROBOTICS, EDITED BY DAVID S. WETTERGREEN AND TIMOTHY D. BARFOOT. SPRINGER INTERNATIONAL PUBLISHING, 2016
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During the preliminary 12-week trial, researchers observed that out of the 28 infants in the study at risk for CP (an official diagnosis is usually made only after age one), those who practiced crawling twice a week using the SIPPC were able to move around a room nearly a month prior to those in the control group, who used a version of the robot that was turned off (they merely wore the gear). Checking in 14 months later, Dr. Kolobe’s team again found that those infants helped by a robot were likelier to crawl independently, as well. Due to the initial positive feedback, the trial is now expanding to include almost 80 babies at risk for CP. The study’s co-author, bioengineering professor Andrew Fagg, noted of their efforts: “Our hope is that we’ll ultimately be able to have a robot therapy that can give these children more motor experience and improve their ability to engage in society and be independent when they grow up.” For now, these efforts look promising. Moselle Kleiner ‘17
Works Cited Sheikh, Knvul. "New Robot Helps Babies with Cerebral Palsy Learn to Crawl." Scientific American. Scientific American, 12 Sept. 2016. Web. 10 Nov. 2016.
Dark Matter Complications What is dark matter and what happens when the latest, most careful and precise searches for what was once believed to compose it turn up empty? In short, to answer the former question, dark matter consists of the invisible “stuff” that is thought to make up 85 percent of the mass in the cosmos, or weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs). Given the disappointing news of recent investigations, scientists have begun to wonder if dark matter is simply evasive or if it exists at all? The problem is that if dark matter does not exist, it poses a major issue in terms of how physicists and others fathom the universe; dark matter is essential to contemporary views of earth, the galaxies, and beyond. Because of these letdowns, to be explained below, scientists have become polarized in their views of dark matter: others are holding out for more answers, while some are beginning to reevaluate conceptions of the substance that had previously been discarded as unlikely. It began with the Large Underground Xenon (LUX) experiment, in which 1/3rd of a metric ton of liquid xenon at -100 degrees Celsius was held in a giant, water-filled tank buried 1.5 km under South Dakota’s Black Hills. Its construction allows for researchers to be shielded from the usual
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contaminating radiation sources, and those at the site spent over a year searching for flashes of light that would radiate from WIMPs striking xenon nuclei. Early this summer, on July 21st, they announced that they had detected none. Then, on August 5th, the most powerful particle accelerator ever built, CERN’s Large Hadron Collider (LHC), based near Geneva, reported similarly discouraging findings. Since 2015, the LHC has been pioneering particle physics in looking for WIMPs by smashing protons together at exceptionally high energies (i.e. at rates with a maximum of a billion collisions per second). They encountered a snag early on, discovered from an idiosyncrasy in the subatomic wreckage. When they found “an excess of energy from proton collisions that hinted at new physics perhaps produced by WIMPs,” the LHC smashed more protons and collected more data, but with new information came further indications that what was thought to be a meaningful irregularity was probably just a statistical fluke. Two issues with these outcomes: firstly, by narrowing down “the plausible masses and interactions of WIMPs,” scientists are brought closer to answers about dark matter; but, by contrast, in discarding “some of the simplest and most cherished WIMP models,” others have become concerned that the search for the elusive particles might be a detour or distraction for scientists, many of whom have dedicated decades to their pursuit already. University of Chicago cosmologist Edward Kolb, who fronted the hunt for WIMPs in the 70s and deemed the 2010s “the Decade of the WIMP,” concedes his dismay, maintaining that “we are now more in the dark about dark matter than we were five years ago.” This lack of knowledge has precipitated the burgeoning of exotic theories regarding why the “supposedly ubiquitous” material has escaped our grasp. The Standard Model of particle physics predicts the introduction of WIMPs just after big bang, so the urge to seek them out is an appropriate inclination– they fit in seamlessly with expectations. And if the particles do exist, basic calculations imply that their amount and behavior is comparable to that of dark matter, as deduced from prior observations. Yet theorists of late have been challenging these accepted inferences. In 2008, Jonathan Feng and Jason Kumar of U.C. Irvine illustrated how “a phenomenon known as supersymmetry could produce… particles much lighter and more weakly interacting than WIMPs” that are akin to those in dark matter. With a growing list of fruitless detection attempts, Feng and others have begun to propose that the nature of WIMPs is far more complex than the estimations of their basic mockups suggest, and that perhaps they denote “a hidden realm of the universe filled with varieties of dark particles interacting with one another through a suite of dark forces, perhaps exchanging dark charges through bursts of dark light.” While affording the potential to readjust data to flexibly fit different dark matter conjectures, this more fanciful route of speculation is very hard to test. As Princeton University astrophysicist David Spergel remarked, “With the dark sector, you’re free to invent almost whatever you want,” but scientists must continue to take their cues from nature.
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In this vein, physicists like Kevork Abazajian, another theorist at U.C. Irvine, have abandoned WIMPs altogether. Abazajian hypothesizes that “ghostly” neutrino particles, which exist in three different flavors, could even have a fourth flavor, a massive “sterile” neutrino that might account for dark matter. The axion could also fit the bill. In 1977, the axion, a theorized weakly interacting particle was said to “explain and resolve otherwise mysterious asymmetries in quantum interactions,” but if they did allude to dark matter, they would have to be both within a smaller range of masses and far lighter than the WIMPs. Nonetheless, Stanford’s Peter Graham is certain that the axion will be swapped out for WIMPs if they prove unable to locate. Finally, other possibilities for dark matter on the fringes of academic physics include “primordial” black holes, other dimensions, and faults in Einstein’s theory of gravity. That scientists are still searching for dark matter’s identity, even in obscure places, offers hope for the future. A critical concern with this summer’s null conclusions is that they might be seen as irrelevant to where physics must go, to scientists’ quest of grasping reality, because WIMPs are persistently “unwilling” to be found. As Jesse Thaler of MIT asserts, “Not every new discovery can be a revelation.” Moselle Kleiner ‘17
Works Cited Billings, Lee. "In the Dark about Dark Matter." Scientific American. Scientific American, 12 Sept. 2016. Web. 10 Nov. 2016.
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Zika vs. CMV Anyone who has followed the news is familiar with the Zika outbreak that began in the United States this summer. Zika virus spreads to people predominantly through the bite of an infected Aedes species mosquito. Although many people infected with Zika will not display any symptoms, some do. In these cases, the illness is usually mild with symptoms such as fever, rash, joint pain, and conjunctivitis that last between several days and a week. It is uncommon for people to have the disease so severely to the point where they require hospitalization. However, if a pregnant woman becomes infected with Zika there may be more serious effects. Zika can result in microcephaly, which is a serious birth defect of the brain and the baby has an abnormally small head. Zika can cause other severe fetal brain defects as well. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that pregnant women refrain from traveling to regions with Zika. People have gone to extreme measures to prevent succumbing to the disease. However, there is another disease that is far more unknown that may have a higher risk of harming newborns. This disease is known as cytomegalovirus (CMV), a virus that affects twenty thousand to forty thousand infants per year. Around twenty percent of children affected by CMV develop hearing loss, intellectual disabilities, microcephaly, and vision problems. Unfortunately, there is no vaccine to protect one from CMV and standard proven treatment does not exist. Therefore, some specialists believe that there is no need to inform parents about this potential disease because it will simply worry them. However a number of mothers feel that had only they been educated about CMV and warned of the dangers, it is possible that they could have prevented their infants from this fatal disease. Recently, experts have been advocating for routine screening of newborns for CMV. By doing so, doctors can determine if a woman has been infected in the first 21 days so that the newborn can be given regular hearing tests, an eye exam, an MRI of the brain, and possibly antiviral treatment. Based on a study conducted in the New England Journal of Medicine it is clear that infants with CMV symptoms at birth who took an antiviral drug for six months had moderately better hearing at 2 years, compared with newborns who took it for only six weeks. It has also been shown that simple handwashing and avoiding sharing food/engaging in direct mouth contact with other toddlers in the home can help to prevent contraction of this virus in a pregnant woman. While Zika is a major concern in our country at this time, we must not neglect CMV, which has the potential to be even more harmful to infants than Zika is. Between the two, Zika virus is in fact harder to prevent, with families with expecting mothers or mothers hoping to become pregnant needing to cancel vacation trips to popular destinations. CMV, on the other hand, is considered easier to prevent with good hand-washing. Since both viruses may cause severe brain defects, why should women only
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be warned about Zika? Few women are educated about CMV when in fact it would be extremely beneficial to provide education and ensure early action. Until more research is done about the consequences of these two viruses, we must teach parents all potential risks and ways that these can be minimized. Kyla Mintz ‘18
Works Cited Louis, Catherine Saint. "CMV Is a Greater Threat to Infants Than Zika, but Far Less Often Discussed." The New York Times. The New York Times, 24 Oct. 2016. Web. 10 Nov. 2016. "Zika Virus." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 27 Oct. 2016. Web. 10 Nov. 2016.
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Crohn’s Disease Scientists have been wondering what are the causes of Crohn’s disease. Crohn’s disease is an inflammatory bowel disease that involves the inflammation of some or all parts of the digestive tract. Scientists knew that gut bacteria may contribute to Crohn’s, however recently, studies have shown a high level of fungus present. The study’s co- author, Mahmoud A. Ghannoum, director of the Center for Medical Mycology at Case Western Reserve, said that scientists already know that along with bacteria, genetic and dietary factors are important to the cause of Crohn’s. People with Crohn’s do not respond properly to the bacteria present in a person’s gut, however scientists seem to think they can to the fungi present in the intestines. The study that was done analyzed the fecal matter of Crohn’s patients, their healthy relatives and unrelated, healthy people too. In the Crohn’s patients, significantly higher amounts of two types of bacteria were present, as well as a type of fungus. This is the first time that fungus has been linked to Crohn’s patients. When the researchers further analyzed the bacteria and fungus, they found that these two bacteria and fungus form a biofilm, which is a sticky thin layer of microorganisms. This attaches onto the gut, which the researches presume may be the cause of the inflammation. This new study is great progress for finding the cure to the inflammation present in patients with Crohn’s disease. Alexandra Schreiber ‘17
Works Cited Agata Blaszczak-Boxe, Agata. "Http://www.livescience.com/56334-gut-fungus-suspected-in-crohnsdisease.html." Livescience. Purch, 30 Sept. 2016. Web. 10 Nov. 2016.
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Vantablack Vantablack is the new black. Using billions of hollow ultra pure carbon nanotubes per square centimeter, each the width of a single atom, scientists have been able to create the darkest material ever to be man made. British company Surrey NanoSystems created this material that has people desperate to get their hands on the material for design and artistic purposes. At first they were developing lowtemperature techniques for working microchips and then they got involved with the National Physical Laboratory who wanted Surrey to transfer the techniques onto growing similar material but as a black absorber on low melting point materials like aluminum.
Credit: Surrey NanoSystems, via the MentalFloss website. They do this using a complicated two-day process involving a machine that creates a condition in which nanotubes can grow under extreme heat and on top of aluminum foil. However, what most don’t know is that this material isn’t even technically a color. Color, as we know it, is a result of the way light is reflected off an object and into our eyes and different light frequencies translate into different colors. However, Vantablack absorbs light that cannot escape thus Vantablack is a material and the absence of color. Vantablack looks somewhat like a forest comprised of carbon nanotubes that have a lot of space between them so the light that enters bounces off the nanotubes and gets absorbed. This is why it cannot be sold to retailers and artists. Not only would it be extremely expensive, but the material is so dark that the human eye cannot understand what it is seeing thus shapes and contours are lost leaving the look of abyss. If a designer were to use this material to make a dress, the parts of the person that is
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covered by the dress would look flat yet there are part sticking out of the dress that keep their three dimensional look creating a confusing image. Ben Jenson, Chief Technical Officer at Surrey NanoSystems said “if you try to touch it there would be nothing there to feel because it’s almost all air…it just feels like a smooth surface.” Between all the nanotubes of carbon there is a lot of space so Vantablack has almost no mass and as a result it is able to absorb 99.65% of light. “To make a material that’s 100% it would have to have no solid form because you’ve got solid matter there and some light will always bounce off the top of it before it enters into the structure” said Jensen. This material was originally designed for super technical fields, like space equipment. If a telescope, for example, were coated in Vantablack it would be able to limit stray light enabling scientists to see further into space. So though Vantablack is not exactly the new black it will possibly be made more available in the future. Oriya Romano ‘17
Works Cited Hullinger, Jessica. "6 Facts About Vantablack, the Darkest Material Ever Made." Mental Floss. Mental Floss, 16 Mar. 2016. Web. 10 Nov. 2016. Tu, Ba. "Vantablack: A New Material That Is So Dark That Your Eyes Can't Sense It." Linkkz. Linkkz, 15 July 2014. Web. 10 Nov. 2016.
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Astronomy Word Search Find them all:
credit: https://studentpuzzles.com/Science.html
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Biology Crossword Puzzle
credit: https://studentpuzzles.com/Science.html
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We hope you enjoyed this issue of BREAKTHROUGH! EDITORS Daniel Jaspan ’17 Moselle Kleiner ’17 Oriya Romano ’17 Abigail Huebner ’18 FACULTY ADVISOR Ms. Lenore Brachot
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