NEUROTHERAPY VED by NEUROTHERAPYINDIA

xr}r k} r6;Tmk f[j _ eNf'Kxn s' xr}r k} r6; hm;r' xr}r pr m/Åyt+ c;r p@k;r k' k}`;~/a{. s' a;´m~ h{t; h"_ b"K`}]ry; (bacteria)v;ers (virus)- f.gs (fungus) tq; p|r;s;e`=s (parasites). enk; p@w;v cm2>}- m/\h- Xv;s n]lk;- a;.t]2y{.- a;.Y{. k' prt k' m"Mb@'n- p'x;b n]lk;a{. eTy;]d pr p2t; h" _ ]jn s' bh/t s} ] bm;r}y;\ a; j;t} h". : agr xr}r m'. en k}`;~/a{. k{ sm;Pt krn' k} 6mt; n h{ tb yh wy;nk #p o;r~ kr mn/Zy k{ sm;Pt kr skt} h"- j"s' ]k `;eEf;eE2 b/Y;r- (typhoid fever), Ny/m;'n}y; pneumonia)- S`Ä'P`{k{kl eNf'Kxn (streptococcal infection) eTy;]d : en k}`;~/a{. s' m/k;bl; krn' k' ]ly' hm;r' rË m'. sf'd rË k{]xk; y; WBC’s h{t' h".=- ] jNh'. Ly/k{s;eE`=s (leukocytes) kht' h".- Av. k/9 aNy ]`x?j> (tissues) k' s"Ls h{t' h". j{ Ly/k{s;eE`=s bn;t' h". _ y' sb s"Ls ek`=1' h{kr b;hr} k}`;~/a{. k{ y; t{ f"g{s;eE`{]ss (phagocytosis) %;r; y; un k' A'N`}b[2} (antibody) bn; kr uNh'. sm;Pt kr d't' h".. : en k' b;r' m'. ]vSt,t #p s' a[r a;g' ]lY; gy; h" : y' sf'd k{]xk;y'. WBC’s k/9 b{n m"r{ y;]n h2=2} k' mJj' m'. bnt' h". j"s' ]k m;'n;'s;eE`=s (monocytes) a[r g@"n/l{s;eE`=s (granulocytes) : k/9 aNy r6k s"Ls ]lMf n;'2=s (lymph nodes) m'. y; ]lMf ]`x? (lymph tissues) m'. bnt' h". j"s' ]k ]lMf{s;eE`=s (lymphocytes) a[r Pl;Sm; s"Ls> (plasma cells). y' sw} s"Ls b{n m|r{ m'. bnn' k' b;d rË k' p@v;h m'. i?mt' rht' h".- a[r jh;. jh;. en k} a;vXykt; h{t} h" vh;\ j#rt k' an/s;r y' apn; k;yE krt' h". : g@"n/l{s;eE`=s a[r m;'n;'s;eE`=s b;hr} k}`;~/a{. k{ 3?.3kr ]nk;ln' k' ]ly' tq; uNh'.'. YTm krn' k' ]ly' Y;s p@k;r k' jhr bn;n' k} 6mt; rYt' h". : WBC’s y;]n sf'd rË k' s"Ls 9' ]v]w¸ p@k;r k' h{t' h".. _ Ny/`Ä{]fLj ( neutrophils), ea{]sn;']fLj m;'n;'s;eE`=s (monocytes) ]lMf{s;e`=s a[r k/9 Pl;Sm; s"Ls (plasma cells)

( eosinophils), b"s{]fLj> (basophils) (lymphocytes)

Ny/`Ä{]fLj- ea{]sn;']fLj a[r b"s{]fLj> k{ ek`=1; krk' g@"n/l{s;eE`=s k; n;m ]dy; gy; h" : en 9' p@k;r k' s"Ls k' al;v; rË m'. Ak a[r s;tv;. p@k;r k' s"Ls h". _ v' h". Pl"`l"`=s : Pl"`l"`=s (platelets) b{n m"r{ m'. bn;y; gy; m'g;k;y{Es;eE` (megakaryocyte) n;mk s"Ls k' `/k2{. (fragments) s' bnt' h". : a[r y' rË k{ jm;n' y; Kl[` (clot) bn;n' k' ]ly' a;vXyk h". : Pl"`l"`=s k} km} a;n' s' rË jm'g; nh}. : A's' Vy]Ë k{ agr m;r y; c{` lg j;y t{ us i;v s' Y?n k; bhn; b.d nh}. h{g; _ j{ j;n l'v; w} h{ skt; h" : Oy;n rh' g@'n/l{s;eE`=s a[r m;'n;'s;eE`=s b{n m"r{ y;]n rË mJj; m'. h} bnt' h". : k/9 ]lMf{s;eE`=s- g@'n/l{s;eE`=s a[r m;'n;'s;eE`=s a;´m~k;r}y{. k' s;q ]cpk j;t' h" a[r uNh'. Y; j;t' h". y; sm;Pt kr d't' h". : es} p@k;r ]lMf{s;eE`=s w} k;yE krt' h".. sf'd rË k' s"Ls WBC’s Ak a;m mn/Zy k' aNdr a[stn 7000 h{t' h".- en m'. Ny?`Ä{]fLj> b"s{]fLj> ]lMf{s;eE`=s

62% 0.4% 30.0% h{t' h".. :

eE]sn;']fLj> m;'n;'s;eE`=s

2.3% 5.3%

Pl"`l"`=s k} m;µ; 3,00,000 y;]n t}n l;Y k' a;sp;s h{t' h". a[r en k} a;y/ ds ]dn h" ]js k' ]hs;b s' 30,000 r{j mrt' h". a[r 30,000 k; r{j jNm h{t; h" : b{n m"r{ s' ]nkln' k' b;d g@"n/l{s;eE`=s k} a;y/ rË k' p@v;h m'. 4 s' 8 iN`' h{t} h" : agr v' ]`x? k' a.dr i/s j;y'. a[r ]`x? m'. rh'. t{ 4-5 ]dn- pr ]ks} eNf"Kxn eTy;]d s' l2t' h/A en k} a;y/ km h{ j;t} h" : m;'n;'s;eE`=s k} a;y/ 10 s' 20 iN`' h"- pr jb ]`x? m'. lg j;t' h". t{ en k} a;y/ mh}n{. y; vz{.E tk lMb} h{ j;t} h" : ]fr k{eE eNfLm'xn a;n' pr y' s"Ll j#rt p2>n' pr apn' a;p k{ ]`x? s' alg kr l't' h".- a;´m~k;r} k}`;~/a{. k{ m;rt' h". Av. Y/d mr w} j;t' h". : g@"n/l{s;eE`=s y; m;'n;'s;eE`=s d{n{. k; b{n m"r{ m'. t}n c;r ]dn k; w.2;r rht; h" : a;vXykt; p2>n' pr y' b3> skt' h". y;]n a]ok p"d; h{t' h". : ]lMf{s;eE`=s k} a;y/ mh}n{. y; s;l{. tk k} h" : y' rË k' p@v;h k' s;q s;q i?mt' h/A k"p}lr}j> (capillaries) k' p{rj>(pores) y;]n mh}n ]9d@{. %;r; ]`x?j m'. cl' j;t' h". : ]fr vh;. s' v' ]lMf=s m'. g/jrt' h/A ]fr rË k' aNdr a; j;t' h". eTy;]d : es} trh mh}n{. y; s;l{. tk i?mt' rht' h".. : a[r yh xr}r k} a;vXykt; pr ]nwEr h" ]k xr}r k{ en k} ]ktn} a;vXykt; h" : en k; tq; Pl;Sm; s"Ls k; jNm b{n m"r{ k' al;v; ]lMf Gl".2=s- Spl}n- q;eEms Gl".2 (thymus

gland), `[n]sLlj> (tonsils)- a;.t]2y{. k' d}v;r k' n}c' k' p'ysE p|cs (Peyer's patches) n;mk w;g eTy;]d m'. h{t; h" : Oy;n rh' ]k g@"n/l{s;eE`=s blv;n s"Ls h". j{ rË k' p@v;h m'. w} a;´m~k;r} b"K`}]ry; y; v;eErs k{ m;r skt' h".. : m;'n;'s;eE`=s rË m'. en s' kmj{r h". _ v' rË k' p@v;h m'. t{ ]ks} b"K`}]ry; y; v;eErs s' nh}. l2> skt'- pr jb v' ]`x? m'. ph/.c j;t' h". t{ apn' a;p k{ f/l;n; x/# kr d't' h". _ yh;. tk ]k p;.c g/n; y; aSs} m;eE´{m}`r tk en k; s;eEj> h{ j;t; h" : a[r unk' a.dr w;r} m;µ; m'. l;es{j>{Ms (lysozomes) wr j;t' h". ]jsk' k;r~ v' etn' blv;n h{ j;t' h". ]k ]ks} w} ]bm;r} k' a;´m~k;r} k{ m;r skt' h". : tb y' m{n{s;e`=s k{ m"´{f'j y; m|´{f'j (macrophage) kh; j;t; h" : m;'n;'s;eE`=s k' m"´{f'js> tq; Ny?`Ä{]fLs ]ks} w} a;´m~k;r} k}`;~/ k{ ]ngl kr sm;Pt kr d't' h".- ]js' f|g{s;e`{]ss (phagocytosis) kht' h". : Oy;n rh' ]k enk{ etn; 7;n h{t; h" ]k k{eE w} s"Ll b;hr s' a;y; h/a; h" y; xr}r k; apn; h" : yh} h]r k} k,p; h" ]k eNh'. es b;t k; 7;n h" _ aNyq; y' apn' h} xr}r k' s"Ls k{ Y; j;t' : pr A's; nh}. h{t; ]jsk' keE k;r~ h". _ phl; yh ]k eNh{.n' ]jn s"Ls k{ Y;n; h" un k' uUpr k} ]jLd y;]n b;hr} prt rf (rough) aq;Et= Y/rdr}E h{n} c;]hy' : d?sr; xr}r k' hr s"Ll k' uUpr Ak p@{`"]K`v p@{`}n (protective protein) h{t} h" ]js' us xr}r k' WBC’s phc;nt' h".. : yh}. k;r~ h" ]k y' uNh'. nh}. Y;t'- jb ]k b;hr s' a;y' h/A k}`;~/ k} ]jLd rf> h{t} h"- v; un pr yh p@{`"]K`v p@{`}n nh}. h{t} : t}sr; y' m|´{f'j k' s"Ls el"K`Ä}kl} sÅt c;jE2 (electrically charged) h{t' h". ]jsk' k;r~ v' un b;hr} s"Ls k' s;q ]cpk p;t' h". a[r uNh'. ]ngl kr sm;Pt kr d't' h".. : yh} t{ hm;r} eMy?n}`} k; Ak tr}k; h" ]jss' ]k mn/Zy ]jNd; h" : a[r hm;r; xr}r en b"K`}]ry; eTy;]d k' AN`}b[2>}j> (antibodies) bn;n' s}Y l''t; h" a[r eNh'. sm;Pt kr d't; h" : Ny/`Ä{]fLs (neutrophils) a[r m"´{f'jj> (macrophages) k' s"Ll k' a.dr l;eEs{s{m=j> (lysosomes) n;mk a.g h". j{ b;hr} k}`;~/a{. k{ m;rn' k' ]ly' kr}b c;l}s p@k;r k' ANj;>em tk bn; skt' h". : Av. m"´{f'jj> l;eEp'j> (lipase) y;]n f"`=s k{ pc;n' v;l; ANj;>em bn; kr ]ks} ] ks} b"K`'r}y' k} sÅt ]jLd k{ g;l kr us' ]ngln' l;yk nmE bn; kr ]ngl j;t' h". y; sm;Pt kr d't' h". _ j"s' ]k `} > b} > k' b"K`}]ry; : Ny/`Ä{]fLs v; m"´{f']jj> ]nMn]l]Å;t keE Anj;eEmj> %;r; ]ks} w} trh s' k}`;~/a{. k{ sm;Pt kr d't' h".- ]jnm'. m/Åy h". _ Complement system, superoxide (O2 -), Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), Hydroxyl ions (-OH-), myelo-peroxidase, Hypochlorite eTy;]d n;m k' keE bh/t h} wy;nk ANj;>em=s h". ]jn k} Ak q{2>} s} m;µ; w} b"K`}]ry; k{ sm;Pt krn' k' ]ly' k;f} h" : l;es{j>;em (lysozyme) n;m k; ANj>;em _ j{ sl;ev; m'. p;y; j;t; h" _ vh b"K`}]ry; k} ]jLd k{ p;n} trh g;l skt; h" : h;.- k/9 b"K`}]ry; A's' h". ]jn k' uUpr en k; p@w;v nh}. p2>t;- uL`' v' Ny/`Ä{]fLs v; m"´{f']jj> k{ h} sm;Pt kr d't' h". ]jn k' k;r~ k/9 p/r;n} ]bm;]ry;\ h{ j;t} h". : es p@k;r s' Ny/`Ä{]fLs a[r m;'n;'s;eE`=s ]ks} w} p@k;r k' b"K`}]ry;- v;eErs y; aNy ]ks} w} jhr}l} vSt/ k{ ]jss' xr}r k{ n/ks;n h{ _ us' sm;Pt krn' k} 6mt; rYt' h".. : Spl}n- b{n m"r{- ]lvr y; ]lMfn;'2=j> (lymph nodes) m'. k/9 Y;s s"Ls h{t' h".- ]jNh'. A'N2{q}]lyl s"Ls (endothelial cells) kht' h". : m;'n;'s;eE` c;h' p@v;h m'. h{- ]`x? m'.m"´{f'j> m'. y; A'N2{q}]lyl s"Ls m'. h{- v' j{ k;yE krt' h". us' r"`}k/l{AN2{q}]lyl ]sS`m (reticulo-endothelial system) kht' h". : en k' k;r~ kh}. w} k{eE b;hr} c}j> bc kr nh}. j; skt} : c;h' vh cm2} m'. h{- y; ]lMf n{2>j> m'. A'f'r'N` (afferent) y; eEf'r'N` (efferent) n]lk;y'. h{.- y; f'f2{. k' a]Lvy{]l (alveoli) m'. 2S` s"Ls (dust cells)- ]lvr m'. k/fr s"Ls- Spl}n y; b{n m"r{ m'. kh}. w} k{eE b;hr} c}j bckr nh}. j; skt} : us' c;r{. b;j? s' i'r kr sm;Pt kr ] dy; j;t; h"- c;h' f'f2{. m'. k{eE 2S`- k;rbn eTy;]d k{eE w} vSt/ h{ us' sm;Pt kr ]dy; j;t; h" : ]fr w} k{eE rh j;y' t{ Spl}n k} k"p}lr}j> (capillaries) k' ]9d@ b2>' h{t' h". (]jn s' rË k' s"Ll ]nkl kr r"2 pLp m'. s' g/jrt' h". ) t{ vh pLp Abn;"rml rË k' s"Ll y; ]jn RBC’s k; um@ 120 ]dn h{ c/k' h{t' h". uNh'. sm;Pt kr kr rË k{ Ak dm s;f a;g' w'jt; h" : s{ k{eE w} b;hr} vSt/ es ]sS`m s' bc nh}. skt; : h;\- A's; h{n' k' ]ly' SPl}n- ]lvr- q;ems Gl".2 a[r ]lMf n{2>j> k' k;yE s/c;½ #p s' h{n; c;]hy' : t{ eNh'. uks;n' k' ]ly' h} hm LMNT k' Viral treatment formula d't' h". :

eNFlm'xn jb w} kw} m;r s'- y; b"K`}]ry; s'- y; `Ä[m; (trauma) y;]n ac;nk k{eE 4`k; lg'- y; ] ks} k"]mkl- gm}E eTy;]d s' ]`x? i;yl h{n' pr unm'.. g2>b2>} a; j;t} h" ]jss' ]nMn p;\c bdl;v ]dYt' h". _ ]js' eNFlm'xn (inflammation) kht' h". : l;]lm; y;]n us jgh k; l;l h{ j;n;gm}E y;]n p'x.` k{ h} nh}. b]Lk d?sr{. k{ w} us jgh k{ 9?n' pr gm}E mhs?s h{t} h"s?jn y;]n vh jgh f?l; h/a; ]dYt; h"jk2n _ y;]n us a.g k' hlcl m'. ½k;v` a;t} h" a[r ddE _ j{ aksr t}v@ h} h{t; h" a[r us} k' k;r~ us jgh k; jk2n a[r t}v@ h{t; h" y;]n eNFlm'xn a[r s;o;r~ s?jn m'. k;f} fkE h" : s;o;r~ s?jn m'. aKsr l;]lm; y; jk2n nh}. rht; : l']kn eNFlm'xn m'. v' d{n{. h{t' h} h". : • • • •

ab eNFlm'xn k' ]v]w¸ phl/a{. pr g[r kr'.g' _ l;]lm; _ m;r lgn' k' k;r~ us jgh pr rË k} n]lk;y'. Y/l_s} j;t} h". a[r rË k; p@v;h a]ok h{ j;t; h" : k"p}lr}j> s' FLy?2> (fluid) a]ok us jÅm} ]`x? m'. h{ j;t; h" y; a; j;t; h" : es trh s' fLy?2 k' s;q f;eEb@}n;'j"n (fibrinogen) a[r p@{`}n k' w} s;q a; j;n' s' FLy?2> jm kr g;.1 bn j;t} h" y; FLy?2 k; Kl[` (clot) bn j;t; h" : yh k"p}lr}j> %;r; a;t; h" : g@'n/l{s;eE`s v; m;'n;'s;eE`=s w} jÅm} ]`x? m'. a; j;t' h". : ]fr yh sb h{n' s' ]`x? m'. s?jn a; j;t} h" :

]fr ]`x? k' aNdr k' k"]mkl=j> j"s' ]k ]hS`;m;eEn (histamine)- b@"2}k;eEnn (bradykinin)- s'r{`{]nn (serotonin)- p@[S`;Gl"]N2Nj> (prostaglandins) a[r d?sr; kMpl}m".` ]sS`m (complement system) %;r;- rË k; jmn; y; Bl2> Kl[]`g ]sS`m (blood clotting system) eTy;]d h{n' s' vh;. pr f|g{s;e`{]ss h{n; x/# h{ j;t; h" ]js s' ]k m"´{f'j> %;r; jÅm} ]`x? k{ Y;kr sm;Pt kr ]dy; j;t; h" : es p@k;r j>Åm} ]`x? s' ]nkl; m;l xr}r k' k/9 aC9' s"Ls k' s;q lg; h{n' s'- m"´{f']jj> k' s"Ls o{Y; Y; j;t' h". a[r uNh'. w} w?l s' Y; j;t' h". Av. Anj;n' m'. xr}r k{ n/ks;n ph/.c;t' h".. : eNFlm'xn a;n' k' t/rNt b;d h} hm;r' xr}r k' ]lMf|]`Ks (lymphatics y;]n ]lMf k} g@.]qy;\ ) usk{ c;r{. b;j/ s' i'r kr f"]b@n;'j"n k} mdd y; shyt; s' us eNFlm'xn k} jgh k' c;r{. a{r jm j;t' h" y; A's; k]hy' k} sb r;St' bNd kr d't' h". _ t;]k b"K`}]ry; eTy;]d vh;. s' ]ks} d?sr} jgh n j;y'. a[r tkl}f a[r n b3' : yh sb us k' uUpr ]nwEr krt; h" ]k ]`x? ]ktn; i;yl h/a; h" a[r d/sr; us b"K`}]ry; eTy;]d k' b3>n' s' phl' h} A's; kr ]ly; j;t; h" : pr agr S`Ä'P`{k{k} (streptococci) b"K`}]ry; vh;. s' a;g' ]nkl j;y' t{ yh eNf'Kxn s;r' xr}r m'. f"l j;y'g; a[r A's} avSq; m'. r{g} k} m,Ty/ w} h{ skt} h" : eNFlm'xn c;h' ]`x? m'. h{- l.Gj> m'. h{ y; m;e´{Gl}y; s"Ls (microglia cells) j{ b@'n m' h". unm'. h{ _ sb s' phl' eNFlm'xn a;n' k' t/rNt b;d _ ]mn`{. h} m'. _ ]nMn ´m s' k;yE x/# h{t; h" : • rË m'. s.c;r krt' m"´{f']jj> us eNFlm'xn k' jgh k' a;sp;s k' mr' a[r i;yl s"Ls k{ ]ngln; x/# kr d't' h".. : • d?sr; yh ]k Ny/`Ä{]fLs rË s' ]nkl kr jh;. eNFlm'xn h/a; h" vh;. ph/.c kr apn; k;yE p@;r.w kr d't' h". : yh sb eNFlm'xn h{n' pr us jgh pr j{ m;l t"y;r h{t; h" us k' k;r~ h{t; h" : Ny/`Ä{]fLs svE p@qm k"p}lr}j> k} aNdr} ]dv;r k' s;q ]cpk j;t' h". jh;. eNFlm'xn h/eE h" : A's; krk' v' k"p}lr}j> v; d?sr' a[r 9{`} n;2>}y{ k{ alg kr d't' h" t;]k Ny/`Ä{]fLs k} a;vk j;vk m'. b;o; nh}. a;y' t;]k vh ]`x?j> m'. j; sk'- jh;. pr k{eE tkl}f h/eE h" : • t}sr;- eNFlm'xn k' kc2>' k{ sm;Pt krn' k' ]ly' j{ j{ k"]mkl eTy;]d c;]hy' us' bn;n; x/# kr d't' h". : es p@k;r s'- k/9 h} iN`{. m'.- Ny/`Ä{]fLs _ j{ k} rË k' blv;n s"Ls h". _ v' b;hr k' a; ´m~k;r}y{. k{ sm;Pt krn' m'. sfl h{ j;t' h". :

eNFlm'xn h{n' k' b;d j{ kc2>; y; p@{2K`=s (products) t"y;r h{t' h"- v' rË %;r; b{n m"r{ m'. j;n' s' b{n m"r{ m'. j{ Jy;d; Ny/`Ä{]fLs S`{r h"..- uNh'. t/rNt rË m'. 9{2>; j;t; h" t;]k eNFlm'xn p"d; krn' v;l' k}`;~/a{. s' l2>; j; sk' : s{ rË m' Ny/`Ä{]fLs k} ]gnt} _ j{ s;o;r~t+ Ak m;eE´{l}`r y;]n 100ml. m'. 4000 s' 5000 tk rht} h" _ vh eNFlm'xn h{n' k' k/9 h} iN`{. m'. 15,000 s' 25,000 tk ph/.c j;t} h" : es' Ny/`Ä{f}l}y; (neutrophilia) kht' h". a[r yh ]nx;n} h" ]k xr}r eNFlm'xn s' m/k;bl; mrn' k' ]ly' eNh'. Jy;d; m;µ; m'. bn; rh; h" : Oy;n rh' _ Ny/`Ä{]fLs k} ]gnt} rË m'. 62% h" jb ]k m;'n;'s;eE`=s k} 5.3% h} h"y;]n m{n{s;e`=s km p"d; h{t' h".- a[r b{n m"r{ m' en k; S`[k w} km h{t; h"- es]ly' ]js ]`x? m'. eNFlm'xn h{t} h" vh;. enk} m;µ; km h} h{t} h" (]jtn s"Ls ]`x? k' a.dr h".- utn' h}) a[r unk{ b3>n' m'. k/9 smy lg'g; : d?sr;- y' eMm|Cy{r (immature) s"Ls h{t' h".- mtlb aw} 9{`' h". v; pk' nh}. h". y; m"Cy{r (mature) nh}. h/A h".- a[r apn' a;p k{ f/l;kr m"´{f'j h{n' k' ]ly' a[r ]fr bh/t l;eEs{s{m bn;n' m'. smy lgt; h" ]jsk' ]ly' eNh'. km s' km a;1 iN`' c;]hy' : v"s' t{ yh sc h" ]k Ak b;r m"Cy{r h{n' k' b;d y; pkn' k' b;d m{n{s;e` k; Ak s"Ll s[ b"K`}]ry; tk m;rn' k} 6mt; rYt' h".- s{ eNh'. t"y;r h{n{. m'. y; eNFlm'xn k{ sm;Pt krn' m'. k/9 ]dn lg j;t' h". : a[r m"´{f'js> k' p@w;v k' k;r~ h} b;d m'. b}_]lMf{s;eE`=s (B lymphocytes) %;r; A'N`}b[2>}j bnn' x/# h{.g' : b{n m"r{ m'. g@'n/l{s;eE`=s v; m;'n;'s;eE`=s k; S`[k (stock) y;]n jm;v` rht; h"vh t}n y; c;r ]dn k; rht; h" : a[r b{n m"r{ c;h' bh/t h} a]ok m;µ; m'. eNh'. bn; skt} h" : pr eNh'. rË m'. a;n' k' ]ly' t}n c;r ]dn lg j;t' h". : agr eNFlm'xn sm;Pt n h{ t{ b[n m"r{ mh}n{. v; vz{E tk eNh'. w;r} M;µ; m'. bnt} rh'g} : g@"n/l{s;eE` a[r m"´{f'j k' k;y{E. k; ]ny.μ~ k' ] ly' keE ]sS`m k;m krt' h" ]jnm'. p;\c m/Åy p@k;r s' h". _ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

`=y?mr n"´{]ss f"K`r (TNF) Tubular Necrosis Factor eN`ÄLy/]kn n.br 1 (IL-1) Interleukin # 1 g@'n/l{s;eE`_m;'n;'s;eE` k[l{n} S`}m/l'xn f"K`r G-M CSF Granulocyte-Monocyte Colony Stimulation factor g@'n/l{s;eE` k[l{n} S`}m/l'xn f"K`r G-CSF Granulocyte Colony Stimulatin factor m;'n;'s;eE` k[l{n} S`}m/l'xn f"K`r M-CSF Monocyte Colony Stimulation factor

en m'. TNF y;]n eN`rLy?]kn n.br 1 Jy;d; sfl h".- ]jn s' b;k} sb p@w;]vt h{t' h".. : es p@k;r s' ek`=1; k;m krn' pr a;´m~k;r} k{ sm;Pt ]ky; j;t; h" : es p@k;r s' b;hr k' b"K`}]ry; eTy;]d k{ m;rn' pr y; hm;r' xr}r k' Ny/`Ä{]fl- m"´{f'j eTy;]d w} uns' l2>t'_l2>t' y; Yr;b ]`x? ]js pr a;´m~ h/a; h" ps k; #p o;r~ kr l't' h". a[r smy k' s;q aNdr h} sm;Pt h{ j;t' h". y; n sm;Pt h{n' pr b;hr ]nkl j;t} h" : EOSINOPHILS eE]sn;']fLs Ny/`Ä{]fLs k' s;mn' 9{`; v; kmj{r p2> j;t; h" a[r rË m'. es k} m;µ; y; ] mkd;r y; ]gnt} w} km h". : yh ]ks} p"r;s;eE` (parasite) k{ Y; y; ]ngl nh}. skt; pr yh unk' s;q ]cpk j;t; h" a[r uNh'. m;rn' k' ]ly' yh Y;s p@k;r k} jhr y; k"m}kLs bn;t; h" ]js s' v' p"r;s;eE`=s bh/t s} ]gnt} m'. m;r' j;t' h".. : yh rË m'. c;h' 2.3% h} h" pr jb p"r;s;eE`=s s' k{eE ]bm;r} a;t} h" t{ y' bh/t b3> j;t' h". t;]k y' un k}`;~/a{. k' bCc{. K' s;q ]cpk kr uNh'. M;;r sk'. : y' t}n ]v]w¸ p@k;r k' k"]mkl bn; kr ]ks} w} p@k;r k' p"r;s;eE` k' uUpr k} cm2>} k{ gl; kr sm;Pt kr d't' h". _ • • •

hydrolytic enzymes –en k' cells k' a.dr k' l;eEs{s{m ( lysosomes) n;mk w;g k}`;~/a{. k' cells k' prt k{ g;ln' k' ]ly' ]v]w¸ p@k;r k' ANj;>em=s bn;t' h". : h;eEl} ]rA]K`v a[]Ksj>n O2 _ _ j{ a[Ks}j"n k; Ak A's; i;tk #p h" ]jsk' SpxE m;µ s' h} k}`;~/ YTm h{ j;y'.g' : m'jr b']sk p@{`}n MBR – k}`;~/a{. k' bCc{. k{ YTm krn' k' ]ly' Ak Ytrn;k k"m}kl h" : yh Ak polypeptide h" y;]n yh tw} bn'g; agr us Vy]Ë Ak xr}r m'. HCl a[r p".]´y;s k' ANj;>em=s 1}k s' bn rh' h{. :

]js ]`x? m' A'lj}E h{ j;t} vh;. b's{]fLs bh/t b3> j;t' h" _ j"s' ]k b@[.k;e]`s- aSqm; y; k/9 cmE r{g{. m'. h{t; h" : d/]ny; m'. keE d'x{. m'. ]nMn d{ p@k;r k' eNf'Kxn m'. y' b3> j;t' h". _ schistomiasis, trichinosis. BASOPHILS

b"s{]fl s"Ll m;S` s"Ll k} trh k' h". : m;S` s"Ll sw} k"p}lr}j> k' 1}k b;hr ]Sqt h". : y' d{n{. h} rË m' ]hp;]rn k{ bn;t' h". t;]k rË n jm' : yh} Y;n; Y;n' k' b;d usm'. s' w;r} f"` k{ u1;t' h". y; pc;t' h".. : y' d{n{. h} ]hS`;m;en (histamine)- b@"2}k;eE]nn (bradykinin) Av. s"r{`{]nn (serotonin) k{ w} bn;t' h".. : dr asl m;S` s"Ls h} eNFlm'xn k' smy en k"m}kLs k{ Jy;d; m;µ; m'. bn;kr rË m'. 9{2 d't' h".. : jb A'N`}j"Nj> k' s;q m;S` s"Ll v; b"s{]fLs ]cpk j;t' h". t{ v' AN`}j"Nj> en k{ m;r d't' h". y; rPcr (rupture) kr d't' h". y;]n enk' prt k{ t{2 d't' h". a[r en k' f`n' k' b;d enm'. s' ] nMn keE c}j>' ]nklt} h" _ ]hS`;m;eEn- b@"2}k;eE]nn- s"r{`{]nn- ]hp;]rn- l;eEs{s{ml Anj;eEmÂj> lysosomal enzymes eTy;]d : en k"m}kLs k' k;r~ h} Alj}E (allergy) p"d; h{t} h"- ]jsk' k;r~ Tvc; k; l;l h{n;- n;k s' y; a;\Y{. s' p;n} ]nkln;- 9}.k k; a;n;- Y/jl}- jln eTy;]d l6~ ]dYt' h". : LEUKOPENIA Ly?k{p}n}y; Ak A's} h;L;t h" ]js m'. b{n m"r{ WBC’s y;]n sf'd rË k' s"Ls bn;n; bNd kr d't} h"- a[r xr}r b;hr k; k{eE w} a;´m~ h{n' pr k/9 nh}. kr skt; Ky{.]k usk} s/r6; VyvSq; sm;Pt h" : a;m t;"r pr xr}r m'. b"K`}]ry; hr jgh pr h". _ j"s' ]k Xv;s n]lk;m/.h- a;.Y- s;r' p'` m'.- a;.t]2y{. m'.- p'x;b k} n]lk;y'.- v; vj;en; (vagina) eTy;]d : s{ sf'd rË k' s"Ll km h{n' s' y; n bnn' s' d{ h} ]dn m'. m/.h m'. y; b2>} a;.tr} m'. f{2' s' ]nkl a;y'.g' y; k{eE n k{eE p@k;r k; eNf"Kxn Xv;s VyvSq; m'. w} a; j;y'g; : A's} avSq; m'. agr es k; upc;r n ]ky; j;y' a[r sf'd rË bnn; p?r; bNd h{ j;y' t{ mn/Zy Ak sPt;h m'. sm;Pt h{ j;y'g;- Ky{.]k eNf"Kxn Ak jgh s' aNy jgh{. pr f"lt; j;y'g; : A's} avSq; ]k sf'd rË s"Ls n bn' _ yh tb h{t; h" agr ]ks} A'`m b[Mb (atom bomb) k' f`n' k' b;d usm'. s' j{ g;m; r'j> (gamma rays) ]nkl'.g} un k' p@w;v s'- y; aTy]ok X-rays s' y; un k"]mkLs y; dv;eEy{. s' ]js m'. b"Nj>}n h{ eTy;]d : mgr a;jkl k' keE dv;eEy{. s' yh avSq; a]ok a;t} h" j"s' ]k chloramphenicol j{ keE s;l{. s' A'N`}b;y{]`k k} g{l} k' #p m' p@c]lt h" : y; Thiouracil eTy;]d bh/t s} dv;eEy;. h". ]jn s' b{n m"r{ k;m krn; bNd kr d't} h" _ vh sf'd rË h} nh}. vrn l;l rË w} bn;n' m'. asmqE h" : b{n m"r{ k} es avSq; k{ b{n m"r{ k; APl;]sy; (aplasia of the bone marrow) y; APl;]S`k A'n}]my; (aplastic anemia) kht' h". : A's; h{n' pr w} b{n m"r{ k' k/9 S`'m s"Ls (stem cells)- my'l{Bl;S` s"Ls (myeloblast cells) y; h'm;'s;eE`{Bl;S` (hemocytoblast) n;mk s"Ls j}]V;t rh j;t' h".- ]jn m'. etn} x]Ë y; 6mt; h{t} h" ]k antibiotics eTy;]d s' eNf'Kxn k{ r{kn' k; b;d agr uNh'. py;EPt smy ]dy; j;y t{ v' s;r} b{n m"r{ k} VyvSq; k{ 1}k_1;k kr skt' h".. : es ]ly' r{g} k; upc;r agr k/drt} tr}k{. s' ]ky; j;y' t{ k/9 mh}n{. m'. b{n m"r{ m'. ny} j;n a; skt} h" a[r r{g} k' Bl2 s"Ls v;ps n[rml bn skt' h". : h"r}sn Harrison k} p/Stk m'. ]lY; h" ]k k}m;'q'r"p} (chemotherapy) k' b;d k/9 r{]gy{. m'. b{n m"r{ k} A's} avSq; y;]n (aplastic anemia) a;t} h} h" a[r a;g' 2|;K`r k; k;m h" ]k vh ]ks p@k;r upc;r krt; h" LEUKEMIAS jb rË k' sf'd s"Ls bh/t h} Jy;d; b3> j;t' h".- us' Ly?k}]my; kht' h". : yh Ak ]kSm k; k"Nsr h"- ]jsk' d{ m/Åy p@k;r h". _ • agr ]lMfn;'2>j (lymph nodes) y; aNy lymphogenous y;]n ]lMf k' cells Jy;d; m;µ; m'. WBC’s bn;t' h". t{ us' ]lMf{s;e]`k Ly?k}]my; (lymphocytic leukemia) kht' h". : • agr b{n m"r{ k' myelogenous cells %;r; WBC’s Jy;d; m;µ; m'. bn;y' j;t' h". t{ us' m;y'l{j}ns Ly?k}]my; (myelogenous leukemia) kht' h". : ]fr b{n m"r{ s' ]nklkr y' WBC’s s;r' xr}r m'. f"l j;t' h". : esm'. w} keE p@k;r h{ skt' h". j"s' ]k Ny?`Ä{]f]lk Ly/k']my;

]jsm'. Ny?`Ä{]fLls a]ok m;µ; m'. h{t'

h". ea{]sn;']f]lk Ly/k']my;_ b"s{]f]lk Ly/k']my; _ m;'n;'s;eE]`k Ly/k']my;

]jsm'. ea{]sn{]fLls a]ok m;µ; m'. h{t' h". ]jsm'. b's{]fLls a]ok m;µ; m'. h{t' h". _ ]jsm'. m{n{s;e`=s a]ok m;µ; m'. h{t'

h". mtlb ]js p@k;r k' w} a]ok s"Ls h{ y; a]ok bn rh' h{. us} p@k;r k' s"Ls k; Ly/k']my; khl;t; h" :

Ly?k}]my; k' s"Ls asl} bn;y' h/A n[rml WBC’s k' s"Ls s' alg trh k' s"Ls h{t' h". : ] jtn' alg h{.g' utn; a]ok k1{r Ly/k']my; h"- a[r y' s"Ls xr}r k' asl} bn;y' WBC’s s"Ls k} trh k;m nh}. krt' y; r6; nh}. krt' y; eNf"Kxn s' nh}. l2>t' y; nh}. l2> p;t' : ]js s' agr es k; upc;r n ]ky; j;y' t{ mn/Zy k/9 h} mh}n{. m'. mr j;y'g; : kw} kw} y' p/r;n} b}m;r} k; #p w} o;r~ krt' h". a[r tb y' ds b}s s;l tk b3>t' b3>t' mn/Zy k{ sm;Pt kr d't' h".. : b{n m"r{ s' bn;y' s"Ls xr}r k' aSvSq jgh{. pr p@w;v 2;lt' h". : y' p"d; h{t' h} mJj; k' a;j?b;j? k' h2=2} k{ Y;n' lgt' h".- ]jss' h]2=2y{. k' a.dr ddE h{n' lgt; h" a[r ]dn p@]t ] dn h]2=2y{. k{ etn; kmj>{r kr d't' h". ]k vh `?` w} skt} h" : c;h' b{n m"r{ s' bn' s"Ls h{ y; ]lMfn;'2>j s'- y' a;]Yr Spl}n- ]lMfn;'2=j>- ]lvr eTy;]d jgh{. pr f"l h} j;t' h". : a[r jh;. jh;. y' ek`=1' h{t' h". vh;. s' v' apn' a;p k{ a;s_p2{s k' d?sr' ]`x?j> m'. f"lt' h". a[r ]`x? k} Y/r;k y; t;kt k} vSt/A. Y;t' h/A ]`x? k{ kmj{r kr kr sm;Pt kr d't' h".. : Ly?k}]my; k' m/Åy l6~ h". _ A'n}]my; y; rË k} km} h{ j;n;- Pl"`=`l"`=` k; km h{ j;n; y; jgh jgh s' rË k; Sµ;v h{n; Ky{.]k Pl"`l"`=s km h".. : sf'd s"Llj k} b3>{tr} s' uNh'. utn} Y/r;k w} c;]hy' a[r mn/Zy k; Y;y; Y;n; y; us s' bn} t;kt y; ]v`;]mn=s y; A'm}n{ A']s2=s k{ y' Y; j;t' h" ]js s' o}r' o}r' ] `x?j k' p@{`}Nj> w} sm;Pt h{n' lgt' h".- mn/Zy xr}r s' kmj{r h{t; j;t; h" a[r yh} m[t k; k;r~ bn j;t; h" :

Interleukin-1 e.`rLy?]kn n.br Ak yh neutrophils, lymphocytes tq; macrophages k' ]vk;s Av. k;yE k{ uks;t; h" : Oy;n rh' m"´{f'js (macrophages) %;r; IL-1 y;]n e.`rLy?]kn n.br Ak bn;y' j;t' h".- t;]k ]js trh k; vh Y;s ]lMf{s;e`=s (lymphocytes) bn;n; c;ht' h".- vh bn'- a[r es k;m m'. b3>;v; krn' k' ]ly' e.`rLy?]kn n.br Ak sh;yt; krt; h" : es k' %;r; T h"Lpr s"Ls k{ uks;y; j;t; h" : yh CSF k} uTp;dn k{ uks;t; h" : esk' al;v; yh A'2Ä}nl- ]lvr- h2=2}- Av. Sm?q mSsl (smooth muscle) k' k/9 Y;s k;y{E. k{ uks;t; h" : (Taber’s 18th edn.p 1007) Euglobulin y?Gl{b?]ln yh asl} Gl{b?]ln h" j{ Pl'n p;n} m'. nh}. ]mlt; mgr nmk}n p;n} m'. ]ml j;t; h" : Globulin Gl{b?]ln Gl{b?]ln ]sMpl ^{`}n g@?p k; h{t; h"- j{ Pl'n p;n} y;]n s;d; p;n} m'. nh}. ]mlt; pr sÅt A']s2 k' s[L`=s (salts) agr p;n} m'. ]ml; ]dy' j;y'. t{ us m'. gl j;t; h" : j"s' ]k s}rm Gl{b?]lnf;e]b@n{j"n- l"K`{Gl{b?]ln eTy;]d : Lactoglobulin l|K`{Gl{b?]ln l|K`{Gl{b?]ln Ak ^{`}n h" j{ d?o m'. p;y; j;t; h" : gmE krn' pr yh jm j;t; h" a[r ml;eE k; #p o;r~ kr l't; h" j{ ]fr Pl'n p;n} m'. ]mKs nh}. h{t; : Myelofibrosis m;y'l{f;eb@{]ss b{n m"r{ k} jgh f;eb@s ]`x? (fibrous tissue) k; a; j;n; : es m'. A's} p]r]Sq]t a; j;t} h" ]k j{ s"Ls RBC’s k{ bn;t' h".- unm'. k/9 Yr;b} a; j;t} h" ]js s' v' n[rml RBC’s n bn;kr A'Bn[rml (abnormal) RBC’s bn;n' x/# kr d't' h".- ]js m'. RBC’s k} x'p y;]n a;k;r w} ]bg2> j;t} h"- a[r A'n}]my; y; xr}r m'. rË k} km} h{ j;t} h" : enk} SPl}n w} ANl;jE (enlarge) y;]n b2>} h{ j;t} h" : b{n m"r{ m'. f;eb@{Bl;S`=s (fibro-blasts) n;mk s"Ls h{t' h".- ]jn m'. Ak l"`}s `;ep f;eb@s ]`x? (lattice type fibrous tissue) k{ bn;t' h". : mtlb ]k es p@k;r k; ]sS`m ]k phl' A's; h{g; j"s; ]k r{`} bn;n} h" t{ a;`; g/.q kr t"y;r krn;- r{`} k' p'2>' bn;n;- ]fr b'ln;- ]fr tv' pr us' s'kn;- ]js s' r{`} pk kr t"Æy;r h{g} : us ]sS`m k{ l"]`=`s (lattice) kht' h". <<< es} p@k;r k; ]sS`m b{n m"r{ m'. h"- ]js k' %;r; RBC’s 1}k t"Æy;r h{t' h". : ]js trh s' r{`} k; tv; agr 1}k n h{ t{ r{`} 1}k p@k;r s' bn nh}. skt}- us} trh s' agr b{n m"r} k' A'Bn[rml ]sS`m k' k;r~ k/9 Yr;b} a; j;n' k' k;r~ f;eb@{Bl;S`=s k{ a]ok uks;y; j;t; h" ]js s' vh f;eEb@s ]`x? j> (fibrous tissue) k} a]ok m;µ; m'. bn;n' x/# kr d't' h".- ]js k' k;r~ RBC bn;n' v;l' s"Ls km RBC bn;n' lgt' h". ]jsk' k;r~ rË m'. RBC’s k} m;µ; km h{ j;t} h"- ]jss' A'n}]my; h{ j;t; h" : hm'. es f;eEb@s ]`x?j> (fibrous tissue) k} a]okt; k{ km krn; h"- ]js s' ]k RBC’s 1}k p@k;r s' bn' : g/½j} k} s{c h" ]k Ky; (2) Pan es f;eEb@s ]`x?j> k{ r{k skt; h" < agr ‘Pan’ m'. ddE h" t{ (2) Pan d'n; l;wkr h{g; : es A'n}]my; m'. RBC’s eMm|Cy{r (immature) y; ]ms_x'pn (mis-shapen) y; 9{`'_b2>' h{ skt' h". : WBC’s a[r Pl"`l"`=s k} x'p (shape) y;]n a;k;r w} ]bg2> j;t} h" a[r v' y; t{ bh/t b3> j;y'.g' y; bh/t km h{ j;y'.g' : f;eEb@s ]`x?j> b{n m"r{ m'. etn' b3> j;t' h".- a[r rË bn;n'v;l' s"Ls km h{ j;t' h".- ] k sw} p@k;r k' s"Ls bnn' km h{ j;t' h". : WBC’s k' km h{n' pr xr}r ]ks} w} eNf'Kxn k; m/k;bl; nh}. kr p;t; a[r Pl"`l"`=s k' km h{n' pr xr}r m'. kh}. W} Bl}]2.g h{ rh} h{- us' r{k; nh}. j; skt; : xr}r m'. rË b[n m"r{ m'. bnt; h" : f}`l S`'j (fetal stage) y;]n gwE k' bCc' k{ ]lvr a[r SPl}n w} rË bn;t' h". : s{ agr m;y'l{f;eb@{]ss k} avSq; a; j;y t{ ]lvr a[r SPl}n ANl;jE h{ j;t' h". ]js' agnogenic myeloid metaplasia kht' h". : m;y'l{f;eb@{]ss h{n' k' b;d kw}_kw} ]nMn b}m;]ry;\ h{ skt' h". _ • l?k']my; (leukemia) y;]n Bl2 k"Nsr • p[l}s;eq}]my; v'r; (polycythemia vera) • mL`}pl m;el{m; • ]lMf{m; (lymphoma) • `=y?brk/l{]ss (TB y;]n tuberculosis) • b{n m'. eNf'Kxn k; a;n; _ eTy;]d pr A's; Ky{. h{t; h"- yh aw} tk pt; nh}. lg; h" :

v' l{g j{ `;|]Ksk sBS`|Nss (toxic substances) y;]n jhr}l} vSt/a{. k' p;s y;]n unk} v;t;vr~ m'. rht' h".- j"s' ]k b'nj>}n (benzene)- r']2y'xn (radiation) eTy;]d t{ un l{g{. k{ m;y'l{f;eb@{]ss h{n' k' bh/t c;Nss (chances) h". y; un l{g{. k{ m;y'l{f;eb@{]ss h{ j;t; h"- y; h{ skt; h" : yh pc;s s' sTtr s;l k' umr y; a;y/ k' l{g{. m'. p;y; j;t; h" yh o}m'_o}m' a;t; h" a[r o}m'_o}m' b3>t; h" a[r A's; h{n' pr v' ds s;l tk ]jNd; rht' h". : aKsr yh b}m;r} x}i@ b3>t} h" a[r agr A's; h{t; h" t{ us' m"]lGnN` m;y'l{f;eb@{]ss (malignant fibrosis) y; A'Ky?` m;y'l{f;eb@{]ss `;eEp l?k']my; kht' h". : aKsr vz{E. tk m;y'l{f;eb@{]ss k' a;n' pr es k; k{eE l6~ ]dY;eE nh}. d't; : aKsr r{g} k{ A'n}]my; kmj{r a[r qk;_qk; s; rYt; h" a[r unk; vjn w} km h{ j;t; h" : SPl}n a[r ]lvr k' b3> j;n' s' A'B2{mn m'. aKsr ddE s} rht} h" : jb m;e´{Sk{p s' rË k' s"Ls k{ d'Yt' h".- t{ rË k' aNdr eMm|Cy{r (immature) a[r 9{`'_b2>' y; ]ms_x'pn (mis-shapen) s"Ls ]dY;eE d't' h".- ]fr jb b{n m"r{ (bone marrow) k} b;eEa[Ps} (biopsy) k} j;t} h"- us smy m;l?m p2>t; h" ]k m;y'l{f;eb@{]ss h" : Oy;n rh' ]k aw} tk es k; k{eE A's; el;j nh}. ]ml; h"- ]js s' es' a;g' b3>n'' s' r{k; j;y : prNt/ k/9 k"Nsr k} dv;ey{. s' SPl}n a[r ]lvr k' ANl;jEm'N` y;]n b3> j;n' s' us' LMNT upc;r s' km ]ky; j; skt; h" : A'l{p|q} m'. b{n m"r{ k{ `Ä;.SPl;N` (transplant) krn' s' es b}m;r} k{ k/9 r{k; j; skt; h" : h;. k/9 r{]gy{. k{ A']rq@{p{y']`n d'kr rË k{ b3>;y; j;t; h" ]js m'. sPt;h m'. Ak Ak hj;r ½py' k' d{ eNj'Kxn lg;y' j;t' h". y; ny; rË ]dy; j;t; h" : bh/t km h} A's' r{g} h{t' h". ]jn k} SPl}n b3> j;t} h" t{ SPl}n k{ ]nk;l ]dy; j;t; h" : esm'. ]nMn upc;r l;wd;yk h{ skt' h". Raman treatment k' s;q Rt. Parkhoo a[r Lt. Parkhoo (½) Ku – 20 secs (½) Ku – 6 secs eTy;]d : (2) Pan d'kr es b}m;r} k{ a;g' b3>n' s' r{k; j; skt; h" < A']rq@{p{y']`n k' ]ly' (30) Medulla (3) Swt w} ]dy; j; skt; h" :

k/9 ny' upc;r a[r unk} k;yE x"l} Oxygen formula -

Ky{. a[r k"s' k;my;b h" us' sm]4y'

(8) Ch. Only (6) ← → (6) \°/ (3) ↑o↑ , (20) ,

l.Gj> s;f krn' k' ]ly' gdEn k' msLs Y{lt; h" t;]k aC9} trf s;.s l' sk' l.Gj> k{ rË k; sPl;eE b3>;n' k' ]ly' T1/T2 k' ns{. %;r; d}m;g k' nVEj> k{ 1}k s.d'x ph/\c;n'

(6) \°/ (3) ↑o↑ (6) ← →

s;r' xr}r m'. rË k' s.c;r k{ 1}k krn' j"s' uUpr ]dy; gy; h"

yh d'Y; gy; h" ]k a;j k' ]dn yh upc;r bh/t h} aC9; h" : es k; k;r~ h" ]k l.Gj> s;f h{ j;t' h".- un m'. rË k; bh;v b3> j;t; h"- ]jss' xr}r k} hr g@.q} k{ a]ok a[Ks}j"n s' wr; h/a; rË ]ml j;t; h"- ]jss] un k' k;yE krn' k} 6mt; b3> j;t} h" a[r j{ j{ k;yE v' phl' nh}. krt' h{t' y; j{ ANj;>em y; h[rm{n y; k"m}kl znh bn; rh' h{t'- us' bn;n; p@;r.w kr d't' h". : d?sr} b;t h" ] k a;.t]2y{. m'. ]vLl;eE (villi) h". ]jn k{ wrp?r a[Ks}j"n n ]ml' t{ m,Ty/p@;y_s' h{ j;t' h". a[r un k' k;yE krn' k} 6mt; km h{ j;t} h" ]jss' v' sb Ny?]`ÄyN`=s (nutrients) y;]n p{z~ tTv{. k} s{Yn; km kr d't' h".- y; b.d kr d't' h". : j"s' h} uNh'. a[Ks}j"n s' wr; h/a' rË ]mlt; h"- v' wrp?r a[r sh} tr}k' s' k;m krn; lgt' h".- ]jss' xr}r k' hr a.g k{ bh/t l;w h{t; h"- a[r j{ k"m}kl eTy;]d phl' nh}. bn rh' q'- v' bnn' lg j;t' h". : f{L2'2 l'Gj> (Foldel legs treatment) es upc;r s' p'x;b k} q"l}- y?`'rs eTy;]d pr db;v a;n' s' rË k; bh;v ]k2n}j> m'. bh/t b3> j;t; h"- a[r ]jss' Liv0 - Mu° k; ddE ]nkl j;t; h"- y;]n ]k2n}j> k;f} s;f h{ j;t} h". a[r aC9} trh s' k;m krn; x/# kr d't} h".- ]jsk; mtlb yh ]k ab v' rË k{ a[r aC9} trh s' a]ok s;f kr'.g} a[r a]ok m;µ; s' rË m'. b3>' anc;h' k"m}kLs k{ b;hr ]nk;l d'.g} a[r j{ k"m}kl km h" us' nh}. ]nkln' d'.g} : es p@k;r s' xr}r k{ es upc;r s' k;f} l;w h{g;- x]Ë b3>'g} Av. k;yE krn' k} 6mt; b3>'g} a[r r{g} SvSq mhs?s krn' lg'g; `{ ]f.gsE a[r Ny? n;w} s"` (Toe fingers and New Nabhi Set treatment) en upc;r{. s' p'` Av. a;.t]2y;. 1}k h{n} x/# h{ j;y'.g}- ]jss' p;cn x]Ë b3> j;y'g} : p'` m'. h;e2Ä{Kl{]rk A']s2 1}k s' bnn' lg'g;- ^{`}n=s 1}k s' pcn' lg'.g'- ]jss' A'm}n{ A']s2=s w} (amino acids) 1}k m;µ; m'. bnn' lg'.g} : The Peritoneum p'r}`{]nym p'r}`{]nym _ yh Ak s}rs m"Mb@'n (serous membrane) h" ]jsk} 2bl ]4Ll} h"- ]js m'. s}rm k} trh k; Fl?e2 (fluid) y;]n rs bnt; h"- j{ s}rs s"Ls (serous cells) %;r; bn;y; j;t' h". : es Fl?e2 m'. A'Lb/]mn (albumin) n;mk ^{`}n rht; h" : (s}rm _ rË Kl[]`.g h{n' k' b;d bc; h/a; vh trl w;g- ]js m'. RBC’s, WBC’s eTy;]d rht' h". ): s}rs m"Mb@'n xr}r m'. sb s' b2>} m"Mb@'n h"- ]js k' d{ w;g h". : es k; Ak w;g A'B2{mn k' xr}r k} d}v;r y; us k' a.dr k' w;g k' s;q j/2>; h"- d?sr' w;g n' A'B2{mn k} hr g@.q} y; a[rgn (organ) k{ lp'` rY; h"y; g@.]qy;\ es m'. ]lp`} h". : d{n{. ]4]Lly{. k' b}c k' w;g k{ p'r}`{]nyl Sp's (peritoneal space) y; p'r}`{]nyl s|k (peritoneal sac) kht' h". : p/½z{. m'. yh p?r} k} p?r} n}c' k} g@.]qy{. k{ 3>kt} h"- pr Sμ}y{. m'. A's; h" ]k y?`'rs es s' 3>k; h"- pr f"l{]pyn `=y?Bs (fallopian tubes) j{ y?`'rs k' s;q j/2>' h".- v' es p'r}`{]nym k' b;hr h". : p'r}`{]nym k' d{ f{L2=j> (folds) y;]n th h{t' h". ]js' a{m'N`m (omentum) kht' h".j{ A'B2{mn k} hr g@.q} _ ]js k{ p'r}`{]nym k' m'Mb@'n n' lp'`' h". _ y' f{L2=j> n' p}1 k} d}v;r k' s;q j{2> rY; h"- t;]k y' g@.]qy;\ eor_uor n; j;y'. : p'r}`{]nym n' S`[m|k (stomach) y;]n p'` k{ lp'`n' k' b;d `Ä;NsvsE k{ln (transverse colon) k{ lp'`; h" : es k' b;d 9{`} a;.tr} k{ es trh lp'`; h" ]k us' k;m krn' m'. y;]n f"ln' v ]sk/2>n' m'. k{eE tkl}f n h{ : yh apn' m/l;ym Fl?e2 (fluid) y;]n rs m'. f"`=s (fats) h{t' h". ]jnk' ]ckn;pn %;r; un g@.]qy{. k{ l/br}k'` (lubricate) w} krt} h"- Av. apn' ]ckn;pn s' Ak d?sr' k' irxn s' uNh'. bc;t} h"t;]k uNh'. n/ks;n n h{ : yh;. tk ]k ]ks} g@.q} m'. agr k{eE eNf'Kxn y; eNFlm'xn a; j;y'

t{ us eNf'Kxn eTy;]d k{ d?sr} g@.q} m'. j;n' s' yh} r{kt} h"- t;]k eNf'Kxn n f"l' : yh} k;r~ h" ]k es' A'B2{mn k; p{l}sm"n (policeman) kht' h". : p'r}`{]nym n' ]lvr k{ c;r{. trf s' kvr ]ky; h" : ]lvr k{ kvr (cover) krn' y;]n 3kn' k' b;d usk' bh/t s' ]lg;m'N`=s es k' %;r; bn;y' gy' h". : es} k' bn;y; h/a; Ak ]lg;m'.` n' ]lvr k{ d{ l{Bs (lobes) y;]n w;g{. m'. b;.`; h"- ]js' falciform ligament (f|Ls}f;mE ]lgm'N`) kht' h". : p'r}`{]nym n' A'B2{mn m} sb g@.]qy{. k{ p?r; p?r; kvr krn' k' al;v;- un g@.]qy{. k{ nVEj>(nerves), Bl2 v'sLs (blood vessels) y;]n rË n]lk;y'. a[r ]lMFs (lymphs) k} sPl;eE w} krt} h" : es n' y?]rn k' Bl"2r (urinary bladder) y;]n p'x;b k} q"l} tq; p@{S`'` Gl".2 k{ kvr ]ky; h" : es k' us w;g k{ m's'N`r} (mesentery) kht' h". : ]jsn' 9{`} a;tr} k{ kvr krn' k' b;d us' p}9' p}1 k} aNdr k} d}v;r k' s;q j{2> rY; h" : m;. k' p'` m'. jb bCc; bn rh; h{t; h"- es' a]Mb]lkl v'en (umbilical vein) kht' h".- ] jsk' %;r; bCc' k{ Pl"s'N`; (placenta) %;r; rË Av. Ny?]`ÄAN`=s (nutrients) k} sPl;eE (supply) y; p?]tE k} j;t} h" : Pl"s'N`; bCc' k' jNm k' b;d s?Y j;t} h" : m;. k' p'` m'. jb `"S`}s (testes) bn rh' h{t' h".- t{ v' uUpr n;w} k' p;s Ak p;eEp (pipe) m'. h{t' h". j"s'_j"s' bCc; k{Y m'. b3>t; j;t; h"- v"s'_v"s' `"S`}s n}c' utrt' j;t' h". : s;tv'. mh}n' m'. utrt' h/y' n}c' a;t' h". t{ s;q m'. p'r}`{]nym k; k/9 w;g l' kr a;t' h". j{ b;d m'. `=y?]nk; v"]jn;]ls (tunica vaginalis) m'. bdl j;t' h". : Oy;n d'. ]k y?`'rs k} b;hr} d}v;r k} t}n th'. h". y; l'ysE (layers) h". : a.dr k} prt k{ AN2{m"`Ä}ym (endometrium) a[r b}cv;l} prt k{ m;y{m']`Äym (myometrium) kht' h". : sbs' b;hr} prt p'r}`{]nym k} bn} h/y} h" : Serous membranes xr}r m'. s}rs m"Mb@'n t}n jgh m'. p;y} j;t} h". : 1. A'B2{mn k} g@.]qy{. k' uUpr y;]n p'r}`{]nym (peritoneum) ]js k; v~En uUpr ]ky; h": 2. Pl?r; (pleura) ]js n' d{n{. l.Gj> k{ kvr ]ky; h" : 3. h;È k; kvr _ ]js' p'r}k;]2Eym (pericardium) kht' h". : sw} m'. 2bl l'yr (double layers) y;]n d{ th'. h{t} h". : d{n{. th{. k' b}c m'. j{ trl ]l]Kv2 (liquid) h{t} h", us' s}rs Fl?e2 (serous fluid) kht' h". : s}rs Fl?e2 k' d{ m/Åy f.Kxn h". _ phl; yh ]k a;j?_b;j? k' a.g{. k' ]³Kxn (friction) y;]n izEn s' bc;n; : a[r d?sr; yh ]k s;q m'. en a.g{. m'. k{eE eNf'Kxn y; eNFlm'xn a;n' pr- us' a;g' d?sr' a.g{. m'. j;n' s' r{kt} h" : es p@k;r yh Fl?e2 h;È a[r l.Gj> d{n{. k{ bc;t} h" : l.Gj> k' uUpr k' Ap"Ks (apex) j{ gdEn k' n}c' sbKl']vyn `Ä;yA'Ngl (subclavian triangle) m'. ]Sqr h"- Raman treatment d' kr en k{ uks;y; j; skt; h"- ]jss' l.Gj> k} tkl}f'.h;È k} A'Nl;jEm'N` (enlargement) k{ km krn;- f{]lk A']s2- q;y;m}n- B12, n;y;]sn- Liv0Mu0 k} dd{E. k{ sm;Pt ]ky; j; skt; h" : m'. Raman treatment - %;r; hm p'r}`}]nym k{ uks;t' h". _ r;eE` r;mn Y;l} d'kr ab r;eE` s;eE2 k} dd{E. k{ sm;Pt ]ky; j; skt; h" : jb ]k l'F` r;mn s' l"F` s;eE2 k} dd'E.- y; l"F` h;q k} 4th y;]n c[q} u.gl} k} dd{E. k{ w} sm;Pt ]ky; j; skt; h" : -

Subclavian treatment yh Ak ny; `Ä}`=m'.` h" j{ ]k subclavian veins _ j{ gdEn k' d{n{. b;j/a{. m'. h". _ unk' %;r; xr}r k' ]lMf=s (lymphs) y;]n ]lMf"]`k ]sS`m (lymphatic system) k{ uks;n' k' ]ly' ]dy; j;t; h" : rË k} rFt;r etn} t'j h" ]k c[b}s i.`{. m'. 12,000 l}`r rË h;È %;r; p.p ]ky; j;t; h" jb ]k ]lMf=s %;r; xr}r k} w;r} ^{`}n=s a[r f"`=s l' j;n' k' k;r~ vh etn} o}m} g]t s' clt; h" ]k Ak ]dn m'. Y;l} d{ l}`r m;µ ºdy k' a.dr s' g/jrt; h" : Fetal stage y;]n m;. k' gwE k' bCc' m'. ]lvr a[r SPl}n k' s;q_s;q ]lMf n{2=j> (lymph nodes) w} k/9 rË bn;t' h". : ]lMf n{2=j> m'. ]nMn s"Ls h{t' h". _ ◊ eN`rLy?]kn n.br d{ Interleukin #2 – y' `}_h"Lpr s"Ls bn;t' h". ◊ n"c/rl ]klr s"Ls Natural killer cells ◊ g;m; Gl{b?]ln _ j{ Pl;Sm; s"Ls bn;t' h".- ]jnk; m[]lk/lr v'` molecular weight 2'3> l;Y s' n[ l;Y tk h" : y' ]jtn} w;r} h{t' h".- utn} h} unk} k}`;~/a{. k{ YTm krn' k} 6mt; b3>t} h" : y' t}n{. s"Ls etn} x]Ëx;l} h". ]k y' k"Nsr k' s"Ls k{ w} sm;Pt kr skt' h".- a[r y' hr p@k;r k' eNf'Kxn k{ sm;Pt kr skt' h". : j"s' ]k uUpr kh; gy; h"- p'r}`{]nym A'B2{mn k} p@;y+ sw} g@.]qy{. k{ c;r{. b;j? s' kvr cover y;]n 3k kr kr rY; h"- ]sv;y p".]ý;s- SPl}n a[r ]k2n}j> k{ a;g' s' kvr ]ky; h" : a[r yh p'r}`{]nym Ak g@.q} k' eNf'Kxn d/sr' m'. n f"l' es]ly' us infectious material y;]n k}`;~/a{. s' wr} c}j> k{ ]lMf=s m'. 2;l d't; h" ]js m'. uUpr kh' gy' t}n{. s"Ls %;r; eNf'Kxn k{ sm;Pt kr ]dy; j;t; h" : Subclavian treatment upc;r d'n' k} ]v]o phl' r{g} k} d{n{. h;q{. k} an;]mk; u.gl} y;]n c[q} u.gl} k{ c"k krn; c;]hy' : agr d{n{. m'. ddE h{ t{ sbKl']vyn k; upc;r ]dy; j; skt; h" : a[r yh upc;r d{ b;r d'n' k' b;d un u\g]ly{. k} ddE ]nkl j;n} c;]hy' : a[r un u\g]ly{. k' dd{E. k' s;q_s;q f{]lk A']s2- ]v`;]mn B12, Liv0Mu0 eTy;]d k' dd'E. w} ]nkl j;n} c;]hy' : a[r agr A's; nh}. h{t; t{ sm4n; c;]hy' ]k y' sb dd'E. r;mn upc;r s' ]nkl j;n} c;]hy' : a[r r;mn upc;r s' i/`n{. k} dd'E.- ]Slp ]2Sk (slipped disc) k} dd'E.- kmr k} dd'E. eTy;]d sb ]nkl j;y'.g} : Oy;n d}]jy'g; ]k d{n{. trf k' sbKl']vyn v'Ns Ak_j"s' nh}. h". : d;.eE trf k} v'n (vein) b;.y} trf k} sbKl']vyn v'n s' ptl} h" y;]n g{l;eE m'. 9{`} h" : yh es]ly' ]k d{n{. trf k' v'Ns m'. ]lMf=s k; sm;n p@v;h nh}. h" j"s' ]k n}c' s' pt; cl'g; _ b;.eE trf k} sbKl']vyn v'n m'. d;.eE trf k} sbKl']vyn v'n m'. b;.eE b@'n k} ]lMf=s d;.eE b@'n k} ]lMf=s b;.eE 9;t} tq; l.Gj> k} ]lMf=s d;.eE 9;t} tq; l.Gj> k} ]lMf=s b;.eE trf k' h;È k} ]lMf=s d;.eE trf k' h;È k} ]lMf=s b;.y'. h;q k' ]lMf=s d;.y'. h;q k' ]lMf=s d{n{. `;.g{. k' ]lMf=s _ A'B2{mn k' sw} a[rgNj> k' ]lMf=s _ Oy;n rh' yh pt; krn' k; ]vzy h" ]k A's; krn' k; Ky; l;w h" ]k ]lMf=s k' Y;l} Ak c[q;eE w;g h} d;y}. trf k} sbKl']vyn nvE m'. j;t' h". :

Mild acid treatment k} k;my;b} k; r;j bh/t h} k}mt} b;t h"- jr; Oy;n s' p3>'. : (8) Pan (1) Gal (2) acid (4) Lt. Ch. Only yh `Ä}`=m'.` d{ b;r d'n' s' pH 7.32 m'. bdl gy; : esm'. ‘Gal’ ]dy; gy;- a[r ‘Mu0’ nh}. ]dy; gy;- Ky{.]k r{g} k{m; m'. q; y;]n b'h{x q; : a[r usk} d{n{. ]k2n}y'. Yr;b q}.- ]jnk' k;r~ usk; ´']`n;en (creatinine) bh/t b3>; h/a; q; : s{ es k;r~vx ‘Mu0’ nh}. ]dy; gy; : ab Oy;n s' p]3>y' _ hm;r' es `Ä}`=m'.` %;r; k;rb{]nk a|Nh;e2Ä's (carbonic anhydrase) bn;- j{ r'2 Bl2 s"Ll m'. rht; h" : esk; k;m k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 k{ p;n} m'. ]mKs krk' k;rb{]nk A']s2 bn;n; h" : s{ jb rË k' s"Ll xr}r m'. i?mt' h/y' k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 k{ u1; l't' h".- a[r s"Ls k' d{ w;g h". _ Ak h}m{Gl{]bn h"- j{ a[Ks}j"n k{ l.Gj> s' u1; l't; h"- a[r xr}r m'. d?sr} jgh us a[Ks}j"n k{ 9{2> d't; h"- a[r d?sr} vSt/ s"Ls m'. Ak trl pd;qE h"- ]js m'. k;rb{]nk a|Nh;e2Ä's h"- ] jsk; k;m k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 k{ p;n} m'. ]ml;kr k;rb{]nk A']s2 m'. bdl d'n; h" : s{ s"Ls xr}r s' k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 k{ u1; l't' h".- a[r l.Gj> m'. j;n' k' b;d us trl pd;qE s' p;n} k{ alg kr d't; h"- y; k;rb{]nk A']s2 k{ k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 a[r p;n} m'. bdl d't; h" : a[r Xv;s %;r; vh k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 b;hr ]nkl j;t} h"- ]js s' pH 7.32 s' pH 7.4 h{ j;t; h" : A's; h{n' m'. Y;l} p;.c_ds ]mn` h} lg'.g} : a[r r{g} j{ k{m; m'. h"- k{m; s' b;hr ]nkl j;y'g; : dr asl yh r{g} ]ks} d?sr' k;r~ s' k;m; m'. gy;: k{m; m'. r{g} pH 7.1 pr k{m; m'. j;t; h" : a[r pH 6.8 h{n' pr usk} m,Ty/ h{ j;t} h" : esk' b;r' m'. a[r ]vSt;r s' p,Z1 237 m'. ]dy; gy; h"

pcn s.Sq; k' b;r' m'. k/9 aNy mhTvp?~E b;t'..

k/9 b;t'. phl' h} 14 n.br p,Z1 pr ]lY} gy} h". : a[r k/9 b;t'. eor ]lY} gy} h". : h{.1 en pr gm}E sd}E shn' k' ]ly' s"Ls (cells) rht' h". : uUpr k' h{.1 pr bfE lgn' s' k{L2 y;]n sd}E h{ j;t} h" y; gl; Yr;b h{ j;t; h" : d;.t phl' jm;n' k' l{g d;.t?n k; upy{g krt' q'- s{ unk} ms?2'. mjb?t h{t} q}. : y/v;vSq; m'. ]vS2m `?q (wisdom tooth) ]nklt' smy uNh'. k{eE pr'x;n} nh}. h{t} q} : l']kn a;jkl k' jm;n' m'. hmn' d;.t?n krn} bNd kr d} a[r b@x krn; x/# kr ]dy; h"- ]jss' ms?2{. k} mjb?t} nh}. bnt} : a;jkl bh/t h} km um@ m'. bCc{. k{ d;.t{. k' p@{Bl'm a;n' k; yh} Ak m/Åy k;r~ h" : ms?2{. k} mjb?t} k' ]ly' uNh'. u.gl} s' db; kr ms;j krn; bh/t upy{g} h" : es]ly' g/½j} kht' h". ]k a;n'v;l} p}]3>y{> m'. sw} k' k'vl 28 d;.t h{.g' : a[r agr ]ks} k' £¢ d;.t h{t' w} t{ uNh'.'. b{r (bore) kr y;]n ]2Ä]l.g drilling krk' h} ]nk;ln' p2'.g' : unk} sl;h h" ]k agr d;.t?n k; upy{g n kr sk'. t{ b'htr h" ]k k{eE aC9;_s; m.jn k; p;u2r l'. a[r mOym u\gl} s' us p;u2r k{ lg;kr ms?2{. k} Y?b m;]lx kr'. : l{g aKsr a.g?1' k' b;j? k} phl} u.gl} s' d;.t s;f krt' h".- jb ]k mOym u.gl} s' krn; b'htr h"- Ky{.]k x;Sμ{. k' an/s;r us u.gl} k; tq; d;.t{. k; ]m`=`} tTv s' sMbNo h" : l;3> (l;r) m/\h k' a.dr t}n j{2>} Gl".2=s y; g@.q}y;. h". j{ 24 i.`' m'. 2'3> ]l`r tk sl;ev; (saliva) y;]n l;r bn;kr p'` m'. w'jt} h". : y' g@.q}y;. Y;n; Y;t' smy h} nh}.- b]Lk Y;n' k; Oy;n y; Y;n' k} Y?xb? m;µ s' w} sl;ev; bn;n; x/# kr d't' h". : en t}n{. g@.]qy{. m'. sb s' b2>} g@.q} k;n a[r ]p9l} d;3>{. k' p}9' ]Sqt h"- ]js' p|r{]`2 Gl".2 (parotid gland) kht' h". : esm'. s?jn a;y' t{ uss' mMPs (mumps) k} b}m;r} a;t} h" : d?sr} g@.q} j>b;n k' n}c' h" _ us' sb_]l.g/al Gl".2 (sub-lingual gland) kht' h". : t}sr} g;l{. k' n}c' h" _ us' sb m".2}b?lr Gl".2 (sub-mandibular gland) kht' h". : l']kn esk; ¹;v w} j>b;n k' n}c' k' ]9d@{. s' h} ]nklt; h" : sl;ev; k; mhTv hm'. Y?b cb;kr Y;n; c;]hy' t;]k Y;n' s' sl;ev; y; l;r a]ok s' a]ok m;µ; m'. p'` m'. j;y' : sl;ev; m'. `;e]ln (ptyalin) n;mk; k"m}kl h" j{ S`;cE (starch) y;]n m}1; tTv k{ pc;n' m'. mdd krt; h" : q{2; k;yE yh `;e]ln krt; h"- a[r b;k} k; k;yE p".]´y;s k; am;el's (amylase) krt; h" : agr l;r py;EPt m;µ; m'. n ]nkl' t{ m}1' c}j k{ pc;n' k; s;r; w;r p".]´y;s pr a;y'g; a[r us' Jy;d; k;m krn; p2'g; ]jss' usk' aNy k;y{E. pr p@w;v p3>'g;- a[r vh lMb' um@ tk 1}k s' k;m nh}. kr p;y'g; : a;jkl l{g{. k{ ]m1;ey{. k{ tq; aNy m}1' p'y{. k{ jLd}_jLd} Y;n'_p}n' k} a;dt p2>} h" : x;yd yh w} Ak m/Åy k;r~ h" ]k ]p9l' dxk{. m'. hm;r' d'x m'. 2;y;b}`}s (diabetes) k} b}m;r} b3> rh} h" : `;e]ln k' al;v; sl;ev; m'. eMy?n{Gl{b?]ln (immunoglobulin) tq; l;es{j>;em (lysozymes) h{t' h". j{ b;hr} k}`;~/a{. s' r6; krt' h". a[r k/9 Bl2 Kl[]`.g f|K`r (clotting factors) h{t' h". j{ rË k{ Kl[]`.g (clotting) h{n' y;]n jmn' m'. mdd krt' h". : yh} k;r~ h" ]k jb u.gl} k` j;t} h" t{ b2>' b?3>' l{g kh; krt' q' ]k c?sn' pr t/rNt rË k; p@v;h ½k j;y'g; : w{jn k; hr m}1; tTv pcn' k' b;d Gl?k{j> (glucose) m'. bdlt; h" : es} Gl?k{j> s' xr}r k; hr s"Ll k{ apn' k;y{E. k' ]ly' uUj;E y; x]Ë ]mlt} h" : s"Ls k} j#rt p?r} h{n' k' b;d b;k} Gl?k{j> k{ g;3; krk' Gl;ek{j'n (glycogen) k' #p m'. ]lvr a[r msLs m'. rY ]dy; j;t; h" : a[r esk' b;d w} k/9 bc gy; t{ ]lvr us' f"` (fat) k' #p m'. A2}p{j? ]`x?j> (adipose tissues) k' aNdr rY l't; h" : agr hm'. m{`;p; s' bcn; h" t{ hm'. utn} h} m;µ; m'. w{jn l'n} c;]hy' j{ us ]dn k' x;r}]rk k;yE k} j#rt{. k' ]ly' py;EPt h{- nh}. t{ j{ bc j;t; h" _ c;h' vh k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s y;]n m}1} c}j h{- y; ^{`}n y; f"`=s _ un sw} k{ ]lvr f"` bn;kr rY l'g;- yh Oy;n rh' : yh} k;r~ h" ]k j{ a;f}s m'. `'bl pr b"1kr k;m krt' h".- v' Ak_d{ cp;t} Y;n' k' b;d w} m{`' h{t' j;t' h".- jb ]k Y't m'. w;r} k;m krn' v;l; ]ks;n a;1_ds cp;t} Y;n' k' b;d w} d/bl;_ptl; rht; h" : A'2}p{j= ]`x?j> (adipose tissues) f"`=s k{ S`{r (store) krn' v;l' s"Ls s' bn' ]`x?j> k{ kht' h".- j{ xr}r m'. Y;s t[r s' kmr- n;w} k' a;s_p;s tq; p,Z1 w;g m'. f"l' h/y' h". : p|r{]`2 Gl".2 m'. s?jn (parotid glands)

kw}_kw} ]ks} v;ers (virus) k' k;r~ p|r{]`2 Gl".2 m'. eNFlm'xn a; j;t; h" ]jss' mMPs (mumps) k} b}m;r} a;t} h" : es' glg.2- k;nf?l- y; k;np'3>' w} kht' h". : esm'. k;n{. k' n}c' v; gl' m'. v; g;l{. pr s?jn a;t} h" Av. b/Y;r a; j;t; h" : agr ]ks} l2k' k{ yh b}m;r} a;y} t{ usm'. kw}_kw} usk; Ak `"S`}s (testes) y;]n a.2k{z m'. s?jn a; j;t} h"- ]js' a;|pr'xn krk' 1}k kr;n; c;]hy' : agr a;1 ]dn m'. 1}k n kr;y; t{ vh a.2k{z apn' a;p ]sk/2>n; x/# h{ j;y'g; a[r Akdm 9{`'_s' d;n' tk ]sk/2> j;y'g; : us Vy]Ë k; ab Ak a.2k{z sm;Pt h{ j;y'g;- a[r Ak h} rh j;y'g; k;m krn' k' ]ly' : yh b}m;r} j}vn m'. Ak h} b;r a;t} h" : pr kw}_kw} Ak r'yr (rare) k's m'. y;]n ds hj;r mMPs k' k's{. m'. Ak h} Vy]Ë k{ d{ b;r ]nkl skt' h". : t{ agr d/b;r; Oy;n n ]dy; a[r d?sr; a.2k{z w} sm;Pt h{ j;y' t{ vh l2k; np/.sk h{ j;y'g; y;]n vh bCc; p"d; krv;n' m'. asmqE rh'g;- Ky{.]k a.2k{z k; m/Åy k;m h" SpmE y;]n v}yE bn;n; : mMPs k{ eNFlm'xn f[rm/l; (inflammation treatment formula ) s' 1}k ]ky; j; skt; h" : j>b;n yh 3>;eE eNc k} j>b;n bh/t h} Ytrn;k h" : es k{ 1}k trh s' s.w;ln; c;]hy' : es k} j>r; s} glt} _ j{ d@[pd} n' k} q} _ uss' mh;w;rt k; y/5 h{ gy; q; : es k{ ]jtn; c;h' m}1; bn; l{ y; ]jtn; c;h' k3>v; bn; l{ vh apn' h;q m'. h" : t{ Ky{. n es s' m}1' b{l h} b{l' j;y'.- j{ sb k{ aC9' lgt' h".- a[r ]js pr k{eE YcE nh}. h{t; < es k' Sv;d n' h} p'` k{ Yr;b ]ky; h" _ c;h' Sv;d s' Y;n' k' b;d p'` us Y;n' k{ pc; sk' y; nh}. _ es k; kZ` p'` k{ h} w{gn; p2>t; h" : eor g/½j} k' y' xBd y;d rYn' y{Gy h". _ ‘ agr t/Mh'. lMb; h" j}n; _ t{ j>b;n k; kh; kw} nh}. m;nn; ! ’ j>b;n k' ]p9l' w;g m'. `'S` b2=j> (taste buds) y;]n Sv;d k} g@.]qy;\ h".- ]js k' %;r; Y;n' k; `'S` (taste) y;]n Sv;d m;l?m p2>t; h" : alg_alg jgh{. pr m}1;- nmk}n- Y`=`; y; ks"l; (bitter) Sv;d k; pt; lgt; h" : j>b;n k' ag@ y;]n s;mn' k' n{k}l' w;g m'. m}1' k; Sv;d a;t; h"- usk' 1}k p}9' nmk}n k;- d{n{. s;e2{. m'. y; j>b;n k} d{n{. trf Y`=`' k;- a[r jh;. j>b;n YTm h{t} h"- vh;. k2>v'pn k; Sv;d pt; clt; h" : j>b;n pr alg_alg nVEj> k;yE krt' h". : j>b;n k' sh} hlcl k; k;yE h" _ n[ a[r b;rh n.br k' ´']nyl nvE s' 1.2;_grm- SpxE a[r dd{E. k; Ahs;s _ ´']nyl nvE n.br p;.c (Cranial nerve V) s' Sv;d k; Ahs;s _ ´']nyl nvE n.br s;t a[r n[ n.br (Cranial nerve VII & IX) s' j>b;n k} a;Yr} w;g m'. ´']nyl nvE Gy;rh a[r b;rh (Cranial nerve XI & XII) w} k;m krt} h". : j>b;n hm'x; s;f v; g/l;b} rhn} c;]hy' : j>b;n k; g.d;- sf'd- y; p}l; h{n; y; fr (fur) y;]n r{m_j"s} Ak prt us pr h{n; yh bt;t; h" ]k p'` a[r m/Åy #p s' ]lvr 1}k nh}. h" : k/9 l{g{. k' j>b;n pr k?l'_k?l' b;l h{t' h". y; cm2>} kh}. kh}. ]nkl} h/y} h{t} h"- us' Jy;|g@]fkl `.g (geographical tongue) kht' h". : eNh'. mOym y; ptl} ``=`} a;t} h{g} : uNh'. Ulta Normal formula s' 1}k ]ky; j; skt; h" : j>b;n k; k;l; h{n; yh bt;t; h" ]k us k' p'` y; a;.t]2>y{. m'. k{eE jhr}l; tTv h" ]jss' j>b;n k;l} h" : es' p'l|gr; (pellagra) kht' h". : yh dv;ey{. s' 1}k nh}. h{ skt} : k/9 l{g{. m'. t{ yh dv;ey{. k' d/Zp@w;v s' w} a;t} h" : LMNT m'. phl' UDF formula d'kr b;d m'. Pure Folic Black y; Large Folic Black formula d'n' s' k;l;pn km h{ j;t; h" : yh;. tk ]k usk' c'hr' pr j{ k;l;pn h"- ]js' ]pGm'.`'xn (pigmentation) kht' h".- vh w} 1}k h{n' lg'g; : mtlb c'hr' k' r.g k} 9;eEy;. w} ]nkl j;y'.g} : a[r agr r{g} Y;n' m'. hr} r.g k} y; hr} p¶{.v;l} s]Bjy;. Y;n' lg' t{ c'hr' pr k;l;pn d/b;r; nh}. a;y'g; : n;]sk; k' sm;Pt h{n' pr uUpr k} trf k' My?ks m"Mb@'n (mucous membrane) m'. g.o y; v;s (smell) k{ phc;nn' v;l} ns{. k} q"l} h" : es' a{Lf|K`r} bLb(‘olfactory bulb’) kht' h". : ess' s/gNo k; pt; lg;y; j;t; h" : y' ns ´']nyl nvE (Cranial nerve #1) s' j/2' h". : y' apn; s.d'x b@'n k' s'r'b@m (cerebrum) k' `'Mp{rl l{b(temporal lobe) m'. l' j;t' h". : jh;. pr Sv;d k' Gl".2=s Av. j>b;n sm;Pt h{t' h".- vh;. m/\h k} g/f; k' ]pk{ f|]rNKs (pharynx) kht' h". : uUpr d{ ]9d@ h". jh;. n;k s' ]ly; gy; Xv;s Ak n]lk; %;r; l"]rNKs (larynx) y;]n Svr p'`} Av. l.Gj> (lungs) y;]n f'f2{. m'. ph/\ct; h" : Xv;s n]lk; k{ `Ä"k}y; (trachea) kht' h". : usk' 1}k p}9' h} a¸ n]lk; h" ]js' eEs{f'gs (eosophagus) kht' h". : jb hm k/9 w} Y;t' h".- t{ us nv;l' k; Y;n; Svr p'`} y; f'f2{. m'. n cl; j;y'- es]ly' j>b;n k' a.t m'. n;]sk; k' ]9d@{. k' a;g' Ak pd;E_s; h" ]js' Ap}Gl;|]`s (epiglottis) kht' h". : yh pd;E s;o;r~t+ Y/l; h} rht; h"- l']kn jb nv;l; j>b;n %;r; gl' m'. ok'l; j;t; h"- t{ 1}k us smy yh pd;E Svr_p'`} k' 3Kkn_j"s; un d{n{. ]9d@{. k' uUpr a;kr uNh'. p?r} trh bNd kr d't; h"- a[r j"s'

Y;n; a¸ n]lk; m'. i/s j;t; h"- vh pd;E v;ps Y/l j;t; h"- t;]k Xv;s l'n' m'. ]dKkt n h{ : jb ]ks} g2>b2>} k' k;r~ Ap}Gl;|]`s 1}k s' b.d n h{ t{ 1sk; lgt; h" ]js' hm (9) Medulla x 3 treatments s' t/r.t h} 1}k kr skt' h". : nv;l' k{ b{ls (bolus) w} kht' h". : eEs{f'gs y; a¸ n]lk; 9-10e.c tk l.b} h{t} h" : esk' msLs a.dr k} trf ]sk/2' rht' h". : j"s' nv;l; y; b{ls es m'. i/st; h"- v"s' us jgh k' n}c' k' msLs Y/lt' j;t' h".- a[r j"s'_j"s' nv;l; n}c' j;t; rht; h" v"s' uUpr k' msLs ]sk/2> kr bNd h{t' j;t' h". : ]nglt' smy x/# x/# m'. nv;l; k{ hm'. ok'ln; p2>t; h"- a;g' nv;l; apn' a;p eNv;lN`r} m?Vm'.` s' j;t; h" : a;pn' d'Y; h{g; ]k g;.v{. k' m'l{. m'. k{eE uL`' l`k kr k'l; vg"rh Y;t' h".- uNh'. k{eE tkl}f nh}. h{t}- usk; yh} k;r~ h" : j{ hlcl apn' a;p h{- us' eNv;lN`r} m?Vm'.` (involuntary movement) kht' h". : l.Gj> a[r p'` k' b}c m'. Ak 2;y;³;m (diaphragm) n;m k} ]4Ll} h" j{ d{n{. k{ Ak d? sr' k' hlcl{. s' bc;t; h" : eEs{f'gs y; a¸ n]lk; es 2;y;³;m k{ w'dt; h/a; p'` m'. i/s j;t; h" : hm;r' xr}r m'. d{ ]kSm k} rcn;y'. h{t} h".- j{ alg_alg p@k;r s' Ak g'` (gate) y; drv;j' k; k;m krt} h". : esm'. Ak h" ]Sf.K`r a[r d?sr; h" v;Lv : ]Sf.K`r k' msLs A's' h{t' h". ] k us k' a.dr s' k{eE w} c}j j#rt h{n' pr d{n{. trh s' y;t;y;t kr skt; h"- jb ]k v;Lv (valve) %;r; b;k;yd; k{eE w} c}j ]sfE Ak h} ]dx; m'. j; skt} h"- d?sr} ]dx; s' v;ps nh}. a; skt} : p;cn s.Sq;n m'. m/Åyt+ d{ ]Sf.K`r h{t' h". _ Ak h" k;|r2}y|k ]Sf.K`r (cardiac sphincter) a[r d?sr; h" p;el{]rk ]Sf.K`r (pyloric sphincter). Ak v;Lv w} h{t; h"- ]js' eE]ly{ s}kl v;Lv (ileo cecal valve) kht' h". : eEs{f'gs jh;. p'` s' ]mlt; h" us jgh k{ k;2}Ey"k ]Sf.K`r (cardiac sphincter) kht' h". : Ak b;r nv;l; y; b{ls es ]Sf.K`r k{ p;r krk' p'` k' a.dr i/st' h} yh ]Sf.K`r bNd h{ j;t; h" : nv;l' k{ es sfr s' g/j;rn' m'. 9' s' a]ok s"k.2j> (seconds) k; smy lgt; h" : Y;n; Y;n' a[r pcn ]´y; m'. v'gs nvE (vagus nerve) y;]n ds n.br k} ´']nyl nvE k;m krt} h" : yh g"S`Ä}n n;mk h[rm{n %;r; p'` m'. HCl k} m;µ; k{ t}n g/~; b3>; skt} h" : p'` m'. c;r m/Åy ¹;v ]nklt' h". _ • h;e2Ä{Kl{]rk A']s2 y; HCl • My?ks (mucus) • eN`Ä}]Nsk f"K`r (intrinsic factor) a[r • p"Ps}n{j"n (pepsinogen) _ j{ b;d m'. p"Ps}n m'. bdlt; h" : esk' al;v; k/9 a[r c}j'. w} km m;µ; m'. ]nklt' h". : en sw} k' ]mR~ k{ g|S`Ä}k Jy?s (gastric juice) kht' h". : es Jy?s k' k;r~ Y;n; p'` m'. s[]l2 (solid) y;]n sÅt y; 1{s #p s' bdlkr ]l]Kv2 (liquid) y;]n trl #p m'. bdl j;t; h"- ]js' k;eEm (chyme) kht' h". : g"S`Ä}n p'` k' ]n9l' w;g k' a.dr k' j} s"Ls ‘G cells’ bn;t' h". : p'` jh;. YTm h{t} h"vh;. s' 9{`} a;.t k} x/½a;t h{t} h" us jgh k{ 2=y/a{2'nm kht' h". : us w;g m'. w} Ak ]Sf.K`r h{t; h" ]js' p;el{]rk ]Sf.K`r (pyloric sphincter) kht' h". : a[r g"S`Ä}n p'` k' b;hr p;el{]rk ] Sf.K`r k' b;hr 2=y/a{2'nm k} trf w} bnt} h" : a[r es} jgh k{ uks;n' k' ]ly' hm b;y}. j;.i k' b}c pr db;t' h". : HCl formula m'. k; (1) pt. Gal k; upy{g Gastrin bn;n' k' ]ly' h} ]ky; gy; h" : j"s' phl' ]lY; gy; h" ]k Y;n' k' phl' y; b}c m'. p;n} nh}. p}n; h"- l']kn j#rt p2>n' pr gl; s;f krn' k' ]ly' Ak;o i?.` p} skt' h". : p'` m'. 2'3> ]l`r tk m;l rY; j; skt; h" a[r agr usm'. k{eE m;l n h{ t{ vh ]bn hv; k' f/Gg' k} trh ]sk/2> j;t; h" : s;r' ]dn p'` m'. d{ s' t}n ]l`r tk g"S`Ä}k Jy?s bnt; h" : agr 1}k s' bn' t{ p'` k} A']s2 pH = 0.8 etn} sÅt h{t} h" ]k usk' SpxE m/l;ym Tvc; m'. i;v kr skt; h" ] js' p']P`k aLsr (peptic ulcer) kht' h". : uss' bcn' k' ]ly' p'` k} a.dr} d}v;r k} prt Y;s bn; h/a; h" ]js' a;s;n} s' Yr{.c y; n/ks;n nh}. ph/\c skt; : s;q h}- p'` m'. Y;s My?ks Gl".2=s h". j{ p'` k} d}v;r pr Ak s' t}n m}l} m}`r (3 mm. ) tk My?ks c3>;y' rYt' h".- j{ w} p'` k' msLj> k{ es sÅt A']s2 s' bc;t' h". : w{jn m'. ]v`;]mn B12 k; Y;s mhTv h" : es ]v`;]mn k' bg"r rË m'. RBC’s m"Cy{r (mature) y;]n t"y;r nh}. h{ skt' : agr p'` m'. eN`Ä}]Nsk f"K`r nh}. bn; t{ us Vy]Ë k' xr}r m'. vitamin B12 k} km} a; j;y'g} ]jss' usk' xr}r m'. k;l;pn- qk;n- nVEj> k} kmj{r} eTy;]d l6~ ]dY'.g' : p'` m'. hr b}s s'k.2 (second) m'. Ak v'v (wave) y; lhr clt} h"- j{ k;r2}y|k ]Sf.K`r s' l'kr p;el{]rk ]Sf.K`r tk j;t} h" a[r p;el{]rk ]Sf.K`r q{2>; Y/lt; h"- ]jss' Ak c;y k} cMmc ]jtn; k;em (chyme) y;]n pc; h/a; m;l a;g' 2=y/a{2'nm m'. j;t; h"- a[r p;el{]rk ]Sf.K`r b.d h{ j;t; h" : a[r yh d/b;r; tb tk nh}. Y/l'g; jb tk 2=y/a{2'nm k; m;l pckr a;g' n ]nkl j;y' : 2=y/a{2'nm m'. Secretin a[r CCK h[rm{Ns ]nklt' h". : enk' p@w;v s' A.p?l; a;f v'`r (ampoulla of Vater) %;r; p".]´y;s a[r ]lvr s' alg_alg p;ck ANj;>em y;]n k"m}kLs ]

nklt' h". j{ w{jn k' ]v]w¸ tTv{. k{ y;]n k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s ^{`}n=s a[r f"`=s k{ pc;n; x/# kr d't' h". : esk' b;r' m'. 16 n.br page pr ]lY; gy; h" : 2=y/a{2'nm kr}b 25 cm y;]n 10 e.c l.b; h{t; h" : usm'. w} lhr clt' rht' h".- ]jss' pc; h/a; m;l o}r'_o}r' 9{`} a;.t k' b}c v;l; w;g m'. ph/\ct; h" : es' j'j/nm (jejunum) kht' h". a[r yh kr}b d{ m}`r l.b; h{t; h" : usm'. j{ k/9 m;l ab w} anpc; rh gy; h{ us' pc;n' k' ]ly' j'j/nm s' aNy p;ck ¹;v ]nklt' h". t;]k Y;y' h/y' w{jn s' Jy;d; s' Jy;d; m;µ; m'. p{z~ tTv xr}r k{ p@;Pt h{ sk' : a;g' 9{`} a;.t2>} k; a.]tm w;g eE]lym h" j{ t}n m}`r l.b; h" : eor pc' h/y' m;l s' p{z~ tTv s{Y kr rË m'. w'j' j;t' h". : esm'. ]vl;eE (villi) n;mk rcn; h". : y' u\g]ly;\ j"s} h{t} h". ] jsm'. 9{`'_9{`' mh}n ]9d@ h{t' h". : enk' b;hr c;r{. a{r rË n]lk;y'. tq; ]lMf n]lk;y'. h{t} h". : w{jn k' p{z~ tTv en ]9d@{. %;r; ]nklkr un n]lk;a{. m'. i/s j;y'.g} : Gl?k{j> a[r 9{`' ^{`}n=s k' k~ rË n]lk;a{. m'. i/s'.g} jb ]k f"`=s a[r w;r} ^{`}n=s k' k~ j{ rË n]lk; m'. i/s nh}. skt} _ v' Ak a[r n]lk; m'. i/s'.g} ]jsk; n;m h} ]lMf n]lk; h" : es} ]lMf n]lk; %;r; b"K`}]ry; y; aNy k}`;~/ k' k~ w} i/s'.g' j{ h;e2Ä{Kl{]rk A']s2 k' i;tk p@w;v s' bc c/k' h". : Ak mhTvp?~E b;t yh h" ]k ]vl;eE k' s"Ls k{ wrp?r a[Ks}j"n c;]hy'- vrn; v' m,Typ@;y' s' h{ j;t' h". a[r 1}k s' k;yE nh}. kr p;y'.g' : y' ]vl;eE h} Y;n' s' p{z~ tTvs{]2ym- p{`"]xym- k"]Lxym j"s' eEl'K`Ä{l;e`=s (electrolytes)- tq; sw} ]v`;]mn eTy;]d sw} c}j{. k{ s{Yt' h".- ]js' rË %;r; hr s"Ll k{ tq; ]lvr m'. w'j; j;t; h"- S`{r krn' (store) y;]n jm;n' k' ]ly' : es]ly' a;.t2>} k; 1}k h{n; bh/t h} a;vXyk h" : ]vl;eE k{ a[Ks}j"n 1}k s' ]mln' k' ]ly' h}m{Gl{]bn k; 1}k h{n; a;vXyk h" ]jsk' ]ly' ]v`;]mn B12 a[r f{]lk A']s2 k; 1}k h{n; w} a;vXyk h" : es]ly' h} en Pv;e.`{. k{ UDF formula m'. ]dy; gy; h" : ]jss' sw} p'x.`{. k{ bh/t l;w ]ml; h" : eE]lym k' a.t m'. Ak v;Lv h" ]js' eE]ly{ s}kl v;Lv (ileo cecal valve) kht' h". : w} p{z~ tTv k{ s{Y l'n' k' b;d j{ kc2>; bc j;t; h" us' es v;Lv %;r; l;jE eN`'S`;en (large intestine) y;]n b2>} a;.t m'. w'j; j;t; h" : b2>} a;.t k' t}n w;g h". _ d;]hn} trh k' w;g k{ As'.]2.g k{ln (ascending colon)b}c v;l' mOym w;g k{ `Ä;NSvsE k{ln (transverse colon) a[r b;y}. trf k' w;g k{ ]2s'.]2.g k{ln (descending colon) kht' h". : LMNT m'. Jy;d; p;n} A'Lkl} k; s?ck h" Av. s?Y;pn A']s]2`} k; : eE]lym s' a;y' h/y' m;l m'. p;n} wrp?r m;µ; m'. h{t; h" : es]ly' h} g/½j} kht' h". ]k As'.]2.g k{ln k' us w;g m'. i{r A'Lkl} h" : c?.]k kc2' m'. k}`;~/a{. k' pnpn' k; Ytr; h"- s{ eor Ap']N2Ks (appendix) n;mk rcn; h" j{ r6;Tmk f[]jy{. k; ]kl;_Sv#p h" : yh ]lMf;|e2> ]`x? (lymphoid tissue) y;]n ] lMf s"Ls k; bn; h/a; h" : esm'. keE p@k;r k' r6k s"Ls h". ]jnk; k;yE h" k}`;~/a{. k{ m;rn; a[r b2>} a;.t k' ]ks} w} w;g m'. uNh'. pnpn' n d'n; : j"s' yh kc2>; uUpr g/jrt; h"- v"s' usk; p;n} k{ s{Y ]ly; j;t; h" : jb tk vh ]2s'.]2.g k{ln ph/\ct; h" tb tk vh trl #p s' s?Ykr 1{s pd;qE k' #p m'. bdl j;t; h" : es]ly' g/½j} kht' h". ]k ] 2s'.]2.g k{ln m'. i{r A']s2 h" : esk' b;d a;.t m/2>kr ml;xy bn j;t; h"- us w;g k{ ]sGm;|e2> k{ln (sigmoid colon) kht' h". : es s?Y' ml k{ r'K`m (rectum) y;]n ml;xy n;mk q"l} m'. rY; j;t; h" : jb yh q"l} wr j;t} h" t{ us' f}ss feces y;]n ``=`} k' #p m'. Ans (anus) y;]n ml %;r s' b;hr ]nk;l ]dy; j;t; h" : n[nv'j y;]n m;.s;h;r} Y;n' pr g[r krn' v;l} b;t _ l{g kht' h". ]k n[nv'j Y;n; c;]hy' Ky{.]k us m'. ^{`}n a]ok h{t' h". : ^{`}n c;h' km Y;a{ pr j{ Y;a{ us' pc;n' k} 6mt; h{n} c;]hy' : a[r yh tw} h{g; jb p'` k} A']s2 pH=3 s' n}c' j;y' : a[r agr ]ks} k{ s.2;s m'. anpc; Y;n; a;t; h{ t{ vh ]ktn; w} ^{`}n Y; l'- usk' xr}r k{ uss' k{eE l;w nh}. h{g; : y;]n A's' Vy]Ë k{ n[n v'j Y;n; b'k;r h" : d?sr} b;t h" ]k m;.s;h;r} w{jn k{ pc;n' k' ]ly' xr}r k{ Jy;d; m'hnt krn; p2>t; h" : a[r us s' j{ v'S` p@{2K` y;]n f;lt? c}j ] nklt' h". v' xr}r k' ]ly' Jy;d; `[]Ksk toxic y;]n jhr}l' h{t' h". : a[r agr usk} p;cn x]Ë sh} h{ t{ keE s]Bjy{. m'. n[n v'j k' br;br ^{`}n ]ml j;t' h". : es]ly' sw} p@k;r s' d'Y; j;y t{ m;.s;h;r} Y;n' k} j#rt nh}. : hm'. k'vl p'` a[r p;cn s.Sq; k{ 1}k rYn; h" : a[r yh d'Yn; h" ] k hm;r' l"`Ä}n m'. anpc; Y;n; _ j"s' `m;`r k; ]9lk;- y; s]Bjy{. k' b}j y; p¶' eTy;]d _ v"s' k' v"s' apn' a{]r]jnl y;]n ]nj} xKl m'. nh}. a; rh' h". : b;k} p,Z1 106 m'. d'Yn; p".]´y;s k' p@]t k/9 aNy j;nk;r} v'd phl; w;g p,Z1 10-11 m'. w} d'Y'.

p".]ý;s k; h'2> (head) y;]n ]sr k; w;g 2=y/a{2'nm k' aoE skEl m'. ]Sqt h"- Av. usk} `'l (tail) y;]n p/92>} SPl}n k{ a[r b;eE. ]k2n} k{ 9?t} h" : es k' a.dr k; w;g sl;evr} g@.q} s' ] mlt} j/lt} h" : p".]ý;s k' ¹;v d{ p@k;r k' s"Ls s' ]nklt' h". _ A']sn} s"Ls (acini cells) tq; unk' b;hr k' n]lk;a{. k' 2K`l s"Ls (ductal cells) : n]lk;a{. k' b;hr k' 2K`l s"Ls (ductal cells) h} p'` s' a;eE k;em (chyme) k} A']s2 (acid) k{ x;.t krn' k' ]ly' w;r} m;µ; m'. s{]2ym b;ek;rb{n'` bn;t' h". : eNh'. s.d'x d'n' k; k;m ]s´']`n (secretin) h[rm{n krt; h" : ]jsk' b;r' m'. 15 n.br p,Z1 pr ]dy; gy; q; p".]ý;s k' a.dr k' A']sn} s"Ls (acini cells) h} p;ck ¹;v (digestive enzymes ) bn;t' h". : uNh'. s.d'x d'n' k; k;yE CCK h[rm{n k; h" : y' d{n{. p@k;r k' ¹;v Ak h} n]lk; %;r; ]nklt' h". ]jsk; n;m h" p".]ý;]`k 2K` (pancreatic duct) : vh;. s' v' k;|mn b;el 2K` (common bile duct) tq; A.p?l; a;|f v'`r %;r; 2=y/a{2'nm m'. ph/\ct' h". :

CCK a[r p".]ý;s 2=y/a{2'nm m'. j{ CCK n;mk h[rm{n ]nklt; h"- vh Ak s;q keE k;yE krv;t; h" : • Ak t{ vh us k;em m'. ]jtn} m;µ; m'. k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s h". j{ l;r k' `;e]ln (ptyalin) n' pc;y} h"- usk' an/s;r p".]ý;s k{ am;el's (amylase) w'jn' k{ uks;y'g;- j{ uNh'. Gl?k{j> m'. bdl d'g; : • d?sr;- ]jtn} m;µ; m'. ^{`}n=s h". _ j{ p'` m'. p"Ps}n n' pc;y} h"- usk' an/s;r p".]ý;s k{ ]`Ä]Psn (trypsin) a[r k;em{ ]`Ä]Psn (chymo trypsin) w'jn' k{ uks;y'g;- j{ uNh'. A'm}n{ A']s2=s m'. bdl d'g; : • t}sr;- Y;n' m'. ]jtn; i}_t'l h"- usk' an/s;r g[l Bl"2r k{ b;el (bile) w'jn' k' ]ly' uks;y'g; : • a[r c[q;- us} k' an/s;r p".]ý;s k{ us} i}_t'l eTy;]d f"`=s k{ pc;n' k' ]ly' l;ep's (lipase) w'jn' k' ]ly' uks;y'g;- j{ uNh'. f"`} A']s2>=s (fatty acids) m'. bdl d'g; : uUpr k' k;y{E. k{ p".]ý;s k' AKs{´;en f.Kxn (exocrine function) kht' h". : en k' al;v; p".]ý;s k' b;hr} prt k' a;el'`=s a;|f l".grh|Ns s' t}n h[rm{Ns ]nklt' h". ]js' p".]ý;s k; A'N2{´;en f.Kxn (endocrine function) kh; j;t; h" : ]jnk' b;r' m'. 11 n.br p,Z1 pr phl' h} ]j´ h/a; q; : unk' b;r' m'. a[r k/9 j;nk;r} g/½j} eor d' rh' h". eNs/]ln k' k;y{E. k} s.]6Pt j;nk;r} p".]ý;s k' b}`; s"Ls eNs/]ln (insulin) n;mk h[rm{n bn;t' h". _ p".]ý;s s' pc;y' h/y' m;l j"s' ]k Gl?k{j>- A'm}n{ A']s2=s a[r f"`} A']s2=s k{ ]1k;n' lg;n; y; unk{ s"Ls eTy;]d m'. ph/\c;n; eNs/]ln k; k;m h" : y;]n eNs/]ln rË m'. x/gr k} m;µ; k{ km krt; h" : 60% eNs/]ln pc;y' h/y' k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s k{ s"Ls k' a.dr ph/\c;n' k; k;yE krt; h" : Y;n' k' t/rNt b;d rË m'. Gl?k{j> k} m;µ; b3> j;t} h" : eNs/]ln k' p@w;v s' h} us Gl?k{j> k{ ]lvr a[r msLs k' a.dr Gl;ek{j'n k' #p m'. S`{r krk' rY; j;t; h" : ]bn; eNs/]ln k'- s"Ls k' a.dr Gl?k{j> nh}. j; skt} Ky{.]k s"Ls k' uUpr eNs/]ln k' ]ly' ]rs'P`sE (receptors) h".- j{ ]bn; eNs/]ln k' apn' drv;j' k{ Gl?k{j> k' ]ly' bNd rYt' h". : a[r Gl?k{j> k' ]bn; s"Ls apn; k;yE nh}. kr skt' : h;. k]1n y; w;r} Vy;y;m krn' s' Gl?k{j> zls m'. j; skt} h" _ A's; k"s' h{t; h"aw} tk pt; nh}. lg; h" : a[r 2;y;b}`}s k; r{g} sÅt Vy;y;m krn' s' apn' a;p k{ 1}k rY skt; h" Av. ]bn; dv;eE k' s"Ls k{ x]Ë d' skt; h" : s"r krn' mtlb `hln' k' s;q_s;q d[2n'_k?dn' s' y; d.2_b"1k p'l kr 2;y;b}`}s k{ k;f} hd tk s/o;r; j; skt; h" y; sm;Pt ]ky; j; skt; h" : d?sr; 25% eNs/]ln ^{`}n=s k{ _ ]js' p".]ý;s k' ]`Ä]Psn n' pc;kr A'm}n{ A']s2=s bn;y' h". _ uNh'. s"Ls k' a.dr ]`c?j. eTy;]d bn;n' k' ]ly' ph/\c;n' k; k;m krt; h" : t}sr; 10% eNs/]ln f"`=s k{ _ ]js' p".]ý;s k' l;ep'j> n;mk ANj;>em n' pc;y; h" _ us' s"Ls k' a.dr jh;\_jh;\ a;vXykt; h{ vh;. ph/\c;n' k; k;yE krt; h" : es s' hm'. sm4 m'. a;t} h" ]k p".]ý;s k; k;yE ]ktn; mhTvp?~E h" xr}r m'. : p".] ý;s h} k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s- ^{`}n=s a[r f"`=s k{ pc;n' k' ]ly' p;ck ANj;>em=s bn;t; h"- a[r un ¹;v{. %;r; pc;y; h/a; m;l eE]lym %;r; s{Y kr rË m'. cl; j;y'g; : b;d m'. us}k; bn;y; h/a; eNs/]ln us s;r' m;l k{ jgh_jgh ]1k;n' lg;t; h" a[r sw} s"Ls tk ph/\c;t; h"- j{ un m'. s' us ]dn k' j#rt k' an/s;r l' l't' h". : j{ bc j;t; h" vh ]lvr m'. S`{r (store) ]ky; j;t; h" : p".]ý;s k; d?sr; m/Åy h[rm{n h" Gl?k;g;|n (glucagon) ]js' p".]ý;s k' A'Lf; s"Ls bn;t' h". : esk; k;yE h" ]k j#rt k' an/s;r rË m'. x/gr k} m;µ; k{ b3>;n; : yh h[rm{n A'2Ä}nl k[r`'Ks (adrenal cortex) k} sh;yt; s' ]lvr m'. p2>; Gl;ek{j'n (glycogen ) k{ ]nk;lkr 250 g@;m tk Gl?k{j> y; x/gr bn; skt; h"- jb xr}r k{ Gl?k{j> k} a;vXykt; h{ t}sr; p".]ý;s k' 2'L`; s"Ls s{m"`{S`"]`n (somatostatin) n;mk h[rm{n bn;t' h". : yh} h[rm{n h;yp{q"lms s' w} ]nklt; h"- j{ ]p`=y?`r} Gl".2 s' bn' GH y;]n g@{q h[rm{n k{ r{kt; h" : s{m"`{S`"]`n ]nMn sw} h[rm{Ns k{ w} r{kt; h" _ (Guyton 10th ed. p 893) _ eNs/]ln- Gl?k;g;|n- TSH, g"S`Ä}n- g"S`Ä}k Jy?s tq; CCK (R&W 9th edn. p. 217) jb w} rË m'. x/gr y; A'm}n{ A']s2=s y; f"`=s b3> j;t' h". tb s{m"`{S`"]`n ]nklt; h" a[r yh p'`- 2=y/a{2'nm tq; g[l Bl"2r k} m{]`]l`} y;]n g]t k{ r{kt; h" Av. GIT y;]n a¸ n]lk; m'. ¹;v{. k; ]nk;s tq; avx{z~ d{n{. k' smy k{ b3>; d't; h" : t;]k Y;n' k{ pc;n' m'. k{eE jLd}b;j} n h{ : `'br (Taber's dictionary) m'. ]lY; h" ]k k/9 p@y{g{. m'. p;y; gy; h" ]k `=y?mr j{ h[rm{n bn;t' h". _ uNh'. s{m"`{S`"]`n r{kt; h" : hmn' p;y; h" ]k jb hm (2) Pan x 6 treatments d't' h". t{ l;ep{m; (lipoma) Av. 9{`'_m{`' `=y?mr k/9 h} upc;r{. m'. YTm h{ j;t' h". : d'x wr

A's' an'k p'x.`{. pr s;]bt h/a; h"- s{ hm'. yk}n h{ gy; h" ]k (2) Pan s' s{m"`{S`"]`n k{ uks;y; j; rh; h" : es upc;r s' hm hr h[rm{n y; g@.q} j{ h;epr (hyper) y;]n Jy;d; k;m kr rh' h". _ uNh'. r{k skt' h". : p".]ý;s a[r k"Nsr _ p,Z1 97 m'. w} d'Y l'. s{m"`{S`"]`n _ yh eNs/]ln a[r Gl?k;g;|n d{n{. k{ r{kt; h"- s{ uUpr k' upc;r s' hm'. k"Nsr k' el;j krn' m'. y; upc;r krn' m'. w} bh/t sh;yt; ]ml} h" : k;r~ k"Nsr k' s"Ls k{ eNs/]ln s' bn;y; h/a; y; ph/\c;y; h/a; Gl?k{j>- ^{`}n=s y; f"`=} A']s2=s ]mln' b.d h{ j;y'.g' ] jss' unk; f"l;v y; b3>n; ½k j;y'g; : Ny?r{q'r'p} kht} h" ]k k"Nsr k; h{n; `Ä{f{Bl;S` s"Ls (trophoblast cells) a[r AS`Ä{j"n (estrogen) k} ]ml} wgt s' h{t; h" : hm apn} upc;r %;r; s{m"`{S`"]`n k{ uks;kr `Ä{f{Bl;S` s"Ls k{ YTm kr d't' h". a[r es upc;r %;r; j{ w} s"Ls h;epr A']K`v (hyper active) h". unk} A']K`]v`} (activity) y;]n k;yE k{ r{k ]dy; j;t; h" : As'.xl tq; n;|n As'.xl A'm}n{ A']s2=s (Essential & Non essential amino acids ) es s.s;r m'. k/l ]ml;kr 80 A'm}n{ A']s2=s h". - ]jsm'. s' 22 amino acids mn/Zy k{ c;]hy' : en m'. 11 A'm}n{ A']s2=s k{ xr}r k} g@.]qy;\ _ Y;s t[r s' ]lvr _ bn; p;t' h". _ s{ uNh'. n;|n As'Nxl A'm}n{ A']s2=s kh; j;t; h" : l']kn b;k} 11 amino acids k{ As'Nxl A'm}n{ A']s2=s kh; j;t; h" Ky{.]k uNh'. w{jn s' p@;Pt krn; h" _ ]jsk' ]ly' p;cn s.Sq; k; 1}k #p s' k;m krn; j#r} h" : As'Nxl A'm}n{ A']s2=s n;|n As'Nxl A'm}n{ A']s2=s ]sS`}n Cysteine a|l|n}n Alanine ]h]S`2}n Histidine a|r]jn}n Arginine a;es{ Ly?s}n Isoleucine a|Sp|r]jn Asparagine l?]sn Leucine a|Sp;]Èk A']s2 Aspartic acid l;es}n Lysine ]s`=`ÄLl;en Citrulline m'q;ey{n;en Methionine Gl?`|]mk A']s2 Glutamic acid f']nl a|l|n;en Phenyl alanine Gl?`|m}n Glutamine `;er{]sn Tyrosine Gl;es}n Glycine q@}y{n;en Threonine h;e2Ä;|]Ks p@{]ln Hydroxy proline ]`ÄP`{f|n Tryptophan p@{l}n Proline v|l}n Valine s'r;en Serine a;jkl kht' h". ]k s{y;b}n h} Ak A's} c}j h" ]jsm'. sw} 22 amino acids p;y' j;t' h". : esk' al;v; k{eE A's; Ak pd;qE nh}. h" ]jsm'. s;r' 22 A'm}n{ A']s2=s h{. : k/9 ^{`}n=s h". ]jn m'. sw} As'Nxl A'm}n{ A']s2=s h{t' h". _ j"s' ]k d?o- pn}r- a.2' v m;.s : eNh'. kMPl}` ^{`}n=s (complete proteins) kht' h". : b;k} ^{`}n=s j"s' s]Bjy;.d;l'.- an;j eTy;]d m'. sw} AS'Nxl A'm}n{ A']s2=s nh}. h{t' _ ]ks} d;l m'. k/9 A'm}n{ A']s2=s h{.g' t{ ]ks} aNy d;l m'. k/9 a[r h{.g' : es]ly' xr}r k} j#rt k' ]ly' hm'. sw} p@k;r k} d;l'. Y;n} c;]hy' : b'htr h" ]k r{j j{ d;l bn rh} h" usm'. Ak y; d{ aNy d;l _ q{2} m;µ; m'. h} sh} _ ]mKs krk' Y;y'. t;]k hr ]dn k} A'm}n{ A']s2=s k} j#rt p?r} h{ j;y : v'd k} ]l]Yt p@]t m'. n;|n As'Nxl m'. n;|r_Ly?s;en Norleucine, Hydroxyglutamic acid a[r R&W 9th edn. p. 272 m'. ]sS`}n Cystine k; w} ]j´ h" : p'` a[r p".]ý;s k' p;ck ANj;>em %;r; pc;y' j;n' k' b;d w{jn s' p@;Pt A'm}n{ A']s2=s a;.t]2y{. k' ]vl;eE (villi) %;r; rË m'. A'Bj{>bE (absorb) h{t' h". : a[r p{Èl v'n (portal vein) %;r; ]lvr m'. tq; vh;\ s' s;r' sk/El'xn m'. h{kr hr Ak ]`x? k' p;s ph/\ct' h". : ]fr ]js ]`x? k{ ]jn_]jn A'm}n{ A']s2=s k} j#rt h" vh uNh'. rË s' g@h~ kr l't; h"- a[r un A'm}n{ A']s2=s s' us ^{`}n k{ bn; l't; h" j{ us' c;]hy' : jb sw} s"Ls k} j#rt'. p?r} h{ j;t} h" tb j{ Jy;d; A'm}n{ A']s2=s rh j;t' h".- j{ upy{g m'. nh}. a;y'- uNh'. ]lvr t{2kr y; a|2}p{j> ]`x?j> (adipose tissues) m'. rYv;t; h" y; apn' p;s Gl;ek{j'n k' #p m'. S`{r kr l't; h" : es p@]ý; m'. f;lt? c}j (waste product) k' #p m'. Am{]ny; (ammonia) bnt; h" ]js' b;d m'. ]lvr y?]ry; k' #p m'. bdlt; h" ]js' ]k2n}j> p'x;b %;r; ]nk;l kr f'.kt' h". :

agr ]lvr 1}k s' k;m n kr' t{ rË m'. Am{]ny; k} jm;v` h{g} j{ b@'n k' ]ly' n/ks;n h" : 9{`' bCc{. m'. Am{]ny; b3>n'' k' k;r~ w} ]f`=s a; skt' h". : Am{]ny; b3>n'' s' Vy]Ë k{m; m'. w} j; skt; h"- ]js' h'p;]`k k{m; (hepatic coma) kht' h". : es' 1}k krn' k' ]ly' hm'. ]lvr a[r ]k2n}j> k{ uks;n; h" : yh} Ammonia treatment k} k;my;b} k; r;j h" : k/9 m/Åy A'm}n{ A']s2=s k} j;nk;r} a|Sp;]Èk A']s2 Aspartic acid p".]ý;s k' p;cn ]ý; s' p@;Pt h{n'v;l} Ak n;|n As'Nxl A'm}n{ A']s2 h" : a|r]jn}n Arginine yh s]Bjy{ k' ]`x?j> k' 2}kMp{j> (decompose) h{n' s' y;]n s2>n' k' b;d bnt; h" : yh eNs/]ln k{ uks;t; h" : ]s`=`ÄLl;en Citrulline yh trb?j (water melon) m'. p;y; j;t; h" : ]lvr k} b}m;]ry{. m'. esk} m;µ; rË- p'x;b a[r CSF m'. b3> skt} h" : A's' h{n' pr A'm{]ny; w} b3> j;t; h" a[r u]L`y;.- ]f`=s tq; m.d b/]5 j"s' aNy l6~ w} ]dY skt' h". : agr trb?j Y;n' pr ]ks} k{ u]L`y;. h{ t{ x;yd vh es A']s2 k' b3>n'' k' k;r~ h" < uNh'. ]lvr k; upc;r d'kr x;yd t/r.t a;r;m ph/\c'g; _ (1) Single point liver x 6 treatments Gl;es}n Glycine yh m/Åyt+ Sp;enl k[2E k' ]sn|Pss (synapses) %;r; bnt; h" : (Guyton 10th ed. p 586) _ a;\Y{. k' r'`}n; k' ]sn|Pss (synapses) km s' km a;1 ]v]w¸ Ny?r{ `Ä;NSm}`r bn;t' h". ]jnm'. p;.c m/Åy h". : y' sw} inhibition y;]n r{kn' k; k;yE krt' h". _ Glycine Gl;es}n Dopamine 2{p|m}n Acetylcholine a|s']`l k{l}n Indolamine eN2{lm}n GABA y;]n g;m; a|m}n{ By?]`]rk A']s2 (Gamma amino butyric acid) h;e2Ä;|]Ks p@{]ln Hydroxy proline yh k{l;j'n (collagen) m'. p;y; j;t; h" : k{l;jn Ak bh/t h} mjb?t ^{`}n h" j{ ]nMn c}j{. m'. h{t; h" _ bone h2=2} connective tissue y;]n j{2>n' v;l' ]`x? dermis y;]n Tvc; k} uUpr} prt tendons `'.2n j{ msl k{ h2=2} k' s;q j{2>t' h". cartilage k;]Èl'j ligament ]lg;m'N` j{ d{ h]2=2y{. k{ Ak d?sr' s' j/2>' rhn' m'. mdd krt; h" : uUpr k' sw} m'. My?]sn (mucin) h" j{ b;el m'. p;y; j;t; h" : agr enm'. s' ]ks} m'. p@{Bl'm a;y' t{ Vater + New Gall treatment s' 1}k h{g; : Gl?`|]mk A']s2 Glutamic acid yh ^{`}n=s k' pcn ]ý; k' d[r;n bnt; h" : yh Ak m;µ A'm}n{ A']s2 h"- ]js' b@'n apn} m'`;b[l;ej> (metabolize) kr p;t; h"- y;]n j#rt k' an/s;r esk; adl_bdl kr skt; h" : esk' k.p;u.2 glutamates h". j{ Ny?r{ `Ä;NSm}`r h" _ y' b@'n k' k;|r`'Ks (cortex) k' keE w;g{. tq; b'sl g".Gl}y; m'. s.v'dn; tNt/a{. k' n]lk;a{. (sensory pathways) s' ]nklt; h" : yh x;yd hm'x; uks;n' (excitation) k; k;yE krt; h" : (Guyton 10th ed. p 520, 659) a;\Y{. k' rods & cones k' b;ep{lr s"Ls (bipolar cells) k' ]sn|Pss (synapses*) glutamates y;]n glutamic acid k' k.p;u.2 bn;t' y; ]nk;lt' h". : y' Ny?r{ `Ä;NSm}`r h". _ uks;n' (excitation) k; k;yE krt' h". : * d{ Ny?r[Ns k' j.Kxn _ y;]n jh;. Ak Ny?r[n k; A'Ks;|n (axon) d?sr' Ny?r[n k' 2'N2Ä;|n (dendron)s' ]mlt; h". _ us jgh k{ ]sn|Ps (synapse) kht' h". : a;es{ Ly?s}n Isoleucine f;e]b@n (fibrin) tq; aNy keE ^{`}n=s k{ h;e2Ä{l;e]ss (hydrolysis) n;mk p@]ý; s' t{2>n' pr yh bnt; h" : es' ]ny]mt #p s' Y;n; c;]hy' : l?]sn Leucine yh ^{`}n pcn' k' b;d bnt; h" y; p;y; j;t; h" : yh xr}r k' sw} ]`x?j> m'. h{t; h" : yh xr}r k' n[rml ]vk;s a[r cy;pcy k' ]ly' j#r} h" :

l;es}n Lysine yh w} ^{`}n pcn' k' b;d bnt; h" y; p;y; j;t; h" j{ s;o;r~ ]vk;s a[r ]`x?j> k} mrMmt y; d/½St} k' ]ly' j#r} h" : m'q;ey{n;en Methionine yh sLfr (sulfur) k; k.p;u.2 h" j{ Ak As'Nxl A'm}n{ A']s2 h" : `;er{]sn Tyrosine yh Ak bh/t h} m/Åy A'm}n{ A']s2 h" j{ ]k d?o- dh}- pn}r eTy;]d d?o s' bn} c}j{. m'. p;y; j;t; h" : esk' cy;pcy k' ]ly' d{ m/Åy ]v`;]mNs c;]hy' _ ]v`;]mn C, Av. f{]lk A']s2 : ess' keE aNy h[rm{Ns bnt' h". : l']kn v' sb tb bn'.g' jb d?o 1}k s' pc j;y a[r us Vy]Ë k' Y;n' m'. fl a[r hr} s]Bjy;\ py;EPt m;µ; m'. h{ : `;er{]sn a|m}n{ A']s2 s' d{ g@.]qy{. k' h[rm{Ns bnt' h". _ q;yr[e2 Gl".2 Av. A'2Ä}nl m"2?l; : • agr es k' s;q a;y{]2n alg_alg m;µ; m'. j/2> j;y t{ uss' _ q;yr[e2 Gl".2 k' T3 , T4 h[rm{Ns bn'.g' : • A'2Ä}nl m"2?l; k' d{ h[rm{Ns k' ]ly' c;r alg p@]´y;y'. h{t} h". _ `;er{]sn a|m}n{ A']s2  h;e2Ä;|]Ksl'xn (hydroxylation)  2{p; bn'g; 2{p;  2}k;|rb;|]Ksl'xn (decarboxylation)  2{p|m}n bn'g; 2{p|m}n  h;e2Ä;|]Ksl'xn (hydroxylation)  n[r_Ap}n'fr}n bn'g; n[r_Ap}n'fr}n  m']ql'xn (methylation)  A'p}n"f>r}n bn'g; enk' al;v; `;er{]sn a|m}n{ A']s2 s' m'l;]nn (Melanin) n;mk h[rm{n w} bnt; h" j{ a;\Y- b;l a[r cm2} k' r.g k' ]ly' j#r} h" : ]`ÄP`{f|n Tryptophan yh m;.s v; m9l} m'. a]ok p;eE j;t} h" : xr}r k' n[rml g@{q y;]n ]vk;s k' ]ly' esk} bh/t j#rt h" : es}s' s'r{`{]nn bnt} h" : nvE s"Ls k' a.dr s' nvE e.pLss _ impulses y;]n nvE %;r; s.d'x _ k' 1}k s' y;t;y;t k' ]ly' yh Ak m/Åy k"m}kl h" : yh a]ok m;µ; m'. l} j;y t{ u]L`y;\- j} ]mcl;n; eTy;]d h{ skt' h". : s'r;en Serine yh d?o k' k']sn (casein) m'.- v;e`']ln (vitellin) y;]n egg yolk k; ^{`}n tq; aNy keE ^{`}n{. m'. tq; SvSq Vy]Ëy{. k' p'x;b m'. p;y; j;t; h" :

Gall Bladder yh Ak p}yr x'p (pear shape) k} q"l}_s} h" j{ ]lvr k} d;.eE l{b (right lobe of liver) k' n}c' h" j{ ]k ]lvr k' c[b}s i.`' k' bn;y' m;l y; b;eEl k{ ]jsk} ]mkd;r y; quantity 500 s' 750 ml h"- ]jsk; r.g p}l; h"- ]jsm'. s' p;n} k{ ]nk;l kr us g`=` m;l k{ j{ pc;s s' s;1 cc tk h"- ]jsk; r.g green h{ j;t; h"- rY l't; h" : j{ j#rt p2>n' pr 2=y/a{2'nm k' bn;y' y; 9{`} a;.t2>} m'. bn' h[rm{n j{ a;.t2>} k' uUpr k' w;g m'. bnt; h"- ]jsk; n;m CCK h", k' ]mln' pr ]jtn; m;l y; b;eEl c;]hy'- b;eEl 2K`= %;r; j{ ampoulla of vater s' 2=y/a{2'nm m'. ]mlt; h"- w'f d't; h" : p'` y; stomach jh;. 2=y/a{2'nm k' s;q ]mlt; h"- Ak p;eEl{rs n;m k; ]Sf.K`r h"- j{ p'` k' pc;y' h/y' m;l k{ 2=y/a{2'nm m'. w'jt; h"- us m;l m'. i} t'l k} m;µ; k' an/s;r h} CCK h[rm{n bnt; h"- j{ g[l Bl"2r k{ b;eEl w'jn' k' ]ly' uks;t; h" : b;eEl i} t'l k{ 9{`} a;.t2>} m'. 9{`'_9{`' `/k2>{. m'. bdl d'g; ]js k{ p".]´y;s k; w'j; h/a; l;ep's n;mk ANj;>em en 9{`' `/k2>{. k{ f"`} A']s2 m'. bdl d'g;- j{ rË (sf'd) y; lymphs %;r; s{Y ]ly; j;t; h" : b;eEl k; yh action usk' a.dr k' bile salts %;r; ]ky; j;t; h" ]jsk; n;m glyco-cholate y; tauro-cholate h" : b;eEl k' a.dr Ky;_Ky; h"- jr; sm4n; c;]hy' : esm'. b;eEl ]pGm"N` (bilirubin a[r biliverdin) h". : es k' k;r~ usk; r.g ]dY;y} d't; h" : esk' al;v; usm'. k[l"S`Ä;|l- l's}]qnMy?]sn- a[r d?sr' organic a[r inorganic sBS`;Nss (substances) h". : lecithin – Ak fatty sBS`;Ns j{ ]k phospho-lipids g@?p k; h"- j{ rË m'. p;y; j;t; h"- b;eEl m'.- b@'n m'.- a.2' k} jd}E m'.- nVEj> m'.- aNy p@;]~y{. k' ]`x?j> m'.- ] Gls'r[l- a[r f[Sf{]rk A']s2 m'. p;y} j;t} h" a[r k{l;en m'. choline m'. jb vh h;e2Ä{l;e]ss ]ky; j;y : mucin – yh Ak glyco-protein h"- j{ My?ks m'. p;y; j;t; h"- j{ sl;ev; m'. w} h"j{ sl;evr} Gl".2=s m'. h"- j{ cm2>} y; ]Skn m'. p;y; j;t; h"- connective ]`x?j>- tendons, a[r k;r`}l'j (cartilage) m'. p;y; j;t; h" : Oy;n rh' a;.t2>} m'. b;eEl %;r; h} f"`=`} A']s2=j> (fatty acids) k{ s{Y; j;t; h" : Oy;n rh' b;eEl anti-septic h{t} h" : vh kBj} k{ w} ]m`;t} h" a[r p'` s;f krt} h" : b;eEl 24 i.`{. m'. 800 cc bnt} h" : b;eEl k' ½k j;n' s' y;]n rË m'. b3> j;n' s' xr}r m'. Jv;.]2s (jaundice) h{ j;t; h"- a[r s.2;s m'. n pc; h/a; i}_t'l ]nkl j;t; h" : A's} avSq; m'. r{g} k{ i}_t'l ]bLk/l nh}. Y;n; c;]hy' : agr g[l Bl"2r k' My?k[s; m'. eNFlm'xn a; j;y' t{ ³} b;eEl (free bile ???? ) %;r; g[l Bl"2r m'. S`{n y;]n pqr} bnt} h" : Ny?r{q'r'p} m'. es S`{n k{ ] nk;ln' Ak upc;r h" _ (12) Liv a[r (6) Adr %;r; : Oy;n rh' ]k g[l Bl"2r k{ CCK, v'g;s nvE y;]n ds n.br k; ´']nyl nvE a[r enteric nervous system %;r; uks;y; j;t; h" : 2=y/a{2'nm y; a;.t2>} k' aNdr j{ wave y;]n lhr clt} h"- us' b;eEl h} l;t} h" : us lhr k' %;r; ]Sf.K`r a[f a[2} (sphincter of Oddi) k{ uks;y; j;t; h"- ]js k' k;r~ b;eEl a]ok 9{2>} j;t} h" : jb Y;n' m'. i}_t'l ]bLk/l n h{ t{ g[l Bl"2r b;eEl nh}. 9{2>t; h" y; km 9{2>t; h" : uUpr bt;y; gy; h" ]k g[l Bl"2r k} b;eEl A'N`}s"]P`k (anti-septic) h", j{ ps (pus) k' s;q ]mlkr a[Ks}j"n k[ 9{2>t} h" a[r es trh ps k; sf;y; krt} h" : b;eEl jb 2=y/a{2'nm m'. j;kr k;em (chyme) k' s;q ]mlt} h" t{ Ak trh k} 4;g_j"s} h{ j;t} h" j{ a;.t2>} k} `"Nxn ??? k{ km krt} h" _ ]jss' p".]´y;s k; l;eEp'j> (lipase) i}_t'lf"`=s eTy;]d k{ pc;t} h" _ A's; b;eEl m'. j{ glyco-cholate a[r tauro cholate k' k;r~ h{t; h" j{ b;eEl m'. rht} h". : uUpr bt;y; gy; h" ]k a;.t2>} m'. j{ v'v y; lhr clt} h" vh b;eEl k' peristalsis k{ uks;y' j;n' k' k;r~ A's; h{t; h" a[r p"kl y; hollow a;.t2>} j{ tube k] trh h" us m'. v'v clt} h" j{ a;.t2>} k' aNdr k' m;l k{ a;g' ok'lt} h" a[r yh v'v n cln' pr kBj} k} ]xk;yt h{t} h" : yh santd k' aNdr k' r;u.2 mSsl k{ ]sk{2>t} h" y; k[NS`Ä}K` krt} h" a[r yh ]sk/2>n a;g' a;g' v'v k} trh clt} h" : ] sk/2>n k' p}9' ]rl|Ks'xn w} h{t} h" ]js s' v'v k} trh y; lht k} trh k;yE krt} h" : I (15) Medulla II (10) Medulla III (6) TF ‘Gal’ 1Pt. ‘Gal’ IV Chole treatment : (10) Medulla (6) Gas ‘I’ (3) Gal V Fast (Gas : Gas ‘I’ : Gal : Spl : Liv : Mu : WD) VI Ajay Normal : (8) Pan (1) Gal (2) Liv – 3 points (1) Gas ‘ I ’ – 6 points (2) S4, S5

Glycocholate Ak b;eEl salt h" j{ ]k glycocholic acid s' bn; h/a; h" : ]b]l#]bn ]b]l#]bn k; orange color y; p}l; r.g h"- j{ ]k b;eEl k; Ak ]pGm"N` h" : yh h}m{Gl{]bn (j{ rË k' red cells m'. h".) s' bnt; h" : vh rË k' s"Ll ]jnk' 120 ]dn p?r' h{ gy'- j{ ]k unk} a;y/ h"- a[r j{ sm;Pt h{ gy' h".- j{ ]k macrophages system %;r; Y;y' j;t' h".- j{ ]k ]lvr SPl}n a[r bone marrow m'. rht' h". : jh;. w} ]b]l#]bn bn' vh rË %;r; ]lvr m'. w'j; j;t; h" a[r b;eEl m'. 2;l; j;t; h"- y; yh b;eEl m'. rht; h"- j{ 2=y/a{2'nm %;r; a;.t2>} m'. w'j; j;t; h"- jh;. pr us' b"K`}]ry; k' bn;y' ANj;>em %;r; Urobilinogen m'. bdl ]dy; j;t; h" a[r aNt m'. ``=`} %;r; b;hr ]nk;l ]dy; j;t; h" : agr urobilinogen rË k' p@v;h m'. cl; j;y t{ us' p'x;b %;r; b;hr ] nk;l ]dy; j;t; h" : y; esk; k/9 w;g d/b;r; b;eEl m'. cl; j;t; h" : agr yh rË m'. jm; h{ j;y t{ mn/Zy y; r{g} k{ jaundice h{ j;t; h" : j"s; ]k bCc{. k{ jNm k' b;d jaundice k; a; j;n; : y?r{]b]ln{j"n Urobilinogen ]jsk; k{eE r.g nh}. h{t;- a[r j{ ]k a;.t2>} m'. b"K`}]ry; k' ANj;>em=s s' ] b]l#]bn s' bn j;t; h"- y; a;.t2>} k' b"K`}]ry; k' ANj;>em k' ]b]l#]bn k' uUpr action %;r; Urobilinogen bn j;t; h" j{ ``=`} %;r; b;hr ]nk;l ]dy; j;t; h" : agr Urobilinogen rË k' p@v;h m'. cl; j;y t{ us' p'x;b %;r; b;hr ]nk;l ]dy; j;t; h"- y; usk; k/9 w;g d/b;r; b;eEl m'. cl; j;t; h" : agr yh rË m'. jm; h{ j;y t{ mn/Zy y; r{g} k{ jaundice h{ j;t; h" : j"s; ]k bCc{. k{ jNm k' b;d jaundice k; a; j;n; : l's}]qn Lecithin Ak phospho lipid h" j{ rË m'.- b;eEl m'.- b@'n m'.- a.2' k} jd}E m'.- nVEj> m'.aNy p@;]~y{. k' ]`x?j> m'.- ]Gls'r[l- a[r f[Sf{]rk A']s2 m'. p;y} j;t} h" : Phospho lipid Ak fatty sBS`;Ns h" j{ phospho lipid g@?p k; h" y;]n ]jsm'. phosphorus a[r fatty sBS`;Ns k; ]mR~ h" : esk{ hydrolysis krn' k' b;d stearic acid m'. bdl ]dy; j;t; h" : stearic acid _ animal fats m'. p;y} j;t} h"- y; k/9 s]Bjy{. m'. w} h" : Gl}s'r;|l Glycerol Glycerine Ak tri-hydro alcohol h" : esk' combination y; ]mR~ y; ]mln' s' hr p@k;r k} fats bnt} h" : yh Ak ]bn; r.g k' trl pd;qE h" y; liquid h" j{ p;n} m'. y; alcohol m'. ]ml j;t; h" : yh cm2} k} b}m;]ry{. k' ]ly' bh/t upy{g} h" : ess' glaucoma k{ bh/t l;w h{t; h" : b;eEl s[L`=s k' m/Åy k;yE ]lvr k' s"Ls tkr}bn 0.5 gms. b;eEl s;L`=s (bile salts) r{j bn;t; h"- j{ ]k k[l"S`Ä;|l s' bnt' h".- j{ Y;n' k; m'`;b[]lj>m h{t; h"- y; Y;n' k{ pc;y; j;t; h" : j{ b;d m'. k{]lk A']s2 (cholic acid) m'. w} bdl j;t; h" : yh k{]lk A']s2 Gl;e]sn (glycine) n;mk Ak non-essential acid k' s;q ]mlkr glyco-cholic acid bn;t; h" (k{]lk A']s2 %;r; g[l Bl"2r k' aNdr k' S`{n k{ sm;Pt ] ky; j; skt; h" ) : en acids k' salts b;eEl m'. ]ml j;t' h". j{ b;d m'. a;.t2>} m'. cl' j;t' h". : en b;eEl s[L`=s (bile salts) k' d{ m/Åy y; j#r} f.KxNs h" y; k;m h". _ phl; en k; a;.t2>} m'. j; kr Ak detergent action j"s; w{jn k' a.dr k' f"`=s pr h{t; h"- a[r a;.t2>} k' a.dr k} `"Nxn k{ km krt' h".- a[r unk{ 9{`'_9{`' `/k2>{. m'. t{2> d't' h".- y; un globules k{ 9{`'_9{`' `/k2>{. m'. bdl d't' h". : d?sr; enk; Ak bh/t j#r} k;m yh h" ]k b;eEl s[L`=s f"`} A']s2=j> k{ s{Yn' m'. mdd krt' h".- y; a;.t2>} m'. enk{ b;eEl s[L`=s k} sh;yt; s' s{Y; j;t; h" : y; d?sr' lipids w} enk} sh;yt; s' a;.t2>} m'. s[Y' j;t' h". : b;eEl s[L`=s m'. electric charge bh/t sÅt h{t' h". : b;eEl s[L`=s k' bg"r Oy;n rh' ]k 40% lipids ``=`} m'. ]nkl j;t' h". a[r mn/Zy k{ m'`;b[]lk 2"f}]xyNs} (deficiency) h{ j;t} h" : a[r en Ny?]`ÄAN`=s k{ vh nh}. pc;t; : a;.t2>}y{. tq; ]lvr m'. b;eEl s[L`=s k; s.c;r tkr}bn 3% b;eEl s[L`=s eN`'S`;en k' My?k{s; m'. d/b;r; s{Y ]ly; j;t; h" : yh k;m eE]lym m'. _ j{ a;.t2>} k; a;]Yr} 4-5 m}`r k; w;g h"- j{ l;jE k{ln k{ j;kr ]mlt; h" _ uor h{t; h" _ a[r s{Yn' k' b;d p{r`l Bl2 %;r; ]lvr m'. cl; j;t; h" : ]lvr m'. j;n' k' b;d yh s;r; m;l s.w;l; j;t; h" : a[r ]lvr k' s"Ls us' d/b;r; b;eEl m'. 2;l d't' h". : es p@k;r s' 94% b;eEl s[L`=s d/b;r;

circulation m'. a;p j;t; h" : a[r b;k} k; 6% waste h{ j;t; h" j{ ``=`} m'. ]nkl j;t; h" : es trh 18 b;r tk A's; h{ skt; h"- b;k} k; 6% m;l j{ km h{ j;t; h"- ]lvr k' s"Ls us' bn; l't' h". j{ es km} k{ p?r; kr l't' h". : ]jtn; b;eEl t{j bnt; h"- usk; d;r{md;r y; usk; A's; h{n; b;eEl s[L`=s k' uUpr ]nwEr h{t; h" : ]jtn; Jy;d; b;eEl s[L`=s h{.g' utn; a]ok b;eEl bn'g; a[r ]lvr w} utn; a]ok b;eEl s[L`=s bn; d't; h" (2.5 gm. tk r{j : v"s' r{j 0.5gms. bnt; h" ) ]js s' s"k2>{. ]mLl} l}`r (800 ml) b;eEl a]ok bn j;t} h" : b;eEl k' ]nk;s m'. ]s´']`n k; f.Kxn b;eEl A']s2=j> (bile acids) %;r; b;eEl secretion krn; y; b;eEl bn;n' k' al;v;- ]s´']`n h[rm{n j{ 9{`} a;.t2>} m'. bnt; h"- Y;n; Y;n' k' b;d ]lvr k{ a[r b;eEl bn;n' k{ uks;t; h"- a[r keE i.`{. tk ]lvr b;eEl k{ k;f} a]ok m;µ; m'. bn;t; h" : Oy;n rh' ]s´']`n Y;l} p".]ý;s k{ p'` s' w'j' h/y' k;em y; m;l k{ y; Y;n; j{ h;e2Ä{Kl{]rk A']s2 s' wr; h"- k[ x;.t krn' k' ]ly'- p".]ý;s k{ s{]2ym b;ek;rb{n'` k{ w'jn' k' ]ly' uks;t; h"- prNt/ ]lvr k{ w} b;eEl m'. b;ek;rb{n'` w'jn' k' ] ly' uks;t; h"- t;[k vh s{]2ym b;ek;rb{n'` j{ p".]ý;s n' w'j; h"- k' s;q ]mlkr us k;em k{ j{ p'` s' a;y; h"- a[r A']s2 y/Ë h"- k{ x;.t kr d't; h" y; neutralize kr d't; h" : k[l"S`Ä;|l k; uTp;dn tq; g[l Bl"2r m'. pqr} k; bnn; Oy;n rh'- xr}r m'. ]jtn; w} k[l"S`Ä;|l h"- usk; a;o; mtlb 50% ]lvr m'. bnt; h" : b;k} k; 50% xr}r k{ Y;n' %;r; ]mlt; h" : g[lBl"2r s' w'j' b;eEl m'. k[l"S`Ä;|l w} p;y; j;t; h" : yh ]lvr k' bn;y' k[l"S`Ä;|l k' dsv'. w;g k' br;br h{t; h" : A's; Ky{. h{t; h" pt; nh}.- prNt/ A's; lgt; h"j"s' x;yd b;eEl bn;n' k; by-product h" : k[l"S`Ä;|l p;n} m'. nh}. i/lt; prNt/ agr es k' s;q b;eEl s[L`=s a[r lecithin ]ml; ]dy; j;y t{ yh p;n} m'. i/l skt; h" : jb g[l Bl"2r ]lvr s' bn' b;eEl s' p;n} ]nk;l kr g`=` bn;kr 50 y; 60 cc. rY l't; h" t{ usk' s.g b;eEl s[L`=s a[r lecithin w} rht' h". :

VITAMINS Oy;n rh' ]v`;]mNj> xr}r m'. nh}. bnt' hm'. sBj}, w;j}, an;j a[r d;l{. %;r; ]mlt' h". s{ hr k/drt} c}j> sBj}, w;j}, an;j a[r d;l{. eTy;]d k{ Y;n; c;]hy' ]js s' hm'. hr p@k;r k' Vitamins ] ml'. ]jn k{ S`{r ]lvr m'. ]ky; j;t; h" : agr w{jn m'. k{eE Vitamins n ]ml' t{ unk; S`[k ]lvr m'. n}c' k' m/t;]bk rht; h" :VIT. A 10 mh}n' VIT. D 2 to 4 mh}n' VIT. B complex k/9 ]dn VIT. B12 4 to 5 s;l VIT. C 20 to 30 sPt;h (weeks) Oy;n rh' ]k ]v`;]mn A, D, E a[r K f"`=s m'. i/lt' h".- jb ]k vitamin B12, folic acid eTy;]d aNy s;r} vitamins p;n} m'. i/lnx}l h". : Vitamin A ]v`;]mn A – ]`x/j> m' retinol rht; h" : r"`}n{l m'. 20-k;rbn A'lk{hl rht' h". j{ k} ]lvr m'. S`{r rht; h" : v"s' yh ]lvr, aN2' k' p}l' y{k (egg yolk) m'., ]ckn, d?o, mYn v; d;l{. m'. p;y; j;t; h" : yh Ak s;"Ly/bl ]v`;]mn (soluble vitamin) h" j{ p}l} vSt/a{. m'. p;y; j>;t; h" j"s; k} w{pl;, kd=d? y; p.p]kn (pumpkin), g;jr eTy;]d : yh n[rml g@{q a[r ]vk;s (development) k' ]ly' bh/t j>#r} h" : n[rml f.kxn k' ]ly' yh A'p}q"l}yl ]`x?j> (epithelial tissues) k' ]ly' a;vXyk h" y;]n es k' bg"r A'p}q"l}yl ]`x?j> k;m nh}. kr'.g' : a;.Y{. k' ]ly' es k} bh/t h} a;vXykt; h" : ]lvr m'. yh S`{r h{t; h" a[r ]lvr es' bn;t; w} h" : a[rt{. k{ r{j> es k} 800 m;e ´{ g@;m k} a[r p/½1{. k{ yh 1000 m;e´{ g@;m k} a;vXykt; h" : ]v`;]mn A Y;n' k{ ]ks p@k;r s' pc;t; h" aw} tk m;l?m nh}. p2;> h" : ]v`;]mn A k} km} s' r;t k{ ]dYn; bNd h{ j;t; h" : Vitamin A k} km} k' k;r~ ]nMn tkl}f'. h{ skt} h". _ 1. cm2}> pr A'kn' y; Sk'l}n"s (acne and scaliness) a; j;t} h" 2. bCc{. k; b3>n; ½k j;t; h" : 3. es k; sb s' b2>; f.kxn yh h" k} `"S`}j> k} jrm}nl A'p}q"]lym m'. A'`r{f} (atrophy) k; a; j;n; a[r us s' ]rp@{2Kxn (reproduction) k; ½k j;n; – kw} kw} a[rt{. k} m;hv;r} m'. g2>b2 p"d; kr d'n; eTy;]d : 4. es ]v`;]mn k' aw;v m'. k[rn}y; k; keratinization h{ j;t; h" ]js k' k;r~ vh ap;rdxEk h{ j;t; h" h" ]jss' a.o;pn a; j;t} h" : Vitamin D ]v`;]mn 2} s' g'S`Ä{eN`"S`;eEnl `Ä"K` GIT m'. k"]Lxym k{ s{Yn; h{t; h" a[r s{Y' h/A k"]Lxym k{ h]2=2y{.. m'. 2;l ]dy; j;t; h" : k"]Lxym 9{`} a;.t2>} k' a;Yr} w;g m'. _ j{ b2>} a;.t2>} s' ]mlt; h"- ]js' e]lym kht' h". _ s{Y; j;t; h" : ]v`;]mn 2} Y;s t[r pr Ak A's; k"]Lxym b;eE.]2.g p@{`}n k{ bn;t; h" ]js k' %;r; a;.t2>} k' A'p}q"]lym m'. k"]Lxym k{ s{Y; j;t; h", a[r us' h]2=2y{.. y; mSslj> eTy;]d m'. w'j ]dy; j;t; h" : ]v`;]mn D d?o- ]lvr a[yl, b`r eTy;]d m'. p;y; j;t; h" : cm2>} k' n}c' s?yE k} r{xn} y; aL`Ä;v;yl'` ]kr~{. ultraviolet rays s' jm; h{t; h' : Vitamin E Vitamin E k} km} mn/Zy{. m'. nh}. h{t} : bh/t r'yr k's rare case m'. km} h{ skt} h"Ky{.]k tkr}bn yh sw} p@k;r k' Y;n' m'. ]ml j;t} h" : h;. l{ar A'n}mLj> m'. es k} km} s' unk' aN2k{Z; y; `"S`}j> k' A'p}q"]lym ]2j"nr'` h{ j;t' h". : yh;. tk k} agr ]v`;]mn E k} km} agr l{ar A'n}mLj> m'. h{ t{ 1hr; h/a; gwE w} ]rj>[rPxn resorption h{ j;t; h" mtlb gwE w} sm;Pt h{ j;t; h" : es]ly' kw} kw} es' A'N`}S`r}]l`} ]v`;]mn anti-sterility vitamin w} kh; j;t; h" : l{ar A'n}mLj> m'. unk} g@{q w} ]v`;]mn E k} km} k' k;r~ ½k j;t} h" a[r kw} kw} unk' ]k2n}j> k' `/b/lr s"Llj> tubular cells w} ]2j"nr'` degenerate h{ j;t' h". : a[r kw} kw} mSslj> k' s"Llj> w} ]2j"nr'` h{ j;t' h". : l{ar A'n}mLj> m'. es k} km} s' s"Ll m'Mb@'n, m;e`{k{N2Ä}y; a[r l;eEs{s{Mj> k' k;yE k;f} ]bg2> j;t' h" : Vitamin K ]v`;]mn K f"`=s, a{`=s oats, g'h?., r;eE eTy;]d m'. p;y; j;t; h" : Prothrombin :- Ak Pl;Sm; p@{`}n k[g/l'xn f"k`r coagulation factor h" j{ ]lvr Vitamin K k} sh;yt; s' es p@{qr;"m]bn k{ Qr;"]Mbn m'. bdl d't} h" ]js m'. k"]Lxym k} w} j>#rt h{t} h" : Oy;n rh' ]lvr k{ p@{Qr;"]Mbn bn;n' k' ]ly' Vitamin K k} a;vXykt; h{t} h" : es ]ly' bht' rË k{ jm;n' k' ]ly' f"K`r Vitamin K k} a;vXykt; h{t} h" ]js m'. Vitamin K k} bh/t j>#rt h{t} h" : s{ agr Vitamin K k} km} h{ t{ rË k{ kl;"` y; qKk; y; jmn; nh}. h{g; : Oy;n rh' k}

Vitamin K k{ l;jE k{ln m'. b"K`}r}y; bn;t; h" s{ agr A'N`}b;y{]`Ks r{g} k{ ]dy' j;y'. t{ en k' k;r~ b"K`}]ry; sm;Pt h{ j;t; h" ]js k' k;r~ Vitamin K k} w} km} h{ j;t} h" : s{ Oy;n rh' k} A'N`}b;y{]`Ks k' k;r~ Vitamin K km h{ j;t; h" y; sm;Pt h{ j;t; h" : NIACIN n;y;]sn k{ nicotinic acid ]nk{]`]nk A's}2 w} kht' h". : yh xr}r m'. k{A'Nj>;eEm (coen1yme) k; k;m krt} h" j"s; k} adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP). yh k{A'Nj>;eEm=j> h". j{ k} h;eE2Ä{'jn aKs"P`j>E h"., (hydrogen acceptors) v' un h;eE2Ä{'jn A'`mj (hydrogen atoms) k' s;q ]ml j;t' h". ] jn k{ Y;n; pc;t' vË / smy ]2h;2Ä{j}n's (de-hydrogenase) ]ky; j;t; h" y; alg ]nk;l ]dy; j;t; h" : jb n;y;]sn k} xr}r m'. km} h{t} h" t{ a;m t[r pr ]jtn; 2}h;eE2Ä{j"n'xn h{n; c;]hy', utn; nh}. h{t;, es ]ly' sb s"Ls k{ apn; k;yE krn' k' ]ly' ]js vSt/ y; x]Ë k} a;vXykt; h" j{ Y;n' %;r; ]mlt} h" y; (oxidative delivery) nh}. ]mlt} : x/#_x/# m'. agr n;y;]sn k} km} h{ t{ y; n;y;]sn k} km} k' k;r~ x/# x/# m'. mSsLj> m'. kmj>{r} a;y'g} y; kmj>{r} mhs?s h{g} a[r Gl".2/lr ]s´}xNj> (glandular secretions) km h{.g} y; Gl".2=s k' k;m krn' k} 6mt; km h{ j;y'g} a[r vh km k;m kr'.g' ]js s' vh j{ k"m}kl bn;t' h". km bn'.g' y; nh}. bn'.g' ]js s' xr}r k' ]`x?j> sm;Pt h{ j;y'.g' y; mr j;y'.g' : ]js s' s"`Äl nvEs ]ss`m m'. Yr;b} a; j;y'g} a[r ] 2m"n]xy; (dementia) h{ j;y'g; y; bh/t s} s;yk{]ss (psychosis)k} ]bm;r}y'. a; j;y'.g} : [Dementia k; mtlb :- y;dd;Xt k; n rhn; y; km} k; a; j;n; y; k/9 k/9 w?ln' lgn; : ]jsk' bh/t s' k;r~ h{ skt' h". : y; A'Lj>;emj>E k} ]bm;r} (Al1heimer's disease) k; a; j;n;, AIDS k; a; j;n;, ]sr pr m;r lgn' s' w} h{ skt; h" ]2m"n]xy; : p;r]kNsn k} ]bm;r} Huntington's disease k} ]bm;r} y; Creut1feldt-Jakob disease k' k;r~ w} dementia k; a;n; h{ skt; h" : x/# x/# m'. km y;d rhn; j{ keE mh}n{. m'. b3>t} j;y'g} a[r s{cn' sm4n' k} x]Ë km h{ j;y'g}- ]fr ] 2p@"xn (depression) k; a;n;, n}.d k; n a;n; y; ]c2>]c2;p>n k; a; j;n;, kmj>{r} k; etn; a; j;n; k} r{j r{j k; k;m krn' m'. w} ]ks} k} sh;yt; k' bg"r n h{n; a[r ]fr ]bStr pr hm'x; k' ]ly' l'` j;n; ] [Creutzfeldt disease (CJD):- A central nervous system disease that causes presenile dementia, (pre-senile dementia beginning in middle age, usually resulting from cerebral arterio-sclerosis.The symptoms are apathy, loss of memory and disturbances of speech and gait, myoclonus (twitching or clonic spasm of a muscle or a group of muscles) and distinctive electric-encephalographic changes. The causative organism is assumed to be a prion. CJD has developed in a recipient of a cornea from a donor with the disease, and in a few recipients of human growth hormone. There is no treatment and the disease is fatal.] a[r cm2}> y; ]Skn m'. ´"k=s (cracks) a; j;y'.g' y; cm2} f` s} j;y'g} a[r cm2>} pr k;l;pn y; ]pGm"N`'xn s} h{ j;y'g} a[r s?yE k} r{xn} s' cm2>} Yr;b h{ j;t} h" a[r A's; lgt; h" k} esk; el;j nh}. h{g; y; ]jsk; 1}k h{n; n;m/m]kn h{t; h" : n;y;]sn k} km} k' k;r~ inflammation m/.h k' aNdr k' My?k{s; m'. a; j;t} h" a[r bh/t tkl}f h{t} h" a[r yh} h;l a;.t2>}y{. k; h{ j;t; h" ]js s' Y;n; 1}k p@k;r s' nh}. pct; a[r A'B2{mn Akdm Yr;b h{ j;t; h" a[r m"`;b[leJm ]bg2> j;t; h" a[r a;.t2>}y{. k} A'p}q"]lym (epithelium)]bg2> j;t} h" ]js k; 1}k krn; k;f} k1}n k;yE h" y; v{ 1}k nh}. h{.g} : ]js k{ Kl}n}kl (clinical) w;z; m'. p'l;gr; (pellagra) kh; j;t; h" a[r j>b;n w} k;l} h{ j;t} h" ]js' k"n;en ]bm;r} (canine disease) kht' h". : yh sb n;y;]sn k} km} k' k;r~ h{t; h" : afr}k; k' l{g{. m'. yh a]ok p;eE j;t} h" Ky{.k} vh k[nE (corn) a]ok Y;t' h" ]js m'. a;m}n{ A']s2 `Ä;eEP`{f"n ]bLk/l nh}. h" a[r `Ä;eEP`{f"n s' n;y;]sn bnt} h" : (tryptophan) yh A'n}ml a[r ]fx p@{`}n (animal and fish protein) m'. a]ok h" : yh n[rml g@{q k' ]ly' bh/t j>#r} h" j{ k} as".xl a;m}n{ A']s2 (essential amino acid) h" : `Ä;eEp@{fn s' s"r{`{unn bnt; h" j{ k} s"N`Äl nvEs ]sS`m k; Ny?r{ `Ä;.sm}`r (neuro-transmitter) h" : agr es dv;eE k} Jy;d; 2{j> (dose) l} j;y' t{ uL`}y'. x/# h{ j;t} h" : V.V.IMP. – Oy;n rh' : f{]lk A']s2 yh vSt/A. uks;t} h" : Purines :-Adenine a[r Guanine bn;t} h" Thymine :-j{ pyrimidine k; w;g h" Pyrimidine : Thymine & Cystosine. Purines a[r pyrimidine s' genes bnt' h". ]jn k' %;r; j}Nj> bn;t' h". : f{]lk A']s2 s'

deoxyribonucleic A']s2 bn;eE j;t} h" ]js s' DNA bn;y; j;t; h" : V.V.IMP. Thiamine k; decarboxylation k; k;m h{t; h" : Pyruvic acid k{ decarboxylation krn' k' b;d acetyl-CoA bnt; h" ]jss' mitochondria k{ ATP ]mlt; h" : NIACIN yh Ak A'N`}p'l;g2>; (anti-pellagra compound) h" ]js' VIT B COMPLEX kht' h". : yh k/drt} f[rm form m'. p;y; j;t; h" : yh d?o, ]lvr, y}S` yeast pn}r a[r d;l{. m'. p;y; j;t; h" : VITAMIN B12 bh/t s' k{b;l;]mn k' ]mln' s' (k{b;l;]mn kMp;uU.2) ]jn m'. k[mn p@{sq"]`k g@/Ps h". (common prosthetic groups) uns' Vitamin B12 bnt; h" : [COBALAMIN :- Ak k"m}kl ]jsm'. k{b;L` (cobalt) rht; h"- j{ sb ]v`;]mn B12 m'. p;y; j;t; h" : COBALT : Ak g@', h;2E, 2k`;eEl m"`l> h", (ductile y;]n j{ lMb; ]ky; j; skt; h"), ]js k; A'`[]mk vjn atomic weight 59.933 h" A'`[]mk n.. atomic number 27 h" : ]js k} Sp']s]fk g@']v`} specific gravity 8.9 h" : k{b;L` k} 2"f}]xNs} s' y; km} s' an']my; anemia h{ j;t; h" : k{b;L` ]v`;]mn B12 m'. Ak j>#r} A'l}m"N` h" : k{b;L` s' Vitamin B12 k} p@{2Kxn s' RBC bnt' h". y; RBC p@{2Kxn k{b;L` s' h{t} h" : mgr esk; upy{g s}o; RBC bn;n' k' ]ly' nh}. krn; c;]hy' : bCc{. m'. k{b;L` a]ok d'n' s' m,Ty/ h{ j;t} h" : jv;n{. m'. a]ok d'n' s' uL`}y'. eTy;]d a; skt} h". : Oy;n rh' k} p@[sq"]`k g@/Ps m'. k{b;L` rht; h" : es k} b;eE.]2.g es} p@k;r k} h" ]js p@k;r a;yrn k} h'm{Gl{]bn k' s;q h" : a[r k{b;L` A'`Mj> atoms A's' h} k;m krt' h".- j"s; k} h'm{Gl{]bn : ]v`;]mn B12 k' bh/t s' m'`;b[]lk f.KxNj> h". yh h;eE2/{jn aKs"P`r k; k{A'nj;>eEm h" y; es} k' k;r~ h;eE2/{jn aKs"P`rj> k;m krt' h". : es} s' RNA k{ DNA m'. bdl; j;t; h" : yh s"Ll k{ d{ s"Ll m'. bdln' k' ]ly' j>#r} h" : jb tk RNA k{ sm;Pt nh}. ]ky; j;y'g; DNA k; 2/pl}k'` nh}. h{ skt; : s{ VIT B12 k' d{ m'jr f.KxNj> h". _ 1.g@{q k{ b3>;v; d'n;

2.RBC k{ mCy{r'xn krn; : agr VIT B12 k} km} h{ t{ RBC mCy{r nh}. h{g; a[r rË km h{ j;y'g; ]js' an}m}y; kht' h". : Oy;n rh' VIT B12 k} km} k' k;r~ Sp;eEnl k[2E k' b2'> f;eEbj>E y; l;jE f;eEbj>E m'. ] 2m;eEl}n'xn (de-myelination) h{ j;y'g; y; l;j>E f;eEbj>E k' uUpr k} kv]r.g ]nkl j;y'g} : Y;s t[r pr a;g' k' f;eEbj>E k} kvr}.g y; kw} kw} p}9' k' l;j>E f;eEbj>E k} kvr}.g ]nkl j;y'g} : ]js k; nt}j; y; ]rj>L` yh h{g; k} pn}Ex}ys aN';m}y; (pernicious anemia) m'. aKsr p"r}f'rl s"Ns'xn (peripheral sensation) sm;Pt h{ j;y'g} y; s}v}yr p'x.`{. m'. p"r;l;e]ss (paralysis) w} h{ skt; h" : Oy;n rh' k} VIT B12 k} asl} km} k; k;r~ p'` m'. eN`Ä}]Nsk f"K`r k; n bnn; h} h" ]js

k' ]ly' p'` k; 1}k h{n; j>#r} h" t;]k eN`Ä}]Nsk f"K`r bn' a[r usk' s;q B12 ]ml kr j'j/nm m'. pc j;y' a[r pcn k' b;d ]lvr m' S`{r h{ j;y' : Folic Acid (f{]lk A']s2) f{]lk A']s2 k{ PTEROYL GLUTAMIC ACID (`'r;|el Gl?`;]mk A']s2) w} kh; j;t; h" : yh Ak m/Åy ]v`;]mn h" j{ d{ ]v]w¸ r;s;y]nk g@?Ps (chemical groups) k; carrier y;]n v;hk k; k;m krt; h"- ]jNh'. hydroxy-methyl (h;e2Ä;]Ks} m}q"l) tq; formyl (f;|r]ml) g@? Ps kht' h". : f{]lk A']s2 k; sb s' j#r} k;m h" xr}r m'. Purines (Py?r}Ns)a[r Thymine (q"]mn) k; ]s.q']ss (synthesis) krn; y;]n bn;n; h" : Oy;n rh' ]k j}Nj> (genes) k{ bn;n' k' ]ly' y; unk' k;yE k{ s/o;rn' k' ]ly' purines a[r Thymine k} a;vxykt; h{t} h" : Py?r}Ns Ak A's' k.p;u.2 k{ kht' h".- ]jss' d{ b's's (bases) bnt' h".- ]jnk; n;m h" adenine tq; guanine. d? sr; h" _ pyrimidine (]p]r]m]2n) ]jss' thymine (q;e]mn) a[r cytosine (s"`{s"n) n;mk d{ aNy b's's (bases) k{ bn;t' h". y; uks;t' h". : y' c;r{. b'ss (bases) s"Ll (cell) k' Ny?]Klys (nucleus) k' a.dr DNA a[r RNA k' p@o;n a.x h". : s{ hm f{]lk A']s2 k' upc;r s'

j}Nj> (genes) 1}k kr skt' h". : [ DNA k; p?r; n;m h" de-oxy-ribonucleic acid (2} a;|Ks} r"b{Ny?Kl}ek A']s2) ] f{]lk A']s2 w} ]v`;]mn B12 k} trh s"Ls k' a.dr j}Nj> (genes) k{ 2?Pl}k'` (duplicate) bn;n' k' k;m m'. a;t; h" : jb m;e`{]ss (mitosis) h{n; h{t; h"- mtlb jb Ak s"Ll s' d{ s"Ls bnn' h{t' h".- t{ en k' %;r; us s"Ll k' j}Nj> k{ d{ j}Nj> y; 2?Pl}k'` m'. bdl; j;t; h" : y;]n g@{q (growth) k{ b3>;v; d'n' k; k;m _ yh f{]lk A']s2 k; Ak bh/t h} b2>; j#r} k;m h" : es]ly' agr Y;n' m'. es ]v`;]mn k} km} h{g} t{ mn/Zy k' xr}r k} b3>{μ} nh}. h{g} y; g@{q ½k j;y'g} : es]ly' f{]lk A']s2 ]v`;]mn B12 s' mn/Zy k{ a]ok l;w ph/\c;t; h" : f{]lk A']s2 k; Ak a[r upy{g h" ]k yh a[r ]v`;]mn B12 d{n{. s;q ]mlkr RBC’s y;]n l;l rË k{]xk;a{. k' m|Cy{r'xn (maturation) krv;t' h". y;]n RBC’s k{ es l;yk bn;t' h". ]k v' k"p}lr}j> (capillaries) k' a.dr i/s sk'. : f{]lk A']s2 hr} s]Bjy{. m'.- c;vl k' b@|n (bran) y;]n uUpr k} w?s} tq; g'h?. Av. d;l{. k' uUpr k' ]9lk{. m'. p;y; j;t; h" : mn/Zy k{ r{j 0.4 mg. f{]lk A']s2 k} a;vXykt; h" : agr xr}r m'. f{]lk A']s2 k} km} h{ t{ RBC’s k; a;k;r k;f} b2>; rh j;y'g; a[r v' k"p}lr}j> k' a.dr i/s nh}. skt}. : f{]lk A']s2 k} km} s' j{ A'n}]my; y;]n rË k} km} a;t} h"- us' m|´{s"]`k A'n}]my; (macrocytic anemia) kh; j;t; h"- jb ]k ]v`;]mn B12 k} km} s' a;y} A'n}]my; k{ prn}]xys A'n}]my; (pernicious anemia) kht' h". : s{ hm'. ]9lk' v;l} d;l'. Jy;d; m;µ; m'. Y;n} c;]hy' : sf'd b@'2 m'. f{]lk A']s2 nh}. h{t} : t{ agr b@'2 Y;n; h{ t{ b@;un b@'2 (brown bread) Y;n; b'htr h" :

THIAMINE (q;y;m}n) q;y;m}n (thiamine) k{ ]v`;]mn B1 w} kht' h". : Oy;n d'. ]k DNA k' a.dr p;y' j;n'v;l' q;e]mn (thymine) k' s;q esk; k{eE sMbNo nh}. h" : q;y;m}n Y;s t[r pr thiamine pyrophosphate k' #p m'. yh xr}r k' m'`;b[]lk ]sS`m m'. bh/t k;m krt} h" : yh k.p;u2 (compound) k{k;rb;|]Ksl's (cocarboxylase) k; k;m krt} h" : yh ^{`}n k' s;q ]mlkr 2}k;rb;|]Ksl's (decarboxylase) k; k;m krt} h" : q;y;m}n p;e#]vk A']s2 (pyruvic acid ) k; 2}k;rb;|]Ksl'xn (decarboxylation) krk' us' acetyl-coA y;]n A']s`;el k{_ANj;>em A m'. bdl d't} h"- ]js s' m;e`{k{N2Ä}y; (mitochondria) k{ s"Ls k' a.dr k;m krn' k' ]ly' ATP ]ml j;t; h"- ]jsm'. n ]k k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s h} b]Lk ^{`}n=s a[r f"`=s w} upy{g ]ky' j;t' h". : q;y;m}n k} km} k' k;r~ p;e#]vk A']s2 a[r aNy k/9 A'm}n{ A']s2=s (amino acids) k; ]`x?j> m'. v;prn; y;]n upy{g krn; km h{ j;t; h"- a[r un k' jgh pr s"Ls f"`=s k{ Jy;d; m;µ; m'. v;prt' h". : q;y;m}n Y;s t[r pr k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s a[r keE A'm}n{ A']s2=s k{ v;prn' k' ]ly' bh/t j#r} h" : es]ly' q;y;m}n k} km} k' k;r~ bh/t s' Ny?]À'N`=s (nutrients) upy}g m'. l;n' s' rh j;t' h".- j{ 1}k nh}. h" : CNS y;]n s'.`Äl nvEs ]sS`'m k{ k;m krn' k' ]ly' Y;s t[r pr k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s k} a;vXykt; h"- a[r usk; k;m krn; s;r; q;y;m}n pr h} ]nwEr h" : agr q;y;m}n k} km} h{ t{ nvEs ]`x?j> (nervous tissues) Gl?k{j> k{ 50 s' 60 p@]txt km v;prt' h".- ]js s' s'.`Äl nvEs ]sS`'m k' Ny?r[nl s"Ls (neuronal cells) m'. ´{m{]fl (chromophyll) k} km} a; j;t} h" a[r v' s?j j;t' h". : a[r q;y;m}n k} km} k' k;r~ un s"Ls k{ p?r} x]Ë nh}. ]mlt} ]js s' un k; k;m krn; km h{ j;t; h" a[r v' s'.`Äl nvEs ]sS`'m k' d?sr' w;g{. k{ 1}k p@k;r s' ]ml (?) nh}. p;t' y; d?sr' w;g{. k{ k{eE at; pt; nh}. d' p;t' : es k' al;v; un k' nvE f;eEbsE (nerve fibres) v; p"r}f'rl nvE f;eEbsE (peripheral nerve fibres) k' m;y']ln x}q (myelin sheath) y;]n unk} kv]r.g (covering) ]nkl j;t} h" y; 2}j'n'r'` (degenerate) h{ j;t} h" : ]jsk' k;r~ p"r}f'rl nVEj> (peripheral nerves) aKsr bh/t er}`bl (irritable) h{ j;t} h". : a[r q;y;m}n k} km} s' p;|l}Ny?r;e]`s (polyneuritis) y;]n nvEj> m'. bh/t ddE a; j;t} h" a[r unm'. eNFlm'xn a; j;t} h" : a[r A's; w} h{t; h" ]k k[2E (cord) m'. usk' tract `Ä"K` k' f;eEbjE etn' 2}j'n'r'` (degenerate) h{ j;t' h". ]k aKsr p"r;l;es k} n[bt a; j;t} h" y; p"r;l;es h{ skt; h" : agr p"r;l;es n h{ t{ mSsl m'. A`Ä[f} (atrophy) a; j;t} h" a[r vh kmj{r h{ j;t' h". : q;y;m}n k} km} s' h;È k' mSsl w} kmj{r h{ j;t' h". a[r agr q;y;m}n k} km} a]ok h{ t{ h;È w} f'l h{ j;t; h" y; k;m krn; bNd kr d't; h" : es k' al;v; h;È m'. rË y; Y?n y; Bl2 k; bh;v d{ g/~; b3>; d't; h" : es k; k;r~ q;y;m}n k} km} k' k;r~ p'r}f'rl v"s{ 2;el'xn (peripheral vaso-dilation) h{ j;t; h"- mtlb n;]2y'. Y/l j;t} h". y; p?r} srk/lr} ]sS`m k} n;]2y{. k; 2;y;m}`r b3> j;t; h"- es k; asl} k;r~ h" ]k n;]2y{. k' ]`x?j> k{ p?r} x]Ë nh}. ]mlt} h"- ]jss' v' 3>}l} h{ j;t} h". : p'r}f'rl A2}m; (peripheral edema) y; s?jn a[r a|s;e`=s (ascites) w} h{ j;t' h". : q;y;m}n k} km} k' k;r~ ]nMn tkl}f'. a;t} h". _ p'` Yr;b h{ j;t; h" : y; eN2;ej"xn (indigestion) y;]n apcn h{ j;t; h" : y; sÅt kBj} h{ j;t} h" : Anorexia mtlb w?Y k; n lgn;]2p@'xn (depression), b/Y;r k; a;n;a;.t]2>y{. k; ]bg2>n;Y;s t[r pr p'` k} h;lt Yr;b h{n;- g"S`Ä}k A`{n} (gastric atony)- p'` m'. h;e2Ä{Kl{]rk A']s2 k; km h{n; eTy;]d : es k; asl} k;r~ h" p'` k' nrm mSsl k{ k;rb{h;e2Ä'` m'`;b{]lj>m (carbohydrate metabolism) k} x]Ë k; n ]mln; : s{ q;y;m}n k} km} s' bh/t n/ks;n h{t; h" : Oy;n rh' ]k mSk/lr 2;eS`Ä{f} (muscular dystrophy) y; f|`}g (fatigue) y;]n at}v qk;n k' a;n; k; m/Åy k;r~ w} q;y;m}n k} km} h} h" : xr}r k{ r{j 1.5 mg. q;y;m}n k} j#rt h" : A's; d'Y; gy; h" ]k rË m'. a]ok d'r tk Gl?k{j> k} km} h{n' k' k;r~ ]`x?j> 3>}l' p2> j;t' h".- ]js s' b'r}_b"r} (beri-beri) n;mk b}m;r} a; j;t} h" : k;r~ ]`x?j> m'. ATP k} km} k' k;r~ A's; h{t; h" ]k v' 3>}l' p2> j;t' h". a[r un m'. ]sk/2>n' k} x]Ë km h{ j;t} h" j{ q;y;m}n k} km} k' k;r~ h{t; h" : es m'. h;È k' mSsLj> (muscles) m'. w} 3>}l;pn a; j;n' s' us m'. rË k; bh;v d{ g/~; b3> j;t; h" ]js s' yh b}m;r} a; j;t} h" : a[r h;È m'. rË k} 2bl rË k; bh;v h{n' s' l.Gj> m'. s?jn a; j;t} h"- a[r ]k2n}j> pr w} bh/t p@w;v p2>t; h" ]js s' vh ]bg2> j;t} h". : dr asl v}ns rË k; bh;v b3> j;t; h" a[r Py{r rË k; bh;v ]k2n}y{. m'. km h{ j;t; h" : es]ly' xr}r m'. q;y;m}n k} km} nh}. a;n} c;]hy' esk; Oy;n rYn; c;]hy' :

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) ]rb{Fl']vn Ak v;`r s;"Ly/bl (water soluble) y; p;n} m'. i/ln'v;l; ]v`;]mn h" j{ B Complex g@?p k; h" : yh s.tr' r.g k; cmkd;r Kl}yr p;uU2r h" : yh d?o, d?o k' pd;q{E. m'. tq; g@}n w;]jy{. eTy;]d m'. p;y; j;t; h" : yh ]`x?j> k' f[Sf{]rk A']s2 (phosphoric acid) m'. ] mlkr d{ ]kSm k; k{_A'nj>;eEm bn;t; h" : 1.Fl']vn m{n{Ny/kLy/a{`;eE2 (flavin mononeucleotide) (FMN) and 2.Fl']vn A2'n;eEn 2;eENy/kLy/a{`;eE2 flavin adenine di-nucleotide) (FAD). ]fr yh d{n{. s"Ll k' m;e`{k{N2Ä}y; m'. a[ks}2']`v ]sS`m k{ bn;n' k' ]ly' h;eE2Ä{j'n k"r}yr %;r; k;yE krt' h". : aKsr, NAD 2}_h;eE2Ä{j'n'j> (dehydrogenase) k' s;q ]ml kr k;yE k{ krt' h" : ]fr vh h;eE2Ä{j'n j{ Y;n; pc;n' s' ]nkl} h" y; bn} h" us' FMN a[r FAD m'. ph/.c; ]dy; j;t; h" : ]fr yh sb h{n' k' b;d h;eE2Ä{j'n k{ ay;|n ion m'. bdl ]dy; j;t; h" a[r us' m;eE`{k{N2Ä}y; k} m"]`ÄKs m'. (matrix) w'j ]dy; j;t; h" ]js m' a[Ks}jn k' s;q ]ml kr a[Ks}2;eEj> oxidize ]ky; j;t; h" : agr ]rb{fl']vn k} km} h{ t{ l{ar A'n}mLj> lower animals m'. eNFlm'xn k' k;r~ cm2}> k} ]bm;r}, tq; uL`}y'., l?j> m{xnj>, mSsLj> m'. Sp;S`}]s`}- j{ b;d m'. aTy]ok kmj{r} xr}r k' t;pm;n k; km h{n; ]fr k[m; (coma), ]fr m,Ty/ h{ j;y'g} : es m'. xr}r k} `"Mp@'cr o}r' o}r' km h{ j;t} h" : ]rb{fl']vn k} bh/t km} h{n' pr xr}r m'. v"s' h} sb k/9 h{g; j"s; k} Y;n' m'. n;y;]sn k} km} k' k;r~ h{t; h" : j"s; k} xr}r k' s"Llj> m'. km a[Ks}2'>]`v p@{s"s k; h{n; : mn/Zy{. m'. ]rb{Fl']vn k} km} s' vh sb k/9 nh}. j{ uUpr ]dy' gy' l{ar A'n}mLj> m'. h{g; y; h{t; h" : mgr q{2}> ]rb{fl']vn k} km} aKsr mn/Zy{. m'. p;eE j;t} h" ]js s' Y;n; pc;n' m'. km}, a;.Y{. k; y; cm2>} k; jln; j"s;, m/.h k' h{1{. k} s;eE2{. m'. ´"Ks (cracks) k; a; j;n;, ]sr ddE, ]2p@"xn, a[r w?ln; eTy;]d : p"l;gr;, b"r} b"r}, Sp@? (sprue), eTy;]d ]bm;r}y{. m'. ]v`;]mn{. k' sm/h k} km} k' k;r~ h{t; h" : j"s; k} q;y;]mn, n;y;]sn y; ]rb{fl']vn sb m'. q{2}> q{2}> km} h{n' k' k;r~ ] bm;r}y{. k; a;n; : Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) p;yr}2[]Ksn j{ p;yr}2[Ksl f[sf"` k} xkl m'. s"Ls m'. rht} h"- yh Ak k{_A'Nj>;eEm h" ] jn k' %;r; un k"m}kLj> k; ]rA'kxn reaction h{t; h" ]jn k; ]rxt; a;m}n{ A's}2 a[r p@{`}n k' m'`;b[]lj>m s' h" : es k; sbs' j>#r} a[r b2>; k;m yh h" ]k es k' %;r; Ak a;m}n{ A']s2 k' kMp;u.2 k{ d?sr' a;m}n{ A']s2 k' kMp;u.2 m'. w'j; j;t; h", ]js s' Y;s t[r pr p@{`}n m'`;b[]lj>m k; Oy;n rY; j;t; h" y; p@{`}n k{ pc;y; j;t; h" : d?sr; es k' %;r; k/9 A'm}n{ A']s2=s k{ s"Ll k} m'Mb@'n s' b;hr w'j; j;t; h" y; `Ä;.sp{`E transport ]ky; j;t; h" : p;yr}2[]Ksn k} km} k' k;r~ l{ar A'n}mlj> m'. 2m;E`;eE]`s dermatitis g@{q k; km h{n;, f"`} ]lvr k; h{n;, m"N`l S`'` mental state k; Yr;b h{n; h{t; h" : r'yrl} rarely bCc{. m'. es k} km} k' k;r~ knvlxNj> (convulsions) a; j;t' h". : 2m;E`;eE]`s y; p'` k; Y;r;b h{n; h{ j;t; h", j"s; k} j} ]mcl;n; y; uL`} k; a;n; : yh c;vl, b@"n (bran) y; Ym}r m'. p;y; j;t; h" :

Pantothenic acid p"N`{q"]nk A']s2 ]lvr, Ym}r a[r an;j{. m'. p;y; j;t; h" : p"N`{q"]nk A']s2 m/Åyt+ k{A'Nj>;eEm A (CoA) k' s;q ]ml kr s"Ll m'. m"`;b[]lk r{l ]nw;t; h" : 1. p"N`{q"]nk A']s2 2}k;rb[Ks} decarboxy h/a; h/a; p;eE#]vk A']s2 k{ A']s]`lk{ A'Nj>;eEmA m'. bdl d't} h" : ]fr yh bdl; h/a; m;l ]s`]rk A']s2 s;eEkl citric acid cycle m'. cl; j;t; h" : 2.p"N`{q"]nk A']s2 pc} h/eE y; p'` m'. bn} h/eE f"`} A']s2 k{ A']s]`l-k{A'Nj>;eEmA m'. bdl d't} h" : agr p"N`{q"]nk A']s2 p'` m'. n h{ t{ k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s a[r f"`s k; pcn; m/]Xkl h" y; k]1n h" y; nh}. pc'.g', s{ p"N`{q"]nk A']s2 en k{ pc;n' k' ]ly' avXy c;]hy' : agr p"N`{q"]nk A']s2 l{ar A']nmLj> m'. n h{ t{ unk} g@{q ½k j;y'g}, un k' s"Ls k} ] rp@{2Kxn nh}. h{g}, b;l sf'd h{ j;y'.g', 2m;E`;eE]`s dermatitis h{ j;y'g}, f"`} ]lvr h{ j;y'g; a[r A'2Ä}nl k[r`"Ks m'. n"kr{]ss necrosis a; j;y'g; a[r unk; A'2Ä}nl k[r`'Ks k;m nh}. kr'g; : mgr mn/Zy{. m'. A's; nh}. h{t; Ky{.]k un k' Y;n' m'. yh k;f} m;l bnt; h" y; h{t; h" a[r k/9 mn/Zy{. k' xr}r m'. w} bnt; h" y; k/9 m;l xr}r m'. h} bn j;t; h" : mgr A's; nh}. kh; j;t; k} A's' m'. yh xr}r m'. upy{g} nh}. h" : es k; xr}r m'. h{n; utn; h} upy{g} h" ]jtn; k} d?sr' ] v`;]mn xr}r k' m'`;b[]lj>m k' ]ly' upy{g} h" : Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) A'Sk[r]bk A']s2 ascorbic acid bNdg{b} y; k"b"j>- g;jr, s.tr;, l"`=y?s lettuce, ]slr} celery, k;.d; y; onion, `m;`r, r"]2x radish, g@}n ]mc}E, a[r S`Ä{b"r} strawberry, A'pLj> apples y; s'b, p}yrj> pears a[r Plmj> plums eTy;]d j"s' Y`=`'' fl{. m'. p;eE j;t} h" : Hydroxy-proline :- An amino acid found in Collagen. Collagen :- Ak mjb?t n i/ln' v;l; p@{`}n j{ k} k{n"K`}v ]`x?j>, cm2>}, `"n2n, ] lg;m'N`s, 2}pf']sy; b{Nj> deep facia bones y; h2=2}y'., k;r]`l'j m'. p;y; j;t; h" : k[l;j"n d;.t{. k' ]`x?j>, d;.t{. k; ]sm'N`m cementum, d;.t{. k; ]lg;m"N` j{ d;.t{. k{ us k} h]2=2y{. k' s;q j{2' rYt; h", en m'. p;y; j;t; h", y; upy{g} h" : A'sk[r]bk A']s2 prolyl-hydroxylase n;mk Ak A'Nj>;eEm k{ uks;n' y; bn;n' k' ]ly' j>#r} h" y; ]js' bn;t; h" ]js k' %;r; h;eE2Ä[Ks}l'xn kr kr hydroxy-proline h;eE2Ä;Ks}_p@{l}n bn;eE j;t} h", j{ k{l;j"n bn;n' k' ]ly' a;vXyk h"- y; ]js k' %;r; k{l;j"n bn;y; j;t; h" : agr A'sk{r]bk A']s2 n h{ t{ k{l;j"n kmj>{r a[r ]2f"]K`v h{g; : es ]ly' yh ] v`;]mn sbk/`'n}ys ]`x/ sub-cutaneous tissue, k[r`}l'j>, b{n a[r d;.t{. k' ]ly' bh/t a;vXyk h" : agr A'sk[r]bk A']s2 k} km} h{ t{ Skv}E scurvy n;m k} ]bm;r} a; j;t} h" : d;.t 3>}l' h{ j;y'.g' a[r unk' gMj> gums s' rË bhn' lg'g;, h]2=2y{. m'. v; Jv;e.`=s m'. ddE a; j;y'g} eTy;]d : es k} km} k' k;r~ s"Llj> k{ k[l;j"n k{ bn;n; y; ]`x/j> m'. w'jn; v; h]2=2y{.. y; d;.t{. m'. ]sm'.` j"s; pd;qE w'jn; bNd h{ j;y'g; : ]js k} km} k' k;r~ j>Åm w} nh}. wr'.g' y; jÅm 1}k nh}. h{.g' : A'sk[r]bk A']s2 k} km} k' k;r~ h]2=2y{.. k{ bNd h{ j;y'g; a[r h]2=2y{.. m'. a[]sf}k'xn bNd h{n' s' kmj>{r h{ j;y'.g' a[r vh jLd} `?` skt} h". a[r a[S`}y{bl;S`s k' n k;m krn' k' k;r~ vh h2=2}y'. jLd} nh}. j/2'.g} : Skv}E m'. rË v;hn}y{. k' aNdr k} ]jLl}y'. y; ] dv;r'. kmj>{r h{ j;y'.g} Ky{. k} A'N2{q"]lyl s"Llj> j{ a;ps m'. Ak d?sr' s' j/2'> rht' h".- vh ] sm'.` uNh'. nh}. ]mlt; j{ k} k{l;j"n h} us' bn;t; h" a[r k"p}lr}j> capillaries Y;s t[r pr kmj>{r h{ j;t} h" a[r f`n' lgt} h". a[r s;r' xr}r m'. jgh jgh pr h"m{r'j hemorrhage j"s; h{ j;t; h" : es k; Ak 3.g a;s;n h" yh d'Yn' k' ]ly' ]k es m'. y; r{g} m'. A'sk[r]bk A']s2 k} km} t{ nh}. h" t{ us k} b;j? pr jb Bl2p@"xr n;pn' k{ y.μ y; p`=`; lg;y; j;y'g; a[r us m'. hv; wr} j;y'g} t{ us p`=`' k{ ]nk;ln' k' b;d y; Bl2p@"xr n;pn' k' b;d vh;. pr agr k/9 k"p}lr}j> f` geE h". a[r es k' k;r~ vh;. pr rË k{ ]nx;n a; gy; h" t{ sm4n; c;]hy' k} es r{g} m' A'sk[r]bk A']s2 k} bh/t km} h{ geE h" : kw} kw} Skv}E (scurvy) k} gMw}r ]bm;r} a;n' pr d;.t{. s' Y?n bhn' lg'g; a[r uL`} v; ``=`} m'. w} Y?n a;n' lgt; h", a[r s"r'bl h"mr'j cerebral hemorrhage h{n' pr t}v@ b/Y;r a; j;t; h" a[r ]fr m,Ty/ : Potassium p{`"]xym yh Ak ]mnrl A']lm'N` (mineral element) h"- j{ d?sr' A']lm'N`=s (elements) k' s;q ]mlkr xr}r m'. k;m krt; h" : yh xr}r k' vjn k; 0.35% w;g h" : yh Y;n' %;r; h} xr}r k{ ]mlt; h" : yh a]oktr d;l{. m'.- 2Ä;e2 p}j> (dried peas), cvl}hr} s]Bjy;.- t;j' v; s?Y' fl{. m'.- tq; s.tr;- trb?j Av. aNy fl{. k' Jy?s m'. p;y; j;t; h" :

yh s"Ll k} eN`Ä; s"Ll?lr Fl?e2 (intra-cellular fluid) m'. rht; h"- j{ ]k s"Ll k{ Y;s t[r pr 1}k_1;k rYt; h" _ ]js k} s"Ll k{ bh/t h} j#rt rht} h" _ j{ ]k a[Sm{]`k p@'xr (osmotic pressure) a[r A']s2 b's b"l'.s k{ bn;y' rYt; h" : mSsl k{ k;m krn' k' ]ly' p{`"]xym- k"]Lxym a[r m"Gn}]xym a;y{Nj> (ions) k} sh} m;µ; k} a;vXykt; h" : Y;s t[r pr h;`E k{ k;m krn' k' ] ly' enk} 1}k m;µ; ]jtn} c;]hy' utn} h{n} c;]hy' : p{`"]xym k} km} h{n' s' mSsl kmj{r h{ j;t; h" : n}.d k; Jy;d; a[n;- ]2j>}n's (dizzyness) y;]n sr ckr;n;- Py;s k; lgn;- mn m'. ibr;h` k; h{n;- y; ECG m'. 1}k n h{n; eTy;]d l6~ h{ skt' h". : ]k2n} k' ]bg2>n' pr ECF y;]n AKS`Ä; s"Ll?lr Fl?e2 (extra-cellular fluid) m'. p{`"]xym b3> j;t; h" : es k; a]ok m;µ; m'. h{n' pr s"Ls k; ]2S`ÄKxn (destruction) y;]n s"Ls k{ n/ks;n h{t; h" : jl j;n' pr y; s}]vyr (severe) m;r lgn' pr w} yh b3> j;t; h": s}]vyr eNf'Kxn- A'2Ä}nl k; km k;m krn;- p{`"]xym salts k; a]ok l'n;- m"`;b{]lk A']s2>{]ss eTy;]d sw} m'. w} p{`"]xym b3> j;t; h" : p{`"]xym k' a]ok h{n' pr mSsLj> m'. kmj{r} a;n' s' p"r;l;e]ss y;]n lkv; w} h{ skt; h" : y; h;`E f'l w} h{ skt; h" : ZINC (]j>Nk) ]j>Nk k} bh/t s' ANj;>em=s bn;n' m'. a;vXykt; h" ]jsk' bg"r k;m h{n; k]1n h" : es} trh s' RBC’s m'. Ak ANj;>em k;rb{]nk a|Nh;e2Ä's h" j{ p'r}f'r} m'. k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 m'. p;n} ] ml;kr bh/t h} t'j} s' RBC’s m'. usk; k;rb{]nk A']s2 bn; kr rY d't; h" a[r us rË k' s"Ls m'. j{ k;rb{]nk A']s2 h" us' l.Gj> m'. ph/\cn' pr plmnr} k|p}lr}j> m'. us k;rb{]nk A']s2 s' t/rNt p;n} ]nk;l d't; h" a[r k;rb{]nk A']s2 s' p;n} ]nkln' k' b;d vh k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 m'. bdl j;t} h" j{ l.Gj> %;r; b;hr ]nkl j;t} h" : yh k;yE ]j>Nk k} sh;yt; s' bh/t h} x}i@ h{ j;t; h" : yh} k;rb{]nk a|Nh;e2Ä's GIT k' My?k{s; m'. w} h{t; h" : ]k2n}j> k' `=y?b?Ls m'. w} h{t} h"a[r xr}r k} bh/t s} g@.]qy{. k' A]pq}]lyl s"Ls m'. w} h{t} h" : s{ Oy;n rh' ]k k;rbn 2;y a;| Ks;e2 k' m'`;b[]lj>m k' ]ly' ]j>Nk k} q{2>} s} m;µ; k} a;vXykt; h" : Oy;n rh' ]k p;e#]vk A']s2 a[r l"]K`k A']s2 m'. w} q{2} s} ]j>Nk k} a;vXykt; h" : aNt m'. GIT ^{`}n=s k' pc;n' k' ]ly' w} q{2} s} ]j>Nk k} a;vXykt; h" : Urea s' sMb]Not k/9 xBd 1. y?]ry; k;rb{]nk A']s2 k; Ak 2"_am"2> h"- ]jsk; f[rm/l; CH4N2O h" : yh rË m'.- ]lMf m'. tq; p'x;b m'. p;y; j;t; h" : y?]ry; ]lvr m'. us ammonia s' bnt; h" j{ A'm}n{ A']s2=s k' de-amination s' bnt; h" : mtlb y?]ry; ammonia s' bnt; h" a[r ammonia A'm}n{ A']s2=s k' de-amination h{n' k' b;d bnt; h" : d?sr' xBd{. m'. jb A'm}n{ A']s2=s k{ t{2 kr A'm{]ny; bnt; h"- ]fr ]lvr us A'm{]ny; k{ t{2t; h" tb y?]ry; bnt; h" : esk' al;v; yh xr}r m'. a;rj}n;en arginine n;mk A'm}n{ A']s2 s' w} bn;y; j; skt; h" : y?]ry; p'x;b k; Ak m/Åy a.x h" j{ ^{`}n cy;pcy k; a.]tm uTp;dn h" : y?]rn k' %;r; j{ n;e`Ä{j"n k; ]nk;s h{t; h"- usm'. kr}b 80 s' 90 p@]txt y?]ry; k' #p m'. h} h{t; h" : jb rË m'. y?]ry; b3> j;t; h"- vh y?r}]my; n;mk b}m;r} k; Ak m/Åy l6~ h" : mn/Zy ]ktn; ^{`}n Y;t; h"- us pr xr}r m'. y?]ry; k; ]nk;s ]nwEr h" : y?]ry; k; ]nk;s f}vr m'.- 2;y;b}`}s m'.- tq; A'2Ä}nl Gl".2 k' Jy;d; k;m krn' pr b3> j;t; h" : y?]ry; k' standardized preparation k{ diuretic y;]n p'x;b b3>;n' k} dv;eE k' ]ly' d't' h". : AMIDE: Carbonic : Carbonic acid : H2CO3 CARBOXYL: CARBOXYLIC ACID: DEAMIDASE DEAMINASE:

any organic substance that contains the monovalent radical – CONH2. It is usually formed by replacing the hydroxyl (-OH) groups of the –COOH by the –NH2 group. Word pertaining to Carbon. A']s2 j{ k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 a[r p;n} k{ ek`=1; krn' y; ]mKs krn' s' bnt} h" : the characteristic group (COOH) of organic carboxylic acids, such as formic acid (HCOOH) and acetic acid (CH2COOH). one of a group of organic acids that contains the carboxyl (-COOH) group. vh ANj;>em j{ amides k{ split krt; h" y; t{2>t; h" y; ]js m'. s' d{ vSt/y'. bn'.g} carboxylic acid a[r ammonia. an enzyme that causes the removal of an amino group from

DEAMINATION: DIAMINE: HYDRAZINE: HYDROCARBON: HYDROXIDE: HYDROXYL: HYDROXYLASE: MONOVALENT: SUBSTRATE:

organic compounds. Same as Deaminization. A chemical compound with two amino NH2, groups. 1. H2N2, a colorless gas with a peculiar odor, soluble in water. 2. One of the class of compounds derived from hydrozine compound made up of only hydrogen and carbon. a compound that contains the OH group, such as NaOH (sodium hydroxide or caustic soda). Hydroxide any enzyme that catalyzes the introduction of hydrogen into substrate. Having the combining power of a single hydrogen atom. The substance acted upon , as by an enzyme.

Diamide: 2"_am"2> _ us k.p;u.2 k{ kht' h". ]js m'. d{ Am"n (amine) g@?p=s h{. : kw}_kw} Ak 2"_am"n y; h;e2Äj>"n k{ s?]ct krn' k' ]ly' w} es xBd k; upy{g ]ky; j;t; h" j{ ] k krn; nh}. c;]hy' : Amine: Am"n _ n;e`Ä{j"n s' bn; Ak k.p;u.2 j{ A'm{]ny; k' t{2n' s' bnt; h" : Carbonic anhydrase : yh Ak ANj;>em h" j{ k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 a[r p;n} k{ ]mKs kr kr k;rb{]nk A']s2 k{ bn;t} h" : a[r k;rb{]nk A']s2 k{ t{2>kr k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 a[r p;n} m'. bdl d't} h" j{ RBC y;]n l;l rË k' s"Ls m'. h" : Ammonia NH3 yh Ak A'Lkl;en (alkaline) g"s h" j{ ^{`}n a[r A'm}n{ A']s2=s ]jnm'. n;e`Ä{j"n rht} h" a[r ]jnk' 2}kMp{j> (decompose) h{n' s' h{n' pr bnt} h" : yh} a|m{]ny; b;d m'. ]lvr k' aNdr y?]ry; m'. bdl ]dy; j;t; h" : esk; sMbNo bh/t jhr}l} vSt/a{. s' h" : y; A's; k]hy' ]k bh/t s} jhr}l} vSt/a{. k{ bn;t} h" : prNt/ yh ^{`}n j{ ]k l;wkr h"- y; d?sr' l;wkr k"m}kLs s' w} esk; sMbNo h"- ]jnm'. n;e`Ä{j"n rht} h"- a[r yh n;e`Ä{j"n k; end-product y;]n a.]tm ] nZkzE h" : yh p;n} m'. ]ml j;t} h"- y; i/l j;t} h" : a[r yh A']s2=s k{ x;.t krt} h" : yh red litmus paper y;]n l;l ]l`=ms k;gj k{ n}l; bn; d't} h" : Deaminization: 2}_a|m}n;ej>'xn ]ks} Am}n{ k.p;u.2 s' NH2 n;mk k"m}kl g@?p k; ]nkl j;n' k{ y; ]nk;l ]dy' j;n' k{ 2} a| m}n;ej>'xn kht' h". : Alanine k{ 2} a|m}n;ej>'xn krn' k' b;d d{ vSt/y'. bn'.g} _ a|m{]ny; (ammonia) a[r p;eE#]vk A']s2 bn'.g} : ]ks} a|m}n{ k.p;u.2 k' a[Ks}2']`v (oxidative) krn' k' b;d y; h;eE2Ä{l;e]`k (hydrolytic) krn' s' j{ h{g;- vh 2}_a|m}n;ej>xn h{g; : ]js ANj;>em s' a{]Ks2;eE]j>.g (oxidizing) ]ky; j;y'g;- us' 2}_a|m}n;e]j>.g ANj;>em de-aminizing enzymes kht' h". : ess' a|m}n{ g@?p=s (amino groups) k{ alg_alg ]ky; j;t; h"- y; h{t; h" : Cell respiration y;]n a[Ks}j"n k} up]Sq]t m'. s"Ls k' a.dr Ny?]`ÄAN`=s nutrients k{ t{2n' k} ]´y; k' ]ly' A'm}n{ A']s2=s k; 2}_a|m}n;ej>'xn krn; phl; k;m h"- y; phl; kdm h" : a[r es k' b;d NH2 k{ y?]ry; m'. bdl ]dy; j;t; h" y; NH2 s' y?]ry; bn; ]dy; j;t; h" CH2CH(NH2)COOH + OCH3CO.COOH + NH2 Minerals and metabolism s{]2ym, p{`;]xym, Kl{r;eE2, m"gn}]xym, k"]Lxym, f[sf{rs, a;yrn eTy;]d xr}r m'. k/9 a]ok h". j{ bh/t q{2>} ]mkd;r y; Kv;]N``} m'. h". vh h". a;y{2}n, ]jNk, Fl/a{r}n eTy;]d : yh xr}r k' s"Llj> k' ]ly' bh/t a;vXyk h". : xr}r k' k1{r vSt/a{. k{ yh bn;t' h". j"s; k} h2=2}y'., d;.t a[r n;Y/n eTy;]d k{ : yh Xv;s ]´y; m'. c;]hy' : A'Nj>;eEm=j> a[r A'Nj>;eEm ]sS`m m'. enk} a;vXykt; h" : -

h]2=2y{.. k; ]sS`m Oy;n rh' bCc; jb p"d; h{t; h" t{ usk' xr}r m'. 270 h2=2}y;. h{t} h". : jv;n h{n' pr 206 h2=2}y;. h{t} h". a[r 35 s;l k} umr m'. 202 h2=2}y;. rh j;t} h". Ky{.]k `'l b{ntail bone k} k[k]sKs coccyx k} c;r h2=2}y;. uUpr j/2> j;t} h". : s{ Oy;n rh' k} 33 s' 35 s;l k} umr k' r{g}y{. k{ agr apn; k/.2l} upc;r d'n' k} a;vXykt; h{ t{ Oy;n s' jkE jerk y; oKk; n lg;t' h/A o}m'_o}m' vjn b3>;n; c;]hy' t;]k k[k]sKs k} h]2=2y{.. k{ tkl}f n h{ : bCc; jb p"d; h{t; h" t{ us k} Y{p2>} k} a;1 `/k2>' h{t' h". : vh a;ps m'. j/2>' nh}. h{t' t;k} jNm k' smy un k{ n/ks;n n h{ : d?sr} trf m;. k{ w} tkl}f n h{ : ]fr Ak s;l m'. v' a;ps m'. j/2> j;t' h".- mgr uUpr Y{p2>} k' mOy w;g m'. Ak 9{`; s; `/k2>; rh j;t; h" j{ d{ s;l k} umr m'. bNd h{ j;t; h" : jNm k' smy n[rml jNm h{n' s' ]dm;g y; b@'n k{ k{eE n/ks;n nh}. h{t; mgr f{rs"Ps forceps s' p"d; h/A bCc' k' ]dm;g y; b@'n k{ n/ks;n h{ skt; h" : Y{p2>} k' a;g' k' w;g m'. m;q' k' n}c' d{ Y2=2'_s' h". ]jn m'. a;Y'. rht} h" : d{n{ Y2=2{. k' n}c' mOy w;g m'. n;k k{ t}n k{n{. k; ]9d@ h" ]js m'. n;k rht; h" : n}c' jb2>; y; jaw h" ]js m'. d;.t lg' h{t' h". : a[r Y{p2>} k' d{n{ trf mOy w;g m'. d{ ]9d@ h" ]jn m'. k;n rht' h" : m;q' k' n}c' a;Y{. k' ]9d@{. k' uUpr d{ ]9d@ h". : n;k k' ]9d@{. k' d{n{. trf w} d{ ]9d@ h". a[r n}c' k' d;.t{. k' n}c' 1{.2} (chin) m'. w} d{ ]9d@ h". ]jn s' rË v;]hn}y'. ]nklt} h".- ]jnk{ nh;t' smy b}s b;r msl d'n; c;]hy' ]jn s' a;Y{. k} r{xn} b3'>g} , s;eEns nh}. h{g;, uUpr a[r n}c' k' d;.t{. m'. rË k; bh;v 1}k rh'g; v; k;n{. m'. 1}k s/n;eE d't; rh'g; : es b;t k{ Oy;n rYn; c;]hy' : Y{p2>} m'. bh/t h} mjb?t h2=2} h{t} h" j{ ]dm;g y; b@'n k{ ]ks} w} p@k;r k} m;r s' bc;t; h" : Y{p2>} k' n}c' k; w;g Sp;eEn y; r}3> k} gdEn k' p@qm vr`br; vertebra pr ] Sqr h" : grdn y; srv;eEkl k' s;t vr`br' vertebra h". j{ Y{p2>} k{ uUpr_n}c' y; c;r{. trf i/m;n' m'. sh;yt; krt' h" : enk' n}c' a;g' k} trf 9;t} k} s;t psl}y'. h".- j{ a;g' k} trf S`nEm sternum s' j/2>} h". v; p}9' Sp;eEn k' vr`b2>{. y; q{r;]sk k' b;rh vr`br' thoracic vertebrae j{ srv;eEkl k' s;t vr`b@{. s' j/2'> h".- ]jn k' n}c' lMbr lumbar k' p;.c vr`b@' h". j{ p"l]vk k} h2=2} pr lMbr k; p;.cv; mnk; ]Sqr h" : 9;t} k} s;tv}. psl} s' t}n psl}y'. j/2>} h". a[r d{ d{ d{n{. trf Fl{]`.g psl}y'. h". : 9;t} k; yh psl}y{. k; ]p.jr; l.gj> v; h;`E j{ en m'. ]Sqr h" uNh'. bc;t; h" : a[r d;.eE trf k} psl}y'. n}c' k} ]lvr k{ a[r d;.eE ]k2n} k{ bc;t} h". : jb k} b;.eE trf k} psl}y'. Spl}n v; b;.eE ]k2n} k{ bc;t} h". : uUpr k} p@qm psl} k' uUpr b;hr k} trf j;t} h/eE Ak Ak k[lrb{n collar bone h". ]jn k' b;hr} 9{2> pr d{n{. b;j? l`kt' h". ]jn m'. a;mE, f{ra;mEj> forearms v; d{n{. trf p;.c_p;.c u.gl}y{. k} h2=2}y;. h". : Sp;eEn s"krl k} h2=2} sacral bone pr ]Sqr h" ]js' s"´m sacrum kht' h".- ]jn k' n}c' k[k]sKs coccyx k} c;r h2=2}y;. h". j{ p".t}s s;l k} umr m'. s"´m s' j/2> j;t} h" : s"´m k} d{n{. trf el}ym k} h2=2}y;. h" ]jn k' ]ncl' 9{2> `;.g{. k' d{n{. f"m/r pr ]Sqr h" : f"m/r k; ]ncl; w;g i/`n{. k; h" ] jn k' n}c' `;.g{. k; n}c' k; w;g ]jNh'. ]`]by; tibia a[r f}b?l; fibula kht' h". j{ A'2}y{. k} h]2=2y{.. pr ]Sqr h". : A'2}y{. k' ag2> w;g m'. d{n{. p;.v{. k} u.gl}y'. h". : h2=2} k"]Lxym, f[Sf'` eTy;]d s' bnt} h".- ]jn k{ bn;n' m'. q;eEr;"y2 Gl".2 v; g@{q h{rm{n, s?yE k} ]kr~'.- 1,25 DCC, eTy;]d sh;yt; krt' h". : b{n m"r{ m' RBC bn;y' j;t' h". y; rË bn;y; j;t; h" : m;. k' p'` m'. jb bCc; bnt; h{t; h" t{ phl' y{k S';k yolk sac, ]fr ]lvr a[r ]fr SPl}n rË k{ bn;t' h".- a[r p}9' jb b{Nj> y; h2=2}y;. bn j;t} h". t{ b{n k' a.dr k} b{n m"r{ rË bn;n; x/# kr d't} h". : en k' k;m krn' pr ]lvr a[r Spl}n rË bn;n; x/# kr d't} h". pr.t/ kw} agr ]ks} k;r~vx b{n m"r{ rË bn;n; bNd kr d' t{ Spl}n rË bn; skt} h" : mrt' dm tk b{Nj> rË k{ bn;t} rht} h". : b;l avSq; m'. sw} b{Nj> y; h2=2}y;. rË k{ bn;t} rht} h". : mgr jv;n h{n' pr jb lMb} b{Nj> k' 9{2> y; ]sr' y; A'p}f}j>yl l;eENj epiphyseal lines ]ml j;t} h". y; fy?j> h{ j;t} h". t{ psl}y'. , fl"` b{Nj> y; vr`b2'> eTy;]d rË k{ bn;t' rht' h". : rË m'. k"]Lxym k} m;µ; b3>n' pr q;eEr;"y2 Gl".2 es s' (rË s') k"]Lxym k{ u1; kr b{Nj> m'. 2;lt; h", pr rË m'. agr k"]Lxym km h{ j;y' t{ A's} avSq; m'. p"r; q;eEr;"y2 Gl".2 b{Nj> s' k"]Lxym k{ ] nk;l kr rË m'. 2;lt; h" t;]k rË k{ k"]Lxym l'vl km n h{ j;y' : k"]Lxym k} km} k' k;r~ mSslj> m' A'.1n y; mSslj> m' k'Mps a; j;t' h" ]js s' h;`E w} f'l h{ skt; h" : h]2=2y{.. k{ Y;n' k' ]ly' a[S`}y{ Kl;S` k;m krt; h" a[r vh 1 m}l}m}`r g/n; 1 s"N`}m}`r tk k} b{n k{ s;t ]dn m'. Y; j;t; h", ]js' a[S`}y{bl;S` n;mk{ s"Ll 45 ]dn m'. bn;y'g; : es trh s' s;r; j}vn wr es trh s' b{Nj> y; h2=2}y;. neE bnt} rht} h" : agr k{eE b{n b3> j;y' t{ es k; mtlb yh h" k} a[S`}y{kl;S` k;m nh}. kr rh; h" y; a[S`}y{kl;S` h;eEp{ h", ]js' p"r;q;eEr;"y2 Gl".2 %;r; uks;y; j; skt; h" a[r b3>} b{n k{ km ]ky; j; skt; h" : a[r k{eE b{n Jy;d; Y;eE geE h". t{ sm4n; c;]hy' k} a[S`}y{ bl;S` km k;m kr rh; h" ]js' g@{q h;"rm{n a[r q;eEr;"y2 Gl".2

%;r; 1}k ]ky; j; skt; h" : h]2=2y{.. k{ a;ps m'. j{2>' rYn' k; k;m `"N2Nj>, ]lg;m"N`s a[r mSslj> krt' h"., ]jn k} sh;yt; s' vh a;ps m'. j/3>} rht} h". : d{ vr`b2>{. k' b}c m'. Ak g;dl}_s} rht} h" ]js' ]2Sk disc kht' h". j{ j{2{. y; j[yN`s k{ a;r;m s' k;m krn' k{ rYt} h". t;]k b{Nj> y; h2=2}y;. a;ps m'. rg2> Y; kr ]is nh}. j;y'. : ]ks} ]ks} r{g} k{ a[S`}y{ p[r{]ss k} ]bm;r} a; j;t} h" ]jsk{ mtlb h" k} h2=2}y;. ptl} h{ geE h". ]jn m'. s' k"]Lxym k;f} ]nkl gy; h" : mtlb unk} a;.tr}y'. k"]Lxym k{ s{Y nh}. rh} h". y; A'bj>[bE nh}. kr rh} h". ]js k' k;r~ rË k; k"]Lxym l'vl 1}k rYn' k' ]ly' p"r;q;eEr;"y2 Gl".2 un s' k"]Lxym ]nk;l kr rË m'. 2;l rh; h" : s{ es k' ]ly' p'` k{ 1}k krn; y; 1,25 DCC k{ 1}k h{n; j#r} h" s{ us r{g} k{ p'` 1}k krn' s' sb 1}k h{ j;y'g; : mSk/lr ]sS`m hm;r' xr}r m'. tkr}bn 700 k' kr}b mSsLj> h". : j{ 9{`'_b2'> s;eE]jj> sizes m'. h". : b2'> s' b2>; mSsl b`k k{ ]js pr b"1t' h". gluteus maximus Gl/]`ys m"ks}ms mSsl h". a[r 9{`' s' 9{`; mSsl k;n k; h" ]js' stapedius S`"p}2}ys mSsl kht' h". : mSsLj> h} hm;r' xr}r k' 60 p@]txt w;g h" j{ s;r' xr}r a[r h]2=2y{.. k{ b;.O{ rY; h" ]js s' hm Y2'> h{ skt' h". : hm'. hr k;yE krn' k' ]ly' ]ks} n ]ks} mSsl k} j>#rt p2>t} h" : yh d{ ]sr{. y; 9{2>{. s' j/2'> rht' h"., Y;l} Ak jb;n k; mSsl h" j{ Ak ]sr' s' j/2>; h" : c;h' hm a;r;m h} Ky{. n kr rh' h{.- t{ w} mSsLj> apn; k;yE krt' rht' h"., xr}r k{ b;.O{ rYn; a[r Y;s ]´y; k{ k;m krn; eTy;]d : mSsLj> k{ k;m krn' k' ]ly' a[Ks}jn a[r gl/k{s y; Gl;eEk{j"n p2>} rht} h" ]js' xr}r k} x]Ë kh skt' h". a[r ]jn k} sh;yt; s' xr}r k;m krt; h' : h;`E k{ mSsl Ak alg trh k{ mSsl h" j{ a[`[n{]mk nvEs ]sS`m s' k;yE krt; h" : xr}r m'. Sk"]l`l mSsLj> skeletal muscles h". ]jn k{ b@'n y; Sp;eEnl k[2E d'Yt} h"- ]jn pr en k; a]ok;r h" a[r en k' khn' k' an/s;r k;m krt' h" j{ cm2>} k' n}c' h"., Sk"l`l mSsLj> h". a[r h]2=2y{.. k' s;q s;q k;m krt' h". : k/9 Sm?q mSsLj> h". j{ p'` k' mSsLj> m'. rht' h". ]jn k{ a[`[n{]mk nvEs ]sS`m d'Yt; h" ]jnk{ k;m krn' k' ]ly' m"`;b[l;ej>2 gl?k{s metabolized glucosec;]hy' : yh Gl?k{s q;y;m}n s' bnt; h" : agr q;y;m}n n h{ y; km h{ t{ A's} avSq; m'. en mSsLj> m'. s?jn a; j;t} h" a[r y' k;m krn; bNd kr d't' h". ]js s' h;e2Ä{Kl{]rk A']s2 1}k p@k;r s' nh}. bn p;t} ]js s' p'` m'. s' anpc; Y;n; rh j;t; h" j{ s.2;s y; ``=`} m'. v"s; h} ]nkl j;t; h" a[r xr}r k{ p?r' Ny?]`ÄAN`=s nh}. ]ml p;t' a[r xr}r aSvSq rh j;t; h" : y' Sm?q mSsLj> cm2>} m'., Bl2 v"SsLj> m'., 2;eEj"S`}v ] sS`m m'. a[r ]rp@{2K`}v ]sS`m m'. w} h{t' h" ]jn k{ q;y;m}n h} d'Yt; h" : es ]ly' Oy;n d'. ]k agr bCc; p"d; nh}. h{t; t{ A's} avSq; m'. q;y;m}n k{ 1}k krn; j>#r} h" : srk/lr mSsLj> circular muscles j"s; k} p"l/rs pylorus, t;]k j{ 1}k p@k;r s' Y/l' y; bNd h{n; y; l"`Ä}n y; s.2;s k; mSsl y; p'x;b krn' k' mSsLj> y; y/r}nr} `Ä'K` k' mSsLj> k; g{l h{n; y; g{l;eE m'. rhn; y; yh mSsLj> g{l h} h{t' h". j{ Sf}Ns`r k{ 1}k p@k;r s' bNd krt' h". t;]k m;l eor uor n j;y' y; l}k leak n h{ :

s"Ls k' p@]t j;nk;r} ]js p@k;r Ak Ak eE.` j{2> kr d}v;r bn;eE j;t} h" a[r d}v;r{. k' ]mln' pr alg_alg kmr' bn;y' j;t' h".- j"s; k} k{eE s{n' k{ kmr;, k{eE Y;n; bn;n' k{ kmr;, k{eE nh;n' k{ kmr; eTy;]d- es} p@k;r Ak Ak s"Ll k{ j{2> kr ]`x?j> a[r bh/t s' ]`x?j> eTy;]d ]ml kr Ak a[rgn a[r bh/t s' a[rgNj> eTy;]d ]ml kr Ak f.kxn h{t; h" : s"Ls ]ks p@k;r k{ h{t; h" j>r; Oy;n d'n; – s"Ll k} b;hr k} ]4Ll} k{ s"Ll m"Mb@'n cell membrane kht' h". ]js m'. p;n} j"s; tTv wr; rht; h" ]js' s;eE`{Pl;j>m cytoplasm kht' h". : ]js m'. Ak g{l;k;r ]4Ll} h' ]js' Ny/kl}yr m"Mb@'n nuclear membrane kht' h"., ]js k' aNdr Ny/kl}ys nucleus h" : bh/t s} vSt/a{. k' ]mln' s' yh s"Ll bn; h" ]js m'. p;n} el"k`Ä{l;eE`s electrolytes, p@{`}n, ]l]p2j>> lipids a[r k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s : p;n} h} asl} tTv h" j{ k} s"Ll k; 70 s' 80 p@]txt w;g h" : es p;n} m'. s"Ll k' k"]mkl ]ml' rht' h". : d?sr; tTv el"k`Ä{l;eE`=s h". j"s' k} p{`;]xym, m"gn']xym, f[sf'`, sLf'`, b;eEk;rb{n'` a[r q{2;_s; s{]2ym, Kl{r;eE2 a[r k"]Lxym h" : yh sb s"Ll k{ k;yE krn' m'. sh;yt; krt' h". : t}sr; p@{`}n h" j{ k} s"Ll k; 10 s' 20 p@]txt w;g h" : p@{`}n d{ p@k;r k' h{t' h": _ Ak t{ Gl{b/lr p@{`}Nj> globular proteins j{ k} Y;l} A'nj>;eEMj> h". j{ s"Ll k' aNdr k} Fl?e2 m' ]ml' rht' h". ]jn k' ]rA'Kxn reaction s' keE k"m}kl bnt' h". y; un k' p@w;v s' jb gl/k{s k{ v;pr kr x]Ë y; A'nj}E bn;eE j;t} h" ]js k' s;q a[Ks}jn k' ]mln' s' vh k;rbn 2;eEa[Ks;eE2 a[r p;n} m'. bdl j;t} h" : yh p@{`}n k' A'Nj>;eEm s' gl/k{s k{ v;pr kr s"Ll apn; k;yE krt; h" a[r yh} s"Ll k} x]Ë h" : d?sr; S`Äkcrl p@{`}n structural protein h" : Oy;n rh' cm2>}, b;l, n;Y/n, eTy;]d S`Äkcrl p@{`}n h". : s"Ll m'. yh p@{`}n lMb" lMb" bh/t ptl' r'x{. m'. rht' h" ]jn k' %;r; s"Ll k' ]`x?j> eTy;]d bnt' h". a[r es} p@k;r s' mSsLj> bnt' h". y; Bl2 v"SsLj>, `"N2Nj> a[r ]lg;m"N`s eTy;]d bnt' h". : c[q; ]l]p2j> h" ]jn m'. bh/t s} vSt/y'. ]ml} rht} h". mgr un m'. f[sf{]l]p2 a[r k[l'S`Ä{l a]ok m;µ; m'. rht' h". j{ k} s"Ll k' a[rg'nLj> organelles k' uUpr d{ m;"lky?l molecules tk p2>t c3>} rht} h". t;]k vh alg_alg rh' a[r a;ps m'. ]ml kr Ak n h{ j;y'. t;]k p;n} s' uNh'. k{eE n/ks;n n h{. a[r n h} vh gl'. : ]ks} ]ks} s"Ll m'. `Ä}glr}s;eE2j> k} m;µ; a]ok h{t} h" t;]k vh xr}r k{ j>#rt p2>n' pr kw} d' sk'. : Oy;n rh' s"Ll k' a[rgnLj a[r m'Mb@'n eTy;]d p@{`}Nj> s' bnt' h" : p;.cv; k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s h" : yh s"Ll m'. q{2>} m;µ; m'. rht; h" ]js' Gl;eEk{]jn glycogen kht' h". : c;h' yh} s"Ll k} x]Ë h" pr s"Ll k' a;j? b;j? m'. j{ A'KS`Ä; s"Ll/lr Fl?e2 (ECF y; extra-cellular fluid) rht} h" us m'. Gl?k{j> k} m;µ; a]ok rht} h" : s"Ll k' a[rgnLj> k' n;m h". A'N2{Pl;]Smk r"`}k/lm, m;eE`{k{N2Ä}y;, g{Lj} A'p;r'`s a[r l;eEs{ s{Mj> eETy;d} : A'N2{Pl;]Smk r"`}k/lm r;eb{s{Mj> ribosomes k{ bn;t; h" ]jn m'. RNA rht; h" : s;q m'. p@{`}n w} h{t' h". j{ k} s"Ll k' ]ly' p@{`}Nj> k{ bn;t' h". : a;g' esk{ ]vvrn ]ml'g; : a;g' g{lj} A'p;r'`s Golgi apparatus h" j{ A'N2{Pl;]Smk r"`}k/lm k' bn;y' m;l k{ p@{s"s kr kr l;eEs{s{Mj> a[r s}´'`r} v"s}kLj> secretory vesicles k{ bn;t; h" : A'N2{Pl;]Smk r"`}k/lm k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s k} sh;yt; s' Gl;eEk{_^{`}n k{ bn;t; h" a[r ]l]p2 k} sh;yt; s' f{sf{_]l]p2 a[r k[l"S`Ä;|l k{ bn;t; h" y; ]sNq's;eEj> synthesize krt; h" ]js s' s"Ll k{ bn;y; j;t; h" : mgr s"Ll a[r b2>; n h{ t{ es k{ v"s}kl vesicle bn;n' m.' YcE ]ky; j;t; h" j{ k} A'N2{Pl;]Smk r"`}k/lm s' g{lj} A'p;r'`'s tk Ak p/l_j"s; bn; d't' h". ]jn k' %;r; es k' bn;y' m;l k{ g{Lj} A'p;r'`'s m'. p@{s"s krn' k' ]ly' w'j; j;t; h" : yh A'N2{Pl;]Smk r"`}k/lm Ak A's; A'Nj>;eEm w} bn;t; h" ] jsk' %;r; Gl;eEk{]jn k{ a;vXykt; p2>n' pr t{2> kr s"Ll k} A'nj}E y; x]Ë bn;eE j;t} h" : j{ dv;eEy{. k' d/Zp@w;v k{ r{kt; h" : yh Ak d?sr; A'Nj>;eEm w} bn;t; h" t;]k s"Ll k{ k{eE n/ks;n n h{ : A'N2{pl;s]mk r"`}k/lm k{ bn;y; m;l g{Lj} A'p;r'`s m'. p@{s"s krn' k' ]ly' w'j; j;t; h" : g{Lj} A'p;r'`s us m;l k{ p@{s"s krt; h" a[r s;q m'. Ak Y;s p@k;r k{ m;l bn;t; h" j{ k} gl/k{s bn;n' k} p@qm S`'j h" ]js' gl"k`{j> (galactose) kht' h". : bCc{. m'. yh jNm s' nh}. bnt; h" ]js s' Ak Y;s ]kSm k} ]bm;r} a; j;t} h" ]jsk{ el;j nh}. h{t; a[r vh d{ s;l m'. mr j;t' h". : v"s' yh ]bm;r} r'yr rare h" y; bh/t km h" : My?ks m'. Ak vSt/ h" ]js' proteoglycans kht' h". yh}. bnt; h" : h]2=2y{.. m'. y; k;r`}l'j m'. Ak vSt/ v;pr} j;t} h" ]js s' a[rg"]nk m"`Ä}Ks organic matrix bnt} h" yh}. bn;eE j;t} h" : g{Lj} A'p;r'`s l;eEs{s{Mj> k{ bn;t; h" : es k' s;q s;q ]sk'`r} v"s}kLj> y; d?sr; s;eE`{Pl;j>]mk k;Mp{n'N`s cytoplasmic components bn;y' j;t' h". : g{Lj} A'p;r'`s s' bn;y' h/A l;eEs{s{Mj> lysosomes 9{`}_9{`} q"]ly{. k} trh k' y; s"k sac k} trh k' a[rg'nLj> h"., j{ p?r' s;eE`{Pl;Jm m'. f"l' h/A h". : l;eEs{s{Mj> s"Llj> k' a.dr m'. glt c}j>{. k{ sm;Pt krn' k{ y; pc;n' k{ k;yE krt' h". a[r en k' %;r; j{ b;hr k} k{eE vSt/ y;

s"Ll k' a.dr k; k{eE Yr;b ]`x/ y; 2"2 ]`x/ dead tissue c;h' s"Ll k' a.dr k; h{ y; b;hr s' a;y; h{ y; k{eE b"K`}]ry; h{ us' sm;Pt kr d'n; y; pc; d'n; h} enk; k;yE h" : hr s"Ll k' alg_alg l;eEs{s{Mj> h{t' h"., ]jn k{ s;eEj> y; m{`;eE 250 s' 750 n"n{ m}`r h" (Ak m}l} m}`r k; ds l;Yv; ]hSs;) j{ k} 2bl cm2>} k} y; ]jsk{ b;hr} a;vr~ 2bl ]`x/ k; bn; h{t; h" ]js m'. 5 s' 8 n"n{ m}`r k' d;n' y; g@"Ny?Lj wr' p2>' h". j{ k} p@{`}n h" ]jn k' %;r; h;eE 2Ä{l;eE]`k A'Nj;eEm hydrolytic enzyme bn;y; j;t; h", j{ k} a[rg"n}k kMp;uU.2 k{ t{2>t; h" y; ]Spl` split krt; h", ]js m'. vh p;n} s' Ak h;eE2Ä{j'n k; m;"l}Ky?l molecule l' kr us kMp;uU.2 m'. 2;l kr us k{ bdl d't; h" : j"s; k} p@{`}n k{ h;eE2Ä{l;eEj> kr kr a;m}n{ A']s2j> m'. bdln; y; Gl;eEk{j"n s' Gl?k{s k{ bn;n; eTy;]d : es trh s' vh p@{`}Nj>, Ny/Kl}k A']s2=j> nucleic acids, My?k{ p[l} s"kr;eE2j>, muco-poly-saccharides, ]l]p2=j> lipids a[r Gl;eEk{'j"n k{ pc; skt; h" : l;eEs{s{Mj> pc;s trh k' A']s2j> bn; skt; h" : l;eEs{s{Mj> k} b;hr} ]4Ll} y; us k' b;hr} a;vr~ k} ]4Ll} en A'Nj>;eEMj> k{ s"Ll k' d?sr' pd;q{E. k' s;q n ]mln' y; ]mKs h{n' s' bc;t; h" y; d?sr' pd;q{E. k' s;q ]mKs nh}. h{n' d't; : mgr s"Ll k' alg Y;s trh k' k;r~{. s' s"Ll k/9 l;eEs{s{eMj> k} ]4Ll} k{ t{2> d't; h" : A'N2{Pl;j>]mk r"`}k/lm k' k{eE d?sr' f.kxNj> w} h". : 1.es m.' k/9 es p@k;r k' A'Nj;eEMj> w} h" ]jn k' %;r; Gl;eEk{]jn k{ k.`Ä{l ]ky; j; skt; h" jb usk{ A'nj}E bn;n' k' ]ly' v;pr; j;t; h" : 2.es m'. A's' bh/t s' A'Nj;eEMj> h". ]jn k' %;r; dv;eEy{. k' s;eE2 ef"K`s k{ d?r ]ky; j; sk' t;]k s"Ll k{ k{eE n/ks;n n h{ : vh es h;lt k{ bc;n' k' ]ly' k{g/l'xn coagulation, a[]Ks2'xn oxidation, h;eE2Ä{l;eE]ss hydrolysis, k[Nj/g'xn conjugation krn; glycuronic acid k} sh;yt; s' y; k{eE d?sr' tr}k{. s' krt; h" : Mitochondria (m;e`{k{N2Ä}y;) m;e`{k{N2Ä}y; k{ s"Ll k; pvr h;us (power house) w} kht' h". : enk' bg"r s"Ll Ny?]`ÄA'N`=s (nutrients) a[r a[Ks}j"n s' Anj}E (energy) y;]n uUj;E y; x]Ë bn;n' s' v.]ct rh j;y'g;- a[r ]jn k' bg"r s"Ll k;m krn; bNd kr d'g; : s"Ll k' s;e`{Pl;j>m (cytoplasm) m'. bh/t s' a[rgn"Ls (organelles) h". a[r Ak s"Ll m'. s[ s' km m;e`{k{N2Ä}y; h{t' h".- a[r ] ks}_]ks} s"Ll m'. hj;r{. w} h{t' h". : unk} s.Åy; es pr ]nwEr krt; h" ]k s"Ll k{ ]ktn} Anj}E (energy) c;]hy' : m;e`{k{N2Ä}y; s"Ll k' us w;g m'. a]ok h{t' h".- jh;. pr a]ok Anj}E c;]hy' : m;e`{k{N2Ä}y; ]w¸_]w¸ s;eEj> k' h{t' h". : 9{`' s' 9{`; k/9 s[ n"n{m}`r (nanometer) s' Ak m;eE´{m}`r (micro meter) tk k' h{t' h". : Av. m{`;eE m'. Ak m;eE´{m}`r a[r lMb;eE s;t m;eE´{m}`r tk k' h{t' h". : m;e`{k{N2Ä}y; k} 2bl ]4Ll} h{t} h" ]jsm'. x'LVj> (shelves) bn' h{t' h". ]jn k' s;q a;|Ks}2']`v ANj;>em=s (oxidative enzymes) a|`"c (attach) h{t' h".- y;]n j/2>' h{t' h". : esk' s;q m;e`{k{N2Ä}y; m'. Ak m"`Ä}Ks (matrix) h{t; h"- ]js m'. ]2j>[LV2 ANj;>em=s (dissolved enzymes) wr' rht' h".- y; i/l' h/y' ANj;>em=s s' wr; rht; h"- ]jnk' %;r; Ny?]`ÄA'N`=s s' Anj}E bn;eE j;t} h" : y' ANj;>em=s j{ m"`Ä}Ks m'. wr' rht' h". a[r s;q m'. x'LVj> (shelves) k' wr' y; a|`"c h/y' ANj;>em=s ]ml kr Ny?]`ÄA'N`=s k{ a;|Ks}2;eJ>2 (oxidized) krt' h".- ]js s' k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 a[r p;n} bnt; h" : A's; h{n' s' us s' j{ x]Ë y; Anj}E bnt} h" us' ATP y;]n a|2}n{s;en `Ä;eEf;|Sf'` (adenosine tri-phosphate) kht' h". : ]fr es ATP k{ m;e`{k{N2Ä}y; k' b;hr s"Ll m'. w'j ] dy; j;t; h" t;]k s"Ll k{ k;m krn' k' ]ly' jh;. pr w} s"Ll k{ j#rt h{ es x]Ë y; ATP k{ v;pr' : j#rt p2>n' pr m;e`{k{N2Ä}y; Ak d?sr; t}sr; y; c[q; m;e`{k{N2Ä}y; bn; skt; h" : j"s'_j"s' s"Ll k{ ATP k} a]ok a;vXykt; h{- y; j"s'_j"s' ATP a]ok c;]hy'- v"s'_v"s' m;e`{k{N2Ä}y; bnt' j;t' h". : Oy;n rh' m;e`{k{N2Ä}y; m'. A's; h} DNA h" j"s; ]k s"Ll k' Ny?]Klys m'. h" : es]ly' h} s"Ll y; m;e`{k{N2Ä}y; d/sr' 2/Pl}k'` s"Ll y; m;e`{k{N2Ä}y; bn; skt' h". : The Peroxisomes (p"r[Ks}j>{Mj>) p"r[Ks}j>{Mj> Ak Y;s ]kSm k} v's}kLs (vesicles) y;]n p;n}_wr} q"l} h{t' h". ]jnm'. keE ]kSm k' ANj;>em=s p;y' j;t' h".- ]jnm'. m/Åy h". k|`|l's n;mk ANj;>em : y' p@;y+ xr}r k' sw} s"Ls m'. h{t' h".- pr m/Åy #p s' y' ]lvr m'. w;r} m;µ; m'. p;y' j;t' h". : y' l;eEs{j{>Mj> (lysosome) j"s'_h} lgt' h".- mgr v' un s' ]w¸ h". : enk; k;m w} alg h" : p"r[Ks}j>{Mj> Sm?q AN2{Pl;]Smk r"`}k/lm (smooth endoplasmic reticulum) s' ]nkl' h".- jb ]k l;eEs{j{>Mj> g{Lj} A'p;r'`s (Golgi apparatus) %;r; bn;y' j;t' h". : en m'. a[Ks}2'>ss (oxidases) k' tTv h{t' h". n ]k h;e2Ä{l'ss (hydrolases) k' tTv : es m'. bh/t s'

tTv es y{Gy h". ]k a[Ks}j"n k{ h;eE2Ä{j'n ay;|n (hydrogen ion) k' s;q ]ml;kr- s;q m'. s"Ll k' aNdr k' d?sr' k"m}kLs k} sh;yt; s' h;eE2Ä{j'n p'r;|Ks;e2 H2O2 k{ bn; d't' h". : h;eE2Ä{j'n p'r;|Ks;e2 Y/d Ak bh/t h} sÅt y; h;eEl} a;Ks}2;eE]j>.g vSt/ (highly oxidizing substance) h"- j{ k|`;l'j> (catalase) k' s;q ]mlkr k;m krt} h" : Oxidase us ANj;>em k{ kht' h".- j{ oxidation k{ uks;t; h" : Hydrolase us' kht' h".- j{ hydrolysis k} p@]ý; k{ uks;t; h" : p'r;|Ks}j>{m k' aNdr h} k|`;l'j> (catalase) n;mk Ak d?sr} ANj;>em p;y} j;t} h"- ] jsk' %;r; y' bh/t s' vSt/a{. k{ a;Ks}2;eEj> (oxidise) kr d't' h". : agr y' A's; n kr'. t{ un vSt/a{. k} sÅt jhr s"Ll k{ n/ks;n ph/\c; skt} h" : j"s; ]k A'Lk{h{l (alcohol) y;]n xr;b jb mn/Zy p}t' h".- us k} jhr k{ ]lvr k' s"Ls y; p"r[Ks}j>{Mj> j{ ]lvr m'. rht' h".- v' sm;Pt kr d't' h". : agr v' A's; n kr'. t{ xr}r k{ bh/t n/ks;n h{ skt; h" : d?sr; yh f"`} A']s2=s (fatty acids) k{ A']s`;el_CoA (acetyl-CoA) m'. bdl d't' h". ]js k{ s"Ll Anj}E k} trh v;pr l't; h" : y; yh f"`} A']s2=s k{ h;eE2Ä{j'n p'r;|Ks;e2 a[r k|`;l'j> m"k;]nj>m (catalase mechanism) s' a;|Ks}2;eEj> kr d't' h". ]js s' acetyl Co A bn j;t; h"- j{ s"Ll k} Anj}E h" : y' Py?r}Ns k{ y?]rk A']s2 m'. bdlt' h".- tq; excess fatty acids k} breakdown krt' h". : tq; y' m;y']ln tq; b;el A']s2=s k' uTp;dn k' ]ly' j#r} h". : (Sembulingam, p 10). p"r[Ks}j>{Mj> k} km} s' Zellweger's Syndrome n;mk jNmj;t b}m;r} a;t} h" ]jk; m/Åy l6~ h" ]lvr k; ]sr{]ss- tq; s'.`Äl nvEs ]sS`'m k} jNmj;t b}m;]ry;\ eTy;]d \Taber’s 18th ed.p1452. Secretory vesicles bh/t s' s"Ls k; Ak Y;s f.Kxn h" ]k v' Sp'xl sBS`Ns's (special substances) y;]n Y;s vSt/ ]s´}` (secrete) krt' h".- y;]n bn;t' h". : y' q"l}_j"s} h{t} h".- ]jNh'. v']skLs kht' h". : s"Ll k' a.dr vSt/y'. AN2{Pl;]Smk r'`}k/lm (endoplasmic reticulum) m'. bn'.- y; g{Lj} A'p;r'`s (Golgi Apparatus) m'. bn'.- un vSt/a{. k{ Ak ]kSm k} q"l} m'. S`{r y; jm; rY; j;t; h" _ jb tk xr}r k{ us k"m}kl k} j#rt n h{ : un q"]ly{. k{ s}´}`r} v"]skLj> (secretory vesicles) y; s}´}`r} g@|Ny?Lj> (secretory granules) kh; j;t; h" : a[r unk{ b;d m'. s"Ls k' s;e`{Pl;Sm (cytoplasm) m'. 9{2> ]dy; j;t; h" : ud;hr~ k' ]ly' _ p".]ý;s k} A's}n} s"Ls (acini cells) ^{`}n pc;n' k' ]ly' `Ä}]Psn (trypsin) n;mk ANj;>em bn;t' h". _ uNh'. w} s}´}`r} v"]skLj> y;]n q"]ly{. m'. h} rY; j;t; h" jb tk xr}r k{ us ANj;>em k} j#rt n h{ : a[r uNh'. v"]skLj> m'. `Ä}]Psn{j"n (trypsinogen) n;mk p@{ANj;>em (pro-enzyme) k' #p m'. rY; j;t; h" t;]k v' p".]ý;s k' aNdr h} k;m krn; x/# n kr d'. : a[r jb w{jn m'. ^{`}n=s k{ pc;n' k' ]ly' es ANj;>em k} j#rt h{t} h" t{ yh `Ä}]Psn{j"n s}´}`r} v"]skLj> s' ]nklkr p".]ý;]`k 2K` (pancreatic duct) %;r; 2=y/a{2'nm m'. cl; j;t; h"- jh;. vh AN`r{k;en's (enterokinase) %;r; `Ä}]Psn m'. bdl; j;t; h" a[r ]fr p'` s' a;y' (w{jn k') ^{`}n=s k{ pc; d't; h" : k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 ]ks p@k;r s' rË m'. j;t} h" Oy;n s' p3>n; ]k k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 ]ks p@k;r s' rË m'. j;t} h" _ k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 ]`x?j> Av. s"Ls s' dissolved molecular CO2 k' #p m'. ]nklt} h"- n ]k b;ek;rb{n'` k' #p m'. : Ky{.]k b;ek;rb{n'` a;yn (ion) s"Ll m'Mb@'n s' b;hr nh}. ] nkl skt} _ A's} VyvSq; h" : es]ly' k"p}lr} (capillary) m'. j;n' k' b;d k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 k; uUpr ]dy' an/s;r k"m}kl} (chemically) bdl d} j;t} h"- t;]k vh RBC y; rË k' s"Ls m'. cl} j;y : k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 rË m'. i/l} h/y} avSq; m'. rht} h" k/9 p@]txt k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 l.Gj> m'. dissolved state y;]n i/l} h/y} avSq; m'. j;t} h" : Oy;n rh' ]k k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 k; p@'xr PCO2 v}ns rË y; Bl2 m'. 45 mm. Hg. h" :- jb ]k Py{r Bl2 y; a;r`}]ryl Bl2 (arterial blood) m'. 40mm. Hg. h" : k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 j{ rË k} Fl?e2 m'. ]ml gy} h"- y; dissolved h{ gy} h"- ]jsk; 45 mm. Hg. h"- vh 2.7 ml per cent (2.7 v[Ly?m p@]txt) h" : jb ]k 40 mm. Hg. m'. 2.4 ml. h" : t{ es m' k; fkE y; difference 0.3 ml. h" : es]ly' dissolved state m'. 0.3 ml. k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 rË m'. cl} j;y'g} j{ ]k k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 k} m;µ; jb ]k p@]t 2's}l}`r c;r h} h"- t{ us ]hs;b s' k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 dissolved state m'. s;t p@]txt b"1} : y;d rh'- xr}r m'. k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 k; rË %;r; ]ly' j;n' m'. etn} tkl}f nh}.- ]jtn} ]k a[Ks}j"n k{ l.Gj> s' l' j;n' m'. h" : k;r~ ]ks} A'Bn[rml h;lt m'. w} k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 Ak Jy;d; ]mkd;r y; quantity m'. rË %;r; a[Ks}j"n s' a]ok m;µ; m'. l' j;y} j;t} h" :

Ak n[rml h;lt m'. a;r;m krt' smy y; resting k' h;lt m'. average k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 4 ml. (c;r ]ml} l}`r) rË %;r; l.Gj> m'. l' j;eE j;t} h" : k;rb{]nk a|Nh;e2Ä's k; k;m k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 k; rË m'. b;ek;rb{n'` ay;|n bnkr p@v;h h{n; k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 k; RBC m'. p;n} k' s;q ]mlkr Ky; bnt; h" y; usk; ]rAKxn Ky; h{t; h" _ a[r k;rb{]nk a| Nh;e2Ä's k; k;m ]ks p@k;r s' h{t; h" _ jr; Oy;n s' p3>n; rË k' s"Ll m'. jb k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 cl} j;t} h"- t{ vh;. pr k;rb{]nk a|Nh;e2Ä's k' k;r~ us' p;n} m'. ]ml;kr k;rb{]nk A']s2 m'. bdl ]dy; j;t; h"- a[r yh} k;r~ RBC k' al;v; xr}r k' d?sr' w;g m'. A's; h{t; t{ etn} jLd} nh}. h{ skt; q; : Ky{.]k k;rbn 2;ya;|Ks;e2 k{ k;rb{]nk A']s2 m'. bdln' m'. Pl;Sm; m'. k/9 s'k.2 y; ]m]n` lgt' h". : jb ]k rË m'. k;rb{]nk a| Nh;e2Ä's y; RBC m'. j{ rht; h"- usk' k;r~ vh yh k;yE Ak s'k.2 k' s[v' w;g m'. kr d't; h" : mtlb Pl;Sm; s' 5000 g/n; jLd} k;yE h{ j;t; h" : a[r RBC Ak s'k.2 m'. y; Ak s'k.2 k' s[v' w;g m'. eE]Kvl}]b@ym (equilibrium) m'. h{ j;t; h" : yh} h;l k"p}lr}j> s' jb RBC k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 k{ u1;t; h" t{ h{t; h" : mtlb k;rb{]nk a|Nh;e2Ä's k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 m'. p;n} ] ml;kr us' k;rb{]nk A']s2 m'. bdl d't; h"- a[r ]fr l.Gj> m'. j;kr us k;rb{]nk A']s2 s' p;n} k{ ] nk;l kr k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 m'. bdl d't; h" : a[r vh k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 Xv;s %;r; b;hr ]nk;l d} j;t} h" : k;rb{]nk A']s2 k; bdl;v es} p@k;r s' RBC y; rË k' s"Ls m'. Ak s'k.2 k' s[v'. ]hSs' k' aNdr k;rb{]nk A']s2 k{ h;eE2Ä{j'n a[r b;ek;rb{n'` ay;|n (bicarbonate ion) m'. bdl ]dy; j;t; h" : tkr}bn s;r; k; s;r; h;eE2Ä{j'n ay;|n RBC’s y; rË k' s"Ls m'. h}m{Gl{]bn m'. cl; j;t; h" Ky{.]k h}m{Gl{]bn Ak bh/t h} blv;n y; x]Ëx;l} A']s2_b's bfr (powerful acid-base buffer) h" : a[r d?sr} trf b;ek;rb{n'` ay;|n=j> (ions) Pl;Sm; m'. s"Ls k' b;hr ]nkl j;t; h" a[r Pl;Sm; s' Kl{r;eE2> ay;|n=j> RBC y; rË k' s"Ls k' aNdr i/s j;t; h" a[r k;rb{n'` ay;|n=j> k} Y;l} jgh m'. wr j;t; h" : yh A's; es]ly' h{t; h" Ky{.]k RBC y; rË k' s"Ls k' aNdr i/s j;t; h" a[r k;rb{n'`_Kl{r;e2 k"r}yr ^{`}n (carbonate-chloride carrier protein) rht; h"- ]jsk' k;r~ RBC y; rË k' s"Ls k} m'Mb@'n m'. y' d{n{. Ak d?sr' k' a;mn' s;mn' rht' h". : ]jsk' k;r~ j"s' h} b;eEk;rb{n'` ay;| n b;hr ]nklt; h"- v"s' h{ t/rNt Kl{r;eE2 s"Ls k' aNdr i/s j;t; h" : yh} k;r~ h" ]k v}ns Bl2 (venous blood) s"Ls m'. Kl{r;eE2 a;r`}]ryl Bl2 s"Ls s' a]ok rht; h" : es}]ly' es phenomenon k{ Chloride Shift kht' h". : Reversible combination of carbon dioxide k; p;n} k' s;q ]ml j;n;- RBC k' aNdr A's; k;rb{]nk a|Nh;e2Ä's j{ RBC k' aNdr rht; h" usk' p@w;v k' k;r~ h{t; h" : mtlb RBC k' aNdr Ky{.]k k;rb{]nk a|Nh;e2Ä's rht; h" : es]ly' usk' p@w;v k' k;r~ k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 p;n} m'. ]ml ke k;rb{]nk A']s2 m'. bdl j;t; h" : es} p@k;r 70 p@]txt ]`x?j> k' k;rbn 2;y a;| Ks;e2 l.Gj> m'. cl} j;t} h" : Transport of carbon dioxide in combination with hemoglobin and plasma proteins - Carbamino hemoglobin k;rbn 2;y a;|Ks;e2 rË k' h}m{Gl{]bn a[r Pl;Sm; ^{`}n=s k' s;q ]mlkr ]rAKxn h{t; h" ]jss' k;rbm}n{ h}m{Gl{]bn carbamino hemoglobin CO2 HHGb bn j;t; h" : H2O y;]n p;n} k' s;q k;rbn ]mln' s' k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s bn skt' h". – s{ Oy;n rh' k} agr es' a[Ks}2;eEj>2 ]ky; j;y' t{ es m'. A'nj}E + k;rbn 2;eEa[Ks;eE2 + p;n} bn'g; : Oy;n rh' k} k;rbn 2;eEa[KseE2 a[r p;n} ]mlkr k;rb{]nk A']s2 k{ bn;t' h". : msln k;rbn 2;eEa[Ks;eE2 + p;n} = k;rb[]nk A']s2 a[Ks}2;eEj>2 k;rb[]nk A']s2 = k;rbn 2;eEa[Ks;eE2 + p;n} s{ k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s k{ agr a[Ks}2;eEj2 ]ky; j;y'g; j{ s"Ll m'. yh k;yE m;e`{k{N2Ä}y; krt; h" ]js s' us' A'nj}E + k;rbn 2;eEa[Ks;eE2 + p;n} ]ml'g; – A'nj}E k{ vh k;yE krn' k' ]ly' v;pr'g; a[r k;rbn 2;eEa[Ks;eE2 vh rË %;r; b;hr ]nk;l d't; h" (l.Gj s') a[r p;n} rË m'. ]ml j;t; h" : es s' 4.1 k"lr}j> bnt} h". : a[r p@{`}n bn;n' k' ]ly' k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s k{ n;eE`r{jn d'n' s' y; k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s m'. n;eE`r{jn 2;ln' s' vh p@{`}n m'. bdl j;y'g; – s{ Y;n' s' j{ p@{`}Nj> ]mlt' h". : agr un k{ a[Ks}2;eEj>2 ]ky; j;y'g; t{ usm'. s' A'nj}E + k;rbn 2;eEa[Ks;eE2 + p;n} + y?r}y; bn'g; – mtlb n;eE`Ä{jn k{ y?r}y; m'. bdl ]dy; j;t; h" a[r yh k;yE ]lvr bh/t a;s;n} s' kr d't; h" a[r es m' A'nj}E 4.35 k"lr}j> ]ml'g} y; bn'g} :

m/Åy A'N2{´;en g@.]qy;\ a[r unk' k;yE xr}r k' sw} f.KxNs (functions) k; asl} a;o;r d{ ]sS`m=j> (systems) pr h" _ 1. nvEs ]sS`m 2. h[rm{nl y;]n A'N2{´;en ]sS`m dr asl A'N2{´;en ]sS`m xr}r k' alg_alg m'`;b[]lk (metabolic) f.KxNs k{ d'Yt; h"- j"s; ]k ] ks p@k;r s' a[r ]ktn; k{eE k"m}kl s"Ll k' aNdr p@w;v 2;lt; h" y; k{eE w} sBS`;Ns y;]n vSt/ ]ks trh s' s"Ll k} m'Mb@'n s' aNdr j;t} h" y; ]ks p@k;r s"Ll k} g@{q y; s"Ll k; ]ks} vSt/ k{ bn;n; eTy;]d : k/9 h[rm{Ns A's' h". ]jnk; p@w;v k/9 s'k.2=s (seconds) m'. h{ j;t; h"- k/9 k{ k;yE krn' k' ]ly' k/9 ]dn lgt' h".- ]jss' vh k/9 sPt;h k;yE krt' rht' h".- y; mh}n{. y; vz{E. tk k;yE krt' rht' h". : h[rm{Ns a[r unk' k;yE h[rm{n Ak k"m}kl sBS`;Ns (chemical substance) h"- j{ ]ks} Ak s"Ll y; s"Ls k' g@?p n' bn;kr xr}r k} Fl?e2 m'. 2;l ]dy; h" y; 9{2> ]dy; h"- j{ xr}r k' d?sr' s"Ls k{ k;yE krn' k' ]ly' uks;t' h". y; k;yE n krn' k' ]ly' r{kt' h". : ]ks} w} a[rgn (organ) y; (tissue) ]js c}j> y; pd;qE s' bn} h"- us' sBS`;Ns (substance) kht' h". : en h[rm{Ns m'. k/9 A's' h[rm{Ns h". ]jNh'. l{kl h[rm{Ns kh; j;t; h" : a[r d?sr' A's' h[rm{Ns h". ]jNh'. j"nrl h[rm{Ns (general hormones) kh; j;t; h" : j"s; ]k A']s`;el k{l;en (acetylcholine) j{ ]k p"r;_]sMp""q']`k nvE %;r; uks;y; j;t; h" : y; Sk'l}`l nvE A']N2.Gj> (skeletal nerve endings) Ny?r{ `Ä;NSm}`r k} trh k;yE krt; h" : d?sr; ]s´']`n h[rm{n j{ ]k 2=y/a{2'nm k' a.dr k} ]4Ll} y; d}v;r bn;t} h" a[r us' rË m'. 9{2> ]dy; j;t; h"- a[r rË %;r; jb p".]´y;s m'. j;t; h"- t{ us' s{]2ym b;ek;rb{n'` bn;n' k{ uks;t; h" : a[r t}sr; CCK Cholecystokinin n;m k; h[rm{n h"- j{ ]k 9{`} a;.tr} k} a.dr k} ]4Ll} y; d}v;r bn;t} h"- a[r us' rË m'. bn;kr 9{2> ]dy; j;t; h" j{ g[l Bl"2r k{ b;el w'jn' k' ]ly' uks;t; h" a[r p".]´y;s k{ `Ä}]PSNS{j"n- am;el'j> (amylase) a[r l;ep'j> n;m k' ANj;>em k{ w'jn' k{ y; bn;n' k{ uks;t; h" : en h[rm{Ns k; k;m l{kl (local) y; njd}k k} g@.]qy{. k{ uks;n; h"- es]ly' eNh'. l{kl h[rm{Ns kht' h". : tkr}bn sb j"nrl h[rm{Ns ]ks} Y;s A'N2{´;en Gl".2 y; g@.]qy{. %;r; bn;y' j;t' h".j{ Y;s trh k} h[rm{Ns bn;t} h". : j"s; ]k A'2Ä}nl Gl".2 k' m'2?l; d{ Y;s ]kSm k' h[rm{Ns bn;t' h".- ]jn k; n;m A'p}n"f>r}n a[r n[r_Ap}n'fr}n h".- j{ ]k ]s.p;q']`k nVEj> s' uks;y' j;t' h". : a[r yh d{n{. h[rm{Ns bnn' k' b;d rË %;r; xr}r k' hr w;g m'. cl' j;t' h". : a[r en h[rm{Ns k; asr xr}r k} rË k} n;]2>y{. pr es p@k;r s' p2>t; h"- ]k vh us} smy ]sk/2> j;t} h". : y; unk; s;eEj> phl' k} ap'6; s' km h{ j;t; h" : j"s' ]k b;j? k' ]cμ m'. ]dY;y; gy; h" – – – – – – – – –  a[r us} smy us r{g} k; rË c;p y; Bl2 p@'xr j{ km h"- b3> j;y'g; : k/9 j"nrl h[rm{Ns A's' h".- ]jnk; p@w;v xr}r k' hr s"Ls pr p2>t; h"- j"s; ]k g@{q h[rm{Ns k; p@w;v xr}r k' hr s"Ll pr p2>t; h"- a[r yh h[rm{n A'N`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} bn;t} h" : a[r es h[rm{n k; p@w;v y; asr xr}r k' hr w;g pr p2>t; h"- ]js s' xr}r k' hr s"Ll k} g@{q 1}k p@k;r s' h{t} h" : d?sr;- q;yr[e2 h[rm{n h"- j{ q;yr[e2 Gl".2 bn;t; h" : es h[rm{n k; p@w;v xr}r k' hr s"Ll pr p2>t; h"- ]js s' us s"Ll k; j{ w} k;yE h{ vh us k;yE k{ krn' m'. sflt; ]mlt} h" : a[r v' s"Ls j{ w} k"m}kl bn;t' h".- y; j{ w} k;yE krt' h".- vh 1}k p@k;r s' kr'.g' : d?sr' k/9 A's' h[rm{Ns h".- j{ Y;s ]`x?j> k' ]ly' bn;y' j;t' h".- ]jn pr un h[rm{Ns k{ p;n' k' ]ly' h[rm{n ]rs'P`jE> h". j{ rË m'. ]vcrt' h/y' un h[rm{Ns k{ pk2> l't' h". a[r g@.q} k{ d' d't' h". ]js s' g@.q} apn; k;yE krt} h" : j"s; ]k ACTH h[rm{n (Adreno Cortico Trophin hormone) h"- j{ A'N`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} s' bn;y; j;t; h" ]jsk; p@w;v Y;l} A'2Ä}nl Gl".2 k' k{r`'Ks pr p2>t; h"- a[r es h[rm{n k' ]mln' pr A'2Ä}nl k[r`'Ks uks;y; j;y'g; : a[r vh adreno cortical hormone bn;n; x/# kr d'g;- ]jsk' %;r; ^{`}n=s- Gl?k{j>- a[r f"`=s k; pcn; 1}k p@k;r s' h{g; : es} p@k;r s' d{n{. a{vr}j> (ovaries) k' h[rm{Ns bnt' h". vh s"k.2r} s'Ks a;|rgNs (secondary sex organs) k{ d'Yt' h". y; d'Yw;l krt' h". : A'N`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} k' h[rm{Ns 1. Growth hormone - yh xr}r k' tkr}bn sb s"Ls a[r ]`x?j> k' g@{q krt' h". : 2. Adreno cortico tropic hormone _ k' k;r~ A'2Ä}nl Gl".2 k; k[r`"Ks adreno cortical hormones k{ bn;t; h" : 3. TSH thyroid stimulating hormone s' q;yr[e2 Gl".2 uks;y; j;y'g; ]js s' T3,T4 y;]n Tri-iodo thyronine and thyroxine h[rm{n bn'.g' :

5. 6.

Follicle stimulating hormone k' k;r~ a[vr}j> m'. a{v/l'xn h{n' s' phl' f|;]lkl (follicle) k} g@{q h{t} h" : s"k2{. a.2' pkt' rht' h". ]fr jb Ak a.2; pk kr ]nklt; h"t{ b;k} k' sb a.2' sm;Pt h{ j;t' h". a[r `"S`}s m'. v}yE k} k}`;~/a{. k{ a[r a]ok bnn' k' ]ly' uks;t' h". : Leutinising hormone LH s' a{vr}j> k{ a{v/l'xn krn' k' ]ly' uks;y; j;t; h" a[r `"S`}s (testes) m'. `"S`{S`}r[n (testosterone) h[rm{n bnn' k{ uks;n; : p@{l"K`}n h[rm{n s' breasts k} development h{t} h" a[r Stn{. m'. d?o bnt; h" :

p{S`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} h[rm{Ns 1. ADH ]js' A'N`}_2;eE_y?r']`k h[rm{n (anti diuretic hormone) ]js' v"s{p@"]sn w} kht' h".- j{ ]k2n}j> k{ p'x;b km bn;n' k{ kht} h".- ]jss' xr}r m'. p;n} k} m;µ; b3> j;t} h" : d?sr} trf yh h[rm{n sb rË v;]h]ny{. k{ ]sk{2>t} h" y; unk} m{`;eE y; 2;y;m}`r (diameter) km h{ j;t; h" ]js s' r{g} k; b} p} b3> j;t; h" : 2. a{Ks}`{]sn h[rm{n s' jNm k' smy y?`'rs y; gwE;xy ]sk/2>t; h" t;]k bCc' k; jNm 1}k p@k;r s' h{ a[r Station{. k' d?o bn;n' v;l' s"Ls k{ uks;y; j;t; h" t;]k bCc; jb ] nPplj> (nipples) k{ c?s' t{ wrp?r d?o 1}k p@k;r s' ]nkl' : A'2Ä}nl k[r`'Ks 1. k{r`}s{l h[rm{Ns k' bh/t s' f.Kxn h". : yh xr}r k' sb ^{`}n=s- k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s- a[r f"`=s k} p;cn ]ý; k{ d'Yt' h". y; krt' h". : y; enk' %;r; y' t}n{. vSt/y'. pc;y} j;t} h". : 2. A'L2{S`}r{n n;m k; h[rm{n j{ bnt; h"- vh ]k2n} k{ s{]2ym km ]nk;ln' k{ kht; h"- ] jsk' k;r~ p{`"]xym xr}r s' a]ok b;hr ]nkl j;t; h" : mtlb- xr}r m'. s{]2ym k} m;µ; b3> j;y'g} a[r p{`"]xym k} m;µ; km h{ j;y'g} : q;yr[e2 Gl".2 1. q;er{]Ksn a[r tri-iodo-thyronine h[rm{Ns j{ bnt' h".- v' xr}r k' tkr}bn sb s"Ls k' k"m}kl ]rAKx'Ns (reactions) k{ d'Yt' h".- ]jss' xr}r k; j"nrl m'`;b[]lj>m b3> j;t; h" y; m'`;b[]lj>m k{ b3>;v; ]mlt; h" : 2. k"Ls}`{]nn (calcitonin) h[rm{n s' h]2=2y{. pr k"]Lxym (calcium) c3>n; xr}r h{ j;t; h" : y; h]2=2y{. m'. k"]Lxym b3> j;t; h" : a[r d?sr' b;j? ECF y;]n AKS`Ä; s"Ll/lr Fl?e2 m'. k"]Lxym k} m;µ; km h{ j;y'g} : a;eEl'`=s a[f l".grh|Ns Islets of Langerhans y' p".]ý;s m'. h{t' h". _ 1. enk' %;r; p".]ý;s m'. eNs/]ln bnt} h" ]js k' xr}r k' hr s"Ll m'. Gl?k{j> k{ w'j j;t; h" y; en k' %;r; s"Ll (cell) k' a.dr Gl?k{j> j;t} h" : eNs/]ln k' %;r; k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s k; m'`;b[]lj>m h{t; h" : 2. Gl?k;g[n h[rm{n %;r; ]lvr xr}r k} Fl?e2=s m'. Gl?k{j> k} m;µ; k{ b3>;t; h" : a{vr}j> AS`Ä{j"n h[rm{n %;r; Sμ}y{. k' s"Ks a[rgNs (sex organs) y; g@.]qy{. k; Oy;n rY; j;t; h" : j"s; ]k breasts eTy;]d d?sr} g@.q}y'. : p@{j'S`'r{n h[rm{n us smy y?`']rn ]mLk (uterine milk) k{ bh/t b3>;t' h". : jb k[Ns}v h/a; a[vm (ovum) f|l{]pyn `=y?b s' y?`'rs m'. a;t; h" t{ y' y?`']rn ]mLk es]ly' bn;t; h" t;]k a.2' k' a.dr j{ s"Ls division h{ rh} h"- unk{ y' ]mLk %;r; b3>;y; j;y- y; yh un s"Ls k} j{ a.2' k' a.dr h"- unk} Y/r;k h"- y; Y;n; h"- ]jss' vh w?Y' n rh' a[r unk; b3>n; n ½k' : d?sr; yh h[rm{n breast k' a.dr d?o bn;n' v;l} g@.]qy{. k} g@{q krt} h" y; Oy;n rYt' h". a[r y?`'rs k' a.dr AN2{m"`Ä}ym k{ bn;t' h". : `"S`}s `"S`}s y; a.2k{z `"S`{S`}r[n n;mk h[rm{n bn;t' h". j{ s'Ks/al organs k' g@.]qy{. k{ bn;n' k; y; k;yE krn' k; Oy;n rYt' h". : p"r;_q;yr[e2 Gl".2 y' PTH y;]n p"r;t h[rm{n (parat hormone) k{ bn;t' h". j{ xr}r k' AKS`Ä; s"Ll?lr Fl? e2 ECF m'. k"]Lxym ay;|n (ion) k{ 2;lt' h". : d?sr; gut y; A'B2{mn s' k"]Lxym k{ s{Yt' h". y; A'Bj{>bE krt' h". : t}sr; agr k"]Lxym k} s.Åy; b3> j;y t{ us' ]k2n}j> s' b;hr ]nk;lt' h". : c[q; agr ECF m'. k"]Lxym k} m;µ; km h{ t{ us' b{Ns y;]n h]2=2y{. s' ]nk;l kr ECF m'. 2;lt' h". : Pl"s'N`;

jb p@'gn"Ns} h{ j;t} h"- y; a{vm m'. SpmE cl; j;t; h" t{ a{vr}j> s' m"Nss a;n' bNd h{ j;t' h". : gwE o;r~ h{n' k' c[dh ]dn tk Pl"s'N`; bnt; rht; h"- a[r vh Ak h[rm{n bn;t; rht; h"- ]js' human chorionic gonadotrophic hormone ·?mn k{]ry{]nk g{n;2{`Ä{]fk h[rm{n kht' h". : ]js k' p@w;v s' k{rps Ly?]`ym (corpus luteum) k{ bn;t; rht; h" ]js k' p@w;v s' k{rps Ly?]`ym AS`Ä{j"n a[r p@{j'S`'r{n h[rm{Ns k{ bh/t m;µ; m'. bn;t' rht' h". : AS`Ä{j"n m;. k' s"Ks a[rgNj> k{ blv;n y; mjb?t krn; xr}r kr d't' h". a[r bCc' k' k/9 ] `x?j> k{ w} bn;n; x/# kr d't' h". : p@{j'S`'r{n h[rm{n d?sr} trf y?`'rs k' AN2{m"`Ä}ym k{ bn;n; x/# kr d't' h". t;]k gwE o;r~ m'. a{vm k{ AN2{m"`Ä}ym k' a.dr 1}k p@k;r s' rYn; sk' y; e>MPl;N`'xn (implantation) 1}k p@k;r s' h{ a[r s;q m'. bCc' k' j{ bn rh; h{t; h" usk' k/9 ]`x?j> y; g@.]qy{. y; organs k{ w} bn;t' h". : s;q m'. m;. k' Stn{. m'. d?o bn;n' v;l} g@.]qy{. k{ w} bn;n; x/# kr d't' h". : Pl"s'N`; Ak a[r h[rm{n bn;t; h"- ]jsk; n;m ·?mn s{m"`{m"Mm{`Ä{]fn(human somato mammotrophin) h" : es h[rm{n %;r; f}`s y;]n gwE k' bCc' k' k/9 ]`x?j> a[r bnn' x/# h{ j;t' h". : a[r m;. k} breasts k{ w} t"y;r krn; x/# kr d't' h". : uUpr k' ]vvr~{. k{ p3> kr yh s;f h{ gy; h" ]k xr}r k; m'`;b[]lk f.Kxn tkr}bn s;r; A'N2{´;en ]sS`m s' h{t; h" : j"s; ]k g@{q h[rm{n k' n h{n' pr mn/Zy b[n; y; 2=v;fE (dwarf) rh j;y'g;- a[r q;yr[e2 Gl".2 k' bn;y' h[rm{Ns k} km} s' xr}r m'. sb k"m}kl ] rAKxn=s (chemical reactions) ]bg2> j;y'.g' a[r p".]´y;s s' bn' eNs/]ln agr n h{ t{ Y;n' %;r; bn' k;rb{h;e2Ä'`=s j{ ]k s"Ls k} x]Ë h"- y; Anj}E h"- uss' v.]ct rh j;y'.g'- y; yh x]Ë nh}. ]ml'g} : a[r s"Ks h[rm{Ns k' n h{n' pr s"Kx/al f.KxNs (sexual functions) b.d h{ j;y'.g' y; nh}. h{.g' :

h[rm{Ns k} r;s;y]nk vg}Ekr~ _ r;s;y]nk t[r pr h[rm{Ns t}n p@k;r k' h{t' h". _ 1. S`}r[e2 h[rm{n=s _ en h[rm{Ns k' k"m}kl bn;v` k[l"S`Ä;|l j"s; h} h" : a[r yh a]oktr k[l"S`Ä;|l s' h} bnt' h". : A'2Ä}nl Gl".2 s' alg_alg trh k' S`}r[e2 s' bn' h/y' h[rm{Ns bnt' h". j"s; ]k k[r`}s{l (cortisol) a[r A'L2{S`}r{n bnt' h". : d?sr' a{vr}j> d{ h[rm{Ns AS`Ä{j"n a[r p@{j'S`'r{n bn;t' h". j{ S`}r[e2 s' bnt' h". : t}sr; `"S`}s s' bn' `"S`{S`}r[n h[rm{n h" j{ S`}r[e2 s' bnt' h". : c[q;- Pl"s'N`; w} AS`Ä{j"n a[r p@{j'S`'r{n k{ bn;t; h" : 2. `;er{]sn A'm}n{ A']s2 s' bn' h/y' h[rm{Ns _ enm'. m/Åy h" q;yr[e2 Gl".2 k' T3 a[r T4 h[rm{Ns : A'2Ä}nl m"2?l; s' bn' A'p}n"f>r}n a[r n[r_Ap}n'fr}n h[rm{Ns w} `;er{]sn A'm}n{ A']s2 s' h} bnt' h". : 3. b;k} k' a[r m/Åy h[rm{Ns ^{`}n=s y; p'P`;e2=j> (peptides) s' bnt' h". : a[r A'N`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} s' bn' h[rm{Ns ^{`}n=s y; l;jE p{l} p'P`;e2=j> s' bn' h". : p[S`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} s' bn' h[rm{Ns ADH (v"s{p@"]sn) a[r a{Ks}`{]sn _ y' p'P`;e2=j> s' bn' h".- ]jnm.' a;1 A'm}n{ A']s2=s h". : eNs/]ln Gl?k;g[n a[r p"r;q{rm{n l;jE p{l} p'P`;e2=j> s' bn' h". : h[rm{Ns k{ ]ks trh S`{r ]ky; j;t; h" a[r k"s' bnt' h". _ Oy;n rh' h[rm{Ns k"s' bnt' h". a[r k"s' S`{r ]ky' j;t' h". unk; Ak h} rSt; nh}. h" : ]fr w} j"nrl Ak h} trh s' bnt' h". y; S`{r ]ky' j;t' h". : v' h[rm{Ns j{ ^{`}n=s s' bnt' h".- v' sb granular endoplasmic reticulum k' glandular cells Ak h} trh s' bn;t' h". : c;h' j{ ^{`}n=s endoplasmic reticulum a;m tr}k' s' bn;t' h".- v"s' h} ^{`}n=s s' h[rm{Ns bnt' h". pr vh} final h[rm{Ns nh}. h" : mgr vh ^{`}n=s asl} h[rm{Ns s' bh/t b2' h{t' h". ] jNh'. p@}_p@{_h[rm{Ns (Pre-pro-hormones) kht' h". : tb un b2' ^{`}n=s k{ EPR y;]n A'N2{Pl;]Smk r"`}k/lm m'. a[r p@{s's (process) ]ky; j;t; h" ]js s' uNh'. k/9 9{`; bn;y; j;t; h" ]jNh'. p@{ h[rm{n (pro hormone) kh; j;t; h" : ]fr us p@{ h[rm{n k{ A'N2{Pl;]Smk r"`}k/lm k' v"s}kLj> (vesicles) m'. wrkr g{lj} A'p;r'`s m'. d?sr; p@{s's krn' k{ w'j; j;t; h" jh;. pr us' a[r p@{s's kr kr a[r 9{`; ]ky; j;t; h" a[r ]fr es trh vh f;eEnl h[rm{n bn j;t; h" ]fr g{lj} A'p;r'`s us 9{`' ]ky' h/y' h[rm{n y; k[mp"K` h[rm{n (compact hormone) k{ ]s´'`r} v"s}kLj> (secretory vesicles) m'. wr ]dy; j;t; h" _ ]js k} ]4Ll} bh/t ptl} h{t} h" _ a[r us' S`{r kr kr us A'N2{´;en s"Ll k' j{ h[rm{n bn;t; h"- usk' s;e`{Pl;]Smk kMp;Èm'N` (cytoplasmic compartment) m'. rY kr S`{r kr ]ly; j;t; h" a[r us' vh;. pr tb tk rY; j;t; h"- jb tk ]k us h[rm{n k} j#rt k' ]ly' us' nvE ]sGnl=s (nerve signals) n ]ml' : ]fr usk} j#rt p2>n' pr jb nvE ]sGnLs a;t; h" t{ us S`{r ]ky' h/y' ER v"s}kLj> s' h[rm{Ns k{ ]nk;l kr jh;. j#rt h{ t{ vh;. rË %;r; w'j ]dy; j;t; h" : `;er{]sn A'm}n{ A']s2 s' d{ p@k;r k' h[rm{Ns k' sm?h{. y; g@?p=s (groups) k' h[rm{Ns bn;y' j;t' h".- ]jn m'. s' Ak q;yr[e2 Gl".2 k' h[rm{Ns- d?sr; A'2Ä}nl Gl".2 k' m'2?l; s' bn;y' h/y' h[rm{Ns h".- j{ Gl;N2?lr s"Ls k' s;e`{Pl;]Smk kMp;Èm'N` k' ANj;>em A'KxNs (enzyme actions) s' t"Æy;r h{t' h". : en k' b;r' m'. q{2>; a[r sm4; rh' h". _ A'2Ä}nl Gl".2 (adrenal gland) k' bn;y' h[rm{Ns A'p}n"f>r}n (epinephrine) a[r n[r_Ap}n'fr}n (norepinephrine) k{ us} bn;y' h/y' ER v"s}kLj> m'. h} S`{r ]ky; h/a; rY; j;t; h" jb tk ]k unk} j#rt n p2>' : s;o;r~t+ A'p}n"f>r}n k} m;µ; n[r_Ap}n'fr}n s' c;r g/n; Jy;d; h{t; h" : q;yr[e2 Gl".2 k' d{ h[rm{Ns T3, T4 h{t' h". ]jnk{ m'`;b[]lk h[rm{Ns (metabolic hormones) kht' h". Ky{.]k v' xr}r k; m'`;b[]lj>m y;]n cy;pcy k} d'Yr'Y krt' h". : enk' ^{`}n=s bh/t b2>' h". _ ]jNh'. q;eEr{_Gl{b?]ln (thyroglobulin) kht' h".- ]jns' q;eEr;|]Ksn (thyroxin) a[r `Ä;eE a;y{2{ q;eEr{]nn (tri-iodo thyronine) j/2>' rht' h". : eNh'. q;yr[e2 Gl".2 k' aNdr q"]ly{. m'. rY; j;t; h" ]jNh'. l;jE f{]lkLs (large follicles) kht' h". : ]fr jb enk} j#rt h{t} h" tb q;yr[e2 Gl".2 k' Ak Y;s ANj;>em k} ]ý; k' k;r~ q;yr[e2 k' Gl".2?lr s"Ls q;eEr{Gl{b?]ln (thyroglobulin) k' molecules y;]n k~{. k{ 9{2>t' h". a[r us k' s;q h} q;yr[e2 h[rm{Ns k{ rË m'. 9{2> ]dy; j;t; h" : h[rm{Ns k' k;yE krn' k} av]o y; smy (Duration Of Actions Of Hormones) Oy;n rh' k/9 h[rm{Ns k/9 s'k.2=j> (seconds) m'. bn j;t' h". a[r un k; A'Kxn (action) w} k/9 s'k.2=j> (seconds) m'. h} ]ml j;t; h" : k/9 d?sr' h[rm{Ns A's' h". ]jn k; k;m krn' m'. mh}n{. lg j;t' h". : j"s; ]k A'2Ä}nl m"2?l; s' bn' A'p}n"f>r}n a[r n[r_Ap}n'fr}n h[rm{Ns

uks;n' k' t/rNt b;d h} bn j;t' h". a[r un k; A'Kxn w} t/rNt ]ml j;t; h"- a[r yh h[rm{n bnn' k' Ak s' t}n ]mn` m'. ]`x?j> eTy;]d m'. cl' j;y'.g' a[r sm;Pt h{ j;y'.g' : d?sr'- q;yr[e2 Gl".2 s' bn' h[rm{Ns T3, T4 q;er{Gl{b?]ln k} xkl m'. q;yr[e2 k' f{l}kLj> m'. mh}n{. p2>' rht' h".- ]fr jb j#rt p2>t} h" t{ en k{ bnn' m'. i.`{. y; ]dn lgt' h".- ]fr jb ]`x? j> m'. cl' j;t' h". t{ tkr}bn 2'3> mh}n' tk k;m krt' rht' h". : s{ hr h[rm{n k; bnn' k; alg_alg tr}k; h" a[r ]ktn} d'r tk xr}r m'. p@w;v rh'g; vh w} alg_alg h" : xr}r m'. h[rm{Ns k} bh/t h} km l;gt h" : k/9 h[rm{Ns etn} km m;µ; m'. h{t' h". j"s' _ Ak ]mLl} l}`r rË m'. ]sfE Ak p;ek{ g@;m (pico gram) y;]n Ak g@;m k; ds hj;r kr{2>v;. w;g eTy;]d : s{ Oy;n rh' h[rm{Ns k; bnn; h} bh/t km h" _ es]ly' phl' h[rm{Ns k; `"S` krn; w} bh/t k]1n q; : h;l h} k/9 vz{E. s' r']2y{ eMy?n{ a|Ss' radio immuno assay n;mk Ak nv}ntm `"S` %;r; rË m'. h[rm{Ns k} m;µ; k; pt; lg;n; s.wv h/a; h" : Oy;n rh' ]k A'N2{´;en g@.]qy;\ hm'x; j#rt s' k/9 Jy;d; m;µ; m'. h[rm{Ns bn;t' h". : a[r agr es d[r;n ]js g@.q} k' ]ly' h[rm{n bn;y; gy; h{. a[r es d[r;n vh g@.q} s.t/Z` h{ j;y y; usk{ agr h[rm{Ns k} j#rt n h{ t{ rË m'. usk} m;µ; n[rml s' a]ok h{ j;n' s' h;yp{q"lms k{ pt; cl j;y'g; ]k xr}r k{ us h[rm{n k} a[r j#rt nh}. h"- t{ vh ]p`=y?`r} Gl".2 k{ us h[rm{n bn;n' k' ]ly' ]rl}]j>.g h[rm{n nh}. w'j'g; : t{ ]p`=y?`r} Gl".2 us g@.q} k' ]ly' a[r h[rm{n nh}. bn;y'g;prNt/ b;k} s;r' h[rm{Ns bn;y'g; ]jsk} xr}r k{ j#rt h" : es p@k;r k' ]ny.μ~ k{ n"g']`v f}2b"k ] sS`m (negative feedback system) kh; j;t; h" : a[r j{ phl' h[rm{Ns bn c/k' h". v' rË %;r; jb ]lvr m'. j;y'.g' t{ _ j#rt s' a]ok h[rm{Ns j{ bn c/k' h". _ ]lvr un k{ sm;Pt kr d'g; : hm;r' xr}r m'. A's} VyvSq; h" ]k ]js vSt/ k} j#rt nh}. h" us' sm;Pt kr ]dy; j;t; h" : hm;r' xr}r k; k[Mpy?`r bh/t h} aC9; h" a[r yh h]r k; d'n h" ]js k; l;w Ny?r{q'r'p} k{ bh/t ]mlt; h" : es trh s' ]js g@.q} k' ]ly' h[rm{n bn;y' gy' h{t' h".- unk{ ]lvr k' k;r~ bh/t l;w ]mlt; h" a[r vh 1}k p@k;r s' k;m krt} h" a[r ]fr a;vXykt; h{n' pr h;yp{q"lms d/b;r; ]p`=y?`r} k{ ]rl}]j>.g h[rm{Ns w'j'g; a[r ]p`=y?`r} s' a;d'x ]mln' pr d/b;r; v' h[rm{n bnn' x/# h{ j;y'.g' : ]p`=y?`r} Gl".2 h[rm{Ns bn; bn; kr rË m'. 2;lt; j;t; h" a[r ]js g@.q} k{ usk' h[rm{Ns c;]hy' us g@.q} k' s"Ls pr us h[rm{n k' l'n' k' ]rs"P`rj> rht' h". ]jnk} s.Åy; d{ hj;r s' Ak l;Y tk k} rht} h" a[r en ]rs"P`rj> s' g@.q} k{ us k} c;ht k' h[rm{Ns ]ml j;t' h". a[r v' apn; k;yE 1}k p@k;r s' krt' h". : Oy;n rh' ]k ^{`}n- p"P`;e2=j> (peptides) a[r k"`;k{l;m;en=s (cata-cholamines) k' alg_alg ]rs"P`rj> s"Ll k' m'Mb@'n pr rht' h".- a[r S`}r[e2 h[rm{Ns k' ]rs"P`rj> s"Ll k' s;e`{Pl;j>m (cytoplasm) m'. rht' h".- jb ]k q;yr[e2 Gl".2 k' m'`;b[]lk h[rm{Ns k' ]rs"P`rj> Ny?]Klys m'. rht' h". : yh bh/t a;vXyk b;t h" ]k s"Ll k' uUpr j{ ^{`}n k' ]rs"P`rj> h".- v' hm'x; Ak j"s' nh}. rht' _ ]dn p@]t ]dn a[r ]mn` p@]t ]mn` bdlt' rht' h". Ky{.]k s"Ls k; ^{`}n bn;n' k; m'k"]nj>m (mechanism) w} 1}k h{n} c;]hy'- Ky{.]k y' ]rs"P`rj> w} ^{`}n=s s' h} bnt' h". y; un ] rs"P`rj> k; m[]lKy?Ls agr km h{g; t{ v' 1}k p@k;r s' k;m nh}. kr'.g' _ es]ly' `;rg"` s"Ls (target cells) k; m'k"]nj>m (mechanism) w} 1}k h{n; c;]hy' : [ g/½j} n' a;g' (Guyton 8th ed. p 813 s' 817 tk ]lYn; h" ]

]p`=y?`r} Gl".2 k' h[rm{Ns tq; h;yp{q"lms %;r; unk; ]ny.μ~ ]p`=y?`r} Gl".2 k{ h;eEp{f;eE]ss (hypophysis) w} kht' h". : es k} s;eEj> (size) tkr}bn Ak s".`}m}`r (cm.) h" a[r esk; vjn 0.5 gm tk k; h" : yh h;yp{q"lms k' n}c' ]Sqr h"]js' s'Ll; `/rs}k; (sella turcica) kht' h". : k;yE x"l} k' an/s;r es' d{ w;g{. m'. b;.`; gy; h" ]js' A'N`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} a[r p[S`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} kht' h". : en d{n{. w;g{. k' b}c m'. Ak d}v;r_s} h"- ]js' p;jE> eN`rm}]2y; (pars intermedia) kht' h". j{ mn/Zy{. m'. k;m nh}. krt}- pr j;nvr{. m'. yh b}c k; w;g w} k/9 h[rm{Ns bn;t; h" : P[S`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} k; h;yp{q"lms s' s}o; sMbNo h"- jb ]k A'N`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} es k' b;hr h" : R} g/½j} k' apn' k/9 ]vc;r unk' h} xBd{ m'. n}c' ]dy' gy' h". _ " yh j{ m". ]lY rh; h?.- yh ]ks} ]kt;b y; p/Stk m'. nh}. h"- yh m'r' apn' ]vc;r s' ]lY rh; h?. : yh es]ly' j#r} h" Ky{.]k hmn' (y;]n Ny?r{q'r'p} n') es s' k;m l'n' h". : es]ly' a;p k{ es k{ uks;n' k' ]ly' ]ks p@k;r s' k;m l'n; h" t;]k a;p es s' k;m l' sk'. a[r a;p k{ 7;n h{n; c;]hy' ] k es k{ ]ks p@k;r s' uks;y; j; skt; h"- a[r hm es k{ uks;n' m'. k"s' sfl h/y' h". yh bt;t; h?. t{ a;p k{ 7;n h{ j;y'g; : jb m".n' bh/t vzE tkr}bn 8 – 10 s;l phl' p;y; ]k m". kht; h?. ]k Ny?r{q'r'p} h} Ak A's} q'r'p} h" j{ s}o; eNf'Kxn a[r eNFlm'xn k; el;j kr skt' h".- jb ]k d?sr' q'r'p}j> m'. A's; nh}. h" : eNf'Kxn k; el;j hm'. q;ems Gl".2 k{ uks; kr krn; h"- jb ]k eNFlm'xn k; el;j hm'. A'2Ä}nl Gl".2 k{ uks; kr krn; c;]hy' : q;ems a[r A'2Ä}nl Ak d?sr' k' ]v½5 h".: ab k"Nsr k; el;j hm q;ems k{ uks; kr krt' h".- a[r agr glt} s' ]ks} n' us p'x.` k{ A'2Ä}nl d' ]dy; t{ b}m;r} bh/t b3> j;y'g} : d?sr} s"P`}s}]my; m'. r{g} k} eMy?]n`} km h{t} h" a[r agr us' A'2Ä}nl d' ]dy; t{ us' t/rNt k{NvLxNj> (convulsions y;]n d[r' ) a; j;y'.g} : es} trh GBS y;]n ]gLln b;r ]s.2Ä{m m'. A'2Ä}nl Gl".2 k{ uks;n; c;]hy' Ky{.]k yh eNFlm'xn k} b}m;r} h"- s{ agr glt} s' us p'x.` k{ q;ems d' ]dy; t{ yh b}m;r} a[r b3> j;y'g} : es]ly' hm'. ]ks} r{g} k; el;j krn' s' phl' yh pt; lg;n; h" ]k us' eNf'Kxn k} b}m;r} h" y; eNFlm'xn k} b}m;r} h" t{ 1}k p@k;r s' el;j h{ skt; h" : a[r yh pt; lg;n' k' ]ly' y; t{ hm'. usk; `"S` kr;n; c;]hy' y; ]ks} p/Stk y; ]2Kxnr} (dictionary) k; sh;r; l'n; c;]hy' : ]bn; tsLl} ]ky' el;j nh}. krn; c;]hy' : t{ es p@k;r s' yh pt; lg;n' k' ]ly' m".n' a]ok p3>;eE krn} x/# k} k;r~ A'l{p"q} m'. eNf'Kxn a[r eNFlm'xn d{n{. k{ eNf'Kxn h} kh; j;t; h" : ]fr o}r'_o}r' sm4 m'. a;n' lg; ]k i{r y; ´{]nk eNf'Kxn eNFlm'xn m'. bdl j;t; h" : (tj/b'E s') pt; lg; y; sm4 m'. a;y; ]k a;o; k/.2l} b}s s"k.2 ((½) Ku – 20 secs) s' eNf'Kxn a[r eNFlm'xn d{n{. m'. l;w h{t; h" : es k; mtlb yh h/a; ]k es upc;r s' b{n m"r{ (bone marrow) uks;eE j;y'g} jh;. s' rË k' RBC’s k' s;q m'. WBC’s w} bnn' p@;r.w h{ j;y'.g'- ]js s' g@'n/l{s;e`=s (granulocytes), m{n{s;e`=s (monocytes) ]lMf{s;e`=s (lymphocytes) eTy;]d bnn' x/# h{ j;y'.g' : g@'n/l{s;e`=s t}n p@k;r k' s"Ls bn;t' h". ]jnk; n;m h" _ Ny?`Ä{]fLs- eEs}n{]fLs a[r b"s{]fLs (neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils). b"s{]fLs c;h' rË m'. k'vl Ak p@]txt y; uss' km w} h{. mgr y' hm'. bh/t h} l;wkr h". : k;r~ jb xr}r m'. k{eE b}m;r} a;t} h" t{ xr}r us eNf'Kxn k' s;q l2>t; h"- pr jb us a;gNt/k b}m;r} k' k}`;~/a{. k{ sm;Pt krn' m'. sfl nh}. h{t; t{ eNf'Kxn eNFlm'xn m'. bdl j;t; h" : t{ y' b"s{]fLs s"Ls ]p`=y?`r} Gl".2 k{ uks;t' h{.g' j{ ACTH h[rm{n bn;y'g; ]js k' %;r; A'2Ä}nl Gl".2 k{ uks;y; j;y'g; j{ t/rNt k[r`}s{l (cortisol) h[rm{n ]nk;l'g; ]jss' eNFlm'xn sm;Pt h{ j;t; h" : A's; h{n' k' k;r~ h" ]k ]p`=y?`r} Gl".2 m'. w} b"s{]fLs s"Ls h". j{ ]p`=y?`r} Gl".2 k' 2'L`; s"Ls (delta cells) bn;t' h". : s{ es} trh s' agr hm ]p`=y?`r} Gl".2 k' aNy s"Ls k} j;nk;r} b3>; l'. t{ x;yd hm un s"Ls k{ uks;kr d?sr' h[rm{Ns k{ w} uks; skt' h". : ]p`=y?`r} Gl".2 m'. ]v]w¸ s"Ls h". j{ alg_alg h[rm{Ns bn;t' h". _ • alpha cells • delta cells - y' b"s{]fLs s"Ls h{t' h". • β cells • sinusoid cells • gamma cells • epsilon cells - y' A']s2{]fl s"Ls h{t' h". Oy;n rh' ]p`=y?`r} Gl".2 k' s"Ls m'. 30 s' 40 p@]txt g@{q h[rm{n=j> bnt' h".- a[r A'2Ä}nl Gl".2 k' ]ly' 20 p@]txt ACTH bn;t; h" a[r b;k} sw} a[rgNj> k' ]ly' y;]n q;yr[e2 Gl".2- d?o bn;n' k} g@.]qy{. tq; s"Ks/al f.KxNs k' ]ly' k'vl 3 s' 5 p@]txt h[rm{Ns bn;t; h" : l']kn y' h[rm{Ns bh/t h} p;vrf/l y;]n x]Ëx;l} h". ]k etn} km m;µ; h} py;EPt h{t} h" : a[`{n{]mk nrvs ]sS`m tq; A'2Ä}nl m"2?l;

]js ]sS`m s' xr}r A'B2{mn k' a.dr k' sb a[rgNj> s' k;m krv;t; h"- y; j{ sb a[rgNj> k{ d'Yt; h"- us ]sS`m k{ a[`{n{]mk nrvs ]sS`m (autonomic nervous system) kht' h". : yh ]sS`m h} ]nMn sb c}j{. k{ d'Yt; h" _ • a;r`r}j k' p@'xr k} d'Yr'Y • g"S`Ä{_eN`'S`;enl m{]`]l`} (motility) y;]n p'` a[r a;t]2>y{. k} g]t y; cln k{- tq; us m'. Ky;_Ky; k"m}kLs bnt' h". • y?]rnr} Bl"2r y;]n p'x;b k} q"l} k{ kb Y;l} krn; y;]n p'x;b k{ kb l;n; • ps}n; l;n; • xr}r k' t;pm;n k; Oy;n rYn; s.6'p m'. kh; j;y t{ xr}r k' hr g@.q} k' hr f.Kxn k} ]ngr;n} rYn; a[`{n{]mk nrvs ]sS`m (autonomic nervous system) k; sb s' b2>; k;m h" ]k a[rgNj> (organs) k{ x}i@ y; 1}k p@k;r s' k;m kr;n; : ]jsk' k/9 ud;hr~ n}c' h". _ • h;È r'` y;]n ºdy k} g]t k{ p;.c s"k.2 m'. n[rml s' d{ g/~; a]ok k;m kr;n; • ds s' pNd@h s'k.2=j> m'. a;r`r}j> k; p@'xr d{ g/~; b3> j;y'g; • a;r`r}j> k' p@'xr k{ t}n s' p;.c s"k.2 m'. etn; km kr; d'n; ]k mn/Zy b'h{x h{ skt; h" • k/9 h} s'k.2=j> m'. ps}n; k; a;n; • p'x;b k; apn' a;p k/9 h} s'k.2=j> m'. ]nkl j;n; etn; h} nh}.- l;eE ]2`'K`r (lie detector) n;mk mx}n s' mn k' f}]l.Gj> (feelings) k; mn/Zy pr p@w;v k{ w} n;p; j; skt; h" : a[`{n{]mk nrvs ]sS`m k; s.c;ln es a[`{n{]mk nrvs ]sS`m k' s'N`jE> (centers) Sp;enl k[2E- b@'n S`'m- a[r h;yp{q"lms m'. ]Sqt h". : en sb k{ krn' k' ]ly' s'r'b@l k[r`'Ks (cerebral cortex) k; Ak ]l]Mbk k[r`'Ks (limbic cortex) h"- j{ yh krn' k' eMpLss (impulses) k{ n}c' k' s"N`r{. k{ bt;t; h" a[r k;yE krn' k{ uks;t; h" : Oy;n rh' ]k es a[`{n{]mk nrvs ]sS`m k; h{n; visceral reflexes %;r; aKsr h{t; h" - mtlb A'B2{mn k} g@.]qy{. %;r; j{ ]rFl"k]ss h{t' h". j{ s".sr} nVEj> (sensory nerves) %;r; h;yp{q"lms k{ j;t' h". ]jn k' %;r; a;g' k; k;yE ]ky; j;t; h" : A'fr"N` nVEj> (afferent nerves) %;r; y; s".sr} nVEj> %;r; g@.]qy{. k' k;y{E. k{ h;yp{q"lms k{ bt;y; j;t; h" a[r eEfr"N` nVEj> (efferent nerves) y; m{`r nVEj> (motor nerves) %;r; un k;y{E. k{ ]ks p@k;r y; k"s' kr;n; h"- yh h{t; h" : eEf"r"N` nVEj> k; yh k;yE ]s.p|q']`k nvEs ]sS`m y; p"r;_]s.p|q']`k nvEs ]sS`m %;r; kr;y; j;t; h" : ]s.p|q']`k nvEs ]sS`m Oy;n rh' ]k ]s.p|q']`k nvEs ]sS`m k} nVEj> dr asl T1 s' L2 k' b}c m'. s' ]nklt} h". y; bnt} h". j{ ]s.p|q']`k c'n=j> (sympathetic chains) s' h{t} h/y} ]`x?j> y; a[rgNj> y; g@.]qy{. k{ j;t} h". a[r uNh'. k;yE krn' k' ]ly' uks;t} h". : a[r y' c'n=j> (chains) Sp;enl k[2E (spinal cord) k' d{n{. trf h{t} h". j{ g".gl}y; (ganglia) m'. rht} h". : Sk'l}`l nVEj> m'. ]s.pq"]`k nvE f;eEbj>E Oy;n rh' ]k Sk"]l`l nVEj> (skeletal nerves) m'. f;eEbj>E (fibres) rht' h". a[r en m'. a;1 p@]txt ]s.p|q']`k f;eEbjE> (sympathetic nerves) h".- s{ yh sm4n' k} b;t h" a[r y' bt;t' h". ]k y' f;eEbj>E ]ktn' j#r} a[r en k; ]ktn; mhTv h" : phl' bt;y; h" ]k ]s.p|q']`k nVEj> Sp;enl vr`"b@{. (spinal vertebra) k' d{n{. trf s' ]nklt} h".- ]jnm'. ]s.p|q']`k f;eEbj>E (sympathetic fibres) h". : T1 s' ]nkl} Ak nvE ]sr k{ j;t} h" : T2 s' nvE gdEn y; n"k m'. j;t} h" : T3, T4, T5 a[r T6 s' nVEj> q{r"Ks (thorax) y; 9;t} m'. j;t} h". : T7, T8, T9, T10 a[r T11 s' nVEj> A'B2{mn (abdomen) m'. j;t} h". : T12, L1 a[r L2 `;.g{. m'. j;t} h". : Oy;n rh' ]k A's; h} h" 1}k p@k;r s' nh}. kh; j; skt;- pr h;. etn; avXy h" ]k y' nVEj> a;ps m'. a{vrl|p (overlap) y;]n Ak d?sr' k' uUpr a]ok h{t} h". : k[n s} g@.q} k{ k[n s} ]s.p|q']`k nvE j;y'g}- yh us b;t pr ]nwEr krt; h" ]k vh g@.q} y; a[rgn m;. k' p'` m'. jb bnn; x/# h{t; h"- t{ vh g@.q} us smy k[n_s} jgh ]Sqr q} : j"s; ]k h;È k{ bh/t s} nVEj> n"k y;]n gdEn s' j;t} h". Ky{.]k h;È f}`s S`'j (fetus stage y;]n w@?~ k} avSq; m'.) n"k k' p;s rht; h" : : es} trh s' A'B2{mn f}`s S`'j m'. l{ar q{r;]sk

A]ry; (lower thoracic area y;]n T7 to T12) es jgh m'. h{t; h"- es} ]ly' A'B2{mn k{ nVEj> T7 s' T12 s' ]nkl} h/y} j;t} h". mtlb l{ar q{r;]sk A]ry; lower thoracic area s' j;t} h". : A'2Ä}nl m"2?l; k' ]s.pq"]`k nvE k} Y;]syt p@}g".]Gly{]nk ]s.pq"]`k nvE f;eEbj>E bg"r s;eEn"]Ps.g (synapsing) ]ky' h/y' eN`rm}]2y{ l"`rl h[nE s"Ls intermediolateral horn cells s' Sp;enl k[2E m'. j{ ]s.pq"]`k c'Nj> (sympathetic chains) h". unk' sh;r' s' aNt m'. A'2Ä}nl m"2?l; m'. cl} j;t} h" a[r us' uks;t} h". : jh;. pr s}o; h} m{2}f;eE2 Ny?r[nl s"Ls (modified neuronal cells) s' n[r _Ap}n'fr}n a[r A'p}n"f>r}n bnn; x/# h{ j;t; h" : dr asl f}`s S`'j m'. yh s"Ls nrvs ]`x?j> (nervous tissue) s' h} ]nkl' h/y' h".- y; bn' h/y' h". j{ post ganglionic neurons h} h". j{ en d{n{. k{ bn;t' h". a[r yh nvE f;eEbj>E h". : p"r;_]s.p|q']`k nvEs ]sS`m Oy;n rh' ]k s'.`Äl nvEs ]sS`'m s' p"r;_]s.p|q']`k nvE f;eEbj>E ´']nyl nvE n.br t}n. s;t n[ a[r ds %;r; j;t} h". tq; s'´l nvE n.br d{ a[r t}n w} p"r;_]s.p|q']`k nvEs ]sS`m m'. s]Mm]lt h". : Oy;n rh' 75 p@]txt p"r;_]s.p|q']`k nvE f;eEbj>E Y;l} v'gs n.br ds h} m'. h".- j{ sb_q{r;]sk sub thoracic a[r A'B2{mn m'. s' j;t' h". : Oy;n rh' ]k v'gs nVEj> d{ h". _ Ak gdEn k} d;y}. trf s' j;t} h". a[r d?sr} gdEn k} b;y}. trf s' xr}r m'. j;t} h". : v'gs nvE s' j{ p"r;_]s.p|q']`k nvEs a;g' ]lY' g@.]qy{. m'. j;t} h".- j"s' ]k h;`E- l.Gj>- eEs{f'gs- p'`- 9{`} a;.t2>}- b2>} a;.t2>} k; tkr}bn a;o; w;g ]lvr g[l- Bl"2r- p".]´y;s a[r y?r'`r k; uUpr k; w;g : Oy;n rh' t}sr} ´']nyl nvE m'. j{ p"r;_]s.p|q']`k nvEs ]sS`m k' f;eEbj>E h".- v' a;\Y{. k} p/t]ly{. k' ]Sf.K`r sphincter v;Lv m'. j;t} h". ]jnk{ d'n' s' a;\Y{. k' r{g} k{ bh/t a;r;m ]mlt; h" : ´']nyl nvE n.br s;t l"´}ml h{Lj> (lacrimal holes) k{ j;t} h" ]jns' a;\Y{. m'. a]ok p;n} j{ a;t; h"- vh a]ok p;n} en h{Lj> %;r; n;]sk; k} p;eEp %;r; gl' m'. cl; j;y'g; tq; n;k sb_m"2}b?lr Gl".2 k{ w} s;t n.br k} nvE uks;y'g} a[r ´']nyl nvE n.br n[ p"r{]`2 Gl".2=s k{ uks;y'g} ]jss' m/\h m'. p;n} a;y'g; : s'´l p"r;_]s.p|q']`k f;eEbj>E j{ Sp;enl k[2E k' d{n{. trf h". _ v' ]2s'.]2.g k{ln- r'K`my?]rnr} Bl"2r a[r n}c' k' y?r'`sE k{ uks;t} h". : Oy;n rh' yh sb s'´l nVEj> k' k;r~ s"Ks/al ] S`m/l'xNs (sexual stimulations) j{ b;hr} h". uks;t} h". : Oy;n rh' p"r;_]s.p|q']`k nvEs ]sS`m m'. p@} g".]Gly{]nk mtlb v' Ny?r[Ns j{ a[rgn k' b;hr rht' h".- a[r p{S` g".]Gly{]nk (post ganglionic) mtlb j{ a[rgn y; g@.q} k' aNdr rht' h". d{n{. k' k;yE krn' k' ]ly' j{ unk; k;yE h" krn' k{ uks;t' h". : Oy;n rh' ]k p{S` g".]Gly{]nk Ny?r[Ns a[rgn k' aNdr k} d}v;r k' s;q rht' h". : y' Ny?r[Ns k' f;eEbj>E Ak ]mLl} m}`r s' k/9 s"N`}m}`r tk lMb' h{t' h". us a[rgn k' sBS`;Ns k' s;q ]ml j;t' h". : Oy;n rh' ]k ]s.pq"]`k a[r p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> m'. fkE h" _ vh yh ]k p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> k; t;Ll/k s}o; sBS`;Ns k' s;q h" :

]s.pq"]`k tq; p"r;_]s.pq"]`k k;y{E. k' m/Åy g/~ _ k{]ln]jEk tq; A']2Än]jEk f;eEbj>E ]s.pq"]`k a[r p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nvE f;eEbj>E en d{ s;en"P`}k `Ä;NSm}`r sBS`;Ns (synaptic transmitter substances) A']s`;el k{l;en y; n[r_Ap}n'fr}n en d{n{. m'. s' k{eE Ak avXy bn;t' h". : v' nvE f;eEbj>E j{ A']s`;el k{l;en bn;t' h". uNh'. k{]ln]jEk f;eEbj>E kht' h". : v' nvE f;eEbj>E j{ n[r_Ap}n'fr}n k{ bn;t' h". uNh'. A'2Ä}n]jEk f;eEbj>E (adrenergic fibres) kht' h". : A'2Ä}n]jEk _ yh n;m A'2Ä}nl}n s' a;t; h" j{ A'p}n"f>r}n k; d?sr; n;m h" : Oy;n rh' ]k sb p@}-g".]Gly{]nk Ny?r[Ns _ c;h' v' ]s.p|q']`k nvEs ]sS`m m'. h{c;h' v' p"r;_]s.p|q']`k nvEs ]sS`m m'. h{ _ k{]ln]jEk h{t' h". : es]ly'- c;h' vh A']s`;el k{l;en h{ y; A']s`;el k{l;en k} trh k; k{eE d?sr} sBS`;Ns h{- jb w} ]ks} g".gl}y; s' ]ml'g; t{ vh ] s.pq"]`k y; p"r;_]s.pq"]`k p{S` g".Gl}y{]nk Ny?r[Ns k{ k;yE krn' k' ]ly' uks; d'.g' : es]ly' yh Oy;n d'n; j#r} h" ]k A']s`;el k{l;en ]s.pq"]`k y; p"r;_]s.pq"]`k k' d{n{. Ny?r[Ns (p@} g".]Gly{]nk y; p{S` g".]Gly{]nk) k{ uks; d't; h" : bh/t sm4n' k} b;t h" k} sw} p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nvE A'N2}.Gj> A']s`;el k{l;en k{ bn;t} h". y; ]s´}` (secrete) krt} h". a[r sw} ]s.pq"]`k nvE A'N2}.Gj> n[r_Ap}n'fr}n k{ bn;t} h". y; ]s´}` krt}| h". : yh ]jn ]jn g@.]qy{. k' ]ly' bn;y' gy' h". un g@.]qy{. k{ en k' ]mln' pr apn; apn; k;yE a;r.w kr d't' h".- es]ly' eNh'. ]s.pq"]`k a[r p"r;_]s.pq"]`k `Ä;NSm}`r kht' h".: Acetyl CoA + Choline  acetylcholine yh nvE A'N2}.Gj> k/9 ]´y; h{n' s' Acetyl CoA bn j;t; h" a[r us m'. k{l;en s' A']s`;el k{l;en bn j;t; h" : Oy;n rh' A'2Ä}n]jEk f;eEbj>E j{ nvE A'N2}.Gj> pr h". v' n[r_Ap}n'fr}n bn;t' h". : 1. `;er{]sn A'm}n{ A']s2  h;e2Ä{]Ksl'xn (hydroxylation)  2{p; 2. 2{p;  2}_k;rb[]Ksl'xn (de-carboxylation)  2{p|m}n 3. ]fr 2{p|m}n v"s}kLj> m'. cl; j;t; h" 4. jh;. pr 2{p|m}n k{ h;e2Ä{]Ksl'xn ]ky; j;t; h" ]jss' n[r_Ap}n'fr}n bnt} h" : yh;. tk bnn' k' b;d n[r_Ap}n'fr}n A'2Ä}nl Gl".2 m'. cl; j;t; h"- jh;. pr 80 p@]txt n[r_Ap}n'fr}n k{ m'q}l'xn (methylation) ]ky; j;t; h" a[r vh A'p}n"f>r}n m'. bdl j;t} h" : Y;n; Y;n' k' b;d p'` k} A']s2 s' Y;n' k} Ym}r bn'g; a[r us m'. x/gr 2;ln' s' xr;b bn'g}: m']ql ALk{h{l (methyl alcohol) k; mtlb h" Ak p@k;r k} xr;b j{ lk2>} s' bnt} h" : es} p@k;r s' yh ]´y; n[r_Ap}n'fr}n k} A'2Ä}nl Gl".2 m'. k} j;t} h" ]js s' A'p}n"f>r}n bn'g}: 5. n[r_Ap}n'fr}n  m'q}l'xn  A'p}n"f>r}n jr; Oy;n s' p2>n; _ `;er{]sn Ak A'm}n{ A']s2 h" j{ A'B2{mn m'. bnt} h" ]jsk; h;e2Ä{]Ksl'xn krn' k' b;d 2{p; bnt} h" a[r 2{p; k; b']sk k"m}kl `;er{]sn A'm}n{ A']s2 h" _ vh `;er{]sn j{ A'B2{mn m'. bn} h{ n ]k a;r`}f}]xyl (artificially) bn} h{ dv;eE %;r; A'l{p"q} m'. 2{p; p;|r]kNsn b}m;r} k' ]ly' ]dy; j;t; h" ]jsk; b']sk k"m}kl a;r`}f}]xyl (artificial) h" : t{ us 2{p; k; xr}r m'. 2}_k;rb[]Ksl'xn kr kr 2{p|m}n m'. bdl d't; h" a[r vh 2{p|m}n b@'n m'. cl; j;t; h" : ab jb ]k yh 2{p|m}n xr}r n' bn;y; h" t{ b@'n m'. cl; j;t; h" ]jsk; b']sk k"m}kl a;r`}f}]xyl h" s{ es k; b@'n k{ p?~E l;w nh}. h{g; : agr yh A'l{p|q} 2{p|m}n bn; kr d't' t{ vh b@'n m'. nh}. j; skt;- Ky{.]k b@'n m'. Bl2 b@'n b"r}yr h" : Oy;n rh' ]k n[r_Ap}n'fr}n a[r A'p}n"f>r}n rË m'. j;n' k' b;d ds s' t}s s"k.2 tk bh/t A'K`}v (active) rht' h". a[r ]`x?j> m'. cl' j;t' h". : b;k} k} j{ rh j;y' ]lvr m'. j;n' pr us' Ak ] mn` s' k/9 ]mn`{. m'. sm;Pt kr ]dy; j;t; h" : ef"K`r a[rgNj> k' ]rs"P`rj> A']s`;el k{l;en, n[r_Ap}n'fr}n a[r A'p}n"f>r}n ]ks} a[rgn k{ uks;n' s' phl' Y;s ]rs"P`rj> ]jn k; p@w;v a[rgNj> k{ uks;n' k' ]ly' h{t; h" un k' s;q ]cpk j;t' h". y; b;eE.2 (bind) h{ j;t' h". : y' ]rs"P`rj> aKsr s"Ll k} m'Mb@'n k' b;hr h{t' h".- jh;. s' s"Ll k} m'Mb@'n s' a.dr i/s j;t' h". y; penetrate kr j;t' h". : jb ]rs"P`rj> k' s;q ]mlt' h". y; ]cpk j;t' h". us} smy s"Ll k' ^{`}n S`ÄKcr (cell structure) m'. c".j (change) a; j;t} h" : es trh S`ÄKcr m'. bdl;v a;n' pr vh s"Ll k[ k;yE krn' k' ]ly' uks;y'g; y; k;yE krn' k' ]ly' r{k'g; : 1. yh bdl;v a; j;n' s' s"Ll k} m'Mb@'n (membrane) s' Ak y; Ak s' a]ok ay;|n a.dr a; j;t' h". : 2. ]rs"P`rj> k' d?sr' ]sr' pr j{ ANj;>em h". uns' k;yE kr;n; h" y; k;yE r{kn; h" : yh h;l;t s;r' s"Ll m'. h{ j;y'g} y; vh ANj;>em s;r' s"Ll m'. wr j;y'g; :

ef"K`r s"Ll k{ uks;n' y; r{kn' k; tr}k; Ky{.]k ]rs"P`r ^{`}n (receptor protein) s"Ll m'Mb@'n k; Ak h} w;g h"- s{ en ^{`}n=s k{ bdln' k' ]ly' y; bn;n' k' ]ly' es m'. ay;|n c"nLj> (ion channels) h". j{ ]k a.dr k[n_s} vSt/ y; ^{`}n bn;n' k' ]ly' j{ ay;|n c;]hy' y; nh}. c;]hy' t{ y' c"nLj> Y/lt' h". y; bNd h{t' rht' h". _ mtlb ]js ay;|n k} a.dr a;vXykt; h" t{ en c"nLj> %;r; a.dr cl' j;y'.g' a[r agr ] ks} ay;|n k} a;vXykt; nh}. h" t{ us' aNdr nh}. j;n' ]dy; j;yg; Av. s"Ll k' a.dr j{ y; ]js ay;|n k} a;vXykt; nh}. h" us' en c"nLj> %;r; b;hr ]nk;l ]dy; j;t; h" : j"s; ]k s{]2ym y; k"]Lxym ay;|n=j> k' c"nLj> h". ]jn k' %;r; en k} a;vk_j;vk h{t} h" t;]k s"Ll 1}k p@k;r s' k;yE kr sk' : es} trh s' p{`"]xym k' c"nLj> channels k;yE krt' h". : kw}_kw} ]ks} Sm?q mSsl (smooth muscle) k{ ]sk{2>n' k' ]ly' k"]Lxym s"Ll k' a.dr j;kr us' es mSsl k{ uks;t; h" : s"Ll k' aNdr k' ANj;>em=s k{ bdl kr ]rs"P`r k' k;yE m'. bdl;v Ak d?sr} trh s' w} ]rs"P`r s"Ll ANj;>em k{ bn;n; h" y; r{kn; h" s"Ll k' a.dr k;yE krt; h" y; j{ ]rs"P`r s"Ll k' b;hr h" vh s"Ll k' aNdr k' ]ks} ANj;>em k{ bn;n; h" y; r{kn; h" d?sr}| p@k;r s' w} k;yE krt; h" : j"s; ]k n[r_Ap}n'fr}n s"Ll k' b;hr k' ]rs"P`r k' s;q jb ]ml j;t; h" A's; bh/t s' s"Ls k' s;q h{t; h" ]k us} smy s"Ll k' aNdr k' A]2n;el s;eEKl'j (adenyl cyclase) n;m k' s"Ll k' aNdr k' ANj;>em k{ uks;t; h" ]js s' y; es k;r~ s' y; A's; h{n' s' s"Ll k' aNdr cAMP y;]n cyclic adenosine monophosphate bn j;t; h" : ]fr cAMP bnn' pr vh s"Ll k' aNdr ]ktn' w} A'KxNj> (axons) Ky{. n h{ ]ks} Ak A'Kxn k{ b3>;v; d't; h" y; ] ks} Ak A'Kxn k{ b3>;v; d't; h" y; ]ks} Ak A'Kxn k{ uks;t; h" a[r yh us ef"K`r s"Ll k' aNdr k} k"m}kl bn;n' k} mx}nr} pr ]nwEr h" : Oy;n rh' aw} a;s;n} s' sm4 a; gy; h" ]k a[`{n{]mk `Ä;NSm}`r sBS`;Nss (substances) s"Ll k' a.dr ]ks} k;yE k{ krn' y; n krn' k{ uks;t; h" : a[r vh ]ks p@k;r s' k;m krt; h" _ s{ yh sb s"Ll m'Mb@'n k' uUpr ]rs"P`r ^{`}n pr ]nwEr h" es]ly' hr a[rgn k' k;yE k' fl y; nt}j' y; ]rj>L` alg_alg h{.g' : A']s`;el k{l;en k' ]rs"P`rj> _ m/Sk;]r]nk tq; ]nk{]`]nk ]rs"P`rj> p. 312 A']s`;el k{l;en d{ alg trh k' ]rs"P`rj> k{ uks;t} h" _ ]jnk; n;m Muscarinic and nicotinic receptors h" : ]fr Muscarine and nicotine Ak bh/t sÅt jhr h" j{ xr}r m'. bn j;t} h" y; a highly toxic organic cmpd j{ Ak p@k;r k' mushroom m'. p;y} j;t} h" : ]nk{]`n Ak jhr}l} vSt/ h" j{ tMb;k? k' p¶{. m'. p;y} j;t} h" : yh n;m bt;n' k; mtlb h" ]k bt;y; j; sk' ]k xr}r m'. bh/t jhr bn j;n' s' y; a.dr ]ks} trh Y;n' eTy;]d s' agr jhr cl} gy} t{ mSkr"n muscarine n;m k} jhr Y;l} muscarinic n;m k} ]rs"P`rj> k{ uks;y'g} n ]k nicotinic n;mk ]rs"P`rj> k{ : es} p@k;r s' nicotine n;m k} jhr Y;l} nicotinic n;m k} ]rs"P`rj> k{ uks;y'g} n ]k muscarinic n;mk ]rs"P`rj> k{ : prNt/ A']s`;el k{l;en (acetylcholine) en d{n{. ]rs"P`rj> k{ uks;t} h" y; A'K`}v'` (activate) krt} h" : p"r;_]s.p|q']`k nvEs ]sS`m k' p{S` g".]Gly{]nk Ny?r[Ns ]jn effector s"Ls k{ uks;t' h". y; ]S`m/l'` krt' h".- un sb pr Muscarinic ]rs"P`rj> p;y' j;t' h". a[r es trh s' un s"Ls pr w} p;y' j;t' h".- ]jnk{ p{S` g".]Gly{]nk Ny?r[Ns j{ ]s.pq"]`k ]sS`m k' h".- uks;t' h". : vh s;en|Pss j{ p@} g".]Gly{]nk a[r p{S` g".]Gly{]nk Ny?r[Ns k' mOy m'. h". y; en d{n{. k' b}c k' s;en|Ps's c;h' vh ]s.pq"]`k ]sS`m h{ y; p"r;_]s.p|q']`k nvEs ]sS`m k' h{. : un d{n{. m'. ]nk{]`]nk ]rs"P`rj> p;y' j;t' h". a[r ]nk{]`]nk ]rs"P`rj> Sk'l}`l mSsLj> f;eEbj>E k' Ny?r{ mSk/lr j.Kxn m'. w} p;y' j;t' h". y; m'Mb@'n m'. p;y' j;t' h". : uUpr alg_alg es]ly' bt;y; gy; h" Ky{.]k d{n{. k{ uks;n' y; r{kn' k} dv;ey'. alg_alg h". : A'2Ä}n]jEk ]rs"P`rj> _ A'Lf; tq; b}`; ]rs"P`rj> a;j tk k' experiments s' p;y; gy; h" ]k n[r_Ap}n'fr}n j{ ]s.pq"]`k ef"K`r a[rgNj> (effector organs) pr k;m krt' h".- un m'. d{ m'jr y; m/Åy p@k;r k' A']2Än']jEk ]rs"P`rj> (adrenergic receptors) h". j{ ]k A'Lf; α ]rs"P`rj> a[r β b}`; ]rs"P`rj> h". : b}`; ] rs"P`rj> m'. w} d{ trh k' ]rs"P`rj> h". ]jn m'. Ak k; n;m h" β1 (b}`; Ak) h" a[r d?sr' k; n;m β2 b}`; d{ h" : k/9 dv;ey;. j{ b}`; ]rs"P`rj> pr asr 2;lt} h"=.- v' sw} b}`; ]rs"P`rj> pr asr nh}. 2;lt} h". : es} p@k;r s' α1 A'Lf; n.br 1 a[r α2 A'Lf; n.br d{ h{t' h". : c;h' n[r_Ap}n'fr}n a[r A'p}n"f>r}n A'2Ä}nl m"2?l; (adrenal medulla) h} bn;t' h". pr unk; asr A'Lf; a[r b}`; ]rs"P`rj> alg_alg h" : Oy;n rh' n[r_Ap}n'fr}n Y;l} A'Lf; ]rs"P`rj> k{ uks;t' h". a[r unk; asr b}`; ]rs"P`rj> pr bh/t h} km h"- jb ]k A'p}n"f>r}n k; asr d{n{. pr tkr}bn Ak s; h} h" : es]ly' yh ]n]Xct krn; c;]hy' y; d'Yn; c;]hy' ]k a[rgNj> k' ]rs"P`rj> ]ks

p@k;r k' h". : s{ agr un pr b}`; ]rs"P`rj> h". t{ A'p}n"f>r}n un k' ]ly' bh/t l;wkr h{g; : es]ly' n}c' ]dy; gy; h" ]k un pr ]ks p@k;r k' A'Lf; y; b}`; ]rs"P`rj> h".- t;]k unk{ ]s.pq"]`k nVEj> %;r; v"s; h} uks;y; j;y : Oy;n rYn' v;l} b;t h" ]k k/9 A'Lf; ]rs"P`rj> k' f.KxNs excitory h". a[r k/9 inhibitory h". mtlb k/9 uks;t' h". a[r k/9 r{kt' h". : en d{n{. m'. fkE n}c' ]dy; gy; h" : A'Lf; a[r b}`; ]rs"P`rj> m'. aNtr A'Lf; ]rs"P`rj> b}`; ]rs"P`rj> rË v;]h]ny{. k{ ]sk{2>'.g'- Y;s t[r pr a;r`r}j> rË v;]h]ny{. k{ Y{l'.g' β2 a[r a;r`}]ry{Lj> k{ Iris a;\Y k} p/tl} k{ Y{l'.g' h;`E b}` (heart beat) y;]n ºdy k} o2>kn k{ b3>;y'.g' β1 eN`'S`;eEnl mSsLj> k{ ]rl|Ks kr'.g' h;`E k' mSsLj> k{ t;kt d'.g' y; increases myo cardial strength β1 eN`'S`;eEnl ]Sf.K`r k{ ]sk{2'.g' y; eN`'S`;eEnl ]rl|Ks'xn β2 k[]NS`ÄK` kr'.g' Bl"2r ]Sf.K`r k{ ]sk{2'.g' y; k[]NS`ÄK` kr'.g' y?`'rs ]rl|Ks'xn β2 b@[Nk{ 2;el'xn β2 k"l{r}j'n']ss k"l{r}j> y; heat k{ b3>;v; d'n; β2 Gl;ek{j"n k{ b3>;v; d'n; mtlb Gl?k{j> s' Gl;ek{j"n k{ bn;n' m'. sh;yt; krn; β2 l;ep{l;e]ss lipolysis mtlb decomposition of fats Bl"2r k} d}v;r k{ ]rl|Ks krn; β2

xr}r k' ]v]w¸ a.g{. pr ]s.pq"]`k a[r p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> k; p@w;v Organ

a;\Y k} p/tl}

SNS k{ uks;n' k; u]ct LMNT treatment Y{ln; y; b2>; krn; (6) Lt. Swt dilated α ] β2 rs"P`rj> ]s.pq"]`k nVEj> SNS uks;n' pr a.g pr Ky; asr h"

p"r;]s.pq"]`k PSNS nVEj> uks;n' pr a.g pr Ky; asr h"

PSNS k{ uks;n' k; u]ct LMNT treatment

]sk{2>n; (k[NS`Ä}K`'2) constricted

(4) Medulla (4) Medulla – a;\Y k' b;|l (ball) k; b;hr rhn; _ 2bl y;]n d{_d{ ]dYn; (7) Medulla s' l"´}ml 2K` k{ Y{l'.g' (7) Medulla f']xyl p"r;l;e]ss k' k;r~ m/\h s' s}`} k; n bjn;

a;\Y k; 2bl ]dYn;

a;\Y{. m'. p;n} k; a]ok a;n; p"r;l;e]ss k' k;r~ a;\Y k; Y/l; rhn; y; bNd n h{n;a;\Y k' l'Ns k; s}]lyr} mSsl Gl".2=s pr asr rË v;]h]ny;. n;k p"r{]`2 g@.]qy;\sb_m"N2}b?lr a[r sl;ev; k' Gl".2=s p'` k} g"S`Ä}k g@.]qy;\- tq; p".] ´y;s ps}n' k} g@.]qy;\bgl{. k' ps}n' k} g@.]qy;\ (apocrine glands)

q{2>;_s; Y{ln; y; 1}k s' d'Y p;n;

(6) Lt. Swt β2

rË k} n;]2y{. k; ] sk/2>n; p;n} k; km bhn; v"s{ k[NS`Ä}kxn k' k;r~ sl;ev; k; km a;n; ¹;v{. k; km h{n;

(6) Rt. Swt

(6) Swt

ANj;>em wr' ¹;v{. k; b3> j;n;

¹;v k' ]nk;s a]ok h{n; (k{]ln]jEk) g;3>;- b;s v;l; ps}n;

(6) Swt

h;q_p;.v k' tlv{. m'. ps}n; K{eE asr nh}.

(6) Swt (6) Swt

(6) Swt

]sk{2>n; Near vision

a]ok ¹;v k; a;n; (10) Medulla

Organ

aNy a.g{. pr asr ]s.pq"]`k nVEj> SNS SNS uks;n' pr k{ uks;n' a.g pr Ky; asr k; u]ct h" LMNT treatment

h;`E mSsl Av. ºdy b3>;n; k} r'` (rate) y;]n g]t h;`E mSsl k} ] b3>;n; sk{2>n' k} t;kt β k' p@w;v s' 2;eEl'`2 (dilated) y; b3>' h{t' h". α k' p@w;v s' k[NS`Ä}K` h{t' h". 2;eEl'`2 (dilated) y; f"l j;t' h". q{2; ]sk/2>n;

(6) Lt. Swt β2

Gut y;]n a;.t2>}

p']rS`;]Lss y;]n a;.t2>} k' a.dr k} v'v y; g]t km h{n;

(6) Rt. Swt

a;.t2>} k' ]Sf.K`r

`;eE` tight rhn; y; `{n k{ b3>;n; y; Y{ln; Gl?k{j> b3>;n; ]rl|Ks krn;

(6) Swt

ºdy k} k{r{nr} a;r`r}j>

ºdy k} k{r{nr} a;r`r}j> l.Gj> k} b@[.k;e l.Gj> k} rË n]lk;y'.

]lvr g[l Bl"2r tq; b;el 2K`= ]k2n} p'x;b k; Bl"2r k} b;hr} ]4Ll} detrusor p'x;b k' Bl"2r k' n}c' k; w;g `Ä;eg{n trigone p}]ns penis y;]n eNd@}y

p'x;b km- r"]nn Jy;d; bnn; ]rl|Ks krn; _ t;]k p'x;b n ]nkl'

p"r;]s.pq"]`k PSNS nVEj> uks;n' pr a.g pr Ky; asr h"

PSNS k{ uks;n' k; u]ct LMNT treatment

km krn;

(10) Right Medulla ??

km krn; Y;s kr atria k' mSsLj> k{ 2;eEl'`2(dilated ) y; Y{ln;

(10) Right Medulla ??

(6) Rt. Swt α (6) Lt. Swt β2 (6) Rt. Swt

(4) Swt ??

(6) Lt. Swt

]sk{2>n; _ t;]k p'x;b n ]nkl'

(6) Rt. Swt

v}yE k; b;hr ] nkln;

(6) Swt

k[NS`Ä}Kxn y;]n ]sk/2> j;t' h". < 2;eEl'`2 kh nh}. skt' a;.t2>} k' a.dr k} v'v k{ b3>;n; y;]n l"`Ä}n 1}k s' a;n; ]rl|Ks krn;

(10) Medulla

Gl;ek{j"n bn;n; s.k/]ct h{n; k{eE p@w;v nh}. s.k/]ct krn; t;]k p'x;b a;s;n} s' ] nkl' ]rl|Ks rhn; er'Kxn erection y;]n eNd@}y k{ sÅt bn;n; y; 1}k p@k;r s' Y2>; krn;

Triangle for piles (2) S4, S5 (2) S4, S5

Organ

A'B2{mn k} g@.]qy{. k} arterioles y;]n rË n]lk;y'. mSsLj>

aNy a.g{. pr asr ]s.pq"]`k nVEj> SNS SNS uks;n' pr a.g k{ uks;n' pr Ky; asr h" k; u]ct LMNT treatment ]sk/2>n;

k{eE asr nh}.

]sk/2>n; A'2Ä}n]jEk (6) Right α Swt

k{eE asr nh}.

2;eEl'`2 y; Y{ln;/b2>; krn; A'2Ä}n]jEk β2 2;eEl'`2 k{]lnr]jk

(6) Lt. Swt

]Skn y; cm2>}

]sk/2>n;

(6) Right Swt

rË k; jmn; coagulation rË m'. Gl?k{j> rË m'. f"`=s b'sl m'`;b[]lj>m * A'2Ä}nl m"2?l; k' h[rm{Ns k' ] nk;s s{cn' k} dx; xr}r k' r{y'. y; b;l{. k' n}c' k' mSsLj> pr asr Sk'l}`l mSsLj> y;]n h;q_p;.v k' mSsLj>

jmn' k{ b3>;y'g; y; mdd kr'g; b3>;y'g; b3>;y'g; 100 p@]txt tk b3>;n; b3>;y'g;

f"` s"Ls

p"r;]s.pq"]`k PSNS nVEj> uks;n' pr a.g pr Ky; asr h"

b3>;y'g; ]sk/2>n; ]jsk' k;r~ r{.g`' Y2>' h{t' h". mSsl f;eEbj>E k{ x]Ë b3>;n' k' ]ly' Gl;ek{j"n s' Gl?k{j> bn;n' k{ uks;n; l;ep{l;e]ss y;]n f"`=s k{ t{2n;

PSNS k{ uks;n' k; u]ct LMNT treatment

(15) Medulla ?? k{eE asr nh}. k{eE asr nh}. (4) Swt ??

k{eE asr nh}. k{eE asr nh}. k{eE asr nh}. k{eE asr nh}.

(6) Rt. Swt

k{eE asr nh}. k{eE asr nh}.

(6) Swt

k{eE asr nh}.

(6) Swt

k{eE asr nh}.

* b'sl m'`;b[]lj>m y;]n mn/Zy jb a;r;m kr rh; h{ y; l'`; h{ t{ usk; Y;n; pc;n' k; ]sS`m _ ]f]j>kl ]sS`m _ A'm{xnl ]sS`m eTy;]d k{ bn;y' rYn; :

]s.pq"]`k tq; p"r;_]s.pq"]`k ]S`m/l'xn k' k;yE m'. ]w¸t; aw} uUpr bt;y; gy; h" ]k ]ks p@k;r ]s.pq"]`k y; p"r; ]s.pq"]`k nVEj> k{ uks;n' k' b;d unk; asr xr}r k' alg_alg w;g{. pr y; g@.]qy{. pr p2>t; h" : a[r ]ks p@k;r s' ]s.pq"]`k nVEj> uks;y' j;n' pr k/9 a[rgNj> k{ k;m krn' k' ]ly' r{kt} h" : es} p@k;r s' p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> k/9 a[r a[rgNj> k{ uks;t} h". jb ]k d?sr' a[rgNj> k{ r{kt} h" y; inhibit krt} h" : jr; Oy;n d'n; ]k ]s.pq"]`k nVEj> ]ks} Y;s a[rgn k{ k;yE krn' k{ uks;t} h". jb ]k p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> us} a[rgn k{ k;m krn' s' r{kt} h". : j#r} b;t j{ sm4n' k} h" ]k d{n{. Ak d?sr' k' ]vpr}t k;yE krt} h". : sb a[rgNj> pr Ak y; d{ ]sS`m{. k; p?~E #p s' a]ok;r h" : ]v]w¸ a.g{. pr ]s.pq"]`k tq; p"r;_]s.pq"]`k ]S`m/l'xn k; asr a;\Y + a;\Y{. k' d{ A's' f.KxNs h". ]jn pr p?~E a]ok;r a[`{n{]mk nrvs ] sS`m pr h" : vh a;\Y k} p/tl} k{ Y{ln; a[r l"Ns k{ f{ks krn; ]s.pq"]`k ] S`m/l'xn meridional fibres j{ a;\Y k} p/tl} k' b;hr h".- un k{ contract krt} h" ]js s' a;\Y k} p/tl} Y/l j;t} h" y; b2>} h{ j;t} h" meridional fibers of the iris that dilate the pupil, jb ]k p"r;_]s.pq"]`k ]S`m/l'xn srk/lr mSsl j{ a;e]rs (iris) k; h"- us' vh k[NS`Ä}K` krt} h" ]js s' vh ]sk/2> j;t} h" y; 9{`} h{ j;t} h" : jb l;eE` y; r{xn} bh/t a]ok h{ a[r r"`}n; k{ a]ok l;eE` n/ks;n n ph/\c;y' t{ us smy ]rFl"Ksl} p"r;_]s.pq"]`k k; ]S`m/l'xn h{t; h" a[r p/tl} 9{`} h{ j;t} h" _ yh k;r~ h" ] k jbrdSt} s?yE k} trf d'Yn' s' jb mn/Zy a;\Y'. d?sr} trf f'r l't; h" t{ bh/t d'r tk s?yE h} ]dYt; rht; h" a[r d?sr} trf f'r l't; h" t{ bh/t d'r tk s?yE h} ]dYt; rht; h" a[r d?sr} vSt/ nh}. ]dYt} : es} trh s' at}v excitement h{n' s' ]s.pq"]`k nVEj> ]S`m/l'` h{ j;t} h". ]js s' a;\Y{. k} p/tl} Y/l} k} Y/l} rh j;t} h". : bh/t Oy;n s' p3>n; _ ]ks} MS r{g} k{ agr 2bl ]vj>n (double vision) y;]n hr c}j> d{_d{ ]dYt; h{ t{ t}n m'2?l; 1}k p@k;r a[r Oy;n s' ]dy; j;y' _ d{ b;r Ak ]mn` b;d _ t{ us' ] s.gl y;]n Ak h} ]dYn' lg'g; y;]n (3) Medulla x 2 treatments. t}n m'2?l; %;r; t}sr} n.br k} ´']nyl nvE uks;y} j;y'g} ]js s' yh k]rXm; h{t; h" : . Oy;n d'n; ]k l"Ns k; f[k]s.g (focussing of lens) kr;n; _ yh p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> k' a]ok;r m'. h" : l"Ns a;m t[r pr s}o' cp`' y;]n Fl"` (flattened) rht' h". _ yh a;\Y k' r']2yl ] lg;m'N`=s k' eN`Ä}]Nsk el;]S`k `"Nxn (intrinsic elastic tension of its radial ligaments) k' k;r~ h{t; h" : p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> k' AKs;eE` (excitation) h{n' pr v' a;\Y{. k' s}]lyr} mSsLj> (ciliary muscles) k{ k[NS`Ä}K` kr'.g' y; ]sk{2'.g' ]js s' vh `"Nxn sm;Pt h{ j;y'g} y; ]nkl j;y'g} ]jss' l"Ns m'. yh p]rvtEn a;y'g; ]k _

l"Ns k; Fl"` (flat) y;]n cp`; a;k;r

convex k[Nv"Ks a;k;r m'. bdl j;y'g;

a[r mn/Zy nj?d}k k} vSt/ k{ a;r;m s' d'Y sk'g; : mtlb jb d?r k} vSt/ d'Yn} h{t} h"- t{ y' l"Ns flat h{t' h". a[r jb p;s k} k{eE c}j k{ p3>n} h{ t{ v' l"Ns k[Nv"Ks a;k;r y;]n m{`; h{ j;t; h"- ]jss' a;r;m s' p3>; j; skt; h" : g@.]qy{. pr asr p"r;_]s.p|q']`k nvEs ]sS`m aKsr n;k- l"´}ml Gl".2=s- sl;every; y; l;3> k} g@.]qy{. a[r GIT y; A'l}m'N`r} `Ä"K` (alimentary tract y;]n a¸ n]lk;) k} bh/t s} g@.]qy{. k{ _ Y;s t[r s' m/\h a[r p'` k{ _ Jy;d; m;µ; m'. m;l y;]n apn} ¹;v bn;n' k{ uks;t' h". : pr 9{`} a[r b2>} a;.t2>} k; k.`Ä{l (control) unk' apn' l{kl f"K`sE (local factors) k' a]ok;r m'. h" n ]k a[`{n{]mk nVEj> k' a]ok;r m'. : ]s.pq"]`k nVEj> k' ]S`m/l'xn krn' pr sweat glands Sv'` Gl".2=s y;]n ps}n' k} g@.]qy;\ ps}n; bh/t bn;t' h". y; ]nk;lt' h". prNt/ p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> Sv'` Gl".2=s pr ]bLk/l k;m nh}. krt' : Oy;n rh' ]k ]s.pq"]`k f;eEbj>E j{ ps}n' k} g@.]qy{. m'. j;t' h". dr asl k{]ln]jEk (cholinergic y;]n A']s`;el k{l;en s' uks;n' v;l}) h".- pr v' Sv'` Gl".2=s j{ h;q a[r p"r{. k} tlv{. m'. rht' h".- un k' f;eEbj>E A']2Än']jEk (adrenergic y;]n n[r_Ap}n'fr}n s' uks;n' v;l}) h".: Oy;n rh' ]k ps}n; l;n' k; s"N`r h;yp{q"lms m'. h{t; h" j{ p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> s' uks;y; j;t; h" : es]ly' ps}n; k{ hm p"r;_]s.pq"]`k f.KxNs h} khn; c;]hy' h;l;.]k usk' nvE f;eEbj>E ]s.p|q']`k nvEs ]sS`m k' f;eEbj>E k' b"c m'. ps;r' h/y' h". :]s.pq"]`k nVEj A']2Än']jEk f;eEbj>E bgl{. k' Sv'` Gl".2=s k{ uks; kr Ak g;3>; ps}n; l;t' h". ]jsm'. apn}

trh k} Y/xb? h{t} h" : l']kn y' p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> y; k{]ln]jEk nVEj> %;r; nh}. uks;y' j;t' : enk; k;yE h" ]k k.o' k' Jv;e.` k' h]2=2y{. m'. ]ckn;h` d'n; ]jss' v' a;ps k' izE~ s' bc skt' h". : p;cn t.μ pr p@w;v Oy;n rh' ]k g"S`Ä{_eN`'S`;enl ]sS`m (gastro-intestinal system) k' nVEj> k; apn; s"` h" : c;h' p"r;_]s.pq"]`k a[r ]s.pq"]`k nVEj> es k{ k;m krn' k{ uks;t' h". y; r{kt' h". : p"r;_]s.pq"]`k ]S`m/l'xn es k{ a]ok k;m krn' k{ uks;t' h". a[r esk' ]Sf.K`r{. k{ ]rl|Ks krt' h". t;]k `Ä"K` k' a.dr ]s´}xn=j> (secretions) y;]n unk; m;l k; ]nk;s a[r unk} a;vk_j;vk 1}k p@k;r s' h{ : g"S`Ä{_eN`'S`;enl `Ä"K` k; f.Kxn ]s.pq"]`k nVEj> k' ]S`m/l'xn pr a]ok ]nwEr nh}. krt; : h;. bh/t sÅt ]s.pq"]`k ]S`m/l'xn m;l k{ jLd}_jld} a;g' j;n' k{ r{kt} h" t;]k Y;n; 1}k p@k;r s' pc j;y' a[r Gl".2=s k} ]s´}xn=j> k{ km w} krt} h" a[r ]Sf.K`r{. k{ `{n_ap (toneup) w} krt} h" : ºdy pr p@w;v ]s.pq"]`k ]S`m/l'xn h;È k{ d{ p@k;r s' uks;t; h" : Ak usk} r'` zun g]t k{ b3>;n; a[r d?sr; us' p?r; ]sk{2>n; y; krn; : p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> k; k;yE es s' uL`; asr k; h{t; h" : es' es p@k;r s' kh; j; skt; h" ]k ]s.pq"]`k ]S`m/l'xn h;È k{ p?r; p]Mp.g (pumping) krn' k{ sh;yt; krt; h" jb ]k p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> h;È k; p\Mp.g r'` km krt; h" : a;r`}]ryl p@'xr pr p@w;v a;r`}]ryl p@'xr (arterial pressure) m;pn' s' d{ vSt/a{. y; d{ b;t{. k; 7;n h{t; h" _ Ak ]k h;È ]ktn; rË b;hr ]nk;l kr y; pMp kr kr n;]2y{. m'. 2;lt; h" a[r n;2}y;. rË k' bh;v k{ shn' k} ]ktn} x]Ë h" y; rË k' bh;v k} resistances ]ktn} h" : ]s.pq"]`k ]S`m/l'xn en d{n{. k;y{E. k} 1}k p@k;r s' d'Yt} h" y; k;yE krn' k{ b3>;v; d't} h" : a[r n;]2y{. k{ etn} x]Ë d't} h" ]k vh rË k' p@'xr y; db;v k{ sh sk'. : d?sr} trf p"r;_]s.pq"]`k ]S`m/l'xn h;È k} p]Mp.g k{ km krt} h".- mgr n;]2>y{. pr unk; k{eE p@w;v y; asr nh}. p2>t; : es k; asr A's; h{t; h" ]k p@'xr km h{ j;t; h" : h;.kw}_kw} v'gs nvE y;]n ´']nyl nvE n.br ds k; h;È pr etn; sÅt p@w;v p2>t; h" ]k h;È k;m krn; w} b.d kr skt; h" : es]ly' Oy;n rh' ]k h;È k} tkl}f k' r{g} k{ (10) Left Medulla d' skt' h".- l']kn (10) Medulla n d'. t;]k usk{ k{eE n/ks;n n h{ : xr}r k} rË v;]h]ny{. pr p@w;v ]s.pq"]`k ]S`m/l'xn s' s;r} rË v;]h]ny'. Y;s t[r pr j{ p'` k} h".- a[r ]lMBj> y;]n h;q_p;.v k} cm2} k{ ]sk{2>; j;t; h"- y; k[NS`Ä}K` ]ky; j;t; h" : Oy;n rh' ]k p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> k; rË v;]h]ny{. pr k{eE asr nh}. p2>t;- pr h;. c'hr' k} n;]2>y{. k{ Y{lt} h". y; 2;eEl'` krt} h". : h;.- kw}_kw} ]ks} Y;s h;l;t m'. β f.KxNs j{ ]s.pq"]`k k; h" vh v"Sk/lr 2;el'xn krt; h"- y; rË v;]h]ny{. k{ Y{lt; h" : yh tw} h{t; h" jb dv;ey{. k; asr ]s.pq"]`k k; α f.Kxn j{ ]k en v;]h]ny{. k{ ]sk{2>n; y; v"s{ k[NS`Ä}K` (vasoconstrict) krn' k; h{t; h"- un k;y{E. k{ p"r;l;es krt; h" y;]n k;yE krn' s' r{kt; h" a[r yh k;yE β f.Kxn k' k;yE s' Jy;d; p@w;vx;l} h" mtlb j{ b}`; k' f.Kxn k{ w} r{kn' m'. sfl h{ j;t; h" : xr}r k' aNy k;y{E. pr p"r;_]s.p|q']`k nvEs ]sS`m k; p@w;v hm'. sm4n; c;]hy' ]k ]lvr- g[l Bl"2r y?r'`r a[r b@[.k} k' 2K`=s k{ ]s.pq"]`k nVEj> ]S`m/l'` r{kt} h". y; eNh}]b` krt} h".- jb ]k p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> eNh'. k;yE krn' k{ nuks;t} h". : Oy;n rh' ]k ]s.pq"]`k ]S`m/l'xn k; m'`;b[]lk asr ]lvr pr yh h{t; h" ]k vh rË k; Gl?k{j> l'vl (level) y;]n m;µ; b3>;t; h" y;]n rË m'. Gl?k{j> 9{2>t; h" ]js s' ]lvr a[r mSsLj> k{ x]Ë ]ml j;t} h" ]js s' xr}r k{ k;yE krn' k' ]ly' mn krt; h" y; m"N`l A'K`}]v`} (activity) b3> j;t} h" : a[r Ak Oy;n d'n' v;l} b;t yh h" ]k Sμ} p/½z k' a;ps} sMbNo{. m'. w} ]s.pq"]`k a[r p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> k;yE krt' h". : y;]n Sμ} p/½z k' sexual acts en nVEj> k' bg"r p?r' nh}. h{ skt' : Oy;n rh'

sw} ´']nyl nvE d{ h". : v'g;s n.br ds r;eE` y;]n d;]hn} k} w} h"- a[r l'F` k} w} h" : d{n{. v'g;s nvE k' f.KxNs w} alg_alg h{.g' : l'F` v'g;s h;`E k{ Sl{ krt} h{g} jb ]k r;eE` d?sr' p;`=Es parts y; a.g{. y; g@.]qy{. k{ uks;t} h{g} : A'2Ä}nl m"2?l; k' k;y{E. pr a[r k/9 p¸' eor j{2>n; h" :

b'sl g".Gl}y; (Basal Ganglia) th

(Guyton 10 ed. p 657 s' a[r k/9 eor j{2>n; h" b@'n k' s'r'b@l h'm}Sf}ysE (cerebral hemispheres) k' aNdr b}c{. b}c gray matter k' nVEj> k' k/9 g/C9' h". ]jNh'. k/l ]ml;kr Ak n;m s' j;n; j;t; h" _ b'sl g".Gl}y; _ Ky{.]k y' sw} ]ml j/lkr Ak h} k;m krt' h". a[r vh h" _ s'r'b@l k;|`'EKs (cerebral cortex) a[r k{]`Ek{ Sp;enl ]sS`m (cortico spinal system) k' s;q ]ml kr _ ]v]w¸ p]r]Sq]ty{. m'. xr}r k} eNv;|lN`r} (involuntary) y;]n an"]C9k k;y{E. k; ]ny.μ~ krn; : b'sl g".Gl}y; k} nVEj> s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks s' enp/` ]sGnLs (input signals) y;]n a;n'v;l' ] sGnLs l't' h". a[r unk' an/s;r k;yE krk' y;]n kn"KxNs (connections) bn; kr a;u`p/` ]sGnLs (output signals) s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks k{ h} v;ps w'jt' h". : en g/C9{. k' n;m h". _ • k;|2'` Ny?]Klys (caudate nucleus) • Py/`''mn (putamen) – es' h} k/9 jgh{. m'. p/`;mn ]lY; gy; h" : • Gl{bs p"]l2s (globus pallidus) k/9 v"7;]nk uUpr k' t}n k{ h} m{`r w;g m;nt' h".- jb ]k k/9 aNy v"7;]nk n}c' k' d{n{. k{ w} b'sl g".Gl}y; k; w;g m;nt' h". : • sBS`|]Nxy; ]ng@; (substantia nigra) _ q|l|ms k' n}c' v m's'Ns'f'l;|n k' uUpr h" • sb q|l|ms (sub-thalamus) _ yh q|l|ms k' n}c' w;g m'. h" a[r p}9' k} trf h" enk{ e.pLss (impulses) y;]n s.d'x ]mln' k' b;d y' d{n{. phl' f}2b|k ]sS`m (feedback system) %;r; q|l|ms (thalamus) k{ s.d'x d't' h". a[r b;d m'. v' w} b@'n k' s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks k' w;g k{ s.d'x d't' h". : b'sl g".Gl}y; k' alg_alg a.g alg_alg k;yE krt' h". Gl{bs p|l}2s Globus Pallidus agr p;.v m'. k;\`; c/w; t{ us p;.v k{ h`;n; y; u1;n; _ yh esk; k;m h" : agr yh 1}k nh}. h" t{ A's; nh}. h{t; : p/`;m"n Putamen Py?`;m"n k"s; k;m krt; h" yh 1}k s' m;l?m nh}. h" : pr es k' ]bg2>n' s' h;q- c'hr; y; xr}r k' aNy jgh{. pr anc;h' 9{`'_9{`' hlcl h{t' h". ]js' k{]ry; (Chorea) k} b}m;r} kh; j;t; h" : sb q|l|ms s' s;r; k; s;r; `;.g y; h;q k; n k;m krn; h{t; h" y;]n v' p?r' 3}l' p2> j;t' h". _ ]js' hemi ballismus kht' h". : sBS`;]Nxy; ]ng@; Substantia Nigra es k} g2>b2>} s' p;|r]kNsn k} b}m;r} a;t} h" : k[2'` sr]k` Caudate Circuit k[2'` Ny?]Klys (caudate nucleus) s' s.b.]ot nVEj> k{ k[2'` sr]k` kht' h". : x'r k{ d'Yn' k' b;d bg"r ]ks} s{c k'- t/rNt h} w;gn' k; k;m kr;t; h" Ky{.]k y;dd;Xt m'. h" ]k agr nh}. w;g' t{ n/ks;n h{ skt; h" : y;]n p?vE an/wv k' an/s;r p]r]Sq]ty{. k; s;mn; krn; es k; k;m h" : ]dm;g k' Akdm aNdr m'. q|l|ms (thalamus) h" j{ d{n{. h']mSf}ysE (hemispheres) k' b}c m'. ]Sqt h" : b'sl g".Gl}y; k' Ny?]Kly;e q|l|ms k' a;j?b;j? k' c;r{. a{r k' k;f} w;g tk f"l' h/y' h". : enm'. m/Åy h". _ k;|2'` Ny?]Klys tq; Py/`''mn _ en d{n{. k' n;]2>y{. k' g/C9' y; sm?h k{ Ak s;q ]ml;kr b@'n k; e.`nEl k|PSy?l (internal capsule) kht' h". : Oy;n rh' ]k kr}b sw} m{`r (motor) tq; s'Nsr} nVEj> (sensory nerves) k' f;ebsE (fibres) j{ s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks y; Sp;enl k[2E (spinal cord) k{ a;t}- j;t} y; j{2>t} h"- vh es e.`nEl k\PSy?l y;]n b'sl g".Gl}y; k' k;|2'` Ny?]Klys a[r Py/`'mn s' h} h{kr a;t} j;t} h". y; g/jrt} h". : b'sl g".Gl}y; keE p@k;r k' k]1n k;y{E. k{ Ak s;q krt; h"- a[r esk' sw} k;y{E. k' b;r' m'. aw} tk p?r; pt; nh}. h/a; h" : yh;\ pr k/9 k;y{E. k' b;r' m'. ]jtn; pt; h" bt;t' h". : b'sl g".Gl}y; k} Ak j#r} b;t yh h" ]k vh apn' a;p k[r`}k{ Sp;enl ]sS`m k} sh;yt; k' ] bn; k{eE w} m{`r k.`Ä{l k; k;yE nh}. kr skt; : b'sl g".Gl}y; k' bg"r s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks k;m j#r krv; skt; h"- l']kn us k;yE m'. k;r}gr} nh}. rh'g} : j"s' ]k agr k{eE Vy]Ë k{eE a6r ]lYn; c;h' t{ klm u1;kr ]lYn' k; k;yE s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks krt; h"- mgr agr b'sl g".Gl}y; k} k{eE Yr;b} h{ y; usk' a.dr s' s.d'x 1}k trf s' n ph/\c y; ]nkl rh' h{. t{ A's; Vy]Ë un a6r{. k{ 1}k s' s.v;r

kr n ]lYkr es p@k;r s' ]lY'g; j"s' ]k k{eE p@qm R'~} k; bCc; ]lYt; h" : y;]n s;f v; b/]5m;n} s' k{eE k;m krn; h{ j"s'' ]k Y}l; lg;n; y; b;Sk'` b;|l m'. ]nx;n; d'Ykr b;|l k{ Y'ln; y; kp2>; k;`n; eTy;]d k;yE ]bn; b'sl g".Gl}y; k' sh;yt; s' nh}. h{ skt; : hr k;yE m'. Py/`''mn phl' a;t; h"- ]fr vh;. s' d?sr} jgh s.d'x j;y'g; : Oy;n rh' ]k esk; 1}k n h{n' m'. ]ks} k"m}kl k} km} y; Bl;|k'j (blockage) k; h{n; h} m/Åy k;r~ h" ]js' 1}k krn' k' ]ly' M. Heparin w} d'n; bh/t j#r} h" : k;yE krn' k} p5]t 1. Py/`''mn s' Gl{bs p"]l2s m'. _ Gl{bs p"]l2s s' sb q|l|ms m'. _ sb q|l|ms s' q|l|ms m'. a[r q|l|ms s' m{`r k[r`"Ks (motor cortex) m'. 2. Py/`''mn s' Gl{bs p"]l2s m'. _ Gl{bs p"]l2s s' sBS`;]Nxy; ]ng@; m'. _ sBS`;]Nxy; ]ng@; s' q|l|ms m'. a[r q|l|ms s' v;ps m{`r k[r`"Ks m'. : 3. agr l{kl f}2b|k sr]k` (local feedback circuit) h{ t{ Gl{bs p"]l2s s' q|l|ms m'. a[r v;ps Gl{bs p"]l2s m'. : b@'n k' ]ks} w} w;g m'. l}j>Ns (lesions) y;]n a.d#n} i;v h{ j;t' h". t{ usk; k;yE ] bg2> j;y'g; : yh MRI s' pt; lg skt; h" : Gl{bs p"]l2s m'. agr A's' h/a; t{ u\gl} m'. ac;nk s? eE k' c/bn' s' y; h;q{. m'. ac;nk ddE a;n' s' h;q k{ h`;n; h{ t{ vh nh}. h{g; : ac;nk p;.v m'. k;.`; c/wn' k' b;d j{ 4` s' p;.v k{ Akdm u1;n; h" _ y' sb k;yE Gl{bs p"]l2s s' h} h{t' h". : m/\h k' w;v k; ]bg2>n' k{ Aq'`{]ss athetosis kht' h". : Aq'`{]ss athetosis yh Ak A's} ]Sq]t h" ]jsm'. err'g/lr `=v}]S`.g irregular twisting y;]n s;.p k} trh s;r' xr}r k{ `'3>;_m'3>; krk' h;q{. a[r u\g]ly{. k; ]hln; 2/ln;- kw}_kw} h;q{. a[r p"r{. k{ w} h{ j;t; h" : A's; k/9 Ak d?sr} b}m;]ry{. k' s;q ]mlkr w} h{ j;t; h"- j"s' ]k ANs'f;l;e]`s (encephalitis), s'r'b@l p|Ls} (cerebral palsy), h'p;]`k ANs'f'l{p|q} (hepatic encephalo-pathy) eTy;]d : k/9 l{g{. m'. p;|r]kNsn k} b}m;r} k' ]ly' j{ l'v; 2{p; (Levadopa) k} g{l} d} j;t} h" uss' p;|r]kNsn k' s;q h]N`.G`n=s k{]ry; (Huntington's chorea) n;mk b}m;r} h{ j;t} h" h'm} b;|]lj>m Hemiballism - xr}r k' Ak trf k' a.g{. k; ]hln;_2/ln; Py/`''mn ]dm;g k' q{2>' s' ]hSs' m'. rht; h"- jb ]k k;|2'` Ny?]Klys k} ns'. s'r'b@m k} c;r{. trf h} h".- es]ly' esk; mhTv w} a]ok h" : yh k;yE k{ x}i@ krn' k' ]ly' us a.g eTy;]d k{ uks;t; h" : j"s' ]k x'r k{ d'Yn' pr y;d=d;Xt m'. rht; h" ]k vh mn/Zy k{ Ky; h;]n ph/\c; skt; h"- s{ Py/`''mn mn/Zy k{ w;gn' k' ]ly' t/rNt uks;t; h" y; bt;t; h" ]k p'2> pr c3> j;a{- Ky{.]k us smy s{cn' sm4n' k' ]ly' smy nh}. h{t; : Oy;n rh' _ b'sl g".Gl}y; y; b@'n k' ]ks} w} a.g k; 1}k n rhn' k' d{ h} k;r~ h{ skt' h". • y; t{ usm'. rË k; bh;v 1}k nh}. h"• y; Ny?r{ `Ä;NSm}`r %;r; nvE ]sGnLs uplBo nh}. h" rË k' bh;v k{ 1}k krn' k' ]ly' M. Heparin d'n; a;vXyk h" : b@'n k' alg_alg w;g{. m'. s.d'x ph/\c;n' k' ]ly' alg_alg pathways y;]n rSt' %;r; y' Ny? r{ `Ä;NSm}`r k;yE krt' h". _ uNh'. uks;n; h" : enk' b;r' m'. n}c' ]dy; gy; h" _ (Guyton 10th ed. p 659) –

sBS`;]Nxy; ]ng@; s' sBS`;]Nxy; ]ng@; s' k[2'` Ny?]Klys s' Py/`''mn s' s'r'b@l k;r`'Ks s'

k[2'` Ny?]Klys tk Py/`''mn tk sBS`;]Nxy; ]ng@; Av. Gl{bs p|l}2s tk sBS`;]Nxy; ]ng@; Av. Gl{bs p|l}2s tk

Ny?r{ `Ä;NSm}`r k; n;m 2{p|m}n 2{p|m}n GABA GABA

k[2'` Ny?]Klys Av. Py/`''mn tk

A']s`;el k{l;en

esm'. GABA k; k;m hm'x; h} hlcl r{kn' k; h"- jb ]k A']s`;el k{l;en uks;n' k; k;yE krt; h" : 2{p|m}n Y;s t[r s' b'sl g".Gl}y; m'. r{kn' k; k;yE h} krt; h"- l']kn b@'n k' k9 aNy w;g{. m'. yh x;yd uks;n' k; k;yE w} krt; h" : (Guyton 10th ed. p 680) en k' al;v; b@'n S`'m m'. an'k pathways y;]n rSt' h". j{ b'sl g".Gl}y; tq; s'r'b@m k' aNy w;g{. m'. an'k Ny?r{ `Ä;NSm}`r 9{2t' rht' h". j"s' n[r_Ap}n'fr}n- s'r{`{]nnANk'f;]ln Av. aNy k"m}kLs : enk' al;v; a[r w} keE rSt' h". ]jns' Gl?`;m'` (glutamate) n;mk k"m}kl ]nklt; h" j{ uks;n' k' ]sGnLs y;]n s.k't{. k; s.c;ln krt' h". : a[r es p@k;r s' y' sb ]mlkr GABA, s'r{`}]nn- 2{p|m}n, eTy;]d k"m}kLs k' r{kn' k} ]sGnLs k{ b"l'.s (balance) krt' rht' h". : uUpr k' c;`E s' hm a;s;n} s' kh skt' h". ]k b'sl g".Gl}y; k' k[n s' w;g k} b}m;r} k' ] ly' k[n s; m'2?l; upc;r d'n; h" : ud;hr~ k' ]ly' sBS`;]Nxy; ]ng@; s' j{ p;ep l;en Py/`''mn y; k;|2'` Ny?]Klys k{ j;t} h"- usm'. agr k{eE g2>b2>} h{ t{ us' 1}k krn' k' ]ly' 2{p|m}n y;]n (20) Medulla d'n; h" : v"s' h}- sBS`;]Nxy; ]ng@; s' Py/`''mn m'. a;n'v;l' ns{. m'. g2>b2>} h{ t{ vh w} (20) Medulla s' 1}k h{g; jb ]k agr Py/`''mn s' sBS`;]Nxy; ]ng@; y; Gl{bs p"]l2s k' ]sGnLs m'. k{eE g2>b2>} h{ t{ usk' ]ly' (2) Medulla d'n; h{g;- Ky{.]k us k;yE k; Ny?r{ `Ä;NSm}`r GABA h"- 2{p|m}n nh}. : q|l|ms s".sr} Av. m{`r f;ebsE d{n{. k{ h} b'sl g".Gl}y; a[r s'r'b'lm (cerebellum) %;r; s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks k{ w'jt; h" : yh n}c} ]lY} b;t{. k; Oy;n rYt; h" : • • • •

`c (touch) y;]n SpxE k; pt; h{n; l']kn usm'. mh}nt; nh}. h{g} y;]n ess' pt; j#r lg'g; ]k k{eE SpxE kr rh; h" : l']kn alg_alg p@k;r k' c}j{. k' ]v]w¸ Spx{.E k' t/Ly an/wv nh}. h{t; : es' crude appreciation of touch kht' h". : ddE k; Ahs;s `"Mpr'cr y;]n xr}r k; t;pm;n it also relays part of the reticular activating system (RAS) which controls the level and state of consciousness esm'. sb xr}r k} s".sr} nVEj> a;t} h". ]jn k' u¶r _ y; jv;b m'. y; un s".sr} nVEj> k; Ky; a]wp@;y h"- y; Ky; krn; c;ht} h". un k' an/s;r jv;b} k;rEv;eE krt; h" :

CSF y;]n s'r'b@{_Sp;enl Fl?e2 Oy;n rh'- d{n{. l"`rl v"N`Ä}kl (lateral ventricle) a[r t}n n.br k' v"N`Ä}kl m'. CSF bnt} h"- j{ c;r n.br k' v"N`Ä}kl %;r; Sp;enl k[2E (spinal cord) m'. cl} j;t} h" : yh s;f p;n}_j"s; trl r.gh}n pd;qE h" j{ rË s' ]w¸ h" : yh Y2>; h{n' m'. nh}. jmt; y;]n es k; Kl[` (clot) nh}. h{t; : yh s;r' ]dm;g a[r Sp;enl k[2E m'. 150 ml. tk k} m;µ; m'. h} rht; h" : yh ] dm;g k{ m;r eTy;]d s' bc;t} h"- 1}k us} p@k;r j"s' v;hn{. m'. x;kr (shock absorber) k;m krt; h" : jb ]dm;g k' a.dr ]sk/2>n; y; f"ln; h{t; h"- t{ yh Fl?e2 km_Jy;d; h{kr us' 1}k 1;k kr d't} h"- y; es Fl?e2 %;r; 1}k ]ky; j; skt; h" : es k' a.dr Gl?k{j> a[r Y;n' s' p@;Pt ] v`;]mn B12 tq; aNy p{z~ tTv a[r keE Al'K`Ä{l;e`=s h{t' h". j{ b@'n a[r Sp;enl k[2E k' Ny?r[Ns k} d'Y w;l krt} h". : jb es Fl?e2 m'. k{eE v;ers cl; j;t; h"- usk' k;r~ m']nNjs (meninges) y;]n b@'n k' b;hr} prt{. m'. eNFlm'xn a; j;t} h"- ]js' m']nNj;e]`s (meningitis) k} b}m;r} kht' h". : esk' al;v; b@'n m'. k{eE eNFlm'xn nh}. h{t} : agr m;r y; aNy ]ks} k;r~ s' es m'. rË ]ml j;y' t{ es k; r.g p}l; h{ j;t; h"- ]js' lMbr p.Kcr (lumbar puncture) %;r; ]nk;ln' pr d'Y; j; skt; h" : m'r' p;s A's' r{g} a;y' h".- ]jNh'. lMbr p.Kcr krn' k' b;d p{]ly{ h{ gy;- jb ]k usk' phl' v' n[rml #p s' cl_]fr skt' q' ! es k; k;r~ t{ m/6' pt; nh}.- pr A's; lgt; h" ]k x;yd Fl?e2 Jy;d; m;µ; m'. ]nk;ln' s' A's' h/a; h{g; : agr Fl?e2 ]nk;ln; h} h{ t{ ds ml. s' Jy;d; nh}. ]nk;ln} c;]hy' _ A's' m'r; ]vc;r h" : es Fl?e2 k' a.dr ^{`}n y; A'Lb/]mn (albumin) a]ok h{ j;y' y; a]ok m;µ; m'. ]ml j;n' s' esk; jmn; y;]n Kl[]`.g h{ skt; h" : A's} h;lt ]nMn b}m;]ry{. m'. h{ skt} h"_ meningitis, b@'n abcess, viral fevers such as encephalitis, anterior ??? polio myelitis, lymphocytic meningitis eTy;]d : Y;s t[r s' xr;b k} p/r;n} a;dt (chronic alcoholism) s' w} ^{`}n b3> j;t' h". : k/9 ]kSm k' `=y?mr m'. y; ]sf}]ls eTy;]d m'. s'Ll k;u.` (cell count) b3> j;t; h" : RAS r'`}Ky?lr A']K`v']`.g ]sS`m (reticular activating system)

s;r' b@'n m'. s"Ls k' g@?Ps a[r f;ebsE k{ ek`=1; kr kr bnt; h" : yh} h{]xy;r ????? rhn;-j;gt' rhn;- s{n; a[r d?sr' ]rFl'Kss (reflexes) k{ d'Yt' h". : y' b@'n S`'m k' mOy s' j;t' h".: y' b@'n k' m'2?l; a[Bl[.g"`; (Medulla Oblongata)- p[Ns (Pons), Av. ]m2> b@'n (midbrain) k{ Sp;enl k[2E- q|l|ms a[r s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks s' j{2>t' h".- y; uNh'. a;ps m'. ]ml;t' h". :es s;r' ]sS`m k{ r'`}Ky?lr A']K`v']`.g ]sS`m y; RAS kht' h". : ]ks} k;r~vx agr RAS k; ] sS`m ½k j;y' t{ r{g} hm'x; k' ]ly' k[m; m'. cl; j;t; h" : h;yp{q"lms hypothalamus h;yp{q"lms Ak g@.q} nh}. h"- b]Lk vh q|l|ms k; h} Ak w;g h" : xr}r k' sb s".sr} nVEj> q|l|ms m'. j;t} h". : s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks k' n}c' k' a.g{. m'. ]s.pq"]`k (sympathetic) tq; p| r; ]s.pq"]`k (para sympathetic) en d{n{. nvEs ]sS`m k' k;y{E. k{ d'Yr'Y m'. yh Ak mhTvp?~E w?]mk; ]nw;t; h" : esk' Ny?r[Ns k' h[rm{Ns xr}r m'. ]nMn c}j{. k{ ]ny.]μt krn' m'. j#r} h". _ xr}r m'. p;n} k} m;µ;Py;s (thirst), w?Y (appetite a|p}`;e`), x/gr a[r f"`=s k; cy;pcy xr}r k; t;pm;n (temperature `"Mpr'cr), a[`{n{]mk nvEs ]sS`m (autonomic nervous system) ]p`=y?`r} Gl".2 k{ h[rm{Ns w'jn' y; bn;n' k' ]ly' uks;n; mSln h;yp{q"lms ]rl}]j>.g h[rm{n ] nk;ln' pr h} ]p`=y?`r} Gl".2 vh h[rm{n bn;y'g; : h;yp{q"lms t}sr; v"N`Ä}kl (3rd ventricle) k' d}v;r k{ bn;t; h" : yh xr}r k' aNdr i2>} k; k;m w} krt; h" : a;|]P`k k"y;j>m; (optic chiasma) k; w} Oy;n rYt; h" : Tuber cinerarum : yh h;yp{q"lms k' base y;]n n}.v y; tlv' k; Ak w;g h" ]jsk' a;j?b;j? pr m"]mlr} b;|2>}j> (mamillary bodies) Av. a;|]P`k k"y;j>m; (optic chiasma) h". Av. d?sr' s;e2 (side) pr a[]P`k `Ä"K` optic tract y;]n a;\Y{. k} ns{. k{ l' j;n'v;l} n]lk; h" : yh p[S`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} k' s;q eNf]N2b?lm (infundibulum) n;mk n]lk; %;r; j/2>; h/a; h" :

]m2> b@'n Midbrain y; m's'Ns'f|l;|n Mesencephalon ]m2 b@'n y; m's'Ns'f|l;|n _ yh m'2?l; a[Bl[.g"`; a[r p[Ns k' uUpr ]Sqt h" : yh m'2?l; a[Bl[.g"`; a[r p[Ns k{ s'r'b@m k' s;q j{2>t; h" : yh;\ s' h} s/nn' v d'Yn' k} nVEj> j;t} h". : ´']nyl nvE n.br III (t}n) _ j{ a;\Y{. k} hlcl k} d'Yw;l krt} h" _ a[r ´']nyl nvE n.br V (p;.c) _ j{ s;r; c'hr; a[r m;q' k} d'Yw;l krt} h" _ y' d{n{. nVEj> yh}. s' j;t} h". : yh;. pr p}9' k} trf k' `'Gm'N`m (tegmentum) m'. r"2 Ny?]Klys Red Nucleus h{t' h". - j{ p[Ns k' uUpr k} jgh m'. ]Sqr h". : 656, 45, 37-38, 50, 53 sBS`;]Nxy; ]ng@; _ ]jsk; r.g k;l; h{t; h" _ vh b@'n k' a;g' k} trf p[Ns k' uUpr ]Sqr h" : vh b@'n k' ]ly' 2{p|m}n bn;t; h" : agr 2{p|m}n k} km} h{ t{ esk' nvE f;ebsE k;m krn; bNd kr d't' h". : yh;. s' ?? h} skilled muscular movements y;]n mSsLj> aC9} trh b;r}k} s' k;m krn' k} hlcl k; ]ny.μ~ h{t; h" : yh;. s' h} Vh;eE` m"`r (white matter) k' nvE f;ebsE j;t' h". _ j{ r"2 Ny?]Klys k{ s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks- q|l|ms- s'r'b'lm- k;|pEs S`Ä;ey'`m (corpus striatum) a[r Sp;enl k[2E s' j{2>t' h". : k[2'` tq; l'N`}f;mE Ny?]Kly;e (lentiform nuclei) k{ h} s.6'p m'. k;|pEs S`Ä;ey'`m kht' h". : s".sr} nVEj> k; uUpr j;n; Av. m{`r nVEj> k; n}c' Sp;enl k[2E m'. j;n; _ y' sw} nVEj> es k' a.dr s' h} g/jrt' h". : h;eEN2 b@'n (Hind brain) esm'. b@'n k' t}n a.g{. k; sm;v'x h" _ p[Ns- s'r'b'lm- a[r m'2?l; a[Bl[.g"`; p[Ns Pons alg_alg Ny?r[Ns k' g@?p (groups) %;r; ]v]w¸ ´']nyl nvE k' s.d'x p[Ns %;r; h} a;g' ph/\ct} h". : Cranial Nerve V-VI a[r VII y;]n p;.cv}- 9`} a[r s;tv} ´']nyl nvE k' s.d'x p[Ns s' ]nkl kr a;g' j;t} h". : ´']nyl nvE n.br c;r Cranial nerve IV a;\Y{. k{ uUpr k} a{r i/m;n' k' msLs (muscles) k{ d'Yt} h". y; uks;t} h". : Cranial nerve V y;]n p;.c n.br k; ´']nyl nvE m/\h- c'hr;- h{.1- a;\Y a[r d;.t eTy;]d k' k;y{E. k{ d'Yt} h". y; uks;t} h". : Cranial nerve VI y;]n 9h n.br k; ´']nyl nvE a;\Y{. k{ i/m;n' k' msLs k{ d'Yt} h". y; uks;t} h". : Cranial nerve VII y;]n s;t n.br k; ´']nyl nvE w;vn;a{. k{ VyË krn' k' ]ly' c'hr' k{ ]sk/2>n; y; f"l;n; eTy;]d k{ tq; sb_]l.g/al sl;evr} Gl".2 (sub lingual salivary glands) - j{ j}w k' n}c' h". _ unk{ k;m krn' k' ]ly' uks;t} h". : Av. j>b;n k' a;g' k' w;g k' d{ ]th;eE ]hSs' s' s".sr} nvE %;r; `'S` (taste) y;]n Sv;d k; Ahs;s kr;t} h". : p[Ns k' d?sr' nvE s"Ls k' e.pLss (impulses) c;h' uks;n' k' h{. y; k;yE k{ r{kn' k' ] ly' h{.- unk; s.d'x A'Ks;|Ns (axons) %;r; s'r'b@m y; s'r'b'lm k{ w'j' j;t' h". : Sp;enl k[2E k' s;e2{. s' y; b}c s'- uUpr s' n}c' nVEj> j;t} h".- j{ s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks k{ m'2?l; a[Bl[.g"`; a[r Sp;enl k[2E k{ a;ps m'. ]ml;t} h" : s'r'b'lm Cerebellum yh p[Ns k' p}9' ]Sqr h" Av. m'2?l; a[Bl[.g"`; k' uUpr 4?lt; h" : yh t}n f;ebr b.2l k} j{]2>y{. s' b@'n S`'m s' j/2>; h" : yh mSsLs (muscles) y;]n m;\s_p']xy{.- Jv;e.`=s (joints)- a;\Y a[r k;n s' p@;Pt s.v'dn;a{. (sensations) k{ s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks k{ ph/\c;t; h" Av. un s.d'x{. k' an/s;r yh xr}r k{ s}o; b"l'.s (balance) bn;y' rYn' k' ]ly' Ky; krn; h" yh bt;t; h" a[r us' 2;.v; 2{l h{n' nh}. d't; : esk' al;v; hr k;m m'. sf;eE _ j"s' Y/xYt y; s/.dr ]lYn;- clt' smy p;.v k; s}o; cln; Av. eor_uor n j;n' d'n;- h;q{. k; 1}k p@k;r s' k;m krn' k{ bn;y' rYn; eTy;]d sb es} k' k;yE h". : Oy;n rh' ]k bh/t t'j} s' cln' v;l} u\g]ly{. k; _ j"s' ]k `;eE]p.g krn; eTy;]d etn} t'j} s' h{t; h" ]k d'Yn' v;l; d.g rh j;t; h"- yh sb s'r'b'lm a[r s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks m'. phl' s' h} p@{g@;m (program) krk' ]f` (fit) rht; h" j"s' ]k k.Py?`r m'. p@{g@;m ]ky; h/a; h{- ]jsm'. ]k ½kn' k; k;m nh}. h" : es k' s;q a;\Y{. k; etn} t'j} s' d'Yn' k; k;yE w} ]f` h" : yh sb s'r'b'lm a[r s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks k} ]ml} wgt k; k;yE h"- ]k etn} t'j} s' u\g]ly;\ a[r a;\Y'. clt} h". : agr kh}. s'r'b'lm ]bg2> j;y' y; k;m krn; bNd kr d'- y; us' m;r lg j;y'- t{ y' u\g]ly{. k' k;yE Akdm o}m' h{ j;y'.g' y;]n mn/Zy utn; f;S` (fast) y;]n jLd}_jLd} k;yE nh}. kr sk'g; : y]d s'r'b'lm 50 p@]txt Yr;b h{ j;y' y; k;` ]dy' j;y' t{ b;k} k; 50 p@]txt j{ rh gy; h"- vh xr}r k' sb k;y{E. k{ s.w;l skt; h"- a[r k;yE krn' m'. ]ks} p@k;r k} km} nh}. a;y'g} : n[rml m{`r f.Kxn (normal motor function) k' ]ly' t}n a.g{. k} j#rt h" _ s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks k; sMb]Not w;g (cerebral cortical area), s'r'b'lm a[r b'sl g".Gl}y; : y;]n msLs y;]n

m;\s_p']xy{. s' k{eE w} k;yE krn' k' ]ly' en t}n{. k; s;q_s;q k;m krn; j#r} h"- nh}. t{ mSsl f.Kxn (muscle function) 1}k 3.g s' nh}. h{g; : en m'. s'r'b'lm h} m/Åy w?]mk; ]nw;t; h"- tb j;kr a.g{. k' hlcl 1}k p@k;r s' a[r x}i@ h{.g' : d?sr} trf b'sl g".Gl}y; mSsLj> k{ k]1n k;y{E. k{ krn; y; uns' k"s' k;yE kr;n; _ yh d'Yt; h" : s'r'b'lm Y;s t[r pr x}i@ k;m krn' k} ]´y; k{ d'Yt; h" _ j"s' ]k w;gn;- `;eEp (type) krn;- ]py;n{ k{ bj;n;- 1}k p@k;r s' b;t'. krn; eTy;]d : agr kw} s'r'b'lm k{ p?r; h} k;` ]dy; j;y' y; usk; k{n"Kxn (connection) y;]n sMbNo `?` j;y' t{ w} mSsl k;yE kr'.g' pr o}m' s' : sw} f;S` k;yE o}m' h{ j;y'.g' a[r j{ w} k;yE h{ rh; h"- vh w} 1}k p@k;r s' s;f s/qr; nh}. h{g; : pr esk' k{n"Kxn k`n' s' ]ks} mSsl k{ p"r;l;e]ss nh}. h{g; : s'r'b'lm s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks k{ k;yE c;l? rhn' pr a;g' k' k;yE ]ks p@k;r s' krn; h"- Av. Ky; krn; h" eTy;]d bt;t' rht; h"- ]jss' k;yE krn' k} p@~;l} 1}k h{t} h" a[r k;yE 1}k p@k;r s' h{t' h". : s'r'b'lm h} xr}r k} eE]Kv]l]b@ym (equilibrium) k{ bn;y' rYt; h"- nh}. t{ mn/Zy xr;]by{. K} trh eor_uor clt; : a[r yh} h;q{. Av. p"r{. k} u\g]ly{. k} k;yE 6mt; k{ bn;y' rYt; h" : xr}r k' s".sr} ]sGnLj> es' ]mlt' h". ]jNh'. yh s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks k{ w'j d't; h"- a[r s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks s' w'j' m{`r ]sGnLs y;]n s.d'x k{ yh xr}r k' p'r}f'rl nVEj> (peripheral erves) k{ w'j d't; h" : ]nMn g/C9{. k' 4/ˉ2 k{ p'r}f'rl nrvs ]sS`m kht' h". _ 31 j{2>} Sp;enl nVEj> 12 j{2>} ´']nyl nVEj> ]sMp""q']`k nvEs ]sS`'m tq; p"r;_]sMp""q']`k nvEs ]sS`'m yh}. pr xr}r k' sb s' f;S` e.pLss (fast impulses) 120 m}`r p@]t s'k.2 h{t' h". : etn' f;S` xr}r m'. a[r ]ks} jgh pr nh}. h" : s'r'b'lm m'. bh/t f{L2=j> (folds) y;]n th h". : agr uNh'. Y{l; j;y t{ 17cm/120cm etn} lMb;eE h{g} : esm'. kr}b }n kr{2> k' Y;s s"Ls h{t' h".- ]jNh'. pr]kNj} s"Ls (Purkinje cells) kht' h".- a[r etn' s"Ls s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks m'. w} h". : y' e]Nh]bxn (inhibition) y; r{kn' k; k;m krt' h".- j{ uUpr j;n' k' s".sr} f;ebsE m'2?l; k' ]ncl' w;g s' h} uUpr j;t' h". : hr pr]kNj} s"Ll k' s;q arb{. h} nvE f;ebr h{t' h".- a[r hr Ak pr]kNj} s"Ll k' s;q 500 s' 1000 tk g@"Ny?l s"Ls _ j{ g'h?. k} trh h{t' h". _ v' h{t' h". : a[r hr f;ebr 250 s' 500 tk k' pr]kNj} s"Ll k{ k;N`| K` (contact) kr skt' h". : y' pr]kNj} s"Ls a[r 2}p Ny?]Klyr s"Ls (deep nuclear cells) hr s'k.2 m'. pc;s s' s[ tk AKxn p{`']NxyLs (action potentials) krt' h". : a[r y' pr]kNj} s"Ls _ 2}p Ny?]Klyr s"Ls k' a]ok y; o}m' k;yE krn' k{ r{kkr uNh'. n[rml k;yE krn' k' ]ly' mjb?r krt' h". : s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks m'. a[r k/9 s"Ls h". j"s' ]k Basket cells, Golgi cells etc j{ ]k eNh'. 1}k k;m krn' k' ]ly' sh;yt; krt' h". : (Guyton 10th ed. p 650) check Oy;n rh' ]k jb k{eE Vy]Ë ]fsl kr ]gr rh; h{ t{ us m;r k{ r{kn' k' ]ly' usk' h;q jm}n pr phl' ph/\c j;t' h". : a[r yh k;yE etn} jLd} s' h{t; h"- yh t'j} j{ h;q{. m'. l;n; ]k xr}r k' jm}n pr ] grn' s' phl' h;q{. k; jm}n pr ph/\cn; _ yh s'r'b'lm k; k;m h"- a[r p?vE an/wv s' p@;Pt j;nk;r} ]k mn/Zy k"s' ]grt; h" a[r m;r k"s' lgt} h"- us k' k;r~ h} A's; h{t; h" : Ky; es' h} conditioned reflex kht' h". < Oy;n rh' ]k jb xr}r k{eE k;yE krn' k' ]ly' ]ks} mSsl n' h;q k{ ]hl;n; h"- t{ vh Akdm t'j} s' ]hl;y'g;- pr us' kh;. tk j;n' k' b;d r{kn; h" y; k.`Ä{l krn; h"- yh s'r'b'lm k; k;m h" : agr us Vy]Ë k' s'r'b'lm m'. t;lm'l m'. k{eE g2>b2>} h" t{ vh h;q u]ct jgh a;n' pr ½k'g; nh}.b]Lk a;g' cl; j;y'g;- ]fr jb s'r'b'lm k{ m;l/m p2>'g; t{ vh us h;q k{ r{k'g; pr vh h;q d'r} s' k/9 d?r a;g' cln' k' b;d ½k'g; : es} p@k;r c;r_p;.c b;r h;q a;g'_p}9' j;y'g; a[r ]fr us k;yE k' Sq;n pr j;y'g; : ud;hr~ k' ]ly' agr `'bl pr s' p'n y; klm k{ u1;n; h"- t{ agr s'r'b'lm 1}k h" t{ h;q s}o; klm tk ph/\c'g;- mgr ]js Vy]Ë k; s'r'b'lm 1}k n h{ usk; h;q c;r_p;.c b;r a;g'_p}9' y; eor_uor j;n' k' b;d klm pr ph/\c'g; : Oy;n rh' ]k LMNT m'. s'r'b'lm k{ 1}k krn' k' ]ly' tq; usk{ 1}k p@k;r s' k;yE krn' k' ]ly' uks;n; h{ t{ (2) Medulla x 6 treatments d'n; c;]hy' ]jss' Ny?r{ `Ä;NSm}`r GABA ] nkl'g;- j{ b@'n k' h;yprn"s(hyper-ness) y;]n a]ny.]μt #p s' k;m krn' k{ r{k'g; : s;q m'. b@'n k' a.dr rË s.c;r b3>;n' k' ]ly' M. Heparin k; upc;r w} d' skt' h". :

s'r'b'lm k} g2>b2>} k' k/9 Y;s l6~ ]2s_a;r]q@y; Dysarthria esm' b{ln' m'. xBd 1}k p@k;r s' nh}. b{l' j;t' : xBd{. k' 1}k uCc;r~ k' ]ly' m/\hl"]rNKs (larynx) a[r Xv;s ]´y; t}n{. k; Ak s;q 1}k p@k;r s' upy{g krn; p2>t; h" : a[r unk' a;ps m'. Ak d?sr' k' shy{g s' A's; h{t; h" : pr jb ]ks} k;r~vx yh shy{g nh}. rht;- t{ xBd{. k; uCc;r~ ]bg2> j;t; h" : yh w} s'r'b'lm d'Yt; h" : eN`'Nxn `Ä'mr Intention tremor 654-5 s'r'b'lm 1}k n h{n' pr h;q_p;.v k; 1}k k;m n krn; y; Akdm t'j} s' u1n;- eor_uor j;n; y; n ½kn;- anc;h' k.pn eTy;]d h{ skt' h". : s'r'b"Ll;r ]nS`|Gms Cerebellar nystagmus ]nS`|Gms y;]n a;\Y{. k; apn' a;p anc;h' #p m'. ]ks} w} ]dx; m'. g{l_g{l i?mt' rhn; : jb yh s'r'b'lm k} g2>b2>} s' h{t; h" t{ us' s'r'b"Ll;r ]nS`|Gms kht' h". : r}b;u.2 Rebound agr ]ks} k; s'r'b'lm Yr;b h{ a[r 2|;K`r us r{g} k; h;q db; kr rY'. a[r r{g} k{ h;q u1;n' k{ kh'- pr jb r{g} h;q u1;n' lg' 2|;. us' r{k kr rY' a[r ]fr Akdm s' us' 9{2> d' t{ vh r{g} us h;q k{ apn' m/\h pr m;r l'g;- mtlb usk; h;q ½k'g; nh}. a[r n h} vh us h;q k{ r{k sk'g; : yh r{kn' k; k;m s'r'b'lm k; h" : agr s'r'b'lm 1}k h" t{ vh h;q m/\h pr nh}. lg'g;- agr 1}k nh}. h" t{ h} lg'g; a[r ½k'g; nh}. : h;eEp{`{]ny; Hypotonia h;eEp{`[]ny; k; r{g} b"1 nh}. skt; : Y2>; rhn' pr a;g' k} trf 4/kt; h} j;t; h" : a;]Yr ds kdm cln' pr qk j;t; h"- ]fr us' l'`n; h} p2>t; h" : es' ]nMn upc;r %;r; 1}k ]ky; j; skt; h" : I (15) Medulla x 2 treatments II (4) Mesencephalon x 2 treatments III (6) Swt x 2 treatments IV (8) Medulla x 2 treatments Dysmetria, Ataxia, dysdiadochokinesia 655 k' b;r' m'. ]lYn; h" :

m'2?l; a[Bl[.g"`; m'2?l; a[Bl[.g"`; b@'n S`'m k' n}c' k; a;]Yr} w;g h" j{ p[Ns k' n}c' ]Sqr h"- a[r p[Ns s' j/2>; h" : yh;. s' ]nMn k;yE h{t' h". _ • h;È y;]n ºdy k} o2>kn k; k.`Ä{l (control) y;]n ]ny.μ~ • Bl2 v'sLs (blood vessels) y;]n a;r`r}j> (arteries)- v'n=s (veins) Av. k|p}lr}j> (capillaries) k; Oy;n rYn; Av. unk' k;yE k{ 1}k_1;k krn; • r'Sp}r'xn (respiration) y;]n Xv;s ]ý; k; Oy;n rYn; • 9}.kn;- Y;.sn;- ]ngln;- uL`} k; a;n; eTy;]d ]rFl'Kss (reflexes) y;]n Svc;]lt p@]t]ý;y'. yh}. s' h{t} h". : • k[`}Ek{ Sp;enl `Ä"K` (cortico-spinal tract) k} m{`r nVEj> j{ ]dm;g s' a;t} h". _ v' yh;. s' h} s;mn' d?sr} trf ´[s (cross) h{kr y;]n ]dx; bdl kr n}c' cl} j;t} h". : y;]n j{ m{`r nvE b@'n k' d;eE. trf s' a;t} h".- v' yh;. pr ]dx; bdlkr b;y}. h;q v; p"r k{ s.d'x l' j;t} h". : • Cranial nerve VIII, IX, X, XI a[r XII y;]n a;1v;.- n[v;.- dsv;.- Gy;rhv;. a[r b;rhv;. ´']nyl nvE yh}. s' h{kr j;t} h". : o a;1 n.br k; ´']nyl nvE (Cranial nerve VIII) k' d{ g/C9' h". _ Ak k;n k' k[Kl}y; (cochlea) k' p}9' k' s'm} srk/lr k|n;Ls (semi-circular canals) s' s'r'b'lm k{ j;t} h"- a[r xr}r k' b"l'.s (balance) k{ 1}k rYn' m'. mdd krt} h"- d?sr} k[Kl}y; s' s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks k{ a;v;j{. y; s/nn' k; Ahs;s ]dl;t} h" : o n[ n.br k; ´']nyl nvE (Cranial nerve IX)k' m{`r nVEj> j}w a[r f"]r.Ks (pharynx) k' msLs (muscles) k' hlcl k{ tq; p|r{]`2 Gl".2=s (parotid glands) %;r; sl;ev; y; l;r k; ]ny.μ~ krt} h". : es} k' s".sr} nVEj> `[]NsLs- f"]r.Ks tq; j>b;n k' p}9' k' ⅓ ]hSs' s' Sv;d eTy;]d s.v'dn;y'. s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks tk l' j;t} h". k/9 nvE k"r{]`2 s;ens (carotid sinus) Av. k"r{]`2 b[2} (carotid body) k{ w} j;t} h". : o ds n.br k' ´']nyl nvE (Cranial nerve X) k{ v'g;s nvE w} kht' h". : esk' m{`r nVEj> h;È- l.Gj>- b@[.k}j> (bronchis) y;]n l.Gj> k' a.dr k} n]lk;y'., Av. 2;yj']S`v `Ä"K` (digestive tract) y;]n a¸ n]lk; _ b2>} a;.t k' ]2s'.]2.g k{ln (descending colon) k{ 9{2>kr _ en sb a.g{. m'. j;t} h" : esk' s".sr} nVEj> h;È- l.Gj>- a¸ n]lk;- b@[.k}j>- `Ä"k}y; (trachea) y;]n Xv;s n]lk;- f"]r.Ks- k;n k; b;hr k; w;g (external ear)- Ap}Gl[]`s (epiglottis _ Sv;d k' ]ly'), tq; a;y{`;E (aorta) Av. a;y{]Èk b[2}j> (aortic bodies) m'. k;m krt} h". :

b@'n m'`;b[lej>m Brain metabolism aNy ]`x?j>(tissues) k} trh b@'n k{ w} a[Ks}jn a[r d?sr' pd;q{E. k} a;vXykt; h" : pr b@'n k' m'`;b[lej>m (metabolism), y;]n cy;pcy k} ]´y;- b;k} ]`x?j> s' ]w¸ y; alg h" : a[r j{ Y;s p@k;r s' k;m krt; h" : c;h' b@'n k; vjn s;r' xr}r k' vjn k; Y;l} d{ p@]txt h"- ]fr w} l'`} avSq; m'. s;r' xr}r k; ]jtn; m'`;b[lej>m h" usk; 15 p@]txt Y;l} b@'n k' a.dr k' k;y{E. k' ]ly' upy{g h{t; h" : es]ly' Oy;n rh' ]k b@'n k; m'`;b[lej>m a;r;m krn' k} avSq; m'. s;3>' s;t g/~; a]ok h" : yh a]ok m'`;b[lej>m Ny?r[Ns k' a.dr h{t; h" : n ]k unk' b;hr y; un k' s;q j/2>' d? sr' ]`x?j> m'. : es m'`;b[lej>m k{ 1}k s' krn' k' ]ly' Ny?r[Ns k} m"Mb@'n k{ b;hr k} trf s{]2ym a[r k"]Lxym j#r} h"- Av. s"Ls k' a.dr p{`"]xym a[r Kl{r;e2 (chloride) k} a;vXykt; h"- ]jsk} sPl;eE (supply) 1}k p@k;r s' h{n} c;]hy' : jb w} ]ks} Ny?r[n k{ k;yE krn; h{ t{ us k;yE k{ krn' k' ]ly' un k{ ]js vSt/ k} a;vXykt; h"- vh uNh'. 1}k smy m'. 1}k m;µ; m'. ]mln; c;]hy'- tw} vh 1}k p@k;r s' k;yE kr sk'g; : a[Ks}jn : xr}r k' sb ]`x?j> k{ a[Ks}jn k} a;vXykt; h" : a[r y' b@'n k' ]`x?j> bg"r a[Ks}jn k'- k/9 h} ]mn` tk 1}k rh skt' h". : jb ]k aNy k/9 ]`x?j> A's' h". j{ bg"r a[Ks}jn k' a;o' i.`' tk 1}k rh skt' h".- Ky{.]k unm'. yh 6mt; h" ]k jb unk{ py;EPt a[Ks}jn nh}. ]mlt}tb - s}]mt smy k' ]ly' _ v' Gl?k{j> a[r Gl;ek{j'n k; q{2>; ]hSs; l'kr ]bn; a[Ks}jn ]ml;kr x]Ë y; Anj}E s"Ls k{ d' p;t' h".- ]jss' sb ]`x?j> k' s"Ls 1}k p@k;r s' k;m kr skt' h". : es' an=_A'r{]bk y;]n bg"r a[Ks}jn k' m'`;b[lej>m (anaerobic metabolism) kh; j;t; h" : pr b@'n k' Ny?r[Ns m'. Gl;ek{j'n k} m;µ; bh/t km rht} h"- ]jss' v' A's; nh}. kr skt' : n[rml smy m'. b@'n k' Ny?r[Ns k{ x]Ë y; A'nj}E rË m'. p2>} h/y} Gl?k{j> s' ]mlt} h"- a[r a[Ks}jn hr s'k.2 y; hr ]mn` k"p}lr}j> %;r; ]mlt} rht} h" : ]ks} w} smy m'. Ny?r[Ns m'. Gl;ek{j'n k} m;µ; Y;l} d{ ]mn` tk h} h{t} h" : b@'n k' Ny?r[Ns m'. an=_A'r{]bk m'`;b[lej>m (anaerobic metabolism) krn' k} 6mt; nh}. h"- s{ enk{ k;m krn' k' ]ly' a[Ks}jn pr h} ]nwEr rhn; p2>t; h" : es]ly' agr b@'n k{ 5-10 s'k.2 k' ]ly' w} a[Ks}jn n ]ml' y; rË m'. a[Ks}jn k} m;µ; bh/t km h{ y; rË k; bh;v ½k j;y' t{ r{g} b'h{x} k{m; m'. cl; j;y'g; : Oy;n rh' ]k s;r' xr}r k' ]`x?j> k' s"Ls k' aNdr Gl?k{j> j;n' k' ]ly' eNs/]ln k} a;vXykt; h"- jb ]k b@'n k' s"Ls m'. Gl?k{j> s}o} cl} j; skt} h"- a[r es' eNs/]ln k} a;vXykt; nh}. h"c;h' xr}r m'. eNs/]ln k} m;µ; j>}r{ (zero) y;]n x?Ny h} Ky{. n h{- mtlb xr}r m'. eNs/]ln ] bLk/l h} n bn rh} h{ : yh hr} k} k,p; h} h"- nh}. t{ ]jnk{ 2;y;b}`}s h" unk; t{ b@'n y; ]dm;g ]bLk/l k;m nh}. krt; a[r v' k{m; m'. cl' j;t' ! A's} VyvSq; hr} n' bn;y} h" ]k eNs/]ln j>}r{ h{n' pr w} b@'n m'. Gl?k{j> j;y'g} a[r Ny?r[Ns k{ Gl?k{j> ]ml'g} : d?sr} trfkw}_kw} eNs/]ln k' eNj'Kxn y; dv;eE k' k;r~ rË m'. eNs/]ln k} m;µ; bh/t a]ok h{ skt} h"- ]js s' rË m'. ]jtn} w} Gl?k{j> h"- vh s;r; h} xr}r k' s"Ls k' aNdr cl} j;t} h"- tb _ rË m'. Gl?k{j> k} m;µ; bh/t km h{n' k' k;r~ _ b@'n m'. Gl?k{j> nh}. j; p;t} t{ mn/Zy k{m; m'. j; skt; h"- y; us' m;n]sk b}m;]ry;\ a; skt} h". :

]l]Mbk ]sS`m Limbic System b@'n k' bh/t s' w;g{. k' sm?h k{ ]l]Mbk ]sS`m kht' h". : esm'. sb s' p@m/Y k'Nd@ h" h;yp{q"lms- ]jsk' a;s_p;s k' ]nMn aNy a.g w} x;]ml h". _ ]hPp{k|Mps (hippocampus) b'sl g".Gl}y; (basal ganglia) k' k/9 w;g a|]mG2;l; (amygdala) 2'N`'` j;ers (dentate gyrus) ]s.Gy?l'` j;ers (cingulate gyrus) j;ers f[]nEk'`s (gyrus fornicatus) a;c}E k[r`"Ks (archi cortex) s'P`m A]ry; (septum area) q|l|ms (thalamus) k' ag@ w;g k} Ny?]kly;e (nuclei) tq; enk' s;q h;yp{q"lms k' j{ w} k{n"Kxn h". a;jkl ]l]Mbk ]sS`m k; mtlb un s;r' Ny?r[Ns k' circuits j{ em{xnl tq; m{]`v'xnl 2Ä;ev k' ]ny.μ~ s' sMb]Not h". : tq; behaviour control k' al;v; y' d?sr} b;t{. y;]n xr}r k' a.dr k} ]Sq]ty{. (conditions) k{ w} k.`Ä{l krt' h". : j"s' ]k xr}r k; t;pm;n- xr}r k' vjn k; Oy;n rYn;- w?Y_Py;s k; lgn; tq; Y;n'_p}n' k; mn krn; y; n krn;- tq; xr}r k} Fl?e2=s k} osmolality k; Oy;n rYn; eTy;]d : ]l]Mbk ]sS`m motivated behaviour and arousal %;r; activate h{t; h" : h;yp{q"lms b@'n k; Y;l} Ak p@]txt w;g h"- pr yh w;vn;Tmk Vyvh;r{. k' ]ny.μ~ k' al;v; A'N2{´;en (endocrine) tq; autonomic motor system k' uUpr p@w;v 2lt; h" : yh t}n ] dx;a{. m'. k;m krt; h" y;]n s.d'x w'jt; h" _ 1. n}c' b@'n S`'m (brain stem) m'. _ m/Åyt+ m's'Ns'f|l;|n- p[Ns- a[r m'2?l; k' w;g{. m'. a[r usk' %;r; a[`{n{]mk nvEs ]sS`m k' nVEj> %;r; s;r' xr}r k' k;y{E. k; kr;n; 2. uUpr s'r'b@m- q|l|ms k' ag@ w;g tq; ]l]Mbk k[r`"Ks m'. p681 figure 3. ]p`=y?`r} Gl".2 k' d{n{. w;g _ y;]n A'N`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} tq; p[S`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} k' h[rm{Ns k{ bnv;n; v unk; ]ny.μ~ : h;yp{q"lms k' ]v]w¸ k;y{E. k' b;r' sm4n' m'. k]1n h" Ky{.]k es k' alg_alg w;g Ak s;q b@'n k' keE w;g{. k' s;q j/2>kr k;f} complex k;yE krt' h". : xr}r k' ]v]w¸ g@.]qy{.mSsLj> a[r w;g{. k{ uks; kr uns' alg_alg k;yE krv;t' h". : •

yh rË n]lk;a{. k' aNdr k' p@'xr k{ tq; ºdy k} g]t k{ km y; Jy;d; kr skt; h" : usm'. w} b;t A's} h" ]k h;yp{q"lms k' p}9' tq; l"`rl (posterior & lateral area) w;g k{ uks;n' pr ºdy k} g]t a[r b} p} b3>t} h" jb ]k s;mn' k' preoptic area k{ uks;n' s' ºdy k} g]t tq; b} p} d{n{. h} km h{ j;t} h". : esm'. m'2?l; a[r p[Ns k; w} sm;v'x h" :

•

xr}r k; t;pm;n agr km h{ t{ (6) Medulla d'n' s' vh t/rNt uUpr u1n' lgt; h" _ es k; hm'. p?r; p?r; an/wv h" : Ak r{g} k' p;.v hm'x; h} bfE k} trh 1.2' rht' q' a[r v' hm'x; d{_d{ m{j' (socks) 2;l' rht' q'- uNh'. n}c' k' upc;r ]dy' t{ Akdm 1}k h{ gy' _ (6) Medulla (4) Para (7) Liv (4) Thrd

•

h;yp{q"lms k"s' p;n} k; b"l'.s 1}k_1;k rYt; h" yh sm4'. _

1. jb xr}r m'. p;n} km h{ j;y' t{ h;yp{q"lms k' qSE` s'N`r (thirst centre) k' Fl?e2=s (fluids) m'. Al'K`Ä{l;e`=s (electrolytes y;]n nmk j"s} i/lnx}l pd;qE) k} m;µ; b3> j;y'g} t{ Py;s lg;t; h" ]k Vy]Ë p;n} p}n' k' ]ly' mjb?r h{t; h" : kw}_kw} sÅt s?Y} Y;\s} a;t} h" _ vh w} p;n} p}n' k} a;vXykt; k{ h} b{o kr;t} h" : 2. jb xr}r m'. p;n} km h{t; h"- mgr p;n} nh}. ]mlt;- A's} avSq; m'. p'x;b k; a;n; km kr d't; h"- t;]k xr}r m'. p;n} k} a[r km} n a; j;y' : ]fr jb p;n} ]mln' pr mn/Zy p;n} p} l't; h"- t{ ]fr p'x;b s;o;r~ m;µ; m'. a;n' lgt' h". : yh es p@k;r h{t; h" ]k h;yp{q"lms _ ] k2n}j> s' p;n} km ]nkln' k' ]ly' _ p[S`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} k{ v"s{p@"]sn h[rm{n 9{2>n' k' ]ly' uks;t; h"- a[r v"s{p@"]sn ]k2n}j> k{ Jy;d; p'x;b bn;n' s' r{kt} h" y;]n usk' p@w;v s' ]k2n}j> k' `=y?b?Ls (tubules) ]sfE p;n} k; p/nx{Ez~ (reabsorption) krt} h".- ]jss' p'x;b %;r; nmk ]nkl'g; pr p;n} km ]nkl'g; : •

bCc; p"d; h{n' k' smy h;yp{q"lms p[S`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} k{ a[Ks}`{]sn ]rl}j> krn' y; ] nk;ln' k' ]ly' uks;t; h" : ]js k' b;d Pl"s'N`; ]sk/2>n; x/# kr d't; h"- a[r bCc; p"d; h{ j;t; h" : d?sr;- jb bCc; m;\ k' qnk' ]nPpl (nipples) k{ c?st; h"- tb vh;. s' Ak e.pLs h;yp{q"lms m'. ph/\ct; h" ]jss' p[S`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} s' a[Ks}`{]sn ]nklt; h"- j{

qn s' d?o b;hr ]nk;ln' k{ uks;t; h" : a[r s;q m'. A'N`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} k{ p@{l"K`}n h[rm{n 9{2>n' k{ uks;t; h" t;]k vh qn{. m'. a[r d?o bn;y' :

•

A'N`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} m'. rË j;n' s' phl' vh h;yp{q"lms s' j;t; h"- ]js m'. ]ks} g@.q} uks;n' k' ]ly' h;yp{q"lms ]rl}]j>.g h[rm{Ns (releasing hormones) y; r{kn' k' ]ly' eNh}]b]`.g h[rm{Ns (inhibiting hormones) bn;t; h"- a[r ]fr A'N`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} en h[rm{Ns k' an/s;r k;yE krt; h" :

•

h;yp{q"lms %;r; h} w?Y lgt} h"- a[r Vy]Ë Y?b Y;t; h" : m;n]sk sdm; y; tn;v`'Nxn- ]2p@'xn (depression y;]n i{r ud;s}) eTy;]d k;r~{. s' y; ]ks} aNy k;r~ s' es k' ]bg2> j;n' pr kw} w?Y nh}. lgt}- k/9 w} Y;n' k} eC9; nh}. rht} a[r Vy]Ë mr w} skt; h" : y; es k' h;epr h{n' pr vh Y?b Y; skt; h" a[r m{`; h{ j;t; h" :

•

h;.- h;yp{q"lms k; Ak w;g esk; uL`; w} krt; h" _ y;]n Y;n' m'. s.t/Z`} y; t,]Pt l;n; ] jss' Vy]Ë w?Y ]m`n' k' b;d Y;n; bNd kr d't; h" :

•

Y;n'_p}n' k; Oy;n rYn' k' al;v; esm'. g/Ss; a;n' k; k'.d@ w} x;]ml h" : a[r S`Ä"s (stress) k{ km krn; w} yh kr skt; h" :

•

esm'. 3rd ventricle y;]n t}sr' v"N`Ä}kl k' p;s k' w;g m'. 2r y; d.2 k' w;v uTp¸ krn' k; k'.d@ h" ]js' reward and punishment centre kht' h". : s"Ks k' p@]t Oy;n j;n; y; eC9; h{n; w} es} s' h{t; h" :

Oy;n rh' k/9 l{g TRANQUILIZERS n;mk g{l} l't' h". _ S`Ä"s a[r `'Nxn k{ km krn' k' ]ly' : y' g{]ly;\ ]dm;g k' v'Vs (waves) k{ jbrdSt} db; d't' h".- s{ lgt; h" ]k g{]ly{. s' l;w h{ rh; h" Ky{.]k a;dm} Jy;d; x;Nt njr a;y'g; : l']kn en s' xr}r k{ bh/t n/ks;n ph/\ct; h" : en k' m/Åy s;e2 ef'K`=s (side effects) n}c' ]dy' gy' h". _ • Jv;.]2s y;]n p}]ly; (jaundice) – y;]n y' ]lvr k{ ]bg;2>t' h". • n[s}y; (nausea) y;]n j} ]mcl;n; _ y;]n y' p;cn t.μ k{ ]bg;2>t' h". • r|xs (rashes) y;]n Tvc; pr jgh_jgh pr l;l im{r}_s; h{ j;n; _ yh A'l'j}E k' k;r~ y; g[l Bl"2r k} g2>b2>} k' k;r~ h{ skt; h" : • sÅt m;n]sk d/bElt; Av. ]2p@'xn (depression) y;]n i{r ud;s} _ ac;nk r{n' k{ mn krn;- apn' a;p k{ n}c; sm4n;- d"]nk p]r]Sq]ty{. k{ s;mn; krn' k} ]hMmt Y{ b"1n; • s?eEs;e2l `'N2Ns}j> (suicidal tendencies) y;]n a;TmhTy; k} w;vn; k; a;n; • k/9 g{]ly;. gwE k' bCc' k{ keE trh k' n/ks;n ph/\c;t' h". : yh;. tk ]k bCc; mNd b/]5 k; w} h{ skt; h" : s{ gwE;vSq; k' d[r;n a[rt{. k{ A's} g{]ly;. nh}. l'n} c;]hy' • Ak b;r en g{]ly{. k} a;dt bn; l'n' k} b;d agr eNh'. Y;n; bNd kr d'. t{ n}c' ]lY} p@{Bl'm y;]n smSy;y'. h{ skt} h". _ o k'[NvLxNs (convulsions) y;]n ]f`=s k; a;n; o mSslj> m'. ´".MPs (cramps) y;]n A'.1n k; a;n; o ps}n; bh/t a]ok a;n; o u]L`y{. k; a;n; r"2> Ny?]Klys Red Nucleus Ny?]Klys xBd k' alg_alg s.dw{E. y;]n jgh{. m'. alg_alg aqE h{t' h". ]jnm'. k/9 n}c' ]dy' gy' h". _ 1. mOy k; Pv;e.` y;]n k'.d@ ]b.d/ ]js k' a;j?b;j? m'. aNy m"`r y;]n c}j ek`=1; h{t' h{. : yh s;o;r~ aqE h" : 2. jb s"Ll k' a.dr k} Ny?]Klys k} b;t h{t} h" _ uor aqE h" s"Ls k' aNdr Ak A's; S`ÄKcr (structure y;]n bn;v`<) y; w;g y; vSt/ ]jsm'. ´{m{s{m h{t' h". : yh} s"Ls k' aNdr m'`;b[lej>m k{ d'Yt' h". : Av. us s"Ll k} g@{q y; fln' f?ln' k{ tq; usk} r}p@{2Kxn (reproduction) y;]n Ak s"Ll s' d?sr' s"Ll k} uTp]¶ k; ]ny.μ~ krt' h". : 3. jb b@'n k' s.dwE m'. b;t h{t} h" _ uor aqE h" b@'n k' aNdr Ny?r[Ns k; Ak g@? p y; 4/ˉ2 y; g@' m"`r (gray matter) k; sm?h j{ s'.`Äl nvEs ]sS`'m (CNS) k' k;y{E. k{ d'Yt; h"

4. agr k"]mS`Ä} k} b;t h{ t{ yh a|`m (atom) k' aNdr k' Ak w;r} p;]`Ekl y; k~k{ s?]ct krt; h" ]jsm'. us a|`m k' p[]j>]`v el"K`Ä}k c;jEs k} jm;v` h{ : r"2> Ny?]Klys ]m2> b@'n k' uUpr Av. m's'Ns'fl;|n (mesencephalon) k' a.dr ] Sqt h"- a[r uUpr k} trf sb q|l|ms tk f"l; h/a; h" : esk} oval y;]n a.2;_j"s} x'p (shape) y;]n a;k;r h" j{ k;f} b2>; h" : a[r es k; r.g kltn ? pr h" : es m'. s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks s' tq; s'r'b'lm d{n{. jgh s' f;ebsE a;t' h". : a[r yh;. s' h{kr v' ]js pq s' n}c' j;t' h".- us' #b@{_Sp;enl `Ä"K` (rubro spinal tract) kht' h". : es r"2> Ny?]Klys k' f.KxNs y;]n k;yE k[r`}k{ Sp;enl `Ä"K` (cortico spinal tract) k' s;q j/2>' h". y;]n usk' s;q ]mlkr yh k;m krt; h" : p@;emr} m{`r k[r`"Ks (primary motor cortex) s' bh/t s' f;ebsE es m'. s' h{kr h} m's'Ns'fl;|n m'. j;t' h". : r"2> Ny?]Klys k' n}c' k' w;g m'. k;f} b2>' Ny?r[Ns h{t' h". ]jn k' f;ebsE s' h} #b@{_Sp;enl `Ä"K` bn} h/y} h" : yh `Ä"K` red nucleus s' ]nkln' k' b;d s;mn' d?sr} trf ´[s (cross) krk' l[ar b@'n S`'m (lower brain stem) m'. cl} j;t} h" : [ esk' Ny?r[Ns utn' b2>' h{t' h". j"s' ]k m[`r k[r`"Ks k' BETZ s"Ls h{t' h". :] y' l;jE Ny?r[Ns ½br{ Sp;enl `Ä"K` k{ bn;t' h/y' s;mn' k} trf y; opposite side y;]n d?sr} trf m'. b3> j;t' h". a[r l{ar y; n}c' k} trf b@'n S`'m m'. k[r`}k{ Sp;enl `Ä"K` k' s;mn' v b;j? s' h{t} h/y} Sp;enl k[2E m'. cl} j;t} h".- ]jn m'. k/9 k[r`}k{ Sp;enl f;eEbj>E k' s;q w} ]ml j;t' h". : r"2 Ny?]Klys k; sMbNo s'r'b'lm k' s;q v"s; h} h" j"s; ]k m{`r k[r`'Ks k; s'r'b'lm k' s;q sMbNo h" : r"2> Ny?]Klys k; xr}r k' sw} msLs k' s;q sMbNo h" _ 1}k v"s; h}- j"s' m[`r k[r`"Ks k; h" : s{ r"2> Ny?]Klys k' ]ks} Y;s ]b.d/ k{ uks;kr msLs k' ]ks} Y;s g@?p k{ y; j#rt k' an/s;r ak'l; Ak mSsl (muscle) k{ w} uks;y; j; skt; h" : l']kn m{`r k[r`"Ks ]jtn} f;en y;]n t/Ly #p s' yh k;m kr skt; h"- utn; t/Ly #p s' r"2> Ny?]Klys nh}. kr skt; Ky{.]k usk} t/ln; m'. esk} s;ej> (size) y;]n a;k;r k;f} 9{`} h" : ud;hr~ k' ]ly'- agr m{`r k[r`"Ks s' Sp;enl k[2E m'. h;q k{ a;n'v;l} f;ebsE m'. g2>b2>} h{- l']kn #b@{_Sp;enl `Ä"K` m'. g2>b2>} n h{ t{ r"2> Ny?]Klys k' s[jNy s' kl;eE k' hlcl tk 1}k_1;k h{g;- mgr u\g]ly{. k; tq; h;q k; f;en y;]n mh}n hlcl k; k.`Ä{l h}. h{g; : l']kn agr #b@{_Sp;enl `Ä"K` m'. w} k{eE Bl[k'j h{ t{ kl;eE k; hlcl w} nh}. h{ p;y'g; : jb w} k{eE hlcl krn} h{t} h" t{ s'r'b@l h'm}Sf}yr (cerebral hemisphere) y;]n s'r'b'lm k{ d{ p@k;r k} s?cn;y'. ]mlt} h". _ 1. m{`r k[r`"Ks a[r r"2> Ny?]Klys yh s?cn; d't' h". ]k agl' k/9 6~{. m'. j{ hlcl h{n' v;l} h"- usk; Pl;n (plan) Ky; h" y;]n k[n s' a.g ]ks ´m s' ]hl'.g' : 2. t/rNt h} h;q- p"r- u\g]ly;\ eTy;]d a.g{. k' Ny?r[Ns yh f}2>b"k (feedback) y;]n s.d'x d't' h". ]k j{ k;yE ]ky; gy;- usk; asl} fl y; nt}j; Ky; ]nkl; : y;]n actually k[n s' a.g{. m'. asl m'. Ky; hlcl h/y} _ yh bt;t' h". : s'r'b'lm en d{n{. p@k;r k' s.d'x k{ ]ml;kr k[Mp"r (compare) y;]n prY kr d'Y'g; ]k Pl;n k' m/t;]bk j{ krn; c;ht' q' a[r asl m'. j{ hlcl h/y} _ un d{n{. m'. ]ktn; fkE h" : ]fr us k;yE k{ 1}k p@k;r s' krn' k' ]ly' j{ a[r s/o;r c;]hy' unk' ]ly' d{ jgh s.d'x w'j'g; _ 1. q|l|ms k' ]rl' Ny?]Kly;e (relay nuclei) %;r; m{`r k[r`"Ks k{ 2. tq; r"2> Ny?]Klys k' b2>' Ny?r[Ns k{- j{ #b@{_Sp;enl `Ä"K` m'. h". ]fr m{`r k[r`"Ks tq; r"2> Ny?]Klys _ y' d{n{. ]mlkr hlcl m'. a[r s/o;r l;y'.g' jb tk ]k vh k;yE p?~E #p s' 1}k n h{ : es]ly' r"2> Ny?]Klys k; bh/t mhTv h" : -

Sp;enl k[2E k; k;yE Sp;enl k[2E (spinal cord) k; m/Åy f.Kxn h" ]k 7;n'.]d@y{. y;]n a;\Y- k;n- n;kTvc; eTy;]d s' p@;Pt s".sr} ]sGnLs (sensory signals) k{ b@'n tk l' j;n; tq; b@'n s' w'j; h/a; m{`r ]sGnLs (motor signals) k{ p'r}f'r} (periphery) y;]n h;q_p"r k' 9{r{. tk ph/\c;n' k; c"nl (channel) y; r;St; h"- l']kn usk; k;yE ]sfE etn; h} nh}. : yh a.g{. k' hlcl m'. w} Ak mhTvp?~E w?]mk; ]nw;t} h" : ud;hr~ k' ]ly'- b@'n k' ]ks} w} w;g m'. Ny?r[Ns k; A's; k{eE ]sS`m y; k{eE jgh nh}. h" j{ `;.g{. k{ cl; sk' : b@'n p"r{. k{ cl;n' k' ]ly' k;m;N2

(command) y; a;d'x y; ex;r; m;µ d't; h" : l']kn `;.g{. k{ cl;n' k; k;m k'vl Sp;enl k[2E h} krt} h" : p@y{gx;l; m'. d'Y; gy; ]k agr ]ks} k/¶' k' Sp;enl k[2E k{ gl' k' p}9' A's' k;` ]dy; j;y ]k ]sfE b@'n k; k{n"Kxn (connection) k` j;y- a[r k[2E k; a]ok;.x w;g j{ n}c' h"- vh k;m kr sk'- a[r usk' ]sr m'. rË s.c;r c;l? rh'- a[r usk' xr}r k{ q{2>; sh;r; ]dy; j;y t{ d'Y; gy; ]k us k/¶' k} `;.g'. a;g'_p}9' 1}k us} p@k;r hlcl krt} h". j"s' aNy j;nvr{. k} `;.g'. clt' smy krt} h". : t{ s;]bt h/a; ]k Sp;enl k[2E h} `;.g{. k{ cl; rh} h"- Ky{.]k p"r{. tq; b@'n k' sMbNo k{ k;` ]dy; gy; : ess' yh mtlb nh}. ]k hlcl k' ]ny.μ~ m'. b@'n k; k{eE k;yE nh}. h" : hr pl b@'n a;d'x d't' rht; h" ]k kb p]r]Sq]t k' an/s;r m/2>n; h"- o}m' clt' smy xr}r k; s}o; rhn; v t'j} s' clt' smy k"s' xr}r k{ a;g' k} a{r 4/k;n; h"- eTy;]d : xr}r s' y; `;.g{. s' k;yE krn; Sp;enl k[2E k; k;m h" mgr u9ln' k' b;d xr}r k"s' apn' a;p s}o; h{t; h"- y;]n eE]Kv]l]b@ym (equilibrium) k; bn;y' rYn; _ yh sb d'Yn; b@'n k; h} k;m h" : Oy;n rh' ]k ]ks} k;r~ s' ]ks} k{ gdEn k' C5 mnk' k' uUpr m;r lg j;y ]js s' xr}r k' k{n"KxNj> b@'n s' k` j;y'. t{ xr}r k' s;r' f.KxNs (functions) bNd h{ j;t' h". : r{g} c;ht' h/y' w} h;q_p;.v k; ]hl;n; y; k{eE k;m krn; a[r yh;. tk ]k p'x;b y; ``=`} pr w} k.`Ä{l nh}. kr skt; : px/a{. m'. k/9 i.`{. m'. y; ]dn{. m'. keE f.KxNs v;ps a; j;t' h".- jb ]k mn/Zy{. m'. k/9 h} f.KxNs a; p;t' a[r us k' ]ly' w} keE sPt;h y; mh}n' lg skt' h". : h;. unk' p'x;b pr ]ny.μ~ t{ nh}. h{t;- h;q p;.v k; u1;n; w} p?r; 1}k nh}. h{t;- Ky{.]k a.g{. k' hlcl k; ]ny.μ~ t{ b@'n m'. h" ]jsk; k{n"Kxn k` gy; : es ]sl]sl' m'. g/½j} k' Ky; ]vc;r h". j>r; sm4'. : b@'n k' a[r xr}r k} apn} ]nj} f.KxNs h".- c;h' d{n{. ]mlkr h} k;yE Ky{. n kr' : jb xr}r k; eN`Ä}]Nsk f.Kxn (intrinsic function) y;]n k;yE krn' k} apn} x"l} alg h"- t{ Ky; LMNT %;r; en f.KxNs k{ Y{j kr 1}k nh}. ]ky; j; skt; < jb ]k uUpr bt;y; gy; h" ]k agr ]ks} j;nvr k; ]sr k; k{n"Kxn alg kr k' rË s.c;r c;l? rY; j;y t{ vh cl skt; h" _ Ky{.]k h;q p"r{. k; y; c;r p;.v{. k; cl;n; Sp;enl k[2E k' a]ok;r m'. h" _ s{ smy bt;y'g; ]k A's; krn; as.wv nh}.- pr k]1n avXy h" : Sp;enl k[2E k' a.dr i/sn' k' b;d hr s".sr} nvE k} d{ x;Y; h{ j;t} h".- j{ d{ alg jgh pr ] sGnl l' j;t} h". : Ak x;Y; Sp;enl k[2E k' a.dr k' g@' m"`r tk j;kr vh}. YTm h{ j;t} h"- jh;. vh Sq;n}y ]rFl'Kss (local reflexes) krn' k' ]ly' uks;t} h" : d?sr} x;Y; uUpr nvEs ]sS`m k' aNy w;g{. tk s.d'x l' j;t} h"- c;h' k[2E k' uUpr} w;g tk y; b@'n S`'m y; j#rt h{n' pr s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks tk w} j; skt} h" : Oy;n rh' Sp;enl k[2E m'. kr{2>{. Ny?r[Ns h".- j{ Sp;enl k[2E k' g@' m"`r (gray matter) m'. h". : en m'. a.g{. s' s.v'dn; l' j;n'v;l' Ny?r[Ns k{ s".sr} ]rl' Ny?r[Ns (sensory relay neurons ) kht' h". : enk' al;v; b;k} Ny?r[Ns m/Åyt+ d{ p@k;r k' h". _ AN`}]ryr m{`r Ny?r[Ns (anterior motor neurons) Av. eN`r Ny?r[Ns (Inter neurons) enk' a;ps m'. w} tq; Ak d?sr' k' s;q k{n"Kxn h{t' h". a[r en d{n{. k' t;lm'l k' k;r~ h} Sp;enl k[2E etn} m/]Xkl a[r complex k;y{E. k{ etn} a;s;n} s' kr p;t} h" a[r xr}r k' keE msLs k' g@?Ps k{ Ak h} smy m'. uks; p;t} h" : AN`}]ryr m{`r Ny?r[Ns y' k[2E g@' m"`r k' A'N`}]ryr h;nE m'. h{t' h". : aNy Ny?r[Ns k} t/ln; m'. y' km s' km pc;s s' s[ p@]txt b2>' h{t' h". : ens' bn' nvE f;ebsE k[2E k' s;mn' k' roots s' ]nklt' h". a[r y' Sk'l}`l msLs (skeletal muscles) k{ uks;t' h". : Sk'l}`l msLs uNh'. kht' h". j{ msLs h]2=2y{. k' s;q j/2>' h/y' h". : y' AN`}]ryr m{`r Ny?r[Ns w} d{ p@k;r k' h{t' h". _ A'lf; m{`r ny?r[Ns (alpha motor neurons) a[r g;m; m{`r Ny?r[Ns (gamma motor neurons) A'lf; m{`r ny?r[Ns s' j} f;ebsE bnt' h". v' k;f} m{`' h{t' h".- ]jNh'. A'lf; m{`r nvE f;ebsE (alpha motor nerve fibres) kht' h". : enk} a[stn m{`;eE c[dh m;e´{ m}`r h{t} h" a[r v' b2>' Sk'l}`l msLs k' aNdr i/skr keE x;Y;a{. m'. ]vw;]jt h{t} h".- a[r es trh v' unk{ uks;t} h". : Ak b;r uks;n' pr Ak a;Lf; nvE f;ebr km s' km t}n a[r a]ok s' a]ok keE s[ Sk'l}`l msLs tk k{ uks; skt} h" : Ak f;ebr s' uks;y' gy' sw} msLs k' sm?h k{ Ak m{`r y?]n` (motor unit) kh; j;t; h" :

g;m; m{`r Ny?r[Ns _ y' a;lf; Ny?r[Ns s' k;f} 9{`} h{t} h". a[r un s' 50 p@]txt km m;µ; m'. p;y} j;t} h". : ens' bn' f;ebsE k{ A_g;m; m{`r f;ebsE (A-gamma motor fibres) kht' h". j{ w} k;f} ptl} h{t} h". _ kr}b p;.c m;e´{ m}`r y; uss' km : y' apn' eMpLss (impulses) %;r; 9{`} Sk'l}`l msLs k' b}c k' mSsl ]Sp]N2l (muscle spindle) n;mk w;g k{ uks;t} h". : Oy;n rh' ]k m{`' f;ebsE k{ a;Lf; Ny?r[Ns a[r ptl' m{`r f;ebsE k{ g;m; m[`r Ny? r[Ns uks;t} h". a[r es p@k;r s' sw} p@k;r k' msLs k{ k.`Ä{l krt} h". : eN`r Ny?r[Ns Interneurons y' bh/t 9{`} h". a[r A'N`}]ryr Ny?r[Ns s' kr}b t}s g/~; Jy;d; m;µ; m'. p;y} j;t} h". : y' bh/t a;s;n} s' uks; j;t} h". a[r Ak s'k.2 m'. 1500 b;r tk f;y]r.g (firing) kr skt} h". : s".sr} nVEj> s' y; b@'n s' j{ w} ]sGnLs a;t' h".- unm'. s' kr}b sw} ]sGnLs phl' e.`r Ny?r[Ns s' h} g/jrt' h".- a[r an'k jgh{. s' eNh'. ]sGnLs a;n' k' b;d h} y' A'N`}]ryr Ny?r[Ns tk ]sGnLs w'jt} h". jh;. s' msl k{ k.`Ä{l krn' k' e.pLss w'j' j;t' h". : r'Nx;| s"Ls Renshaw Cells Sp;enl k[2E m'. uUpr k' d{ ]kSm k' Ny?r[Ns k' a;j? b;j? m'. w;r} m;µ; m'. aNy bh/t h} 9{`} e.`r Ny?r[Ns p;y} j;t} h". : enk; k;m h" ]k ]js m{`r Ny?r[n s' e.pLss a;y' usk' a;j?b;j/ k' aNy m{`r Ny?r[Ns k{ r{kn' k' e.pLss w'jt} h". : yh es]ly' h" ]k m{`r Ny?r[Ns k' k;yE k' a[2Er k{ 1}k 3.g s' f{ks (focus) kr' t;]k ]js ]dx; m'. ]sGnl y; e.pLss k{ j;n; h" vh}. j;y' a[r aNy anc;h} ]dx;a{. m'. ]sGnLs j;n' s' r{k' : es]ly' es' Renshaw cell inhibitory system w} kh; j;t; h" : mSsLs k' s".sr} ]rs"P`jE mSsls k{ 1}k p@k;r s' k;yE krn' k' ]ly' k'vl A'N`}]ryr m{`r Ny?r[Ns k{ uks;n' s' h} k;m nh}. clt;- mgr hr mSsl f}2>b"k %;r; lg;t;r nvEs ]sS`m k{ apn} h;lt k' p@]t bt;t' rht; ] k vh ]ks h;l m'. h" : A's; krn' k' ]ly' mSsLs a[r unk' `'N2Ns (tendons) k{ p@c/r m;µ; m'. d{ Y;s p@k;r k' s".sr} ]rs"P`jE (sensory receptors) ]dy' gy' h". _ mSsl ]SpN2Ls (muscle spindles) a[r g[lj} `'.2Ns (Golgi tendons) mSsl ]SpN2Ls _ y' hr mSsl k' b}c k' m;.s m'. h". j{ s'.`Äl nvEs ]sS`'m k{ bt;t' rht' h". ]k mSsl k} lMb;eE ]ktn} h"- usm'. `'Nxn y;]n k2>kpn Av. nrm} ]ktn} h"- a[r yh lMb;eE y; `'Nxn ]ks g]t s' bdl rh} h" : g[lj} `'.2n a;|rgNs _ y' mSsl k' `'N2Ns m'. ]Sqt h". a[r y' lg;t;r `'N2n k} `'Nxn a[r usk' bdln' k} g]t k' p@]t j;nk;r} d't' rht' h". : y' d{n{. p@k;r k' ]rs'P`sE %;r; mSsLs smy smy pr apn} h;lt k' b;r' m'. Sp;enl k[2E k{ h} nh}.- b]Lk s'r'b'lm tq; s'r'b@m k{ bt;t' rht' h". : a[r yh sb p@c/r m;µ; m'. an"]C9k #p s' h{t; h"- ]jsk' b;r' m'. k[]Nxys m;eN2 (conscious mind) y;]n sc't mn k{ pt; w} nh}. clt; : a[r es p@k;r s' mSsl k' s.k/cn k' ]ly' nvEs ]sS`m k' sw} w;g{. k{ mdd krt' rht' h". : A']mG2|l; Amygdala a[r usk' f.KxNs A']mG2;l; (amygdala) ]l]Mbk ]sS`m (limbic system) k; Ak m/Åy a.g h"- j{ b@'n m'. k[r`"Ks k' n}c' `"mp{rl l{b (temporal lobe) m'. ]Sqr h" : ]l]Mbk ]sS`m k' sw} w;g{. k' s;q a[r Y;s kr h;yp{q"lms k' s;q esk' b;el"`rl (bilateral) y;]n d{_trf; k{n"Kxn p@c/r m;µ; m'. h". : esk' aNdr an'k p@k;r k} 9{`} Ny?]Kly;e (nuclei) h{t} h".- j{ ]v]w¸ p@k;r k' p@w;v l; skt} h". : j;nvr{. m'. es} A']mG2;l; k' k;r~ s?.in' k} x]Ë bh/t t'j h{t} h"- pr mn/Zy{. m'. yh blv;n nh}. h{t; : pr es} k' k;r~ mn/Zy d?sr} jgh pr blv;n h{t; h"- ]js s' h;l;t k' an/s;r d?sr{. s' k"s; Vyvh;r krn; c;]hy'- vh 3.g yh} ]sY;t; h" : h;.- Ak j#r h" ]k b@'n k; A'p}`;e` (appetite y;]n w?Y) k; k'.d@ Jy;d;tr A']mG2;l; a[r k[r`"Ks k' gNo a[r Sv;d k' w;g k} Ny?]Kly;e k' ]sGnLs k' an/s;r h} k;m krt; h" : (Guyton 10th ed. p 741) ]l]Mbk k[r`"Ks k' sw} w;g{. s' es' ]sGnLs ]mlt' h".- ]jsm'. Y;s kr s/nn' a[r À]Z` s' sMb]Not w;g{. k; y{gd;n bh/t Jy;d; h" : es]ly' h} es' ‘Window y; ]Y2>k} ’ kh; j;t; h" Ky{.]k esk} bh/t s' k{n"Kxn y;]n sMpk{.E k' k;r~ h} mn/Zy k{ 7;n h{t; h" ]k s.s;r m'. usk} jgh y; avSq; Ky; h"- Av. es} k' %;r; ]l]Mbk ]sS`m k{ aNy j}v jNt/a{. k; 7;n h{t; h" :

A']mG2;l; k{ uks;n' pr h;yp{q"lms k{ uks;n' s' a]ok l;w h{t; h" Ky{.]k keE k;yE vh h;yp{q"lms k' s;q ]mlkr krt; h" jb ]k k/9 aNy p@w;v vh Y/d l;t; h" : A']mG2;l; h;yp{q"lms %;r; ]nMn p@w;v l;t; h" _ • a;r`r}j> k' a.dr k; p@'xr km y; Jy;d; h{n; • ºdy k} o2>>kn k{ km y; a]ok krn; • a¸ n]lk; k} m{]`]l`} (motility) y;]n w{jn k{ a;g' 3k'ln' k} g]t tq; ¹;v{. k; ]nk;s k{ km y; Jy;d; krn; • s.2;s y; ``=`} tq; p'x;b k; a;n; • a;\Y k} p/tl} k; f"ln;- y; bh/t r'yl}E (rarely)y;]n kw}_kw;r p/tl} k; ]sk/2>n; • r{.g`{. k; Y2>; h{n; (pilo erection) • A'N`}]ryr ]p`=y?`=r} k' h[rm{Ns k{ bn;n; (secretion) _ Y;s kr ACTH tq; FSH/LH uUpr k' p@w;v{. k' al;v;- A']mG2;l; k{ alg s' uks;n' s' ]nMn p@k;r k' eNv;|lN`r} (involuntary) y;]n an"]C9k hlcl a; skt' h". _ • ]sr k; uUpr u1n; y; xr}r k; 4/kn; • g{l_g{l i?mn; • kw}_kw} 4`k{. k' s;q hlcl (clonic movements) y; ]ny]mt ly m'. hlcl (rhythmic movements) • i@;~ y;]n gNo a[r Y;n' s' sMb]Not ]ý;y'. _ j"s' ]l]Kk.g licking y;]n c;`n;, cb;n; Av. ]ngln; en k' al;v; A']mG2;l; k' k/9 Y;s Ny?]Kly;e (nuclei) k{ uks;n' s' ]nMn p@k;r k' p@]t]ý;y'. ]dYt} h". ]jNh'. k/l ]ml;kr r'j p"`nE (rage pattern) kht' h". : y' 1}k v"s} h} h{t} h".- j"s' ]k h;yp{q"lms k{ uks;n' pr a;t} h". _ • r'j (rage) y;]n bh/t a;m b;t{. pr w} at}v g/Ss; k; a;n; • ASk'p (escape) y;]n h;q nh}. a;n;- bc kr ]nkl j;n; • dˉ2 p;n' k' smy j{ d/+Y y; i,~; k} w;vn; a;t} h" • f}yr (fear) y;]n 2r • s}]vyr p'en (severe pain) y;]n at}v ddE eTy;]d A']mG2;l; k' k/9 aNy s"Ls k{ uks;n' s' reward and pleasure k} p@]t]ý;y'. h{t} h". : y;]n en w;g{. k' uks;n' s' us' v"s; h} s/Y ]mlt; h" j"s' en;m p@;Pt krn' k' b;d h{t; h" : a[r k/9 aNy Ny?]Kly;e (nuclei) k{ uks;n' pr s.w{g a[r p@jnn sMbNo} ]ý;a{. k{ uks;y; j; skt; h" j"s' ]k _ • Ar'Kxn (erection) y;]n jnn'.]d@y k; k2>k Av. s}o; Y2>; rhn; _ j"s' ]k s.w{g k} ap'6; m'. h{t; h" : • ]mq/n ]ý; j"s} hrkt'. (copulatory movements) • eEj"Ky/l'xn (ejaculation) y;]n v}yE ]nkl j;n; • a{Vy?l'xn (ovulation) • y?`'r;en A]K`]v`} y;]n y?`'rs sMbNo} ]ý;y'. • p@}m|Cy{r l'br (pre-mature labour) y;]n smy s' phl' h} p@s?]t_ddE k; a;n; Kluver-Bucy Syndrome agr d{n{. b;j? k' A']mG2;l; k{ ]nk;l ]dy; j;y y; v' ]n]Zý h{ j;y'. t{ b.dr{. k' b}h']vyr (behaviour) y;]n c;l3;l y; vt;Ev m'. ]nMn bdl;v ]dYn' lg' _ • Akdm ]nwEy h{n; _ ]ks} c}j y; Vy]Ë s' 2rt' nh}. _ a;s;n} s' p;lt? bn j;t' h". : • a|g@']SsVn's (aggressiveness) y;]n 4g2>;l? p@v,]¶ YTm y; Akdm km h{ j;t} h" • hr c}j k' p@]t at}v y; b'h) Ky?]ry;|]s`} (curiosity) y;]n ]j7;s/ ]k yh c}j Ky; h" • hr Ak c}j y; vSt/ k{ m/\h m'. 2;lkr cYn' k} a;dt _ yh;. tk ]k k]1n 1{s (solid) pd;q{E. k{ w} Y;n' k} k{]xx krn; • Y;n' p}n' k} a;dt{. m'. etn} bdl;v a; j;t} h" ]k x;Y;h;r} j;nvr w} m;.s Y;n' lg j;t' h". • kw}_kw} s;e]kk Bl;e.2n's (psychic blindness) y;]n m;n]sk r{g k' k;r~ a.o;pn mhs?s krn; y;]n a;\Y{. m'. k{eE g2>b2>} nh}. pr c}j'. ]dY;eE nh}. d't} • s.w{g k' p@]t aTy]ok a[r aSv;w;]vk ½]c k; h{n; ]k vh ]ks} w} p@;~} s' m'q/n krn' k} k{]xx krt; h" _ c;h' vh sm;n ]l.g k; h{- y; eMm|Cy{r (immature) y;]n n;b;]lk h{ y; aNy j;]t k; p@;~} w} Ky{. n h{ :

mn/Zy{. m'. d{n{. b;j? k' A']mG2;l; k; ]bg2>n; bh/t h} r'yr (rare) y;]n n; k' br;br h"- pr kw} ]ks} k;r~ b@'n m'. l}j>Ns (lesions) y;]n i;v h{ skt} h".- ]jsk' k;r~ A's; h{ skt; h" : l']kn ]jnk{ A's; h{t; h"- unk; vt;Ev uUpr k' b.dr{. s' Jy;d; ]w¸ nh}. h{t; ! s.6'p m'. kh'. t{ _ lgt; h" ]k A']mG2;l; b}h']vyrl a|v'yrn's (behavioural awareness) y;]n a;cr~ k' p@]t j;g#kt; l;n' k; Ak A's; k'.d@ h"- j{ s'm}_k;Nxs l'vl (semiconscious level) y;]n aoE_c't Str pr k;yE krt; h" : yh ]l]Mbk ]sS`m k{ apn' q;|`=s (thoughts ) y;]n ]vc;r_x]Ë tq; a;j?_b;j? k' v;t;vr~ k' sMbNo m'. apn} vtEm;n S`'`s (status) y;]n ]Sq]t y; sMbNo bt;t; h" : A's; ]vXv;s ]ky; j;t; h" ]k yh Vy]Ë k{ p]r]Sq]t k' an/s;r upy/Ë Vyvh;r krn' k' ]ly' mdd krt; h" : -

]hPp{k"Mps Hippocampus a[r usk' f.KxNs ]hPp{k|Mps `"mp{rl k[r`"Ks k' b}c m'. uUpr a[r n}c' j;t; h" : yh s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks k; vh l.b; w;g h" j{ a.dr m/2>kr l'`rl v"N`Ä}kl k} s;mn'v;l} prt bn j;t; h" : esk} Ak s;e2 y; b;j? A']mG2;l; k} Ny?]Kly;e k' s;q lg} h/y} h" : esk} Ak a[r b;j? s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks k' `'Mp{rl l{b (temporal lobe) k} a.dr} prt bn j;t} h" : A']mG2;l; j"s; h}- ]hPp{k|Mps (hippocampus) w} ]l]Mbk ]sS`m (limbic system) k; Ak m/Åy a.g h" : ]l]Mbk ]sS`m k' m/Åy w;g _ j"s' ]k A']mG2;l;- h;yp{q"lms- s'P`m (septum) Av. m"]mLlr} b[2>}j> (mamillary bodies) k' al;v; s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks k' bh/t s' w;g{. y; ]hSs{. k' s;q eN2;er'K` (indirect) y;]n ap@Ty6 #p esk' an'k k{n"Kxn (connection) h". : c;h' ]ks} p@k;r k; Sp.dn h{ _ vh ]hPp{k|Mps k' ]ks} n ]ks} w;g k{ j#r uks;y'g} : a[r apn} trf s' ]hPp{k|Mps h;yp{q"lms- A'N`}]ryr q|l|ms y;]n q|l|ms k' ag@ w;g- tq; Y;s krk' f[]nEKs (fornix) n;mk m/Åy p;qv' (pathway) y;]n rSt; %;r; ]l]Mbk ]sS`m k' d?sr' w;g{. k{ ]sGnLs (signals) w'j d't; h" : Oy;n rh' ]k h]r n' yh ]sS`m bn;y; h" ]k xr}r k' keE m/Åy k;y{E. k{ vh Ak h} g@.q} s' nh}. kr;t;- b]Lk Ak s' an'k g@.]qy{. S; k;yE kr;t; h"- t;]k Ak k' ]bg2>n' s' k;yE ½kn; nh}. c;]hy' : es} p@k;r s' h;yp{q"lms a[r A']mG2;l; k' al;v; ]hPp{k|Mps Ak a]t]rË c"nl (additional channel) y; m;gE h"- ]jss' b;hr} d/]ny; s' a; rh' s".sr} ]sGnLs ]Sq]t k' an/s;r upy/Ë ]ry"KxNs (reactions) y;]n p@]t]ý; d'n' y; krn' k' ]ly' xr}r k{ uks; skt' h".: yh ]sGnl w'jn' k' al;v; a[r k;yE w} krt; h" : s".sr} ]sGnLs k' ]mln' pr us Vy]Ë k{ ]ks p@k;r s' ]bh']vy{rl ]ry;|Kxn (behavioural reaction) y;]n Vyvh;r m'. Ky; p@]t]ý; krn; h"- s{ krv;t; h" : a[r esk' aNy k;yE h". _ g/Ss; y; p"s}]v`} (passivity) y;]n k{eE p@]t]ý; n krn;- s"Ks (sex) k' p@]t a]ok ½4;n y; a]ok s"Ks 2Ä;ev (sex-drive), eTy;]d : a[r sbs' b2>} b;t yh h" ]k ]hPp{k"Mps k{ hLk}_s} el']K`Äkl ]S`m/l} (electrical stimuli) y;]n ]vD/t} s.v'dn;y'. ]mln' s' w} ]f`=s a; skt} h". : r{g} c;h' b'h{x nh}. h{t;- a[r us' m;l?m w} h{ skt; h" ]k ]f`=s a; rh} h". : a[r ]S`m/l} p?r} h{n' k' b;d w} k/9 s'k.2 (second) tk es pr unk; asr rht; h" : x;yd esk; Ak k;r~ yh h{ skt; h" ]k ]hPp{k"Mps m'. nvE s"Ls k} m;µ t}n l'yjE> (layers) y;]n th h". jb ]k b@'n k' sb_ k[r`'Ks (sub cortex) k' aNy w;g{. m'. nvE s"Ls k} 9h th h{t} h". : es el']K`Äkl ]S`m/l} k' d/Zp@w;v k{ r{kn' k' ]ly' h} hm (12) Medulla d't' h". : k/9 r{]gy{. k{ ]jNh'. ]f`=s a;t} q}.- unk; ]hPp{k"Mps k;` kr ]nk;l ]dy; gy;- t{ did it stop the fits ? ask Guruji. un m'. p;y; gy; ]k unk} neE y;dd;Xt t{ sm;Pt h{ j;t} h"- pr p/r;n} y;d'. rh j;t} h".: us r{g} k{ r{j ]mln' v;l' Vy]Ëy{. k' n;m w} w?l j;t' h". : s{ lMb} y;dd;Xt k' ]ly' ]hPp{k"Mps k; 1}k h{n; a;vXyk h" : y; A's' kh skt' h". ]k ]hPp{k"Mps k' bg"r y;dd;Xt nh}. rht} : j;nvr{. m'. g.o y; Y/xb? k{ s?.i kr s"Ks (sex) k} eC9; j;g,t h{t} h"- j"s; ]k b"l s"Ks krn' s' phl' g;y k' m?μ Sq;n k{ s?.it; h"- a[r vh;. pr g.o y; Y/xb? h{n' pr h} g;y b"l k{ s.w{g krn' d'g}- vrn; nh}. krn' d'g} _ A's; h{n; ]hPp{k"Mps k; k;yE h" : ]l]Mbk ]sS`m k; 1}k n h{n' s' n}.d k; n a;n;- m{`r r'S`l"Sn's (motor-restlessness) y;]n hlcl ]ky' bg"r nh}. rh p;n;- ]cNt; y; aNy k;r~{. s' eor_uor clt' y; `hlt' rhn;- g/Ss; eTy;]d s' ]f`=s k; a;n;- Vyvh;r m'. bdl;v eTy;]d :

a.g{. k' hlcl k' ]ny.μ~ m'. b@'n k; k;yE Oy;n rh' ]k b@'n m'. m{`r y;]n hlcl k; k;m y; a[r2r (order) d'n' k; k;m y; m{`r A]ry; (motor area) ]sr k; phl' k; y; a;g' k; w;g k;m krt; h" a[r s".sr} nVEj> b@'n k' a;o; p}9' k; w;g a]ok k;m krt; h" : b@'n k' mOy w;g s' a;g' m;q' k} trf k; Ak c[q;eE w;g p@;emr} m{`r k[r`"Ks (primary motor cortex) h", usk' a;g' Ak c[q;eE w;g p@} m{`r A]ry; (pre motor area) h"- usk' a;g' m;q' k} trf k; w;g Ak c[q;eE sPl}m'.`r} m{`r A]ry; (supplementary motor area) h" : { m{`r y;]n hlcl- A]ry; y;]n w;g } p@;eEmr} m{`r A]ry; (primary motor area) k{ b@[2m"Ns A]ry; n.br c;r Broadmann's area IV w} kht' h". : k;n k} trf s' uUpr j;t' h/y' m/\h s' p@;r.w h{t; h" : us k' a;g' h;q a[r gl' s' kmr tk k; w;g a[r b@'n k' mOy m'. n}c' k} trf `;.g{. k; m{`r A]ry; h" : explain better. b@'n k; k;f} b2>; A]ry; ]sfE h;q a[r m/\h k} m?vm".`=s (movements) y;]n hlcl k{ d'Yn' k' ]ly' upy{g ]ky; gy; h" : Diagram

p@} m{`r A]ry; (pre motor area) k{ b@[2m"Ns A]ry; n.br 9' Broadmann's area VI w} kht' h". : yh w} us} p@k;r s' m/\h- h;q- kmr a[r `;.g{. m'. b.`; h" j"s' ]k p@;eEmr} m{`r A]ry; : es w;g k' Ny?r[Ns m'. ]jtn' w} ]sGnLs h{t' h".- v' un sw} mSslj> y; unk' g@?p y;]n 4/ˉ2 k' k;yE k{ d'Yt' h".- ]jss' vh hlcl sMb]Not h" : j"s' ]k h;q k{ ]ks} w} k;m k{ 1}k s' krn' k' ]ly' s;r; b;j? y; k.o; ]ks ]Sq]t m'. rhn; c;]hy' t;]k h;q us k;m k{ krn' m'. sfl h{ j;y' _ es trh s' sfl h{n' k' ]ly' vh us p@{g@;m k{ p@;emr} m{`r k[r`"Ks k{ s}o; h} p@{g@;m w'jt; h" : _ y; aKsr b'sl g".Gl}y; %;r; h;yp{q"lms k{ a[r h;yp{q"lms s' p@;eEmr} m{`r k[r`"Ks k{ w'jt; h" : es p@k;r s' _ p@} m{`r k[r`"Ks- b'sl g".Gl}y;- q|lms a[r p@;eEmr} m{`r k[r`"Ks _ y' c;r{. s;m?]hk #p s' ek`=1' h{kr msLs k' ]ks} w} k;yE k{ 1}k p@k;r s' y; sh} #p s' krt' h".- yh Ak sm4n' k; ]vzy h" : sPl}m'.`r} m{`r A]ry; (supplementary motor area) p@} m{`r A]ry; k' a;g' m;q' k} trf ]Sqr h" : ]ks} w} mSsl k' a]ok ]sk/2>n' pr d?sr} jgh{. s' esm'. el']K`Äkl ]S`m/l} h{t} h". : a[r yh p@} m{`r y; p@;eEmr} m{`r A]ry; k{ sh;yt; krt; h" _ yh Oy;n rYt; h" ]k ph;2> pr c3>n' k' ]ly' a;\Y{. k; d'Yn;- d{n{. h;q{. k} ]Sq]t y; p;.v k} ]Sq]t ]ks p@k;r k} h{n} c;]hy' eTy;]d : mn/Zy{. m'. k/9 Y;s m{`r A]ry; h{t' h".- j"s' b@'n m'. Sylvian fissure pron k' uUpr y; `'Mpl (temples) y;]n knp`=`} k' uUpr k; w;g m'. b{ln' k' ]ly' ]jn msLs %;r; hlcl c;]hy' unk{ k.`Ä{l krn' k; m{`r A]ry; h"- ]js' b@{k;j> A]ry; (Broca's area) kht' h". : es k' ] bg2>n' pr y;]n es w;g s' m/\h y; j>/b;n tk ]sGnLs n ph/\cn' pr mn/Zy k]1n xBd nh}. b{l skt; _ pr h;.- n- a;eE eTy;]d b{l skt; h" : apn' a;p a;\Y{. k' prd{. K; bNd h{n; y; a;\Y{. k; eor_uor i?mn; eTy;]d k; w;g b@{k;j> A]ry; k' uUpr ]Sqt h" : a;\Y{. k' A]ry; k' uUpr ]sr k{ eor_uor i/m;n' k; A]ry; h" ]js' r{`'xn A]ry; (rotation area) kht' h". : A]ry; f{r h" Hand skills - p@;eEmr} m{`r A]ry; k' a;g' ]Sqr h" : agr es m'. `=y?mr h{ j;y' t{ h;q{. k; 1}k p@k;r s' k;m krn; nh}. h{t; :

m{`r k[r`"Ks s' mSsLj> tk s.d'x k; ph/\cn; m{`r k[r`"Ks h;q{. k{ v; u\g]ly{. k{ s}o' Sp;enl k[2E k{ k[r`}k{ Sp;enl `Ä"K` (cortico spinal tract) %;r; uks;t; h" t;]k k;yE 1}k p@k;r s' h{ sk' : d?sr} trf vh us} uks;n' k{- u; us} k;yE k{ krn' k' ]ly' b'sl g".Gl}y;- s'r'b'lm tq; bh/t s' b@'n Ny?]Kly;eE (nuclei) %;r; w} w'jt; h"- t;]k k;yE 1}k p@k;r s' ]ky; j; sk' : mtlb yh h" ]k m{`r k[r`"Ks k' k/9 f;ebsE (fibres) s}o' w} j;t' h". a[r b;k} k' k/9 a[r m'2?l; a[Bl[.g|`; m'. ´[s (cross) h{kr j;t' h".- t;]k k;yE 1}k p@k;r s' ]ky; j; sk' : Check Oy;n rh' ]k k[r`}k{ Sp;enl `Ä"K` k{ ]pr;]m2l `Ä"K`=s (pyramidal tracts ) w} kht' h". : mtlb m{`r k[r`"Ks- p[S`}]ryr ]lMb (posterior limb) y;]n eN`nEl k"PSy?l (internal capsule), m's'Ns"Fl;|n (mesencephalon), p[Ns (pons), m'2?l; a[Bl[.g|`; m'. ´[s h{n; a[r us m'. s' k/9 f;ebsE k; s}o' j;n; : esm'. 30% p@;eEmr} m{`r k[r`"Ks 30% p@} m{`r A]ry; a[r sPl}m'.`r} m{`r A]ry;- a[r 40% s{m"]`k s".sr} A]ry; k' f;eEbsE rht' h". : eN`nEl k"PSy?l (internal capsule) b'sl g".Gl}y; k' k[2'` Ny?]Klys a[r Py?`;m"n k' b}c k' w;g k{ kht' h". : Oy;n d'n; ]k p@;eEmr} m{`r k[r`"Ks m'. k{eE 34,000 Betz Cells rht' h".- ]jn k' f;eEbj>E k} m{`;eE 16 m;eE´{ m}`r h"- j{ ]k m;y']ln'`2 (myelinated) h".- y;]n kv2E (covered) h". : en Betz Cells k{ jy;.` ]pr;]m2l s"Ls (giant pyramidal cells) w} kht' h".Ky{.]k unk} m{`;eE 60 m;eE´{ m}`r k} h" : en k' f;eEbj>E s' b@'n k' sbs' t'j ]sGnl ]nklt' h".- j{ 70m}`r p@]t s'k.2 k} rFt;r s' clt' h".- a[r Sp;enl k[2E m'. cl' j;t' h". : hr Sp;enl k[2E `Ä"K` m'. k{eE ds l;Y f;eEbj>E rht' h". : b;k} k' f;eEbj>E k} m{`;eE c;r m;eE´{ m}`r h" : m{`r k[r`"Ks s' aNy f;ebr p;qv'j> m{`r k[r`"Ks s' bh/t s' 9{`'_9{`' f;eEbj>E ]nklt' h".- j{ ]pr;]m2l `Ä"K` pyramidal tract %;r; s'r'b@m a[r b@'n S`'m m'. j;t' h". ]jnm'. ]nMn m/Åy h". _ 1. Betz cells k' A'Ks;|Nj> (axons) k/9 x;Y;a{. k{ k[r`"Ks m'. w'jt; h"- t;]k unk' w'j' h/y' ]sGnLs 1}k p@k;r s' sfl h{.- a[r k[r`"Ks s' k{eE ½k;v` n a;y' 2. bh/t s.Åy; m'. k[2'` Ny?]Klys a[r Py?`;m"n (putamen) m'. s' f;eEbj>E w'j' j;t' h". j{ d?sr' bh/t s' Ny?r[Ns k' s;q ]mlkr un k{ b@'n S`'m m'. cl' j;t' h". : 3. k/9 f;eEbj>E r"2 Ny?]Klys (red nucleus) m'. cl' j;t' h". ]jnk' s;q d?sr' a[r f;eEbj>E j/2> j;t' h". a[r ½br{ Sp;enl `Ä"K` (rubro spinal tract) %;r; Sp;enl k[2E m'. cl' j;t' h". : 4. b'sl g".Gl}y;- b@'n S`'m a[r s'r'b'lm k{ k[r`}k{ Sp;enl ]sS`m %;r; ]sGnLs ]mlt' rht' h". jh;. s' Sp;enl k[2E m'. us k;yE k{ krn' k' ]ly' w'j' j;t' h". y; m{`r A'K`}]v`} (motor activity) k{ p?r; sfl ]ky; j;t; h" y; a.j;m ]dy; j;t; h" : m{`r k[r`"Ks k' aNdr a;n'v;l' f;ebr p;qv'j> Oy;n rh' m{`r k[r`"Ks k; s;r; k.`Ä{l s[m"]`k s".sr} ]sS`m %;r; ]ky; j;t; h" ]jsk' s;q s/nn' v; d'Yn' k; ]sS`m w} ]ml; h/a; h{t; h" : jb en ]sS`m{. s' k{eE s?cn; m{`r k[r`"Ks k{ ] mlt} h"- t{ vh b'sl g".Gl}y; a[r s'r'b'lm k' s;q ]mlkr us s?cn; k; ]nZkzE ]nk;l kr us' Ky; krn; c;]hy' t{ vh m{`r A'Kxn (motor action) %;r; us s?cn; y; k;yE k{ p?r; krt; h" : 1. k[r`"Ks k' s;qv;l} jgh{. s' sb_k[r`}kl f;eEbj>E (sub-cortical fibres) - Y;s t[r pr p"]ry'`l k[r`"Ks (parietal cortex) k' s{m"]`k s".sr} A]ry; (somatic sensory area) s' a[r d?sr' sb_k[r`}kl f;eEbj>E ]vx/al (visual y;]n À]Z` sMbNo} ) tq; a[2}`r} (auditory y;]n s/nn' s' sMb]Not ) k[r`'Ks s' a;t' h". : 2. sb_k[r`}kl f;eEbj>E j{ s;mn' k' s'r'b@l h'm}Sf}yr (cerebral hemisphere) s' k[rps k"l[sm (corpus callosum) s' g/jrt' h".- y; j;t' h".- y' f;eEbj>E d{n{. h'm}sf}ysE y; d{n{. trf k' m{`r k[r`"Ks k{ a;ps m'. ]ml;t' h". : 3. q"lms k' v'N`Ä{ b'sl k[MPl'Ks (ventro basal complex) s' j{ s{m"]`k s".sr} f;eEbj>E ]nklt' h". y; bnt' h".- v' Jv;e.`=s y; mSsLs a[r cm2>} k' ]sGnLs k{ bn;t' h".- y; d'Yt' h". : 4. q"lms k' s;e2=j> (sides) k' w;g k{ v'N`Ä{_l"`rl (ventro-lateral) kht' h".- a[r q"lms k' a;g' k' w;g k{ v'N`Ä{_A'N`}]ryr (ventro-anterior) kht' h". : en d{n{. w;g k} Ny?]Kly;eE (nuclei) b'sl g".Gl}y; a[r s'r'b'lm s' j{ ]sGnLs ]mlt' h".- un s' m{`r k[r`"Ks- s'r'b'lm a[r b'sl g".Gl}y; k; aps m'. k{_a;|r]2n'xn (co-ordination) y;]n m'lj{l k{ bn;y' rYt' h". : enk' al;v; q"lms k' eN`Ä;l"]mn;r f;eEbj>E h{t' h".- j{ m{`r k[r`"Ks y; s'r'b@l k[r`"Ks k} AKs;e`|]b]l`} y;]n cln (excitability) y; u¶'jn; k; Oy;n Av. k.`Ä{l y;]n ]ny.μ~ rYt' h". :

k[r`}k{ ½br{ Sp;enl ]sS`m k' k;yE mn/Zy{. m'. r"2 Ny?]Klys c;h' d?sr' j;nvr{. k' m/k;bl' m'. 9{`; h{t; h"- mgr yh k;f} a]ok k;m krt; h" : ]js trh m{`r k[r`"Ks k; sMbNo xr}r k' hr mSsl s' h"- us} trh yh w} xr}r k' hr mSsl s' j/2>; h" : es]ly' yh w} ]ks} Ak mSsl y; mSsl=j> k' g@?p y; sm?h k{ ]sk/2>n' k' ] ly' uks; skt; h"- ]js p@k;r s' m{`r k[r`"Ks uks;t; h" _ c;h' esk} f;en_n's (fine-ness) y;]n b;r}k} s' k;m krn' k} 6mt; us s' km h" : es]ly' Oy;n rh' ]k k[r`"Ks k; mSsl=j> s' sMbNo d{ p@k;r s' h" _ Ak k[r`}k{ Sp;enl `Ä"K` (cortico spinal tract) %;r;- a[r d?sr; k[r`}k{ ½br{ Sp;enl p;qv' (cortico rubro spinal pathway) %;r; : ]ks} k;r~vx agr k[r`}k{ Sp;enl `Ä"K` k' f;eEbj>E ]bg2> j;y'. y; k;m krn; bNd kr d'.- pr d?sr; r;St; y;]n k[r`}k{ ½br{ Sp;enl p;qv' 1}k h{ t{ w} h;q{>. k} u\g]ly;\ k;m kr'.g}- c;h' usm'. utn} f;en_n's n h{ : k[r`}k{ ½br{ Sp;enl p;qv' Ak AKS`Ä; y;]n d?sr; r;St; bn; rY; h"- j{ m{`r k[r`"Ks s' Sp;enl k[2E (spinal cord) k{ j;t; h"- t;]k agr kw} k[r`}k{ Sp;enl `Ä"K` k' f;eEbj>E nZ` h{ j;y'. y; k;m krn' k} h;lt m'. n h{.- t{ w} h;q{. k} u\g]ly;\ k;m kr'.g} c;h' utn} f;en_n's (fine-ness) n h{. : s{ r"2 Ny?]Klys s' g/jrt; h/a; j{ rSt; Sp;enl k[2E k{ j;t; h"- us k; sMbNo k[r`}k{ Sp;enl ]sS`m s' h} Jy;d; h"- jb ]k d?sr; m'jr b@'n p;qv' y;]n m/Åy r;St; j{ v'S`}b?l{ r"`}k/l{ Sp;enl ]sS`m (vestibulo-reticulo spinal system) k; h" _ j{ ]k axial and girdle mSsLj> k{ d'Yt; h" _ usk' s;q esk; utn; sMbNo nh}. h"- ]jsk; ]vvr~ a;g' j;kr ] ml'g; : ½br{ Sp;enl `Ä"K` _ yh Sp;enl k[2E k} s;eE2> m'. s' h{kr j;t; h" a[r m/3>kr eN`r Ny?r[Ns a[r m{`r Ny?r[Ns m'. cl; j;t; h" j{ `;.g{. k' mSsl=j> k{ k.`Ä{l krt' h". y; d'Yt' h". : ]ks} mSsl k{ k;yE krn' k' ]ly' x/# m'. a]ok uks;y; j;t; h"- b;d m'. kmt} uks;n; p2>t; h"- ]js k' ]ly' kmt} Ny?r[Ns k} a;vXykt; p2>t} h" : es]ly' y' 2;yn;]mk (dynamic) Ny?r[Ns j{ k;yE k{ x/# krn' k' ]ly' c;]hy' r"2 Ny?]Klys m'. h". y; p@;eEmr} m{`r k[r`"Ks m'. h". : r"2 Ny?]Klys Ky{.]k s'r'b'lm m'. h"- a[r ]js s' usk; sMbNo bh/t h" es]ly' s'r'b'lm w} ]ks} mSsl k{ x}i@ k;yE krn' k' ]ly' y; uks;n' k' ]ly' sh;yt; krt; h" : m{`r k[r`"Ks k} g2>b]2>y;\ _ S`Ä{k y;]n lkv; k; h{n; m{`r k[r`"Ks y; k[r`}k{ Sp;enl p;qv' kw}_kw} Yr;b h{ j;t; h"- ]js' S`Ä{k (stroke) kht' h". : A's; tb h{t; h"- jb k{eE n;2>} y; rË v;]hn} f` j;y' apr rË y; Y?n b;hr ]nkl j;y' a[r b@'n m'. h} bh j;y' y; ek`=1; h{ j;y' : y; k{eE qKk; y; q@[Mbs rË v;]hn} m'. a; j;y' ]jsk' k;r~ a;g' b@'n m'. ]ks} ]hSs' m'. rË k; p@v;h ½k j;y' a[r k[r`}k{ Sp;enl `Ä"K` m'. rË n j;y'- jb ]k eN`rnl k"PSy?l k} jgh (j{ ]k k[2'` Ny?]Klys a[r Py?`;m"n k' b}c m'. h" ) usm' rË n j;y' t{ vh k;yE krn; bNd kr d't' h". : j;nvr{. pr esk; p@y{g ]ky; gy; h" a[r unk' b@'n k' alg_alg w;g{. k{ k;` kr d'Y; gy; h" ]k xr}r pr usk; Ky; asr h{t; h" : A's h;lt m'. Ky; h{t; h" a;g' bt;t' h". : -

a;\Y{. k' p@]t k/9 j;nk;r} Retinal k; s;o;r~ mtlb h" r"`}n; s' sMb]Not : d?sr; aqE _ ]v`;]mn A s' bn;y; h/a; Ak pd;qE j{ f{`{ ]pGm"N` m'. p;y; j;t; h"- j{ l;eE` (light) k{ A'Bj{>bE krt; h" : Retinol – yh 20 k;rbn s' bn; Ak A'Lk{h{l j;]t k; k.p;u.2 h"- j{ ]lvr m'. rht} h"- j{ ]nMn c}j{. m'. p;y; j;t; h" _ a.2' k' p}l; w;g- ]ckn- h{l_]mLk y;]n ]ckn; y/Ë d?o- Av. d?o- mKYn eTy;]d m'. : Y;n'_p}n' k} c}j{. m'. ]v`;]mn A k} k;yE k{ retinol equivalents y; RE m'. m;p; j;t; h" Diagram page 331 a;\Y{. k} Fl?e2 ]sS`m _ eN`Ä; a[Ky/lr Fl?e2 Oy;n rh' ]k a;eE b[l (eyeball) m'. eN`Ä;_a[Ky/lr Fl?e2 etn} wr} h" ]k vh es b[l k' aNdr hm'x; etn; p@'xr bn;y' rY' t;]k vh hm'x; tightly f?l; rh' : yh Fl?e2 d{ w;g{. m'. b.`} h" _ Ak A'Kv}ys ·?mr aqueous humour a[r v}]`Äys ·?mr (vitreous humour). A'Kv}ys ·?mr l"Ns k' a;g' a[r l"Ns k} d{n{. s;e2{. m'. ]Sqr h" : d?sr} v}]`Äys ·?mr j{ l"Ns a[r r"`}n; k' b}c m'. ]Sqr h" : A'Kv}ys ·?mr h} Fl?e2 bnt} h" a[r yh 24 i.`{. m'. c;r ]ml} l}`r tk bnt} rht} h" : es' s}]lyr} b[2} (ciliary body) y; s}]lyr} p@{s's bn;t} rht} h".- j{ a;eE]rs k' p}9' jh;. pr l"Ns k' ]lg;m'N`=s a;eE b[l s' ]mlt} h". : d{n{. Fl?e2=j> (fluids) k' b}c m'. l"Ns ] Sqr h" : s}]lyr} b[2} a;\Y m'. d'Yn' m'. 9{`; h" mgr Ak trh s' uU\c; n}c; h{n' s' Ak a;\Y m'. esk; A]ry; area etn; b2>; h" ]k agr es' f"l; ]dy; j;y yh 9' sq.cm bn'g; a[r vh} A'Kv}ys Fl? e2 k{ bn;t; h" : s}]lyr} p@{s's k} A']pq}lyl l;eE]n.g h} A'Kv}ys ·?mr k{ bn;t} h" : j"s' h} A'Kv}ys ·?mr bnn} x/# h{t} h"- v"s' h} A']pq}lyl s"Ls k} space m'. s{]2ym ay;|n Y?n m'. j;n' lgt; h" : j"s'_j"s' s{]2ym ay;|n a.dr j;n' lgt; h"- v"s'_v"s' vh a.dr Kl{r;e2 a[r b;ek;rb{n'` ay;|n=j> k{ a.dr Y}.ct; h"- ]jss' s"Ls k' a.dr el"K`Ä}kl Ny?`Ä"]l`} (electrical neutrality) 1}k h{ j;t} h" : en t}n{. k' ek`=1' h{n' pr mtlb s{]2ym ay;|n- Kl{r;e2 a[r b;ek;rb{n'` ay;|n k' ek`=1' h{n' pr n}c' k' ]`x?j> s' a{Sm{]`k p@'xr (osmotic pressure) h{n' s' p;n} A']pq}lym k' eN`Ä;_s"Ll?lr spaces m'. cl; j;t; h" a[r solution k' s;q ]ml j;n' s' s}]lyr} p@{s's s' ]nkln; x/# h{ j;t; h" : esk' s;q bh/t s' Ny?]`ÄAN`=s (nutrients) j"s; ]k A'm}n{ A']s2=sASk;|r]bk A']s2 (ascorbic acid) a[r k/9 Gl?k{j> w} ]ml j;t} h". y; ]mKs h{ j;t} h". : a;\Y{. s' A'Kv}ys ∙?mr k; ]nk;s s}]lyr} p@{s's s' A'Kv}ys ·?mr bnn' k' b;d bhn' lgt; h" : phl' l"Ns k' ]lg;m"N`=s s' h{t; h/a; p/tl} m'. j;t; h" a[r a;]Yr m'. a;\Y k' A'N`}]ryr c'Mbr (anterior chamber) y;]n a;g' k' c'Mbr m'. cl; j;t; h" : yh;. s' Fl?e2 a;eE]rs a[r k[rn}y; k' b}c m'. A'Ngl m'. cl; j;t; h" ]fr `Ä"b'k/l' (trabeculae) k' meshwork y;]n j;l s' h{t; h/a; a;]Yr m'. Schlemm k} canal s' h{t; h/a; y; g/jrt; h/a; A'KS`Ä; a[k/lr v'en=s (extra ocular veins) k' bh;v %;r; rË s.c;r m'. cl; j;t; h" : eN`Ä; a[Ky/lr p@'xr Intra ocular pressure eN`Ä;_a[k/lr p@'xr 12 s' 20 mm. Hg. tk h{n; c;]hy' : n[rml tkr}bn 15 mm.Hg. h{n; c;]hy' : (Tonometer : eN`Ä; a[k/lr p@'xr m;pn' k' ]ly' a;\Y m'. s?eE nh}. 2;l} j; skt} : s{ k[rn}y; k{ l{kl A'n'Sq']sy; (local anesthesia) y;]n b'h{x} k; eNj'Kxn d'kr us pr `{n{m}`r rY kr p@'xr m;p; j;t; h" : ) eN`Ä; a[Ky/lr p@'xr k; ]ny.μ~ eN`Ä;_a[k/lr p@'xr ± 2 mm. Hg. y;]n apn' s;o;r~ m;µ; s' d{ ]mLl} m}`r tk h} uUpr y;' n}c' j;n; c;]hy' _ yh} Ak n[rml a;\Y k' ]ly' aC9; h" : drasl s}]lyr} b[2} s' ]jtn} Fl?e2 A'Kv}ys ·?mr m'. a;y' utn} Fl?e2 Xl"Mm k} k"n;l s' ]nkl j;n; c;]hy' : s}]lyr} b[2} Ak ]mn` m'. d{ s' t}n m;e´{ l}`r tk Fl?e2 bn;t} h" a[r yh Fl?e2 Xl"Mm k} k"n;l m'. j;n' s' `Ä"b'k/l' (trabeculae) k' meshwork y;]n j;l s' g/jrt} h" ]jsk; m/\h d{ s' t}n m;e´{ m}`r h" a[r yh Fl? e2 es s' ]nkl j;n} c;]hy' : eN`Ä; a[Ky/lr Fl?e2 tq; a;\Y{. k} sf;eE ]ks} eNf'Kxn- h'm{r'j y; aNy ]ks} k;r~ vx agr k{eE kc2>; A'Kv}ys ·?mr m'. jm; h{ j;y' a[r `Ä"b'k/l' k' j;l k' p;s s' n h{ y; g/jr' t{ A'Kv}ys ·?mr k; Fl?e2 a;\Y k' aNdr ek`=1} h{n} x/# h{ j;y'g} ]jsk' k;r~ a;\Y k' aNdr k; p@'xr b3> j;y'g; ]js k' k;r~ gl;uk{m; k} b}m;r} a; j;y'g} : phl' t} Oy;n rh' ]k xl"Mm k' k"n;l k' b;hr eN`rS`}]xyl s"Ls inter-stitial cells m'. r"`}k/l{ A'N2{q}]lyl s"Ls reticulo endothelial cells h". j{ us kc2>' k{ Y; kr sm;Pt kr skt'

h". y; unk' b2>'_b2>' `/k2{. k{ 9{`'_9{`' `/k2' bn;kr us' y; us Fl?e2 k{ a;g' ]nk;l d'.g' a[r us Fl?e2 k{ s;f kr d'.g' t;]k A'Kv}ys Fl?e2 Xl"Mm k} k"n;l s' ]nkl j;y' : Oy;n rh' ]k a;eE]rs k} surface y;]n uUpr} prt pr a[r a;eE]rs k' p}9' a;\Y{. k} srf's pr A's} A'p}q}]lym h" j{ ]k es kc2>' k{ Y;kr sm;Pt kr d't' h". a[r Fl?e2 k{ Akdm s;f s/qr} bn; skt' h".- a[r Gl[k{m; sm;Pt h{ skt; h" : a;\Y{. k} An[`{m} anatomy a;\Y'. Ak k[MPl"Ks complex y;]n k]1n_s; a[rgn h".- j{ b;hr} bh/t s' w;g{. k' S`ÄKcr=j> structures s' ]ml kr k;m krt} h". : a;\Y{. k' aNdr w} bh/t s' parts h". j{ b@'n k{ bt;t} h". ]k us n' Ky; d'Y; h" _ us k} tSv}r b@'n k' Ak w;g k{ cl} j;t} h"- ]fr a;\Y n' Ky; d'Y; h" usk; ]nZkzE b@'n k; d?sr; w;g krt; h" _ ]js' translation kht' h". _ ]jss' h;yp{q"lms k{ bt;y; j;t; h" ]k Ky; d'Y; h" a[r usk' an/s;r h;yp{q"lms xr}r k' ]js a.g k{ j{ k;yE krn; c;]hy' us k; a;d'x h;yp{q"lms d't; h" : a;\Y{. k' b[Lj> (balls) d{ Y2=2{. m'. rht' h". j{ unk{ m;r eTy;]d s' bc;t' h". : m;q' pr a;eEb@{j> (eye brows) es]ly' h". ]k m;q' k; ps}n; a;\Y{. m'. n j;y us s' uNh'. bc;t' h". : a;\Y{. k' d{ pd'E hr 6 s"k.2 m'. 4pkt' h". t;]k a;\Y{. k; p;n} s?Y n j;y' : uUpr k' pd'E pr lMb' b;l h". a[r n}c' k' pd'E pr k/9 9{`' b;l h". j{ a;\Y{. m'. k{eE b;hr} vSt/ n j;y y; a;\Y{. k' pd'E k; Akdm bNd h{ j;n; a[r a;\Y{. k{ bc;n; eTy;]d : en b;l{. k{ a;\Y{. k' l"xs (eye lashes) y; s}]ly; w} kht' h". : a;\Y{. k' a;eE b@{j> (eye brows) m'. k/9 s'b']xys Gl".2=s (sebaceous glands) h". ]jn m'. k/9 t'l_s; ]nklt; h" j{ ps}n' k} A']s2 k} g/~ k{ Ny?`Äl;ej> (neutralize) y;]n x;.t krt; h" t;]k a;\Y{. m'. aVvl t{ k/9 w} j; nh}. skt;- a[r agr gy; t{ k{eE n/ks;n h{n' s' bc;t' h". : a;\Y{. k' pd'E a;\Y{. k' b;hr} v; aNdr k' 9{r{. s' ]ml' h". : aNdr k' 9{r pr Ak l;l r.g k; uw2>; h/a; m;.s k; `/k2>; h" j{ ]k A's; lgt; h" ]k a;\Y k; kw} t}sr; pdE; rh; h{g; j{ an nh}. h"- us k; rh gy; w;g j{ h" us' k;½.gKl (caruncle) kht' h". : yh k;½.gKl w} Ak sf'd r.g k; My?ks bn;t; h" j{ kw}_kw} a;\Y{. k' 9{r{. m'. ]dY j;t; h" : a;\Y{. k' pd{E. s' k/9 prt'. k{n"]K`v (connective) ]`x?j> k} j/2>} h"., Sk'l}`l mSsLj> w} h". : `;rsl Pl'` k' s;q `;rsl Gl".2=s w} h". a[r k[Nj"K`}v; (conjectiva) k; k/9 w;g w} j/2>; h" : `;rsl Pl'` bh/t sÅt k{n"]K`v ]`x?j> (connective tissues) k} bn} h" j{ a;\Y{. k{ 1}k trh e rhn' m'. sh;yt; krt' h". y; S`ÄKcrl sp{`E (structural support) krt' h". : `;rsl Gl".2 w} Ak p@k;r k; t'l bn;t' rht' h". a[r a;\Y{. k' ]kn;r{. s' yh t'l a;\Y{. m'. 2;lt' rht' h". t;]k pd'E a;ps m'. n j/2>' a[r k[rn}y; eTy;]d k{ Ly?]b@k'` (lubricate) krt' rht' h". : agr k{eE eNf'Kxn `;rsl Gl".2 m'. h{ j;y' t{ usk' k;r~ a;\Y{. k' pd{E. pr Ak ]sS` (cyst) ]nkl a;t} h"- ]js' k?hl']jyn (cuhlazion ??? ) kht' h". : a;\Y{. m'. k/9 b2>' s'b']xys Gl".2=s (large sebaceous glands) w} h". j{ Sv'` Gl".2=s j"s; h} a;\Y{. k' l"xs (eye lashes) y; b;l{. k{ t'l y; My?ks d't' rht' h". : agr en m'. ] ks} p@k;r k; eNf'Kxn a; j;y' t{ en b;l{. k' s}]lyr} Gl".2 (ciliary gland) m'. eNFlm'xn k' k;r~ pd{E. k' ]kn;r' pr Ak f{2>}_s} a; j;t} h"- ]js' S`;eE en d a;eE (sty in the eye) kht' h". : a;\Y{. k{ Ak mSsl n' i'r rY; h" ]jsk; n;m Orbicularis Oculi h" ]jsk' ]sk/2>n' pr y; k[NS`Ä}K` krn' pr a;\Y k; pdE; 4pkt; h" y; bNd h{t; h" : uUpr k' pd'E m'. Ak Levator palpebrae superioris n;mk mSsl h" ]js k' k[N`Ä"K` (contract) pr y; ]sk/2>n' pr a;\Y k' uUpr k; pdE; uUpr u1t; h" : a;\Y{. k{ hr s;t s"k.2 m'. 4pkn' k; Ak ]rFl"Ks (reflex) a;t; h" ]js s' a;\Y{. k; 4pkn; h{t; h" : a;\Y{. k' b;l{. m'. ]ks} w} vSt/ k' 9?n' s' a;\Y t/rNt bNd h{t' h". a[r unk} r6; krt' h". : kNj.k`}v; Conjunctiva _ y' My?ks m'Mb@'n h". j{ ]k My?ks bn;t} rht} h" t;]k a;\Y'. 1}k p@k;r s' m/l;ym rh'.- a[r uNh'. 4pkn' m'. k{eE tkl}f n h{ : es n' s;r} a;\Y{. k' s;q plk{. k{ w} lp'`; h" y;]n a;\Y{. k' y; a;\Y{. k' pd{E. k} p@qm l'yr y; p@qm prt kNj.k`}v; k} h" j{ a;\Y{. k} l'yr y;]n prt s' k/9 m{`} h{t} h" a[r yh a;\Y{. k' a.dr k' w;g{. y; g@.]qy{. k} r6; krt} h" : l"´}ml A'p;r'`s Lachrimal apparatus l"´}ml Gl".2=s- l"´}ml 2K`=s (lachrimal ducts), l"´}ml k"n;l- l"´}ml s|Ks (sacs), a[r n"s{ l"´}ml 2K`=s en sb k{ ]mlkr l"´}ml A'p;r'`s kht' h". : l"´}ml Gl".2=s a;\Y{. k' pd{E. k' b;hr} 9{r pr ]Sqr h". j{ Ak sl;en (saline y;]n nmk}n) Fl?e2 y;]n d@v bn;t' h". j{ ]k a;.s/a{. k; #p o;r~ kr l't' h". y; a;.s? bn kr ]nklt' h". : a;.s/a{. k' ]nkln' k' ]ly' l"xs (lashes) y;]n a;\Y{. k' b;l{. k' ]ncl' 9{r{. pr 9' s' b;rh ]9d@ h". :

a;.s? t}n c}j{. k' ]mR~ s' bn' h". _ My?ks AN`} b[2}j> a[r l;es{j>;em=j> l;es{j>;em=j> (lysozymes) – Ak ANj;>em h" j{ s"Ll k' aNdr k' l;es{j>{Mj> s' ]w¸ h" : yh Ak A's; ANj;>em y;]n k"m}kl h" ]js m'. b"K`}]ry; k} d}v;r{. k{ y; usk} uUpr} prt k{ f"g{s;e` krn; y; m"´{f'j kr kr us' g;ln' k} y; sm;Pt krn' k} x]Ë h"- ]js s' a;\Y{. k{ bc;y; j; sk' : a;\Y{. k' b;r_b;r 4pkn' s' yh My?ks eTy;]d s;r} a;\Y{. k{ ]mlt} rht} h" ]js s' a;\Y'. hm'x; tr rht} h" : AN`} b[2}j> a[r l;es{j>;em=j> s' a;\Y{. k{ b"K`}]ry; eTy;]d s' bc;y; j; skt; h" : a;.s/a{. k; bh/t_s; p;n} w;p bn kr u2> j;t; h" : b;k} k; p;n} l"´}ml k"n;l %;r; l"´}ml s|Ks m'. jm; h{ kr ]fr us' n"s[ l"´}ml 2K`= m'. w'j ]dy; j;t; h" y; n;k k} Ak p;eEp %;r; sm;Pt ]ky; j;t; h" y; gl' m'. utr j;t; h" : a;\Y{. k' b;hr} mSsLj> Extrinsic muscles of the eyes a;\Y k' b[l (ball) k{ k.`Ä{l krn'' k' ]ly' b;hr 9' mSsLj> (muscles) h{t' h". _ s/p}]ryr r"K`s (sup. rectus) mSsl eNf}]ryr r"K`s (inf. rectus) mSsl m}]2yl r"K`s (medial rectus) mSsl

a;\Y{. k{ uUpr i/m;n' v;l; mSsl a;\Y{. k{ n}c' i/m;n' v;l; mSsl a;\Y{. k{ a.dr k} a{r i/m;n' v;l; mSsl

l"`rl r"K`s (lateral rectus)mSsl

a;\Y{. k{ b;hr k} a{r i/m;n' v;l; mSsl

s/p}]ryr a{Bl}k (sup. oblique) mSsl eNf}]ryr a{Bl}k (inf. oblique) mSsl

a;\Y{. k{ uUpr k' k{n' k} a{r i/m;n' v;l; mSsl a;\Y{. k{ n}c' k' k{n' k} a{r i/m;n' v;l; mSsl

r"K`s mSsLj> .k{ f'eb@{_`']N2ns ]r.g (fibro-tendinous ring) n' bn;y' h". y; v' es ]r.g s' ] nkl' h". : Y{p2>} k' ]jn d{ Y2=2{. m'. d{n{. a;\Y k' b{Lj> ]Sqr h".- un Y2=2{. k' ]p9l' w;g s' y' r"K`s mSsLj> bn' h". y; ]nkl' h". : s/p}]ryr r"K`s (sup. rectus) mSsl %;r; a;\Y'. uUpr k} trf d'Y'.g} eNf}]ryr r"K`s (inf. rectus) mSsl %;r; uks;y' j;n' pr a;\Y'. uUpr k} trf d'Y'.g} m}]2yl r"K`s (medial rectus) mSsl %;r; a;\Y'. a.dr y;]n n;k k} trf d'Y'.g} : en t}n{. k;yE k' ]ly' hm'. a[k/l{ m{`r nvE y;]n ´']nyl nvE n.br t}n k{ uks;n; h{g; j{ ]k hm (3) Medulla s' kr skt' h". : l']kn b;hr k} a[r d'Yn' k; k;yE l"`rl r"K`s (lateral rectus)mSsl k; h" j{ ]k ´']nyl nvE n.br 9' krt} h"- ]js k' ]ly' hm'. (6) Medulla d'n; h" :

a;\Y{. k} t}n prt'. a;\Y Gl{b (globe) y;]n p,Qv} k' a;k;r k} trh g{l h{t; h"- ]jsk} t}n l'ysE y; th'. h". : yh b;hr k} y; phl} th b;hr k} trf k} l'yr f;ebrs (fibrous layer) h"- y;]n ]jsm'. f;eEbj>E h". : d?sr} l'yr v"Sk/lr (vascular) h" y;]n ]jsm'. rË k} n;]2>y;. h".- ]jsm'. rË k; bh;v h{t; h" : t}sr} th r"`}n; k} h"- ]js' r"`}nl tunic kht' h". : ???? k[rn}y; f;eEb@s tunic j{ ]k b;hr k} phl} th h"- y; phl} l'yr h"- a;\Y k' b[l (ball) k} y;]n 2'l' k} : Oy;n rh' a;\Y k' a;g' k; y; mOy v;l; w;g f;eEb@s (fibrous) h", y;]n yh f;eEbj>E s' bn; h" ]js m'. rË k; p@v;h nh}. h" : es]ly' yh mn/Zy k' xr}r k; yh w;g Ak mn/Zy k; d?sr' k{ lg;y; j; skt; h" ]js pr q;ems Gl".2 k; k{eE asr y; p@w;v nh}. h" : es]ly' xr}r es' reject nh}. kr skt; y; xr}r es' nk;r nh}. skt; : es]ly' kh; j;t; h" ]k mrn' k' b;d agr d{ i.`' k' a.dr eNh'. ]nk;l ]dy; j;y _ 2'l' k' s;q _ t{ esk; upy{g ]ks} j#rtm.d r{g} k} a;\Y m'. ]ky; j; skt; h" : k[rn}y; a;\Y k' a;g' k' mOy w;g m'. rht; h" j{ a;\Y k' sf'd w;g s' j/2>; h" ]js' SKl'r; (sclera) kht' h". : j{ a;\Y k' p}9' k' w;g m'. j;kr b@'n k' dura matter k' s;q j;kr ]ml j;t; h" : k[rn}y; p;r dx}E h" y; transparent h" y; ]jsk' a;r_p;r a;s;n} s' d'Y; j; skt; h" : a;\Y k' a;g' k' w;g m'. ]jss' yh j/2>; h"- k/9 uw2>; h/a; h" : esk' uUpr kNj.k`}v; k} Ap}q}]lyl l'yr (epithelial layer) c3>} h/y} h" : k[rn}y; k{ nvE k} sPl;eE bh/t h" : tkr}bn hr nvE ending pr ddE k{ mhs?s krn' k' ]rs"P`r=j> h". : Ak 9{`}_s} uks;h` k' reflex k' k;r~ a;\Y{. k; 4pkn; h{t; h" a[r s;q h} s;q vh} reflex l"´}ml Gl".2 k{ ]s´}xn=j> (secretions) a]ok krn' k{ uks;t' h". : SKl'r; (sclera) ]jsk' s;q k[rn}y; j/2>; h"- ]js n' a;\Y k; b;hr} 84% w;g y;]n 5/6 w;g k{ 3k rY; h" ]jsm'. ]k in' k{n"]K`v ]`x?j> (connective tissue) h{n' k' k;r~ es' f;eEb@s `=y?]nk ???? bn; rY; h" : yh sf'd r.g k; a;\Y k; w;g h" : yh} a;\Y k' pd'E k' aNdr k; w;g h" _ a;\Y pr es k; r.g sf'd h" pr a;\Y k' pd'E k' aNdr ]p.k (pink) y;]n g/l;b} y; l;l r.g h" : SKl'r; Ak sÅt zfbr k; bn; h" j{ a;\Y k' 2'l' k' aNdr k' w;g k{ hr p@k;r s' bc;t; h" : yh a;\Y k} x'p (shape) k{ bn;y' rYt; h" : 2'l' k' p}9' k' w;g k' SKl'r; k{ 9'd kr a[]P`k nvE ]nkl} h" y;]n a[]P`k nvE n' es k{ 9'd; h" : SKl'r; b@'n k' dura matters' j;kr ]mlt; h" : v"Sk/lr `=y?]nk yh SKl'r; k' n}c' y; 2'l' k} d?sr} b;hr k} l'yr h" ]js m'. a;\Y k{ rË k} sPl;eE (supply) krn' v;l} tkr}bn sb n;]2y;. yh;. s' j;t} h". : es k' t}n w;g h". : es k' ag3> w;g k{ a;eE]rs (iris) kht' h".- j{ s}]lyr} b[2} s' j/2>; h" j{ ]k d?sr; w;g h" : t}sr' k{ k{r;e2> (choroid) kht' h". : k{r;e2> m'. bh/t s} rË k} n;]2>y;. h". j{ ]k a;\Y{. k' w;g{. k{ rË k; p@v;h krt} h". : a[r es m'. b@;un ]pGm"N` (brown pigment) bh/t h" j{ ]k l;eE` y; r{xn} k{ s{Y l't} h". y; A'Bj{>bE kr l't} h". : k{r;e2> k; a;g' k; w;g s}]lyr} b[2} bn j;t; h" j{ Sm?q mSsl h" : s}]lyr} b[2} (ciliary body) k' mSsLj> l"Ns k} x'p bdlt' rht' h". y; l"Ns k} x'p y;]n a;kr k{ bdln' m'. sh;yt; krt' h".- t;]k es s' d?r k} c{j h{ y; p;s k} d{n{. k{ 1}k p@k;r s' d'Y; j; sk' : es s}]lyr} b[2} m'. s}]lyr} p@{s's's (ciliary processes) h". j{ ]k A'Kv}ys ·?mr k{ bn;t' rht' h". j{ A'N`}]ryr c'Mbr (anterior chamber) m'. cl; j;t; h" : Sm?q msl k{ 1}k s' k;yE krn' k' ]ly' k[n s} ]v`;]mn j#r} h" _ y;d h" n < v"Sk/lr `=y?]nk k; a]ok w;g k{ a;eE]rs n' i'r rY; h" : esk' ag@ w;g m'. A'N`}]ryr ·?mr y; A'N`}]ryr c'Mbr h" ]jsk' uUpr k[rn}y; h" a[r uUpr kNj.K`}v; h" : a;eE]rs k} n}c' k' w;g m'. l"Ns h" : a;eE]rs A'N`}]ryr c'Mbr a[r l"Ns k} b}c m'. ]Sqr h" : a;eE]rs k; S`ÄKcr (structure) Fl"` y;]n cp`; h" ]jsk' s'N`r y;]n mOy w;g m'. pupil y;]n p/tl} h" ]js k' %;r; a;\Y m'. l;eE` j;t} h" : p/tl} y; Py?]pl k' b;hr srk/lr Sm?q mSsLj> (circular smooth muscles) h". j{ ]k p/tl} k{ 9{`;_b2>; krt' h". : y' srk/lr Sm?q mSsLj> r']2>yl Sm?q mSsLj> s' j/2>' h". ]jn k' ]sk/2>n' k' b;d srk/lr mSsLj> p/tl} k{ b2>; krt' h". : jb t'j r{xn} h{t} h"- y; njd}k k} c}j d'Yn; h{ t{ p/tl} 9{`} h{ j;t} h" : agr r{xn} km h{- y; d?r k} vSt/ k{ d'Yn; h{ t{ p/tl} b2>} h{ j;t} h" : r']2>yl Sm?q mSsLj> k; sMbNo a[`{n{]mk nVEj> s' h" j{ ]k ]s.pq"]`k nVEj> s' uks;y' j;t' h". ]jn k' %;r; r']2>yl Sm?q mSsLj> ]R.k (shrink) y;]n ]sk/2> j;y'.g' ]jn k' ]sk/2>n' pr srk/lr Sm?q mSsLj> w} b;hr k} trf h{ j;y'.g' a[r p/tl}

b2>} h{ j;y'g} : A's; tb h{t; h" jb km r{xn} h{ y; ]ks} d?r k} vSt/ k{ d'Yn; h" t{ p/tl} b2>} h{ j;t} h" y; p/tl} k; s;eEj> (size) b2>; h{ j;t; h"- y; p/tl} 2;el'` h{ j;t} h" : Oy;n d'. _ p/tl} k{ 2;el'` krn' k' ]ly' hm'. (15) Medulla (6) Right Swt d'n; h" ]jss' r']2yl mSsLj> ]R.k h{ j;y'.g' y; ]sk/2> j;y'.g' : a;\Y{. s' ]dl y; xr}r k' a.dr k; h;l j;n; j; skt; h" : h'r;ng} y; excitement y;]n u¶'jn; k} ]Sq]t m'. a;\Y{. k} p/tl}y'. b2>} h{ j;t} h" : a;\Y{. k} p/t]ly{. k; Y{ln; y; 2;eEl'` (dilate) h{n; y; b2>; h{n; tb w} h{t; h" jb k{eE Vy]Ë b{r (bore) h{ rh; h{ : f"l} h/y} p/tl} k{ ]sk{2>n' k' ]ly' p"r;_]s.pq"]`k k' ´']nyl nvE n.br t}n s' 1}k ]ky; j; skt; h" : ´']nyl nvE s' srk/lr Sm?q mSsLj> ]R.k h{ j;y'.g' a[r p/tl} j[ f"l} h/y} h" us' 9{`; ]ky; j; skt; h" : a;\Y{. k; r.g a;eE]rs k' ]pGm"N` (pigment) pr ]nwEr h" : a;eE]rs k' ]pGm"N` k; r.g b@;un (brown) h" : agr b@;un r.g a]ok ghr; h{ t{ a;\Y{. k; r.g b@;un y; k;l; h{g; : agr a;\Y{. k' ]pGm"N` k; r.g kmt} b@;un h" t{ a;\Y{. k; r.g g@}n (green) y; g@' (gray) h{g; : r"`}n; a;\Y k' b[l k' aNdr k} l'yr k{ r"`}nl `=y?]nk (retinal tunic) y; r"`}n; kht' h". : r"`}n; k'} d{ l'yrj> h". _ b;hr k} ]pGm"N` k} l'yr a[r a.dr k} nvEs l'yr : ]pGm"N` l'yr ptl} h{t} h" j{ k{r;e2> k' s;q j/2>} h/y} h" : yh a;eE b[l k' ]p9l' w;g s' k{r;e2> tq; s}]lyr} b[2} k' p}9' k; w;g v; a;eE]rs pr w} h" : yh l;eE` k{ A'Bj{>bE kr l't} h" y;]n s{Y l't} h" a[r ]v`;]mn A k{ S`{r kr l't} h" : ???? y; esm'. ]v`;]mn A bh/t rht; h" : yh sb ]pGm"N`'2 l'yr k; k;m h" : ???? aNdr k} nvEs l'yr m{`} h{t} h" : nvEs l'yr m'. Ny?r[Ns k} t}n l'yrj> y;]n th'. h". : b;hr} l'yr m'. f{`{ ]rs"P`rj> (photo receptors) k' Ny?r[Ns rht' h". : ]m2l y;]n mOy m'. b;eEp{lr Ny?r[Ns (bi-polar neurons) rht' h".- a[r aNdr k' zone m'. g".]Glyn Ny?r[Ns ???? rht' h". : nvEs l'yr k} b;hr} zone m'. l;Y{. h} photo receptors rht' h". : j{ asl} ]rs"P`rj> h".- v' r[2=j> (rods) a[r k{Nj> (cones) m'. rht' h". j{ f{`{ ]rs"P`rj> Ny?r[Ns k' 2'N2Ä;e`=s (dendrites) m'. rht' h". :

f{`{ ]rs"P`rj> k} t/ln; m/Åy g/~ ]ks p@k;r k} njr f{`{ ]pGm"N` Acuity Illumination threshold kh;. ]Sqr h" b;hr} segment k; x'p Wave length - peak sensitivity k/l m;µ; a.d;jn

r[2=j> (rods) k{Nj> (cones) ]sfE k;l; a[r sf'd- aNy sw} r.g r.g nh}. Ak r{2{]Psn r{2;|]Psn t}n h". _ l;l- hr; a[r n}l' r.g k' ]ly' alg_alg Y;s ]pGm"N` Low high Low High Peripheral lMb} a[r Cylindrical 505 mm. d{ kr{2>

Central (forea centralis) ???? Conical, tapered a[r 9{`} n}l' r.g k' k{Nj> _ 445 mm. hr' r.g k' k{Nj> _ 535 mm. l;l r.g k' k{Nj> _ 500 mm. s¶r l;Y

r[2=j> bh/t a]ok m;µ; m'. h".- j{ jgh_jgh f"l' h/y' h". jb ]k k{Nj> km h". : r"`}n; k' p'r}f'rl w;g m'. hr a;\Y k' tkr}bn ds kr{2> ???? r[2=j> f"l' h/y' h". : r[2=j> kmt} r{xn} m'. uks;y' j;t' h". a[r Y;l} k;l; a[r sf'd m'. h} d'Y skt' h". : ]ks} hlcl y; ]ks} c}j k} x'p y;]n a;k;r s' w} uks;y' j;t' h". : r.g j{ h" vh t'j r{xn} h} m'. k{Nj> %;r; d'Y' j;t' h". : ]ks} d?r} y; njd}k} k; aNtr sm4n; k{Nj> k; k;m h"- jb ]k r[2=j> m'. yh km h" : hr a;\Y m'. tkr}bn 70 l;Y ???? k{Nj> h". j{ ]k a;\Y k' a.dr k' ]p9l' w;g (]js' f{]vy; s"N`Ä;]ls kht' h".) us m'. rht' h". : Oy;n rh' en m'. r[2=j> nh}. h{t'- Y;l} k{Nj> rht' h". : f{]vy; s"N`Ä;]ls k} jgh k/9 ]2p@'xn y;]n Y2=2;_s; h" : a;\Y m'. sb s' t'j ]ng;h yh}. pr h" a[r aC9; ]dYt; h" : f{]vy; s"N`Ä;]ls k{ c;r{. a{r s' m"Ky?l; l?]`y; (macula lutea) n;mk w;g n' i'r rY; h" ]jsk; r.g p}l; h" : es jgh m'. w} k;f} k{Nj> rht' h". a[r es' y'l{ Sp;|` yellow spot w} kht' h". : r[2=j> a[r k{Nj> m'. 2'N2Ä;e`=s h". ]jn pr s}]lym (cilium) h" : d{n{. k' inner and outer segments h". : r[2=j> k} outer y;]n b;hr} s"Gm"N` lMb} a[r cylindrical h", jb ]k k{Nj> k} b;hr} s"Gm"N` conical, tapered a[r 9{`} h" : a.dr} s"Gm"N` r[2=j> a[r k{Nj> k} s"Ll k' s;q ]ml;p 2'N2Ä;e`=s %;r; h{t; h" : a;;uU`r s"Gm"N`=j> m'. k/9 discs h". ]jn m'. f{`{ s"]Ns]`v (photo sensitive) ]pGm"N`=j> rht' h". : r"`}n; k} ]m2l j>{n y;]n mOy w;g m'. b;eEp{lr Ny?r[Ns rht' h". ]jnk{ f{`{ ]rs"P`rj> k' s;eEn"Pss (synapses) uks;t' h". : bh/t s' r[2=j> k} x;Y;y'. Ak Y;s trh k; s;eEn"Ps Y;l} Ak b;eEp{lr Ny?r[n (bi-polar neuron) k{ ]mlt} h". : b;eEp{lr Ny?r[n k{ k/9 k{Nj> eNp/` %;r; apn} h;lc;l bt;t' h". : b;eEp{lr Ny?r[n k{ r[2=j> k' a]ok uks;n' s' v' kmt} r{xn} m'. w} k;yE krt' h". : Ky{.]k bh/t s' r[2=j> b;eEp{lr Ny?r[n k{ jb uks;t' h".- v' d?r y; njd}k k' fkE k{ km sm4t' h". : mgr jb Y;l} Ak h} k{n Ak h} b;eEp{lr Ny?r[n k{ uks;y' j{ f{]vy; s"N`Ä;]ls k{ s;eEn"Ps %;r; bt; d' t{ A's; h{n' s' d?r a[r njd}k k{ sm4n' m'. sh;yt; ]ml'g} a[r bh/t aC9; ]dYn' lg'g; : es k' b;d b;eEp{lr Ny?r[Ns r"`}n; k' eNnr j>{n m'. ]Sqt g".]Gly;|n Ny?r[Ns k{ s;eEn"Pss (%;r; ]sGnl ?? ) w'jt' h". : bh/t s' b;eEp{lr Ny?r[Ns Ak g".]Gly;|n k{ s;eEn"Ps w'jt' h". : ]f g".]Glyn Ny?r[Ns k' axons A'KsNj> a[]P`k ]2Sk (optic disk) k' w;g m'. sb ek`=1' h{kr a[]P`k nvE k{ bn;t' h". ]js' ´']nyl nvE n.br d{ ( II Cranial nerve) kht' h". : f{]vy; s"N`Ä;]ls k' mOy w;g k{ a[]P`k ]2Sk kht' h". : es jgh s' h} ´']nyl nvE n.br d{ a;\Y s' ]nkl kr bnt} h" : a[]P`k ]2Sk m'. k{eE f{`{ ]rs"P`rj> nh}. h".- es]ly' h} es' Bl;eE.2 Sp;|` (blind spot) kht' h". : a[]P`k ]2Sk s' h} ´']nyl nvE n.br d{ s"N`r s' ]nklt} h"a[r vh}. s' central artery a[r central vein a;\Y k{ rË s.c;r krt} h". : d?r a[r njd}k k} À]Z` p/tl} a[r a;eE]rs k' p}9' a[r d{n{. trf k' s}]lyr} b[2} k' mOy m'. l"Ns ]Sqr h" : l"Ns j{ ]k Akdm s;f a[r p;rdx}E h" a[r suspensory ligaments k} sh;yt; s' s}]lyr} mSsLj> j{ ]k s}]lyr} b[2} k' h".- j/2>; h" : l"Ns Ak ^{`}n k' l'yrj> m'. rht; h" : l"Ns flexible h" a[r yh s}]lyr} mSsLj> k} sh;yt; s' ]sk/2> skt; h" a[r f"l skt; h" y; ]sk/2> j;t; h" a[r f"l j;t; h" : yh b;eE

k{nk'v (bi-concave) h" : l"Ns k} x'p bdln' s' d'Yn' m'. f{ks k; k;m krt; h" ]js' A'k{m{2'xn (accommodation) kht' h". : jb ]ks} njd}k k} vSt/ k{ d'Yn; h{t; h" t{ l"Ns m{`; h{t; h" a[r r{xn} y; l;eE` m'. a]ok refraction y;]n bending h{ j;t} h" y;]n l;eE` a]ok ]t9}E h{ j;t} h" a[r r"`}n; pr f{k]s.g 1}k h{t} h" ]jss' vSt/ k} 9;y; y; a;k;r 1}k p@k;r s' ]dYn' lgt; h" : jb d/r k} vSt. d'Yn; h{ t{ l"Ns Fl"` flat y;]n s}o; y; Pl'n (plain) h{ j;t; h" : c;h' k[rn}y; f{k]s.g k' ] ly' bh/t mdd krt; h"- pr d?r k} vSt. k{ s;f d'Yn' k' ]ly' l"Ns k} f{k]s.g bh/t a;vXyk h" : l"Ns a[r a;eE]rs a;\Y k' a.dr d{ k"]v`}j> (cavities) y; jh;. pr k/9 Y;l} jgh h{ y; Y;l} w;g m'. b;.` d't' h". _ Ak a;g' k} k"]v`} (cavity) a[r Ak p}9' k} k"]v`} : a;g' k' w;g k{ y; A'N`}]ryr k"]v`} k{ d{ c"MbjE m'. b;.`; j;t; h" : a;g' k; c"Mbr a;eE]rs a[r k[rn}y; m'. ]Sqr h" : A'N`}]ryr y; a;g' k} k"]v`} k; p}9' k; y; p{S`}]ryr c"Mbr a;eE]rs a[r l"Ns k' ]lg;m'N`=s (ligaments) m'. ]Sqr h" : A'N`}]ryr k"]v`} k' d{n{. c"MbjE> m'. Ak s;f y; Kl}yr Fl?e2 wr} rht} h" ]js' A'Kv}ys ·?mr kht' h". : s}]lyr} p@{s'ss j{ ]k s}]lyr} b[2} k; a;g' k; w;g h"- Ak ] dn m'. 5 s' 6 c.c. A'Kv}ys ·?mr k{ bn;t; h" a[r bn; kr p{S`}]ryr c"Mbr m'. 2;l d't; h" a[r vh;. s' yh Fl?e2 p/tl} s' h{t; h/a; A'N`}]ryr c"Mbr m'. cl; j;t; h" : yh Fl?e2 l"Ns a[r k[rn}y; k{ Ny?]`ÄAN`=s a[r a[Ks}j"n sPl;eE krt; h" : y;d rh' ]k k[rn}y; k{ k{eE rË k} sPl;eE nh}. h{t} : Ky{.]k yh lg;t;r Fl?e2 k{ bn;t; rht; h"- s{ es} k;r~ yh A'N`}]ryr k"]v`} m'. eN`Ä;a[k/lr p@'xr j{ 20 mm. Hg. h" – us' bn;y' rYt; h" : a;eE b[l (eye ball) k} x'p 1}k p@k;r s' bn;y' rYn' k' ]ly' etn; p@'xr k; h{n; bh/t a;vXyk h" : ]fr A'Kv}ys ·?mr bht; h/a; Schlemm k} canal m'. cl; j;t; h" a[r v}ns s;eEns s' h{t; h/a; y; g/jrt; h/a; rË k' bh;v %;r; rË s.c;r m'. cl; j;t; h" : l;jE p[S`}]ryr k"]v`} l"Ns a[r r"`}n; m'. ]Sqr h" : p[S`}]ryr k"]v`} m'. vitreous humour j{ ]k Ak jelly k} trh k} s;f Fl?e2 h"- wr} rht} h" : vitreous humour k; sbs' b2>; k;m h" ]k vh eN`Ä; a[k/lr p@'xr k{ r"`}n; m'. bn;y' rYt; h" : a[r ]dY} h/y} vSt/ k} r{xn} y; l;eE` k{ r"`}n; pr 2;lt; h" : eN`Ä; a[k/lr p@'xr k; sb s' b2>; k;m h" ]k vh r"`}n; k} nrvs l'yr (nervous layer) k{ r"`}n; k' ]pGm"N`'2 l'yr (pigmented layer) k' s;q k1{rt; s' ]cpk;y' rYt; h" : r{xn} k} ]kr~{. k{ a;\Y{. k' a.dr j;n' k' ]ly' a[r f{ks kr kr a;g' w'jn' k' ]ly' bh/t s' w;g{. k' k;yE krn' k' sm?h y; sb w;g{. k' ek`=1; k;yE krn' s' vh occipital lobe k{ w'jt' h".- ]jss' vh d'Yn' k' b;d usk; ]nZkzE ]nk;l; j;t; h" ]k Ky; d'Y; h" a[r xr}r k{ usk' p@]t Ky; k;yE krn; h"- xr}r s' vh k;yE kr;y; j;t; h" : yh krn' k' ]ly' r[xn} y; l;eE` k{ a;\Y{. k' bh/t s' w;g{. y; parts s' g/jrn; p2>t; h" : f{`{ ]rs"P`rj> y;d rh' phl' kh; j;t; q; ]k l;eE` k} Sp}2 1,58,000 miles ??? hr s"k.2 k} h" : ab kht' h". ]k l;eE` k} Sp}2 1,86,000 miles ??? hr s"k.2 k} h" : mgr yh Sp}2 agr ]ks} vSt/ s' g/jr kr a;g' j;y'g} t{ yh Sp}2 km h{ j;y'g} : yh us vSt/ k' inTv pr ]nwEr h" : j"s; ]k a;\Y k} phl} th y; prt kNj.K`}v; k} h"- d?sr} A'N`}]ryr ·?mr k} h" : A'N`}]ryr ·?mr s' phl' k[rn}y; k} h"- ]fr l"Ns k}- a[r a;]Yr m'. r"`}n; k} : sw} k' a.dr j{ Fl?e2 wr} h"- un sb k; inTv alg_alg h" : es]ly' en k; inTv agr 1}k h{ t{ 1}k p@k;r s' s;f_s/qr; ]dY'g; : agr inTv ]ks} sBS`;Ns k' ] ml j;n' s' us k' inTv m'. fkE a; j;y'g;- t{ r[xn} y; l;eE` k} Sp}2 km y; Jy;d; h{ j;n' s' ]dYn' m'. fkE a; j;y'g; : a[r ]js vSt/ k{ hm d'Y rh' h". 1}k p@k;r s' nh}. ]dY'g} : r[2=j> k{ black and white ]dYt; h" a[r us r[xn} k} Sp}2 505 nm y;]n nano metre. ??? h{n} c;]hy' mtlb Ak ]mLl} m}2r k' ds l;Yv' w;g k' 505 w;g : es} p@k;r blue r.g k} 445 nm. yh k{Nj> s' d'Y; j;t; h" green r.g k} 535 nm. yh k{Nj> s' d'Y; j;t; h" red r.g k} 570 nm. yh k{Nj> s' d'Y; j;t; h" orange r.g k} 580 nm. yh k{Nj> s' d'Y; j;t; h" : eTy;]d Refractive Power Air 1.00 Cornea 1.38 Aqueous humour 1.33 Lens 1.40 Vitreous humour 1.34

es]ly' a;\Y{. m'. j;n' v;l} r[xn} k} Sp}2 400 s' 700 nm. h{n} c;]hy' : s{ agr es s' t'j r[xn} k} Sp}2 h{ y; ]ks} A's} r[xn} k{ j"s; ]ks} k{ welding krt' h/y' d'Yn;- t{ a;\Y{. k{ bh/t n/ks;n h{t; h" : s{ welding krn' v;l' k{ ghr' r.g k} A'nk lg; kr krn; c;]hy' : s/bh c3>t' s?yE k{ d'Yn; n/ks;n d'y nh}. h" : Ky{.]k us k} ]kr~'. t}9}E h{t} h". j{ ]k ort} k' uUpr k' v;y/ m.2l s' h{kr a;t} h" : a[r ]js v;y/ m.2l s' vh g/jr kr a;t} h"- us v;y/ m.2l k} l.b;eE b3> j;t} h" : ???? es]ly' s/bh c3>t' s?yE k{ 5-7 ]mn` k' ]ly' d'Yn; Yr;b nh}. h"- jb ]k bh/t aC9; h" : d/phr k{ jb ]k s?yE ]sr pr h{t; h"- a[r usk} ]kr~'. s}o} ort} pr a;t} h".- a[r v;y/ m.2l k} l.b;eE s/bh k} vË s' km h" : s{ agr s?yE k{ s}o; k/9 s"k.2 k' ]ly' d'Yn' k' b;d a;\Y'. b.d rYn' pr w} s? yE ]dY;y} d't; h" a[r ]fr a;\Y'. Y{ln' k' b;d ]ks} vSt/ k{ a;p d'Y'. t{ s;f ]dY;y} nh}. d't; a[r phl' d'Y; h/a; s?yE ]dYn' k' p}9' vh vSt/ ]dYt} h"- ]jss' vSt/ s;f nh}. ]dYt} : ]ks} w} sf'd prt pr y; sf'd d}v;r pr hr r.g k{ d'Y; j; skt; h" y; sf'd vSt/ pr hr r.g d'Y; j; skt; h"- y; reflect krt; h" : k;l; r.g hr r.g k{ Y; j;t; h" y; A'Bj{>bE kr l't; h" : l;eE` k} Anj}E waves m'. sfr krt} h" ]jnk} Sp}2 1,86,000 miles /sec h" : F{ks krn' k} ]´y; ]ks} vSt/ k} ]cμ k} 9;y; k{ r"`}n; pr f{ks h{n' k' ]ly' y; utrn' k' ]ly' y; ]dYn' k' ]ly' us r{xn} k} ]kr~{. k{ j{ ]cμ k{ bn;t} h"- y; ]dY;t} h"- bh/t s' a;\Y k' parts s' g/jrn; p2>t; h" : tb kh}. j;kr ]cμ ]dYt; h" y; bnt; h" : us r[xn} k{ y; l;eE` k{ k[rn}y;- A'Kv}ys ·?mr j{ ]k A'N`}]ryr c"Mbr k; h"- Py?]pl y; p/tl} a[r l"Ns k' a.dr s' g/jrn; p2>t; h" : r[xn} l"Ns s' g/jr kr v}]`Äys ·?mr j{ ]k p[S`}]ryr k"]v`} k; w;g h"- r"`}n; pr j;t} h" : r[xn} k; r;St; ]jn s' r[xn} y; l;eE` g/jrt} h"- a;\Y k' alg_alg w;g{. s' g/jrn; ???? jb ]k Ak w;g k; d?sr' w;g k' inTv m'. fkE h" l"Ns k; l;eE` k{ accommodate krn; ]js' accomodation kht' h". : ( l"Ns k; Fl"` y; m{`; h{n; ) p/tl} k; ]sk/2>n; y; f"ln; a[r convergence of eye mtln a;\Y{. k{ ]cμ k} 9;y; bn;n' k' ]ly' hr l;eE` k{ 1}k p@k;r s' g/jrn' d'n; a[r esk' f{ks k{ y; ]cμ k} 9;y; k{ 1}k p@k;r s' Ak h} Pv;e.` pr ]c]μt krn; a[r us ]cμ k} 9;y; k[ f{ks h{n' k' b;d a;\Y k' f{`{ ]rs"P`rj> us ] cμ k} 9;y; pr ]c]μt l;eE` Anj}E k{ electro k"m}kl Anj}E m'. bdl d't' h". j{ ]k nrvs ]sS`m k} h"- ]jsk' %;r; s'r'b@l k[r`'Ks k{ bt;y; j;t; h" ]k a;\Y n' Ky; d'Y; h" a[r xr}r k{ a;g' us d'Y' an/s;r Ky; krn; h" y; sm4n; h" : Ky{.]k a;\Y{. k' a;g' k; w;g g{l h"- mtlb k[rn}y; eTy;]d g{l;eE rYt' h".- s{ hr ]dYn' v;l} vSt/ k} 9;y; r"`}n; pr uUpr k; y; ]sr k; w;g n}c' a[r p;.v k; w;g uUpr ]c]μt h{g; : es]ly' d;eE. trf k} p2>} h/y} l;eE` k} 9;y; r"`}n; pr b;y}. trf a[r b;eE. trf k} p2>} h/y} l;eE` k} 9;y; r"`}n; pr d;y}. trf p2>'g; : es]ly' hr d'Y} h/y} vSt/ x}x' pr p2>} 9;y; k} trh s;f h{g}- agr hm l{g{. k{ k{eE vSt. ]dY;y} nh}. d't}- Ky{.]k d'Y} vSt/ k; trj/m; y; translation b@'n 1}k p@k;r s' kr l't; h" : ]r³"Kxn Refraction jr; Oy;n d'n' v;l} b;t h" ]k a;\Y{. k' vh w;g ]jnk' %;r; d'Y; j;t; h"- j"s; ]k k[rn}y;- A'Kv}ys ·? mr- a[r v}]`Äys ·?mr k' mSsLj> y; Fl?e2 eTy;]d ]jn s' vh bn' h".- unk' inTv m'. fkE h" : uUpr bt;y; gy; h" ]k l;eE` k} Sp}2 phl' 1,58,000 miles per sec kht' q'- ab kht' h". ]k l;eE` k} Sp}2 1,86,000 miles per sec. uUpr k' v;y/ m.2l m'. h" : agr l;eE` ]ks} k;.c eTy;]d s' p;r kr' y; k{eE k;.c eTy;]d usk' r;St' m'. a;y'- a[r usk' a;k;r k' a;o;r s' l;eE` g/jr'g} t{ usk} Sp}2 m'. a[r usk' 4/k;v m'. fkE a; j;y'g; : a[r agr us vSt/ s' ]js s' l;eE` g/jrt} h"- us vSt/ k' a.dr k] sBS`;Ns's k' k;r~ usk' inTv m'. fkE a; j;y'g; t{ g/jrn' v;l} l;eE` k} Sp}2 m'. v; 4/k;v m'. y; t}9;Epn m'. w} fkE a; j;y'g; : s{ es b;t k; Oy;n rYn; at}v a;vXyk h" : s{ es l;eE` k} Sp}2 a[r 4/k;v k{ refraction kht' h". : ab s' a]ok refraction us smy a]ok h{t} h" jb ]k l;eE` k} ]kr~'. hv; s' convex k[rn}y; y; g{l;eE v;l; k[rn}y; k' a.dr s' r"`}n; j;t} h" : a[r 80% refraction m'. yh} fkE a; j;t; h"- a[r k[rn}y; a[r A'Kv}ys ·?mr m'. km fkE a;t; h" : ]fr A'Kv}ys ·?mr a[r l"Ns m'. a[r v}]`Äys ·?mr m'. k;f} refraction m'. fkE a; j;t; h" ]k em'j y; vSt/ k} 9;y; jb r"`}n; pr p2>t} h" us' d'Yn' k' b;d t{ vh bh/t s;f v; clear a[r aC9} trh s' 9;y; p2>t} h" : jb ]dYn' v;l} vSt/ a;\Y s' b}s f}` (20 feet) y; ess' a]ok d?r h{ t{ esk} l;eE` k} ]kr~'. Ak d?sr' k' sm;n a.tr s' sfr ty krt} h". : y' ]kr~'. a;\Y k' a.dr r"`}n; k' fovea centralis pr l"Ns k' flat h{n' pr y; s}o; h{n' pr f{ks krt' h". : l"Ns k} l;eE` k{ refract krn' k' ]ly' apn}| x'p k{ bdln' k} k{eE a;vXykt; nh}. h" : ]dYn' v;l} vSt/ a[r a;\Y k' b}c k; f;sl; a]ok h{n' k'

k;r~ fovea centralis pr bg"r accommodation k' 9;y; k; h{n' k{ far point of vision kht' h". : n[rml a;\Y{. k' ]ly' far point of vision 6metre y; ess' a]ok h{n; 1}k h" : agr kw} l"Ns m'. frk a; j;y j"s; ]k figure p.345 es trh s' A's} h;lt m'. usk' a;\Y k' cXm' k' x}x' m'. frk a; j;y'g; s{ Oy;n rYn; : figure p.345 l"Ns k; A'k{m{2'xn accommodation agr vh object ]jsk} 9;y; r"`}n; pr p2>t} h"- ]k d?r} 6 metre s' km h{ t{ l"Ns k{ object k} l;eE` k{ g/jrn' k' ]ly' b}c m'. m{`; h{n; p2>t; h" t;]k object k} 9;y; r"`}n; pr 1}k p@k;r s' p2>' y; 1}k p@k;r s' ]c]μt h{ : yh l"Ns k} accommodation k[ 1}k p@k;r s' h{n' k' ]ly' j{ ]k s}]lyr} mSsLj> j{ s}]lyr} b[2} k' h".- k{ p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> d'Yt} h".- y; s}]lyr} b[2} k' s}]lyr} mSsLj> j{ l"Ns s' j/2>' h". l"Ns k} accommodation 1}k p@k;r s' h{n' k{ p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> d'Yt} h". y; p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> %;r; y' uks;y' j;t' h". : jb p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> s}]lyr} mSsLj> k[ ]sk/2>n' k' ]ly' uks;t} h". t{ vh ]sk/2>n' k' s;q s}]lyr} b[2} k{ a;g' ok'lt} h". ]js s' s}]lyr} b[2} k' ]r.g k{ k/9 9{`; krt} h". ]js s' l"Ns k' ] lg;m'N`=s k} `"Nxn y; tn;v km h{ j;t; h"- ]js s' l"Ns k; curvature b3> j;t; h" : l"Ns k' A's; h{n' s' em'j k} a;n'v;l} l;eE` k{ vh 1}k p@k;r s' r"`}n; k{ w'j d't; h" y; refract kr d't; h" : ]ks} object k{ accommodate krn' k} w} l"Ns k} limit h" : ds cm k' a.dr k' object k{ 1}k p@k;r s' Ak n[jv;n f{ks nh}. kr skt; y; f{ks krn; k]1n h" : ds cm k{ near point of vision kht' h". : a[r umr k' s;q_s;q es Pv;e.` k} d?r} w} b3>t} j;t} h" : c;l}s s;l k} Vy]Ë k} d?r} 20 cm. a[r 60 s;l k} Vy]Ë k} d/r] 80 cm. h{ j;t} h" : p/tl} k; ]sk/2>n; Pupil constriction jb ]ks} njd]k k' object k{ d'Yn; h{ t{ a;eE]rs k' srk/lr mSsLj> k[ p"r;_]s.pq"]`k nVEj> %;r; ]sk/2>; j;t; h" ]jn k' ]sk/2>n' s' a;eE]rs k} Py?]pl y; p/tl} w} ]sk/2> j;t} h" : h]r n' A's} VyvSq; bn; rY} h" ]k ]c]μt object k' al;v; a;j?_b;j? m'. k{eE a]ok y; extra l;eE` n a;y' t;]k object 1}k p@k;r s' ]dY' a[r f"l} h/y} y; blurred n ]dY' a[r r"`}n; k{ t'j r[xn} y; l;eE` s' yh p/tl} y; Py?]pl k; ]sk/2>n; bc;t; h" : d{n{. a;\Y{. k; Ak j"s; d'Yn; Eye convergence mn/Zy ]ks} object k{ d'Yn' k' ]ly' y; d{n{. a;\Y{. s' d'Yn' k' ]ly' us object pr Oy;n k'.]d@t ]ky; j;t; h" t{ vh 1}k p@k;r s' ]dYt} h" : esm'. A's; h{t; h" ]k l;eE` k} ]kr~'. d{n{. a;\Y{. k' r"`}n; pr Ak Y;s Pv;e.` pr k'.]d@t krt} h" t{ vh vSt/ y; object 1}k p@k;r s' ]dYt; h" : n;k k' p;s k} vSt/ d'Yn' k' ]ly' a;\Y{. k{ a.dr k} trf j;n; p2>'g; y; 2'l{. k{ medially rotate krn; p2>'g; t;]k vh same point k{ 1}k p@k;r s' d'Y' : es trh k{ d'Yn' k{ convergence kht' h". a[r s;mn' k{eE Vy]Ë uNh'. d'Y' t{ vh `'3>; ]dY;y} d'g; : yh convergence krn' k{ medial rectus mSsLj> k} j#rt p2>t} h" : y; medial rectus mSsLj 2'l{. k{ a.dr k} trf n;k k' p;s l;t' h". :

p347 Photo receptors of the rods and cones contain light sensitive pigments:Visual pigments:CHROMOPHORE:- any chemical that displays color when present in a cell that has been prepared properly, or light absorbing. RETINAL:- 1.Pertaining to the retina. 2.The light absorbing portion of photopigment, a derivative of VIT.A. OPSIN:- The protein portion of the rhodopsin molecule in the retina of the eye. RHODOPSIN:The glycoprotein opsin of the rods of the retina, combines with retinal to form a functional photopigment responsive to light. Formerly called visual purple. CONFIGURATION:- In chemistry, the position of atoms in a molecule. CIS:- In organic chemistry a form of isomerism in which similar atoms or radicals are on the same side. In genetics a prefix meaning the location of two or more genes on the same chromosome of a homologous pair. ISOMER:- one of two or more chemical substances that have the same molecular formula but different chemical and physical properties owing to a different arrangement of the atoms in the molecule. Dextrose is an isomer of levulose. DEXTROSE:- C6H12O6. Glucose, a simple sugar of the monosaccharose group, a crystalline solid that can be made by the action of acids on the starches. It is very soluble in water, is a important constituent of corn syrup and honey, and is an example of kind of carbohydrate. It is the most important of monosacchride group. Its present in urine in large amounts is usually a result of diabetes. However, this may be associated with brain injuries, cirrhosis of the liver, normal pregnancies and the administration of epinephrine or thyroxine. It is formed in the digestive tract bythe action of enzymes or carbohydrates. It occurs naturally in plants and in the body fluids of animals. PHOTORECEPTORS:- sensory nerve endings or cells that are capable of being stimulated by light. In humans, these include rods and cones of the retina. p 348

r[2=j> a[r k{Nj> j{ r"`}n; m'. rht' h".- un k' a.dr f{`{ ]rs"P`rj> rht' h". j{ l;eE` subjective ] pGm"N` s' bn' h{t' h". ]jnm' Ak A's; ^{`}n rht; h"- ]jsm'. Ak molecule Chromo four ???? k; rht; h" : Chromo four l;eE` k{ A'Bj{>bE kr skt; h" : sb Visual ]pGm"N`=j> k' Chromo four retinal h"., y;]n a;\Y m'. h} bnt' h". : Opsin type k; ^{`}n ]pGm"N` m'. rht; h" : opsin Ak glyco protein h" j{ Gl?k{j> a[r ^{`}n s' bn; h" : y' r{2;|]Psn m'. rhn' v;l; ^{`}n h" j[ r"`}n; k' r[2=j> m'. rht; h" : r"`}n; k' a.dr l;eE` k' a;n' s' j{ k"m}kl bn'.g' un k' s;q opsin ] ml kr functional ]pGm"N`=j> k{ bn;t; h" : yh ]v`;]mn A s' bn;y; j;t; h" y; retinal vitamin A s' derivative h{t; h" : r[2=j> a[r k{Nj> m'. c;r visual ]pGm"N`=j> rht' h". : b;k} k' t}n k{Nj> m'. rht' h". : c;r{. visual ]pGm"N`=j> k} nature m'. unk' opsins m'. w} fkE h" : l;eE` k} wave length usk' visual ]pGm"N`=j> k' an/s;r h} opsin ]n]Xct krt; h" : r[2=j> k; ]S`m/l'xn Stimulation of the rods r[2=j> k; visual ]pGm"N` r{2;|]Psn h" ]js' visual purple kht' h". : r{2;|]Psn m'. d{ vSt/y'. rht} h". _ Ak r"`}nl d?sr; Sk;|`[]Psn h" : jb a;\Y m'. k{eE l;eE` nh}. rht} t{ r"`}nl ???? CTS form m'. rht; h" : a[r vh Sk;|`[]Psn k' s;q ]ml kr r{2;|]Psn k{ bn; d't; h" : jb k{eE l;eE` n h{- y; a;\Y'. bNd h{.- t{ r[2=j> k' aNdr k' r{2;|]Psn m'. inTv a; j;t; h" y; r[2=j> k' r{2;|]Psn molecules constricted h{ j;t' h". : jb l;eE` s' uks;y; j;t; h" y; ]S`m/l'` ]ky; j;t; h"t{ ]fr 11-CIS r"`}nl ALL-TRANS r"`}nl m'. bdl j;t; h" : A's; h{n' s' 11-CIS r"`}nl k{ Sk;| `[]Psn s' alg h{kr ALL-TRANS m'. bdl ]dy; j;t; h" : ]fr ALL-TRANS Sk;|`[]Psn k{ keE stages m'. bdl d't; h" : Sk;|`[]Psn  b;q{_r{2;|]Psn  l?m}_r{2;|]Psn  m'`;_r{2;|]Psn I  m'`;_r{2;|]Psn II  p"r;_ r{2;|]Psn  es p@k;r Ak s' d?sr; bdl;v ]ky; j;t; h" : b;d m'. d/b;r; ALL-TRANS r"`}nl 11-CNS k' #p m'. bdl kr ]fr Sk;|`[]Psn k' s.g ]ml kr r{2;|]Psn k{ regenerate krt' h". : lumi rhodopsin – r"`}n; k;' Ak k"m}kl h" j{ rhodopsin Av. all-trans plus opsin k' b}c k; stage h" j{ tb bnt; h" jb rhodopsin l;eE` k' p@w;v s' bleach h{ j;t; h" : rhodopsin %;r; bn;y; gy; m'`;r{2;|]Psn II h} ^{`}n transducin k{ uks;t; h" a[r A's; h{n' k' b;d vh phospho-di-esterase k{ activate krt; h" j{ cGMP y;]n cyclic Guanine Mono Phosphate n;mk k"m}kl k{ 5'-GMP m'. k[Nv`E (convert) y;]n bdl d't; h" : A's; h{n' pr r[2=j> m'. y; usk' s;e`{Pl;j>m m'. cGMP k} km} a; j;t} h" ]js s' r[2=j> k' s{]2ym k' c"nLs (sodium channels) bNd h{ j;t' h". : ]jsk; nt}j; h{t; h" r[2=j> k' aNdr hyper-polarization k; h{n; : ]js k' k;r~ r[2=j> k' j'n'r'`r m'. potentiality b3> j;t} h" : s{ yh sm4 l'n; ]k l;eE` r[2=j> k{ hyper-polarize krt} h"- jb ]k a.o'r; 2} p{l;r;eEj> krt; h" : Stimulation of cones k{Nj> k{ uks;n' k' ]ly' 1}k v"s; h} k;yE krn; p2>'g; j"s; ]k r[2=j> k{ uks;n' k' ]ly' ]ky; q; : Y;l} fkE yh h" ]k r[2=j> Ak p@k;r k' h{t' h". prNt/ k{Nj> t}n p@k;r k' h{t' h".- ]jn k{ uks;n' k' ]ly' unk} v'v l".Gq alg alg h" : k{Nj> t}n p@k;r k' h{t' h".- ]jn k; ]vx/al ]pGm"N`=j> visual pigment w} alg_alg h" : k{Nj> k' ]vx/al ]pGm"N`=j> rhodopsin s' l;eE` k' ]ly' km sensitive h". : s{ k{Nj> k' ] vx/al ]pGm"N`=j> k{ uks;n' k' ]ly' l;eE` m'. intensity a]ok h{n} c;]hy' : k{Nj> k' opsins k{ photopsins kht' h". : p@Ty'k photopsin k{ uks;n' k' ]ly' usk} wave length alg_alg h" : ] jtn] w} k{Nj> h". un k' 74% k{Nj> red cones k' h". ]jnk{ 570 nm. k} wave length s' uks;y; j;t; h" : b@'n k{ jb etn} wave length k} s?cn; ]mlt} h"- t{ vh esk; aqE esk; l;l r.g k; h{n; ]nk;lt; h" : green cones 10% h". ]jsk} wave length 353 nm h" : 445 nm k} wave length m'. 16% k{Nj> k{ blue cones kh; j;t; h" : r.g}n d'Yn' k' ]ly' k{Nj> k{ v;ps j;t; h" prNt/ mn/Zy l;l- g@}n a[r Bl? r.g k' al;v; a[r w} bh/t s' r.g d'Yt; h" : t}n{. p@k;r k' k{Nj> k' Ak s;q uks;y' j;n' pr alg_alg r.g k; a;w;s h{t; h" : wave length k' 580 nm k' h{n' pr p}l; r.g k; a;w;s h{t; h" : 580 nm wave length k' uks;y; j;n' pr red cones w} uks;y' j;t' h". a[r k/9 green w} uks;y' j;t' h". prNt/ blue cones nh}. uks;y' j;t' : 580 nm. k' uUpr wave length h{n' pr orange r.g h{g; : sw} k{Nj> k' Ak s;q uks;y' j;n' pr sf'd r.g k; a;w;s h{g; a[r k;l' k; a;w;s tb h{g; jb k{eE w} cone uks;y; nh}. j;y'g; :

Neural pathway of vision leads to the occipital lobe Generator potential j{ r[2=j> a[r k{Nj> k' dendrites bn; l't' h". y; form kr l't' h".- vh s"Ll k} b[2} %;r; unk' axons k} w'j ]dy; j;t; h" y; cl; j;t; h" a[r vh;. s' bipolar Ny?r[Ns k{ synapse %;r; Ny?r{ `Ä;NSm}`r s' bipolar Ny?r[n k[ uks;y; j;t; h" y; excite ]ky; j;t; h" : ] fr bipolar Ny?r[n us excitory signal k} ganglion Ny?r[n=j> k{ w'j d't; h" : r"`}n; k} nervous layer m'. d{ p@k;r k' s"Ls rht' h". j{ excitory signal k{ a;g' w'jn' k' ]ly' sh;yt; krt' h". : unk; n;m horizontal cells a[r amacrine cells h". : a;\Y{. k} sf;eE jb bh/t kc2>; A'Kv}ys ·?mr m'. jm; h{ j;t; h"- yh a;\Y m'. k{eE h'm{r'j h{n' k' b;d A's; h{t; h" y; eN`Ä; a[k/lr eNf'Kxn a; j;y- yh kc2>; Canal of Schlemm k' r;St' m'. jm; h{ j;t; h"- ]jss' A'Kv}ys ·?mr k} Fl?e2 A'Bj{>bE h{n} bNd h{ j;t} h" : a[r Fl?e2 vh;. jm; h{n} x/# h{ j;t} h" : a[r p@'xr b3>n' s' glaucoma k] b}m;r} a; j;t} h" : h;.- trabecular plates pr phagocytic cells rht' h".- j{ es kc2>' k{ phagocyte kr kr sm;Pt kr d't' h". : Canal of Schlemm k' x/# h{n' s' phl' interstitial cells h". ]jsm'. b2>} s.Åy; m'. reticular endothelial cells h". j[ at}v x]Ëm;n h". j{ es kc2>' k{ ]ngl kr (engulfing) sm;Pt kr d't' h".- y; enk{ 9{`'_9{`' `/k2>{. m'. bdl d't' h". : j{ ]k Canal of Schlemm m'. cl' j;t' h". : es trh s' trabecular spaces k{ s;f y; ]Klyr kr d't' h". : agr A's; n h{ t{ p;n} y; Fl?e2 b3>n} x/# h{ j;t} h" a[r glaucoma k} b}m;r} w} a; j;t} h" : Gl;ek{m; glaucoma a.o;pn a;n' k; main y; asl} k;r~ glaucoma h} h" : yh a;\Y{. k} b}m;r} h"- ]js m'. eN`Ä; a[k/lr p@'xr b3> j;t; h" : kw}_kw} yh p@'xr 60 s' 70 mm Hg. tk b3> j;t; h" : p@'xr 20 s' 30 mm. Hg. s' uUpr agr lMb' smy tk rh'- t{ a;\Y{. s' ]dYn; bNd h{ j;t; h"a[r agr p@'xr Jy;d; b3> j;y'- t{ k/9 ]dn{. m'. y; i.`{. m'. a.o;pn a; j;t; h" : jb p@'xr b3> j;t; h"- t[ vh optic nerve k' axons k{ db; d't' h". : j{ eye ball k' axons optic disc k{ j;t} h".yh db;v axons k' Fl{ flow y;]n bh;v k{ _ j{ cytoplasm k{ bNd kr d't' h". y; un neuronal cell bodies k{ j{ r"`}n; k' peripheral nerve f;eEbj>E k{ j{ b@'n k' a.dr j;t' h". : es k; fl y; nt}j; yh h{t; h" ]k Ny?r[Ns k{ Ny?]`ÄAN`=s k; ]mln; bNd h{ j;t; h" a[r v' mr j;t' h". : r"`}nl a;r`r} k{ compression y; db;v a;n' s' r"`}n; k' Ny?r[Ns k{ w} Ny?]`ÄAN`=s ]mln' km h{ j;t' h".- ]js s' uNh'. k;f} n/ks;n ph/\ct; h" y; v' damage h{ j;t' h". : Oy;n rh' yh sb acute inflammation k' k;r~ h{ j;t; h" : WBC’s a[r ]`x?j> k' debris k' k;r~ y; kc2>; k' k;r~ ] jNh{.n' spaces k{ block kr ]dy; h{t; h"- a[r ]js k' k;r~ eN`Ä; a[k/lr p@'xr b3> j;t; h" : p/r;n} b}m;r} h{ j;n' k' k;r~ Y;s t[r pr b/3>;p' m'. trabecular spaces m'. fibrous occlusion k' jm; h{n; h} es k; k;r~ h" : a;|pr'xn s' sub conjunctival space j{ b;hr h"- a[r trabecular space j{ a.dr h"- k' b}c m'. channel y; r;St; bn; kr p@'xr km ]ky; j;t; h" : -

d'h;t{. m'. m;n; j;t; h" ]k hr} ]mc}E m'. a;\Y{. k' ]ly' j#r} tTv p;y' j;t' h". :