MA thesis

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Kurdistan Regional Government-Iraq Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research University of Koya

Mood in English and Kurdish: A Comparative Study

A Thesis

Submitted to the Council of the College of Languages University of Koya in Partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in English Language and Linguistics

BY Rashwan Mahmood Mustafa (B.A. in 2002- 2003/ Salahaddin University)

Supervised by Dr. Hussein Ali Wali

January 2007

Thul-Hija 1427

(Hijri)

Bafranb達r2706

(Kurdish)

I certify that this thesis was prepared under my supervision at the University of Koya as a partial requirement for the degree of Master of Arts in ENGLISH LANGUAGE and LINGUISTICS.

Signature:

Supervisor: Dr. Hussein Ali Wali

Date:

/

/ 2006

In view of the available recommendations, I forward this thesis for debate by the Examining Committee.

Signature:

Name:

Head of the English department:

Date:

/

/ 2006

I

We certify that we have read this thesis as an Examining Committee, examined the student in its content and that in our opinion it is adequate with the standing of…… ………. as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in ENGLISH LANGUAGE and LINGUISTICS.

Signature:

Signature:

Name:

Name:

Chairman

Member:

Signature:

Signature:

Name:

Name:

Member:

Member and supervisor

Date:

/

/ 2007

Approved by the council of the college of Languages

Signature: Name: Dean of College of Languages

Date:

/

/ 2007 II

e

Ů‹ Ů?!Ů?" Ů’ Ů?‍َ!ŮŽ Ů’ ŮŽ آ‏#‍ ŮŽŮˆâ€Ź%ŮŽ& Ů?‍س Ů?ŘĽ ŮŽ ŮŽ Ů’ ŮŽ آŮ? ŮŽذآŮŽ Ů? Řą ŮŽŮˆŘŁâ€Ź Ů? ‍ ŮŽ ŮŽŘŁ ŮŽ ا‏

< < ŮŒ 1Ů?)ŮŽ ŮŒ 1Ů? ŮŽ- 2ŮŽ ‍ْ ŮŽ آŮ? Ů’ Ů?ŘĽ ن ا‏3‍ َأ‏2Ů? ‍ ا‏4ŮŽ Ů?- Ů’ Ů?.ŮŽ ŮŽ ْ‍Ů? اŮ?ŘĽ ن ŮŽأآ‏+‍َ!ŮŽ َع‏,Ů? 'ŮŽ Ů?( ŮŽ)ŮŽ*â€ŤŮŽŮˆâ€Ź 12@Zpa‚v¨a

In the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful O mankind! We have created you male and female, and have made `you nations and tribes that ye may know one another, the noblest of you, in the sight of Allah, is the best in conduct. Allah is Knower, Aware

(Qur’an; Al-Hujurat: verse12)

III

Dedicated To:

My Parents, My Sisters and Brothers, And My lovely Nephews

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to record my thanks to the Regional Government of Kurdistan-Iraq, Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, and College of Languages English department. My best acknowledgments and deepest gratitude are due to my supervisor Dr. Hussein Ali Wali, for his valuable help through providing me with excellent sources and constructive notes.

My everlasting thanks to Dr. Himdad Abdul-Qahar for his ongoing help and cooperation for providing me with necessary sources.

Thanks are also due to central libraries of Sulaimania and Salahaddin University for providing me with important sources.

Finally, my thanks are to my parents, brothers and sisters for their patience and help during my study.

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Abstract This thesis is a comparative study of Mood in English and Kurdish. Kurdish students and some of the foreigners who come to Iraqi Kurdistan can make use of such a study. The thesis consists of five chapters.

Chapter one is an introduction which includes clarification of the title, the hypothesis, the aim, the procedure, delimitation of the study and the data which are used as basis for this thesis.

Chapter two is a presentation of the concept of Mood in the English language. It is divided into six sections. At the beginning an introduction to mood in English is given. In the second section, a set of terminologies have been defined and explained. The meanings of mood are given in the third section and in the fourth section the classification of mood is presented. The fifth section is an illustration of the relation between mood and the tenses and in the final; the sixth, section the relation between modality and negation is clarified.

The third chapter deals with the mood in the Kurdish language. The steps followed in this chapter are the same as those followed in the previous chapter. At the beginning mood is introduced. Then the second section sheds light on the previous studies. The third section is a presentation of the meanings of mood in the Kurdish language. The fourth section illustrates the classification of mood. The fifth section presents the interaction between modality and tense and the last

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section is a presentation of the relation between modality and negation.

Chapter four is a comparison between English and Kurdish with respect to mood. It includes the most important points of similarity and difference which are found in dealing with mood.

The final chapter contains the most important findings of the study. It has been concluded that the use of subjunctive forms in the English language is fading out while in the Kurdish language subjunctive forms are used in a wide range. The list of the sources consulted are found at the end.

VII

Key to Abbreviations and Symbols

becomes or changes to

*

ill formed sentence

1st pl.

first person plural

1st sing.

first person singular

asp

aspect

BC

before Christ

i.e.

that is to say

ID

identity Card

Pres

present

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Key to Kurdish Phonetic Symbols /p/ voiceless bilabial stop as in pãra ‘money’ /b/ voiced bilabial stop as in bãrãn ‘rain’ /t/ voiceless dental stop as in trě ‘grape’ /d/ voiced dental stop as in dãr ‘wood’ /k/ voiceless velar stop as in kãny ‘spring’ /g/ voiced velar stop as in garim ‘warm’ /f/ voiceless labio dental fricative as in firměsik ‘tear’ /v/ voiced labio dental fricative as in mirov ‘human being’ /s/ voiceless alveo-dental fricative as in sãrd ‘cold’ /z/ voiced alveo-dental fricative as in zu: ‘soon’ /š/ voiceless alveo-palatal fricative as in šěr ‘lion’ /ž/ voiced alveo-palatal fricative as in žãn ‘pain’ /č/ voiceless alveo-palatal affricative as in čiya ‘mountain’ /j/ voiced alveolar affricative as in jwãn ‘beautiful’ /m/ voiced bilabial nasal as in mom ‘candle’ /n/ voiced alveolar nasal as in nãn ‘bread’ /h/ voiceless glottal fricative as in hawir ‘cloud’ /ĥ/ voiceless pharyngeal fricative as in ĥaft ‘seven’ /l/ voiced dental lateral as in mil ‘neck’ /ĺ/ voiced velarized lateral as in saĺ ‘year’ /r/ voiced alveolar flap as in kar ‘donkey’ /ř/ voiced alveolar trill as in kař ‘deaf’ /x/ voiceless velar fricative as in xěrã ‘quick’ /xˇ/ voiced velar fricative as in xˇãr ‘gallop’ /q/ voiceless uvular stop as in qaĺaw ‘fat’ /?/ voiceless pharyngeal fricative as in ?aib ‘shame’

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/y/ voiced palatal glide as in yãri ‘game’ /w/ voiced labio-velar rounded glide as in wara ‘come’ Vowels

/a/ low central unrounded, short vowel as in mař ‘sheep’ /ã/ low central unrounded, long vowel as in mãr ‘snake’ /ě/ mid close front unrounded long vowel, as in čěĺ ‘cow’ /i/ high close front unrounded short vowels, as in firměsik ‘tear’ /i:/ high close front unrounded long vowel, as in ši:r ‘milk’ /u/ high open back rounded short vowel, as in kuř ‘boy’ /u:/ high close back rounded long vowel, as in du:r ‘far’ /o/ mid open back rounded short vowel, as in toř ‘net’

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Table of Contents

Dedication……………………………………………………….. IV Acknowledgements ……………………………………………… V Abstract………………………………………………………….. VI Key to Abbreviations and Symbols…………………………… VIII Key to Kurdish phonetic symbols………………………………. IX Table of Contents………………………………………………… XI Chapter One Preliminaries 1.0 Introduction…………………………………………………… 1 1.1 Problems……………………………………………………….1 1.2 The Aims…………………………………………………

2 1.3 The hypothesis …………………………………………………2 1.4 The procedures…………………………………………………2 1.5 Delimitation ………………………………………………….. 3 1.6 Data…………………………………………………………… 3 chapter Two Mood in English 2.0 Introduction…………………………………………………… 4 2.1 Basic concepts (terminology)………………………………….5 2.1.1 Propositional Modality……………………………………. 7 2.1.2 Epistemic and Evidential Modality………………………. 7 2.1.3 Deontic and Dynamic modality………………………….. 8 2.2 Meanings of Mood…………………………………………… 9 2.2.1 Possibility………………………………………………… 12 2.2.2 Necessity…………………………………………………..15 2.2.3 Prediction………………………………………………… 17 2.2.4 Permission……………………………………………….. 20 2.2.5 Obligation………………………………………………. 22

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2.2.6 Volition………………………………… . . .……………… 26 2.2.6.1 Volition of Intention………………… . . . …………..… 26 2.2.6.2 Volition of Willingness………………………………..

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2.2.6.3 Volition of Insistence …………………………………… 27 2.3 Classification of Mood…………………….. .………………….. 28 2.3.1 Indicative…………………………………………………… 29 2.3.2 Imperative…………………………………………………. 33 2.3.3 Subjunctive………………………………………………….. 39 2.3.3.1 Mandative………………………………………………… 40 2.3.3.2 The Formulaic……………………………………………. 40 2.3.3.3 The were-subjunctive…………………………………….. 41 2.4 Expressions of Modality………………………………………… 42 2.4.1 Modal Auxiliaries……………………………………………..42 2.4.2 Lexical Means……………………………………………… 43 2.4.2.1 Modal Adverbs…………………………………………… 43 2.4.2.2 Modal Tags……………………………………………… 44 2.4.2.3 Modal Particles…………………………………………… 44 2.5 Modality and Tense……………………………………………. 45 2.5.1 Modality and Future . .…………………………………… 45 2.5.2 Modality and Past Tense…………………………………… 46 2.6 Modality and Negation…………………………………………. 47 Chapter Three Mood in Kurdish 3.0 Introduction……………………………………………………….. 52 3.1 Previous works ………………………………….. .. .…………….. 53 3.2 Meanings of Mood………………………………………………… 53 3.2.1 Possibility ……………………………………………………… 55 3.2.2 Necessity ……………………………………………………… 57

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3.2.3 Prediction………………………………………………………

58

3.2.4 Permission…………………………………………………….

60

3.2.5 Obligation……………………………………………………… 61 3.2.6 Volition……………… …… …… ……………….… ……….. 63 3.3 Classification of Mood………… ……… ………………………… 64 3.3.1 Indicative Mood…………………………………… . . . . .………. 64 3.3.2 Imperative Mood………………………………… . . . . ……….. 70 3.3.3 Subjunctive Mood…… …… … …… …… ……. . . … ……… 71 3.4 Expressions of Modality…………………………………………….. 76 3.4.1 Modal Auxiliaries…………………………………………………. 76 3.4.2 Lexical Means…………………………………………………….. 77 3.4.2.1 Modal Adverbs…………………………………………………….77 3.4.2.2 Modal Tags………………………………………………………. 78 3.4.2.3 Modal Particles……………………………………………………78 3.5 Modality and Tenses……………………………………………….. 79 3.5.1 Modality and Future………………………………………………. 80 3.5.2 Modality and Past Tense…………………………………………… 81 3.6 Modality and Negation………………………………………………. 81 Chapter Four Comparative Study 4.0 Introduction………………………………………………………….. 85 4.1 Meanings of Mood…………………………………………………… 85 4.1.1 Possibility…………………………………………………………86 4.1.2 Necessity ……………………………………………………….. 86 4.1.3 Prediction……………………………………………………….. 87 4.1.4 Permission……………………………………………………….. 87 4.1.5 Obligation…………………………………………………………88

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4.1.6 Volition…………………………………………………………..

88

4.2 Classification of Mood……………………………………………….

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4.2.1 Indicative Mood……………………………………………………

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4.2.2 Imperative Mood…………………………………………………

89

4.2.3 Subjunctive Mood…………………………………………. . ……

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4.3 Expressions of Modality…………………………………. . .…………

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4.3.1 Lexical Means……………………………………………………... 91 4.3.1.1 Modal Adverbs………………………………………………

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4.3.1.2 Modal Particles…………………………………………..

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4.4 Modality and Tense……………………………… …. .. . . . . ………..

92

4.4.1 Modality and Future…………………………………………

92

4.4.2 Modality and Past Tense……………… . . ……………………….

93

4.5 Modality and Negation……………………………...…………………

93

Chapter Five: Conclusion and Suggestions for further researches

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Bibliography……………………………………………………………..

96

Kurdish Abstract . . . . . . .. .. . . ….. …. …. .. .. .. .. … .. .. .. .. . . .. . . . . . 100 Arabic Abstract. … ….. ………… …………. …………… …… . …. .. ..

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Chapter One Introduction 1.0

Introduction:

The structure of any sentence in many languages, including the English and the Kurdish languages, contains a verb. A structure is a sentence when it has a verb. The verb is regarded as the most influential and important element in the sentence structure. It is that element which can show the morphological contrasts of tense, aspect, voice, mood, person, and number. Crystal (1991:372) sates that “In many grammatical theories, accordingly, the verb is considered the most important element in sentence structure�. A verb can have more than one feature. It can be in past or non-past tense. It can express an action, which is in a simple, perfect, or a progressive aspect. Or it can be either passive or active. More than one mood can be expressed by a verb. Traditionally, verbs had to refer to action words. Verbs deal with actions. Verbs can again be divided on the basis of being either stative or dynamic. (Crystal, 1991: 371)

1.1. The Problem:

There is a factor make it necessary for a thesis to be done in this field of syntax. The factor is that many Kurds try to learn English, and a noticeable number of foreigners who come to the region want to learn

Mood in English and Kurdish; A Comparative Study

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Kurdish. That is why the researcher sees it necessary to make a comparative study of mood in the English and the Kurdish language.

1.2. The Aims: The study aims at finding the features of mood in the Kurdish and English languages. It also attempts at finding the points of similarity and difference between the two languages through a comparative study.

1.3. The Hypotheses: It is hypothesized that the two languages under study share some points of similarity and difference in what concerns mood. It is also hypothesized that each language has its own rules which govern the subject.

1.4. The Procedures: The study follows a descriptive analytic procedure in dealing with the subject. In the first place, an accurate and precise description will be presented of mood in English depending on the data found in the sources available. In the second step, mood in the Kurdish language is presented in a precise and detailed way. The central Kirmanji dialect, or what is known as Sorani dialect, is studied. The third step, is a presentation of a comparative study of mood in English and Kurdish. Finally, the summary and the conclusion are presented.

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1.5. Delimitation: Tense, aspect, voice, person, number and mood are syntactic features of verbs. This thesis is only dealing with mood, and not with any other feature because it is impossible to take all these syntactic features within the limitation of a thesis.

1.6. The Data: The data depended on in this study for mood in the English language are from the books available in the libraries in the region and also on some electronic magazines and internet websites. What concerns the sources for the subject in the Kurdish language, the available books in the libraries are used. Most of the examples are the researcher's own.

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Chapter Two Mood in English 2.0 Introduction: This chapter talks about mood in English. It begins with an introduction to mood in English, then meanings of mood and classification of mood will be presented. The term “Mood� is widely used in literature of language and it has got its usage and definitions in different ways. The word Mood is of Latin originates from "Modus" that means manner, way, method when it is applied to verbs, it means the way of convincing and expressing action. (Baskervill and Sewell, 1895: 91) Lyons (1968: 307) defines mood by stating that "Mood, like tense, is frequently realized by inflecting the verb or by modifying it by means of auxiliaries. It is best defined in relation to "unmarked" class of structures which express simple statements of facts, unqualified with respect to the attitude of the speaker toward what he is saying". According to this definition mood is viewed as the process of verbal inflection or the effect of helping verb. There is concentration on the speaker's attitude toward the meaning of the sentence that he utters. Verb phrases are used to show the features of mood and modality. It shows in a precise form the way in which the verb indicates the viewpoint of the speaker toward what is being communicated, whether the

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communicated message being emphasized, questioned, ordered or wished for. (Finch, 2000: 103) Mood can be defined as “that grammatical systems of the verb or verb phrase whose terms are differentiated semantically primarily in the contrast between factual assertion and various kinds of non-factually and/or non-assertion.� Here in this definition the focus is stressed on the semantics of the sentence, it is the meaning ,which decides whether a sentence is asserted or not, real or unreal. (Huddelston, 1984: 164) From these definitions it can be concluded that mood is a structure in which the speaker's viewpoint toward the utterance he/she made is expressed. The utterance might be viewed as a piece of news, a command, or a desire wished for. 2.1 Basic Concepts (terminologies): There are some terms needed to be explained: The two terms mood and modality are frequently used in grammatical and linguistic subjects. In most of the grammar books they are defined as one thing, but it is necessary for a distinction to be made between the two. There are two ways in which languages grammatically deal with an overall category of modality. They are to be distinguished in terms of: modal system and mood. Both may be present in a language, that is to say a language has a modal system of modal verbs and mood. In some of the European languages the subjunctive seems to be no longer used, while in English it has essentially disappeared; as a result of this a modal system of modal verbs has been created. (Palmer, 2001:4)

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Another important distinction to be drawn is between epistemic and deontic modality. Epistemic modality refers to the degree of certainty the speaker has while saying a sentence that it is true(Lyons, 1995:254), for example: 1- Jane must have been at school. The sentence number one shows the speaker's confidence in his speech that Jane must at school not at home or somewhere else. While deontic modality refers to the degree of force imposed by the addresser on the addressee for carrying out an action, for example: 2- Jane must go to school.

This force is always from the addresser and it is possible to be from a third unspecified source. (De Haan, 2004: 8)

3- Jack may be at his office now. The sentence number three means "It is possible (possibly the case) that Jack is at home now." 4- Jack must be at his office now. means "It is necessarily the case that Jack is at home." 5- Jack may come now. It can be interpreted as: "It is possible for Jack to come in now." 6- Jack must come now. It means, "It is necessary for Jack to come."

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The two words "that" and "for" are essential for making the difference between these of sentences. It can be noticed that three and four are about the speaker's judgment of the proposition that “Jack is at work�, while five and six are concerned with the speaker's attitude, a potential future event, that of "Jack who is to come." (Palmer, 2001: 7)

2.1.1 Propositional and Event Modality: What is important to be clarified here is the term "proposition". It refers to the unit of meaning which constitutes the subject matter of a sentence in the shape of a simple declarative statement. In linguistics, the focus of using the term is on the way in which different forms can be shown to express the same proposition, for instance: 7- The cat ate the meat. The meat was eaten by the cat. In sentence number seven, we can see how a single statement can be analyzed in terms of different propositions. (Crystal, 1991: 282)

2.1.2 Epistemic and Evidential Modality: These are two head kinds of propositional modality. The main difference between Epistemic and Evidential is that the former is that speakers express their judgment about the factual status of the proposition, while the latter deals with the evidence that the speaker has about factual status of a proposition.

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2.1.3 Deontic and Dynamic Modality: Palmer (2001: 9) states that the difference between deontic and dynamic is that "with deontic modality the conditioning factors are external to the relevant individual, whereas with dynamic modality they are internal. Thus deontic modality relates to obligation or permission, emanating from an external source, whereas dynamic modality relates to ability or willingness which comes from the individual concerned." The following examples are helpful to show the distinction: 8- Jessica can leave now. (permission) Deontic 9- Jessica must leave now. (Obligation) Deontic 10- Jessica can speak English. (ability) Dynamic 11- Jessica will do it for you. (willingness) Dynamic The first two, eight and nine show the category of deontic permission and obligation. The last two ten and eleven clarify the category of dynamic ability and volitive. It can be noticed that in deontic modality the authority is the speaker who gives permission to or lays an obligation on the addressee. Dynamic modality may indicate not only ability but also the possibility in a general sense as in: 12- The nightingale can escape. (A dynamic meaning that the door is not locked.) Another term to be distinguished and defined here is commissive modality. This type refers to the speaker when he commits himself to do an action, as in: 13- You shall have it tomorrow.

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It is considered as a type of Deontic Modality because the action's conditioning factor goes with the addressee not the subject of the sentence. (Palmer, 2001: 10)

2.2 Meanings of Mood: In dealing with meanings of mood, Leech and Svartvik (1975:128) state that Instead of thinking of truth and falsehood in black-and-white terms, we can think in terms of a SCALE OF LIKELIHOOD. The

extremes

of

the

scale

are IMPOSSIBILITY and

CERTAINTY or (LOGICAL NECESITY), other, intermediate concepts to be considered are POSSIBILITY, PROBAIBLITY, IMPROBABILITY, etc.

(1) Modality is to be understood as a semantic category which covers notions like possibility, probability, necessity, volition, obligation and permission. (These are basic modalities) (2) Recently the concept of modality has been extended to cover other notions such as doubt, wish, regret, and desire, and temporal notions such as usuality. (3) In very general terms modality may be taken to express a relation with reality, whereas a non-modal utterance treats the process as reality. Means of expressing modal meanings

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(1) Lexical verbs such as: allow, beg, command, forbid, guess, suggest, warn (performative verbs) (2) The verbs like wonder, wish (3) The modal auxiliaries (4) The lexico-modal auxiliaries composed of be or have + infinitive: have (got) to, be bound to, etc. (5) Modal disjuncts: possibly, obviously‌ (6) Modal adjectives like: likely, probably, possibly‌ (7) Modal nouns such as: possibility, probability (8) Certain uses of if-clauses (9) Certain types of intonation (fall-rise) (10) The use of hesitation in speech. (11) The use of non-assertive items such as any

Modal verbs are used in a very wide range for expressing meanings of mood, their uses are divided into two types:A) Those that express permission, obligation and volition involve some kind of intrinsic human control over events. B) Those expressing possibility, necessity and prediction which do not primarily involve human control of events, but they involve human judgment of what is to happen or not to happen. (Quirk et al, 1985: 219)

Palmer (2001: 100) lists a set of points which he labels English modal verb properties:-

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1- They don’t co-occur; that is to say it is impossible to find two modal verbs occurring one after another. 14* He will can come. 15* You may shall leave. 2- Modal verbs do not have ~s forms for their third person singular forms: as exemplified in: 16* He oughts to go. A point that must be noted here is that when the modals will and dare are used as lexical verbs, they take third person singular ~s, for example: 17- He dares to say no. 18- He wills to leave. 3- They do not have non-finite forms; they cannot be preceded by to as in: 19 * to can come. 20* I hope to can come tomorrow.

1- There is no way for deriving imperative forms from modal verbs, for instance: 21* Can lift! 22* Must come now. 2- The modal must has no morphological past tense form. While the other modals like (can, shall, may‌) have past tense forms. Among these past tense forms just could is used to refer to past time. (Palmer, 2001: 100)

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The following is an attempt to show various meanings represented by modal verbs:

2.2.1. Possibility: Epistemic possibility makes use of may, might and could. - They {may/ might/ could} be real friends, you know. It means "It is possible…………" The modals might and could are historically past forms but do not refer to past time. They refer to present states of affairs. They could be used to refer to future events. 23- It {may/might/could} snow tomorrow. The modal "can" is not used in positive declarative clauses which express epistemic possibility: 24 * It can snow tomorrow. The modal 'can' replaces other modals in the negation of possibility 25- They cannot possibly be real friends. And in the interrogatives, but it is less common in extrinsic possibilities. 26- Can they be real friends? They can all be intensified by "very" well, which heightens the possibility, or "just", which lowers it.

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27- They might just be real pearls. 28- They could very well be real pearls. The choice of modal is influenced by: (1) The speaker's age, (2) The dialect, (3) the degree of formality of the situation. It is suggested that may (formal) might (neutral) could (assertive) It is important to distinguish intrinsic possibility (expressed by can and paraphrased by "It is possible to …… to ……." Or "It is possible for ….. to ……" (extrinsic) possibility, which is expressed by may, might and could and paraphrased by "It is possible that ……." 29- I can be there by 10:00. "It is possible for me to be there ….." 30- I might be there by 10:00. "It is possible that I will be there ….." The modal verbs which are used to express possibility are “can”, "may", “could”, and “might”. The meanings of possibility are mainly divided into two types: Factual possibility is the first type of possibility in which the speaker expresses possibility of a real and existing matter in the real world, for instance: (Leech and Svartvik, 1975: 128)

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31- a) The streets may be improved. Here the addressee expresses possibility of a subject which is improving streets, and these streets are objects in the real life not imaginary things. The second meaning of possibility is theoretical possibility. In this type of possibility the addressee shows possibility about a matter which is not fact, but just imagination for example:- (Leech and Svartvik, 1975: 128)

31- b) The streets can be improved. Here the sentence 20b can be interpreted as "It is possible for the streets to be improved." If we make a distinction between 26a and 26b sentences, we can see that the theoretical possibility which is expressed by "can" is weaker than factual or real possibility expressed by "may". The sentence 26b declares that the streets are not perfect and there are not any plan for improving them, while 26a can suggest that, there are definite plans for improvements. It is worthy to be mentioned that the use of “can” in general statements of possibility has the same meaning as “sometimes”, for example: 32- Lightning can be dangerous.

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This sentence is equal in meaning to: 33- Lightning is sometimes dangerous. The meaning of hypothetical possibility is expressed by the use of the modal verbs “could” or “might”, for example: 34- If Jack were to make a mistake, the whole project could be ruined. The modals “could” and “might” in their hypothetical state are often used for expressing tentative possibility, that is to say talking about something, which is possible, but unlikely to be so, for example: 35- He could be telling lies. This can be paraphrased as "It is just possible that he is telling lies." (Leech and Svartvik, 1975: 128)

2.2.2 Necessity and Obligation: The term necessity is sometimes preceded by the word logical, so it is called logical necessity. In English, the meaning of logical necessity is expressed by the modal verbs “must” and “have to” "have got to" and to a lesser degree "shall" and they are paralleled to the use of “may” in the sense of possibility. The term indicates that the speaker judges the proposition expressed by the clause to be necessarily true, or at least to have a high likelihood of being true. In this respect the modal “must” means that the speaker can conclude from things already known or observed (Quirk et al, 1985: 224), for instance:

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36- The Jacks must be rich. The speaker of this sentence has observed that "The Jacks" live in a large house, travel in an expensive car etc. and therefore reaches the conclusion that they are rich. To negate the modal "must" in the notion of logical necessity "can not" is used, especially when "can" gives the meaning of possibility, for example: 37- You must be joking. Here the sentence 35 means, “It is necessarily the case that you are joking." This sentence is equivalent in meaning to: 38- You cannot be serious. Alternatively, the sentence: "The baby must be asleep", is equal in meaning to: 39- The baby cannot be awake. (Quirk et al, 1985:225) Root necessity is another meaning of the modal “must�. To clarify the term, the following exemplifications will be useful: 40- For a plant to grow faster, it must receive a good supply of sunshine and moisture. Here in 39 no human control is implied, the meaning is that of intrinsic necessity.

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The interpretation of “must” here is “It is essential for … . Or It is necessary for … .”. In sentence 40 there is no implication of human control. (Quirk et al, 1985: 225) For expressing necessity, the modal “have to” can also be used . In some cases both modals “must” and “have to” are interchangeable, and in some other cases each one has its own use. Murphy (1994: 62) states that " “Must" is personal; we use "must" to give our personal feelings. While "have to" is impersonal. We use "have to" for facts, not for our personal feelings.” In the example: "You must come at 8:00 am." expresses what the speaker thinks is necessary for the hearer to do, but the sentence "You have to come at 8:00 am." does not express the speaker’s feeling or thought, but it expresses what is a rule uttered by the speaker for the hearer to perform. There is no past form for “must”, but when it is used in the sense of necessity, the form “had to” is used to express the past form of ”must”. (Murphy, 1994: 62) 2.2.3 Prediction: For expressing the meaning of prediction or predictability in the English language the modals “must”, “will” and “would” are used. What should be explained here is the use of the modal “must”. The modal “must” often expresses a certainty about an action which we don’t notice or observe, but we assume a conclusion from a hint about the action; for instance, while hearing the phoning, a person present in the situation may say:

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41- That must be John. When the speaker utters this sentence, it is a conclusion that came from previous knowledge. He/she depends on the knowledge that “John” is due to make a phone call. (Leech and Svartvik, 1975: 131) Three different uses of the modals “will” and “would” are to be distinguished under the heading of prediction. The most common way in the English language for expressing futurity is by the use of the modal “will” and “shall”. Predictive “will” is particularly common in the clauses of super-ordinate of conditional or temporal clauses (Quirk et al, 1985: 228), for instance: 42- You will feel better if you take this medicine. In some cases it is not necessary for a conditional clause to be present, but there is an implication that the future event or state of affairs will come from or rely on the fulfillment of certain future conditions which might not be specified as exemplified in: 43- Take this medicine. You will feel better in an hour or so. The corresponding prediction in the past sense is expressed by would for example: 44- I was told I would feel better after this medicine. The present predictive sense of “will”, which is rare, is similar in meaning to “must” in logical necessity sense, for instance:

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45- She will have had her dinner by now. 46- That will be the postman. (in case of hearing the doorbell ring)

The meaning of these two sentences 43 and 44 can be interpreted as “It is very likely that…” In conditional sentences it is often the habitual predictive meaning which occurs: 47- If blue colour is mixed with yellow, it will turn green. Or in timeless statements of predictivity 48- Oil will float on water. In addition to these cases, it often occurs in descriptions of personal habits or characteristic behaviour, for example: 49- He will talk for hours, if you let him. This sentence 49 is said about a person who is very talkative. In past tense narratives, “would” in this sense is a known means of describing habitual behaviour, for instance: 50- In the spring, the birds would return to their nests, and the wood would be filled with their music…

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Using “would” in this sense is rather more formal than the equivalent use of “used to”, because “would” unlike “used to” needs to be related to a time indicator such as “in the spring” in the above sentence. (Quirk et al, 1985: 228)

2.2.4 Permission For asking permission for doing something in the English language the two modal verbs “can” (with its past form could) and “may” (with its past form might) are used. The modal “can” is regarded as an informal way when used in the sense of permission . “May” and “can” are also used in the sense of "be permitted". In this sense the past forms “might” and “could” express only past time. (Frank, 1972: 93) As an auxiliary of permission “may” is more formal and less common than “can”. Just in few cases the modal “may” can be substituted by “can” as in the fixed phrase “If I may (can)”. The modal “may” is specifically related to permission given by the speaker. There is a difference between a permission given by the speaker and another one given by a third authority, as exemplified in the following sentences: 51- You may leave when you like. 52- You can leave when you like. The sentence 51 means that “I permit you to leave.” In which the authority belongs to the speaker, while the sentence 51 means, “You are

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permitted to leave” which means giving permission in a more general and impersonal sense. (Quirk et al, 1985: 223) To clarify further the difference between a permission asked by “can” and “may”, the following examples will be helpful. 52- Johnny: Can I go now? Mother: Not can, May? Johnny: O.K may I go out? Mother: Sure you can. It is clear from the dialogue above that in such a situation between a mother and her small kid the modal “may” must be used not “can”, because the permission is given by the mother not another authority. (Marino, 1973:320) In some cases hypothetical “could” can be used in the situations of tactful requests for permission as in: 53- Could we ask you what your opinion is? It can be noticed from the above sentence how questioning about someone’s opinion is preceded by requesting his permission first. Another different way for asking permission is by using “mind”, for instance: 54- A- Would you mind if I opened a window? B- No, not at all.

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Here the response means that the speaker is permitted to do what he asked for. A point to be noted about the use of the modal verb “shall”, in the sense of giving permission, is that it is used in the second and third person, for example: 55- You shall do exactly as you wish. The modal shall in this sense means “allowed to”. So the sentence means “You are allowed to do as you wish”. (Leech and Svartvik, 1975: 143)

2.2.5 Obligation: The term obligation or compulsion refers to one of the meanings of mood expressed by a set of modals in the English language. The first modal verb to be mentioned here is “must” which in some cases expresses the meaning of obligation (Quirk et al, 1985: 225), for example: 56- You must be back by nine o’clock. Inescapable (duty, obligation, requirement) is expressed by "must" and "have got to" and "shall" 57- You must try harder. It is a command, its strength directness is the result of many factors:

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a. The subject is you. b. The authority resides in the speaker. (the speaker has authority over the addressee) c. The verb is agentive. d. The verb is active. The force is diminished if any of these factors is modified. 58- I must work harder. (The subject is I)

It is clear that in this example 58 that the modal “must” means “obligated to”. It is obvious in the above sentence that there is the implication that the speaker is advocating a certain kind of behaviour, so in this way “must” unlike “have to” suggests that the speaker is exercising his authority. An exception occurs in the case when the subject is in the first person form, for example: 59- I must write to my friend. It must not be forgotten that this is entirely consistent with “must” when it gives the meaning of obligation, because the meaning is one of self-admonishment, that is to say the speaker in this case exercises his authority over himself, appealing to his own sense of duty. (Quirk et al, 1985: 225) Another point to be explained is about the modal "have to". When it is used in the sense of obligation it is often felt to be more impersonal

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than "must", in that "have to" lacks the implication that the speaker is the authority. Both have to and have got express obligation: have to is objective, have got to is subjective. 60- I have got to go now. (Internal obligation) 61- I have to see the Dean. (External obligation)

62- I am afraid I have to go now. This example 62 might be used where, for instance, another appointment forces the speaker to leave at a particular time. Especially where 'must' implies “self-obligation” “have to” shows obligation by an external source. (Quirk et al, 1985: 225) The modals “should” and “ought to” both express the meaning of obligation, but it is not necessary for this obligation to be carried out by the addressee or addressees, for instance: 63- All the students should attend the meeting. What can be taken from this sentence is that the students might perform what is asked, but some students might not attend the meeting that they were asked to attend. Another modal verb, which has the meaning of obligation, is “need to”. It occurs in sentences when it acts as a main verb and it indicates

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internal obligation caused by the state of the person referred to as clarified in the coming example: 64- The player needs to practice more. The meaning of “need” in 56 is clear that it is required from the person referred to in the sentence to do much more practice; so the obligation is internal. In case of having a direct object we can use “need” without “to”(Leech and Svartvik, 1975: 144), as exemplified in: 65- The plant needs water. The last point about the meaning of obligation is concerned with the modal “shall”. In the sense of obligation the modal “shall” is normally limited to official regulations and other formal documents, for example: 66- Every citizen shall have his ID when traveling to another city. The sentence 64 clarifies what is a rule or a governmental regulation that the people of a region be aware of and apply , which is holding personal IDs. (Leech and Svartvik, 1975: 145) Unfulfilled obligation: the modals should, ought, must, express an obligation not binding or unfulfilled. 67- You ought to cut down on smoking. The motivation for using these modals instead of must include the lack of authority on the part of the speaker to impose the obligation, or tact, or politeness.

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With {should/ought + have + V.en}, the speaker implies that the obligation was not fulfilled: 66- He should have driven more carefully.

2.2.6 Volition: The term volition is defined as " the process of using one's will in choosing something, making a decision, etc." (Oxford Dictionary, 1999:1333) The modals “will” and “would” are used in the English language to express the meaning of volition. In this type of modal meaning three different sub-senses can be distinguished. The volitional range of “will” extends from the weak volition of willingness to the strong volition of insistence. A more usual sense of volition is volition of intention, which occurs between the weak and the strong volition. Volition of intention has the combination with a sense of prediction. (Quirk et al, 1985: 229)

2.2.6.1 Volition of Intention: Using “will” and “would” and "shall" in the sense of intention is often substitutable by the verbs "intend" and "aim", for example: 68- He will write me a letter. Its illocutionary force is that of a promise or a threat according to whether the intended action is beneficial to the addressee o otherwise.

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The sentence 68 can be interpreted as “He intends to write me a letter”. The modal "will" in this sense is fully interchangeable with the verb (intend).

2.2.6.2 Volition of Willingness: In expressing willingness the use of “will” and "shall" is often mixed with the meaning of futurity. The following example declares what has been proposed here: 69- The teacher will help you if you ask him. In this sentence the modal verb, “will” has two meanings; the first one is the willingness of the subject of the sentence in doing an action but it may also coincide with speech time or even to a repeated event; and the second is that “will” indicates future time. a. Will you marry me? b. The key will not go in the lock. c. He will not eat anything but rice. For expressing willingness in the past, the past form “would” is used, as in: 70- During his youth he was so poor that he would do anything for money. (Leech and Svartvik, 1975: 145)

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2.2.6.3 Volition of Insistence: The use of “will” which is heavily stressed and “would” in this sense is somewhat rare which implies willfulness on the part of the subject. The modals “will” and “shall” are always stressed when used in the sense of insistence, for example: 71- He ' will try to fix the electricity himself. Here “will” can be substituted by “insists on”, in this case the sentence can be paraphrased as “He insists on trying to fix the electricity himself”. (Quirk et al, 1985: 229)

2.3 Classification of Mood: The term mood is defined in the beginning of this chapter as the speaker's attitude toward the speech uttered by the speaker, and surely, this is done by the use of verb or verb phrase in an utterance. It focuses on the speaker's attitude whether it is being asserted, questioned, commanded or wished for. What is agreed upon and not controversial is that in the English language there are three broad types of mood, which are indicative, imperative, and subjunctive. (Finch, 2000: 103) The two subjects sentence types and mood are related to each other. These are characteristics of the grammatical structure of the sentence. The two terms declarative and interrogative must be distinguished and not confused. Lyons (1995: 177) states “A sentence can not be

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simultaneously interrogative and declarative; but in many languages it can be both interrogative and declarative ‌ i.e. it can be interrogative in sentence type and contain as its sole or principal clause one that is indicative in mood.

2.3.1 Indicative: "A term used in the GRAMMATICAL CLASSIFICATION of SENTENCE types, and usually seen in contrast to IMPERATIVE, SUBJUNCTIVE, etc., MOODS. It refers to VERB forms or sentence/CLAUSE types used in the expression of STATEMENTS and QUESTIONS." (Crystal, 1991: 175) The word is from the Latin (indicare) which means declare or assert. (www.m-w.com/dictionary/indicative ) The sentences having indicative mood represent something as a fact. This fact is either affirmed or denied. (Baskervill and Sewell, 1895: 112) The indicative structure is used for indicating factual meaning. Indicative mood comprises two subtypes, declarative and interrogative structures. The function of declarative sentences is to state things, while the function of interrogative sentences is to question about things, for example: (Finch, 2000: 103) 72- We are going to London next week. (Declarative) The sentence 72 states a fact about the subject of the sentence who has already made the decision for traveling. Another example:

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73- Are we going to London next week? This sentence shows how the speaker questions about doing an action. (Finch, 2000: 103) The interrogative and declarative sentences are not traditionally regarded as modal but they indicate mood because in English the syntactic distinction between these two subjects is related to the employment of various interrogative particles or pronouns with a difference of verbal inflection or the selection of a particular auxiliary. (Lyons, 1968: 307) The indicative represents something as a fact. This is done in three ways: 1- The indicative structures are used for declaring something as a fact or denying this fact, for example: 74- I remember every word that you told me. 75- The man who was arrested yesterday is guilty. These sentences show facts expressed by the speaker. In the first one the speaker expresses a truth. In the second it shows a fact, which is that the arrested person mentioned in the sentence is guilty. 2- The second way of representing something as a fact to assure that something is true but without declaring it. This type of indicative clause is usually introduced by if giving the meaning of "admitting that, granted that," though, although ‌etc. What is worthy to be

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mentioned here is that the action is closer to a fact rather than giving the meaning of possibility, for example: (Baskervill and Sewell, 1895: 191) 76- If the country was without army, still people will think of defending their government. It is obvious from the sentence that if can be interpreted as "admitting that". . 3- The third way of presenting indicative is by asking a question to find out some facts, for example: 77- Is the man guilty? It is clear that in this sentence a question has been asked about a fact, or how the speaker is seeking a fact. The indicative mood is used in factual statements. All intentions in speaking that a particular language does not put into another mood use indicative. It is the most common used type of mood and is found in all languages. (Baskervill and Sewell, 1895: 193) Declarative sentences present facts and questions or interrogative sentences seek information or knowledge. In general, questions can be divided into three major classes according to the type of reply they anticipate: 1- Questions that anticipate affirmation or negation. This type is called yes-no questions, for instance: 78- Have you done the job? The reply to this utterance is either yes or no.

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2- The second type typically anticipates a reply from an open range of replies. This type of question seeks information and it is called whquestion, for example: 79- What is the distance between Arbil and Duhok? The reply to this question is a piece of information which is a number. So the reply may be "The distance between Arbil and Duhok is 280 km." 3- The third type expects a reply that can be selected among two or more options. It is called alternative questions, for example: 80- Would you like to go for a walk or stay at home? The reply to this question is choosing between either “I like staying at home” or “I like going for a walk”. (Quirk et al, 1985: 806) What illocutionary act are performed questions (interrogative clauses) (1) Eliciting information, (2) Is not it a lovely day (exclamation) (3) Do you expect me to wait have all day (Equivalence to a negative statement) (4) Directive: 81- Can you pass me the salt? (request) 82- Will you have some more ice cream. (Offer) 83- Won't you help yourself. (invitation) 84- Why don’t you apply for the job. (Suggestion)

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2.3.2 Imperative: The second type is imperative mood. Crystal (1991: 171-172) defines imperative as: "A term used in the grammatical classification of sentence types usually seen in contrast to indicative mood. It refers to verb forms or sentence types typically used in the expression of commands." In most languages of the world there is a specific form that can be identified as imperative. In the English language where the modal systems are marked by modal verbs, the imperative is quite independent of the modal system, in English being indicated by the simple form of the verb. (Palmer, 2001: 80) “Imperative construction is closely associated with deontic modality. It is clearly directive and usually portrayed as indicating a command.” (Ibid) It is supposed to be the structure of directives, one that emanates from someone in authority, therefore, does not expect non-compliances. However, there are two points to be noted about the relationship of imperatives to the modal verbs. The illocutionary acts performed by the imperative are multiple: a. Help! (emergency) b. Do not worry. (Hearer's interest) c. Cheer up. (Hearer's interest) d. Guess who ……….(Discourse initiator) e. Quick march. (command) f. Don’t pick flowers. (injunction) g. Don’t tell me you have passed. (Disbelief) h. See a doctor. (advice) i. Try one of these. (offer)

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j. Let's go. (suggestion) k. Don’t cry. (encouragement) l. Suppose he does not answer. (consider a possible happening) m. Let's say. (example) The first point is that, its use is not only to give commands, but also simply to give permission or advice, for instance: 85- Come in! This utterance might be interpreted as either "You may come in" denoting permission or as "You must come in", that it is said in a rainy situation and the addressee is advised to go in. The second point is that imperative is performative and in the sense that the speaker actually gives the command in the act of speaking. (Palmer,2001: 81) The imperative sentences are different from declarative ones in two points: 1- The imperative sentences have no subject (In the surface structure). 2- The imperative sentences have either a main verb in the base form or less commonly a helping verb in the base form followed by an appropriate form of the main verb. In imperative constructions the main verb lacks tense distinction and does not allow modal verbs. The progressive form is rare. 86- Be listening to our radio station the same time tomorrow morning. 87- Start the work and have it finished before Friday.

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In negative imperative statements, a passive form is used with “be”, for instance: 88- Don’t be deceived by her attractive looks. The structure of this sentence is (Don’t+ be + P.P). It can be interpreted as "Don't allow yourself to be…" Another group of passive sentences occur with the verb “get”, for example: 89- Get washed! Imperative sentences refer to a situation in the immediate or more remote future and are therefore incompatible with time adverbials which refer to a specific time in the past or that have habitual reference, for example: 90* Come yesterday! 91* Usually drive your car! These sentence structures can not be found in the English language. Comment adjuncts can not be used with imperative sentences, since these disjuncts comment on propositions, for example: 92* Unfortunately, pay your rent now! This sentence is semantically ill-formed, because using the disjunct “unfortunately” in this sense with imperatives is not proper. (Quirk et al, 1985: 828)

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It is obvious that the meaning of an imperative implies that the omitted subject is the second person pronoun you. This can be easily proved by the occurrence of you as subject of the following tag question, for example: 93- Be quiet! Will you? Or the use of the reference pronoun your as in: 94- Clear your mind! Beside this, still there is a type of imperative in which the stressed subject is added. In most of the cases it is for emphasis, for instance: 95- 'You be quiet! In this example, the addresser emphasizes directing his command to the addressee, which is keeping or being quiet. There is another type of imperative in which a subject is used that can be 3rd person singular, for example: 96- Somebody open the door! In some imperative constructions “let” is used. The verb “let” can be used in imperatives. First and third person imperatives can be formed by using “let”, followed by a subject in the objective case, for example: 97- Let’s all work hard!

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98- Let each one do his duty! (Quirk et al, 1985: 829) Imperative sentences used for expressing commands, direct questions and prohibitions, in many circumstances directly using the imperative mood seems rude, it is often used with care. By introductory phrases like “please� is used for avoiding rudeness, for example: 99- Please, open the door! (wikepedia.com) The imperative sentences don’t make statements at all, but they express commands or instructions. An example of giving instructions: 100- Put your coat on! It is clear from example 100 that the imperative structure is in the form of advice or instruction and there is no indication of forcing the hearer to carry out something. Since commands or instructions are generally directed to the hearer, the central class of imperative sentences are associated with the second person, and it is a rather clear fact that in most Indo-European languages, including the English language, which inflects the verb for persons, number and tense, the form of the verb which occurs in second person singular imperative statements is uninflected for all these categories, that is to say it is identical with the stem. Many linguists have taken this fact as evidence that giving commands rather than making statements is the more basic function of language. The distinction between giving commands and making statements cannot be sharply made, for example:

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101- I want you to come here. This sentence is syntactically classed as a declarative sentence, but sententialy it can be interpreted as “Come here!” (Lyons,1968: 307) For the aim of getting someone to do something a direct command can be used. A negative command has the effect of forbidding someone doing an action. With a second person subject the form expressing obligation and prohibition can have almost the same effect as a command, for instance: 102- You mustn’t smoke! In this sentence, the force of forbidding is the same as obliging or commanding. The structure (Be + to + infinitive) can refer to a command given either by the speaker or in a more usual way by some official authority: 103- John is to return to Germany. This sentence can be interpreted as “He has been given orders to return to Germany”. Therefore, the order is official. An example of a personal order: 104- You are to stay home until I return. This sentence can be paraphrased as “I tell you to stay at home until I return”.

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2.3.3 Subjunctive The third type of mood is subjunctive. It is defined as "A term used in the GRAMMATICAL classification of SENTENCE types, and usually seen in contrast to INDICATIVE, IMPERATIVE, etc., MOODS. It refers to VERB forms or sentence/CLAUSE types used in the expression of many kinds of SUBORDINATE clause, for a range of attitudes including tentativeness, vagueness, uncertainty." (Crystal, 1991: 334) Or it can be defined as that form or use of the verb which express action or being not as a fact but as merely conceived of in the mind. (Baskervill and Sewell, 1895: 189)

The word subjunctive means subjoined or joined as dependent or subordinate to something else. This lexical meaning of the word is misleading, because according to the meaning of the word it shows that every dependent clause has its verb in subhunctive mood. There are some dependent clauses with indicative and some other independent clauses in subjunctive mood. (Ibid) The formal mark of the subjunctive in the non-past is the absence of inflection for the third person singular. In other words, the verb base is used unchanged in all present forms for the non past subjunctive.(Quirk et al, 1985: 155) The subjunctive in the English language mainly has three categories and uses, which are mandative, formulative and were-subjunctive. (Ibid)

Types of Subjunctive:

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2.3.3.1 Mandative: “This type is the most common one of subjunctive mood. It occurs in subordinate that-clauses and consists of the base form of the verb only. There is a lack of regular concord of the indicative between subject and finite verb, and there is no difference between past and present.� (Quirk et al, 1985: 156) For instance: 105- The committee proposed that oil prices be raised. 106- My requirement is that the system work.

It is clear that instead of writing (to be) just the base is used. In the second instead of saying (works) only the base work is used. (Quirk et al, 1985: 156) When the main clause of a subordinate that-clause contains a verb like (recommend, demand, propose, intend, order, require‌etc) the sentence will be in mandative subjunctive mood, for example: 107- They recommended that the president be re-elected. (Quirk and Sidney, 1973: 51)

2.3.3.2 The Formulaic This type of subjunctive like the mandative one consists of the base form of the verb. This kind is used in a certain set of expressions, mainly in independent clauses, for example

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108- God save the Queen. 109- May God bless Iraqi people. 110- Heaven forbid. The force which subjunctive conveys of an expression of will may also be done by "let" or "may". This type tends to be formal and rather old fashioned, in style, for example: 111- Be as it may, we have nothing to lose. A type of subjunctive which is used for expressing wishes is called Optative formulaic which may occur within Formulaic. (Lyons, 1968: 308). An example of optative: 112 - The Lord bless you.

2.3.3.3 The were-subjunctive: This type is also called past subjunctive. It is hypothetical or unreal in meaning, being used in adverbial clauses. It is introduced by conjunctions such as “if, as if, as though, though” and in nominal clauses after verbs like “wish” and “suppose”. This type is restricted to one form which is (were), and breaks the rule of concord of the indicative verb (be) in the first and third person singular of the past tense, for example: 113- If I were rich, I would buy you a doll. 114- Students wish the lesson were over. (Quirk et al, 1985: 158)

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2.4 Expressions of Modality: In any language, there is a set of expressions used for expressing modality. In this sense the categories tend to be defined semantically. This means that a morpheme is classified as modal if it has a modal meaning (epistemic, deontic). Since modal meanings are expressed by various morphological, syntactic and lexical categories. (De Haan, 2004: 10). The following will be an attempt for listing the categories used in expressing modalities.

2.4.1 Modal Auxiliaries: The best known means of modal expression for speakers of English is the modal verbs. In English modal verbs are auxiliary verbs as they are used in addition to the main verb of the sentence, for example: 115- John must go to school. 116- John must be at school. The modal verb "must" is used to show necessity on the (deontic modality) and strong conviction of the speaker. The examples mentioned above are instances of strong modality. In the English language, there are expressions for weak modality too, for instance: 117- John may go to school.

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118- John may be at school. The modal verb “may” denotes permission or possibility. These examples are considered to be weaker in force in comparison to the previous sentences in which the modal “must” is used. (De Haan, 2004: 11)

2.4.2 Lexical means: There are less grammaticalized means and more lexical means of expressing modality. In English these means are subdivided into the following parts:

2.4.2.1 Modal adverbs: In the English language, in some cases, modality can be expressed by means of adverbs. The typical examples of modal adverbs are "probably, possibly, necessarily and maybe". Some examples are: 119- John is probably at home. 120- Maybe John is at home. 121- John is supposedly at home. What is to be noted here is that all modal adverbs in the English language are mainly epistemic in nature. (Perkins, 1983:89)

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2.4.2.2 Modal tags: In the English language modal tags can be used for expressing modality. Modal tags are "I think”, “I guess”, and “I believe.", for example: 122- It is just your point of view, you know what you like to do in your spare time I think. Tags like "I think" are derived from clauses. They behave more like modal adverbs. These tags can occur in all sentence positions. (Thomson and Mulac, 1991: 313)

2.4.2.3 Modal particles: In general modal particles are considered to be a common means for expressing modality. But this method is not very common in English. Modal particles are rarely found in British English but seem to become more popular in American English, for instance: 123- Affective is too a word. 124- There is so a Santa Claus. In these examples the words "too" and "so" can be paraphrased as "contrary to what you thought". The first sentence can be interpreted as "Affective is a word, contrary to what you thought" and the second example as "There is a Santa Claus contrary to what you said." (De Haan, 2004: 31)

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2.5 Modality and Tense: This section deals with the relation and interaction between modality and tense. Tense is commonly defined as the grammaticalized expression of location in time. There are clear interactions between the area of tense and that of modality. Since events in the future have not (yet) happened, it is easy to see that there is a certain amount of uncertainty surrounding them; hence, there is a connection between future and epistemic modality. The future events are sometimes a category of real events and sometimes a category of unreal events. There is a similar connection between modality and the past tense. This seems at first to be somewhat counterintuitive. The events happened in the past and one can be certain about past events. Nevertheless the past tense is routinely used to express notions of modality such as hypothetical and conditional notions of modality. (Ibid: 34)

2.5.1 Modality and future: Despite the fact that future events have not come to pass and the speaker cannot know for certain that the events will occur there are languages in which these considerations either do not play a role or in which there is a choice between various future tense forms to denote various shapes of certainty. The connection between modality and future is that quite often future morphemes develop from modal (deontic) form. This has happened in English when the modal verbs “will” and “shall” were originally modal verbs. (Ibid: 35) The relation between obligation/volition and future is that one can only impose an obligation on someone to do something in the future.

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125- You must go to school. The sentence indicates that the action of going to school is necessarily subsequent to the moment at which the obligation was uttered. (Bybee and et al, 1994: 247)

2.5.2 Modality and past tense: Hypothetical uses of modals, the past tense modals could, might, would can be used in a remote or hypothetical sense in both main and subordinate clauses. a. I would help you if I could. b. She might pass if she tried hard. To refer to the past event; have + en is used. c. I would have helped you if I had been able. "There is one further feature that affects modal systems – the use of past tense forms to express "uncertainty", "tentativeness", "potentiality", etc. This often functions independently of mood, but may interact with it." (Palmer, 2001: 13). These modal verbs have present and past forms: Will; would Can; could May; might "All three past tense forms can be used with past time reference, but past time reference is not the most common function of the past tense form. Rather they are used to express greater tentativeness." (Ibid:14), for example: 126- He would be there now.

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The English language is one of the languages that make a distinction between real and unreal conditionals, for example: 127- If the children are here, John will be happy. 128- If the children were here, John would be happy. The second example 128 expresses an unreal event or thing. While the first one 127 refers to present situation, where the facts are known there is a clear implication that the children are not there. So that John will not be happy (the first sentence). In the second 128 sentence, the implication is that it is unlikely that John will be happy because it refers to a past condition. (Ibid)

2.6 Modality and Negation This section looks at the interaction that exists between modality and negation. It has been claimed by some scholars that negation by itself is considered to be a part of modality. The reason for such a claim is that negative constructions related to unreal events or states. (De Haan, 2004: 39) In English there are two distinct methods (Palmer, 2001:90). The following examples show the forms for epistemic possibility: 129- Jane may be at school. 130- Jane may not be at school. 131- Jane cannot be at school.

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"With the use of the notions of possibility and necessity, it is easy to explain the difference between the two types of negation. One is to be intererpreted in terms of "possible not" the other in terms of "not possible". With "possible not" it may be said that there is negation of proposition, whereas with "not possible" there is negation of the modality." (Ibid) So each sentence can be interpreted as: 132- It is possible that Jane is not at school. (may not) proposition negated 133- It is not possible that Jane is at school. (can't) modality negated In the previous examples 132 and 133 the distinction has been made and it can be done by changing the verb for "not possible" using “can” in place of “may”. A similar distinction can be made between "necessity not" and "not necessity." For example: 134- John must be at his office. (Necessity) 135- John can't be in his office. (Necessary not) 136- John may not be in his office. (Not necessary) These are the same explanations used for epistemic possibility, but in a reversed range. This can be explained in terms of logical relation between possibility and necessity, that "not possible" gives the same meaning as "necessary not". Also "not necessary" gives the meaning of "possible not". In logical terms:

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- not possible = necessary not - not necessary = possible not So for expressing "necessary not", English uses the form for "not possible" (can't) and for "not necessary" it uses the form "possible not" (may not)." (Palmer, 2001:91) In this way, in the English language, the negative for epistemic possibility and necessity is made available by "may" and� can" forms. In the same way the epistemic possibility forms supply the negative forms for epistemic necessity. "There are then, two characteristics of these negative forms, the use of a different verb (CAN for May) and suppletion. These two features are to be found with the deontic modals too, but in rather different way." (Ibid) The possibility forms are illustrated by: 137- Jane may/can come tomorrow. Possible 138- Jane needn't come tomorrow.

Possible not

139- Jane may not/ can't come tomorrow. Not possible Examples of the necessity forms are: 140- Jack must come tomorrow. (necessary) 141- Jack mustn't come tomorrow. (necessary not) 142- Jack needn't come tomorrow. (not necessary) What to be noticed here is that necessity is "primitive" in the deontic modality. Not the same verb is used (NEED in place of MUST) for the necessity forms and the form (Not necessary = needn't) the form (Possible not) is used.

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In case of having dynamic modality what is negated is only the modality, for example: 143- He can't write two essays a day. "is unable" 144- He won’t leave. "is unwilling" The notions of "is able not" and "is willing not" can be interpreted as "able not to" and "willing not to". "Why is that (may not) and (can't) have distinct analysis?" This is a significant question to be asked. For (must not) and (needn't) the same matter can be questioned. Modality is linked with modals, and these are negations of modals. The analysis of the first pair is "not possible" and the second pair can be interpreted as "not necessary". . (Palmer, 2001: 92) Although there does not appear to be a consistent overall pattern for negation in English, some scholars have looked for an explanation. Cormack and Smith argue that the split between negation of the modality and negation of the proposition, correspond mainly, but not entirely to possibility and necessity. While Coates (1983: 237) argues that it depends on the deontic /epistemic distinction, with only deontic "mustn't" being exceptional. In fact, the contrasts between epistemic “may not” and “can't” and between deontic “mustn't” and “needn't” provide exceptions to both views. The first view fails to account for “may not” (possibility with modality). The second is contradicted not only by the exceptional “mustn't” (deontic with negation of the proposition) and the same is true

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of “shouldn't� but also by cannot (epistemic with negation of the modality).

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Chapter Three Mood in Kurdish 3.0 Introduction:This chapter is devoted to mood in the Kurdish language. It is mainly divided into five sections; the first section is an introduction to mood in Kurdish. The second section focuses on the meanings of mood. The third section is a presentation of a classification of mood. The fourth section deals with the relation between modality and tense and the final section is devoted to modality-negation relations. The Sorany dialect is the official, literary, and journalistic language in Iraqi Kurdistan region.

"The Kurdish language belongs to the north-western sub-group of the Iranian languages, which in turn belongs to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. Kurdish may have borrowed heavily from Caucasian and Aramaic languages given certain peculiarities which make it distinct from other Iranian languages. Most of the ancestors of the Kurds spoke various languages of the Indo-European family. The original language of the Kurds was Hurrian, a non IndoEuropean language belonging to the Caucasian family. This older language was replaced by the Indo-European around 850 BC, with the arrival of the Medes to Kurdistan .Nevertheless, Hurrian influence on Kurdish is still evident in its ergative grammatical structure and toponyms" (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdish_language)

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It seems that studies about mood in the Kurdish language are few and there are little works dealing with the subject. That it is why there are still some controversy about the topic. 3.1 Previous Works: Up to now, there are two works about mood in Kurdish. The first one is an MA thesis entitled "Subjunctive Verbs of Suleimani Kurdish". It is done in 2001 at Sulaimania University. The second one is a PhD dissertation entitled "Mood in the Northern Kurdish/Bahdinany sub dialect". It is done in 2005 at Saladdin University. The first one deals with the subject semantically while the second one concentrates on the subject syntactically.

3.2 Meanings of Mood: To express meanings of mood in the Kurdish language, the speaker has to resort to modal verbs. Here a question arises "Does the Kurdish language possess modal verbs?" To answer this question one can consider the following sentences:

145- Damawět bi-či-m bo bãzãr. want -

I

go (pre) I

to marketr.

I want to go to market.

146- Da-twan-im be-m bo lat. able I come (pre) I to you I can come to you

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Or : Can I come to you? 147-Lawãnaya bitwãn-im sardãn-it bika-m. May

can I

visit (pre)

you I

- Is it possible for me to visit you. From these examples it becomes clear that in the Kurdish language there are not modal verbs. In order give much more explanation about meanings of mood, the features of modal auxiliary verbs in the Kurdish language must be explained. 1- Modal verbs in the Kurdish language can co-occur in some cases, for example:

148-Agar bikrět bitwan-im talafon-akat bakarběn-im if possible ….. - I wonder if it is possible for me to use your phone. These are verbs in the subjunctive mood, any verb in Kurdish can be put into subjunctive mood. In the if-clauses, a modal can be used in an imperative sense, as in: 149- Agar ziraki-t, bitwãn-a sarkaw-it.

If

clever you, can you success you

- If you are clever, try to succeed.

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2- All modal verbs in the Kurdish language have past forms; (wistim: damwist, lawanayã lawãnabu:, dabe:t. dabuãya…etc) Besides using the modal verbs in the Kurdish language for expressing modality, adverbials like ( bagumãnawa “doubtfully”, řanga “may be”, baškim “may be”) are also used, for example:

150- Řanga la mãĺ bět, bã bič-i:n bo sardan-i. May be at home be he, let go us to visit him -He may be at home, let’s pay him a visit. (Bomba, 2000:79) The meanings will be divided on the basis of intrinsic and extrinsic modality. The meanings like possibility, necessity and prediction which involve human control of events are classified under the title extrinsic modality. The other meanings like permission, obligation and volition which involve some kinds of human control over events are classified under intrinsic modality. (Quirk et al, 1985:219)

3.2.1 Possibility: There are different ways for expressing the meaning of possibility in the Kurdish language, for instance:

151- Dakrět ěstã la maĺ bět. There is possibility now at home be he - It is possible that he is at home now.

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152- Wãbizan-im la maĺ niya. I think

at home not be he

- I think that he is not at home. Two kinds of possibility can be distinguished: factual and theoretical. For expressing factual possibility in the Kurdish language ( lawanya, ranga, daše ) “may be” are used.

153-Lawãnaya qutabxana-yak-man bo drust bik-an. May

school a us for build (pre) they

- They may build a school for us. It is clear in the sentence that there are some intention for carrying out some projects and the speaker has a hope that a school may be built for them, so there is a strong possibility. For expressing theoretical possibility in the Kurdish language (datwanrět) is used, for example:

154- Datwanrět Qutabxana-ka nožan bikrět-awa. School the

can be

renovate (pre)passive

- The school can be renovated. Here the speaker just expresses what he thinks to be done without having any plan in advance.

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3.2.2 Necessity: For expressing the notion of necessity in the Kurdish language, the verbs (pěwista) and (dabět) are used. Here in this sense the speaker (addresser) is confident of what he is saying. He thinks his sentence is true or that it has a high degree of possibility to be true. After having some information and observing some facts the speaker concludes something and gives his feelings considering them to be facts. (Quirk et al, 1985:224)

155-Pěwista Ãzãd la maĺ bět. Must

Azad at home be(pre) he

- Azad must be at home.

In this sentence the speaker might have seen Azad's car in front of his house, or seeing that the lights are on at his house, concludes that Azad is at home. The verbs "dabe:t" and "pe:wista" can be used in sentences when there is nothing to be mentioned about human control of an action, for example:

156-Bo away draxt-aka jwan gaša bikãt, dabět řunãki la xor warbigrět. - For the plant to grow well, it must get light from the sun.

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In the Kurdish language the use of "pěwista" is formal and used in official documents while "dabět" is informal, for instance:

157-Pěwista gišt kirěkãrakãn katžiměr hašt bigan. Must all workers

o'clock

eight arrive(pers)3rd pl

- All workers must arrive at 8:00 o’clock. 158-Dabět katžimer hašty bayãni bigai:t. Must o’clock eight

morning arrive (pres) you

- You must arrive at 8:00 o’clock am.

3.2.3 Prediction:In the Kurdish language there are some expressions used for expressing prediction, such as “twãnin, lawãnaya, wã hast kirdin, wa ba bi:r dãhatin, wa hãtina bar čaw, lawa ču:n, pěšbini:kirdin” (Bomba, 2001: 158)

159-Barazil datwaně-t yari-aka bibãtawa. Brazil can it match the win - Brazil can win the match. Here in this example “datwãnět” which means “can” shows the speaker’s prediction about the match.

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159- Wã hast dakam taqi kirdinaw-aka bibře. I think

exam the pass he

- I think he will pass the exam.

160- Lawa dačět bira bi-n. It seems brothers be (pre) they - It seems they are brothers. The meaning of prediction can also be found with future forms, for example:

161-Lawãnaya dway du: řoži:-tir bigařětawa. May

after two day other come back (pre) he

- He may come back after two days. Here the verb (bigařětawa) which means (come back) used in the future form and it expresses a kind of prediction which is expressed by the addresser. In some cases, an utterance may contain the meaning of prediction especially when the speaker has some advance knowledge about the sentence which has been uttered, for example:

162-Lawa dačět Zana bět. (Zangy talefon) It seems

Zana be (pre) he

- It seems to be Zana. (phone ring)

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Here, the speaker has some knowledge in advance about the case that Zana will call at that time.

3.2.4 Permission: This notion of modal meaning in the Kurdish language can be expressed by the modal ‘twani:n”. There are some other expressions used to denote this kind of meaning such as “moĺat habun, řěgadãn, moĺat dan”, for example:

163-Datwani-m walam bidamawa? Can (pre) I answer (pre) I - Can I answer? Or another example:

164-Datwãni:-t katžiměr du: biroi:tawa. Can (pre) you o’clock two go back You can (are allowed to) go back at 2:00 o’clock. 165- Rěga haya běma žu:rawa? Can come (pre) I inside -Can I come in?

There is a point which must be mentioned here; in case of asking permission in a polite way the past form of the verb is used preceded by “agar” which means “if”. (Bomba, 2000:157), for example:

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166- Agar řuxsat habuãya wala-m bidamawa čak bu:. If could answer(pre) I good be (past) - If there had been permission for me to answer, it was something good. In most of the cases just one expression which is "farmu:" is used for giving permission in the Kurdish language, for example:

167-A) Datwan-i:n běina žu:rawa? Can(pre) we come (pre) we inside Can we come in? 167-B) Bale, farmun. Yes, please.

3.2.5 Obligation:This sense of modal meaning shows how the addresser exercises his/her authority over the addressee for carrying out an action. The addresser obliges the addressee to do an action. (Quirk et al, 1985:225) In the Kurdish language when the speaker tries to oblige the addressee to do an action there will be the possibility of doing or not doing the action. The process of attempting to oblige the addressee to perform an

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action is to affect his/her feeling. Sometimes it reaches a threat that is why it involves swearing and threatening, for instance:

168-Har dabět taqi kirdinawaka anjam bida-n. No way must (pre) exam the do (pre) you - No way, You must do the exam. (Bomba, 2000:171)

The only modal verb which is used in the Kurdish language for expressing obligation is “dabět”. When the speaker shows that he obliges himself to do an action, he is exercising an authority over himself, for example:

169-Dabět la du: rožda řaportaka tawaw bika-m. must in two day report (the) complete (pre) I - I must write the report in two days. In some cases the speaker is not the authority, there are some other external factors which oblige the addresser to act in a special way, for example:

170-Dabet bayani zu: la xaw haĺstim la bar away dačim bo Dihok. must tomorrow morning early from sleep wake up (pre) I because travel (pre) I to Duhok - I must wake up early, because I am going to travel to Duhok.

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The factor which, obliges the speaker to wake up early is not from the person, but it is from the fact that he is travelling somewhere.

3.2.6 Volition: The process of using someone’s will in choosing something or making a decision is called volition. In the Kurdish language the modal verb (wistin), which means (want), is used for expressing intention, for instance:

171-Damawět sardani-t bika-m. want (pre) I visit (pre) you -~I - I want to visit you. The particles “ba tamãm and ba niyazim” which mean “intend” are used to show or express intention, for instance:

172-Baniyazim ĥaftay dãhatu: sardãni-t bika-m. intention I week next visit (pre) you (Obj) -~I (subj) - I intend to visit younext week. 173-Batama-m zu: bigarěmawa maĺawa. intend (pre) I soon go (pre) I home - I intend to go home soon. Willingness and intention are both expressed in the same way in the Kurdish language.

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For expressing insistence the particle (har) is used, for example:

174-Har dãbět běi-t. Must come you - You must come.

3.3 Classification of Mood: Mood in the Kurdish language is divided into three types. This classification can be found in the recent linguistic studies such as "A Generative Grammar of Kurdish" a PhD dissertation by Muhammad Maruf Fatah in 1997 at Amsterdam University, and "Syntactic-Semantic levels of language and Translation with Reference to English and Kurdish" by Hussein Ali Wali in 2004 at salahaddin University and "Mood in the northern Kurdish/Bahdinany sub dialect" by Baiz Umar Ahmad in 2005 at Salahaddin university. The main types of mood are; indicative, imperative and subjunctive. In some of the old sources like old versions of Kurdish grammar textbooks for preparatory schools, there was the fourth type which was "conditional" while in the new sources conditionals are put within subjunctive.

3.3.1 Indicative mood: Indicative mood is used either to declare or convey a logical meaning. This type of mood is divided into two parts; declarative and interrogative. The declarative sentences are used to declare events and things, while the

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interrogative sentences are used to question about things. Indicative mood is more common than other kinds of mood. (Ahmad, 2005; 3) The interrogatives are classified within the closed system of grammatical items. By using interrogatives the subject, object, complement or the adverbial of a sentence can be questioned. "Ke" which means "who" and "Chi:" means "what" are included within this system of items. (Fattah, 1997; 181)

175-Ĉi: daka-y? What do(pre) you - What are you doing? According to tense, indicative mood is divided into past and non-past tense. The present tense declares an action which takes place during speaking or will take place in the future. To form the structure of a present tense the prefix (da) is put before the stem of the verb followed by a personal ending (bound pronoun) (Ibid), for example:

176-Da-nus-im. Asp-write-I - I write. The present tense of indicative can be used for the following purposes: 1- For an action happening during the time of speaking, for instance:

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177-Ĉãwařwãn-ka wã dagařěm. wait (imp) you now search (pre) I - Wait, I am searching. 2- It can be used to denote a habitual activity. As in:

178-Aw yari topi pě dakãt. He football play (pre) he - He plays football. 3- This tense can be used for showing a scientific fact or truth, as exemplified in:

179-Draxt-aka-n ba aw gaša dakan. trees the by water grow (pre) they - The trees grow by water. 4- To talk about an action that started in the past and is continuous until now, for example:

180-Bist sãĺa la Halěr daži:m. twenty year in Arbil live (pre) I - I have been living in Arbil for 20 years. 5- It can be used to denote an action which will happen in future:

181-Bayani na-či-m bo kar. Tomorrow not go (pre) I to work - Tomorrow, I won’t go to work.

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Non-past tense is divided into two times; present and future. In central Kirmanji (Sorani) dialect of the Kurdish language, according to form, there is no difference between the present and future forms. Both types are expressed by using the same form of the verb. The distinction between the two is made within a sentence or throughout using a set of words. The adverbs are mainly used to make such distinctions. "In Badinani dialect of the Kurdish language there are dissimilar forms for each type. The prefix (di or da) is used with the future forms." (Haji Marif, 2000: 197) Since there is no morphological distinction between present and future tenses, some expressions are used during speaking for making emphasis on the present time, some of these expressions are "wa, awa, esta, and hanu:ka, which mean 'now’ or ’soon’ ". These expressions are mostly adverbials or adverbs, for example:

182-Ěsta děm. Now come (pre) I - I am coming soon. For performing an action in the future the following expressions are used " sibaině, bayãni, "tomorrow", du:sbai, or du:bayani "a day after tomorrow", sãĺaki di:, "following year" hãwi:ne:, "in summer", "paš mãwayak", "after a period of time". (Ibid: 198) for example:

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183-Saĺi dãdě taxaruj daka-m. Year coming graduate (pre) I - I will graduate next year.

Indicative past tense is used to express an action that happened before the time of speaking. (Murphy, 1994:11) In the Kurdish language there are four types of past tense:

1- Simple past (Immediate past): in which the past stem of the verb is used followed by a suitable pronominal clitic, for instance:

184-Xwãr-d-im. eat-past-I - I ate. 185- Zor bãš-i xwěnd.

Very good he study (past) - He studied well. Simple past is multiple-purpose. A- It can be used to denote an action that took place in the past, for example:

186- Diz-aka-y kušt. thief the kill he (past) - He killed the thief.

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B- It can refer to a future action in a subordinate clause, as in:

187-Katěk ka hati:, talifoni-m bo bika. When come (past) you, phone (pre) you me - When you come, phone me. (Fattah, 1997:149) 2- Imperfect Past: this type of past tense is used to denote an action that was continuous for a duration of time in the past. The structure of past imperfect is formed by the prefix (da) added to the past stem of the verb followed by a suitable personal ending, for example:

188- Katěk ba sar pird-akada da-roiš-t-im, to-m bini:. When on bridge the Asp-go-past-I, you I see (past) - I saw you, when I was going on the bridge.

3- Relative past: this kind of past is used to denote an action that happened in the past which still has result in the present moment. This kind can be formed by using the stem of the verb followed by the suffix "u:", for example:

189- Min la dast to řãmkirdwa. I from you escape (past) - I have escaped from you.

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4- Past perfect: this kind of past tense has the meaning of a time further in the past. That is why it is called (distant past) in the Kurdish language. It can be formed by using the past stem of the verb followed by the stem (bu:), for example:

190-Katěk to gaišti, min řoištbu:-m. when you arrive (past), I go (past) I - When you arrived, I had already gone. "Word order is fixed in Kurdish declarative and interrogative sentences. In "Wh" questions like that of English a question word comes at the beginning of the sentence. In yes, no questions Kurdish uses "Ãyã" and even the subject is optional". (Wali, 2004:83) In the Kurdish language the order of interrogative sentences is the same as declarative ones. There is no reversion of subject and modal verb. Interrogative sentences in the Kurdish spoken language are shown or expressed by intonation and pitch, (Bomba, 2000:84) for example:

191-Ãzãd hãtuwa? - Has Azad come?

3.3.2 Imperative Mood: The general meaning of imperative is to command or ask someone or a group of people to do something. According to time, there are just two types which are present and future. Imperative mood does not have a past

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tense form. According to person it has just the second plural and singular person and it does not have first and third person forms. (Haji Marif, 2000, 238) The structure of imperative verbs is formed by using the stem of the verb with the prefix (bi) and the suffix (a) for singular and (n) for plural subjects, for example: 192- Bi-kiř-a.

Sub-buy-you(all) - Buy it! 193- Bi-kiř-in. sub-buy-you (plural) - Buy! (= You "plural" buy) There are some expressions used with imperative forms to do what have been ordered in a polite way. Some of these expressions are "zahmat nabět, gar ba ark na bět…etc", for instance:

194-Zaĥmat nabět am panjaraya dãbix-a. please this window close (imp) you - Please, close this window!

3.3.3 Subjunctive Mood: Fattah (1997:146) states that subjunctive is "…. The degree of the speaker's commitment to the truth of the proposition. …, those that signal epistemic modalities range from certainty to possibility."

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195- Xozga la tãqi:kirdnawaka sardakauti. wish I in exam the successful be - I wish you passed the exam. Subjunctive mood in central Kirmanji dialect of the Kurdish language is widely used. It is found in all tenses.

Present Subjunctive: It can be used for expressing wishes, intention, ability, begging, supplication, emphasis, encouraging, threatening, accepting, doubt, hesitation, fear, condition …etc. The marker of present subjunctive is the prefix (bi) which is attached to the present stem of the verb. (Haji Marif, 2000:216) The subjunctive form differs from the previous type of imperative mood in the respect that it can be used with all persons, unlike imperatives which can be used only with 2nd person singular and plural. In this type of mood a sentence has to contain two verbs, in which the second verb will not happen unless the first one happens. That's why this mood needs two simple sentences to be expressed. (Ahmad; 2005, 90) 196- Gar bixwěnit sardakawi:t. if subjunctive marker study (pre) you succeed you You would succeed, if you study.

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The following are examples of the uses of present subjunctive in Kurdish:

197- Xwa bitparězě-t. (Supplication) God (bi) subjunctive marker keep (pre) you

- May God protect you! 198-Xozga daxwazim Bařazi:l yãriyaka bibãtwa. (Wish) wish (pre) I Brazil match the (bi) subjunctive marker win (pre)

- I wish Brazil won the match! 199-Yãxwã ba drěžãyi: žiyãnit har kamarãn bit. - May you be happy all your life. 200-Har biži: sarok. Long live the president. The present subjunctive in most of the cases is used to refer to something wished for to happen in the future. (Haji Marif, 2000: 221) Past subjunctive: Fattah (1997:154) refers to four types of past subjunctive: 1- Past simple subjunctive: this type of subjunctive is formed by using the past stem of the verb preceded by the subjunctive marker (ba) with a proper personal ending. It refers to an action in hypothetical situations, in which a wish, or hope or an improbable event is presented, for example:

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Past stem + ba + personal ending (pronominal clitic) Xwend ba m = xwendbam

201-Gar xwěndiba-m dardaču:-m. If study (past) subjunctive marker 1st sing

- If had studied I would have passed. 2- Imperfective past subjunctive: it can be formed by the past stem of the verb preceded by (bi) and followed by (ãya).

Řambikirdbaya Warmbigirtbaya Bimkiři:bãya

202-Xozga kitěbaka-m lě warbigirtba(ya). Wish book the form get(past) subjunctive marker - I wish I had got the book from him. The past imperfective subjunctive can be used to denote hypothetical action, a situation continuous in past or hypothetical habitual actions, for example:

203-Agar dwěně bimxwěndaya , ěsta ba tom na dawt pěm blě. If yesterday (bi) subjunctive marker I study (past), now to you not tell (past) I - If I had studied yesterday, I would not have told you to tell me. (Ibid)

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3- Relative past subjunctive: This type of past subjunctive is formed by using the past stem with the subjunctive marker (bi) followed by a suitable personal ending, for example:

Past stem + bi + personal ending Xwend bi m xwardibim This type of subjunctive mood is used to denote hypothetical situations in which a past event is still operative at the present time. (Fattah; 1997, 156)

204-Agar min xwãrdibi-m bo wanãlěm. if I eat (past) subjunctive marker I why say (pre) I so. - Why shall I not tell if I had eaten it? 205- Gar min birdib-im, Xwa siza-m bidãt.

if I take (past) subjunctive marker I, God punish (pre) I -If I have stolen it, May God punish me! 4-Past perfect subjunctive: this type of subjunctive is formed by using the verb stem with the stem of the verb be (bu:) with the affix (ba) followed by a proper personal ending and then the optional suffix (ãya) respectively.

Past stem + bu: + personal ending + ãya This type of mood is used to refer to hypothetical situations in which the action takes place at a time farther in the past in comparison to the

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perspective of a known point of time already established in the past. It has a closer relation to subordinate clauses. (Ibid)

206-Birya la bandixana azãd bu:waya, ja min diĺm xoš dabu:. Wish in prison free (past) he , then I happy be (pre) - I wish he had been freed from the prison, and then I would have felt happy. Past continuous subjunctive is used more than other forms of mood in the Kurdish language and after that the relative past subjunctive. The simple past is used rarely. (Haji Marif, 2000: 233)

3.4 Expressions of Modality: Any morpheme holding a modal meaning can be classified as a modal.

The

modal

meanings

are

expressed

through

various

morphological, syntactic and lexical categories. (De Haan, 2004: 10). These various means are as follows:

3.4.1- Modal auxiliaries: One of the well-known ways for expressing modality is the use of modal auxiliaries (De Haan, 2004: 12). In the Kurdish language there are not ‘pure’ modal verbs because they act in conjunction with the subjunctive mood of the verb, but still they contribute a lot to modal expressing. A single auxiliary verb gives more than a modal meaning depending on the situation they are used in, for example:

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207- Dabět katžměr hašt la qutãbixãna bi:-t. (Obligation) Must o'clock eight in school be (pre) you sing

- You must be at school at eight o'clock. 208-Ěsta dabět gaištběta qutabixana. (Prediction) now must (pre) reach (pre) he school

- He must have reached school by now. The meanings of modal auxiliary verbs and their contribution to modal meaning have been illustrated in 3.2.

3.4.2 Lexical Means: De Haan (2004:18) refers to a set of terms which he explains as less grammaticalized and more lexical means for expressing modality. These means can be found in the Kurdish language as they are in the English language. These items are means other than modal verbs. The most important types of these lexical means are:

3.4.2.1 Modal adverbs: In the Kurdish language modal adverbs are used in some cases to give a modal meaning. Time adverbials are used in a wider sense. Some adverbial modal expressions are (Injã, i:tir, aw ja, paŝan, la dwãya). (Bomba, 2001: 137), for example:

209-Bã nãny ni:wařo bi-xoi:n pãšãn biro-i:n. Let's lunch the subjunctive marker eat (pre) we then leave (pre) we - Let's have our lunch, then we will leave.

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Some other modal adverbs are "běguman, ba diĺniaiyawa" (surely) and "ba lãyani kam" "at least", for example:

210-Běgumãn datwani-m la du: rožda tawawy bika-m. surely can (pre) I in two day complete (per) I - Surely I can finish it in two days. 3.4.2.2 Modal tags: According to De Haan (2005:19) there are some modal expressions that show the speakers confidence about a subject. He calls these modal expressions modal tags. These expressions are few in number and rarely found. Such kind of tags can not be found in the Kurdish language.

211-Wa-bizani-m du:šamay dahatu: dagarětawa. I think Monday next come back (pre) he - I think he will be back next Monday.

212-Way bo dači-m kobunaw-aka zu: tawaw na-bět. I think meeting the soon not finish (pre) - I think the meeting will not end soon.

3.4.2.3 Modal Particles: Modal particles are considered to be a common means for expressing modality. They contribute a lot to the subject of Mood in the Kurdish language. The modal particles in the Kurdish language are in a very wide range and that is due to the fact that these expressions are more lexical

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than being grammaticalized i.e. they are other items rather than being modal verbs (De Haan:2005:21). The most common modal particles in Kurdish are " Aji:na, (otherwise), baĺku, baĺky, baĺka (probably), be: away (without), xozga, birya, (wish), ta (until), da (let), nawak (lest), harči: (whatever)." (Bomba, 2001: 134)

213-Palaka! Agi:na dařo-m. Hurry up otherwise go (pre) I - Hurry up! Otherwise I will go.

214-Ta bam šěwaya bi:r bikaitawa, har daidořěni. Since in this way think (pre) you sing., lose (pre) you sing. - Since you think in this way, you will lose. 215-Ja min či: bika-m aw xoy tambaĺa. What shall I do (pre) I himself lazy be (pre) - What shall I do, he himself is lazy.

3.5 Modality and Tenses: Both modality and tense are two features of verbs in many language. There is an interaction between the area of modality and tense. As tense is divided into past and non-past tenses, future forms come first in this interaction. The future events have not happened yet, so there is uncertainty about their occurrence. A future event might be real or unreal. Past events have taken place and finished, there is no doubt about them. But in some cases

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past tense can be used for denoting hypothetical and conditional notions. (De Haan, 2005: 34)

3.5.1 Modality and Future: In the Kurdish language there is no difference between present and future in the morphological form of the verb. There are some lexical means for distinguishing these two. Some adverbs of time like "wa , awa, ěsta" (now) are used to denote that an action is taking place during the time of speaking. While others like " bayani, (tomorrow), dahatu: (next), dwayi: (later), sãlakidi (next year) are used to denote future, for example:

216-Kitěb-aka dakiřim. Book the buy (pre) I -I will buy the book -or I buy the book. There is no indication of when the action will take place; will it take place now or in the future? Examine the following sentences after adding the adverbs to them:

217-Wa kitěbaka dakiři-m. (Present) now book the buy (pre) I -I am buying the book now.

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218-Bayani kitěbaka dakiři-m.

81

(Future)

tomorrow book the buy (per) I -I will buy the book tomorrow. (Haji Maif, 2000: 197)

3.5.2 Modality and Past Tense Kurdish modal verbs have both past and present tense forms such as: "Damawět > wistim (want), twani:m > datwanim, (can), kirdim > dakam (do)." Kurdish makes a difference between real and unreal events. 219- Gar Karzan lera bet, dilxoŝ dabi-m.

(Real)

if Karzan here be (pre) he, happy be (pre) I - If Karzan is here, I will be happy. 220- Gar Karzan lera bu:aya, dilxoŝ dabu:-m.

(Unreal)

if Karzan here be (past), happy be (past) I -If Karzan had been here, I would have been happy.

3.6 Modality and Negation: Modality and negation share some points i.e. there is a clear interaction between them. Negation occurs in the Kurdish language as a verbal category and has relation with modal meaning, because its scope can extend to cover the whole sentence. (Fattah,; 1997, 149)

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In the Kurdish language there are four negation markers (nã, na, ma and ni). These negating markers always precede the verb stem. The negative marker (nã) is only used with indicative past forms. In all the cases whether the verb is simple or complex, transitive or intransitive the negating marker precedes the verb stem, for instance: -dakawim ----neg nãkawim -dařom ----neg nãřom Here we notice that the indicative marker (da) is left out when the negating marker is added.

221-Min nãči-m bo qutabixana. I not go (pre) I to school - I don’t go to school. (or I'm not going to school. (Haji Marif; 2000, 295) The negative marker (na) is used to negate all forms of past and present subjunctive forms. This marker replaces the conditional and the subjunctive prefixes if they were present in the verb. (Fattah; 1997, 271) Bixwěnim ----neg naxwěnim

222- Gar naxwěni-m čon sardakawim. if not study (pre) I how succeed (pre) I - How can I succeed, if I don't study?

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223-Gar na-m-xwend-ibe čon dem bo taqikirdinawa! If not I study (past) how come (pre) I to exam - How can I come to exam, if I hadn't not study. In most Kurdish dialects (na) like (ma) can be used to negate imperative sentences, for instance:

224-Naxoy. not eat (pre) you sing. - Don't eat! 225-Nakay! not (do) pre you sing. - Don't do it!

The negating marker (ma) is used to negate imperative sentences, which means prohibition. This marker always replaces the imperative marker, the prefix, (bi), for example: bixo ----neg- maxo

eat (pre) you sing. ---- Don’t eat! 226-Kitab-akan ma-kiři-n! books the not buy (pre) you pl. - Don’t buy the books!

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The last negating marker is (ni) which means (not). This marker negates copular sentences and replaces "ha" which is equivalent to (have) in a sentence in which there is verb to hhave (habu:n). (Fattah; 1997, 271)

227-Tananat ĂŁwi:Ĺ?-man nia bi-xoinawa. even water we haven't drink (pre) we - We don’t have even water to drink.

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Chapter Four A Comparison between Mood in English and Kurdish

4.0 Introduction: This section deals with a comparative analysis of mood based on the information presented in chapters two. This chapter will try to focus on the points of similarity and difference.

4.1 Meanings of Mood There is a universal linguistic fact that both languages divide modal meaning on the basis of human control over events. In case when there is human control over events, there would be intrinsic modality. In other cases when there is not human control over events, extrinsic modality exits. In English language the modal verbs do not co-occur. (see 2.2) In the Kurdish language all modal verbs have past tense forms but the same thing can not be true with the modal verbs in English language. The modal verb must has no morphological past tense form. Another point is that only the modal could is used to refer to past events, while the past forms of the modals in English do not refer to past though they have past forms.

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4.1.1 Possibility: In the English language there is a clear cut distinction between factual possibility, and theoretical possibility. Factual possibility is expressed by the modal verb (may) and the theoretical possibility is expressed by the modal verb (can), and sometimes (could and might). (Leech and Svartvik, 1975: 128)

4.1.2 Necessity: This notion of modal meaning of necessity is expressed by the modals (must and have to) in the English language and (pěwista) which means (it is necessary) in the Kurdish language. In both languages, this notion of modal meaning expresses a conclusion of what the speaker has in mind about a specific subject or state. In both languages a sentence expressing necessity can not be negated by adding negative markers to the verbs. The negative marker (not) cannot be added to (must) to negate the sentence because this will cause a change in meaning and the same thing is true with the sentences in the Kurdish language. Adding negative marker (nã) to the verb will not negate the sentence nor maintain its modal meaning. Both 'cannot' in English and 'nãkrět' in Kurdish are used to retain the modal meanings and negation. In the sense of being formal “pěwista” is equivalent to “have to” that expresses a formal necessity, while “dabět” like “must” is more personal. (see 2.2.2 and 3.2.2)

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4.1.3 Prediction: In the English language the modal “will” is used for indicating futurity and in most of the cases futurity holds the meaning of prediction. Since in the Kurdish central Kirmanji dialect there is no indicator of future time or future and present forms are expressed by using the same verb form. Prediction will not be expressed by future verb tense. (see 2.2.3)

4.1.4 Permission: It can be noticed that in English the modal “can” which is used for asking permission is equivalent to the Kurdish modal “twãni:n” which has the same function asking permission. (See 2.2.4 and 3.2.4) In the Kurdish language in case of asking permission in a polite way the past form of the modal (twãni:n) is used. While in the English language the use of (could) as the past form of the modal, “can” does not make the same sense. In the English language the modals “may” and "might" are also used to express permission. While in the Kurdish language there are some particles used to express the same sense, some of these modal particles are; “molat haya” and “ruxsat haya” “Is there permission?” (See 2.2.4 and 3.2.4)

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4.1.5 Obligation In the English language the modal “must” is equivalent to the verb “dabět” in the Kurdish language to denote obligation. The modals “must” in the English language and “dabet” in the Kurdish language give the meaning “obliged to” “načari:t”. In the English language there is a difference between what is personal and impersonal obligation. That the modal “have to” is used to denote a formal and impersonal form of obligation. While no modal verb or modal particle in Kurdish can be found to make such difference. (see 2.2.5 and 3.2.5)

4.1.6 Volition It can be noticed that in both languages understudy the meaning of volition is expressed. Volition is divided into three sub categories while in the Kurdish language such a classification does not exist. In the English language the modal verb “will” is used to express all the senses of volition, while in Kurdish the modal verb “wistin” which means “want” is used to express the meaning of intention. (See 2.2.6 and 3.2.6)

4.2 Classification of Mood: In the English language there are three broad types of mood; “indicative, imperative and subjunctive”. The same types are in Kurdish.

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4.2.1 Indicative Mood: In both languages, indicative mood is classified into declarative and interrogative. The two languages share the point that they use interrogatives to ask about subject, object, complement or adverb of a sentence. In the English language there is a difference between the structure of a declarative and an interrogative sentence. In an interrogative sentence and especially a yes-no question the place of subject and auxiliary verb is reversed. While in the Kurdish language, the structure of both sentences is identical. Intonation and pitch play a significant role in forming yes no questions. In the English and the Kurdish languages the indicative structure, according to tense, is divided into past and non-past constructions. The non-past includes present and future. While in the Kurdish language, the present and future are not distinct through the form of the verb. There is not any modal verb to indicate future meaning. That is why some adverbials are used to denote future time.

4.2.2. Imperative: It is a known fact that imperative constructions are used to make commands or prohibitions. In both languages imperative sentences can only be used with non-past tenses and it cannot be used with past tense.

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According to person, imperative mood can only be used with the second person. In the Kurdish language it can be used with both singular and plural second person. There are some affixes that are attached to the verb and make the distinction between the singular and plural. (see 2.3.2 and 3.3.2) While in the English language, the subject of an imperative sentence is not present but it is implied. The commands are directed to the second person and in the English language; only one person i.e. which indicates both plural and singular can be used. In the English language, in some cases an auxiliary verb precedes the main verb as in: “Be listening to our radio station the same time tomorrow evening�. While in the Kurdish language such a form does not exist. In both languages there are exceptions in that the subject of an imperative sentence can be the third person singular, as in: (See 2.3.2and 3.3.2)

4.2.3 Subjunctive Mood: The use of subjunctive mood is still preserved in both languages. It is used in the two past and non past tenses. But it has a wider use in the Kurdish language and there are lots of forms and structures for expressing it. While in the English language it is used in a narrower range. In the English language subjunctive mood is divided into past and present. The present one is subdivided into mandative and formulative. The past subjunctive is also called the were-subjunctive. The present

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mandative subjunctive is used to express recommendation, demand, proposal, intention, order and requirement. The formulative subjunctive is used for making supplication and prayers. The past subjunctive is used to give unreal or hypothetical meaning. (see 2.3.3) The same classification of subjunctive mood is found in the Kurdish language that it is divided on the basis of past and present subjunctive. What can be noticed is that there is a wider use of subjunctive in the Kurdish language. The present subjunctive is used to express wishes, intention,

ability,

begging,

supplication,

emphasis,

encouraging,

threatening, accepting, doubts, hesitation, fear, condition‌etc. The past subjunctive is used to denote hypothetical events, situations an conditions in the past or hypothetical habitual actions. Or it can be used to denote hypothetical situations in which a past event is still operative at the present time.

4.3 Expressions of Modality: The two languages under study make use of a set of syntactical and morphological items to express modality.

4.3.1 Lexical Means: In both languages under study, there is more than a way for using lexical means in expressing modality. (See 2.4.2 and 3.4.2)

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4.3.1.1. Modal Adverbs: The modal adverbs used in the English language are adverbs of frequency, while those used in the Kurdish language are time adverbials. (see 2.4.2 and 3.4.2)

4.3.1.3 Modal Particles: Modal particles are rarely used in English. While in the Kurdish language, they are used in a very wide range.

4.4 Modality and Tense: As a grammatical fact, in both languages the two areas of modality and tense interact with each other. The future events are described to be real or unreal since they have not occurred yet. The past actions are described as hypothetical or conditional sense of modality.

4.4.1 Modality and Future: In the English language, the interaction between modality and future can be noticed but it is not something outstanding. When the modal verb “must� used to give the meaning of obligation, its meaning extends to cover future time. In the Kurdish language the lexical means play a vital role in the interaction between the two areas of modality and tense. The use of some adverbial to denote future time makes the interaction between modality and future much more clear. (See 2.5.1 and 3.5.1)

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4.5.2. Modality and Past Tense: Both languages share the point that their modal verbs have past forms, except for the English modal verb “must� which does not have past form tense. In both languages, past tense can be used for describing hypothetical and conditional events. The two languages also make distinction between real and unreal conditionals. (See 2.5.2 and 3.5.2)

4.6 Modality and Negation: What is obvious in this field is that there is an interaction between modality and negation in both languages under study.

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Chapter Five 5.0 Conclusions Throughout the study these points have been concluded: 1-

In the English and the Kurdish languages mood is divided into three main types, which are; indicative, imperative and subjunctive.

2-

Modality is expressed via modal auxiliary verbs in both languages under study.

3- In both languages studied, modal meanings are divided on the basis of human control over events. 4- In both languages the notion of necessity can be expressed when the speaker gives a conclusion of what he has about a specific subject or state. 5-

Modal verbs are used to express the meaning of permission in the English language, but in the Kurdish language along with the modal verbs there are some other modal expressions used to express the meaning of permission.

6-

The modal meaning of obligation is used in case when the addresser obliges the addressee to do an action. The English language makes difference between personal and impersonal obligation while in the Kurdish language these kinds of obligation cannot be realized.

7-

The use of subjunctive constructions is fading out in the English language and they are used just in a limited set of formal expressions, but in the Kurdish language it has still preserved its usage in a wider range.

8-

There is an interaction between the area of modality and tense on one hand, and between modality and negation on the other hand.

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5.1 Suggestions for Further Studies: The researcher suggests for further studies to be done on the related topics to mood. Making further studies on subjunctive will be of great importance because it is widely found in the Kurdish language. Further studies can be done on other verb features like tense and aspect.

96

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Perkins, Michael R. (1983). Modal Expressions in English. ……………………London: Frances Pinter. Quirk, Randolph and Sidney (1973). A University Grammar …………………………...of English. Hong Kong: Longman. Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech and Jan …………Svartvik (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of the English ………….Language. London / New York: Longman. Strong, Barbara M. H. (1968). Modern English Structure. ………………………….Great Britain: Edward Arnold. Wali, Hussein Ali.(2004) "Syntactic-Semantic Levels of Language …………………….and Translation With Reference to English and ……………………Kurdish". An unpublished PhD. Dissertation, …………….. …….Saladdin University. www.en.wikepedia.org (an electronic encyclopedia)

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