Ispectrum magazine 09

ISPECTRUM Issue 09/September-October 2014

MAGAZINE

T h e G r e at Va r n a C u lt u r e

STRANGE FACTS ABOUT PLACEBOS Why we believe what we want to believe

CONTENTS Features

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03 The Great Varna Culture and the Dawn of Civilization in Europe 07 The Rise of the Varna Culture 12 Grave 43 16 The End of the Varna Culture 19 Teenager Invents Ocean Cleaning Device INTERVIEW WITH bOYAN sLAT 23 The Ocean Cleanup project 26 How to clean up the Great Pacific Garbage Patch 31 Why we believe what we want to believe 32 Wason’s experiment 34 Information bias 39 Confirmation bias 42 STRANGE FACTS ABOUT PLACEBOS THAT WILL SURPRISE YOU INTERVIEW WITH DR. IRVING KIRSCH 44 Response Expectancy Theory 48 Nocebo effect

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49 Pollinators and pesticides:How can we improve the bleak situation of our bees?

53 The risk of neonics on pollinators 55 Spider-venom biopesticide

editorial Varna Culture is thought to be one of the most advanced civilizations of ancient Europe. Older than the empires of Mesopotamia and Egypt, Varna has the largest prehistoric necropolis in Southeastern Europe and, as far as we know, was the first to craft golden artifacts.

April Holloway introduces us to its cultural practices, complex funerary rites, belief systems, and more.

Boyan Slat was only 17 when he solved a problem that most said was insoluble, and had thus never been attempted: cleaning the floating plastic from the oceans. He then launched The Ocean Cleanup Project and has so far raised $2 million to make his idea reality. Jacquelyn Keun has interviewed this teenager who is amazing the world and leading a unique environmental initiative.

Rob Hutchinson returns in this issue with surprising psychological phenomena.

Have you ever wondered why you believe in determined things? Let’s change the question to explain the trick: why do we believe what we want to believe? Rob’s wonderful article answers this question.

We have also interviewed Dr. Irving Kirsch, Associated Director in the Placebo Studies Program at Harvard Medical School, about his research and findings on placebos. This article reveals some surprising and bizarre facts about placebo effects.

And to close the issue we address the problem of the extinction of the bees, which is strictly linked to their lack of food. Declan Perry teaches us how the discovery of new non-toxic biopesticides could improve the bleak situation of our bees.

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Mado Martinez Editorial Director

Ispectrum magazine

Published Bimonthly

ISSN 2053-1869

Editorial Director Mado Martinez, madomartinez@ispectrummagazine.com Art Director Rayna Petrova raynapetrova@ispectrummagazine.com Contributing Editors Matt Loveday mattloveday@ispectrummagazine.com Jennifer James Ravinder Dhindsa Contributing Writers April Holloway Jacquelyn Keun Rob Hutchinson Declan Perry Images Cover : Zoomorphous applications, gold, Eneolithic necropolis – Varna Photo credit: Varna Regional Museum of History commons.wikimeadia.org , morguefile.com , freeimages.com www.ispectrummagazine.com admin@ispectrummagazine.com +44 7938 707 164 (UK)

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“Grave 43, Eneolithic necropolis – Varna” Photo credit: Varna Regional Museum of History is licensed under CC-BY-SA-3.0

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verybody has heard of the great civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Indus Valley, which are all noted for being the earliest known civilizations to feature urbanization, organized administration, and cultural innovation.

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But few of heard of the mysterious civilization that emerged on the shores of lakes near the Black Sea some 7,000 years ago – not far from the modern-day city of Varna in Bulgaria.

The Great Varna Culture and the Dawn of Civilization in Europe

by April Holloway website

www.Ancient-Origins.net

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“Grave 4, Eneolithic necropolis – Varna” Photo credit: Varna Regional Museum of History is licensed under CC-BY-SA-3.0

Grave 4, Eneolithic necropolis – Varna

The Varna culture, as it has come to be known, was not a small and inconsequential society that emerged in a little corner of Bulgaria and disappeared quickly into the pages of history. Rather, it was an amazingly

advanced civilization that was more ancient than the empires of Mesopotamia and Egypt, and the first known culture to craft golden artifacts. Varna is also now home to the largest prehistoric necropolis in south5

eastern Europe, which reflects a richness in cultural practices, complex funerary rites, an ancient belief system, and the capacity to produce exquisite and expertly-crafted goods.

The earliest evidence of human presence in the Varna region can be traced back to the Early Palaeolithic Age, some 100,000 years ago. But it was during the Chalcolithic period, typically defined as a transition between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age, that the inhabitants on the shores of the Black Sea entered

a new stage of development. As archaeologists undertook more and more excavations in the region, they began to see evidence of mastery of metallurgy, skilled craftsmanship, extensive trade, social differentiation, agriculture, and religion. It became clear that they were looking at the remnants of 6

a once advanced and highly-developed society that existed from at least the 5th millennium BC. It has come to be known as the cradle of civilization in Europe.

“The Black Sea is the earliest center of civilization in human history,” said Prof. Dr.

“Sceptre, bone and gold, Eneolithic necropolis –Varna” Photo credit: Varna Regional Museum of History is licensed under CC-BY-SA-3.0

Sceptre, bone and gold, Eneolithic necropolis – Varna, grave 4 - late Eneolithic period

Henrieta Todorova, who has led excavations in the region. “Many people are reluctant to believe that but it is true. It is obvious from the social structure in 5,000 BC which is adequate to the scientific requirements for the creation of a civilization.”

The Rise of the Varna Culture

According to Dr Vladimir Slavchev, curator at the Varna Regional Museum of History, the Varna culture can be attributed to a number of important factors.

for the concentration of power in the hands of a restricted group of significant and respected community members,” he added.

Its emergence was the result of “new elements in social and economic development – mining, metallurgy and the related increase in long-distance trade and exchange,” Dr Slavchev told iSpectrum Magazine. “The separation of crafts and proto-trade from farming and agriculture provided conditions

Evidence suggests that it was between 4600 and 4200 BC, when gold smithing first started in Varna.

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Varna culture had trade relations with distant lands (possibly including the lower Volga region and the Cyclades), perhaps exporting metal goods and salt from the Provadiya rock salt mine.

The copper ore used in the artifacts originated from a Sredna Gora mine near Stara Zagora, and Mediterranean spondylus shells found in the graves may have served as primitive currency.

Source: Wikipedia.com 8

“Zoomorphous applications,gold” Photo credit:Varna Regional Museum of History is licensed under CC-BY-SA-3.0

Zoomorphous applications, gold, Eneolithic necropolis – Varna,grave 36 - late Eneolithic Period

As advances were made, and craftsmen mastered metallurgy of copper and gold, the inhabitants now had something extremely valuable to trade.

Increased contacts with neighbours both north and south eventually opened up trade relations within the Black

Sea and Mediterranean region, which was of great importance for the development of the society. Archaeological evidence, such as clay models of boats found in the region, suggest that ship building was already very advanced in the Late Chalcolithic Period, and that mari9

time trade was highly developed. The deep bay, along which the settlements of Varna, provided a comfortable harbor for ships sailing across the Black Sea and Varna became a prosperous trading center.

Increased trading activity allowed the metallurgists to accumulate wealth and very quickly, a societal gap developed with metallurgists at the top, followed by merchants in the middle, and farmers making up the lower class. Incredible discoveries made at a nearby cemetery also suggest that Varna had powerful rulers or kings – but we will come back to that.

And so, the foundations had been laid for the emergence of a powerful and flourishing culture, whose influence permeated the whole of Europe for thousands of years to come.

Discovering ancient Varna

The first evidence of Varna’s ancient civilization came in the form of tools, vessels, utensils, and figurines made from stone, flint, bone, and clay. Then an incredible chance discovery came to light, that made headlines around the world. In October, 1972, excavator operator Raycho Marinov stumbled upon a vast Copper Age necropolis containing the oldest gold artifacts ever discovered. It was to become one of the most important archaeological discoveries ever made in Bulgaria.

Extensive excavations were launched under 10

the direction of Mihail Lazarov (1972–1976) and Ivan Ivanov (1972– 1991), revealing for the first time the magnificent civilization of Varna.

More than 300 graves were uncovered in the necropolis, and between them over 22,000 exquisite artifacts were recovered, including 3,000+ items made from gold with a total weight of 6 kilograms. Other precious relics found within the graves included copper, high-quality flint, stone tools, jewellery, shells of Mediterranean mollusks, pottery, obsidian blades, and beads.

highly structured society – elite members of society were buried in shrouds with gold ornaments sewn into the cloth wrappings and their graves were laden with treasures, including gold ornaments, heavy copper axes, elegant finery, and richly decorated ceramics, while others had simple burials w i t h f e w grave goods.

“There is a clear distinct i o n in the t y p e and the Analysis of the graves quality of the grave gifts revealed that the which is determined by Varna culture had a the social rather than 11

the material status of the deceased,” said Dr Slavchev. “This distinction is proof of social stratification in the Late Chalcolithic period in the Balkans –the Varna cemetery illustrates the early stage of the emergence of a classseparated society.”

Dr Vladimir Slavchev, a curator at the Varna Regional Museum of History

While there were many elite burials uncovered, there was one in particular that stood out amongst the rest – grave 43. Inside grave 43, archaeologists uncovered the remains of a high status male who appears to have been a ruler/ leader of some kind – more gold was found within this burial than in the entire rest of the world in that period. The male was buried with a scepter – a symbol of high rank or spiritual power – and wore a sheath of solid gold over his penis.

The burial is incredibly significant as it is the first known elite male burial in Europe.

Prior to this, it was the

Grave 43, Eneolithic necropolis – Varna, late Eneolithic period

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“Grave 43, Eneolithic necropolis – Varna” Photo credit: Varna Regional Museum of History is licensed under CC-BY-SA-3.0

Grave 43

“Grave 2, Eneolithic necropolis – Varna” Photo credit: Varna Regional Museum of History is licensed under CC-BY-SA-3.0

women and children who received the most elaborate burials. Marija Gimbutas, a Lithuanian-American archaeologist, who was well-known for her claims that Neolithic sites across Europe provided evidence for matriarchal pre-Indo-European societies, suggested that it was the end of the 5th millennium BC when the transition to male dominance began in Europe. Indeed, in the Varna culture, it was observed that around this time, men started to get the better posthumous treatment.

Complex Funerary Rites

The burials in the Varna necropolis have also offered a lot more than the precious artifacts found within them and discoveries relating to social hierarchies; the features of the graves have also provided key insights into the religious beliefs 13

Grave 2, Symbolical Burial Eneolithic necropolis – Varna

and complex funerary practices of this ancient civilization.

that some graves contained no skeleton at all, and these ‘symbolic graves’ were the richest of them all in terms of the amount of gold and other treasures found within them.

Some of these symbolic graves, or cenotaphs, also contained humansized masks made of unbaked clay placed in the position where the head would have been.

“These cenotaphs usually are interpreted as symbolic graves of community members who perished far away from the community,” said Dr Slavchev. “It seems probable that the religious beliefs in the Chalcolithic period demanded a ritual burial for the soul of the deceased in the community cemetery, strictly observing all funerary rituals aimed at sending the soul to the underworld, where it was supposed to meet the members of its family.”

It became apparent to researchers that the males and females were laid out in different positions within the graves – males were laid out on their backs, while females were placed in a foetal position. But most surprising of all, was the discovery

The graves containing the clay masks were also found to contain gold amulets in the shape of women placed in the position 14

where the neck would have been. These amulets, associated with pregnancy and childbirth, indicate that the ‘burials’ were those of females. Further evidence of this is the fact that there were no battle-axes found in these cenotaphs, but each of them had a copper pin, a flint knife and a spindle whorl. Dr Slavchev has explained that these findings, taken together, suggest that these graves were those of females – real or deified. “A guess was made that effigies of the deities worshiped by the local population were buried in these symbolic graves,” said Dr Slavchev.

The End of the Varna Culture

By the end of the fifth millennium BC, the once strong and powerful Varna culture began to disintegrate.

Many hypotheses have been put forward to explain the fall of this great civilization, from climate change to a sudden catastrophe, epidemics, or destruction from invading warriors, but not enough evidence exists to date to conclude one way or time were flooded, the water table increased the other. and large areas of arable land turned into Dr Slavchev explained marshes and swamps, that global warm- all of which may have ing during that period contributed to the increased sea levels. decline of the Varna The settlements situ- civilization. ated along the coast of the Varna Lake at that 15

ment might not have appeared as a result of an invasion. In recent years there has been an increase in the number of researchers considering the idea of a

In addition, there is evidence of the incursion of horse-riding warriors. “The concept of an invasion of tribes coming from the steppes into the Balkans at the

without reoccupation around 4200–4000 BC, which in some regions continued for up to 800 years,” said Dr Slavchev.

end of the Late Copper Age is based on several pieces of evidence.

One is the stratigraphic and chronological rupture between the Late Copper Age and the Early Bronze Age in the eastern Balkans, reflected in the abandonment of settlements

peaceful penetration of “Concrete evidence groups of people from for an external military the steppes and their invasion into the ter- gradual cultural infilritory of present-day tration.”

Romania and Bulgaria is scarce and rather Nevertheless, it may uncertain, consisting of secondary evidence not have been one rearather than direct son or the other, but proofs. The steppe ele- rather a combination of 16

factors that caused the downfall of the Varna civilization.

“Most probably a combination of factors such as hostile neighbours and climatic changes were the principal causes that forced the inhabitants of the Northeast Balkans to abandon their homes. They migrated at first to the south of the Balkans, where settlements, slightly later than the Varna cemetery (ca. 4000 BC), were found. These sites witnessed the last attempts of the bearers of this bright culture to retain their old customs on the peninsula. But the ongoing climate deterioration forced them either to migrate or to change their way of life completely,” said Dr Slavchev.

He added: “The beginning of the fourth millennium BC brought an end to a sophisticated society that had briefly achieved a level of political and aesthetic brilliance unrivaled elsewhere. It disappeared from the historical stage and remained unknown until it was 17

discovered by archaeologists six thousand years later.”

The Legacy of the Varna Culture

Although the Varna civilization did not leave any direct descendants, the members of this ancient culture did leave behind many lasting legacies and set the stage for the emergence of subsequent civilizations throughout Europe. Their skills in metallurgy were unprecedented in Europe and indeed throughout the world, and their society demonstrated many features of a highly advanced and developed civilization.

“Even more than six thousand years ago in the Varna culture people started to switch to different professions in which various

individuals had varying degrees of skill - mining and metalworking, pottery, weaving, spinning, production of stone and flint tools and more,” said Dr Slavchev. A second key feature that was present was centralized authority – a person or

institution to monitor and ensure the proper functioning of the society. All the fundamental principles of modern society had been found – a model of civilization that we still follow to this day.

REFERENCES Avramova, M. 2000. Myth, ritual and gold of

Linehan, C. (2012). The victorious Varna cul-

a “civilization that did not take place”. – In:

ture. The History of Europe Podcast. Available

Varna Necropolis. Varna, Agató, 15-24.

from:

http://thehistoryofeuropepodcast.

blogspot.com.au/2012/05/victorious-varnaChapman, J., T. Higham, B. Gaydarska, V.

culture.html

Slavchev, N. Honch. 2006. The social context of the emergence, development and aban-

Norman A. (2003). The Oldest Gold in the

donment of the Varna Cemetery, Bulgaria.

World in a Varna Cemetery. ANISTORITON:

European Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 9, No.

ArtHistory

2-3, 159-183.

Available from: http://www.anistor.gr/eng-

Volume

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2003:

lish/enback/o033.htm Dimitrov, D. & Georgiev, G. (2011). Black Sea coast as cradle of first civilizations. Current

Varna Museum of Archaeogy. Available from:

Archaeology Research in Bulgaria. Available

http://www.archaeo.museumvarna.com/en/

from:

category

http://berberian11.tripod.com/dimi-

trov_postprocession.htm

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I nterview with B o yan S lat Teenager Invents Ocean Cleaning Device

by Jacquelyn Keun

B

oyan Slat is the dynamic wunderkind behind The Ocean Cleanup Project – a project that not only asks the audacious question, “Can we clean the oceans of all the plastic floating in it?” but also answered it with a resounding “Yes!”

Photo:Boyan Slat,The Ocean Cleanup

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in his TED talk in October 2012 when he was just 17. At the age of just 19 he has left behind the beginnings of an aerospace engineering degree to fully concentrate on turning what had been a school project into a spectacular social enterprise, which has

used crowdfunding to raise over $1.8 million; not far off its goal of raising $2 million by the 14th September. On his website, www.theoceancleanup. com, contributors can donate as little as 4.50Euros or can make donations in the thousands. He has brought 20

together an international group of scientists and engineers and they have researched a problem that most have said was impossible to solve, and that had never before been attempted.

Photo credit:The Ocean Cleanup

The problem is huge, costly both economically and ecologically and apparently intractable: millions of tons of plastic have entered the world’s oceans.

Ocean currents have moved the plastics in the oceans, concentrating them into five main gyres – vast, rotating whirlpools of currents that dominate the oceans.

A third of the oceanic plastic is concentrated in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch – a floating mass of chemical sludge and debris ranging in size from microscopic particles to huge fishing nets, trapped in the North Pacific.

Why bother cleaning it up?

Well, 44% of seabirds and 22% of many sea creatures have been

documented to have plastic in or around their bodies. At least one million seabirds and one hundred thousand marine mammals – whales and dolphins – die each year due to plastic pollution.

For many species, this could mean extinction.

Toxic, carcinogenic chemicals such as PCBs and DDTs adsorbed by the plastic enter the food chain through fish but no one yet knows the full extent of the human health impact.

Furthermore, the economic cost in beach 21

cleaning, vessel damage, fishing loss etc. is estimated to be $13 billion a year.

His concept is simple but revolutionary. Why think that the only way to clean up the oceans is to trawl through it with ships in the manner of fishing boats with nets?

It would be inefficient, time-consuming, polluting and expensive.

Boyan asks: “Why not stay still and let the oceans move through you?”

To this end, he proposes building

plastic into collection areas. This plastic can then be sold for reuse – offsetting the cost of the project. Efficient, eco-friendly and costeffective: Boyan Slat’s ideas may be crucial to an environmentally sound future.

He and his group recently published a 530-page report on the feasibility of the project, and have

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been able to respond to its detractors and critics with detailed results and computer models of his ground breaking concept that conclude: this is feasible.

We caught Boyan for an interview in the middle of his busy schedule.

Photo credit:The Ocean Cleanup

huge static platforms in strategic places within the gyres with solid floating barriers or “booms” that will deflect the flow of the water and divert the

JK: Could you tell us about the school project that started it all?

Boyan: I went diving on holiday to Greece (in summer 2011) and I suddenly realised I saw more plastic bags than fish! That was the first time I found out about the plastic pollution problem. I returned to the Netherlands and started working on it for my school project. It was supposed to take about 80 hours and I ended up spending about 800 hours.

I used this time to learn about the problem and why it is so difficult to solve. I came across all these people saying that it’s impossible to clean up so we’d better just focus on prevention. But, when I started looking into it, I couldn’t find any serious studies proving that. I decided to

find out for myself. I finished the school project but I couldn’t stop thinking about it and kept working on the problem throughout the first half year of university which I suppose was also my last half year of university! So then The Ocean Cleanup Project began.

JK: At the start you had a lot of critics to face - how did you get people to understand that you had a solution?

Boyan: Well, I don’t rely on the support of critics but they were actually very helpful: they really thought with me about this and supplied me with feedback, and they underlined the questions we set out to answer were the right ones. At first I just started contacting people myself but that was a really time-intensive process. So it really 23

JK: So you’ve had to cover a lot of different areas of science – how did you do it all?

Boyan: I think we covered several subjects, mainly marine engineering and oceanography but we also did work on ecology, maritime law and recycling. The smaller topics we were able to do in-house. We had a large group of volunteers, many doing this as part of a PhD, so they 24

Photo credit:The Ocean Cleanup

were able to complete this research for free in a small amount of time, which was great. For the engineering we primarily outsourced that to some offshore companies and to some engineering agencies as well that collaborated with them. Quite a few of them had already offered their help so that made things a lot easier. We just worked together and eventually we did about 2 million euros research with only about 100,000 euros in cash by utilizing the goodwill of people and companies and organisations doing the actual work. It’s surprising how much work we’ve been able to do for so little money.

took until April/May of 2013, when it went viral online and I started receiving 1500 emails per day with people offering their help, for me to assemble this team.

Photo credit:The Ocean Cleanup

JK: Do you think it’s helped not being restricted by traditional funding bodies?

Boyan: I think it’s helped in two ways. First, the mentality of academics in general is all focused on publications and grants and as you need a certain amount of publications, you try to split them up into as many as possible. Secondly, our efforts are purely applied research.

We aren’t looking at questions that don’t really have answers like: “Why is the plastic only at a certain depth?” It would be interesting but it doesn’t get us any closer to our goal of removing 50% of the Great Pacific garbage patch in ten years time. We did look into some PhD funding but if we went ahead with that the results wouldn’t be delivered until 2016. By then the

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example, the platform responsible for collecting the plastic started off looking like a speedboat. It’s now more like an oil rig because that’s the way things stay afloat during hurricanes. I couldn’t have known that, especially when I started this because I didn’t have any offshore knowledge. Science is a continual work in progress and every time we get new results we should be flexible enough to immediately implement that.

first stage of engineering should be complete. It’s great that we can determine our own timeline.

JK: What was the most original research you’ve undertaken?

Boyan: One of the great things we did was, as there wasn’t any really good data on the vertical distributions of plastics, we didn’t really know up to what depth we had to clean up. So we went out and did three expeditions to measure it.

Also, the entire engineering process is new and we successfully applied for patents so that proves how new our designs are.

JK: The feasibility study suggested a cleanup efficiency of 42%. How did you arrive at that figure?

Boyan: In the past there have been many computer models that map ocean currents; they throw expensive stuff with GPS into the ocean and track them. In 2010, there were 3 scientists that independently started to make models with data on the concentrations of the plastic and got pictures showing the five garbage patches in the gyres. The garbage is not static; it’s moving around so we use those computational fluid dynamics models to

JK: What are the main differences you’ve found between what you thought you could achieve at the time of your TED talk and what you know now?

Boyan: Interesting question...

I think it’s important to stress that the basic concept remains unchanged and has now been validated. However, there are some details that weren’t filled in. For 26

Photo credit:The Ocean Cleanup

count the number of particles of plastic that went through a strip of a certain length for a certain amount of time and that way we were able to calculate the speed of cleanup.

That doesn’t mean that 42% is the maximum efficiency because if you make the array of floating barriers twice as long, you would collect about 70%. I believe that if you have a 100km long barrier deployed for 20 years the clean up efficiency is 75%, so the 42% is an arbitrary number; this is the efficiency you would get if you deploy the array for 10 years with 100km sides. be defined as below 5 mm in length and people sometimes erroneously refer to all ocean plastics as microplastics. Over 90% of the plastics are larger than microplastics and also removing larger plastics will prevent the increase of microplastics tenfold because a fundamental problem is that large plastics get eroded by the sun and waves into smaller bits that get eaten by fish and mammals and birds. We can collect the plastics over 2mm

JK: The feasibility report said that you are unable to remove the smallest microplastics – millimetre sized plastic debris.

Is that going to be a problem?

Boyan: I don’t think so. Of course we would prefer to catch all plastics but we also have to be realistic; we won’t collect every last kilo of plastic. It’s just about removing as much as possible. Microplastics can 27

impact the project itself will have?

Boyan: Of course, if you want to solve a problem you don’t want to create another problem. There are two categories of sea life: one is able to just move away from the barrier; then there’s of course planktonic creatures that are not able to resist the current but they are swept under the barrier and are carried away by the current itself.

So bycatch isn’t a concern although that’s something we will continue to do research on. Then, there’s the carbon footprint. Because the major part of the project is powered by the ocean and the extraction process is powered primarily by solar power we calculated they wouldn’t create any significant emissions.

The only emissions come from the transport of the plastic back to land by ship and that’s equal to about 400 cars; so it’s still more worthwhile to remove the several million kilos of plastic from the oceans.

in length so we would collect the ones that get eaten. Importantly, there are much larger plastics that cause entanglement, especially for marine mammals as well as being a cause of economic damage for ships and tourism.

JK: Part of the way you want to offset your costs is to sell the plastics and possibly turn them into oil, though?

JK: The environment is at the heart of The Ocean Cleanup; so how are you addressing the 28

Test with a 40 meter size boom in Nieuwe Maas river (Rotterdam) Photo credit:© Bea Nagy (www.beabird.net), The Ocean Cleanup

JK: But if someone went and used that oil for fuel or for making more plastics wouldn’t that actually create a carbon footprint?

Boyan: Of course it does, but then it is equal to the carbon footprint created if that person used oil derived from crude oil and the process required to make oil out of crude is a lot dirtier than that of making oil out of plastic. And, there are a lot more valuable ways in which the plastic could be used.

Probably 20% will be so degraded that it could only be turned into

Boyan: Interestingly, if you look at the process of getting oil from ocean plastic, it has lower emissions than getting new oil from the ground, so we were actually able to account for that as a negative carbon footprint according to the carbon footprint analysis standards.

If you don’t include the transport process the whole cleanup process is actually carbon negative as we’ll actually reduce the amount of carbon that would be emitted into the atmosphere.

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JK: So in terms of the project where are you at right at this minute?

Boyan: So right now we are finishing up the first phase and making minor improvements to the report before we consider it completely done. We’re making preparations to start the second phase as soon as possible, ideally by the end of September. Then through a series of upscaling tests we’re working towards a large scale operational pilot in 3 – 4 years time. Our crowdfunding campaign is going well; we’ve raised over $1.8 million dollars and we’re looking forward to achieving the $2 million dollar target on the 14th September exactly on schedule.

JK: Well I’m sure you’ll be successful and I know I hope you will!

oil. We will separate that from the better quality plastic and the rest would be turned into new materials. We’ve done tests and we’ve been able to heat press these better quality plastics. It’s probably easier if I just show you...

(He gets up and returns with some samples of plastic) This is to give you an idea: this is what plastic from the ocean looks like. This was part of a buoy and it looks like you can’t really do anything with it; do you see the cracks on it?

JK: Yes. Boyan: Then we send it out and actually the quality of something like this is still good and we can make a book cover out of this. We also tried injection moulding it.

Injection moulding can make anything out of the plastic. The quality is good even though it’s made out of this material.

The possibilities are virtually endless and now we’ve calculated that it’s 4.50 Euros/kilo to get the plastic out of the centre of the ocean to land, it could at least return a significant part of costs.

You can help Boyan Slat to clean up the oceans. Just check out WWW.THEOCEANCLEANUP.COM

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Why we believe what we want to believe

by Rob Hutchinson website

www.ispectrummagazine.com

P

eople tend to believe or attach more importance to information that confirms their existing beliefs or thoughts, and this is best illustrated when people selectively remember

information or interpret new information biasly. This is known as confirmation bias, and plays a strong part in how we assess information in our everyday lives.

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numerous observations along these lines throughout history would suggest that some learned souls were aware of the phenomena, although they had no ability to discern why it occurred. Confirmation bias was termed by Peter Wason in 1960.

Briefly, his experiment focused on participants identifying a rule that applied to a sequence of three numbers. Participants generated their own set of triple numbers and the experimenter would tell them if the rule applied to that set or not.

With this information the participant then had to discover the rule. The rule itself was actually staggeringly simple - any sequence of numbers that ascended. Despite this participants had a devil of a time discovering it.

By studying the participants creation of number sequences Wason saw that participants appeared to be testing numbers that only fit into their hypothesis of the sequence rule.

The discovery and observation of confirmation bias was recorded even before psychology as we know it today existed. Evidence has been found in the writings of such varied figures as Dante, Francis Bacon and even as far back as Greek historian Thucydides, who wrote in The Peloponnesian War ‘....for it is a habit of mankind to entrust careless hope what they long for, and to use sovereign reason to thrust aside what they do not fancy.’ Although this is observation of what could be taken as confirmation bias, 32

They tried doggedly to prove their own idea about what the rule was, which Wason coined as confirmation bias - trying to prove their own hypothesis by selectively processing information. Wason’s

experiment was later called into question as it was possible participants were employing something called ‘positive stress strategy’ - a tendency to make tests that are consistent with a working hypothesis, 33

and not confirmation bias. However, from Wason’s experiment and coining of the term confirmation bias went on to be proven in many later experiments.

Biases occur in our search for and interpretation of information, as well as our memory of it.

The search for information bias is particularly common (and crucial) in the science and business sector.

By looking for the information we want and designing questions biased towards the answer we favour all manner of problems can be caused. Scientists, psychologists, researchers and anybody else who is looking to prove their point (and theirs alone) gravitate towards testing a hypothesis in a biased way, searching for evidence that

proves rather than dis- the countryside there proves the hypothesis. is a greater need for This hypothesis can be 4x4’s and thereby the researchers are biasing their search for information. A preference for a positive test can also be evidenced in hypothesis, as a positive question favours a positive answer.

More peoworded in a specific way ple are likely to give that searches for only a positive answer to the positive or nega- the question ‘Are you tive evidence that they happy with your child’s require. A simple exam- education?’ than ‘Are ple of this would be you unhappy with your someone who wants to child’s education?’. This investigate if 4x4’s are bias for positive quesmore popular than cars tioning often simplifies by going to the country- complex issues. side to tally the number of cars and 4x4’s they see. Obviously, in 34

individuals were asked to refute an argument that contradicted their beliefs, those with high confidence levels searched for the information that went against their beliefs to form an argument against it.

However, those with low confidence levels searched for information that supported their personal point of view, making little effort to address the argument from the other side.

A confident person is therefore less likely to be influenced by search biases than a low confidence person. The disasterous results that

As we can see from above, wording is critical to a hypothesis, and by making small changes the experimenters can skew the research in their favour. By using positive language in a question people will look for the positives, but by using negative language then people will look for the negatives.

If you’re looking for a negative aspect simply use negative language in the question and you will have a better chance of receiving the information you want.

For example, by asking ‘Which of these immigrants should be approved for a visa?’ people will look for the positives, whereas by asking ‘Which of these immigrants should be declined a visa?’ people will look for negative aspects. Not only the wording can be a powerful influence over search biases.

Personality traits have been shown to influence search biases too.

Selective exposure concerns how we search for information that is consistent or inconsistent with our beliefs, and those who are influenced by selective exposure tend to search for the former.

Research has shown that when 35

has been collected or provided.

Even if the information is free from bias, the way we interpret it can differ widely.

Lord et alii (1979) at the University of Stanford experimented on participants who had strong views in favour or against capital punishment. Each participant read a brief description of two studies, a comparison of US states with and without the death penalty and the comparison of murder rates before and after the introduction of the death penalty in those states that employed capital punishment. They were then asked if their opinions had changed, and were provided with a more in depth account of the studies procedures and to rate them if the research was well conducted and con-

can be caused by search biases can be demonstrated by the invasion of Iraq - with no solid evidence of weapons of mass destruction, it is quite evident that the politicians and others with vested interests were affected (whether by choice or not) by confirmation bias, especially in searching out proof of the WMDs existence.

A more obvious source of bias is interpreting the information that

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vincing. All of this information, including the study description they first read was fictional. Half the participants were told that of the two studies they were being presented with, one supported the death penalty as a deterrent and the other didn’t.

The other half was told

the same thing but for the opposite studies.

Regardless whether the participants were for or against the death penalty they all slightly shifted their opinion towards the first study they read. However, once they had access to the more detailed information all the par-

37

ticipants returned to their original viewpoint.

Participants had picked out from the detailed information anything that corroborated their original viewpoint and used this as evidence that they were right, rating the study that agreed with their view as more convincing and as

Schema theory shows that information matching expectations will be more easily remembered, stored and retrieved than information that goes against prior expectations

having b e t ter procedures than the other.

This demonstrates that even though the information can be the same when presented to two groups with differing opinions, the groups interpretation of this can be skewed in favour of their beliefs.

Of course, it is possible for information to be searched for and interpreted without biases, but it can still be selectively recalled to reinforce prior expectations.

Two main theories dominate psychology in terms of selective recall, but they have very different views.

Schema theory shows that information matching expectations will be more easily remembered, stored and retrieved than information that goes against prior expectations. A schema is an organized pattern of thought or behaviour that categorises information and the relationships between it.

People are more likely to notice things that fit in with their schema.

Schemas use automatic thought to organise new perceptions and categorise them. On the other hand, other theories provide evidence 38

that surprising information stands out more and is therefore more likely to be remembered.

Memory recall can also be influenced by changes in our emotional state.

Participants memories of their emotional reactions gradually broke down over time when asked about how they felt about O.J Simpson being acquitted for murder (Levine et al, 2001). They assessed the stability of emotions over time and the relationship between current appraisals and memory for emotions. A week after Simpson was acquitted participants were asked how they

felt about their emotional reactions and appraisals at the time when they found out about the verdict.

After two months, and then a year, participants recalled their initial emotional response and described their current appraisals of the verdict. After a period of two months the more the participants appraisals of Simpson’s guilt or innocence had changed the less stable their memories for happiness or anger at the verdict became. After one year systematic changes in memories for happiness, anger and surprise were found to be shifting towards the participants current appraisals of the event. For example, if at the time of the verdict a person held the belief that Simpson was innocent he may have reacted with happiness at this result. But, one year later if this person shifted their appraisal of the situation to thinking Simpson was guilty then the recall of his emotional reaction to the verdict will change - he would report he was not happy but disappointed with the verdict at the time, even though this was not true.

Confirmation bias is a result of unintentional thought strategies rather than deliberate mental actions with the aim of deception.

There are cognitive and motivational explanations of why this occurs. Cognitive explanations are based upon the limitations that people experience when carrying out complex tasks. People employ heuristics, a problem solving and learning technique used to speed up the process of finding a solution by using mental shortcuts to cut down the cognitive effort required to make a decision. The solution may not be the optimal one, but it will be satisfactory. An educated guess would be an example of heuristics - not all information is processed but the answer is usually thought to be satisfactory.

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standard of evidence for evidence that they do not want to be true.

Confirmation bias can involve a different thought process called confirmatory thought, which seeks evidence to justify an already held point of view. Lerner and Tetlock have succeeded in separating two different trains of thought. Exploratory thought is a neutral process that considers all the evidence and predicts all possible outcomes, whilst confirmatory thought attempts to validate their currently held view.

Interestingly, Lerner and Tetlock claim that people only force themselves to use critical thinking when they know they will have to argue their point to those whose opinion they do not know or are well informed on the subject.

An availability heuristic may be used by people to judge a particular situation based on what information easily comes to mind. Motivational explanation for confirmation bias focus on wishful thinking - prefer happy thoughts or outcomes to unhappy ones. This form of positivity bias is known as the Pollyanna Principle, the tendency for people to remember a pleasant item more than an unpleasant item. At a subconscious level the mind tends to focus on optimism whilst the conscious err towards negativity. When applying this principle to sources of information or evidence it suggests why the outcomes we want to be true are often considered to be true. People will more readily believe evidence that they prefer to be true and demand a much higher

Confirmation bias can easily disrupt our social and work lives.

Confirmation bias can lead to overconfidence, causing bad investments and poor decision making. In the stock market, it has been shown that those who make the most profit resist confirmation bias. We can see from above that 40

more likely to remember the person who gives us praise than critique.

scientific research can easily be compromised by searching for the desired answer, either consciously or unconsciously.

Confirmation bias could prolong scientific theories or experiments for years through compromised research. Peer review - the process of equally qualified experts assessing the study - hopefully reduces the effect of confirmation bias in research. Randomly selecting participants has also contributed in the effort to minimize the bias effect. Biases are also at play when we assess our own image.

Self-verification (upholding beliefs on self-image) and self-enhancement (the desire to receive positive praise) are influenced by confirmation bias.

We are less likely to remember feedback that goes against our selfimage, a n d we are

Any emotional issue leads to a stronger confirmation bias, often polarizing existing biases.

Even when two people with different views are exposed to the same information it can serve to actually make them take an even more extreme viewpoint than the one they previously had, a theme which has come to be known as attitude polarization. This serves to entrench our views, making us more stubborn and less likely to change our beliefs. From the research above we can see how big a part confirmation bias plays in our life. And this is only skimming the surface. Think back to the last argument you had - about politics, holiday plans or even which restaurant to go to - and there is a good chance confirmation bias was involved. Even if you recognize it, and you know it influenced your viewpoint would you change your mind? Probably not, I wouldn’t!

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by mado martinez website

www.madomartinez.com

INTERVIEW WITH DR. IRVING KIRSCH STRANGE FACTS ABOUT PLACEBOS THAT WILL SURPRISE YOU

I

rving Kirsch is Associated Director in the Placebo Studies Program at Harvard Medical School and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and professor of psychology at the University of Plymouth (UK). He has excelled in the scientific community for

his research on placebo effects, antidepressants, expectancy, and hypnosis.

Kirsch is the creator of the theory of response expectancy and studies in this field regarding antidepressants and placebo effect have had a lot of influence on treatment protocols in UK.

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M.M. I have the feeling that we have not paid enough attention to the placebo effect and we only consider its importance for testing new medicaments, but it’s more than that and has more to do with healing than many drugs, right?

I.K. For decades, the placebo effect was only considered as part of the process of testing new medications, but that has been changing.

Medical researchers are becoming more interested in understanding the placebo effect and figuring out how one can make use of it in clinical practice.

sadness, joy). What the placebo effect shows is that these expectancies are self-confirming. Believing that we will have a certain experience can produce that experience.

M.M. Modern medicine has a pill for everything, even for depression, but you conducted a research that showed the real effectiveness of antidepressants is very small, while the placebo effect in the administration of these antidepressants is much bigger. Considering that antidepressants are drugs, most of them very addictive and with many undesirable side effects, should we consider other alternatives?

I.K. The clinical trials conducted by the drug companies show that most of the effectiveness of antidepressants is due to the placebo effect. Many other treatments (for example, psychotherapy and physical exercise) are just as effective as antidepressants, but they don’t produce the side effects or other

M.M. You have a very interesting theory, called the response expectancy theory. What is it about?

I.K. Response expectancy theory was inspired by study of the placebo effect. Expectancies are anticipations of what will happen.

Response expectancies are anticipations of what we will experience in various situations (e.g., pain, 44

health risks associated with the drugs. These alternatives should be tried first. Antidepressants should be used only as a last resort, after other, less risky alternatives have failed.

M.M. What does the placebo effect have in common with hypnosis?

I.K. The power of hypnosis and the placebo effect are both based on suggestion. One way to think of hypnosis is as a non-deceptive means of producing a placebo effect.

M.M. During my years of experience as a journalist and anthropologist, I have encountered many cases of people who assure me that they recovered from a sickness (herpes, cancer, etc.) with a healer, going to a sacred place or using alternative therapies such as hypnosis, positive thinking, etc. Is this related to the placebo effect?

I.K. Probably yes 45

M.M. When is a placebo more effective? In tablets, injections, or some other form?

I.K. Placebo capsules are more effective than placebo pills, injections are more effective than either pills or capsules, and sham surgery is the most effective of all.

M.M. Can the doctor’s attitude improve the placebo effect?

I.K. Yes! When doctors have positive attitudes and expectations, they communicate these to their patients, often without even being aware that they are doing so. This can lead the patient to have greater confidence in the treatment and to show a better response to it.

M.M. If you give syrup to a patient suffering from vomits, and this syrup is for provoking more vomits, but you tell the patient that it will cure him...can it cure him? Have you observed this?

I.K. The answer is yes. There are classic studies by Stewart Wolf in 46

CRAZY THINGS ABOUT PLACEBOS YOU SHOULD KNOW

Europeans react more positively to injections than to pills, but Americans believe that pills are much more effective than injections.

Although lying to the individuals is crucial for placebo effectiveness, even when they are aware of receiving a fake drug, it can still work.

The color, the size and the shape of the pills is very important and it really affects how well the placebo will work. Yellow pills are better for treating depression and red ones are more indicated for keeping people awake and alert. Green pills lead the ratings for treating anxiety while the white ones soothe stomach problems.

Placebo surgery is amazingly effective.

When administering morphine, patients react better if they are informed that they are receiving it than if not.

People can inebriate themselves with placebos.

Placebos can occur too among some animals.

Several high profile studies are showing that placebos basically have the same effect than antidepressants but without side effects.

The nocebo effect can make individuals experience the side effects of a medication after reading the side effects warnings.

The nocebo effect can make people sick even if they are receiving treatment for recovering.

The nocebo effect can end in psychogenic death.

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the 1950s, in which people were given ipecac, a drug that usually induces nausea and vomiting, and were told it would soothe their stomachs and ease their nausea.

It worked.

M.M. What is nocebo?

I.K. The nocebo effect is the consequence of expecting bad outcomes.

It has been called ‘the placebo effect’s evil twin.’ Just as positive expectations can produce positive results, negative expectations can produce negative outcomes.

M.M. Are some of us more predisposed to nocebo than to placebo?

Can we change this predisposition? How? I.K. The data on this are mixed and very complicated, although there is some indication that optimists may be more susceptible to placebo effects and pessimists to nocebo effects.

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M.M. Can we consider voodoo as a result of nocebo?

I.K. Anthropologists have studied a phenomenon called ‘voodoo death.’

This occurs when someone is cursed and subsequently dies. We cannot be sure how reliable the accounts of these phenomena are, but the theory is that a person who believes in voodoo can be frightened to death when they know they have been cursed.

Pollinators and pesticides: How can we improve the bleak situation of our bees?

by declan perry

B

more commonly known – was rolled out across Europe. On the face of it this was good news for bees, and certainly better than no ban at all.

But following the pesticide restrictions, the future of pollinators may not be as rosy as you might expect.

ees pollinate many of the fruit, nuts and vegetables we eat and without them our supermarket shelves would be almost empty. Last year, in an attempt to protect our pollinating insects, the highly controversial ban of a group of pesticides called neonicotinoids – or neonics as they are 49

The pesticide ban did not get rid of all neonics and there are many other problems that pollinators face; habitat destruction, bee diseases and a lack of food to name just a few. Nevertheless, the discovery of new biopesticides that are non-toxic to honeybees provides hope for the future of pest control. But it is early days for these exiting new strategies and, for now, more simple efforts may improve the bleak situation of our pollinators in the short term.

Falling bee numbers and rising food prices

Like most other species, some plants have sex to reproduce. This process involves pollen grains – which are the plant’s male sex cells – being transferred to the female part of the plant. Honeybees, and other insects that eat nectar and 50

food for thousands of other species, scientists have estimated that these insects pollinate around one third of the world’s crops, including; apples, onions, cauliflower, broccoli, coffee and cocoa (used to make chocolate).

pollen, are an important part of this process.

They fly from plant to plant searching for nectar and pollen. In doing this pollen sticks to the bee’s body and is transferred between flowers.

Pollen grains Mostly, honeybees are kept in hives and pollinate our crops, but wild insects such as bumblebees also contribute. As well as pollinating wild flowers which provide 51

Because they are kept in hives, bee keepers are able to keep a detailed record of honeybee numbers. Using this and other honeybee data from across Europe, it is clear there has been a dramatic fall in honeybee numbers in the last 30 years, with the number of hives falling by about a quarter in this time (1). It also seems as if honeybee numbers are falling much faster in the UK than in other European countries (2).

As well as affecting the environment, the decline in bees could also put a dent in the wallets of consumers. Professor Dave Goulson, pollinator expert based at the University of Sussex, explains: “The worst case scenario would be ending up without pollinators or perhaps, more realistically, not enough pollinators to give us a full yield. The fear is that we will start seeing yield declines in crops like raspberries, strawberries, apples and

pears. Elsewhere in the world crops like cocoa and coffee, which rely on insect pollination, would also be under threat. This may then push up food prices, and reduce food production at a time when the world’s population is ever increasing.”

A study released early this year had a similar conclusion (3). It suggested that Europe had 13 million fewer honeybee colonies than

would be needed to pollinate all of its crops.

This means that there is an over reliance on wild pollinators such as bumblebees and hoverflies and this, in itself, is dangerous because we don’t know exactly how many wild pollinators there are. Goulson said: “The key problem is that we don’t really have a reliable measure of wild bee numbers at the moment.

For most pollinators we don’t have much of a clue what is happening until they disappear.”

This has worried scientists with some suggesting there may be a food security catastrophe in the future if we don’t act to stop the fall in bee numbers (4).

Bumblebee 52

The risk of neonics on pollinators

For years, scientists have been trying to find out exactly why honeybee numbers are continuing to decline and it turns out that bees face a number of problems. Intensive farming practices have reduced the habitat in which bees can live, there has also been a decrease in wild flower numbers meaning that bees are running out of food. Several diseases, to which bees have little resistance, have also been introduced.

Added to this, bees face a threat from several different types of pesticide, including those containing neonics.

During their research,

scientists paid special attention to the effect of this group of pesticides on bees.

Neonics are usually used as a seed dressing in agriculture. This means seeds are coated in the pesticide before being planted, providing protection for the crop before it has even started growing.

As the seed grows the pesticide coat is incorporated in to the plant itself, giving it lifelong protection from pests.

Neonics work by affecting the brain and nervous system of insects.

The active molecule binds to receptors on 53

cells in the nervous system, disrupting signals being transmitted around the insect body (5). This is irreversible and eventually leads to paralysis and death.

Unfortunately, neonics are not specific to pests and they can also harm bees too.

After completing dozens of studies, it was found that neonics could kill bees at very small doses. At smaller doses still, it was found that the pesticide reduced honeybees’ ability to navigate and learn new information.

The research was completed both in the lab, and in the field making it very convincing (6).

On the back of this research, the EU asked the European Food

Standards Agency to find out exactly how dangerous neonics were to bees. It was discovered that this group of pesticides posed an “unacceptable risk� to honeybee populations, eventually leading to the controversial ban of neonics in agriculture.

But this was not a simple process, the agrochemical industry fought to oppose the ban and the UK government rejected the science on which

the ban was based.

Nevertheless, the ban was eventually passed with 15 countries voting for it and eight against.

It was then decided the ban would last for two years, before being reviewed in 2015.

However, even with the ban in place, bees will not enjoy a completely neonic-free environment. The ban did not affect neon54

ics being used in gardens and parks. These spray-on pesticides are still available in garden centres. On top of that, the ban also only applies to flowering crops and crops planted in the spring or summer. Other crops, such as winter wheat, are not covered by the ban and can still be treated with the restricted pesticide.

Australian funnel-web spider

Spider-venom biopesticide

one day control pests without killing or harming pollinators (7).

This research was completed by Erich Nakasu and his colleagues at the University of Newcastle. The team chose to focus on venom produced by the Australian funnel web spider as a potential biopesticide as it has previously been shown to be deadly to pest insects. They combined the toxic molecule taken from the spider venom with a second “carrier� molecule. This allowed the spider venom to be delivered to the pest orally, by spraying on a crop

In the time since the ban was brought in, there has been more research into how neonics affect bee health. There has also been some early research into alternative pesticides, called biopesticides, which are less harmful to pollinators. A paper, published recently in Proceedings of the Royal Society Biology, detailed a new biopesticide made from spider venom that may 55

compared to current alternatives”.

for example. Scientists exposed honeybees to the spider venom molecule at a range of concentrations, ranging from minute doses to doses so high that they would never be seen in a field setting.

After completing the research the team found that the new biopesticide did not pose a significant risk to honeybee health. In fact, the spider venom molecule was about as harmless to honeybees as a nontoxic control substance, Nakasu said: “The fact it can selectively kill insect pests, but not bees, was actually surprising”, he went on to say: “we consider the molecule to be relatively safe to bees, particularly when

the new biopesticide did not pose a significant risk to honeybee health

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The exact reason why this new biopesticide is harmless to bees and toxic to other pests is not completely clear. But it seems to be related to the spider venom molecule’s effect on ion channels, which are proteins found in the lining of all cells. These proteins control the flow of charged ions in and out of the cell, and are vital for many important physiological processes.

It appears that the spider venom molecule targets and inhibits a particular type of ion channel in the cells of the pest insect, causing mortality. This process doesn’t seem to happen in honeybees and this may be because they have a slightly different version of the ion channel found in pest species.

This different type of ion channel may not be susceptible to the spider venom molecule, making honeybees resistant to the molecule. The lab group at the University of Newcastle is currently completing research to confirm this theory.

The results of the study are no doubt exciting for the future of pest control, Nakasu said: “There is a clear and pressing need for alternative pesticides.

Studies like ours are very important because they show that these toxins provide an alternative that does not have a measurable impact on bees at field-relevant doses in assays that are very sensitive.�

But it is important to note that this is the very first stage in bringing a new biopesticide to the market. Nakasu said it could still be five to 10 years before spider venom biopesticide becomes available to farmers. During this time the new biopes-

ticide will have to go through the licensing and registration process. Field trials will also take place to make sure the spider venom 57

molecule doesn’t damage the environment.

pointed, that an alternative to the banned neonics may not even be necessary, he said: “I have been trying to flag up for some time now that there is no clear evidence as to what difference to yields neonics make, which is quite surprising considering everybody uses them. If you were to take away the seed dressing and do everything else the same, there is no data to say how this would affect yields because no one has done this simple trial in the UK.�

Do neonics really help crop growth?

For this reason, the spider venom biopesticide should not be seen as an alternative to neonicinoid pesticides. Goulson also 58

But there have been a few trials in the US and they show that neonic pesticides are coming up short. A two year study on soybeans in South Dakota found no

So why do farmers pay for and use pesticides that may not be necessary in some cases? According to Goulson farmers receive most of their advice from agronomists employed by the agrochemical industry, he went on to say: “Farmers do not have any source of good data, so they rely on advice.

It seems quite likely that they have been using something that they probably didn’t really need”.

yield benefits from neonic seed dressing because the pesticide concentration was not high enough to kill pests (8). These conclusions are hotly contested by the agrochemical industry who says that over time neonics do provide yield benefits. Experts have suggested that neonics should only be applied if there is high “pest pressure” on the crop. For example, there would be little point in applying a pesticide in an area with no pests.

59

You might think that we will have a better idea of how neonic application affects yields after the two year ban, but this is unlikely. Some of this year’s crops were treated with neonics before the ban came into action.

This means neonics will persist in the environment until the crops are harvested. This only leaves one year during which the pesticide restrictions will be fully observed (before they are reviewed in 2015), which may not be long enough to properly gauge the effect of the ban on crop yields and pollinator health.

It is also important to note that, even with the neonic ban, crops are still being sprayed with other pesticides. So they are not open to attack by pests in the absence of neonics. Added to this, the evidence for the negative effect of neonics on pollinator health seems to be far stronger than the evidence for the positive effect of the same pesticide on crop yields. This can be seen in the numerous publications that show how neonics harm bees 60

both in the lab and the field. It is for these reasons that many researchers are calling for the neonic ban to be extended beyond 2015, when it is due to be reviewed.

Short-term strategies

Biopesticides, which are non-toxic to bees, are still decades away.

And in the meantime bees will still be exposed to neonics – albeit to a lesser extent for as long as the ban lasts. On top of this, other pesticides, bee diseases and a lack of pollinating flowers also pose a risk to bees. The current situation may seem bleak for our pollinators but there are things we can do right now to improve the health of bees.

Goulson suggested that there are many strategies that could improve

raise awareness to try and improve pollinator health.

the health of bees in the short term.

First we must address the loss of habitat suitable for pollinators by planting more flowers in gardens and parks as well as on farmland – this will provide bees with food and places to live. There should also be efforts made to reduce pesticide use in gardens, where neonics can still be used freely. Organizations such as the Bumblebee Conservation Trust promote these efforts and

These strategies are still only in their infancy. Goulson said: “The initiatives under way that are trying to get people to grow more flowers are a bit of a drop in the ocean at the moment, but if they gathered momentum they could make a real difference.�

References:

1)sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534710000364 2)ibra.org.uk/articles/European-honey-bee-declines/ 3)plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0082996 4)theguardian.com/environment/2014/jan/08/uk-food-security-honeybees 5) ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11698101 6) ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3338325/ 7)rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/281/1787/20140619.full 8)ricehoppers.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Science-2013Stokstad-675.pdf

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