Allied Fighters World War II saw a stunning evolution in the capability of the single-seat fighter aircraft. Few people observing the light, short-range aircraft of the first year of the war would have predicted the multitude of tasks to come its way in such a short time. "V^Then devastating war once W more burst on Europe in September 1939 the state of preparedness of the Allied air forces varied from the RAF's optimistic mediocrity to the downright ineptness of the French and Polish air forces, generally born of years of pacifism and parsimony. The monoplane fighter was in widespread use, albeit with little more than a couple of years' service behind it in most cases. Biplanes still served, if only to fill gaps yet to be occupied by more modern aircraft. The finest Allied fighter in service in 1939, the immortal Supermarine Spitfire, served on only a handful of squadrons, was not regarded as fully operational, and demanded special servicing facilities at three or four nominated fighter bases. Yet within a year this aeroplane came to epitomize everything that was best in the RAF's fight against the Luftwaffe. Indeed it left its early partner, the Hawker Hurricane, far behind in the race to forge a weapon capable of matching Germany's great duo of fighters, the Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Focke-Wulf Fw 190. By 1941 RAF Fighter Command had adopted the Spitfire Mk VB, with its two 20mm cannon and four rifle-calibre machine-guns, as its standard equipment.
A group of USAAF long-range North American P-51 Mustang fighters - a superlative aircraft, believed by many to be the best of the war. It entered service in 1943 and achieved its 3347km (2080 mile) range by using wing drop tanks. It was the shock introduction in 1941 by the Luftwaffe of the superb Fw 190, however, that fired the starting gun for the technological race to accelerate fighter development. The Spitfire Mk IX was rushed into service, as was the Hawker Typhoon, the latter still with many engine and airframe problems yet unresolved. US entry into the war at the end of 1941 did little to improve the fighter scene, neither the Bell P-39, Curtiss P-40 nor Republic P-43 being regarded as any match for the German
fighters. In due course, however, the marriage of the superlative Rolls-Royce Merlin to the North American P-51 Mustang produced the war's finest long-range singleseat fighter, entering service in late 1943. On the Eastern Front, Germany's attack on the Soviet Union was accompanied by almost total destruction of the outdated indigenous equipment of the Red Air Force in 1941, a disastrous situation that was to some extent alleviated by the supply of Western aircraft to bolster
Soviet resistance in the air. In an amazingly short time, however, having moved the aircraft industry far to the East, the Soviets managed to introduce a number of promising new fighters, the YakovlevYak-3 and Lavochkin La-5 among them. The last two years of the war found the Allies almost entirely re-equipped with fighters whose development had been undertaken wholly during the war, thereby drawing on combat experience. The Hawker Tempest joined the Typhoon (which nevertheless proved an excellent ground-attack weapon), while Griffon-powered Spitfires formed a large proportion of Fighter Command's air combat force. The USAAF was almost entirely equipped with the classic Lockheed P-38, P-47 and P-51 trio as well as late-series P-40s. In the Red Air Force the Lavochkin La-7 and Yakovlev Yak-9 were proving more than a match for the majority of Luftwaffe fighters, flown as they were by hastily trained young pilots, while in the Pacific the American and British fighters all but annihilated the air forces of Japan. In the field of jet fighters, where in airframes Germany unquestionably led the Allies, only the RAF managed to introduce very small numbers of early Gloster Meteors. 275
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Lavochkin LaGG-3 Designed by a bureau headed by Se myon Lavochkin and including V. Gorbunov and M. Gudkov, the Lavochkin LaGG-3 stemmed from the LaGG-1, whose prototype (the 1-22) was first " flown on 30 March 1940. These aircraft were unusual in retaining an all-wood structure; only the control surfaces (and later the landing flaps) were metal. This excellent little fighter was ordered into production in 1940 as the LaGG-1 with a 783-kW (1,050-hp) Klimov M-105 V-12 engine, but was too late to see service during the Winter War with Finland in 1939-40. With a top speed of 605 km/h (376 mph) and an armament of one 20-mm and two 12.7mm (0.5-in) guns, the LaGG-1 was certainly one of the world's best fighters early in 1941, but pilots complained of poor climb performance and heavy controls, and a new version, the LaGG3, was introduced by way of the 1-301 prototype after several hundred LaGG-Is had been delivered. At the time of the German attack two air regiments still flew the older aircraft, but within a year four regiments had received the LaGG-3, their task being to provide escort for the Ilyushin 11-2 close-support aircraft; they carried a variety of armament combinations, including wing attachments for six 8.2cm (3,23-in) rockets or light bombs. The LaGG-3 featured a constantspeed propeller and improved rudder balancing, and was popular in service; it proved very robust and was capable of sustaining considerable battle damage, A better fighter was urgently needed, and the three designers each built new versions with the M-82 radial. In 1942 the liquid-cooled LaGG went out of production after about 6,528 had been built,
This LaGG-3 was flown by Captain C.A. Grigoryev in the win ter of 1942/3, on the 6th Fighter Aviation Sector of the Central Front.
Specification Lavochkin LaGG-3 Type: single-seat fighter Powerplant: one 925-kW (1,240-hp) M-105PF V-12 piston engine Performance: maximum speed 575 km/h (357 mph) at 5000 m (16,405 ft); initial climb rate 900 m (2,950 ft) per minute; service ceiling 9700 m (31,825 ft); range 650 km (404 miles)
USSR
Lavochkin La-5 and La-7 As the Soviet armies reeled back after the initial assault by Germany in the East during 1941, frantic demands were made for modern equipment to be supplied to the Soviet air force. In October 1941 Semyon Lavochkin started work on the Lavochkin LaG-5 fighter with 1194-kW (1,600-hp) M-82 radial, passing on almost immediately to a development, the La-5, with cutdown rear fuselage which gave improved visibility for the pilot. The prototype completed its acceptance trials in May 1942 and entered production two months later; by the end of the year no fewer than 1,182 examples had been completed. In March 1943 the next and principal version, the La-5FN, entered production, a total of 21,975 aircraft including the later La-7 being produced before the end of the war; the La-5FN featured the 1231-kW (1,650-hp) ASh-82FN engine, but its two 2 0 - m m c a n n o n were supplemented by four 8.2-cm (3.23-in) RS 82 rocket projectiles or two PTAB antitank weapons. A two-seat trainer version, the La-5UTI, was also produced. Later aircraft were armed with two 23mm guns in place of the 20-mm weapons. In 1944 the La-7 appeared with an armament of three 20- or 23mm cannon, an uprated ASh-82FN engine and a top speed of 680 km/h (423 mph). The first large-scale use of the La-5 was during the fighting around Stalingrad in November 1942; it was essentially a low/medium-altitude 276
fighter, and during the great armour battles at Kursk in July 1943 La-5s were employed in a tank-busting role, and after having discharged their hollowcharge missiles against ground targets they would climb to give fighter cover to the slower Ilyushin 11-2 support aircraft, The highest-scoring of all Allied fighter pilots of the war, Ivan Kozhedub, achieved all his 62 combat victories while flying La-5s, La-5FNs and La7s between 26 March 1943 and 19 April 1945. A re finement of the La-5, itself a development of the LaGG-3, the La-7 was to be the last of Lavochkin 's mixed wood and metal construction fighters. By the time of its introduction to the battle in spring 1944, the Germans were in retreat all along the Eastern Front. Ivan Kozhedub was the top-scoring Allied fighter pilot of the war. The La-7 shown is that in which hemade the last of his 62 'kills', on 19 April 1945.
Weights: empty 2620 kg (5,776 lb); maximum take-off 3300 kg (7,275 lb) Dimensions: span 9.80 m (32 ft 1.75 in); length 8.81 m (28 ft 11 in); height 2.70 m (8 ft 10 in); wing area 17.51 irf (188.5 sq ft) Armament: one 20-mm ShVAK hubfiring cannon and two 12.7-mm (0.5-in) UBS machine-guns or two 7.62-mm (0.3-in) ShKAS machine-guns, plus provision for six underwing 8.2-cm
LaGG-3s of the 9th IAP (Fighter Aviation Regiment) serving on the Black Sea. The LaGG did not fare well at the hands of the Luftwaffe, although this was more a reflection of respective pilot training than of any failure of the aircraft. (3.23-in) rockets or four 50-kg (110-lb) bombs
Kozhedub flew this La-5FNin the summer of 1944. The aircraft had been presen ted to the unit by the father of Hero oftheSoviet Union Lieutenant-Colonel Konyev in m em ory ofhis son. Specification LavochkinLa-5FN Type: single-seat fighter/fighterbomber Powerplant: one 1231-kW(l,650-hp) ASh-82FN radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 647 km/h (402 mph) at 5000 m (16,405 ft); climb to 5000 m (16,405 ft) in 5.0 minutes; service ceiling 11000 m (36,090 ft); range 765 km (475 miles) Weights: empty 2605 kg (5,743 lb); normal take-off 3360 kg (7,408 lb) Dimensions: span 9.80 m (32 ft 1.75 in); length 8.67 m (28 ft 5.3 in); height 2 2.54 m (8 ft 4 in); wing area 17.59 m ( 189.3 sq ft) Armament: two nose-mounted 20-mm ShVAK cannon (on later aircraft 23-mm NS cannon), plus provision for four 8.2cm (3.23-in) RS-82 rockets or 150 kg (33 lib) of bombs Semyon Lavochiris La-7 featured an uprated engine, giving it a top speed of 680 km/h (423 mph) and many minor improvements which made this aircraft one of the most effective of the war. Those made at the Moscow factory carried two cannon, whilst those built at Yaroslavl had three. USSR
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-3 Gaining a reputation as a 'hot ship' in the early years, the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-3 was plagued by difficult handling and very poor armament, and although among the fastest of Soviet fighters of that period, it proved no match for the German Bf 109G or Fw 190. Flown in prototype form as the 1-61 in the spring of 1940, the initial design included the 895-kW (1,200-hp) Mikulin AM-35 V-12 engine, and this was retained in the production MiG-1, which started appearing in September 1940, Handicapped by the overall length of the engine, which resulted in poor pitch and directional stability, and armed with only three machineguns, the MiG-1 suffered heavily in the opening months of Operation 'Barbarossa', and the MiG-3, delivered during the second half of 1941, proved little better with a 1007-kW (1,350-hp) AM35A engine, which gave the fighter a top speed of 640 km/h (398 mph); introduced at the same time was a constantspeed propeller, increased wing dihedral and sliding cockpit canopy. Handling was only marginally improved, so the MiG-3 was transferred to attack bomber escort and close support duties; in 1942 two 12.7-mm (0.5in) machine guns were added in underwing fairings by operational units, but gradually the aircraft was replaced by radial-engine fighters such as the La-5. Total production was 3,422, of which 100 were the earlier MiG-1.
Specification Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-3 Type: single-seat fighter Powerplant: one 1007-kW (1,350-hp) Mikulin AM-35 A V-12 piston engine Performance: maximum speed 640 km/h (398 mph) at 7000 m (22,965 ft); initial climb rate 1200 m (3,935 ft) per minute; service ceiling 12000 m (39,370 ft); range 1250 km (777 miles) Weights: empty 2595 kg (5,721 lb); maximum take-off 3350 kg (7,385 lb) Dimensions: span 10.30 m (33 ft 9.5 in);
length 8.15 m (26 ft 9 in); height 2.67 m (8 ft 9 in); wing area 17.44 mr (187.7sqft) Armament: one 12.7-mm(0.5-m) Beresin BS and two 7.62-mm (0.3-in) ShKAS nose-mounted machine-guns (later increased by two 12.7-mm/0.5-in underwing guns), plus provision for six 8.2-cm (3.23-in) underwing rockets or two 100-kg (220-lb) bombs
The MiG-3 had been designed for a high-altitude role but combats on the Eastern Front took place below 6000 m (19,685 ft), where the German Bf 109 had a distinct performance advantage. Consequently attrition was high, although many who were to become aces made their first 'kills'in theMiG fighter.
A MiG-3 of the 34IAP operating from Vnukovko in the defence of Moscow in the winter of 1941/2. The aircraft is adorned with that most potent of Soviet slogans, 'For the Father land!' 277
USSR
Yakovlev Yak-1, Yak-3, Yak-7 and Yak-9 It is said that 37,000 Yakovlev fighters were produced during World War II, of which the vast majority were of the Yakovlev Yak-9 that could outfight the German Bf 109G as early as the time of the Stalingrad campaign. Developed progressively from the Yak-1 (which first flew in January 1940), through the Yak-TB which served from early 1942, the Yak-9 was first flown in its production form in the summer of that year, returning a speed of 600 km/h (373 mph). Numerous versions of this versatile fighter were developed, including the Yak-9T anti-tank fighter with 940kW (1,260-hp) Klimov VK-105PF V-12 engine and 37-mm hub-firing cannon, the Yak-9B fighter-bomber with provision for 400 kg (882 lb) of bombs, the Yak-9D long-range fighter and the Yak-9DD very long-range escort fighter, the latter being flown as escort for USAAF bombers on shuttle raids between the UK and the Soviet Union late in the war. The Yak-9U fighter, with 1231-kW (1,650-hp) VK-107A engine and a top speed of 700 km/h (435 mph), was the final version to see combat during the war and represented the point at which Soviet technology may be said to have finally caught up with that of the West, and came to be much respected by the best Luftwaffe pilots in their final generation of Bf 109K and Fw 190D fighters. The Yak-3 was perhaps the war's most manoeuvrable monoplane fighter, and entered service in 1944 as a lightened derivative of the Yak-1 series.
Senior Lieutenant M.D. Baranov flew this Yak-1 in the summer of 1942. The patriotic slogan behind the cockpit reads 'Death to the Fascists', a popular sentiment at the time.
By late 1944, the phenomenally agile Yak-3 was being replaced by improved models, but senior officers such as Major-General C.N. Zakharov of the 303 Fighter Aviation Division often kept them as personal mounts.
Right: The early production Yak-1 came to the front in large numbers in the early days of Barbarossa, and was disliked by som e pilo ts wh o were used to the less advanced aerodynamics of the Polikarpov biplanes which had equipped many Soviet aviation regiments. Specification Yakovlev Yak-9U Type: single-seat fighter Powerplant: one 1231-kW (1,650-hp) VK-107A V-12 piston engine Performance: maximum speed 700 km/h (435 mph) at 5000 m (16,405 ft); climb to 5000 m (16,405 ft) in 3.8 minutes; service ceiling 11900 m (39,040 ft); range 870 km (540 miles) Weights: empty 2575 kg (5,677 lb); normal take-off 3098 kg (6,830 ft) Dimensions: span 9.77 m (32 ft 0.6 in); length 8.55 m (28 ft 0.6 in); height 2.44 m (8 ft 0 in); wing area 17,25 nf' (185.7 sq ft) Armament: one 23-mm hub-firing VYa23V cannon and two 12.7-mm (0.5-in) UBS machine-guns, plus provision for two 100-kg (220-lb) bombs
Above: Yak-9Ds of a Guards regiment operating in the Crimea. The nearest aircraft is the mount of Colonel Avdyeyev and bears the Order of the Red Banner. By the summer of 1944, when thephotowas taken over Sevastopol, Soviet fighters were often superior. Righ t: This Yak- IMwas presen ted by the young Communists of Alma Alta and was flown by Sergei Lugansky, victor at the time over 32 enemies. 278
USA
Lockheed P-38 Lightning Representing Lockheed's first fighter aircraft project, the twin-engine, twinboom Lockheed P-38 Lightning was designed to meet a 1937 requirement for a high-altitude interceptor. First flown on 27 January 1939, the XP-38 was followed by production P-38s with nose armament of one 37-mm and four 12.7-mm (0.5-in) guns and powered by Allison V-1710-27/29 engines; their top speed of 628 km/h (390 mph) was greater than any other twin-engine fighter in 1941. The first version to be considered fully operational was the P-38D, however, and this was reaching squadrons at the time of Pearl Harbor. The first of an order for 143 aircraft for the RAF arrived in the UK in December 1941, but after evaluation the Lightning was rejected (on account of a ban imposed on the export of turbochargers) and the contract cancelled. In the USAAF the P-38D was followed by the P-38E, in which the 37-mm cannon was replaced by a 20-mm weapon. The P-38F, with provision for up to a 907-kg (2,000-lb) bombload under the wings, was followed by the P-38G with minor equipment changes; the P-38H could carry up to 1452 kg (3,200 lb) of bombs. In the P-38J (of which 2,970 were produced) the radiators were located in deep 'chin' fairings immediately aft of the propellers; with maximum external fuel load this version had an endurance of about 12 hours, and it was in this model of the P-38 that America's top scoring fighter pilot of the war, Major Richard I. Bong, gained the majority of his 40 victories. The P-38L was the most-built version (a total of 3,923) and differed from the
A P-38J of the 432nd Fighter Squadron based on New Guinea in late 1943. The 'J'models were the first to have relocated radiators and leading-edge tankage. P-38J only in having -111/113 engines in place of the -89/9 Is previously used. Photo-reconnaissance conversions, the F-4 and F-5, were also widely used in Europe and the Far East. Production of all Lightnings totalled 9,394. Specification Lockheed P-38L Lightning Type: single-seat fighter/fighterbomber Powerplant: two 1100-kW(l,475-hp) Allison V-1710-111/113 V-12 piston engines Performance: maximum speed 666 km/h (414 mph) at 7620 m (25,000 ft); climb to 6095 m (20,000 ft) in 7,0 minutes; service ceiling 13410 m (44,000 ft); range 724 km (450 miles) Weights: empty 5806 kg (12,800 lb); maximum take-off 9798 kg (21,600 lb) Dimensions: span 15.85 m (52 ft 0 in); length 11,52 m (37 ft 10 in); height 2 2.99 m (9 ft 10 in); wing area 30.42m (327.5 sq ft) Armament: one 20-mm and four 12.7mm (0.5-in) guns in the nose, plus a bombload of up to two 726-kg( 1,600Ib) bombs under the wings
Above: A t the AAF Tactical Cen ter in Orlando, Florida, technicians load a P-38 with bombs before a skip bombing run. With the retention of th e full figh ter nose armament of 20-mm and 12.7-mm guns, theP-38 could provide its own Hak suppression at low level.
Below: The big Lockheed fighter saw service in a number of variants, the P-38M being a night fighter. This twoseat, radar-equipped model was used operationally in the Pacific during the latter stages of the war. It retained the full weapon fit of the day fighter versions.
introduced the -83 engine with largediameter propeller. Final and mostbuilt versions were the P-39N and P39Q with -85 engine; production amounted to 2,095, bringing the total of all P-39s to 9,558, Of these, no fewer than 4,773 were shipped to the Soviet Union in response to Stalin's desperate appeals for military assistance.
A Bell P-SBL Airacobra, opera ted by the 93rd FS, SlstFCin Tunisia in 1943. Successful in Soviet hands, the P-39 proved no match for the agile Zero in the Pacific, but was reasonably effective in North ff fr.-~~
USA
Bell P-39 Airacobra The radical Bell P-39 Airacobra singleseat fighter was designed around the hub-firing 37-mm T-9 cannon which had given impressive demonstrations in 1935. The Allison V-12 engine was located amidships behind the cockpit, driving the propeller by an extension shaft, and nosewheel landing gear was adopted. The prototype XP-39 was first flown in April 1939; production P-39D aircraft entered service with the USAAC in 1941 and first saw combat in the Pacific theatre in April 1942. P39Ds also served with US forces in Europe but suffered heavily in action; they also flew with one RAF squadron (No. 601) but persistent problems caused them to be withdrawn after scarcely a single action. The Airacob-
ra flew with much better results with three USAAF groups based in North Africa from the end of 1942. The P-39D was followed by the P-39F, which introduced an Aeroproducts propeller in place of the former Curtiss type, the P-39J with V-1710-59 engine, the P-39K with -63 engine and Aeroproducts propeller, and the P-39L with -63 engine and Curtiss propeller. The P-39M
279
Specification BellP-39NAiracobra Type: single-seat fighter bomber Powerplant: one 895-kW ( 1,200-hp) Allison V-1710-85 V-12 piston engine Performance: maximum speed 642 km/h (399 mph) at 2955 m (9,700 ft); climb to 4570 m ( 15,000 ft) in 3.8 minutes; service ceiling 11735 m (38,500 ft); range 1207 km(750miles) Weights: empty 2566 kg (5,657 lb); maximum take-off 3720 kg (8,200 lb) Dimensions: span 10.36 m (34 ft 0 in); length9.19 m (30 ft 2 in); height 3.78 m (12 ft 5 in); wing area 19.79m2 (213.0 sq ft) Armament: one hub-firing 37-mm gun, two 12,7-mm(0.5-in) machine-guns in nose decking, and four 7.62-mm (0.3in) guns in the wings, plus provision for one 227-kg (500-lb) bomb under the fuselage Originally designed as an interceptor, theAiracobra was used also a t low level, where its h ubmounted 37-mm cannon was to prove most effective in ground attack. Soviet pilots, fighting at low level, also achieved considerable success in air combat. USA
Curtiss P-40 Warhawk The USA's most important fighter at the time of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the Curtiss P-40 continued to give valuable service for the remainder of the war, though it never matched the excellence of the famous P-38/ P-47/P-51 trio. It had, after all, first flown as the X17Y (later the P-36 with Pratt & Whitney R-1830 radial) and been re-engined as the XP-40 with supercharged Allison V-1710 V-12 engine in October 1938. Large orders followed, but most P-40A aircraft went to the RAF (as the Tomahawk Mk I). The P-40B followed with cockpit armour and an armament of two 12.7-mm (0.5in) and four 7.62-mm (0.3-in) guns (the Tomahawk Mk IIA in the RAF). The P-40C (Tomahawk Mk IIB) featured self-sealing fuel tanks. The P-40D intro-
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duced a slightly shortened nose with r a d i a t o r moved f o r w a r d and deepened, this marked change in appearance being identified by a change of name to Kittyhawk in the RAF (all P-40s in American service being termed Warhawk); the P-40D corresponded with the Kittyhawk Mk I in RAF service. The first major USAAF version was the P-40E (Kittyhawk Mk IA), with six 12.7-mm (0.5-in) wing guns, 2,320 being built. A Packardbuilt Rolls-Royce Merlin powered the P-40F (Kittyhawk Mk II). Mostproduced version was the P-40N (of which 5,219 were built), this version reverting to the Allison V-1710 engine and featuring shackles for up to 680 kg (1,500 lb) of bombs; in RAF service it became the Kittyhawk Mk IV. The
majority of USAAF P-40s served in the Pacific, although many served in the Mediterranean theatre alongside the Commonwealth Tomahawks and Kittyhawks. Total USAAF production was 12,014, 1,182 Tomahawks and 3,342 Kittyhawks being built on British contracts.
Specification
Curtiss P-40N-20 Warhawk (Kittyhawk MklV) Type: single-seat fighter/fighterbomber Powerplant: one 1015-kW(l,360-hp) Allison V-1710-81V-12 piston engine Performance: maximum speed 609 km/h (378 mph) at 3200 m (10,500 ft); climb to 4570 m (15,000 ft) in 6.7 minutes; service ceiling 11580 m
(38,000 ft); range 386 km (240 miles) Weights: empty 2722 kg (6,000 lb); maximum take-off 5171 kg ( 11,400 lb) Dimensions: span 11.38 m (37 ft 4 in); length 10.16 m (33 ft 4 in); height 3.76 m (12 ft4 in); wingarea21.92nr (236.0 sq ft) Armament: six 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns in the wings, plus a bombloadof up to three 227-kg (500-lb) bombs The P-40E, seen here in 1942, was the first to serve extensively with the USAAF in Europe and North Africa. Called Kittyhawk in RAF service and Warhawk with the American forces, the P-40 bore the brun t of the initial fighting in the Pad fie.
USA
Republic P-47 Thunderbolt Evolved from Major Alexander P. de Seversky's radial-powered P-43, the big Republic P-47 Thunderbolt was designed under the leadership of Alexander Kartveli to become one of America's three outstanding fighters of the war, First flown on 6 May 1941, the XP-47B was designed around the 1492kW (2,000-hp) Pratt & Whitney R-2800 with exhaust-driven turbocharger in the rear fuselage; armament was eight 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns in the wings. 171 production P-47B fighters were built with minor improvements and a top speed of 691 km/h (429 mph), this version being brought to the UK in January 1943 by the 56th and 78th Fighter Groups; they were first flown in combat on 8 April that year, flying escort for B-17s. Early P-47s proved to possess poor climb and manoeuvrability, but were popular on account of their ability to survive heavy battle damage. A lengthened fuselage and provision for an under-fuselage drop tank identified the P-47C. The majo^ version (of which no fewer than 12,60 were built) was the P-47D with water injection power boost, and cut-dowi rear fuselage with 'bubble' hood 01 later sub-variants; P-47Ds served ii the UK, the Mediterranean and the Fa East. In Burma 16 RAF squadrons flev the P-47B (as the Thunderbolt Mk I and P-47D (Thunderbolt Mk II), a tota of 826 being delivered. Developed a: a result of demands for a 'sprint' ver sion, the P-47M with improved turbo charger and a top speed of 762 km/1 (473 mph) at 9755 m (32,000 ft) reachec
This P-47M Thunderbolt was based atBoxtedin the UK in early 1945. It was opera ted by the 63rd FS in the famed 56th Fighter Croup. Europe at the end of 1944, while the P-47N with blunt-tipped enlarged wing and increased fuel capacity was developed purely for service in the Pacific; a total of 1,816 was produced and these flew escort for B-29s in their raids on Japan in 1945, A total of 15,675 P-47s was produced.
Specification Republic P-47D-25 (Thunderbolt Mkll) Type: single-seat long-range fighter Powerplant: one 1716-kW(2,300-hp) Pratt & Whitney R-2800-59 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 689 km/h (428 mph) at 9145 m (30,000 ft); climb to 6095 m (20,000 ft) in 9.0 minutes; service ceiling 12800 m
(42,000 ft); maximum range 2028 km (1,260 miles) Weights: empty 4536 kg (10,000 lb); maximum take-off 8800 kg (19,400 lb) Dimensions: span 12.43 m (40 ft 9'/2 in); length 11.01 m (36 ft 1% in); height 2 4.32 m (14 ft 2 in); wing area 27.87m (300.0 sq ft) Armament: eight 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns in the wings, plus up to two 454-kg (1,000-lb) bombs
Fighters from the 82nd FS, 78th FG on the line after a mission over Germany ir the autumn of 1944. Aircraft from this squadron claimed the first Me262 to be destroyed by the 8th Air Force on 29 August that year. USA
North American P-51 Mustang One of the truly great fighters of the war, the North American P-51 Mustang was originally designed in 1940 to a British requirement. The prototype NA-73 was first flown in October that year with a 820-kW (1,100-hp) Allison V-1710-F3F but, although two early aircraft were evaluated by the USAAF as XP-51 aircraft, the type was not adopted by that air force. Most of the early aircraft were supplied to the RAF (620 aircraft as Mustang Mk IA and Mustang Mk II). Their outstanding lowlevel speed and range resulted in their assignment to the ground support (army co-operation) role. After the USA's entry into the war the USAAF adopted the aircraft, ordering 148 P51s which had four 20-mm cannon (instead of four 0.5-in and four 0.3-in) wing bomb shackles in the attack category as the A-36A, The British in the meantime had re-engmed four Mustangs with Rolls-Royce Merlins, and this expedient transformed the aircraft. In America the armament was reduced to four 12.7-mm (0.5-in) guns, all in the wings, and an 895-kW (1,200-hp) Allison V-1710-81 was used in the P-51 A, 310 being ordered in 1942. So spectacular were the benefits of the Merlin that a Packard-built Merlin (as the V1650) was used in the P-51B, of which
By the invasion of Normandy in June 1944, the Mus tang was in extensive service with the USAAF. This P-51 B operated out of Bottisham with the374thFS, 361stFC, of the 8th Air Force over the invasion beaches. 1,988 were produced at Inglewood; 1,750 of the similar P-51C were built at Dallas, Texas. Later aircraft had the armament restored to six guns, while increased fuel capacity extended the range to a maximum of 3347 km (2,080 miles), enabling Mustangs to escort American bombers to Berlin. The P5ID featured a cut-down rear fuselage and 'tear-drop' canopy. The Merlin P51 joined the RAF as the Mustang Mk HI (P-5 IB and P-51C) and Mustang Mk IV (P-5ID). Fastest of all versions was the lightened P-5 IH with a top speed of 784 km/h (487 mph), 555 being built
during the war. Total production of the P-51 was 15,586, including 7,956 P5IDs and 1,337 generally similar P-51K fighters with an Aeroproducts propeller.
Specification North American P-5 ID (Mustang MkW) Type: single-seat long-range fighter Powerplant: one 1112-kW ( 1,490-hp) Packard Rolls-Royce Merlin V-1650-7 V-12 piston engine Performance: maximum speed 704 km/h (437 mph) at 7620 m
(25,000 ft); climb to 9145 m (30,000 ft) in 13.0 minutes; service ceiling 12770 m (41,900 ft); maximum range 3347 km (2,080 miles) Weights: empty 3232 kg (7,125 lb); maximum take-off 5262 kg ( 11,600 lb) Dimensions: span 11,28 m (37 ft 0% in); length 9.85 m (32 ft 3% in); height 2 3.71 m(.12ft2in);wingarea21,65m (233.2 sq ft) Armament: six 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns in the wings, plus provision for up to two 454-kg ( 1,000Ib) bombs or six 127-mm (5-in) rocket projectiles 281
UK
Supermarine Spitfire Classic creation of designer R.J. Mitchell, the Supermarine Spitfire was the descendant of the race-winning Schneider Trophy seaplanes. First flown on 5 March 1936, the Spitfire Mk I with Merlin II engine and eight machine-guns entered RAF service in August 1938, this version being heavily committed to combat in the Battle of Britain. The Spitfire Mk II with Merlin XII followed in September 1940, the Spitfire Mk IIB being armed with two 20-mm guns and four machine-guns. The photo-reconnaissance Spitfire Mk IV was followed in March 1941 by the excellent Spitfire Mk V (of which 6,479 were produced) with 1074-kW (1,440hp) Merlin 45; the Spitfire Mk VC fighter-bomber could carry one 227kg (500-lb) or two 113-kg (250-lb) bombs. The Spitfire Mk VB remained the mainstay of Fighter Command between mid-1941 and mid-1942 when the Spitfire Mk IX, with 1238-kW (1,660-hp) Merlin 61 with two-stage, two-speed superchart ?r joined the RAF. The Spitfire Mk Xl and Spitfire Mk VII were high-altitude fighters with extended wingtips, but the definitive Spitfire Mk VIII fighter and fighterbomber was used principally in the Mediterranean and Far East, being fully tropicalized The Spitfire Mk X and Spitfire Mk XI were unarmed photo-reconnaissance versions and the Spitfire Mk XVI, with a top speed of 652 km/h (405 mph) was produced in fighter and fighterbomber versions. All the foregoing (of which 18,298 were built) were powered by the Rolls-Royce or Packard Merlin, and the first with 1294-kW (1,735-hp) Griffon IV was the Spitfire Mk XII, introduced in 1943 to counter the Fw 190 fighter-bomber. It was followed by the 1529-kW (2,050-hp) Griffon 65-powered Spitfire Mk XTV fighter and fighter-bomber. The fighterreconnaissance Spitfire Mk XVIII was just joining the RAF at the end of the war and had a top speed of 712 km/h (442 mph). In the Fleet Air Arm Seafire variants also served in large numbers with both Merlin and Griffon engines. Total production of the Spitfire was 20,351, plus 2,334 Seafires.
Specification Supermarine Spitfire Mk VB Type: single-seat interceptor fighter Powerplant: one 1074-kW(l,440-hp) Rolls-Royce Merlin 45/46/50 V-12 piston engine Performance: maximum speed 602 km/h (374 mph) at 3960 m
(13,000 ft); climb to 6095 m (20,000 ft) in 7.5 minutes; service ceiling 11280 m (37,000 ft); range on internal fuel
756 km (470 miles) Weights: empty 2313 kg (5,100 lb); maximum take-off 3078 kg (6,785 lb) Dimensions: span 11.23 m (36 ft 10 in); length 9.11 m (29 ft 11 in); height 3.48 m (11 ft 5 in); wing area 22.48 n/(242.0 sqft) Armament: two 20-mm cannon and four 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns in the wings
A Spitfire Mk VB of No. 306 (Polish) Squadron is depicted as it would have looked on Figh ter Command's 'Rh ubarb ' sweeps over occupied France. Two Spitfire MklXs are seen over Anzio in January 1944. TheMklXwas a hasty adaptation oftheMkV airframe to accept a Merlin 61 engine. Nevertheless, 5,665 were built, second in numbers only to the MkV.
UK
Hawker Hurricane The first monoplane fighter and the first with a top speed of over 483 km/h (300 mph) to enter RAF service, the Hawker Hurricane was designed by Sydney Camm and first flown on 6 November 1935, joining the RAF in December 1937. The Hurricane Mk I with 768-kW (1,030-hp) Rolls-Royce Merlin II and an armament of eight 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns was Fighter Command's principal fighter in the Battle of Britain in 1940, and destroyed more enemy aircraft than all other defences combined. It was followed by the Hurricane Mk IIA with 955-kW (1,280-hp) Merlin XX before the end of 1940, the Hurricane Mk IIB with 12 machine-guns and the Hurricane Mk IIC with four 20-mm cannon during 1941. These versions were also able to carry up to two 227-kg (500-lb) bombs, drop tanks or other stores under the wings; they served as fighters, fighterbombers, night-fighters, intruders and photo-reconnaissance aircraft on all fronts until 1943, and in the Far East until the end of the war. The Hurricane 282
Mk IID introduced the 40-mm anti-tank gun in 1942. Two of these weapons were carried under the wings, and this version was particularly successful in North Africa. The Hurricane Mk IV featured a 'universal wing' which allowed carriage of up to eight 27,2-kg (60-lb) rocket projectiles or any of the external stores carried by the Mk II. It is believed 14,231 Hurricanes were produced, including 1,451 built in Canada (Hurricane Mks X, XI and XII). This total, also included many Sea Hurricane models of which early versions
were catapulted from merchant ships and flown from converted merchant aircraft carriers, and later served aboard Royal Navy fleet carriers. Always regarded as somewhat slow among RAF fighters, the Hurricane was highly manoeuvrable and capable of withstanding considerable battle damage. Specification Hawker Hurricane Mk IIC Type: single-seat fighter and fighterbomber
ln February 1938, Squadron Leader J. W. Cillan of No. 111 Squadron flew his then-brand-new Hurricane from Edinburgh toNortholt, averaging 657 km/h (408 mph) with a tail wind. Powerplant: one 955-kW (1,280-hp) Rolls-Royce Merlin XX V-12 piston engine Performance: maximum speed 541 km/h (336 mph) at 3810 m (12,500 ft); climb to 6095 m (20,000 ft) in 9.1 minutes; service ceiling 10850 m (35,600 ft); range on internal fuel
Axis Fighters The superb fighter aircraft of Germany and Japan achieved substantial air superiority over the Allies, which greatly assisted the advance of their respective armies. By contrast, the Italians, short of first-class fighters, were rapidly outmatched.
T
ie air forces of the three prin;ipal Axis partners, trained and eqviipped for wholly differing concepts of warfare, possessed fighter aircraft of widely varying qualities and capabilities at the start of World War II. Germany, whose Luftwaffe was intended mainly as a support arm of the Wehrmacht, possessed what was perhaps the world's finest fighter in 1939, the Messerschmitt Bf 109, albeit somewhat less well-armed than the Supermarine Spitfire. Moreover, it had gained a workout during the war in Spain, while the Spitfire was still hamstrung by tactical limitations. However, like the RAF's fighter, the Bf 109 underwent continuous development through World War II and remained the cornerstone of the Jagdverband (fighter arm) to the end. Intended as a Bf 109 replacement, the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 entered service in 1941 and was roughly equivalent in concept to the RAF's Hawker Typhoon. It was infinitely superior in combat, yet was itself to become the Sturmjager (assault fighter) par excellence, being called on to take over from the highly vulnerable Junkers Ju 87 as the Wehrmacht reeled under the gigantic blows of the Red Army after Stalingrad. Italy was particularly unfortunate during 1940 in not possessing
The Luftwaffe had some superb fighter aircraft. The Messerschmitt Bf 110 (above), however, did not fare well against the RAF's Hurricanes and Spitfires and was reassigned to the fighter-bomber role; it later excelled as a night fighter. aircraft engines comparable with the Rolls-Royce Merlin and Daimler-Benz DB 601, and had thus to make do with small aircooled radiais whose development potential was very limited, so that the early Regia Aeronautica fighters, such as the Fiat CR42 and G 50, were scarcely a match for the Hawker Hurricane and Curtiss P-40 Tomahawk against which they were ranged in Greece and the Western Desert. The Macchi C.202 was a marked improvement, but was itself two years too late to turn the tide in the Mediterranean.
In the Far East, Japan embarked on an intended two-year campaign, the basis of which was seaborne assault across the Pacific. Accordingly priority had been afforded to the development of the carrierborne fighter, of which the famous Mitsubishi A6M Zero was probably the best in the world in 1941. Even in 1943 it was capable of holding its own against Allied naval aircraft; but by then the fortunes of Japan were already on the decline and in 1944, as the Americans pushed back the enemy, there was no truly effective
metropolitan-based interceptor available to combat the heavily armed and escorted Boeing B-29 bombers. Such an eventuality had never entered the Japanese war planners' minds. Perhaps the most astonishing facet of the fighters' war was the superb quality of the German Jagdverband, with regard to the task for which it was originally intended: patrol in the skies over the battlefield. It was never envisaged that it would be employed for bomber escort (as in the Battle of Britain), or that it would be called on to defend the Reich against massed bombers. When misused, it suffered accordingly. Only by 'bolting on' special armament was the latter failing partly overcome. A measure of the excellence of the German fighter pilot is afforded by the all-time highest scorer, Erich Hartmann: his ultimate tally of 352 accredited victories was achieved in three and a half years; of these, 260 were Allied fighters, and all were destroyed while flying the Bf 109. He himself was shot down only twice, and at the end of the war he was aged just 23. By contrast the highest-scoring Allied pilot, a Soviet, reached a tally of 62, while the RAF's top score (gained by the South African, Pattle) was 41, a high proportion of them Italian biplanes. 283
ITALY
Fiat CR.42 Falco Often compared in concept and design with the Gloster Gladiator, against which it frequently fought in 1940-1, the Fiat CR.42 Falco (falcon) biplane did not first fly until 1939, however, and such an anachronism is difficult to understand. Employing the same Warren truss system of interplane struts as the 1933 CR.32, from which it was developed, Celestino Rosatelli's CR.42 was powered by a 626-kW (840-hp) Fiat A74 R 1C 38 radial and had a top speed of 441 km/h (274 mph). By September 1939 the Falco equipped three stormi and, while the RAF was hurriedly reducing its Gladiator strength, the Regia Aeronautica was increasing its CR.42 inventory, so that when Italy entered the war in June 1940 there were 330 in service with four stormi in the Mediterranean plus two squadriglie in Italian East Africa. The Falco first saw combat in the brief French campaign, and later 50 aircraft accompanied the Corpo Aero Italiano to bases in Belgium for attacks on southern England at the end of the Battle of Britain, suffering heavily to the guns of RAF Hurricanes. In the Middle East the Falco fared better, however, being more of a match for the widelyused Gladiator; during the Greek campaign one gruppo of three CR.42 squadriglie was committed and, except on a few occasions, acquitted itself well; but when Hawker Hurricanes eventually arrived the Italian biplane losses mounted steadily. In East Africa 51 crated CR.42s were received to supplement the 36 aircraft delivered to the 412a and 413a Squadriglie, but in due course they were destroyed in the air or on the ground, although they took a heavy toll of the antiquated aircraft of the RAF and SAAF. In the Western Desert CR.42 fighters were joined by the CR.42AS fighter-bomber version adapted to carry two 100-kg (220-lb) bombs, and these continued in service with the 5°, 15° and 50° Stormi Assalti until November 1942. A total of 1,781 CR.42s was built (some serving in Sweden and Hungary), but at the time of the Italian armistice in September 1943 only 64 remained serviceable. Specification Fiat CR.42 Falco
Spanish Civil War experience led the Italian air ministry to believe there was still a role for the biplane fighter, but the anachronistic CR.42 proved to be disagreeably vulnerable to enemy monoplanes.
CR.42s committed to the Battle of Britain suffered heavy casualties, but they enjoyed a brief period of success over Greece and Libya.
Type: single-seat fighter Powerplant: one 626-kW (840-hp) Fiat A74 R1C 38 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 441 km/h (274 mph) at 6000 m (19,685 ft); climb to 6000 m (19,685 ft) in
9.0 minutes; service ceiling 10100 m (33,136 ft); range 780 km (485 miles) Weights: empty 1784 kg(3,933 lb); maximum take-off 2295 kg (5,060 lb) Dimensions: span 9.70 m (31 ft 9.9 in); length 8.26 m (27 ft 1,2 in); height 3.05 m (10 ft 0.1 in); wing area 22.40m 2
241.1sqft Armament: two 12.7-mm(0.5-in) Breda-SAFAT machine-guns in nose (some aircraft with two extra 12.7-mm/ 0.5-in machine-guns under lower wing), plus provision for two 100-kg (220-lb) bombs
five gruppi in North Africa. With a maximum speed of only 460 km/h (286 mph) and an armament of two machine-guns, the G.50 was hardly a m a t c h f o r RAF fighters in t h e Mediterranean, yet survived in service until July 1943. Production eventually reached 245 G.50 and 421 G.SObis fighters, and 108 of a dualcontrol two-seat trainer, the G.50B. G.SOs were also supplied to the Croatian and Finnish air forces.
Powerplant: one 626-kW (840-hp) Fiat A 74RC 38 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 460 km/h (286 mph) at 4000 m (13,123 ft); climb to 4000 m (13,123 ft) in 4.6 minutes; service ceiling 10750 m (35,269 ft); range 580 km (360miles) Weights: empty 1965 kg (4,332 lb); maximum take-off 2400 kg (5,291 lb) Dimensions: span 11.00 m (36 ft 1.1 in); length 7.80 m (25 ft 7.1 in); height 3.28 m (10 ft 9.1 in); wing area 18.25 m2 (196.45 sq ft) Armament: two nose-mounted 12.7mm (0.5-in) Breda-SAFAT machineguns
Italy's CR.42s soldiered on through 1942 despite sufferingmoun ting losses. The type was also exported to Belgium, where they were quickly destroyed during the German invasion, and to Hungary, which used them against Yugoslavia and in the 1941 Russian campaign.
ITALY
Fiat G.50 Freccia Representing the first design essay of the young technician Giuseppe Gabrielli with the Fiat company, the Fiat G.50 fighter was designed in 1935-6 but, although a break from the traditional biplane formula, offered much less in operational potential than the contemporary Hawker Hurricane and Messerschmitt Bf 109. The prototype G.50 first flew on 26 February 1937 and was the first all-metal monoplane with constant-speed propeller and retractable landing gear to be evaluated by the Regia Aeronautica. Named Freccia (arrow), the G.50 was ordered into production with the CMASA company (a subsidiary of Fiat) and 12 of the first aircraft were sent to Spain for operational evaluation. Despite the superiority of the Macchi C, 200, it was decided to go ahead and equip one stormo and one gruppo with the G.50, and an initial order for 200 aircraft was placed. In November 1939 the type was delivered to the 51° Stormo, and 284
soon afterwards to the 52° Stormo, and when Italy entered the war in the following June 118 Freccias were in service. In November 1940 48 G.SOs of the 51° Stormo moved to Belgium to take part in the air attacks on the UK; however, they saw little action, being principally engaged in 'surveillance' duties. In September that year the prototype of a new version, the G.SObis, had flown, and with improved cockpit armour and increased fuel this entered production for eventual service with
Specification Fiat G.50 Freccia Type: single-seat fighter
A Fiat G.SObis of20 Gruppo, 51 Stormo based at Ursel, Belgium, in October 1940. Lack of range and poor armament severely restricted the type's participation in the Battle of Britain.
ITALY
Fiat G.55 Centauro The Fiat G.55 Centauro (centaur) was an all-metal low-wing monoplane single-seat fighter designed by Giuseppe Gabrielli, and represented a great improvement by comparison with the previous Fiat monoplane fighter to go into production, the G.50. Great care was taken to blend an aerodynamically advanced airframe with a structure which was robust and would lend itself to mass production. Its configuration included fully-retractable landing gear and a raised cockpit providing an excellent view. Fast and maneouvrable, the type proved popular with its pilots. The first of three prototypes was flown on 30 April 1942; the third (MM 493) was the only one to carry armam e n t , comprising one enginemounted cannon and four fuselagemounted machine-guns. It was evaluated under operational conditions from March 1943, but by then the Italian air ministry had already decided on mass production of the G.55. H o w e v e r , o n l y 16 G.55/0 p r e production and 15 G.55/I initial production aircraft had been delivered to the Regia Aeronautica by September 1943, production thereafter being for
the Fascist air arm flying alongside the Luftwaffe. Before wartime production ended 274 more were completed and a further 37 were abandoned at an advanced construction stage. Before the armistice of September 1943, G.55s had participateda in the defence of Rome with the 353 Squadriglia of the Regia Aeronautica. The postarmistice operations were mainly with the Fascist air arm's Squadriglia 'Montefusco', based at Venezia Reale, then with the three squadriglie which formed the 2° Gruppo Caccia Terrestre, but losses were heavy, as a result mainly of Allied attacks on the airfields. While the war was still in progress, Fiat flew two prototypes of the G.56, which was developed from the G. 55 to accept the more powerful Daimler-Benz DB
The main users of the Fiat G.55 were the squadrons of the Fascist Air Arm. This example belonged to Squadriglia 'Montefusco'. 603A engine. Built during the spring of 1944, they incorporated minor structural changes and had the fuselagemounted machine-guns deleted. The first prototype survived the war and was used subsequently by Fiat as a test-bed.
Specification
FiatG.55/I Type: single-seat fighter Powerplant: one 1100-kW(l,475-hp) Fiat RA 1050 RC-58 Tifone (licencebuilt DB 605 A) 12-cylmder invertedVee piston engine Performance: maximum speed 630 km/h (391 mph); climb to 6000 m
(19,685 ft) in 7 minutes 12 seconds; service ceiling 12700 m (41,667 ft); range 1200 km (746 miles) Weights: empty equipped 2630 kg (5,798 lb); maximum take-off 3718 kg (8,197 lb) Dimensions: span 11.85 m (38 ft 10.5 in); length9.37 m (30 ft 8.9 in); heights.? 13 m (10 ft 3.2 in); wing area 21.11m '(227,23sqft) Armament: one 20-mm Mauser MG 151/20 engine-mounted cannon, two similar wing-mounted cannon, and two fuselage-mounted 12.7-mm(0.5-in) Breda-SAFAT machine-guns, plus provision for two 160-kg(353-lb) bombs on underwing racks
ITALY
Macchi C.200 Saetta Handicapped by Italy's pre-war lack of a powerful engine suitable for fighters, Mario Castoldi's radial-powered Fiat C.200 was so underpowered and undergunned that when it arrived in service in 1939 it was already outclassed by the Hawker Hurricane which had joined the RAF two years earlier. Indeed the first C.200 unit, the 4° Stormo, expressed a preference for the CR.42 and accordingly reverted to the biplane in 1940. First flown on 24 December 1937 by Giuseppe Burei, the C.200, named the Saetta (lightning), went on to equip the 1°, 2°, 3°, 4° (in mid-1941) and 54° Stormi, and the 8°, 12°, 13°, 21" and 22° Gruppi, a total of about 1,200 aircraft being produced by Macchi, Breda and SAI Ambrosini. On the date that Italy entered the war, 10 June 1940, two home-based stormi were combat-ready with the C.200, being first flown in action over Malta in September that year, and it was largely the losses suffered by the Italian fighter arm at this time and during the Greek campaign that prompted the Luftwaffe to deploy X Fliegerkorps in the Mediterranean to bolster the Regia Aeronautica's flagging resources. C.200s were heavily committed in North Africa, and were fairly evenly matched with the early Hurricane Mk Is, weighed down by tropical air filters, but the attrition suffered by all Italian air force units (principally through poor serviceability and air attacks on their airfields) quickly reduced the number of C.200s. Some 51 Saettas of the 22° Gruppo operated in the Odessa zone of the Eastern Front from August 1941 onwards, proving capable of
matching the older Soviet fighters in the early stages of that campaign, By the time of the Italian armistice in September 1943, however, the Regia Aeronautica's total inventory of serviceable C.200s stood at only 33.
Specification
Macchi C.200 Saetta (Breda-built Series 6) Type: single-seat fighter/fighter-
The 649-kW (870-hp) engine was fitted to the Macchi C.200 against the wishes of the designer Castoldi, and handicapped the aircraft in action with more powerful opponents such as the Hurricane and Kittyhawk. bomber Powerplant: one 649-kW (870-hp) Fiat A 74 RC 38 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 504 km/h (313 mph) at 4500 m (14,764 ft); climb to 4000 m (13,123 ft) in 4.55 minutes; service ceiling 8900 m (29,199 ft); range 570 km (354 miles) Weights: empty 1960 kg (4,321 lb);
maximum take-off 2395 kg (5,280 lb) Dimensions: span 10.58 m (34 ft 8,5 in); length 8.25 m (27 ft 0.8 in); height 3.05 m (10 ft 0.1 in); wing area 16,80 m2 (180,8sqft) Armament: two 12.7-mm(0,5-in) Breda-SAFAT machine-guns in nose, plus provision for two 150-kg(331-lb) bombs
The C.200 Saettas saw their first combat over Malta in 1940 and were subsequently deployed to North Africa, where they held their own against Hurricane Mk Is encumbered by tropical air filters. But their numbers were rapidly reduced by poor maintenance and British air attacks. 285
ITALY
Macchi C.202 Folgore One of the best Italian fighters of the mid-war years, Mano Castoldi's Macchi C.202 Folgore (thunderbolt) was developed from the radial-engmed C.200, but was powered by a DaimlerBenz DB 601 produced under licence as the Alfa Romeo R A 1000 RC 411. First flown by Carestiato on 10 August 1940, the C.202 Series 1 production version entered service with the 1° Stormo at Udine in the summer of 1941, this unit arriving in Libya in the following November. The Folgore was a lowwing monoplane with inwardretracting landing gear and an armament of two 12.7-mm (0.5-in) BredaSAFAT machine-guns m the nose; there was also provision for two 7.7mm (0,303-in) guns in the wings. Engine production was slow and severely delayed the build-up of the Folgore in service. The aircraft underwent very little change and development during its life span, and was produced in 11 series. It eventually served with 45 Squadriglie of the 1°, 2°, 3°, 4°, 51°, 52°, 53° and 54° Stormi in North Africa, Sicily, Italy, the Aegean and Russia. Production amounted to about 1,500, of which 392 were produced by the parent company and the remainder by Breda, In combat the Folgore proved to be well-matched with the Supermarine Spitfire Mk V in performance, but was badly undergunned and, although slightly superior to American fighters such as the Bell P-39 Airacobra, this armament deficiency prevented Folgore pilots from knocking down many Allied bombers. Ultimate wartime development of the C. 200/202 series of Italian fighters was the Daimler Benz-powered C.205; only 66 were in service by the time of Italy's withdrawal from the Axis. The C.205V Veltro (greyhound) would have been capable of meeting most Allied fighters on equal terms.
Macchi C.202 Serie III Folgore of 378 Squadriglia, 155° Gruppo, 51° Stormo. The C.202 was the most effective oftheltalian fighters but suffered from lack of armament.
Specification
Macchi C.202 Series IX Folgore Type: single-seat fighter Powerplant: one 802-kW (1,075-hp) Alfa Romeo RA 1000 RC 411 12cylinder inverted-Vee piston engine Performance: maximum speed 600 km/h (373 mph) at 5600 m (18,373 ft); climb to 5000 m (16,404 ft) in 4,6 minutes; service ceiling 11500 m (37,730 ft); range 610 km (379 miles) Weights: empty 2490 kg (5,490 lb); maximum take-off 2930 kg (6,460 lb) Dimensions:span 10,58 m (34 ft 8.5 in); length 8.85 m (29 ft 0.4 in); height 3.50 m (11 ft 5,8 in); wing area 16.80 m2 (180,8sqft) Armament: two 12.7-mm (0.5-in) Breda-SAFAT machine-guns in the nose, plus provision for two 7.7-mm (0.303-in) guns in the wings
The ultimate production Macchi figh ter was the C.205 Veltro, exemplified here by an aircraft ofla Squadriglia, I ° Gruppo.
This C.202 was captured in Italy and transported to Wright-Patterson Field at Dayton, Ohio, for evaluation.
C.202s saw action in North Africa, Italy and on the Eastern Front.
able structural redesign, and refined landing gear, and the type reverted to the inline engine. First flown in September 1942 with a Daimler-Benz DB 605A-1, the Re.2005 led to a production model, of which deliveries began in 1943, with a licence-built version of this engine, the Fiat RA. 1050 RC 58 Tifone. Only 48 had been delivered before finalisation of the armistice with the Allies, these aircraft fighting in the defence of Naples, Rome and Sicily, the survivors battling above the crumbling ruins of Berlin.
Re.2000 Hejjalofl.il Szazad, Önallo Vadâsz Ostâly (Independent Fighter Group) attached to the Hungarian army fighting in the USSR in 1942.
ITALY
Reggiane Re.2000 series Officine Meccaniche Reggiane SA began development of a single-seat fighter which was based very closely on the US Seversky Aircraft Corporation's P-35 designed by Alexander Kartveli. Competitive evaluation against the Macchi MC. 200 resulted in this latter aircraft being ordered into production for the Regia Aeronautica, although the Reggiane Re.2000 had shown itself to be superior in manoeuvrability, even when flown against the Messerschmitt Bf 109E, The type was ordered by the Hungarian government, which also acquired a manufacturing licence. Re. 2000s were supplied also to Sweden, being operated until 1945 by the Flygvapen under the designation J 20. And though rejected by the Regia Aeronautica, the Italian navy acquired 12 Re.2000 Serie II fighters especially strengthened for catapult launching, followed by 24 Re.2000 Serie III aircraft with increased fuel capacity for deployment as long-range fighters. Installation of the Daimler-Benz DB 601A-1 engine led to the Re.2001 Falco II, first used operationally by the Regia Aeronautica over Malta in 1942. Luftwaffe priorities for DB 601 engines meant that the Re.2001 had to be powered by a licence-built version of this engine, the Alfa Romeo RA.1000 RC 286
41-la Monsonie, but with the Macchi MC.202 having first call on production of these engines the manufacture of Re. 200 Is was limited to only 252. About 50 Re.2002 Ariete (ram) fighter-bombers followed for service with the Reqia Aeronautica, these being powered by the 876-kW (1,175hp) Piaggio P. XIX RC 45 radial engine mounted in a slightly lengthened and strengthened fuselage. The type first saw operational service in 1942, suffering heavy losses while contesting the Allied landings on Sicily. Last of this related family of fighters, and one of the best produced in Italy during World War II, the Re.2005 Sagittario (archer) had the same general configuration as its predecessors. However, its design incorporated consider-
Specification Reggiane Re.2005 Sagittario Type: single-seat fighter/fighterbomber Powerplant: one 1100-kW(l,475-hp)
Fiat RA. 1050 RC 58 Tifone 12-cylmder inverted Vee piston engine Performance: maximum speed 630 km/h (391 mph) at 6950 m (22,802 ft); climb to 2000 m (6,562 ft) in 1.58 minutes; service ceiling 12190 m (39,993 ft); range 1265 km (786 miles) Weights: empty 2600 kg (5,732 lb); maximum take-off 3560 kg (7,848 lb) Dimensions: span 11.00 m (36 ft 1,1 in); length 8.73 m (28 ft 7.7 in); height z 3,15 m (10 ft 4 in); wing area 20.40 m (219.59 sq ft)
Reggiane Re.2001 ofthe362a Squadriglia, 22° Gruppo, 52°Stormo a t Capodichino in May l 943. The DB 601 engine was licence-built by Alfa Romeo. Armament: three 20-mm cannon and two 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns, all forward-firing, plus up to 630 kg ( 1,389 lb) of bombs when operated as a fighter-bomber GERMANY
Focke-Wulf Fw 190 Proposed in 1937, as the Bf 109 was joining the Luftwaffe, Kurt Tank's Focke-Wulf Fw 190 surprisingly featured a large air-cooled BMW radial engine. First flown on 1 June 1939, the prototype was followed by short- and long-span pre-production Fw 190A-0 aircraft with BMW 801 14-cylinder radials. The long-span version was selected for production. Fw 190A-1 fighters joined the Luftwaffe in mid1941 and proved superior to the Spitfire Mk V. A-senes variations included the Fw 190A-3 with BMW 801D-2 and two 7.92-mm (0.31-in) and four 20-mm guns, the Fw 190A-4 with water-methanol power-boosting (with fighter-bomber, bomber-destroyer and tropicalized sub-variants). The Fw 190A-5 featured a slightly lengthened nose and sub-variants included versions with six 30-mm guns (A-5/U12) and torpedo-fighters (A-5/U14 and U15). The Fw 190A-7 and Fw 190A-8 entered production in December 1943 and featured increased armament and armour. The Fw 190A-8/U1 was a twoseat conversion trainer. The next main production version, the Fw 190D, featured a lengthened nose and Junkers Jumo 213 liquid-cooled engine in an annular cowling. The Fw 190D-9 was the main service version, which joined the Luftwaffe in the autumn of 1944, and was generally regarded as Germany's best wartime piston-engine fighter; w i t h a t o p speed of 685 k m / h (426 mph), it was armed with two cannon and two machine-guns, and was powered by a w a t e r - m e t h a n o l boosted 1670-kW (2,240-hp) Jumo 213A engine. Other late versions included the Fw 190F and Fw 190G specialized g r o u n d - a t t a c k f i g h t e r bombers capable of carrying up to 1800 kg (3,968 lb) of bombs. A development of the Fw 190D was the long-span Focke-Wulf Ta 152 with increased armament and boosted Jumo 213E/B (top speed 760 km/h; 472 mph at 12500 m/41,010 ft); a small number of Ta 152H-1 fighters reached the Luftwaffe shortly before the end of the war.
The Focke-Wulf Fw 190 was outnumbered on the Eastern Front by the MesserschmittBfl09G. ThisFw 190A-5 flew with II/JG 54 'Grünherz' at Petseriin Estonia during 1944.
Above: Carrying 'Defence of the Reich'fuselage bands, this Fw 190A-9flew with 1/JG 6 at Delmenhorst in the winter of 1944-5.
(19,685 ft); initial climb rate 720 m (2,362 ft) per minute; service ceiling 11400 m (37,402 ft); normal range 805 km (500 miles) Weights: empty 3170 kg (6,989 lb);
Below: Fw 190D-9 ('Dora-9') of Stab/ JG 4, based a t Babenhausen in early 1945 for the defence oftheReich.
maximum take-off 4900 kg (10,803 lb) Dimensions: span 10.50 m (34 ft 5.4 in); length 8.84 m (29 ft 0 in); height 3.96 m (13 ft 0 in); wing area 18.30 m2 (196.99 sqft)
Armament: two 7.92-mm (0.31-in) guns in nose and up to four 20-mm guns in wings, plus provision for wide range of underfuselage and underwing bombs, guns and rockets
Specification Focke-Wulf 190A-8 Type: single-seat fighter Powerplant: one 1566-kW (2,100-hp) BMW 801D-2 radial piston engine with water-methanol boosting Performance: maximum speed 654 km/h (406 mph) at 6000 m TheFwl 90G-2 was a specialized ground attack version with wing racks for bombs or tanks, and an ETC 501 centreline rack for a 1800-kg (3,968-lb) bomb (in this case an SC 500 500-kg/l, 102-lb bomb is carried). Strengthened landing gear was necessary for the heaviest load. 287
GERMANY
Messerschmitt Bf 110 Germany's first essay in the twinengined two-seat 'heavy fighter' (or Zerstörer, destroyer) category was th Messerschmitt Bf 110, conceived in 1934 and first flown on 12 May 1936; pre-production Bf 110A-0 fighters followed in 1937-8 with Junkers Jumo 21 OB engines. Production started with the Bf HOB in 1938 with Jumo 210Gs and forward armament of two 20-mm and four 7.92-mm (0,31-in) guns plus one 7,92-mm (0.31-in) gun in the rear cockpit. Daimler-Benz DB 601Apowered Bf HOC aircraft joined the Luftwaffe in 1939 in time for the attack on Poland, and were employed as fighters and fighter-bombers throughout 1940; the Bf 110C-5 was a recon naissance version. The long-range Bf 110D entered service in 1940, and sub-variants were the first Bf 110s to be employed as nightfighters; there were also tropicalizec and fighter-bomber versions. The Bi 110E fighter-bomber was powered by DB GOlNs and the Bf 110F by DB 601 Es. Despite its high top speed, the Bf 110 was quickly shown to be no match for opposing single-engine fighters, and from 1941 development was confined mainly to ground-attack and nightfighter versions. The Bf 110F-4 introduced two 30-mm guns under the fuselage, and theBf 110F-4/U1 featured twin u p w a r d - f i r i n g 20-mm guns (schräge Musik installation). The Bf
110G with DB 605Bs was produced in Zerstörer, fighter-bomber, reconnaissance and night-fighter versions, and sub-variants introduced the 37mm gun under the fuselage. Radarequipped Bf HOGs formed the principal night-fighter equipment of the Luftwaffe between 1943 and 1945, as well as participating in the daylight air defence battles over Germany during this period.
BfllOs were a t their best opera ting athigh altitude away from the
restrictions of having to escort bombers.
This Bfl 1OE-1 was flown by an ' operational conversion unit (Ergänzungszerstörergruppe) from Deblin-Irena in Poland during 1942.
Flown by Luftwaffe crews, several Bf 11 OD-3s of 4./ZG 76 supported Iraqi insurgen t forces in May 1941. Tanks were carried for extra range. Specification Messerschmitt Bf 110C-4 Tyçe: two-seat heavy fighter Powerplant: two 820-kW (1,100-hp) Daimler-Benz DB 601A 12-cylinder inverted-Vee piston engines Performance: maximum speed 560 km/h (348 mph) at 7000 m (22,966 ft); initial climb rate 660 m (2,165 ft) per minute; service ceiling 10000 m (32,808 ft); normal range 775 km (482 miles)
Weights: empty 5200 kg (11,464 lb); maximum take-off 6750 kg (14,881 lb) Dimensions: span 16.27 m (53 ft 4.6 in); length 12.65 m (41 ft 6 in); height 3.50 m (11 ft 5.8 in); wing area 38.40 m2 (413.3 sqft) Armament: two 20-mm MG FF cannon and four 7.92-mm (0.31-in) MG 17guns in the nose, firing forward, and one 7.92-mm (0.31-m) MG 15 machine- gun on trainatole mounting in the rear cockpit firing aft
After the debacle over Britain, the Bf 110 was switched to other thea très
such as the Mediterranean, where its heavy armament proved useful.
gear, redesigned airframe structure and cleaner engine cowling, appeared during the last year of the war and proved even better than the NIKI; an instance occurred when a single Japanese pilot, Warrant Officer Kinsuke Muto, fought off 12 Hellcats, shooting down four. A total of 1,435 N l K Shiden landplane fighters was produced,
piston engine Performance: maximum speed 584 km/h (363 mph) at 5900 m (19,357 ft); climb to 6000 m (19,685 ft) in 7.8 minutes; service ceiling 12500 m (41,010 ft); range 1432 km (890 miles) Weights: empty 2897 kg (6,387 lb); maximum take-off 4321 kg (9,526 lb) Dimensions: span 12.00 m (39 ft 4.4 in); length 8.89 m (29 ft 2 in); height24.06 m (13 ft 3,8 in); wing area 23.50 m (252.95 sqft) Armament: two 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Type 97 machine-guns in nose and four wing-mounted 20-mm Type 99 cannon
JAPAN
Kawanishi NIKI Shiden In 1941 Kawanishi was still engaged in design of an attractive float-equipped fighter, the Kawanishi NIKI, intended as a naval fighter to support an islandhopping conquest in the Pacific without dependence on carriers or shore bases; in due course 98 of these fighters (Allied reporting name 'Rex') were produced, However, while their design was still in progress Kawanishi undertook a wheel-landing gear version, designated the N1K1-J Shiden (violet lightning). The prototype of the new fighter was flown on 27 December 1942 powered by the new 18-cylmder Nakajima Homare radial. Production got under way in 1943 of the N1K1-J with Homare 21 radial and an armament of two 7.7-mm (0.303-m) nose guns and four 20-mm wing cannon (two of which were carried in underwing fairings). Despite being plagued by constant engine troubles and an in-à herently weak landing gear, the Shiden was an excellent aircraft in 288
combat, proving an equal match for the Grumman F6F Hellcat; given the reporting name 'George' by the Allies, it was widely considered to be one of Japan's best wartime fighters. Three other main production versions were produced: the NIKI-Ja with nose guns deleted and all cannon mounted inside the wings; the NIKl-Jb with underwing racks for two 250-kg (551-lb) bombs; and the NIKl-Jc with racks for four 250-kg (551-lb) bombs, A new version, the N1K2-J, with improved landing
Specification Kawanishi N1K1-J Type: single-seat fighter Powerplant: one 1484-kW(l,990-hp) Nakajima NK9H Homare 21 radial
Kawanishi N1K2-J Shiden of the 343rd Kokutai. The type gave a good account of itself despite niggling early problems.
JAPAN
Kawasaki Ki-61 Hien Sometimes described as a cross between a Messerschmitt Bf 109 and a North American P-51 Mustang, the Kawasaki Ki-61 certainly had the distinctive nose shape associated with an inverted V-12 inline engine, the Kawasaki Ha-40 being in effect a DaimlerBenz DB 601A built under licence. The Ki-61's designers, Takeo Doi and Shin Owada, had moreover worked under the German Richard Vogt, In December 1940 they were instructed to go ahead with the Ki-61, and one year later the prototype was flown. The first production Ki-61-I fighters were deployed operationally in April 1943 when the 68th and 78th Sentais arrived in New Guinea. Named Hien (swallow) in service-(and codenamed 'Tony' by the Allies), the new aircraft proved popular with its pilots, being unusually well-armed and armoured, and the type was at least a match for opposing American fighters. Its armament (of four 12.7-mm/0.5-in machine-guns) proved inadequate to knock down enemy bombers, however, and the Ki61-1 KAIc was introduced with a pair of 20-mm cannon in the nose, these being replaced in a small number of Ki-61-I KAId fighters by two 30-mm cannon. The Ki-61-I and Ki-61-I KAI remained in production until 1945, but in 1944 they were joined in service by the Ki61-II with more powerful Kawasaki Ha140 engine (producing 1119-kW/1,500hp); with a top speed of 610 km/h (379 mph) this would have been an excellent fighter but for constant engine problems; yet when fully serviceable the Ki-61-II was one of the few Japanese fighters fully able to combat the Boeing B-29 at its normal operating altitude, particularly when armed with four 20-mm cannon. Excluding prototypes and development aircraft, production totalled 1,380 Ki-61-Is, 1,274 Ki61-I KAIs and 374 Ki-61-Ils.
This Ki-61-I KAIc served with the 3rd Chutai, 19th Sen tai flying from Okinawa during the American attack on that island.
Specification Kawasaki Ki-61-I KAIc Type: single-seat fighter Powerplant: one 880-k W ( 1,180-hp) Kawasaki Ha-40 V-12 piston engine Performance: maximum speed 590 km/h (367 mph) at 4260 m
(13,976 ft); climb to 5000 m (16,404 ft) in 7.0 minutes; service ceiling 10000 m (32,808 ft); range 1800 km ( 1,118 miles) Weights: empty 2630 kg (5,798 lb); normal loaded 3470 kg (7,650 lb) Dimensions: span 12.00 m (39 ft 4.4 in); length 8,94 m (29 ft 4 in); height 3.70 m
Ki-61-I KAIc of the HQ Chutai, 244th Sentai, Chofu, Tokyo, Hying interception sorties against the B-29. (12 ft 1.7 in); wing area 20.00 m2 (215.3 sq ft) Armament: two 20-mm Ho-5 cannon in nose and two 12.7-mm(0.5-in)Type 1 machine-guns in wings
The Ki-61 was one of few Japanese fighters that could really take on the B-29s a t their opera ting altitude. JAPAN
Kawasaki Ki-100 The Kawasaki Ki-61-II with the company's Ha-140 engine was seen as an interim high-altitude interceptor to tackle the USAF's Boeing B-29s at their cruising altitude of some 9 1 4 4 m (30,000ft). However, development of the Ha-140 as a reliable powerplan^ was terminated finally when the Akashi factory where the engine was built was destroyed during an air raid. With the requirement becoming daily more urgent, Kawasaki was instructed to convert the 275 Ki-61-II airframes gathering dust in the Kagamigahara factory with alternative powerplant. No other similar engine was available and adaptation of the slender fuselage of the Ki-61 to allow installation of a large-diameter radial engine at first appeared impractical. However, Kawasaki's design team converted three airframes to serve as prototypes, installing a Mitsubishi Ha-112-11 engine which had the same power output as the unreliable Ha-140. When the first of these was flown, on 1 February 1945, Kawasaki discovered that it had a firstclass fighter, one that some commentators have described as Japan's premier fighter aircraft of the Pacific war. By the end of May 1945 all of the re-
maining 272 Ki-61 airframes had been converted to the new configuration, entering service as the Army Type 5 Fighter Model 1A, which was identified by the company as the Kawasaki Ki-100-Ia. With the Ki-100 proving such a success, it was decided to initiate production of this aircraft, the resulting Ki-100lb differing only by having the cutdown rear fuselage and all-round-view canopy that had been designed for the proposed Ki-61-III. A total of 99 of this version was built before production was brought to an end by the growing weight of USAAF air attacks, A more effective version had been planned, to be powered by the Mitsubishi Ha-112-
The Ki-100-Ib in troduced a cut-down rear fuselage over the original Ki-61 shape, which improved pilot vision. This aircraft is from the 3rd Chutai, 59th Sentai. Ilru engine which incorporated a turbocharger to improve high-altitude performance, but only three of these Ki-100-11 prototypes had been built and flown by the end of the war.
Specification Kawasaki Ki-100-Ia/b Type: single-seat interceptor fighter Powerplant: one 1119-kW(l,500-hp) Mitsubishi Ha-112-1114-cylinder radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 590 km/h (367 mph) at 10000 m (32,810 ft); climb to 10000 m (32,810 ft)
in 20 minutes; cruising speed 350 km/h (217 mph); service ceiling 10670 m (35,007 ft); range 2000 km ( 1,243 miles) Weights: 2700 kg (5,952 lb); maximum take-off 3670 kg (8,09 lib) Dimensions: span 12,00 m (39 ft 4.4 in); length 8.80 m (28 ft 10.5 in); height ? 3,75 m ( 12 ft 3.6 in); wing area 20.00 m ' (215.3 sq ft) Armament: two fuselage-mounted 12.7-mm(0.5-in)Ho-103(Type 1) machine-guns and two wing-mounted 20-mm Ho-5 cannon, plus two droptanks or two 250-kg (551 -lb) bombs 289
JAPAN
Mitsubishi J2M Raiden Although designed to a 1939 requirement, at a time when Japanese war leaders scarcely imagined a situation requiring a home defence fighter, the Mitsubishi J2M Raiden (thunderbolt) only came into its own while defending the Japanese homeland against American raids in the last year of the war. The Japanese navy's emphasis upon speed and climb rate, rather than its customary demands for range and manoeuvrability, prompted the designer Jiro Hinkoshi to adopt a squat single-engine design with long-chord radial engine cowling, laminar-flow wings and high-raked, curved windscreen. First flight of the prototype J2M1 took place on 20 March 1942, but the aircraft soon attracted criticism from navy pilots on numerous counts, not least that the view from the cockpit was inadequate. Modifications to rectify these shortcomings were delayed owing to Mitsubishi's preoccupation with the A6M. Production J2M2 fighters left the factory slowly and entered service with the 381st Kokutai late in 1943,
and were followed by the J2M3 with a stronger wing stressed to mount four 20-mm cannon. The heavier armament now restricted the performance of the Raiden to the extent that it no longer met the original demands, and the J2M4 was an attempt to restore the performance by including a turbocharger. The final production variant, the J2M5 (34 built), was powered by a 1357-kW (1,820-hp) Mitsubishi Kasei 26a radial. In all, 476 J2Ms were built. In acknowledgement of the fact that J2Ms could not combat the Boeing B-29s at their operating altitudes, some J2M3s were armed with two upward-firing 20-mm
Conceived as a fast-climbing interceptor, the J2M suffer ed from reliability problems but scored well against the American bombers. cannon in addition to their wing guns. (The Allies selected the reporting name 'Jack' for the J2M).
Specification
Mitsubishi J2M3 Type: single-seat fighter Powerplant: one 1342-kW(l,800-hp) Mitsubishi Kasei 23a radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 588 km/h (365 mph) at 5300 m (17,388 ft); climb to 10000 m (32,808 ft)
in 19.5 minutes; service ceiling 11700 m (38,386 ft); range 925 km (575 miles) Weights: empty 2460 kg (5,423 lb); normal loaded 3435 kg (7,573 lb) Dimensions: span 10.80 m (35 ft 5.2 in); length 9.95 m (32 ft 7.7 in); height 3.95 m (12 ft 11.5 in); wing area 20.05 m2 (215.82 sq ft) Armament: four wing-mounted 20-mm Type 99 cannon; some aircraft were also armed with two upward-firing 20mm Type 99 cannon.
JAPAN
Nakajima Ki-27 When in mid-1935 Kawasaki, Mitsubishi and Nakajima were instructed by the Imperial Japanese Army to build competitive prototypes of advanced fighter aircraft, Nakajima responded with a single-seat monoplane fighter derived from the company's Type P. E., which it had started to develop as a private venture. Service trials proved, the Kawasaki Ki-28 to be fastest of the three contenders, but the Nakajima Ki27 was by far the most manoeuvrable and, on that basis, 10 pre-production examples were ordered for further service evaluation. Following further testing in late 1937 the type was ordered into production as the Army Type 97 Fighter Model A (Nakajima Ki-27a). Late production aircraft which introduced some refinements, including a further improved cockpit canopy, had the designation Ki-27b. Nakajima could not have guessed that 3,399 aircraft would be built, by Nakajima (2,020) and Mansyu (1,379), before production came to a halt at the end of 1942, but the type's entry into service over northern China in March 1938 gave an immediate appreciation of its capability, the Ki-27s becoming masters of the airspace until confronted later by the faster Soviet Polikarpov 1-16 fighters. At the beginning of the Pacific war the Ki-27s took part in the invasion of Burma, Malaya, the Netherlands East Indies and the Philippines. Allocated the Allied codename 'Nate' (initially 'Abdul' in the China-Burma-India theatre), the Ki-27 had
considerable success against the Allies in the initial stages before more modern fighters became available, When this occurred they were transferred for air defence of the home islands, remaining deployed in this capacity until 1943 when they became used increasingly as advanced trainers. As with many Japanese aircraft, their final use was in a kamikaze role,
Specification
Nakajima Ki-27a Type: single-seat fighter Powerplant: one 529-kW (710-hp) Nakajima Ha-lb 9-cylinder radial piston engine
Performance: maximum speed 470 km/h (292 mph) at 3500 m (11,483 ft); climb to 5000 m (16,404 ft) in 5.36 minutes; service ceiling 12250 m (40,190 ft); range 1710 km (1,063 miles) Weights: empty 1110 kg (2,447 lb); maximum take-off 1790 kg (3,946 lb) Dimensions: span 11.31 m (37 ft 1.3 in); length 7.53 m (24 ft 8,5 in); height 2 3.25 m (10 ft 8 m); wing area 18,55 m ( 199.68 sq ft)
Seen in pre-war colours, this group ofKi-27s is typical of the aircraft which had performed so well against the Polikarpov figh ters over China and Manchuria. The Ki-27 proved useful for training after replacem en t by m ore m oder n types. Armament: two forward-firing 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Type 89 machine-guns
JAPAN
Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusa With its relatively low-powered radial engine, two-blade propeller and twin rifle-calibre machine-gun armament, the Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusa (peregrine falcon) was the most dangerously underestimated Japanese fighter of the early months of the Pacific war; yet, with its outstanding manoeuvrability, it gained complete mastery over Brewster Buffaloes and Hawker Hurricanes in Burma. It was the result of a 1937 design which emerged as a light290
Ki-43-IIb of the 3rd Ch u tai, 25th Hiko Sen tai, flying from Hankow, China, in January 1944. Even at this late date, the Ki-43 still formed the bulk of fighter assets on the China-Burma front.
Nakajima Ki-43-Ic of the 1st Chu tai, 50th Sentai, at Tokorozawa in June 1942. By this time, theKi-43-Ic's shortcomings were being cruelly exposed, leading to the more powerful Ki-43-II.
ThisHayabusa is a Ki-43-IIb of the Headquarters Chutai, 77th S entai, in Burma.
weight fighter-bomber that required no more than its 709-kW (950-hp) to meet its speed demands. In common with other Japanese fighters of the time, however, its armament was puny by RAF standards, and it possessed neither armour nor self-sealing fuel tanks. As the Allied air forces pulled themselves together after the first shock of defeat, the Ki-43-I's weaknesses were discovered and increasing losses suffered, resulting in the introduction of the Ki-43-II (codenamed 'Oscar' by the Allies), with pilot armour, rudimentary self-sealing fuel tanks and reflector gunsight; the engine was also changed to the 858-kW (1,150-hp) Nakajima Ha-115 radial which increased the top speed to 530 km/h (329 mph), roughly the same as that of the Hurricane Mk II. The Ki-43-IIb entered mass production in November 1942, first with Nakajima and six months later with Tachikawa. Final variant was the Ki-43-III with 917-
Right:AKi-43-Ib of the 47th Independent Fighter Chutai at rest on a Japanese airfield. After service in all theatres throughout the war, the Ki-43 soldiered on against the Allies, but many were expended in kamikaze attacks. kW (1,230-hp) engine and a top speed of 576 km/h (358 mph), but relatively few examples reached operational units. The Ki-43 was numerically the most important of all Japanese army air force aircraft, production totalling 5,886, plus 33 prototypes and trials aircraft.
Specification
Nakajima Ki-43-IIb Type: single-seat fighter-bomber Powerplant: one 858-kW (1,150-hp) Nakajima Ha-115 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 530 km/h (329 mph) at 4000 m (13,123 ft); climb to 5000 m (16,404 ft) in
5.8 minutes; service ceiling 11200 m (36,745 ft); range 1760 km (1,094 miles) Weights: empty 1910 kg (4,211 lb) ; maximum take-off 2925 kg (6,449 lb) Dimensions: span 10.84 m (35 ft 6.8 in); length 8.92 m (29 ft 3.2 in); height
3.27m(10ft8.7in);wmgarea21.40m 2 (230.36 sq ft) Armament: two 12.7-mm (0.5-in) Ho103 machine-guns in wings, plus two 250-kg (551-lb) bombs carried under the wings
Nakajima Ki-44 Shoki Of similar general configuration to the Ki-43, the Nakajima Ki-44 prototypes incorporated the manoeuvring flaps that had been introduced on that aircraft, and carried an armament of two 7.7-mm (0.303-in) and two 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns. First flown in August 1940, the Ki-44 was involved in a series of comparative trials against Kawasaki's Ki-60 prototype, based on use of the Daimler-Benz DB 601 engine, and an imported Messerschmitt Bf 109E. The result of this evaluation, and extensive service trials, showed the Ki-44 to be good enough to enter production, and it was ordered under the designation Army Type 2 Singleseat Fighter Model 1A Shoki (demon), company designation Ki-44-Ia, which carried the same armament as the prototypes. A total of only 40 Ki-44-I aircraft was produced, including small numbers of the Ki-44-Ib armed with four 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns, and the similar KI-44-Ic with some minor refinements. When introduced into service the high landing speeds and limited manoeuvrability of the Shoki made it unpopular with pilots, and very soon the Ki-44-II with a more powerful Nakajima Ha-109 engine was put into production. Only small numbers of the Ki44-IIa were built, the variant being fol-
lowed by the major production Ki-44Ilb. The Ki-44-IIc introduced much heavier armament, comprising four 20mm cannon or, alternatively, two 12.7mm (0.5-in) machine-guns and two 40mm cannon, and these proved to be very effective when deployed against Allied heavy bombers attacking Japan. Final production version was the Ki-44III with a 1491-kW (2,000-hp) Nakajima Ha-145 radial engine, an increase in wing area and enlarged vertical tail surfaces.
This Ki-44-IIb was employed by the 23rd Sentai for home island defence in late 1944. Most home defence aircraft carried a white square around the Hinomaru.
This photograph ofaKi-44-IIb emphasizes the powerful lines of this interceptor. When armed with cannon, the Ki-44 proved very effective against the B-29 raids, as its high ra te of climb enabled it to reach the bomber streams quickly.
291
Nakajima had built a total of 1,225 Ki-44s of all versions, including prototypes, and these were allocated the Allied codename Tojo'. They were deployed primarily in Japan, but were used also to provide an effective force of interceptors to protect vital targets, as in Sumatra where they defended the oil fields at Palembang,
Specification
Nakajima Ki-44-IIb Type: single-seat interceptor fighter Powerplant: one 1133-kW (1,520-hp) Nakajima Ha-109 14-cylmder radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed
605 km/h (376 mph) at 5200 m (17,060 ft); climb to 5000 m (16,404 ft) in 4.28 minutes; service ceiling 11200 m (36,745 ft); maximum range 1700 km (1,056 miles) Weights: empty 2105 kg(4,641 lb); maximum take-off 2993 kg (6,598 lb)
Dimensions: span 9.45 m (31 ft 0 in); length 8,79 m (28 ft 10.1 in); height 2 3.25 m (10 ft 8 in); wing area 15.00 m (161.46 sq ft) Armament: two fuselage-mounted and two wing-mounted 12.7-mm(0.5-in) Ho-103 machine-guns
Lacking the agility of other Japanese fighters, theKi-44 followed a more Western approach, proving fast and stable with good climb and dive properties. This Ki-44-IIb flew from Canton in China with the 85th Sentai during 1944.
JAPAN
Nakajima Ki-84 Hayate Best of all Japanese fighters available in quantity during the last year of the war, the Nakajima Ki-84 Hayate (gale) not only possessed a reasonable perf o r m a n c e but ( u n u s u a l among Japanese aircraft) carried a powerful armament capable of knocking down the heavily armed and armoured American bombers, Not flown in prototype form until April 1943, the Ki-84 met with immediate approval by Japanese army air force pilots, but was subjected to lengthy service trials which undoubtedly delayed its introduction to combat operations. Production got under way at Nakajima's Ota plant in April 1944, pre-production aircraft having equipped the 22nd Sentai in China the previous month. Immediately afterwards 10 sentais of the Ki-84-I, codenamed 'Frank' by the Allies, were deployed in the Philippines to confront the advancing American forces. In an effort to accelerate production of the excellent new fighter, Nakajima opened up a new line at its Otsonomiya plant, and as Boeing B-29 raids began to take their toll of Japanese cities a new 'bomber destroyer', the Ki-84-Ic, was produced with an armament of two nosemounted 20-mm cannon and two wingmounted 30-mm cannon. Some measure of the importance attached to the Ki-84 may be judged by the fact that in the last 17 months of war 3,382 aircraft were completed, this despite the tremendous havoc wrought by the B29 raids and the fact that, owing to such damage at Musashi, Nakajima's engine plant had to be transferred elsewhere. Specification Nakajima Ki-84-Ia Type: single-seat fighter and fighterbomber Powerplant: one 1342-kW(l,800-hp) Nakajima Ha-45 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 631 km/h (392 mph) at 6120 m (20,079 ft); climb to 5000 m (16,404 ft) in 5.9 minutes; service ceiling 10500 m (34,449 ft); range 1695 km (1,053 miles) Weights: empty 2660 kg (5,864 lb); maximum take-off 3890 kg (8,576 lb) Dimensions: span 11.24 m (36 ft 10.5 in); length9.92 m (32 ft 6.6 in); The Ki-84 was a fine figh ter which proved a hand fui for American pilots. Fortunately for them, the aircraft was not available in large numbers and these were overworked, resulting in maintenance and reliability problems. 292
Above: One of the early Hay a tes, this iti-84-Ia saw service with the 1st Chutai, 73rdHiko-Sentai over the Philippines in late 1944.
Below: Ki-84-Ia of the Headquarters Chutai, 29th Hiko Sentai, operating over Taiwan in the summer of 1945.
height 3.39 m (11 ft 1.5 in); wing area 21,00m 2 (226,05 sq ft) Armament: two nose-mounted 12,7-
mm (0,5-in) Ho-103 machine-guns and two wing-mounted 20-mm Ho-5 cannon, plus two 250-kg (551 -lb) bombs under the wings
Above: This Ki-84-I a served with the 183rd Shimbutai (Special Attack Group) from Tatebayashi,Japan, during the last few days of the war.
Heavy Bombers American general Billy Mitchell had predicted that large forces of heavy bombers could alone win a war. His ideas were slow in being transformed into aircraft, but eventually mighty new warplanes took to the skies. Great dramas unfolded as the enemies set out to destroy each other's homelands. "Y^y Then Hitler embarked on his W subjugation of Europe, the Luftwaffe's role was largely confined to providing air support for the German army, with little emphasis laid upon the use of strategic bombers, any plans for such a force having been abandoned in 1937. Thus at the outbreak of war in September 1939 the Luftwaffe's bombing arm comprised excellent medium bombers (the Dornier Do 17, Heinkel He 111 and Junkers Ju 88) which were regarded as adequate for the task of defeating Europe (which was expected to take no more than three years). With little to fear from opposing fighters, these aircraft also proved perfectly capable of carrying out daylight raids well beyond the advancing German armies. The RAF, on the other hand, was steeped in the bomber tradition, recognizing the potential war-winning role of the bomber, and went to war with a trio of medium/heavy bombers (the Vickers Wellington, Armstrong Whitworth Whitley and Handley Page Hampden) in which a much greater emphasis had been laid on long range. However, the manner in which the fortunes of war changed for Germany (starting with her inability to crush the British during the
Thereafter the strength of the British heavy bomber force increased steadily throughout the war. In 1942 Bomber Command was joined by the United States' mighty 8th Air Force, whose Boeing B-17s and Consolidated B-24s were to hit Germany by day in ever-growing strength in partnership with the RAF. Thus by the time the Allies were ready to set foot in continental Europe in mid-1944 their day and night bomber fleets were capable of delivering devastating blows far beyond the ground battle, inflicting appalling damage on the enemy's Britain's RAF Bomber Command was equipped with an array of ability to sustain his war machine. aircraft types during World War II - among them a trio of fourBy contrast Germany, beset on all engine heavy bombers, one of which was this Short Stirling Mk sides in the air and on the ground, had largely forsaken its bomber III, seen here being readied for a mission. force, preferring to accord priority to the production of fighters with summer of 1940) brought about a of growing demands for fighters and ground support aircraft, the which to defend the Reich. progressive reassessment of the Luftwaffe's capacity to carry the Luftwaffe's bomber force henceThe fateful decision by forth declined both in strength Germany to abandon plans for a air war beyond the English and relative quality. strategic bomber force long Channel, tigether with the night Meanwhile RAF Bomber before the war, while fatally comBlitz of 1940-1, represented an promising the Luftwaffe's ability unpremeditated use of its relative- Command was, in 1941, reaping to strike at long range, was in all ly small bombers for strategic pur- the harvest from the strategic seeds sown in 1936 with the probability of little consequence poses and, in view of Britain's arrival on operations of the Short in the end. Such a force, operating wholly inadequate night radially from within continental Stirling and Handley Page Halifax defences, these achieved far more Europe, could never have by night than had proved possible four-engine heavy bombers, later joined by the magnificent Avrò matched the potential strength of by day. But the proliferation of the Allies' massive resources, disLancaster, all of which had been battlefronts in 1941 forced a disconceived as dedicated long-range persed as they were to strike diapersal of German bombers away metrically across Festung Europa. strategic night heavy bombers. from the Channel and, as a result 293
UK
Armstrong Whitworth Whitley A Whitley MkV of No. 78Sqn,RAFin early 1942, shortly before the squadron re-equipped with Halifaxes. The Whitley saw good service during the early years but was relega ted to limited nigh t operations by mid-war. It then passed on to coastal and glidertowing duties. It is unlikely that any other operational aeroplane of World War II came near to matching the austere, angular appearance of the Armstrong Whitworth Whitley, or to emulating its curious nose-down gait when flying 'straight and level'. Developed from the Armstrong Whitworth A.W.23 bomber/transport, the Whitley was designed to Specification B.3/34 and was first flown on 17 March 1936. That year it was selected to become the new Bomber Command's standard heavy bomber, replacing the Handley Page Heyford biplane. A total of 80 aircraft had been ordered, and these materialized as 34 Whitley Mk I bombers with two 682-kW (920-hp) Armstrong Siddeley Tiger IX radiais, and 46 Whitley Mk II bombers with Tiger VIIIs, Early Whitley Mk Is possessed no dihedral on their outer wings. First squadron to receive Whitley Mk Is was No. 10 at Dishforth in March 1937, The Whitley Mk I was already disappearing from front line service when war broke out (although the last examples did not leave No. 166 Squadron until April 1940). In the meantime the Whitley Mk III (also with Tiger VIIIs) had appeared; this version, of which 60 were produced, featured a retractable 'dustbin' ventral gun position. It served on Nos 7, 51, 58, 77, 97, 102 and 166 Squadrons, entering RAF service in August 1938. Also introduced that year was the Whitley Mk IV with 768-kW (1,030-hp) Rolls-Royce Merlin IV V-12 engines and the Whitley Mk IVA with 854-kW (1,145-hp) Merlin Xs; only 40 were produced, but they served to introduce a new power-operated fourgun Nash and Thompson tail turret (the 'dustbin' being abandoned).
The main production version was the Whitley Mk V, whose delivery started to Nos 77 and 78 Squadrons in September 1939, and of which 1,476 were built before June 1943, when production was halted. Also powered by Merlin Xs, the Whitley Mk V featured a 38-cm (15-in) longer fuselage and straight leading edges to the fins, Although it was the Tiger-powered Mk III that performed almost all the early leaflet-dropping sorties of the first six months of the war (including the first sortie over Germany on the night of 3-4 September 1939 by 10 Whitleys of Nos 51 and 58 Squadrons), it was the Whitley Mk V that assumed the bombing role from March 1940 onwards; and on 11-12 May, immediately after the German attack in the West, Whitleys and Handley Page Hampdens dropped the first RAF bombs on the German mainland in an attack on railway targets near München Gladbach. The following month Whitleys were the first RAF bombers to attack targets in Italy, flying from the UK and refuell-
ing in the Channel Islands to attack Turin and Genoa. Though never to achieve fame for outstanding exploits, the immensely rugged Whitley gave yeoman service with Bomber Command despite being obviously slow and vulnerable in the face of fast improving enemy night defences. They were for instance among the aircraft that first raided Berlin on the night of 25-26 August 1940, and it was as the pilot of a Whitley during a raid on Cologne on 12-13 November that year that Leonard Cheshire (later Group Captain, VC) was awarded the DSO. Wing Commander P. C. Pickard (later to achieve fame as the Mosquito leader in the raid on Amiens gaol) led Whitleys of No. 51 Squadron in the airborne raid on the radar installation at Bruneval on 27-28 February 1942. Whitleys flew their last raid with Bomber Command during an attack on Ostend on the night of 29-30 April 1942.
Specification
Armstrong Whitworth Whitley Mk V Type: five-man bomber
Powerplant: two 854-kW (1,145-hp) Rolls-Royce Merlin X V-12 piston engines P e r f o r m a n c e : m a x i m u m speed 370 km/h (230 m p h ) at 5 0 0 0 m (16,400 ft); climb to 4570 m (15,000 ft) m 16 minutes; service ceiling 7925m (26,000 ft); range 2415 km (1,500 miles) with normal tankage Weights: empty 8777kg (19,350 lb); maximum take-off 15196 kg (33,500 lb) Dimensions: span 25.60m (84ft Oin); length 21.11 m (69 ft 3 in); height 4.57 m ( 1 5 f t O i n ) ; wing area 105.63m 2 (1,137.00 sq ft) Armament: one 7.7-mm (0.303-m) machine-gun in the nose turret and four 7.7-mm (0,303-in) machine-guns in the tail turret, plus a maximum bombload of 3175 kg (7,000 lb) Ground crew prepare a Whitley M k V for operations in 1940. The aircraft Hew from Dishforth and sports typical camouflage for the period. The Whitley MkV was themainstay of Bomber Command along with the Wellington until the arrival of the Halifax and Lancaster.
UK
Avrò 683 Lancaster
No one would dispute the statement that the Avrò Lancaster was the finest British heavy bomber of World War II; indeed many would even argue that it was the finest heavy bomber serving on either side during the conflict, and it is therefore strange to recall that it had its genesis in the unsuccessful twinengine Avrò Manchester. However, it is not entirely true to say that the Lancaster was virtually a fourengine Manchester, as four-engine installations in the basic airframe had been proposed before Manchester deliveries to the RAF began. But the prototype Lancaster was, in fact, a con294
verted Manchester airframe with an enlarged wing outer panels and four 1,145-hp (854-kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin Xs. This prototype initially retained the Manchester's triple tail assembly, but was later modified to the twin fin and rudder assembly which became standard on production Lancasters, The prototype flew on 9 January 1941 and later that month went to the A e r o p l a n e and A r m a m e n t Experimental Establishment, Boscombe Down, to begin intensive flying trials. The new bomber was an immediate success, and large production orders were placed. Such was the speed of
By cutting away the underfuselage and removing nose and dorsal turrets tosave weight, the Lancaster B.Mk Is (Special) of No. 617Sqn at Waddington were able to carry the 22,000'lb(9979-kg) 'Grand Slam', first used to great effect on the Bielefeld Viaduct.
development in wartime that the first production Lancaster was flown in October 1941, a number of partially completed Manchester airframes being converted on the line to emerge as Lancaster Mk I (from 1942 redesignated Lancaster B.Mk I) aircraft. Lancasters soon began to replace Manchesters, and such was the impetus of production that a shortage of Merlin engines was threatened, This was countered by licence-production by Packard in the USA of the Merlin not only for Lancasters but for other types. An additional insurance was effected in another way, the use of
1,735-hp (1294-kW) Bristol Hercules VI or XVI radial engines. Meanwhile, the Merlin Lancasters were going from strength to strength. The prototype's engines gave way to 1,280-hp (954-kW) Merlin XXs and 22s, or 1,620-hp (1208-kW) Merlin 24s in production aircraft, Early thoughts of fitting a ventral turret were sadly discarded, and the Lancaster B.Mk I had three Frazer-Nash hydraulicallyoperated turrets with eight 7.7-mm (0.303-m) Browning machine-guns: two each in the nose and mid-upper dorsal positions and four in the tail turret, The bomb-bay, designed origmal-
Lancaster B.Mkl of No. 467 Sqn, Royal Australian Air Force, flying from Waddington. Now preserved at the RAF Museum, the aircraft Hew 137 sorties and bore the inscription 'No enemy aircraft will fly over the Reich territory': Coering'sinaccurate and ironic prophecy.
ly to carry 1814 kg (4,000 lb) of bombs, was enlarged progressively to carry bigger and bigger bombs: up to 3629 and 5443 kg (8,000 and 12,000 lb) and eventually to Barnes Wallis' enormous 9979-kg (22,000-lb) 'Grand Slam', the heaviest bomb carried by any aircraft in World War II. The Lancaster's existence was not revealed to the public until 17 August ofthat year, when 12 aircraft from Nos 44 and 97 Squadrons carried out an unescorted daylight raid on Augsburg. Flown at low level, the raid inflicted considerable damage on a factory producing U-boat diesel engines, but the cost was high, seven aircraft being lost, Squadron Leaders Nettleton and Sherwood each received the Victoria Cross, the latter posthumously, for leading the operation, which perhaps confirmed to the Air Staff that unescorted daylight raids by heavy bombers were not a practicable proposition. It would be true to say that development of the Lancaster went hand-inhard with development of bombs, The early Lancasters carried their bomb loads in normal flush-fitting bomb bays, but as bombs got larger it became necessary, in order to be able to close the bomb doors, to make the bays deeper so that they protruded slightly below the fuselage line. Eventually, with other developments, the bomb doors were omitted altogether for certain specialist types of bomb. The German battleship Tirpitz was attacked on several occasions by Lancasters until, on 12 November 1944, a combined force from Nos 9 and 617 Squadrons found the battleship in Tromso Fjord, Norway, and sank her1 with 5443-kg (12,000-lb) Tallboy bombs, also designed by Barnes Wallis. The ultimate in conventional high explosive bombs was reached with the 9979-kg (22,000-lb) 'Grand Slam', a weapon designed to destroy concrete by exploding some way beneath the surface, so creating an earthquake effect. No. 617 Squadron first used the 'Grand Slam' operationally against the Bielefeld Viaduct on 14 March 1945, causing considerable destruction amongst its spans. In spite of the other variants built from time to time, the Lancaster B.Mk I (Lancaster B.Mk 1 from 1945) remained in production throughout the war, and the last was delivered by Armstrong Whitworth on 2 February 1946. Production had encompassed two Mk I prototypes, 3,425 Mk Is, 301 Mk Us, 3,039 Mk Ills, 180 Mk VIIs and
Right: A summer evening in 1943: briefing is over, pre-flight checks completed, the aircraft bombed-up; soon the calm of the dispersal area will be shattered by the sound of Merlins. The nightly raids were inevitably met by fierce AA and nigh t fighters, and the nearest aircraft's seven missions are no small feat. 430 Mk Xs, a total of 7,377. These were built by Avrò (3,673), Armstrong Whitworth (1,329), Austin Motors (330), Metropolitan Vickers (1,080), VickersArmstrongs (535) and Victory Aircraft (430). Some conversions between different mark numbers took place. Statistics show that at least 59 Bomber Command squadrons operated Lancasters, which flew more than 156,000 sorties and dropped, in addition to 608,612 tons (618,350 tonnes) of high explosive bombs, more than 51 million incendiaries,
Specification
Avrò Lancaster B.Mk I Type: seven-seat heavy bomber Powerplant: four 1223-kW (1,640-hp) Rolls-Royce Merlin XXIV V-12 piston engines P e r f o r m a n c e : m a x i m u m speed 462 k m / h (287 m p h ) a t 3 5 0 5 m (11,500ft); cruising speed 338 km/h
(210 mph) at 6096 m (20,000 ft); service ceiling 7470m ( 2 4 , 5 0 0 f t ) ; range 4070km (2,530 miles) with 7,000-lb (3175-kg) bombload Weights: empty 16738kg (36,900 lb); maximum take-off 31751 kg (70,000 lb) Dimensions: span 31.09 m (102 ft 0 in); length 21.18 m (69 ft 6 in); height 6.10 m
( 2 0 f t O i n ) ; wing area 120.49 m ? ' (l,297.0sqft) Armament: 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machineguns (two each in nose and dorsal turrets, and four in tail turret), plus bomb load comprising one (9979-kg (22,000lb) bomb or up to 6350 kg ( 14,000-lb) of smaller bombs.
Lancaster Mkllls pour off the production lineatA.V. Roe's Woodford factory. A total of 7,377 aircraft were built by a variety of manufacturers, and the sheer volume of this effort combined with the considerable qualities of the aircraft played a considerable part in the destruction oftheReich. 295
UK
Handley Page Halifax Sporting the distinctive tail markings adopted by squadrons of Bomber Command'sNo. 4 Group, this Halifax Mklll of No. 466 Sqn, RAAF, was basedatLeconfieldin themid-war years. The aircraft features the large H£ radome under the rear fuselage. Second only in importance to the Avrò Lancaster in Bomber Command's great night offensive between 1941 and 1945, the four-engine Handley Page Halifax was originally designed around a pair of Vulture engines but, when first flown on 25 October 1939, the choice of four Merlins had been made. The first aircraft arrived in No. 35 Squadron in November 1940 and flew their first raid on 10-11 March 1941. Production was widely sub-
contracted and quickly accelerated, the Merlin X-powered Halifax Mk I with two-gun nose turret and no dorsal turret being followed by the Halifax Mk IIA Series 1 with Merlin XXs and a two-gun dorsal turret. In the Halifax Mk II Series 1A a large transparent fairing improved the whole nose shape, this version also introducing a Defiant-type four-gun dorsal turret. The Halifax Mk III was powered by Bristol Hercules XVI radiais, and later
examples introduced a wing span increased from 30.12m (98ft 10 in) to 31,75 m (104 ft 2 in), The Halifax Mk V with Dowty landing gear served with Coastal and Bomber Commands; the Halifax Mk VI with Hercules 100 engines and Halifax Mk VII with Hercules XVIs (both versions with increased fuel capacity) joined Bomber Command in 1944. Halifax Mks III, V and VII versions also served in paratrooping and glider towing roles with
the airborne forces (being the only aircraft to tow the big Hamilcar) and were joined by the Halifax Mk VIII just before the end of the war. Production totalled 6,176 Halifaxes, the bomber versions flying a total of 75,532 sorties and dropping 227,610 tons of bombs.
Specification
Handley Page Halifax Mk VI Type: seven-crew night heavy bomber Powerplant: four 1,800-hp (1343-kW) Bristol Hercules 100 radial piston engines P e r f o r m a n c e : m a x i m u m speed 502 km/h (312 m p h ) at 6 7 0 5 m (22,000 ft); climb to 6096 m (20,000 ft) in 50 minutes; service ceiling 7315m (24,000 ft); range with 5897-kg (13,000Ib) bombload 2028km (1,260 miles) Weights: empty 17690kg (39,000 lb); maximum take-off 30845 kg (68,000 lb) Dimensions: span 31.75 m (104 ft 2 in); length 21.82 m (71 ft 7 in); height 6.32 m ( 2 0 f t 9 in); wing area 118.45m 2 (l,275.0sqft) Armament: one 7.7-mm (0.303-m) machine-gun in nose and four 7,7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns in each of dorsal and tail turrets, plus a maximum bombload of 5897 kg (13,000 lb) Two Merlin-powered Halifax M k II Series 1 of No. 35 (Madras Presidency) Sqn, the first unit equipped with the type, are seen on air test during the winter of 1941. The dorsal turret created much drag and some later models had this removed.
UK
Short Stirling The Short Stirling was the first of RAF Bomber Command's trio of four-engine heavy bombers that mounted the great night offensive over Europe during the last four years of the war, and the only one conceived from the outset as a four-engine aircraft. Designed to a 1936 specification, the Stirling was initially flown as a half-scale prototype in 1938, this being followed by the fullsize prototype which was destroyed on its first flight in May 1939, Production deliveries were first made to No. 7 Squadron in August 1940 (at the height of the Battle of Britain) and the Stirling Mk I flew its first operation on 10-11 February 1941. The type first bombed Berlin two months later. The Stirling Mk I of which 756 were produced, was powered by Hercules XI radiais, but the Stirling Mk II with Wright Cyclones did not progress beyond the prototype stage, The Stirling Mk III was powered by Hercules XVIs and, with 875 built (plus many Mk Is converted) constiThe Stirling was hampered throughout its bombing career by an inability to reach the optim um operating altitude of 6100 m (20,000 ft), due to too short a wingspan, anda bomb bay which could not be adapted to carry the ever-larger bombs being produced. 296
StirlingMk I Series 1 bombers were delivered in January 1941 with no dorsal turret. These early deliveries were camouflaged in dark green and dark earth down the fuselage sides and were assigned to escorted daylight missions, in this instance withNo.JSqn. tuted the main bomber variant; it also introduced the two-gun dorsal turret. Stirlings were the first operational air-1 craft to carry the original form of Oboe navaid in 1941, and in August 1942 took part in the first Pathfinder operations. Two posthumous VCs were won by Stirling pilots (Flight Sergeant R. H. Middleton of No. 149 Squadron and Flight Sergeant A. L Aaron of No. 218 Squadron), both during raids on northern Italy. By 1944 the Stirling Mk III was
obsolescent, and flew its last raid in September that year. The Stirling Mk IV (of which 577 were built) was a transport/glider tug without nose and dorsal turrets, and was widely used on operations by the airborne forces during the last year of the war. The Stirling Mk V transport (160 built), without armament, joined the RAF in January 1945, Stirling bombers equipped 15 squadrons.
Specification Short Stirling Mk III Type: seven- or eight-crew night heavy bomber Powerplant: four 1,650-hp (1231-kW) Bristol Hercules XVI radial piston engines P e r f o r m a n c e : m a x i m u m speed 435 km/h (270 m p h ) at 4 4 2 0 m (14,500ft); service ceiling 5180m (17,000 ft); range with 6350-kg (14,000Ib) bombload 949 km (590 miles)
Weights: empty 19596kg (43,200 lb); maximum take-off 31790 kg (70,000 lb) Dimensions: span 30.20 m (99 ft 1 in); length 26.50 m (87 ft 3 in); height 6.93 m2 ( 2 2 f t 9 in); wing area 135,60m (1,460.0 sq ft) Armament: two 7.7-mm (0.303-m) machine-guns in each of nose and dorsal turrets, and four 7.7-mm (0.303-in) guns in tail turret, plus a maximum bombload of 6350 kg (14,000 lb)
gines P e r f o r m a n c e : m a x i m u m speed 4 1 1 k m / h (255 m p h ) a t 3 8 1 0 m (12,500ft); initial climb 283m (930ft) per minute; service ceiling 5790 m (19,000ft); range with 2041-kg (4,500Ib) bombload 2478km (1,540 miles) Weights: empty 8605kg (18,970 lb); maximum take-off 15422 kg (34,000 lb) Dimensions: span 26.26m (86ft 2 in); length 19.68m (64ft 7 in); height 5m (17 ft 5 in); wing area 78.04 m2 (840.0 sq ft) Armament: two 7.7-mm (0.303-m) machine-guns in nose turret, four 7.7-
mm (0.303-in) guns in tail turret, and two 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns in beam positions, plus a maximum bombload of 2041 kg (4,500 lb)
UK
Vickers Wellington lVo. 425 (Alouette) Sqn, RCAFflew Wellington Mk Ills from Dishforth, and this aircraft was lost in a raid on Stuttgart. Bomber Command's Wellingtons Hew their last mission in October 1943, but the type soldiered on in coastal and transport units until the war's end. Employing the efficient geodetic lattice structure, the twin-engine Vickers Wellington continued in service with Bomber Command until 1943, far longer than its contemporaries, the Handley Page Hampden and Armstrong Whitworth Whitley. Designed to meet a 1932 requirement, the Wellington first flew on 15 June 1936 and in its Wellington Mk I form with Pegasus radials joined the RAF (No. 9 Squadron) in October 1938. The Wellington Mk IA (with Nash and Thompson nose and tail gun turrets) and the Wellington Mk 1C (with lateral guns in place of the ventral turret) followed, together with the Merlin-powered Wellington Mk II and Hercules III- or XI-powered Wellington Mk III, and at the begming of the war six squadrons were flying the Wellington. Early daylight raids resulted in heavy losses owing to the Wellington's large defenceless arcs and in 1940 the aircraft joined the night bombing force. On 1 April 1941 a Wellington dropped the RAF's first 1814-kg (4,000-lb) bomb. Subsequent bomber versions included the Twin Wasppowered Wellington Mk IV, and Wellington Mk V and Mk VI high-altitude aircraft with pressure cabins and Hercules or Merlin engines respectively; these latter versions did not see combat service. The Wellington Mk X with Hercules XVIIIs was the final bomber version, and the last raid by Bomber Command Wellingtons took place on 8-9 October 1943. In the meantime Wellingtons had been flying on maritime duties, the Wellington DW. Mk I with large mine-exploding hoops having operated in 1940 and Wellington Mk 1C minelayers soon after this, Coastal Command versions included the Wellington GR.Mk VIII with Pegasus engines and ASV radar, the Wellington GR.Mks XI, XII and XIV with Hercules, Leigh Light and provision for
two torpedoes; the Wellington T. Mks XVII and XVIII were trainers, and many Mk Xs were converted to 'flying classrooms'. Wellingtons were also used as test-beds for early jet engines. The Wellington C.Mks XV and XVI were transport conversions of the Mk 1C. A total of 11,461 aircraft was produced.
Specification
Vickers Wellington Mk III Type: six-crew night medium bomber Powerplant: two 1119-kW (1,500-hp) Bristol Hercules XI radial piston en-
Armourers prepare the fuses of500Ib (227-kg) bombs before moving the bomb train under the fuselage of a Wellington. The aircraft had a poor start on day missions, proving easy meat for German fighters, but found itself a dmirably suited for nigh t ops, setting the trend for RAF bombing throughout the war.
297
USA
Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress This Boeing B-17G, A Bit o'Lace of the 711 th BS, 447th BG was based at Rattlesden. Spectacular nose art became a speciality of the US Army Air Force, and art fea turing the female form was in variably well executed. This contrasted with a virtual ban on nose art by RAT Bomber Command.
Pursuing an operational theory that high flying, heavily armed bombers were the surest means of striking strategic targets in daylight, the US Army Air Corps issued a requirement in 1934 for which the Boeing Model 299 Flying Fortress was designed and first flown on 28 July 1935. Twelve Y1B-17 (later B-17) service test aircraft entered service in 1937 and were followed by small numbers of B-17B and B-17C bombers in 1940-1, and by the B-17D in 1941. The B-17E introduced the enlarged vertical tail surfaces and tail gun position characteristic of all subsequent B-17s, as well as poweroperated twin-gun turrets aft of the cockpit and below the centre fuselage, 512 B-17Es were produced, this version being the first US Army Air Force heavy bomber to see combat in Europe with the 8th Air Force. A total of 3,400 B-17F bombers, with enlarged one-piece nose transparency, was
produced during 1942-3, and these were followed by the principal variant, the B-17G, which, in reply to calls for improved nose armament to counter the Luftwaffe's head-on attacks, introduced the two-gun 'chin' turret; production totalled 8,680 B-17G aircraft by Boeing, Douglas and Lockheed-Vega. The Fortress was deployed principally in Europe during the war, with much smaller numbers operating in the Far East. The type carried out many epic raids, large formations of bombers, each bristling with heavy machineguns and providing mutual protection against enemy fighters, pounding across the daylight skies over Hitler's Reich. In due course heavy losses forced the Americans to introduce escort fighters - the P-38, P-47 and P51. One temporary expedient involved the use of a small number of B-17s modified as YB-40 'escort' aircraft, some aircraft carrying up to 30
machine-guns. Fortresses (B-17Cs, Fs and Gs) served in small numbers with RAF Bomber and Coastal Commands.
Specification
Boeing B-17G Flying Fortress Type: 10-crew daylight medium/heavy bomber Powerplant: four 895-kW (1,200-hp) Wright Cyclone R-1820-97 radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 462 km/h (287 mph) at 7620m (25,000 ft); climb to 6096 m (20,000 ft) in 37 minutes; service ceiling 10850 m
(35,600ft); range with 2722-kg (6,000Ib) bombload 3220 km (2,000 miles) Weights: empty 16391kg (36,135 lb); maximum take-off 32660 kg (72,000 lb) Dimensions: span 31.62 m (103 ft 9 in); length 22.78 m (74 ft 9 in); height 5.82 m2 ( 1 9 f t 1 in); wing area 131,92m (l,420.0sqft) Armament: twin 12.7-mm (0.5-in) gun turrets under nose, aft of cockpit, under centre fuselage and in tail, and single-gun mountings in sides of nose, in radio operator's hatch and in waist (beam) positions, plus a maximum bombload of 7983 kg (17,600 lb)
Boeing B-17F Flying Fortress cutaway drawing key 1 2 3 4 5 6
Rudderconstruction Ruddertab Ruddertab actuation Tail gunner's station Gunsight Twin0.5-in(12.7-mm machine guns) 7 Tail cone 8 Tail gunner's seat 9 Ammunition troughs 10 Elevator trim tab 11 Starboardelevator 12 Tailplane structure 13 Tailplane front spar 14 Tailplane/fuselage attachment 15 Control cables 16 Elevator control mechanism 17 Rudder control linkage 18 Rudderpost 19 Ruddercentre hinge 20 Fin structure 21 Rudder upper hinge 22 Fin skinning 23 Aerial attachment 24 Aerials 25 Fin leading-edge de-icing boot 26 Port elevator 27 Port tailplane 28 Tailplane leading-edge deicing boot 29 Dorsal fin structure 30 Fuselage frame 31 Tailwheel actuation 32 Toilet 33 Tailwheel (retracted) fairing 34 Fully-swivelling retractable tailwheel 35 Crew entry door 36 Control cables 37 Starboard waist hatch 38 Starboard waist 0.5-in (12.7-mm) machine gun 39 Gun support frame 40 Ammunition box 41 Ventral aerial 42 Waist gunners'positions 43 Port waist 0.5-in (12.7-mm) machinegun 44 Ceiling control cable runs 45 Dorsal aerial mast 46 Ball turret stanchion support 47 Ball turret stanchion 48 Ball turret actuation mechanism 49 Support frame 50 Ball turret roof 51 Twin 0-5-in (12.7-mm) machineguns
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52 53 54 55
Ventral ball turret Wingrootfillet Bulkhead Radio operator's compartment 56 Camera access hatch 57 Radio compartment windows (port and starboard) 58 Ammunition boxes 59 Single 0.5-in (12.7-mm) dorsal machinegun 60 Radio compartment roof glazing 61 Radio compartment/bombbay bulkhead 62 Fire extinguisher 63 Radio operator's station (port side) 64 Handrail links 65 Bulkhead step 66 Wing rear spar/fuselage attachment 67 Wingroot profile 68 Bomb-bay central catwalk 69 Vertical bomb stowage racks (starboard installation shown) 70 Horizontal bomb stowage (port side shown) 71 Dinghy stowage 72 Twin0.5-in(12.7-mm) machineguns 73 Dorsal turret 74 Portwingflaps 75 Coolingairslots 76 Aileron tab (port only) 77 Port aileron 78 Port navigation light 79 Wing skinning 80 Wing leading-edge de-icing boot 81 Port landing light 82 Wing corrugated inner skin 83 Port out wing fuel tank (nine inter-rib cells) 84 No 1 engine nacelle 85 Cooling gills 86 Three-blade propellers 87 No 2 engine nacelle 88 Wing leading-edge de-icing boot 89 Port mid-wing (selfsealing) fuel tanks 90 Flightdeck upperglazing 91 Flight deck/bomb-bay bulkhead 92 Oxygen cylinders 93 Co-pilot's seat 94 Co-pilot's control column 95 Headrest/armour 96 Compass installation 97 Pilot's seat
98 Windscreen 99 Central control console pedestal 100 Side windows 101 Navigation equipment 102 Navigator's compartment upperwindow (subsequently replaced by ceiling astrodome) 103 Navigator's table 104 Sidegun mounting 105 Enlarged cheek windows (flush) 106 Ammunition box 107 Bombardier's panel 108 Norden bombsight installation 109 Plexiglas frameless nosecone
110 Single0.5-in(12.7-mm nose machine gun 111 Optically-flat bomb-aiming panel 112 Pilot head fairing (port and starboard) 113 D/F loop bullet fairing 114 Port mainwheel 115 Flight deck underfloor control linkage 116 Wingroot/fuselage fairing 117 Wing front spar/fuselage attachment 118 Battery access panels (wingroot leading edge) 119 No 3 engine nacelle spar bulkhead 120 Intercooler pressure duct 121 Mainwheel well 122 Oil tank (nacelle inboard wall) 123 Nacelle structure 124 Exhaust 125 Retracted mainwheel (semi-recessed) 126 Firewall 127 Coolinggills 128 Exhaust collector ring assembly 129 Three-blade propellers 130 Undercarriage retraction struts 131 Starboard mainwheel 132 Axle 133 Mainwheel oleo leg 134 Propeller reduction gear casing 135 1,200 hp Wright R-1820-65
136 137 138 139 140 141
Exhaust collector ring Engineupperbearers Firewall Engine lower bearers Intercoolerassembly Oil tank (nacelle outboard wall) 142 Supercharger 143 Intake 144 Supercharger waste-gate 145 Starboard landing light 146 Supercharger intake 147 Intercooler intake 148 Ducting 149 No4 engine nacellespar bulkhead 150 Oil radiator intake 151 Main spar web structure
152 Mid-wing fuel tank rib cutouts 153 Auxiliary mid spar 154 Rearspar 155 Landing flap profile 156 Coolingairslots 157 Starboard outer wing fuel tank (nine inter-rib cells) 158 Flap structure 159 Starboard aileron 160 Outboard wing ribs 161 Sparassembly 162 Wing leading-edge de-icing boot 163 Aileron control linkage 164 Wing corrugated innerskin 165 Wingtip structure 166 Starboardnavigationlight
6-17 Flying Fortress in Action One of the most famous bombers of all time, the Boeing B-17 was so impressive when the proun usually clean B-17C is totype appeared in July 1935 that it was dubbed An to a halt on delivery to a 'the Flying Fortress'. The name stuck and be- marshalled unit in England. Such pristine came a registered trademark. The US Army condition would not be long-lived; Air Corps had merely asked for a 'multi-engine' nose art and battle damage would bomber, to carry a 2,000-lb (907-kg) bombload. soon make the aircraft look more Rival companies built twin-engine machines, businesslike. but Boeing went for four engines to get more speed and altitude. Eventually the first B-17 larger tailplane. There were many internal was delivered on 1 March 1937, with a crew of changes, but the mam difference was in radieight distributed around the tube-like fusel- cally better defensive firepower, with 10 12.7age, five of them each manning a defensive mm (0.5-in) Brownings and two or three of 7.62machine-gun. Amidships was a short but deep mm (0.3-in) calibre. The small guns were bomb bay housing up to 2177 kg (4,800 lb) of manually aimed from the nose, while the big bombs, with a catwalk down the centre. weapons were in a two-gun power-driven dorBy 1940 the production model was the B-17C, sal turret, a twin manual installation in the roof with 1,200-hp (895-kW) turbosupercharged of the radio compartment, two manual waist Cyclone engines giving a maximum speed of positions, a manual tail turret (filling what was 515 km/h (320 mph), much faster than later previously a blind spot) and under the fuselage models. In 1941 the RAF was given 20 because a powered ball turret whose occupant had to the US Army wanted to see how this model, be small. In the event of a belly landing the ball with more guns, self-sealing tanks and armour, turret had to be vacated, and if the door jamperformed in combat. The result was a disas- med the whole turret had to be severed from ter, nine being destroyed m a few weeks, but a the aircraft by a special spanner carried on lot of the trouble was bad luck and bad man- board, the occupant then escaping as it fell. On agement, Enough was learned, however, for at least one occasion it was found the special Boeing to redesign the B-17 and the resulting tool was not on board, and the operations B-17E flew on 5 September 1941, officer of an 8th Air Force bomb group took off The B-17E had a giant dorsal fin, giving bet- in another B-17 and passed the implement ter bombing accuracy at high altitudes, and a across trailing on a long piece of string.
In April 1942 the B-17F introduced many improvements including a frameless Plexiglas nose which in later versions had two 12,7-mm (0.5-in) guns in left and right cheek mountings. Hundreds of B-17Fs formed the backbone of the growing might of the 8th Air Force, which from August 1942 operated over Germany and other European countries. After much action the Luftwaffe decided head-on attacks were especially effective and to counter these the main change in the B-17G was to add a chin turret with two more guns, making a total of 13, all of 12,7-mm (0.5-m) calibre (only one gun was fitted in the roof of the radio compartment, making the odd number, and later this was often omitted). The B-17G was the final mainstream variant, and 8,680 were built, the last 7,000 or so being unpamted instead of olivedrab.
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USA
Consolidated B-24 Liberator OneofthelastB-24s toget into action, this B-24J-190 was given a particularly flamboyant paint job by the 43rdBomb Group operating against the Japanese mainland from leShimain the spring of 1945. The dorsal turret was omitted, reflecting the approach of victory.
Used as an electronic warfare aircraft, this Liberator B.Mk IV flew with No. 223 Sqn, RAF. Flying in ahead of bombing formations, these aircraft jammed German ground and night fighter radars.
The RAF flew several hundred Liberators in India, where they were the major weapon used to bomb Japanese targets in Burma and China.
Produced in larger numbers than any other American aircraft during the war (and any other four-engine aircraft in history) the Consolidated B-24 Liberator did not enter the design stage until 1939, and the prototype XB-24 was flown on 29 December that year. Minor development batches followed in 1940 before the first major production version, the B-24D, appeared late in 1941, A policy decision to concentrate B-24s primarily in the Pacific theatre (where the type's long range was used to good effect) resulted in most of the 2,738 B24Ds being deployed against Japan, but the 8th and 9th Air Forces in Europe and North Africa also received the aircraft, one of their outstanding raids being the attack on the Ploesti oil refineries on 1 August 1943. A total of 791 B-24E bombers with changed propellers was produced before pro-
300
duction switched to the B-24G, of which 430 were built. This version introduced a two-gun nose turret to counter German head-on fighter attacks and was followed by 3,100 B24H aircraft with various makes of nose turret. Major production version was the B-24J, of which 6,678 were built, incorporating a Motor Products nose turret, new-type autopilot and bombsight. The B-24L (1,667 built) featured two manually operated tail guns in a Consolidated turret, and the B-24M (2,593 built) introduced a Motor Products two-gun tail turret. This huge manufacturing effort (which produced a total of 18,313 aircraft in five and a half years) involved Consolidated, Douglas, Ford and North American plants, the total including many aircraft for the RAF (in which Liberators served with 42 squadrons) and US Navy (with
whom Liberators served under the designation PB4Y) and also the 25passenger C-87 version, of which 282 were produced.
Specification
Consolidated B-24J Liberator Type: e i g h t / t e n - c r e w d a y l i g h t medium/heavy bomber Powerplant: four 1,200-hp (895-kW) Pratt & Whitney R-1830-65 radial piston engines P e r f o r m a n c e : maximum speed 467 k m / h (290 m p h ) at 7 6 2 0 m (25,000 ft); climb to 6096 m (20,000 ft) in 25 minutes; service ceiling 8535 m (28,000 ft); range 3220 km (2,000 miles) with a 3992-kg (8,800 lb) bombload Weights: empty 16556kg (36,500 lb); maximum take-off 29484 kg (65,000 lb) Dimensions: span 33.53 m (110 ft 0 in); length 20.47 m (67 ft 2 in); height 5.49 m
( 1 8 f t O i n ) ; wing area 9 7 . 3 6 m 2 (1,048.0 sq ft) Armament: two-gun turrets in nose, tail, upper fuselage aft of cockpit and under centre fuselage, and single manual guns in waist (beam) positions for a total of 10 12,7-mm (0.5-m) machine-guns, plus a normal bombload of 3992 kg (8,800 lb) Formation flying is an art in itself, and formating a heavy aircraft while joining up in formations of 40 or more, often in partial cloud, took concentration. The Americans used brightly coloured'assembly ships', usually with polka dots to facilitate the forming of combat boxes. Such gaudy aircraft did not fly on missions but returned to base when the formation had set course.
USA
Boeing B-29 Superfortress
Design of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress heavy bomber started in 1940 to meet a US Army Air Corps requirement for a 'Hemisphere Defense Weapon', an aircraft capable of carrying 907kg (2,000 lb) of bombs for 8582km (5,333 miles) at 644 km/h (400 mph); only after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor put an end to trie USA's isolationism was the project given top priority, and the first XB-29 was flown on 21 September 1942. The very big four-engine mid-wing bomber had by then been ordered in large numbers and in 1943 the decision was taken to deploy the B-29 only, against Japan, concentrating the new bombers in the XX Bomber Command on bases in India and China. The first YB-29 service test aircraft were delivered to the 58th Bomb Wing in July 1943 and were followed by B-29-BW production bom-
bers three months later. Production was concentrated at Boeing, Wichita (BW), Bell, Marietta (BA), Martin, Omaha (MO), and a new Boeing-run factory at Renton (BN). Four groups of B-29s moved to India early in 1944, making their first raid on Bangkok on 5 June, and on the Japanese mainland 10 days later. For the first nine months the B-29s were principally employed in high-level daylight raids, but on 9 March 1945, when operations were run primarily from five vast bases in the Marianas islands, they switched to low-level night attacks with devastating incendiary raids on Japanese cities (the first of which on Tokyo caused 80,000 deaths). Two other main versions of the B-29 appeared during the war, the B-29A-BN with four-gun forward upper turret and increased wing span, and the B-29B-BA with reduced
A feature of the B-29 's gun armament was the use of remotely con trolled turrets, periscopically sigh ted by gunners located within the fuselage. The aircraft illustrated, carrying BTO (bombing through overcast) radar, was based on Tinian for the final raids on Japan. gun armament and increased bombload. The B-29-45-MOsÂŁ/iola Gay and Bock's Car of the 393rd Bomb Squadron dropped the atomic bombs 'Little Boy' and 'Fat Man' on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 and 9 August 1945 respectively, bringing the war to an end. Total B-29 production was 3,970. Specification Boeing B-29A Superfortress Type: 10-crew heavy strategic bomber Powerplant: four 1641-kW (2,200-hp) Wright R-3350-57 radial piston engines P e r f o r m a n c e : m a x i m u m speed 576 k m / h (358 m p h ) at 7 6 2 0 m (25,000 ft); climb to 6095 m (20,000 ft) in 38 minutes; service ceiling 9695 m (31,800 ft); range 6598 km (4,100 miles) Weights: empty 32369kg (71,360 lb); maximum take-off 64003kg
(141,100 lb) Dimensions: span 43.36 m (142 ft 3 in); length 30.18 m (99 ft 0 in); height 9,01 m2 ( 2 9 f t 7 in); wing area 1 6 1 . 2 7 m (1,736.0 sq ft) Armament: four-gun turret over nose, two-gun turrets under nose, under and over rear fuselage, all with guns of 12.7-mm (0.5-in) calibre, and one 20mm and two 12.7-mm (0.5-in) guns in tail, plus a bombload of up to 9072 kg (20,000 lb) The mighty Superfortress. One of the most remarkable achievemen ts of the war was the design, development and production of this bomber in the space of four years. All B-29s were assigned to the assault on Japan, the two aircraft here - YB-29s - being flown by the 58th Bomb Wing (Very Heavy).
JAPAN
Mitsubishi G4M 'Betty' Identified by its dihedral tailplane, the Mitsubishi C4M3 'Betty'was produced in limited n umbers during the last two years of the war. The main improvement over previous models was increased protection for the crew. The aircraft portrayed flew with the YokosukaKokutai.Atsugi during the last days of the war.
Codenamed 'Betty' by the Allies, the Mitsubishi G4M long-range medium bomber remained in service with the Japanese navy from the first to the last day of the war: it took part in the attack that sank the British warships HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Repulse in December 1941, and it carried the Japanese surrender delegation on 19
August 1945. Designed to a 1937 requirement for a long-range bomber, the G4M1 prototype made its first flight on 23 October 1939, and during trials recorded an extraordinary performance of a 444-km/h (276-mph) top speed and 5555-km (3,450-mile) range, albeit without bombload. The first production G4Mls (Navy Type 1 Attack
Bomber Model 11) were initially deployed against China in mid-1941 but on the eve of the attack on Malaya the bombers moved to Indo-China and within a week had successfully attacked the Prince of Wales and Repulse. When Allied fighter opposition eventually increased to effective proportions, the G4M1 was seen to be very
vulnerable, possessing little armour protection for crew and fuel tanks, and it was in a pair of G4Mls that Admiral Yamamoto and his staff were travelling when shot down by P-38s over Bougainville on 18 April 1943. Little improvement had been secured in the Navy Type 1 Attack Bomber Model 22 with revised powerplant. The G4M2 301
was therefore introduced with increased armament, increased fuel and 1,800-hp (1343-kW) Mitsubishi Kasei radiais, and this version (Navy Type 1 Attack Bomber Model 22A and Model 22B) remained in production until the end of the war in steadily improved Navy Type 1 Attack Bomber Model 24 variants. A further improved version, the G4M3, with increased crew protection, was also produced in small
numbers as the Navy Type 1 Attack Bomber Model 34. P r o d u c t i o n amounted to 1,200 G4Mls, 1,154 G4M2s and 60 G4M3s.
Specification
Mitsubishi G4M2 'Betty' Type: seven-crew land-based naval bomber
Powerplant: two 1,800-hp (1343-kW) Mitsubishi MK4P Kasei 21 radial piston engines Performance: m a x i m u m speed 438 km/h (272 mph) at 4 6 0 0 m (15,090 ft); climb to 8000 m (26,245 ft) in 32,4 minutes; service ceiling 8950m (29,365 ft); range 6059 km (3,765 miles) Weights: empty 8160kg (17,990 lb); normal loaded 12500 kg (27,558 lb) Dimensions: span 25.00 m (82 ft 01A in);
length 20,00m (67ft 7% in); height 6 . 0 0 m (a 1 9 f t 8 V 4 i n ) ; wing area 78.125m (840.93sqft) Armament: two 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Type 92 machine-guns in nose, one 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Type 92 machine-gun in each side blister position, one 20-mm Type 99 cannon in dorsal turret and one 20-mm Type 99 in tail, plus 1000 kg (2,205 lb) of bombs or one 800-kg (1,764-lb) torpedo
USSR
Ilyushin 11-4 The Ilyushin 11-4 was roughly in the same class as the HeinkelHe 111 and first saw service in the Winter War with Finland. It was the first Soviet bomber to raid Berlin, and served until the last few months of the war, when it was relega ted to glider towing.
One of the great bombers of the war, the Ilyushin 11-4 has not unnaturally been overshadowed in Western thinking by the great British and American aircraft, yet well over 5,000 Il-4s were produced between 1937 and 1944, the vast majority in the last three years. The original prototype of this low-wing twin-engine bomber, designated the TsKB-26, flew in 1935, was developed through the TsKB-30, and entered production in 1937 as the DB-3B (DB being a Soviet contraction denoting longrange bomber), Early examples were powered by 765-hp (571-kW) M-85 engines, but these were replaced by 960hp (716-kW) M-86s in 1938. Although a tough and relatively simple design, the aircraft suffered from a poor defensive
armament of single nose, dorsal and ventral 7,62-mm (0.3-in) guns, and lost heavily to such aircraft as the Bristol Bulldog, Gloster Gladiator and Fokker D.XXI during the Winter War against Finland in 1939-40. In 1939 a modified version with lengthened nose and more armour (the DB-3F) appeared, and in 1940, in conformity with changed Russian practice, the designation became 11-4 (denoting the designer, Sergei Ilyushin). Soon after the German attack on the USSR opened in 1941 it was decided to withdraw 11-4 production to newly opening plants in Siberia, at the same time replacing a large proportion of the metal structure by less strategically critical wood. Il-4s also entered service with
Soviet Naval Aviation, and it was a naval-manned force of these bombers that first raided Berlin from the east on 8 August 1941. Thereafter the 11-4 paid frequent visits to the German capital and other targets in Eastern Europe. In 1944 production ended, although the 11-4 served until the end of the war and afterwards. Apart from increasing the calibre of its guns and giving it a torpedo-carrying ability, the 11-4 remained virtually unchanged between 1941 and 1944. Specification Ilyushin 11-4 Type: four-crew bomber/torpedobomber
Powerplant: two 1,100-hp (821-kW) M88B radial piston engines P e r f o r m a n c e : m a x i m u m speed 410 k m / h (255 m p h ) at 4 7 2 5 m (15,500ft); initial climb rate 270m (886 ft) per minute; service ceiling 10000 m (32,810 ft); range with bombload 2600 km (1,616 miles) Weights: empty 6000kg (13,228 lb); maximum take-off 10000 kg (22,046 lb) Dimensions: span 21,44 m (70 ft 4'/4 in); length 14.POm (48ft 6Va in); height2 4.10 m (13 ft 5V2 in); wing area 66,7 m (718.0 sq ft) Armament: single 12.7-mm (0.5-in) ĂœBT machine-guns in nose, dorsal turret and ventral positions, plus a maximum bombload of 1000kg (2,205 lb) or three 500 kg (1,102 lb) torpedoes
nal windscreen step. He 11 IPs with DB 601Aa engines were delivered to the Luftwaffe in 1939 before production switched to the most widely-used variant, the He 11 IH with Junkers Jumo 211 engines; sub-variants of this series formed the backbone of the Luftwaffe's bomber force between 1940 and 1943;
Among the bomber units switched from the night assault on Britain to the Eastern Front in 1941 wasKGSS 'Greif (Griffon Wing), one of whose Heinkel HelllHs is seen here being armed with an externally carried bomb prior to a raid.
GERMANY
HeinkelHe 111 Longest-serving medium bomber of the Luftwaffe, the Heinkel He 111 stemmed from a design by Siegfried and Walter GĂźnther for a dual-purpose commercial transport/bomber produced in 1934 and flown on 24 February 1935. Early versions featured a conventional stepped windscreen and
elliptical wing leading edge, and a bomber version with these features, the He 111B-1, served with the Legion Condor in the Spanish Civil War. The first production version with straight wing leading edge was the He 11 IF, and the He 11 IP incorporated a fullyglazed asymmetric nose without exter-
From mid-1940 onwards, with the arrival in service of bombs too large to be carried internally, He 11 Is freguen tly carried their loads externally. A HeinkelHe 111H-6 in the markings of KG 26 is shown.
they took part in numerous raids in the Battle of Britain and were flown by the pathfinder unit, KGr 100. The first version to carry torpedoes was the He 111H-6, followed by the He 111H-15; the He 111H-8 was fitted with a large and cumbersome balloon cable fender; the He 111H-11/R2 was a glider tug for the Go 242, while pathfinder versions with special radio were the He 111H-14 and He 111H-18; the He 111H-16 featured increased gun armament, and the He 111H-20 included 16-
paratroop transport, night bomber and glider tug sub-variants. The He 111H22 carried a single Fi 103 flying bomb and was used against the UK late in 1944. The most extraordinary of all was the He 111Z (Zwilling, or Twin) which consisted of two He l l l H s joined together with a new wing and fifth engine; it was used mainly to tow the huge Me 321 Gigant gliders. A total of about 7,300 He Ills was built.
Specification HeinkelHe 111H-16 Type: five-crew medium bomber Powerplant: two 1,350-hp (1007-kW) Junkers Jumo 2HF inverted V-12 piston engines P e r f o r m a n c e : m a x i m u m speed 436 k m / h ( 2 7 1 m p h ) a t 6 0 0 0 m (19,685 ft); climb to 6000 m (19,685 ft) in 42 minutes; service ceiling 6700 m (21,980 ft); range 1950km (1,212 mues) Weights: empty 8680kg (19,136 lb); maximum take-off 14000 kg (30,865 lb)
Dimensions: span 22.60 m (74 ft 1% in); length 16.40m (53ft 9 Va in); height 3,40 m (13 ft 1 '/4 in); wing area 86.50 mf' (931.07sqft) Armament: one 20-mm MG FF cannon in nose, one 13-mm (0.51-in) MG 131 gun in dorsal position, two 7.92-mm (0.31-in) MG 15 guns in rear of ventral gondola and two 7.92-mm (0.31-in) MG 81 guns in each of two beam positions, plus a bombload of 2000 kg (4,409 lb) internally and 2000 kg (4,409 lb) externally
Luftwaffe (bombers being afforded low priority during the last year of the war), but many interesting projects continued to be pursued, including one involving the conversion of He 177 V38 as a carrier of Germany's atomic bomb, which m the event did not materialize. About 1,160 production and 30 prototype He 177s were built. Specification Heinkel He 177A-5/R2 Greif Type: six-crew heavy bomber Powerplant: two 2,950-hp (2200-kW) Daimler-Benz DB610A-1/B-1 paired inverted V-12 piston engines Performance: m a x i m u m speed 488 km/h (303 m p h ) at 6000 m (19,685ft); initial climb rate 190m
(623 ft) per minute; service ceiling 8000 m (26,245 ft); range with two Hs 293 weapons 5500 km (3,418 miles) Weights: empty 16900kg (37,257 lb); maximum take-off 31000 kg (68,342 lb) Dimensions: span 31.44m (103ft 1% in); length 20.40 m (66 ft 11 Vt in); height 6 . 4 0 m (a 2 0 f t 11% in); wing area 102.00 m (1,098.0 sq ft) Armament: one 7.92 (0.31-in) MG 81 gun in nose, one 13-mm (0.51-in) MG 131 gun in forward dorsal turret, one 13-mm (0,51-in) MG 131 gun in rear dorsal turret, one 13-mm (0.51-in) MG 131 gun in rear of ventral gondola, one 20-mm MG FF cannon in front of ventral gondola and one 20-mm MG FF in tail, plus a maximum internal bombload of 6000kg (13,228 lb) or two Hs 293 missiles
greatly increased engine power, and after limited production of the Do 217A reconnaissance aircraft and Do 217C bomber, a standard for full production settled upon the Do 217E, powered by two 1,550-hp (1156-kW) BMW 80IMA radiais. Pre-production Do 217E-O aircraft appeared in 1940, and service Do 217E-1 bombers early in 1941; the latter carried a bombload of 2000 kg (4,409 lb), a crew of four or five, and a defensive armament of five MG 15
machine-guns and a 15-mm MG 151 cannon, First to receive the Do 217E bomber, in March 1941, was II/KG 40 for antishipping duties over the Atlantic, followed by all three Gruppen of KG 2. A large number of sub-variants and Rüstsätze (field conversion kits) existed, including provision to carry two Henschel Hs 293 missiles, increased armour protection and armament progressively increased to seven MG 15s and a
GERMANY
Heinkel He 177 Greif HeinkelHe 177A-5ofIIGruppe, Kampfgeschwader l 'Hindenburg' based a t Prowehren, East Prussia, mid-1944. KG 1 assembled about 90 of these bombers for attacks on Soviet comm unica tions and military installations, but unreliability dogged opera tions. After the scrapping of German plans for a strategic bombing force in 1936, the Luftwaffe abandoned plans to develop a heavy bomber until in 1938 the RLM approached the Heinkel company with a requirement for such an aircraft, resulting in the Heinkel He 177 Greif (Griffon), a four-engine mid-wing aircraft in which the 1,000-hp (746-kW) DB 601 engines were coupled in pairs (termed DB 606s) to drive single propellers. The first aircraft, the He 177 VI, was flown on 19 November 1939. Continuing engine overheating problems as well as persistent structural failures delayed production, the first He 177A1 not reaching I/KG 40 for operational trials until July 1942; in the course of these He 177s took part in raids on the UK, but generally they proved dis-
appointing m service. Several subvariants of the He 177A-3 were produced, including the He 177A-3/R3 which could carry three Hs 293 antishipping missiles, the He 177A-3/R5 with 75-mm gun in the ventral gondola and the He 177A-3/R7 torpedobomber. He 177A-3s were used by KGr 2 to fly supply missions to the beleaguered German forces at Stalingrad in January 1943, The He 177A-5 incorporated a stronger wing to carry heavier external loads, and a small number was converted to the Zerstörer role with 33 upward-firing rocket tubes in the space normally occupied by the bomb bays. Small numbers of He 177A-5s returned to the night attack on the UK early in 1944; this version proved to be the last to serve with the
GERMANY
Dornier Do 217 In 1941 KG 2 re-equipped with Do 217Es; this Do 217 E-2 carries the codes of9.Staffel. This version introduced an electrically operated dorsal turret with a single 13-mm machine-gun. In the normal process of design evolution it was recognised that, culminating from a design compromise, the Dornier Do 17 could at best represent a stopgap for three or four years in Luftwaffe service, and in 1937, as that aircraft was entering operational units, the manufacturer proposed a slightly larger and dedicated development, the Dornier Do 217. Powered by 1,075-hp (802-kW) DB 601A engines, the prototype Do 217 VI
was flown in August 1938 but at once showed that many of the excellent handling qualities of the earlier aircraft had disappeared; indeed, the prototype soon crashed, Several further prototypes followed with various modifications, including enlarged tail surfaces to overcome directional instability, but none received altogether favourable response from Luftwaffe pilots. Eventual recourse was made to
303
20-mm cannon. The Do 217E-2, for example, introduced an electrically operated dorsal turret mounting a single 13-mm (0.51-in) MG 131 heavy machine-gun. Dormer Do 217Es of KG 2 constituted a large part of the Luftwaffe bomber force sent against British towns and cities in the so-called 'Baedeker raids' of April and May 1942. During the autumn of that year a new version, the Do 217K, joined KG 2; powered by 1,700-hp (1268-kW) BMW 80ID radiais, this version was in effect a more powerful counterpart of the Do
217E series and could accommodate all the R체sts채tze previously applied; it also eliminated the windscreen 'step' by introducing a completely new and bulbous nose profile. Produced almost simultaneously was the Do 217M, which was similar to the Do 217K series but with 1,750-hp (1306-kW) DaimlerBenz DB 603A liquid-cooled inverted V-12 engines. These two versions continued in service up to the end of the war, frequently being employed to deliver such weapons as the Hs 293A and Fritz-X
both against ships and key land targets. However, no more than 1,730 Do 217s of all versions were produced, of which almost half were reconnaissance aircraft and night-fighters. Specification Dornier Do 217M-1 Type: four-seat bomber Powerplant: two 1,750-hp (1306-kW) Daimler-Benz DB 603A inverted V-12 piston engines P e r f o r m a n c e : m a x i m u m speed 600 k m / h (348 m p h ) at 5 7 0 0 m
(18,700ft); initial climb rate 210m (690 ft) per minute; service ceiling 9500m (31,180ft); range 2500km (1,555 miles) Weights: empty 9065kg (19,985 lb); maximum take-off 16700 kg (36,817 lb) Dimensions: span 19,00m (62ft 4 in); length 17,00m (55ft 9% in); height 4.96 m (16 ft 3V2 in); wing area 57.00 ma (613.54 sq ft) Armament: eight 7,92-mm (0.31-in) MG 81 and two 13-mm (0.51-in) MG 131 machine-guns, plus up to 4000 kg (8,818 lb) of bombs
GERMANY
Junkers Ju 88 (bomber versions) A disruptive white streaking was applied over the standard splinter Mediterranean camouflage of this Ju 88A-4 of I/KG 54 'Totenkopf, (Death's Head Wing) based at Bergamo, Italy, in September 1943 during operations against the Allies at Salerno.
In terms of versatility and long service the Junkers Ju 88 bomber matched the outstanding record of the Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter. Conceived as a high-speed medium bomber in 1936, the first prototype Ju 88 VI was flown by Flugkapit채n Kindermann at Dessau on 21 December the same year. The three-seat all-metal aircraft was originally powered by two 1,000-hp (746kW) Daimler-Benz DB 600A V-12 engines in annular cowlings. Nine further prototypes followed before construction of 10 pre-production Ju 88A-O aircraft was started in 1939, by which time the nose arid cabin had been revised to accommodate a four-man crew. Dive brakes were now fitted under the outer wings to enable dive attacks to be made, and external bomb racks under the inner wings increased the bomb load from 500 kg (1,102 lb), carried internally, to a total of 1500kg (3,307 lb). Production Ju 88A-1 bombers were joining the Luftwaffe at the outbreak of war, and about 60 aircraft had been completed by the end of 1939. The Ju 88 test unit commanded by Hauptmann Pohl, Erprobungskommando 88, was redesignated I/KG 25 in August 1939,
and the following month became I/KG 30, carrying out its first operation with an attack on British warships in the Firth of Forth on 26 September, A further raid on the same target followed on 16 October, when two Ju 88s were shot down by Supermarine Spitfires. By the time of the German invasion of Norway seven Gruppen of LG l, KG 30 and KG 51, together with Aufkl채rungsgruppe 122, had been equipped or were re-equipping with Ju 88As, production of which was nearing 300 a month. New bomber variants included the Ju 88A-2 with rocket-assisted takeoff gear, the Ju 88 A-4 with increased wing span, strengthened landing gear and 1,340-hp (1000-kW) Junkers Jumo 211J-1 or J-2 engines, and the generally similar Ju 88 A-5. All these versions appeared during 1940, the Ju 88A taking a prominent part in the summer Battle of Britain and winter Blitz with 17 Gruppen, of which 14 were Kampfgruppen. By reason of their relatively high speed, the Ju 88As proved the most difficult of the German bombers to destroy, and carried out a number of very successful attacks. The Ju 88A series remained the principal bomber version, later sub-
variants including the Ju 88A-6 with balloon cable fender, the Ju 88A-6/U three-seat long-range maritime bomber with FuG 200 Hohentwiel search radar, the Ju 88A-9, Ju 88A-10 and Ju 88A-11 which were tropicalized versions of the Ju 88A-1, Ju 88A-5 and Ju 88A-4 respectively, the Ju 88A-14 antishipping strike bomber, the Ju 88A-15 with bulged bomb bay capable of enclosing 3000kg (6614 lb) of bombs, and the Ju 88A-17 torpedo-bomber. Ju 88As saw considerable action in the Balkans and Mediterranean, and of course on the Eastern Front. Perhaps their most outstanding service was however with HI/KG 26 and KG 30 when based in northern Norway for operations against the Allied North Cape convoys in 1.941-2; in all, the 120 Ju 88As involved are estimated to have sunk 27 merchant ships and seven naval vessels. Ju 88As of LG l operated with similar success against the Malta convoys during the summer of 1942. Towards the end of the war many redundant Ju 88As were converted to become the unmanned, explosivefilled component of the Mistel composite aircraft weapon that was used with some success in the last desperate months of the Third Reich.
Specification Junkers Ju 88A-4 Type: four-seat medium/dive bomber Powerplant: two 1,340-hp (1000-kw) Junkers Jumc 211J-1 or 211J-2 inverted V-12 piston engines P e r f o r m a n c e : m a x i m u m speed 450 k m / h (280 m p h ) at 6 0 0 0 m (19,685 ft); climb to 5400 m (17,715 ft) in 23 minutes; service ceiling 8200 m (26,900 ft); range 2730 km (1,696 miles) Weights: empty 9860kg (21,737 lb); maximum take-off 14000 kg (30,865 lb) Dimensions: span 20.00 m (65 ft 7Vz in); length 14,40m (47ft 2% in); height 4.85 m (15 ft 11 in); wing area 54.50 m?> (586.63 sq ft) Armament: up to seven 7.92-mm (0.31in) MG15 or MG81 machine-guns, plus a maximum internal and external bombload of 3600 kg (7,935 lb)
Theju 88 served in the bomber role throughout the war and in every theatre. Thisju 88A is seen in the North African desert (note the white theatre band on the rear fuselage) with a pair of 250 kg (551 lb) bombs under the wings, inboard of the engine nacelles.
Light and Medium Bombers The light/medium bomber was an ill-defined classification, and many types can lay claim to having performed this role. Here, the aircraft typifying this role are described, along with their phenomenal development and exploits during the course of the war.
T
ie light and medium bombers )f World War II were sandwiched between the glamorous day and night fighters on the one hand, and the strategic heavy bombers - such as the Boeing B-17, Consolidated B-24,Avro Lancaster and Handley Page Halifax - on the other. For a multitude of reasons the Japanese, Germans and Italians failed to introduce an efficient four-engine long-range heavy into service: the Heinkel He 177A-5 did become operational, but was in service with only a few Gruppen, and such was the nature of its maintenance and unreliability that its contribution to the Axis effort was minimal. The Axis nations therefore opted for a selection of light and medium bombers, restricted their use to tactical and naval work, and could never mount anything suggestive of a damaging campaign of bombing of strategic concept. Nevertheless much of the triumphal gain that fell to the Axis in the first half of World War II was born on the wings of the light bomber: for the Luftwaffe, the fabulous Junkers Ju 88 was the workhorse of 1939-45; and tor the Regia Aeronautica, the 'evil hunchback' Savoia-Marchetti S.M.79 and the graceful CANT Z.1007; and for the Japanese, the Mitsubishi G3M2 'Nell' and G4M1 'Betty' of the Imperial Navy's land-based flotillas,
The wooden de Havilland DH 98 Mosquito was a legendary medium bomber which went into service in an extraordinary variety of configurations, including night fighter and reconnaissance. and the Kawasaki Ki-48 'Lily' and Mitsubishi Ki-21 'Sally' of the Imperial Army's regiments. These represented the striking force of the Axis powers and, in their heyday before the advent of Allied air superiority, they were formidable. The relative importance of tactical needs over those of a strategic nature dictated that the Soviet air forces (V-VS) would place much reliance on intermediate-range light bombers: the fourengine TupolevTB-3 and Petlyakov Pe-8 served well, but only in small
numbers. The best Soviet bomber of 1941-4 was the Petlyakov Pe-2; it was replaced by the Tupolev Tu-2 in 1944. The Americans had the immediate advantage of having a wide selection of very powerful air-cooled radial engines when they went to war in 1941. Also they gained pre-knowledge of actual operations from their British ally. The light bombers produced for the US Army and US Navy - the North American B-25 Mitchell, the Martin B-26 Marauder, the Douglas A-20 Havoc,
the Lockheed POB-1 and PV-1 and others - served not only in the US forces but with a host of grateful Allies. All were universally efficient: there was not a failure among them. The Mitchell got the headlines in the papers for its daring low-level work in the Pacific theatre. For the British, the best was undoubtedly the extraordinary de Havilland Mosquito bomber series which defied logical design practice. But over Germany nothing could catch them, and a legend was born. 305
UK
Bristol Blenheim Flying for the first time on 12 April 1935 the Bristol Type 142 was a twin-engine high-speed transport designed at the request of the press baron, Lord Rothermere. So startling was the performance that the Type 142, and later the Type 142M, were adopted for development as a light bomber under thej Air Ministry Specification B. 28/35. Thex result was the Bristol Blenheim Mk I, which was ordered straight from the drawing board. The first examples went to No, 114 Squadron at Wyton in March 1937. At the time of the Munich Crisis in September 1938 the Blenheim Mk I equipped 16 squadrons in Nos 1, 2 and 5 (Bomber) Groups of Bomber Command. As early as January 1938 the Blenheim Mk I entered service with No. 30 Squadron at Habbaniya, Iraq, while other Blenheim Mk Is were posted to AHQ India early in the following year. The Blenheim Mk I was powered by two 840-hp (626-kW) Bristol Mercury VIII radial engines. The light armament consisted of one 7,7mm (0,303-in) machine-gun in the wing, and one manually-operated 707mm (0.3-in) Vickers K gun in a dorsal turret; 454 kg ( 1,000 lb) of bombs could be carried. A total of 1,365 Blenheim Mk I bombers were produced by Bristol, Avrò and Rootes: 45 were made under licence by the Finnish VLT company, and the Ikarus firm of Yugoslavia made 16. With its characteristic short-nosed glazed canopy the Blenheim Mk I saw service with the RAF in Greece, Malaya and North Africa. Engines of increased power and a longer, scalloped, nose characterized the main production variant, the Blenheim Mk IV, of which 3,286 were produced, Powered by two 920-hp (686-kW) Bristol Mercury XV radiais, the Blenheim Mk IV equipped seven squadrons in No. 2 (Bomber) Group at the outbreak of war in September 1939: armament was increased by the installation of two 7.7-mm (0.303-in) guns in a Bristol B.I. Mk IV dorsal tur-
ret, while a rearward-firing twin-gun turret could be installed under the nose section, sighted by a periscope. The Blenheim Mk IV scored a number of 'firsts' in World War II. On 3 September Blenheim Mk IV (N6215) of No, 139 Squadron, under Flying Officer A, McPherson, became the first RAF aircraft to enter German airspace and p h o t o g r a p h the f l e e t u n i t s o f f Wilhelmshaven. On the following day Blenheim Mk IVs of Nos 107 and 110 Squadrons made the first offensive attack by Bomber Command. The RAF's first U-boat kill was made on 11 March 1940, by a Blenheim Mk IV of No. 82 Squadron flown by Squadron Leader M.V. Delap. Blenheim Mk IVs saw extensive service over France, off Norway, over Germany, Greece, Crete, North Africa, India, Malaya and Sumatra until August 1942 when they
were phased out, Finland and Greece operated Blenheim Mk IVs, as did Canada where it was known as the Bolingbroke. The Blenheim Mk V (945 built) appeared in late 1942, powered by two 950-hp (708-kW) Mercury 25 or 30 engines, and saw service in North Africa and Tunisia, and in the Far East, Underpowered and poorly armed, the Blenheim lost more crews than any other RAF type.
Bristol Blenheim Mkl of No. 114Sqn, RAF, serving at Larissa, Greece in 1941. The Middle East was a major theatre for the Blenheim, where its ability to absorb battle damage helped it to several successes in the early years of the war.
Bristol Blenheim B.Mk IV Type: three-seat light bomber Powerplant: two 920-hp (686-kW) Bristol Mercury XV radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 428 km/h (266 mph) at 3595 m (11,800 ft); cruising speed 318 km/h ( 198 mph); service ceiling 8310 m
(27,260 ft); maximum range 2340 km (1,460 miles) Weights: empty 4445 kg (9,790 lb); maximum take-off 6537 kg (14,400 lb) Dimensions: span 17.17 m (56 ft 4 in); length 12.98 m (42 ft 7 in); height 2.99 m (9 ft 10 in); wing area 43.57 nr (469 sq ft) Armament: up to five 7.7-mm (0,303-m) machine-guns (one fixed in wing, two in dorsal turret, and two optional rearfiring), plus a normal bombload of 454 kg (1,000 lb)
based No, 83 Squadron sent an armed reconnaissance to the Schillig Roads on 3 September 1939, but fog forced an early return to base, In common with other RAF bombers of the period, the Hampden Mk I was grossly underarmed: defensive gunnery was limited to only three 7.7-mm (0.303-in) hand-
Handley Page Hampden Mkl of No. 106 Sqn based a t Finningley, Yorkshire in the spring of 1940. The yellow roundel has been painted out in the interests of camouflage. During this time, No. 106 Sqn flew in tensive sorties against Germany, incurring heavy losses in the process.
Specification
Thè crevv o f a Bristol Blenheim MklV board their aircraft prior to a raid. TheBlenheim was the premier light bomber of the RAF in 1939, and continued to serve until the more poten t Mosquito arrived in largescale service. Those serving overseas continued to see action until late 1942. UK
Handley Page Hampden As early as 1932, in answer to the Air Ministry specification B.9/32, a team at the Handley Page concern under G. R. Volkert designed the Handley Page HP.52, a slim twin-engine aircraft featuring a boom-type fuselage of very narrow width and considerable depth. Powered by two Bristol Pegasus PE.55(a) engines, the HP. 52 flew for the first time on 21 June 1935 with Major J.L.H.B. Cordes at the controls. The first production HP. 52, now known to the Royal Air Force as the Handley Page Hampden Mk I, flew its initial trials flight on 24 June 1938 following the issue of promising orders. The first example to serve with the RAF was passed to the Central Flying School at Upavon, and by December 1938 Nos 49, 50 and 83 Squadrons of RAF 306
Bomber Command were in the process of re-equipment. On the outbreak of war Hampden Mk I bombers were in service with Nos 44, 49, 50, 61, 83, 106, 144 and 185 Squadrons based in Lincolnshire and H u n t i n g d o n s h i r e u n d e r No. 5 (Bomber) Group. The Scampton-
held Vickers K guns. Operating within a few miles of the German coast in broad daylight soon brought repercussions. On 29 September Nos 61 and 144 Squadrons were operating over the German Bight when their Hampdens were bounced by a mixed formation of cannon-firing Messerschmitt Bf 109Es and Bf l lOCs from Jever and Nordholz: in a running battle five Hampdens were shot down. Some time later the Vickers Wellington Mk Is of Bomber Command encountered similar experiences, and the RAF was forced to commit its bomber force to nocturnal operations. On night missions the sturdy Hampden Mk I, with its respectable bombload, performed very well. The first German land base to be attacked, Hörnum near Sylt (Westerland), was raided by Hampdens on 19/20 March 1940. The type made the first attack on the industrial Ruhr in the company of Wellingtons on 11/12 May, and it took part in the first RAF bomber mission to Berlin on the night of 25/26 August 1940. Two Victoria Crosses went to crews of Hampdens: the first to Flight Lieutenant R. A.B. Learoyd (No. 49 Sqn) for action against the Dortmund-Ems canal on 12/13 August 1940, and the second to Sergeant John Hannah (No. 83 Sqn) for putting out a fire over Antwerp on 15/16 September 1940. Total production numbered 1,532, Hampden Mk Is were built by Handley Page (500), English Electric (770), and
the Canadian CAA (160); 141 Hampden Mk Is were converted to Hampden TB.Mk I torpedo-bombers, which served with Nos 144, 455 and 408 Squadrons in Coastal Command from bases in Scotland and the northern USSR during 1942; two Hampden Mk II aircraft with 1,100-hp (820-kW) Wright Cyclones were produced, The 1,000hp (745-kW) Napier Dagger VIII engine was installed in the Hampden's cousin, the Hereford: 100 were built, saw no action, and nine were converted to Hampden Mk Is. The Hampden was phased out of Bomber Command's first-line units by August 1942, but the Hampden TB.Mk I continued in service until December 1943.
Specification Handley Page Hampden Mk I Type: four-seat medium bomber Powerplant: two 980-hp (731-kW) Bristol Pegasus XVIII radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 426 km/h (265 mph) at 4725 m (15,500 ft); cruising speed 269 km/h (167 mph); climb to 4570 m (15,000 ft) in 18 minutes 55 seconds; service ceiling 6920 m (22,700 ft); maximum range 3200 km (1,990 miles) Weights: empty 5343 kg (11,780 lb); maximum take-off 9526 kg (21,000 lb) Dimensions: span 21.08 m (69 ft 2 in); length 16.33 m (53 ft 7 in); height 4.49 m (14 ft 9 in); wing area 62.06 n/
The Hampden did not have any power-operated gun turrets, and so with only hand-held guns for tail defence it was particularly vulnerable in the presence of figh ters. This is a Hampden Mkl with Bristol Pegasus engines.
(669 sq ft) Armament: initially single 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Browning and Vickers K guns in nose (fixed), nose cupola and rear dorsal and ventral stations, after January 1940 upgunned by twin 7.7mm (0,303-in) Vickers K guns in ventral and dorsal stations, plus a bombload of 1814 kg (4,000 lb)
UK
de Havilland Mosquito In October 1938 the design team under Geoffrey de Havilland, with R.E. Bishop and C.C. Walker, started work on a light bomber constructed entirely of wood to offset the demand for strategically vital materials that war would inevitably bring. After a 1940 order of 50, built to Specification B, I/ 40, the first prototype de Havilland Mosquito flew on 25 November 1940, powered by two 1,460-hp (1089-kW) Merlin 21s. It displayed the most outstanding performance from the very start, being faster than the RAF's contemporary interceptor fighters. Of the initial production batch 10 were converted to de Havilland Mosquito B.Mk IV Series I light bombers with glazed nose and internal bomb bays: the first of these, W4072, flew for the first time on 8 September 1941. The main production version was the Mosquito B.Mk IV Series II which had Merlin 21, 23 or 25 engines in lengthened nacelles. No. 105 Squadron, then based at Marham in No. 2 (Bomber) Group, received its first Mosquito B.Mk IVs in the spring of 1942. Its first mission was to Köln on 31 May 1942, the morning after the 'One Thousand Bomber' raid. Crews learned to use the Mosquito's speed as the primary method of evading enemy fighters, for the type was entirely unarmed. Low-altitude missions with shallow-dive approaches to the target soon proved to be the Mosquito bomber's forte by day, and one of No. 105 Squadron's first major attacks was a daring low-level strike on the Gestapo headquarters in Oslo. Such was the demand for Mosquitoes as reconnaissance and night-fighter aircraft that bomber units were slow in formation: by the autumn of 1942, No. 139 Squadron was working up on Mosquito B.Mk IVs. Both Nos 105 and 139 Squad-
ML963 was a Mosquito B.Mk XVI built at Ha tfield in 1944 and seen serving with No. 571 Sqn a t Oakington in Cambridgeshire. The MkXVI was a developmen t of the MklX with pressurized cockpit and extra fuel. The enlarged bomb bay enabled a 1814-kg (4,000-lb) bomb to be carried.
One of a small batch of Hatfield-built B.Mk IX high-altitude bombers, which set up a fantastic record of night missions with No. 105 Sqn. Ten aircraft reached 100 missions and two reached 200. The aircraft carries standard Bomber Command night camouflage.
rons were over Berlin on the morning of 30 January 1943, and caused fury and consternation during a series of speeches by Nazi leaders who were celebrating an anniversary of the Führer's appointment as Chancellor of the Third Reich. Reconnaissance and bomber Mosquitoes roamed over Germany and the occupied territories at will during 1943-4. The specialist Jagdgruppen Nrn 25 and 50 were formed in the Luftwaffe in 1943 with souped-up Messerschmitt Bf 109G-6 fighters, but gained no success, In Bomber Command 54 Mosquito B.Mk IVs were
modified with bulged bomb bays to carry a single 1814-kg (4,000-lb) HC bomb, and these served in the Fast Night Striking Force equipped with Oboe Mk I-III. Canada built the Mosquito B.Mk VII with 1,418-hp (1057kW) Packard Merlin 31s. Fifty-four Mosquito B.Mk IX aircraft with extra bombload and Merlin 72 engines were produced. The most efficient was the Mosquito B.Mk XVI with a pressurized cabin, comprehensive navigational equipment and a bulged bomb bay. Canada's de Havilland subsidiary also produced the Mosquito B.Mk XX and
Mosquito B.Mk 25 before the war's end. Production totalled 7,785,
Specification
de Havilland Mosquito B.Mk XVI Type: two-seat medium bomber Powerplant: two l,680-hp(1253-kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin 72 V-12 piston engines Performance: maximum speed 656 km/h (408 mph) at 7925 m (26,000 ft); cruising speed 394 km/h (245 mph); initial climb rate 853 m (2,800 ft) per minute; service ceiling 11280 m (37,000 ft); maximum range 307
( 12 ft 6 in); wing area 42.18 m2 2389 km (1,485 miles) (454 sq ft) Weights: empty 6638 kg (14,635 lb); Armament: four 227-kg (500-lb) bombs maximum take-off 10433 kg (23,000 lb) Dimensions:span. 16.51 m(54 ft2 in); internally and two more under wings, length 12.47 m (40 ft 11 in); height 3,81 m or one 1814-kg(4,000-lb)bomb
Flying with No. 139 Sqn from Marham in the early summer of 1943, this Mosquito BMklVSrs U shows the potent lines of the marque. No. 139 Sqn took its Mosquitoes to Wyton
in June that year on Pathfinder duties, Hying 'spoof attacks and conducting radar dislocation raids using 'Window' (chaff).
FRANCE
Breguet693 The Breguet 690 was designed in response to a 1934 French air ministry specification calling for a twin-engined three-seat fighter. Several manufacturers submitted proposals, and the contest was won by the Potez 630. The Breguet proposal had been heavier and more powerful than the other submissions, its designers believing it to be a more versatile, multi-role aeroplane. Design of the Breguet 690 was started in 1935 and a prototype was completed in 1937, first flying on 23 March 1938. The aircraft was found to have a performance superior to that of the Potez 630, and Breguet received a contract to supply 100 aircraft, configured as light attack bombers. The resulting Breguet 691 was a clean-looking cantilever mid-wing monoplane of all-metal construction, with two wing-mounted engines and a short fuselage nose reminiscent of that of the Bristol Beaufighter. Aft of the wing, however, the fuselage tapered to a tailplane with twin endplate fins and rudders. Conversion from Bre.690 to Bre.691 was relatively simple, the mam change being deletion of the navigator's position to provide a small bomb bay. Experience with the Bre.691 proved the Hispano-Suiza powerplants to be unreliable, and the Bre.693.01 was introduced with two Gnome-RhĂ´ne 14M-6/7 engines after only 78 Bre,691s had been built, Two hundred and thirty four examples of Righ t: This Breguet Bre. 695 was on the strength of the lere Escadrille of CBA1/51. The Bre. 695 was powered by the Pratt & Whitney Twin Wasp Junior engine, but it was severely outclassed by the German fighters it encountered. 308
Above: Formerly of CBA 1/51 of the ArmĂŠe de l'Air, this Breguet Bre. 693 is pictured after being transferred to the Regia Aeronautica in 1943. The red of the French roundels were retained, with the Italian fasces replacing the blue.
the Bre. 693 were built, later examples having two extra 7,5-mm (0.3-in) machine-guns, one installed in the tail of each engine nacelle, to improve self-defence. Foreign interest in the Bre. 690 series was cut short by the German invasion of France and the single Bre.694.01 built, intended as a threeseat reconnaissance aircraft, was delivered directly to the Aéronavale. The Bre. 694 was generally similar to the original Bre.690 with no bomb bay and a navigator's compartment, but with Gnome-Rhône 14M-4/5 engines,
The Bre.695 was virtually identical to the Bre. 693 but with Pratt & Whitney SB4G Twin Wasp Junior engines. It was felt desirable to design a version of the aircraft using foreign engines in case the supply of French powerplants was disrupted by enemy action, Fifty Bre. 695s were built, being delivered to Groupe 18 in June 1940. The Bre.696 and 697 were built only as prototypes and were respectively a two-seat light bomber and a two-seat heavy destroyer. The Breguet 693 proved extremely vulnerable and almost half were lost to enemy action,
Specification Breguet 693 Type: two-seat light attack bomber Powerplant: two 700-hp (522-kW) Gnome-Rhône 14M-6/7 radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 490 km/h (304 mph) at 5000 m (16,400 ft); maximum cruising speed 400 km/h (248 mph) at 4000 m (13,125 ft); maximum range 1350 km (839 miles) Weights: empty 3010 kg (6,636 lb); maximum take-off 4900 kg (10,803 lb) Dimensions: span 15.37 m (50 ft 5 in);
length 9.67 m (31 ft 8% in); height 3.19 m (10 ft 5% in); wing area 29,20m 2 (32sqft) Armament: one 20-mm Hispano-Smza cannon and two 7.5-mm Darne machine-guns firing forward, plus one similar gun on pivoted mount in rear cockpit, one fixed 7.5-mm gun firing obliguely aft from ventral position and (late models) two 7.5-mm guns, one in each engine nacelle firing aft, and up to 400 kg (882 lb) of bombs.
USA
Martin Model 187 Baltimore A powerful and much modified version of the Martin Maryland light bomber, the Martin Model 187 Baltimore was produced specifically to RAF orders, the first of 50 Baltimore Mk I aircraft (AG685) was shipped to the UK in October 1941 to commence trials at Burtonwood, near Liverpool. The first 150 Baltimore Mk I and Baltimore Mk II bombers were delivered without power-operated dorsal turrets, the single 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Vickers K machinegun in the Baltimore Mk Is dorsal position being replaced by a twin mount in the Baltimore Mk II. Because of the shortage of RAF medium and light bombers in RAF Middle East Command, the first Baltimores were delivered to No. 223 Squadron based at Shandur, Egypt, in January 1942, and were initially used for conversion training. The next squadron to reequip was No. 55, which took its new Baltimore Mk III bombers into action during the Battle of Gazala and the fall of Tobruk in May 1942: a poweroperated Boulton-Paul turret was installed in this version with either two or four 7,7-mm (0.303-in) Browning machine-guns. Both Nos 55 and 223 Squadrons continued to operate over Cyrenaica, being based under No. 211 Wing at Aminya along with the Douglas Boston Mk Ills of Nos 12 and 24 (SAAF) Squadrons as part of the Desert Air Force's light bomber force. Baltimores were issued to No. 21 (SAAF) Squadron and No. 1437 Flight, and for maritime reconnaissance duties to No. 69 Squadron and No, 203 Squadron. Operations by day and by night were mounted against Benghazi and Tobruk, against military camps of the Afrika Korps and on many desert airfields. After the 2nd Battle of El Alamem Baltimores continued to operate over Libya and Tunisia, before turning to the pre-mvasion bombing offensive on Luftwaffe airfields in Sicily, Pantellana and Sardinia. The type proved to be sturdy and easy to handle. In 1943, the RAF took charge of the first Baltimore Mk IIIA aircraft on Lend-Lease and produced to an USAAF order for the A-30: the mam difference was the inclusion of a Martin 250CE turret with twin 12.7-mm (0.5-m) Brownings in place of the Boulton-Paul turret. The Baltimore Mk IV (A-30A) was similar to the Baltimore Mk IIIA, while the final version, the Baltimore Mk V, had uprated Wright GR-2600 engines, and wing-mounted 12.7-mm (0.5-in) guns. Baltimores served with the RAF over Sicily and Italy until May 1945, with the Free French air force and the Italian co-belligerent air forces, while a num-
ber were sent to Turkey under LendLease, Production totalled 1,575, the last being FW880 (a Baltimore Mk V) that was issued to the RAF in May 1944.
Specification
Martin Baltimore Mk III Type: four-seat light/medium bomber Powerplant: two l,660-hp(1238-kW) Wright Cyclone GR-2600-19 radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 486 km/h (302 mph) at 3355 m (11,000 ft); climb to 4570 m (15,000 ft) in 12 minutes 0 seconds; service ceiling
7315 m (24,000 ft); normal range 1530 km (950 miles) Weights: empty 6895 kg (15,200 lb); maximum take-off 10433 kg (23,000 lb) Dimensions:span 18.69 m(61 ft4 in); length 14.77 m (48 ft 5% in) height 2 5.41 m (17 ft 9 in); wing area 50.03 m (538,5 sq ft) Armament: four 7.7-mm (0,303-in) wing-mounted Browning machineguns, two (or four) 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Brownings in dorsal turret and two 7.7mm (0.303-in) Brownings in ventral position, plus a maximum bombload of 907 kg (2,000 lb)
An ex-USAAF Martin A-3QA- IO-MA Baltimore MkV of No. 232 Wing, North-west African Tactical Air Force; comprising Nos 55 and 223 Sqns, the wing Hew the Baltimore Mk V during the Italian campaign of 1944. Among the first batch of Baltimores to arrive wasAC697, a Mkl. As it was pictured here it had been updated to Mk II standard with twin dor sal guns. The subsequen t aircraft fea tured Boulton-Paul power-operated fourgun turrets as the Baltimore Mk III.
309
USA
Martin B-26 Marauder High wing-loadings, break-neck landing speeds and malicious singleengine flying characteristics nearly put paid to the career of the Martin B-26 Marauder in October 1942 when a US Army Air Force committee was called in to investigate its future, However, certain improvements were made and the B-26 went on to become one of the USAAF's medium bomber stalwarts. In the competition for medium and light bombers for the US Army Air Corps of January 1939, the Glenn L. M a r t i n Company was awarded a contract for 200 B-26 aircraft, Going all out for speed, designer Peyton M. Magruder produced an aircraft with torpedo-like fuselage, two huge engines, tricycle landing gear and stubby wings. Powered by two Pratt & Whitney R-2800-5 engines the prototype B-26 first flew on 25 November 1940, by which time orders for 1,131 B-26A and B-26B bombers had been received. The first B-26s and B26As were passed to the US 22nd Bombardment Group at Langley Field in February 1941. With the outbreak of war the 22nd BG was the only unit with B-26s and, after service at Muroc, California, the group was sent to Brisbane, Australia, to operate against the Japanese in the South West Pacific Area: the 22nd BG made its first raid on Rabaul on 5 April 1942, in addition to frequent attacks on Lae, Salamaua, and Buna. In the epic Battle of Midway four B-26As with torpedoes attacked the Japanese fleet, flown by pilots drawn from the 22nd and 38th Groups. The B-25 Mitchell was more successful than the B-26 in this theatre, and by Though frequently criticized on account of its tricky handling qualities, the B-26 packed a heavy punch and was widely used by the USAAF in Europe. ThisB-26Bofthe 598th Bomb Sqn, 397th Bomb Wing, pictured during the invasion of Normandy, displays an impressive tally on the nose.
Mara uders served on only two RAF squadrons, both in the Mediterranean; the short-span Marauder MkI shown here flew with
No. 14 Sqn in North Africa from August 1942 to September 1944. Later, the long-span Marauder Mk 111 served with No. 39 Sqn.
early 1943 the 22nd BG had been reequipped. The B-26B came into the war in May 1942, powered by R-28005, R-2800-41 or R-2800-43 engines, without the spinners of the B-26A, with extra armour and guns, and with enlarged wing span on the 642nd and following production aircraft. Martin's Omaha subsidiary made the B-26C, which was identical with the increased-span B-26B. The B-26 saw service in the Aleutians in 1942, and in the Western Desert under RAF Middle East Command as the Marauder Mk I ( B - 2 6 A ) , Marauder Mk IA (B-26B), and Marauder Mk II (B-26C), No. 14 Squadron being the first recipient. The type was used by the Free French Air Force, the SAAF, and as AT-23A and JM-1 target tugs by the US Army and US Navy, Four groups of the US 8th Air Force arrived in England in March 1943, flew low-level attacks over
heavily defended targets and paid the price: on 17 May 1943 the 322nd BG was wiped out on the Ijmuiden strike. Adopting medium-level pattern bombing, the B-26B and B-26C (with the US VIII Air Support Command, and later the US 9th Air Force) were the backbone of the Allied medium bomber forces to the end of the war in Europe, Total production was 4,708.
Specification
Martin B-26B Marauder Type: seven-seat medium bomber Powerplant: two 2,000-hp (1491-kW) Pratt & Whitney R-2800-41 radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 510 km/h (317 mph) at 4420 m (14,500 ft); cruising speed 418 km/h (260 mph); climb to 4570 m (15,000 ft) in 12 minutes 0 seconds; service ceiling 7165 m (23,500 ft); range 1850 km (1,150 miles)
A Martin B-26B-40 of the 444th Sqn, 320th BG based at Decimomannu, Sardinia, in 1944. The Marauder was widely used in Italy, its high speed and agility suiting it to penetrating heavy defences. The original aircraft letter shows through thehastilyapplied olive-drab finish. Weights: empty 10152 kg (22,380 lb); maximum take-off 15513 kg (34,200 lb) Dimensions: span 19.81 m (65 ft 0 in); length 17,75 m (58 ft 3 in); height 6.04 m (19 ft 10 in); wing area 55,93 m2 (602 sq ft) Armament: two 7.7-mm (0.3-in) Browning machine-guns (one each in nose and ventral stations) or two 12,7mm (0,5-in) M2 machine-guns in beam positions instead of ventral gun, and four 12.7-mm (0.5-in) guns (two each in dorsal turret and in tail station), plus a maximum bombload of 2359 kg (5,200 lb)
JAPAN
Mitsubishi Ki-21 The Mitsubishi Ki-21 (Army Type 97 Heavy Bomber) was produced by engineers Nakata and Ozawa in response to an operational specification issued by the Air Headquarters (Daihonei) of the JAAF on 15 February 1936. The first of two prototypes flew on 18 December 1936, the first production model being the Mitsubishi Ki-21la (Army Type 97 Model 1A). Because of production bottlenecks it was not until the end of 1939 that Ki-21-la bombers equipped the first JAAF unit, the 60th Hikosentai (air regiment) based in China, in totality; the next unit to be equipped was the 61st Sentai. Early lessons learned over China demonstrated lack of firepower and protection, and the Ki-21-Ib and Ki-21-Ic subvariants had extra armour, additional 7,7-mm (0.3-in) Type 89 machine-guns, more fuel and larger bomb-bays, The engines were 850-hp (634-kW) Nakajima Ha-5 KAI radiais. By the time of the outbreak of war in December 1941, the majority of the Mitsubishi Ki-21-Ia, Ki-21-Ib and Ki-21-Ic bombers had been relegated to second-line duties, or to service as operational bomber trainers. First-line bomber sentais had by now received the more powerful Ki-21-II, with 1,500-hp (1119-kW) Mitsubishi Ha-101 engines in modified cowlings: production models in ser-
vice in 1941 were the Ki-21-IIa (Army Type 97 Heavy Bomber Model 2A), and the Ki-21-IIb which had a pedaloperated dorsal turret with one 12.7mm (0.5-in) Type 1 heavy machinegun. Three sentais remained in Japan, Korea and in Manchuria when the Japanese high command went to war in South East Asia. For operations over the Philippines the JAAF's 5th Air Group, based in Formosa, mustered the 14th and 62nd Hikosentais; these went into action early on the morning of 8 December 1941 striking at Aparri, Tuguegarao, Vigan and other targets in Luzon. Mitsubishi Ki-2 Is of the 3rd Air Group, based in French IndoChina, were earmarked for bombing strikes against Siam (Thailand) and Malaya: units were the 12th, 60th and 98th Hikosentais. These smashed RAF and RAAF facilities at Alor Star, Sungei P a t a n i and B u t t e r w o r t h , being
escorted by Nakajima Ki-27 and Ki-43 fighters. In the flush of Japanese victory in 1941-2 the Mitsubishi Ki-21, codenamed 'Sally', performed well; only over Rangoon over December 1941 and January 1942 did the Ki-2 Is suffer heavy casualties. The Ki-21-IIb was the final model to enter service, which was seen on all fronts in the Pacific and Far East theatres, Some 2,064 Ki-2 Is were built, Specification Mitsubishi Ki-21-lib Type: five-seat medium bomber Powerplant: two 1,500-hp (1119-kW) Mitsubishi Ha-101 (Army Type 100) radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 486 km/h (302 mph) at 4720 m (15,485 ft); cruising speed 380 km/h (236 mph); climb to 6000 m (19,685 ft) in 13 minutes 13 seconds; service ceiling
Mitsubishi Ki-21-lib of the Imperial Japanese Army. This type was virtually obsolescent at the outbreak of the Pacific war but it soldiered on until 1945, scoring many notable successes before finally ending its active life on kamikaze attacks. 10000 m (32,810 ft); maximum range 2700 km (1,680 miles) Weights: empty 6070 kg (13,382 lb); maximum take-off 10610 kg (23,391 lb) Dimensions: span 22.50 m (73 ft 9% in); length 16.00 m (52 ft 6 in); height 4.85 m (15 ft 11 in); wing area 69.6 n/ (749,16 sq ft) Armament: five single manuallyoperated 7.7-mm Type 89 machineguns (in nose, tail, ventral and two beam stations) and one 12.7-mm (0.5in) Type 1 machine-gun (in dorsal position), plus a maximum bombload of 1000 kg (2,205 lb)
JAPAN
Nakajima Ki-49 Donryu The Nakajima Ki-49 Donryu (storm dragon) was designed early in 1938 to replace the JAAF's successful Mitsubishi Ki-21 heavy bomber which, in fact, was only just entering service with sentais based in China and Manchuria, Later code-named 'Helen', the Nakajima Ki-49 was a workmanlike design but was destined to be just not good enough for the conditions prevailing over the various fronts in 1942, when the initial production Ki-49-I (Army Type 100 Heavy Bomber Model 1) started operations with the 61st Hikosentai in China. Production was preceded by the flight of the first prototype in August 1939, powered by two 950-hp (708-kW) Nakajima Ha-5 KAI radiais: the more powerful 1,250-hp (932-kW) Ha-41 radial engines were installed in pre-production versions, and in the Ki-49-I bomber. In appearance the 'Helen1 was deceptive in size, for it appeared to be a comparatively large aircraft because of its proportions: actually, its dimensions were similar to those of the Lockheed Hudson. However, a crew of seven or eight was crammed into the narrow fuselage. In the spring of 1942 the usual steps were taken to increase performance, protection and defensive firepower. The Nakajima Ki-49-IIa (Army Type 100 Heavy Bomber Model 2A), the first of the new series, was powered by two Nakajima Ha-109 radial engines with increased ratings. The aircraft was fast, well protected by 5mm (0.2-in) armour plating and rubberized fuel cells, and heavily armed. The Ki-49-IIb was upgunned with 12.7-mm (0.5-in) Ho-103 machineguns, Both the Ki-49-IIa and Ki-49-IIb were in action with the 7th and 61st Sentais based in China in the summer of 1942, and made many attacks on Chungking and air bases of General C, L, Chennault's China Air Task Force. 'Helen' bombers equipped the 12th
Sentai, based at Medan and Sabang (Sumatra) under the 3rd Air Army, and these attacked objectives in Burma and eastern India, joining Ki-2 Is on some occasions in raids on Calcutta. In 1943 the KĂŒ-61S of the 7th and 61st Sentais, now operating from Timor, attacked Darwin to face strong reaction by the Supermarine Spitfire Mk VCs of No. 1 Fighter Wing. Units equipped with Ki-49s suffered most in New Guinea, where 4th Air Army came under constant attack on its airfields at Wewak, But and Dagua after August 1943, when the RAAF and the US 5th Air Force went onto the offensive, Six Ki-49-III bombers, powered by very potent 2,420-hp (1805-kW) engines, were built as prototypes. Other variants produced in experimental form were the Ki-58 escort fighter, and the Ki-80 escort bomber. Total production amounted to 819 aircraft. After action in the Philippines in 1944, Ki-49s were used with increasing frequency on suicide missions.
13 minutes 39 seconds; service ceiling 9300 m (30,510 ft); maximum range 2950 km (1,835 miles) Weights: empty 6530 kg (14,396 lb); maximum take-off 11400 kg (25,133 lb) Dimensions: span 20.42 m (67 ft 0 in); length 16.50 m (54 ft 1 Vz in); height 4.25 m (13 ft 1114 in); wing area 69,05m2 (743.24 sq ft) Armament: five single manuallyoperated 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Type 89 machine-guns (in nose, tail, ventral and two beam stations) and one flexible 20-mm Ho-1 cannon in dorsal turret, plus a maximum bombload of 1000 kg (2,205 lb)
A Ki-49-IIa of the 3rd Chutai, 95th Sentai, operating in north east China during September 1944. The 'palmfrond'camouflage was applied in the field.
Despite its Japanese designation of 'heavy bomber', the Nakajima Ki-49 had a maxim um bombload of only 1000 kg (2,205 lb). Itsawmuch action but suffered at the hands of Allied fighters due to lack of performance.
Specification
Nakajima Ki-49-IIa Donryu Type: seven/eight-seat medium bomber Powerplant: two l,450-hp(1081-kW) Nakajima Ha-109 (Army Type 2) radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 492 km/h (306 mph) at 5000 m (16,405 ft); cruising speed 350 km/h (217 mph); climb to 5000 m (16,405 ft) in 311
JAPAN
Mitsubishi Ki-67 Hiryu Fortunately for the Allies in the latter stages of the Pacific war, comparatively few of the formidable Mitsubishi Ki67 Hiryu (flying dragon) medium bombers and torpedo-bombers, codenamed 'Peggy' by air intelligence, were encountered in action. Produc-. tion was limited and got off to a late start in the war, and by the time of its service debut in 1944 the Ki-67's potency was negated both by Allied fighter superiority and by the poor quality of the JAAF and JNAF crews which operated it. To take the place of the Mitsubishi Ki-21 'Sally' and the Nakajima Ki49 'Helen', the Air Office (Koku Hombu) issued specifications for a new bomber to the Mitsubishi concern in November 1940, The work was led by Chief Engineer Ozawa on an aircraft based on the beautiful Japanese lines and powered by the new generation of powerful Ha-100 double-row 18cylmder radial engines. Three prototypes of the Ki-67-I were completed between December 1942 and March 1943, the first making its initial flight on 27 December 1942. The Ki-67-I proved to be fast (though not as fast as originally specified), and extremely manoeuvrable with loops and barrel-rolls being carried out with ease in an unloaded configuration. Although adopted for service as the Army Type 4 Heavy Bomber, such was the promise of the Ki-67-I that even the Imperial Japanese Navy was impressed, and made early representations to Mitsubishi. On 5 January 1943 Mitsubishi received an order to convert 100 Ki-49s as torpedo-bombers, with internal racks capable of handling the standard 450-mm (17,7-in) Navy Type 91 Model II aerial torpedo: these saw service with the 762nd Kokutai (air group) from the autumn of 1944 onwards. The Ki-67I was issued in small numbers to the veteran 7th, 14th, 16th, 61st, 62nd, 74th, 98th and 110th Hikosentais (air regiments) and saw limited action over Chi-
na, Biak and Sansapor in north western New Guinea, and Sumatra in the summer of 1944. The type was recognized as such for the first time by the Allies in October 1944, during the US 3rd Fleet's attacks on Formosa and the Ryukyus where the Hiryu served in the 8th Hikoshidan (air division) based on Formosa under navy control, Thereafter Ki-67-Is were encountered over the Philippines, off Iwo Jima, in the strikes on the US 20th Air Force's bases on Saipan and Tinian, and in the Okinawa campaign where it was used as a suicide aircraft. For suicide missions the JAAF used modified Peggys known as the Ki-61-I KAI with armament removed and a solid nose packed with explosive. Only two of the more powerful Ki-67-II variant were made, production of army and navy Ki-67-Is amounting to 696. It was the best Japanese medium bomber of World War II. Specification Mitsubishi Ki-67-I Hiryu Type: six/eight-seat medium bomber and torpedo-bomber Powerplant: l,900-hp(1417-kW) Mitsubishi Ha-104 (Army Type 4) radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 537 km/h (334 mph) at 6000 m (19,685 ft); cruising speed 400 km/h (249 mph); climb to 6000 m (19,685 ft) in 14 minutes 30 seconds; service ceiling
ITALY
CANT Z. 1007 Airone Along with the Savoia-Marchetti S.M.79, the CANT Z.1007 Airone (heron) series of bombers served as the backbone of the Regia Aeronautica's conventional and torpedo strike forces in World War II. Under the aegis of the firm of CANT (Gantier^ Riuniti dell' Adriatico), Ingeniere Filippo Zappata began design studies of the CANT Z.1007 and Z.1011 in 1935: both were powered by 625-kW (840hp) Isotta-Fraschini Asso XI RC. 15 engines, for which the former had three and the latter two, The relatively low power ratings of this engine forced the Regia Aeronautica to order the trimotor CANT Z, 1007 for production, the first prototype flying in March 1937. The aircraft was constructed entirely of wood, save for the usual metal ancillaries and nacelle cladding, The first examples had two-bladed wooden propellers, but all later versions adopted the three-bladed metal Alfa Romeo types. In 1938, as a means to better load and performance, the CANT Z.1007bis entered production, having three 745-kW (1,000-hp) Piaggio B.XIbis RC.40 radial engines as standard. The CANT Z. 1007bis was the major production model, and featured revised armament, engine cowlings and dimensions. A single fin and rud312
Above: This CANTZ.1007bis served with 230* Squadriglia, 95° Gruppo, 3S°Stormoin Greece, February 1941. Known as the Airone (heron), the type was built in both single- and twin-finned versions. Right: Owing to its weak gun defence and poor performance, the CANT Z. 1007 was a sitting duck for Allied fighters, but the type served until late 1943 in the Mediterranean and on the Russian front. der was used on the Z. 1007 Serie I-Ili, with a twin fin-rudder format being adopted on the Z.1007 Serie IV-IX subtypes. When Italy entered the war on 10 June 1940 the Regia Aeronautica had
9470 m (31,070 ft); maximum range 3800km (2,360 miles) Weights: empty 8649 kg ( 19,068 kg) maximum take-off 13765 kg (30,346 lb) Dimensions: span 22.50 m (73 ft 9% in); length 18.70 m1 (61 ft 41A in); height 2 7.70 m (25 ft 3 A in); wing area 65.85 m (708.86 sq ft) Armament: four 12.7-mm (0.5-in) Type 1 machine-guns (one each in nose, two beam blisters, and tail turret) and one 20-mm Ho-5 cannon in dorsal turret, plus a maximum bombload of 800 kg (1,765 lb), or one Type 91 or Type 94 torpedo
Mitsubishi Ki- 67-1 of the Imperial Japanese Army. During the closing months of the war, these aircraft had their noses packed with explosives for use as kamikaze aircraft.
Built along classic Japanese lines, the Ki-67 was an impressive aircraft but its service was limited due to its late arrival in the war. Ar marnent consisted of four machine-guns and a 20-mm cannon.
87 CANT Z. 1007 and Z.1007bis bombers in commission, of which 38 were serviceable, These served with the 16° and 47° Stormi da Bombardamento Terrestre stationed at Vicenza and Ghedi in northern Italy. These units saw first action against Greek forces in October 1940, before turning their energies to anti-shipping strikes off Crete and North Africa, and on medium-level day and night bombing raids on Malta. Subsequently the type was employed by the 8°, 9°, 27°, 30° Stormi, and by the 41°, 51°, 59°, 87°, 90°, 95° and 107° Gruppi BT plus two squadriglie. During the climax of the
Malta battles in May 1942, CANT Z. 1007s took heavy casualties from the RAF's newly-arrived Supermarine Spitfire Mk VC fighters; similar losses were experienced during the epic 'Harpoon' and 'Pedesta' convoy battles of the summer, Dwindling numbers were on hand to attempt to counter the Allied landings in Sicily in July 1943, and by the time of the armistice in September only a few were still available, these continuing to fight both with the RSI (Fascist regime) and the Italian co-belligerent air forces. Thirtyfive CANT Z. 1007ters were produced; production of the CANT Z. 107bis and
Z.1007ter (Piaggio P.XIX engines) amounted to 526.
Specification
CANT Z. lOOTbis Alcione Type: five-seat medium bomber Powerplant: three l,000-hp(745-kW) Piaggio P. XIRC, 40 radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 455 km/h (283 mph) at 4600 m (15,090 ft); cruising speed 338 km/h (210 mph); climb to 6000 m (19,685 ft) in 16 minutes 8 seconds; service ceiling 7500 m (24,605 ft); normal range 1795 km (1,115 miles)
Weights: empty 9396 kg (20,715 lb); maximum take-off 13621 kg (30,029 lb) Dimensions: span 24.80 m (81 ft 4Va in); length 18.35 m (60 ft 2Vz in); height 2 5,22 m (17 ft 1 '/a in); wing area 70,0 m (753.47 sq ft) Armament: two 12.7-mm(0.5-in) Breda-SAFAT or Scotti machine-guns (one each in dorsal turret and ventral step) and two 7.7-mm (0.303-in) BredaSAFAT guns in beam positions, plus a maximum bombloadof 1200 kg (2,646 lb) or two 450-mm ( 17.7-in) torpedoes
ITALY
Fiat B.R.20 Cicogna A well designed and sturdy medium bomber, the Fiat B.R.20 Cicogna (stork) series fell nevertheless into that category which was nearing obsolescence by the outbreak of World War II. Designed by Ingemere Celestino Rosatelli, and owing much of its parentage to the sleek Fiat APR. 2 commercial transport, the Fiat B. R. 20 prototype flew first on 10 February 1936. The first unit of the Regia Aeronautica to receive B.R,20s was the 13° Stormo BT stationed at Lo nate Pozzo lo: the 7° Stormo BT, also at Lonate, received Fiat B. R. 20s in February 1937. Powered by two 1,000-hp (745-kW) Fiat A, 80 RC.41 radial engines, the B.R.20 possessed a m a x i m u m speed o f 430 k m / h (267 mph) at 4000m (13,125ft), and was armed with two 7.7-mm (0.303-in) and one 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machineguns. Elements of the 7° and 13° Stormi BT were despatched to Spain in May 1937 for combat experience, while other B.R.20s were exported to Japan, and saw service with indifferent results in China and Manchuria as the JAAF's Army Type 1 Model 100 Heavy bomber. Modified nose contours, increased armour protection and revised armament featured in the B.R.20M, of which 264 were ultimately produced. When Italy declared war on 10 June 1940 the Regia Aeronautica had 162 Fiat B.R,20s and B.R.20Ms in commission with the 7°, 13°, 18° and 43° Stormi BT. The first bombing mission was made on 13 June when 19 B.R,20Msof the 13° Stormo BT attacked installations at Hyères and Fayence in southern France. A detachment of 80 B.R.20MS of the 13° and 43° Stormi BT were sent to the Belgian airfields of Chieveres and Melsbroeck in late September 1940 to assist the Luftwaffe in its bombing campaign against Eng-
Above/An early BR.20M belonging to the 277* Squadriglia, 116° Gruppo, 37° Stormo based at Crottaglie, south Italy late in 1940. The unit served over the Greco-Albanian front during the invasion of Greece.
Right: TheFiatBR.20 was an unimaginative design with no better than mediocre performance. It was widely used early in the war on account of its useful bomb load, but lack of defensive armament made it extremely vulnerable. land. As part of the Corpo Aereo Italiano the B.R.20Ms suffered losses as a result of crew failings and fighter attacks, The campaign in Greece saw the 116° Gruppo (37° Stormo) in action from bases in Albania, followed by action over Crete, and on a day and night attacks against Malta. In the USSR B.R.20MS of the 38a and 116a Squadriglie operated from August 1942 in the southern sector, Fifteen of the improved B.R.20bis model were produced. These were powered by two 1,250-hp (932-kW) Fiat A. 82 RC.42S engines, had additional 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns
and a power-operated dorsal turret. Early in 1943 the B.R.20M bomber had been withdrawn from active service with the Regia Aeronautica, units being re-equipped either with CANT Z. 1007s or with Savoia-Marchetti S.M.79S, Production totalled 602 of all marks.
Specification
Fiat B.R.20M Cicogna Type: five-seat medium bomber Powerplant: two 1,000-hp (745-kW) Fiat A. 80 RC. 41 radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 440 km/h (273 mph) at sea level;
cruising speed 340 km/h (211 mph); climb to 6000 m ( 19,685 ft) in 25 minutes 0 seconds; service ceiling 8000 m (26,245 ft); maximum range 2750 km (1,709 miles) Weights: empty 6500 kg (14,330 lb); maximum take-off 10100 kg (22,270 lb) Dimensions: span 21.56 m (70 ft 8% in); length 16.68 m (54 ft 8 in); height 4.75 m ( 15 ft 7 in); wing area 74.00 n/ (796.5 sq ft) Armament: three 12,7-mm (0.5-in) Breda-SAFAT machine-guns (in nose, dorsal turret and ventral gun stations), plus a maximum bombload of 1600 kg (3,528 lb)
GERMANY
Dornier Do 17 and Do 215 Much propaganda value was gained by the Luftwaffe during the years before World War II by the emphasis of speed on selected aircraft, The truth was that most were stripped-down quasi-commercial transports or mail carriers, and their record-breaking performance bore little resemblance to that of service versions. Ordered in quantity production, the Dornier Do 17E-1 bomber and the Do 17F-1 reconnaissance aircraft saw service in the formative years of the Luftwaffe. The outbreak of war saw these models superseded by the primary version, the Do 17Z-1 and Do 17Z-2
bombers, and the lighter Do 17M-1 reconnaissance version, the last equipping many Fernaufklärungsgruppen by September 1939. The Dornier Do
DornierDol7Z-2oflO.(Kroat)/KG3 deployed on the central sector of the Eastern Fron t in December 1941. KG 2 and KG 3 continued to operate the
Dol7Z until late 1942, but the type had been largely withdrawn from fron t-line service by early 1941. 313
Above: These two Dormer Do 17Zs of KG 2 are seen during the campaign against the Low Countries. The type faired well in these early battles, but when more professional defence was encountered, such as that over England in 1940, the aircraft was found to be lacking and was soon relegated to less dangerous roles. 17Z bombers equipped nine Kampfgruppen on the outbreak of war: I and II/KG 2 at Liegmtz; II and HI/KG 3 at Heiligenbeil; I and HI/KG 76 at Wels and Wiener-Neustadt; and I-III/KG 77 at Prague-Kbely, Olmutz and Brunn, numbering about 370 in total. Elements of these units provided much of the Luftwaffe's striking force when Poland was invaded on 1 S e p t e m b e r . Although not conspicuously fast, the Dormer Do 17Z could be handled much like a fighter, being very light on the controls: structurally it was tough, and it soon surprised its opponents by being able to evade attacks by wheeling into a wing-over and plummeting down in a dive often in excess of 610 km/h (380 mph). In Poland Do 17Z1s and Do 17Z-2s made many very lowlevel strikes on airfields and military installations. Gradually superseded by the Junkers Ju 88A, the Dormer Do 17Z-2 (the variant built in the largest numbers) saw extensive service with Kampfgeschwader Nrn 2, 3 and 76 during the assault on the West in May 1940, in attacks on shipping off Dunkirk, during the massive raids of the summer of 1940 against England, and in the nocturnal Blitz of the autumn and winter of 1940. By the time of the Balkans campaign in April 1941, Do 17Z-2s served only with KG 2 and HI/KG 3, but continued in service in the fighting over Greece and Crete during the summer, After serving with grea t success in the Spanish Civil War, the next action for the DornierDo 17 was during the attack on Poland in 1939, where this example is seen. Operating virtually unopposed, the Do 17s made many devastating low-level attacks on military installa tions. 314
before taking part in the Soviet campaign. Export versions saw service with the air forces of Finland and Yugoslavia. By November 1942 the type had been withdrawn from firstline units. Limited service was seen by the Do 215B series, which were powered by two 1,075-hp (802-kW) Daimler-Benz DB 601A-1 inverted V12 engines: built primarily for export, 112 Do 215Bs were produced, including small numbers of Do 215B-4 reconnaissance-bombers. Total production of Dormer Do 17Zs amounted to around 1,200.
Specification
DornierDol7Z-2 Type: five-seat medium bomber Powerplant: two 1,000 hp (745 kW) Bramo Fafmr 323P radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 410km/h(255mph)at4000m(13,125ft); cruising speed 270 km/h (168 mph); service ceiling 8200 m (26,905 ft); maximum range 1500 km (932 miles) Weights: empty 5200 kg (11,465 lb); maximum take-off 8590 kg (18,940 lb) Dimensions: span 18,00 m (59 ft OVa in); length 15.80 m (51 ft 9% in); height
DornierDo 17Z-2 of Stab III Gruppe, KG 3 based at Heiligenbeil in East Prussia during September 1939. Such aircraft were heavily committed to the assault on Poland alongside the Junkers Ju 87 divebombers. 4.60 m (15 ft 1 in); wing area 55.00 m2 (592.0 Isq ft) Armament: four (later up to eight) 7,92mm (0.31-in) MG 15 machine-guns in windscreen, nose, beam, ventral and dorsal stations, plus a bombload of 1,000 kg (2,205 lb)
USSR
TupolevSB-2 The two ANT-40 light bomber prototypes of Andrei N. Tupolev's design bureau were years ahead of their time when they first flew in October 1934: the all-metal construction, enclosed cockpit and retractable landing gei were then comparatively novel fee? tures. Indeed the ANT-40's maximum speed of 325 km/h (202 mph) at operating height was faster than the biplane interceptor fighters that equipped most of the peacetime air forces. The initial production version as selected for export and service with the V-VS was based on the second prototype, and was known as the Tupolev SB-2 (skorostnoi bombardirovshchik, or fast bomber); the engines were two 830-hp (619-kW) licence-built Hispano-Suiza 12Ybr engines, termed M-100 by Soviet industry, and initially thes< were fitted with two-bladed fixed pitch propellers. The first SB-2s were passed to the V-VS's bomber aviation regiments in February 1936, and in October of that year the first of 210 were transferred with Soviet crews to Spain to fight on the side of the Republican air force against the insurgent Nationalists. Over Spam the performance of the SB-2 caused considerable concern to the Nationalist fighter units which were equipped with Heinkel He 51 and Fiat CR.32 biplanes, and the urgent call went out for fighters of better speed and climb properties. At t time SB-2s were passed to the Chinese Nationalist air force to fight aganst the Japanese, and to Czechoslovakia, where the type went into licensed manufacture as the B.71 bomber. In general the SB-2 performed well until faced with sterner fighter opposition, which occurred over Spain in 1938 and in particular over Finland during the Winter War of 1939-40, when many were shot down. Steps were taken to improve performance by installing the 860-hp (641-kW) M-100 A engine with variable-pitch propellers, Increased fuel capacity and two 960-hp (716-kW) M-103 engines were installed in the Tupolev SB-2bis, the performance of which was improved by three-bladed VISh-22 propellers. In addition to the PS-40 and PS-41 transport versions the SB-RK (Arkhangelsk!! Ar-2) was a modified SB-2bis dive-bomber with reduced wing area and powered by two supercharged M-105R engines. The SB-2's record as a day bomber came to an abrupt end during the fierce fighting following the German invasion of the USSR on 22 June 1941. Those that were not destroyed on the ground ventured into the air on numerous and gallantly-flown missions over the front line, and paid a heavy price to the Luftwaffe's Messerschmitt Bf 109F fighters. Thereafter the SB-2 and SB-2bis bombers were relegated to night work with the V-VS and the Soviet naval air arm. Production amounted to 6,967 of all marks,
Late production Tupolev SB-2bis with faired-over dorsal position. The type hada usefulbombloadoflOOO kg(2,205 lb).
Tupolev SB-2bis with dorsal turret and hand-held machine-gun in the ventral position.
The Tupolev SB-2 was painfully undergunned, and fell in large numbers over Finland and the Eastern Fron t.
100 V-12 piston engines Performance: maximum speed 410 km/h (255 mph) at 4000 m (13,125 ft); service ceiling 8500 m (27,885 ft); normal range 1200 km (746 miles)
Weight: loaded 5732 kg (12,636 lb) Dimensions: span 20.33 m (66 ft 8Vz in); length 12.27 m (40 ft 3V* in); height 2 3.25 m (10 ft 8 in); wing area 51.95 m (559,2 sq ft) Armament: two 7.62-mm (0.3-in)
ShKAS machine-guns in nose turret, one 7,62-mm (0.3-in) ShKAS in dorsal station (or turret), and one 7.62-mm (0.3-in) ShKAS in ventral position, plus a maximum bombload of 1000 kg (2,205 lb)
Specification
Type: three-seat light/medium bomber Powerplant: two 830-hp (619-kW) MA Tupolev SB-2 in landing configuration, displaying the broad wing and tail surfaces which characterized the type. The SB-2 had earlier fought in the Spanish Civil War, but it was outclassed during World War II, falling in enormous numbers. 315
USSR
PetlyakovPe-2 Arriving in small numbers in the ranks of the V-VS to witness the mass devastation of the summer of 1941, the Petlyakov Pe-2 was destined to become the best Soviet light bomber of World War II. The aircraft was derived from V.M. Petlyakov's VI-100 pressurized high-altitude twin-engined interceptor, which displayed a phenomenal top speed of 623 km/h (387 mph) at 10000 m (32,810 ft), had a crew of two and was powered by 1,100-hp (820kW) M-105R V-12 engines. The VI-100 first flew on 7 May 1939. With the approach of war in Europe the V-VS made urgent requests for divebomber aircraft, and to this end the design bureau adapted the VI-100 fighter by removing the TK-3 highaltitude turbo-chargers, fitting standard M-105R engines, lattice type dive-brakes, and giving the tailplane pronounced dihedral to increase stability. Two prototype PB-100 (pikiruyushchn bombar dir ovshchik, or dive-bomber) aircraft were built with these items installed in addition to an extensively glazed nose and defensive armament. This type became the Petlyakov Pe-2 light bomber and divebomber. The crew of three (pilot, bombardier and air-gunner) sat under a long glazed canopy with 9-mm (0.35in) armour protection, Initial armament consisted of two fixed 7.62-mm (0.3-in) ShKAS guns in the nose, one in the dorsal station, and a fourth in the ventral aimed by a 120° vision periscope. The M-105R engines drove threebladed VISh-61 propellers. The aircraft proved to be fast, highly manoeuvrable, but was quite demanding to novice pilots under asymmetric conditions. By the time of the German invasion in June 1941 some 458 Pe-2s had been produced from the factories, but it is suspected that deliveries to service units was tardy. Certainly, even
316
by September 1941 the numbers of Pe2s in front-line units were few: Colonel General IS. Konev's Western Front had only five in commission with which to stem the German assault on Moscow, and the establishment of Pe-2s with the Bryansk and Kalinin Fronts was even lower. Although limited in numbers, Pe-2s contributed to the victories of the Soviet winter offensive of 1941-2, and were seen in increasing numbers during the defensive battles at Leningrad, Kharkov, Rostov, and in the Stalingrad campaign. Late in 1942 came the improved Pe-2FT with 1,260hp (940-kW) Klimov M-105PF engines, and a 12.7-mm (0.5-in) ÜBT machinegun in a dorsal turret. The Pe-2I and Pe-2M were fighter-bombers, powered by 1,620-hp (1,208-kW) VK107A engines, The reconnaissance version was the Pe-2R, whilst a dual-
Above: Petlyakov Pe-2 of the V-VS. The Pe-2 was referred to often as the 'Russian Mosquito' due to its versatility of roles, and its ability to carry them all out excellently.
Below: Many Soviet aircraft carried legends, often as they were 'gift' aircraft from collectives and organizations.
control trainer was termed the Pe-2UT. The aircraft saw distinguished service in every major Soviet campaign from 1941 to 1945, including operations in Manchuria against the Japanese in September 1945. A total of 11,427 Pe-2s and Pe-3s (the fighter version) was produced.
Weights: empty 5876 kg (12,943 lb); maximum take-off 8496 kg (18,730 lb) Dimensions: span 17.16 m (56 ft 3l/2 in); length 12.66 m (41 ft GVz in); height 4,0 m (13 ft P/a in); wing area 40.50 m2 (436 sq ft) Armament: two fixed 7.62-mm (0.3-in) ShKAS machine-guns or one 7.62-mm ShKAS and one 12.7-mm (0.5-in) Beresin ÜBT machine-gun in nose, and single 7,62-mm (0.3-in) ShKASor 12.7mm (0.5-in) ÜBT machine-guns in dorsal and in ventral stations, plus a maximum bombload of 1200 kg (2,646 lb)
Specification Petlyakov Pe-2 Type: three-seat light/medium bomber and dive-bomber Powerplant: two 1,100-hp (820-kW) Klimov M- 105R V-12 piston engines Performance: maximum speed 540 km/h (336 mph) at 5000 m (16,405 ft); cruising speed 428 km/h (266 mph); climb to 5000 m (16,405 ft) in 7 minutes 0 seconds; service ceiling 8800 m (28,870 ft); normal range 1500 km (932 miles)
High-level bombing was never a forte oftheSoviet air forces, and in the bombing role the Pe-2 was confined largely to medium-level and dive-bombing, proving to be a fast and elusive target.
USSR
TupolevTu-2 The origin of the Tupolev Tu-2 lay in the ANT-58, ANT-59 and ANT-60 light bomber prototypes that came from the design bureau of Andrei N. Tupolev during 1938-40: powered by two 1,400hp (1044-kW) Mikulm AM-37 V-12 engines, the ANT-58 made its first flight on 29 January 1941 with- M.P. Vasyakm at the controls. The ANT-60 was re-engined with the big and powerful 1,480-hp (1104-kW) M-82 radiais because of the relative unreliability of the AM-37s. The result was the definitive Tu-2 bomber that was to see service with the V-VS during the last year of World War II and well into the 1950s, Soviet industry was still in a state of upheaval following the terrible years of 1941-2, when the German army struck deep into Belorussia and the Ukraine. The Tu-2 was too complicated an aircraft for the conditions prevailing, and after many months in which the Tu-2 was modified and simplified for the mass production lines, the Tu-2S (Seriinyi, or series) appeared, flying for the first time on 26 August 1943. A small number of Tu-2s had previously been passed to frontline regiments in September 1942, where their performance, armament and bombload had received general enthusiasm. By January 1944 the first production Tu-2 and Tu-2S bombers had been passed to the regiments of the V-VS, but it was not until June ofthat year that Tu-2s saw action on a large scale. The sector was the Karelian (Finnish) front in the north where the V-VS forces, under the overall command of General A.A. Novikov, numbered 757 aircraft of the 13th VA (Air Army), the V-VS KBF (Red Banner Baltic Fleet) and the 2nd GV IAK (guards fighter corps), Of the 249 Tu-2 and Petlyakov Pe-2 light bombers in the Soviet order of battle, many came under Colonel IP. Skok's 334th Bomber Air Division which subsequently received a citation for its work. Reconnaissance work was now being carried out by Tu-2D and Tu-2R aircraft with modified mainplanes, nose glazing, and capacity for vertical and oblique cameras. Wartime production of the Tupolev Tu-2 and its sub-types amounted to 1,111. As a bomber it did not come into its own until the autumn of 1944, However, as German resistance stiffened on nearing the eastern borders of the Reich V-VS bombers,
Many wartime Tupolev Tu-2s had their numbers hand painted. This Tu-2S served on the Kalinin front.
The Tupolev Tu-2S carried two wing root cannon and three machine-guns mounted in the rear cockpit and the dorsal and ventral positions.
This Tupolev Tu-2S was delivered to the V-VS in the summer of 1944 and wears the standard camouflage ofthat period. including Tupolev Tu-2s, were called up to attack strongpoints at Kustrin, KĂśnigsberg and other fortified ports and cities. September 1945 saw many Tu-2s in action against the Japanese Kwantung Army in Manchuria before the final surrender.
Specification
Tupolev Tu-2S Type: four-seat medium bomber Powerplant: two 1,850-hp (1,380-kW) Shvetsov ASh-82FN radial piston engines
Performance: maximum speed 547 km/h (340 mph) at 5400 m (17,715 ft); cruising speed 442 km/h (275 mph); climb to 5000 m (16,405 ft) in 9 minutes 30 seconds; service ceiling 9500 m (31,170 ft); normal range 2000 km (1,243 miles) Weights: empty 8260 kg ( 18,200 lb); normal take-off 12800 kg (28,219 lb) Dimensions: span 18.86 m (61 ft 10'/2 in); length 13.80 m (45 ft 3Va in); height 4.56 m ( 14 ft 11 in); wing area 48.80m2 (525,3 sq ft) Armament: two 20-mm ShVAK cannon
in wing roots and three 12.7-mm (0.5in) Ă&#x153;BT machine-guns (one each in both dorsal positions and ventral station), plus a maximum bombload of 3000 kg (6,614 lb)
Andrei Tupolev was commanded by Stalin to produce a better bomber than the Junkers Ju 88, and the resulting Tu-2 proved tobe one of the finest wartime aircraft. This is a Tu-2Swith broadened ailerons.
317
Jet Aircraft Whilst piston-engined aircraft fought out World War II, aircraft and engine designers were hard at work to harness the new jet and rocket propulsion and to perfect its use for fighting aircraft. The results of their labours were varied, but the technological advances were great. A Ithough combat by jetjL\.propelled aircraft during World War II was limited to the final year of the conflict, and then undertaken only by German (and to a much lesser extent British) aircraft, the knowledge that jet reaction was potentially the most efficient of all aircraft propulsion systems had existed for some 15 years beforehand. In Germany exploitation of this knowledge had shown greatest promise, through the efforts of F. W Sander and Fritz von Opel with solid-fuel rocket power, Paul Schmidt with pulse jets and Dr Hans von Ohain with the gas turbine, all of whom had either achieved limited jet reaction-powered flight or were on the threshold of doing so when war broke out in September 1939. In the UK work had progressed under the leadership of Frank Whittle, but with very little commercial support. Elsewhere in the world there was even less interest in jet propulsion. Germany was the first to fly an air-breathing jet aircraft, the Heinkel He 178, which took to the air under its own power for the first time on 27 August 1939Next to fly a 'jet' was Italy with its crude ducted fan-jet CaproniCampini Nl, which flew in August 1940. While the Italian effort proved to be dead-ended, the 318
Although jet development was well underway when World War II broke out, jet aircraft were hardly to feature in the conflict. Germany led the way with Britain following; this reconnaissance version Arado Ar 234B was just one of several designs. Germans moved steadily forward towards operational realism as other manufacturers were encouraged into the jet propulsion field by the development of viable powerplants produced, notably, by Heinkel and Junkers. Meanwhile in the UK Frank Whittle, with increasing practical assistance and eventual domination by Rolls-Royce, Rover, de Havilland and others, succeeded in producing a gas turbine which, as the Power Jets W. l, first flew in the Gloster E.28/39 in May 1941. But the two-year lead gained by
Germany proved unassailable and, despite the demise of the Heinkel He 280 as a potential combat aircraft, enabled the Luftwaffe to achieve operational status with its Messerschmitt Me 262 during the summer of 1944, narrowly predating the first RAF Gloster Meteors. Moreover the rocketpowered Me 163 proved to be the fastest of any combat aircraft produced during the war. The build-up of German Me 262s (as well as He 162s and Arado Ar 234s) far outstripped the tentative introduction of the
British Meteor, all reliance on operational jet engine development being placed on the Rolls-Royce Weiland (a direct development of the Whittle engine). The USA, on the other hand, scarcely achieved any progress in the field until 1941 when Whittle technology was provided by the UK, only managing to fly the Bell P-59 Airacomet and Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star, neither of which was operational during World War II. Japan, like Germany, frantically sought to combat the growing menace to its homeland from the US's air onslaught and received technical assistance from Germany. It managed to fly a twin-jet fighter, the Nakajima Kikka (modelled on the Me 262), before the end of the war and also the rocket-powered Yokosuka Ohka suicide aircraft. Nevertheless, despite growing awareness in the UK and USA of the enormous potential of the jet engine, the Allies were astounded to discover the advances made by Germany when they examined the spoils of war in 1945. But much of the technology had already disappeared eastwards, and it was here that the wartime momentum gained by the Soviet Union was able to accommodate these great technical strides into its post-war plans for world military superiority.
GERMANY
Arado Ar 234 The world's first turbojet-powered bomber, the Arado Ar 234 Blitz (lightning) was originally conceived as a twin-jet high-speed reconnaissance aircraft late in 1940. Delayed by slow delivery of the Junkers 004B, the Ar 234 VI prototype was not first flown until 15 June 1943; this aircraft featured an auxiliary trolley, which was jettisoned on take-off, in place of conventional landing gear. Further prototypes followed, including the Ar 234 V6 and Ar 234 V8 which were powered by four 800-kg (1,764-lb) thrust BMW 003A-1 turbojets. When production finally started, it was of the twin-jet Ar 234B which featured conventional nosewheel landing gear, the mainwheels retracting into a slightly widened centre fuselage. The Ar 234B-1 was an unarmed reconnaissance aircraft which first served with 1 Versuchsverband Oberbefehlshaber der Luftwaffe late in 1944, and soon after with Sonderkommando Hecht and Sperling. These units were replaced in 1945 by 1 (F) 33, 1 (F) 100 and 1 (F) 123, and many reconnaissance sorties were flown over the UK. The bomber version was the Ar 234B-2, which could carry a bombload of 2000kg (4,409 lb), and other variants included the Ar 234B-2/b reconnaissance aircraft, the Ar 234B-2/1 pathfinder and Ar 234B-2/r long-range bomber. Ar 234B-2 bombers joined KG 76 in January 1945 and carried out a number of daring and hazardous raids before the end of the war. A small number of Ar 234s was also employed as night-fighters with Kommando Bonow, but the four-jet Ar 234C, although just beginning to appear at the end of the war, failed to reach squadron service. Many other advanced projects were in hand when hostilities ceased.
Able to carry a bombload of 2000 kg (4,409 lb), the Arado Ar 234B-2 went into service with KG 76 in January 1945. Based atRheine andAchmer, these made many accurate strikes. Specification Ar 234B-2 Type: single-seat tactical light bomber Powerplant: two 800-kg (1,764-lb) thrust BMW 003A-1 turbojets Performance: maximum speed 742 km/h (461 mph) at 6000m (19,685 ft); climb to 6000 m (19,685 ft) in 12.8 minutes' service ceiling 10000m
(32,810 ft); range 1630 km (1,013 miles) Weights: empty 5200kg (11,464 lb); maximum take-off 9800 kg (21,605 lb) Dimensions: span 14.44 m (46 ft 3Vz in); length 12.64m (41ft S'/ain); height
(284.17sqft) Armament: bombload of up to 2000 kg (4,409 lb); some aircraft carried two rear-firing 20-mm guns
The Ar 234B proved of immense interest to the Allies and intact examples underwent rigorous
testing in Britain and America. This is anAr234B-l reconnaissance version, withnohardpoints.
4.29 m (14 ft P/a in); wing area 27.3 m
GERMANY
Bachern Ba 349 Natter Among the ingenious expedients borne of desperation in Germany at the end of the war was the Bachern Ba 349 Natter (viper), a semi-expendable, vertically-launched, piloted missile. Designed under the leadership of Erich Bachern, the small aircraft was constructed mainly of bonded and screwed wooden components, and was powered by an internal Walter 109-509A-2 liquid fuel rocket (of the same type as in the Messerschmitt Me 163); for take-off boost four solid fuel Schmidding rockets provided a total thrust of 4800kg (10,582 lb) for 10 seconds before being jettisoned. It was intended to launch the Natter on approach of Allied bombers, the pilot selecting his target and then launching his weapon load of 24 7.3-cm (2.87-m) Föhn unguided rockets. He would then jettison the nose section of the aircraft and deploy his own parachute. The remainder of the aircraft would also descend by paiaclmte for recovery and re-use. Gliding trials started in October 1944, followed in February 1945 by the first unmanned vertical
The Bachern Ba 349 Na tier was a somewhat despera te a ttempt to stem the Allied bombing campaign. Launching vertically, the Natter climbed quickly on its rocket motor, attacked the bombers with rockets and then pilot and aircraft returned separately to earth by parachute.
launches. However, during the first piloted launch the same month, the cockpit canopy failed and the pilot, Lothar Siebert, was killed. About 20 Ba 349s were completed, and 10 were deployed at Kirchheim, but before any Allied bombers could be intercepted the sites were overrun by advancing American forces,
Specification
Type: single-seat expendable interceptor
Powerplant: one 1700-kg (3,748-lb) thrust Walter 109-509A-2 liquid-fuel rocket motor (of 70 seconds' power duration) and four 1200-kg (2,646-lb) thrust Schmidding 109-533 solid-fuel jettisonable booster rockets (of 10 seconds' power duration) Performance: m a x i m u m speed 800 km/h (497 mph) at sea level; initial climb rate 11140m (36,550ft) per minute; service ceiling 14000m (45,930 ft); radius of action 40 km (24.8 miles)
Weight: loaded at launch 2200kg (4,850 lb) Dimensions: span 3.60 m (11 ft 9% in); length2 6.10 m (20 ft 0 in); wing area 2.75m (29.6sqft) Armament: 24 Föhn 7.3-cm (2.87-in) unguided rocket projectiles in nose
1944 for the campaign against southern England when proposals were made to launch a manned bomb from beneath a carrier aircraft. The intention was that, after release, the flying bomb would be piloted towards a target and put into a dive before the pilot baled
out at the last moment. Pilot survival was rated as being most unlikely as a result of the canopy fouling the pulsejet inlet immediately aft of the cockpit, yet the Germans steadfastly claimed a subtle distinction between their Selbstopfermänner (self-sacrifice men)
GERMANY
Fieseler Fi 103R One of the many macabre projects being studied as G e r m a n y approached defeat at the end of the war involved the use of the Fieseler Fi
103R, a manned version of the Argus pulsejet-powered Fieseler Fi 103 flying bomb. Mass production of these weapons had been achieved by mid-
319
and the Japanese Kamikaze pilots who were sealed into their cockpits before take-off. A total of about 175 piloted Fi 103Rs (Reichenberg being the operational codename covering the project) were completed: the R-I, R-II and R-III were test and training versions, and the R-IV was intended for operational use. Testing was undertaken by Rechlin pilots but after two had crashed development flying was taken over by DFS test pilots Hanna Reitsch and Heinz Kensche. Handling in the air was fairly straightforward but landing was extremely tricky owing to the rudimentary control provided and the very high landing speed. Although some 70 volunteer pilots were selected for training the plan came to naught simply owing to the German
FieselerFi 103R Reichenberg IV. high command's refusal to take the Reichenberg project seriously. Specification Fi 103R-IV Type: single-seat flying bomb
Powerplant: one 350-kg (772-lb) thrust Argus 109-014 pulsejet Performance: maximum powered level speed 650 km/h (404 mph) at sea level; endurance (limited by pulsejet life) 20 minutes
Weight: at launch 2180 kg (4,806 lb) Dimensions: span 5.715m (18ft 9 in); length 8.00m (26ft 3 in); maximum fuselage diameter 0.838 m (2 ft 9 in) Warhead: 850 kg (1,874 lb)
The Fi 103 (VI) is well known in its unpiloted form, but the piloted version, the Reichenberg, was more obscure. Intended for accurate a ttacks against shipping, the pilot was supposed to bale out after he had aimed at the target. In practice this would have been unlikely. GERMANY
Heinkel He 162 Salamander Despite all that Germany could do to press the Messerschmitt Me 163 and Me 262 into service in the latter half of 1944, it became all too clear that both aircraft demanded production skills, materials and flying experience beyond the resources of the nation, and thus were inadequate to stem the tide of Allied air attack. Accordingly/" as the RLM underwent its final reorganization, proposals were studied for the mass production of a relatively simple, lightweight jet interceptor which demanded the minimum of strategic materials, engineering skill and pilot training. Within five weeks the design of the Heinkel He 162 had been accepted and dozens of component subcontracts organized, it being intended to reach a production of 2,000 aircraft per month by May 1945. The first prototype He 162 was flown on 6 December 1944, but by the following month severe lateral instability had been disclosed, resulting in the wing_ tips being sharply angled aown.TEe aircraft was a small shoulder-wing monoplane with the turbojet mounted on top of the fuselage amidships, nosewheel landing gear and twin fins and rudders. In February a score of further prototypes flew, together with the first production examples. The first operational unit, I/JG 1, under Oberst Herbert Ihlefeldt, flew He 162A-1 production aircraft at Parchim but, despite a prodigious effort and the completion of some 275 aircraft, the swift advance by the Allied armies prevented the little fighter from taking any significant part in the air fighting at the end of the war. Specification Type: single-seat interceptor fighter Powerplant: one 800-kg (1,764-lb) thrust BMW 109-003E turbojet Performance: maximum speed 835 km/h (519 mph) at 6000m (19,685ft); initial climb rate 1290m (4,230ft) per minute; service ceiling about 11000m (36,090ft); maximum range 1000km (621 miles) Weights: empty 1750kg (3,858 lb); 320
Despite its hurried development, the ingenious Heinkel He 162 would have proved an effective fighter in experienced hands, but there was insufficient time to train men of the calibre required by the Luftwaffe.
Above: Several Heinkel He 162s were captured by the Allies and extensively tested after the war. This He 162A-2 was serving with II Gruppe, Jagdgeschwader l at Leck when it was captured on 8 May 1945. It has since been restored and is on display at RAF S t A than. maximum take-off 2700 kg (5,952 lb) Dimensions: span 7.20 m (23 ft 7Vz in); length 9.05m (29ft 8Vè in); height 2.55 m (8 ft 4% in); wing area 11.15m 2 (120.0sqft) Armament: two 30-mm MK 108 or two 20-mm MG 151 cannon in nose Ă&#x201E;igh t: The He 162 suffered from all the symptoms of 1945 Germany lackoffuel, poor materials, inexperienced workmen and pilots, and hasty design and developmen t. Attempts to overcome these problems were swamped by the Allied advance.
GERMANY
Heinkel He 178 The world's first aircraft to fly solely powered, by a turbojet was the German Heinkel He 178, which was flown by Flugkapitän Erich Warsitz at Marienehe on 27 August 1939, one week before the outbreak of World War II. The first step in the development of this aeroplane was taken in March 1936 when Ernst Heinkel engaged the services of the German gas turbine pioneer Dr Hans Pabst von Ohain and his assistant Max Hahn, The first demonstration turbojet, the HeS 1, was bench running by September 1937, and a development of this engine, the HeS 3, was flight tested suspended beneath a Heinkel He 118 in 1938. By 1939, it had been decided to instai a new version, the HeS 3b, in a special aircraft, the He 178, which commenced building that year; it was a shoulder-wing aircraft with wings made largely of wood but with a semimonocoque metal fuselage. Tailwheel landing gear was incorporated, and the engine drew its air from an inlet in the nose and exhausted through a long jet pipe which extended to the extreme tail. The 178 was damaged on its first flight when the engine ingested a bird which caused it to flame out, but the aircraft made a safe landing. It was later flown with a 590-kg (1,301-lb) thrust HeS 6 engine, but a number of airframe defects limited the speed to about 600 km/h (373 mph). The He 178 was later moved to the Berlin Air Museum where it was destroyed in 1943 during an Allied air raid.
Specification He 178 (initial powerplant) Type: single-seat research aircraft
?'he first High t by a jet-powered aircraft occurred on 27 August 1939 when this He 178 flew from Marienehe, near Rostock. Despite their superior engine, it was two years before the British matched this feat.
Powerplant: one 500-kg (1,102-lb) thrust Heinkel HeS 3b centrifugal-flow turbojet Performance: (estimated) maximum speed 580 km/h (360 mph) at sea level; landing speed 165 km/h (103 mph)
Weights: empty 1590kg (3,505 lb); maximum 1990kg (4,387 lb) Dimensions: 7.10 m (23 ft 3l/2 in); length 7.51 m (24 ft QV2 in); height 2.10 m (6 ft 10% in); wing area 7.90 m2 (85.04 sq ft) Armament: none
Only one He 178 was built, and was an extremely clean design for its day, with fully retracting andfaired-in undercarriage. Maximum speed was 580 km/h (360 mph).
GERMANY
Heinkel He 280
Designed from the outset as a fighter, the He 280 was plagued with development problems and was abandoned in favour of the Messerschmitt Me 262.
The world's first turbojet aircraft designed from the outset as a potential fighter, the Heinkel He 280 made its first flight on 2 August 1941 (19 months before the first Gloster Meteor). Design of the He 280, which started before the end of 1939, included a low wing with twin underslung turbojets, tricycle landing gear and twin fins and rudders. Despite the obvious need for low-diameter engines, Dr von Ohain succeeded in developing the centrifugal-flow HeS 8 (or 109-001) to produce 700-kg (1,543-lb) thrust, and a pair of these engines powered the He 280 VI on its first flight (the engines being left uncowled on this occasion). A total of nine prototypes flew, including the He 280 V2 and He 280 V3 with HeS 8 engines (the former also being re-engmed with Jumo 109-004s), the He 280 V4 with BMW 109-003s and later with six Argus 109-014 pulsejets, the He 280 V5 first with HeS 8s and later with 109-OOSs, the He 280 V6 (as well as the V5) with three MG 151 20-mm cannon, the He 280 V7 with 109-004s (and later tested as a high-speed glider for aerodynamic research), the He 280 V8 with 109-004s and a V-type tail unit, and the He 280 V9 with 109-003s. After several fligh ts towed behind a pair ofBfl 1 Os, the He 280V-1 made its first powered night on 2 April 1941 and is seen here landing back at Marienehe. For this first fligh t the engines were kept uncovered, as during test runs fuel had gathered in the cowlings. 321
Although production of the He 280 was planned, recurring complaints (which included structural weakness in the tail, together with tail flutter, and inadequate fuel and armament provision) caused the design to be abandoned in favour of the Messerschmitt Me 262. It was, incidentally, from the He 280 VI that the first-ever bale-out
using an ejector seat was made when Argus test pilot Schenk abandoned the aircraft when his controls locked from icing-up. Specification He 280 V5 Type: single-seat prototype interceptor fighter
Powerplant: two 750-kg (1,653-lb) thrust HeS 8A (109-001 A) turbojets Performance: maximum short-burst speed 900 km/h (559 mph) at 6000m (19,685ft); initial climb rate 1145m (3,755 ft) per minute; estimated service ceiling 11500m (37,730ft); range 650 km (404 miles) Weights: empty 3215kg (7,088 lb);
maximum take-off 4310 kg (9,502 lb) Dimensions: span 12,20m (40ft Oin); length 10.40m (34ft 11/2 in); height 3.06 m(10 ft OVa in);wing area 21.50 m2 (231.5sqft) Armament: three nose-mounted 20mm MG 151 cannon (intended later to be increased to six)
the underfuselage; the second, with 900-kg (1,984-lb) thrust engine combined this load with two nose-mounted 20-mm MG 151 cannon; and the third, with 1300-kg (2,866-lb) thrust HemkelHirth 109-011A turbojet would carry a 1000-kg (2,205-lb) bomb, two 30-mm MK 103 and two 20-mm MG 151 guns. It was intended that the PC 1000RS Pol rocket-assisted armour-piercing bomb would be used for battlefield support attacks.
service ceiling 10250 m (33,630 ft); range 680 km (423 miles) Weights: maximum take-off 3400 kg (7,496 lb) Dimensions: span 7,20 m (23 ft 7Vz in); length 8.90 m (29 ft 2Vz in); wing area 14.82m2 (159.4 sq ft) Armament: one 500 kg (1,102-lb) bomb under the fuselage
GERMANY
Henschel Hs 132 During the last half of 1943 experience showed that losses during conventional dive-bombing with the venerable Junkers Ju 87 were becoming prohibitive without heavy fighter escort, particularly in the face of ever-growing Soviet air presence on the Eastern Front. The Henschel company, with considerable experience in producing ground-support aircraft, put forward late in 1944 proposals for an essentially simple single-jet attack bomber with a BMW 109-003E-2 turbojet mounted above the fuselage. In essence the aircraft resembled the Heinkel He 162 with twin fins and rudders, although the sharply tapered
wing was mounted at mid-fuselage depth; more significant, the pilot occupied a prone position in the extreme nose so as to withstand the likely 12g forces expected to accompany shallow dive recovery. Simplified construction^with widespread use of wood in the structure was welcomed by the RLM and three prototypes were ordered, and commenced building in March 1945. Only the Henschel Hs 132 VI had been completed (but not flown) by the war's end, and all three aircraft were taken over by the Soviet forces in their advance from the east. The first aircraft was to have carried a single 500-kg (1,102-lb) bomb recessed into
Specification Hs 132 VI Type: single-seat dive bomber Powerplant: one 800-kg (1,764-lb) thrust BMW 109-003E-2 turbojet Performance: maximum speed 780 km/h (485 mph) at 6000 m (19,685 ft);
Although it never flew, the Henschel Hs 132 was a most interesting concept. With a configuration resembling the Heinkel He 162, the most striking feature of the aircraft was the prone pilot position, incorporated to enable the pilot to withstand the expected 12g when the aircraft pulled out from its dive after releasing the bomb.
GERMANY
Horton Ho IX (Gotha Go 229) The Horton Ho IX twin-jet tailless fighter-bomber, of which two prototypes were flown before the end of the war, was of extremely advanced design, which benefited from considerable experience gained by the brothers Reimar and Walter Horten in the development of flying-wing aircraft, of which the majority were gliders. Designed by Sonderkommando 9, starting in 1942, the first prototype Ho IX VI was found to be unable to accommodate the two intended BMW 109-003-1 turbojets owing to an unforeseen increase in engine diameter, and it was therefore flown as a glider at Oranienburg during the summer of 1944. The redesigned Ho IX V2 was fitted with two Junkers 109-004B-1 turbojets and flown successfully at Oranienburg, demonstrating speeds of up to 960 km/h (597 mph) before it was destroyed while making a singleengine landing. Such promise encour322
aged the RLM to instruct Gothaer Waggonfabrik to assume development of the design, and a third prototype, the Go 229 V3, was produced with 1000-kg (2,205-lb) thrust Jumo 109004C turbojets, but was prevented from flying by the end of hostilities in May 1945. Work had also started on the two-seat Go 229 V4 and Go 229 V5 night-fighter prototypes, the Go 229 V6 armament test prototype, and the Go 229 V7 two-seat trainer, No progress had been made on 20 pre-production
The Horten Ho IX V2 was the only aircraft of this series to achieve powered nigh t. Its career ended abruptly following an engine failure.
Go 229A-0\fighter-bombers, on order at the end of the war, that were intended to carry two 1000-kg (2,205-lb) bombs and four 30-mm MK 103 cannon. Specification Go 229A-0 Type: single-seat fighter-bomber
Powerplant: two 1000-kg (2,205-lb) thrust Junkers Jumo 109-004C turbojets P e r f o r m a n c e : m a x i m u m speed 1000 km/h (621 mph) at 6100m (20,015ft); landing speed 130km/h (81 mph) Weight: maximum take-off 8500 kg (18,739 lb)
Dimensions: span 16.78 m (55 ft 0% in); length27,47 m (24 ft QV& in); wing area 51.5m (554.36 sq ft) Armament: four 30-mm MK 103 cannon and up to 2000 kg (4,409 lb) of bombs
GERMANY
Junkers Ju 287 The revolutionary Junkers Ju 287 was the outcome of development of a bomber project being studied by Dipl. Ing. Hans Wocke at Junkers in June 1943 at a time when fast bombers still enjoyed priority in Luftwaffe planning. Instead of employing a 'conventional' sweptback wing (advocated as early as 1935 by Prof, A. Busemann) Wocke suggested using a swept-forward wing in which the high-speed benefits of reduced thickness-chord would be more readily achieved, at the same time reducing low-speed instability. To speed manufacture of the prototype, the Ju 287 VI featured an extraordinary mixture of existing components, including the fuselage of a Heinkel He 177, Ju 388 tail unit, Ju 352 mainwheels and the nosewheels of captured Consolidated B-24 Liberators. Design of the aircraft was directed by Dipl. Ing. Ernst Zmdel and, powered by four Jumo 109-004B-1 turbojets, this was flown by Flugkapitän Siegfried Holzbauer at Brandis on 16 August 1944; the prototype required take-off assistance in the form of a jettisonable Walter 109501 rocket under each turbojet. A total of 17 flights was made before priority for jet bombers was abandoned at about this time. For some reason, never satisfactorily explained, the RLM returned to a bombing philosophy in
March 1945 and ordered the Ju 287 into production. Construction of two further prototypes, the Ju 287 V2 with six jet engines and the Ju 287 V3 returning to four more powerful turbojets, commenced but neither was flown before the end of the war. The entire programme was then transferred to Podberezhnye in the USSR, together with many of its associated technicians, and flight trials continued there until about 1948. Specification Ju 287 VI Type: prototype high-speed heavy bomber Powerplant: four 900-kg (1,984-lb) thrust Junkers Jumo 109-004B-1 turbojets P e r f o r m a n c e : m a x i m u m speed 559 km/h (347 m p h ) at 6 0 0 0 m (19,685ft); service ceiling 10800m (35,435ft); maximum range 1500km (930 miles) Weights: empty 12510kg (27,579 lb); m a x i m u m t a k e - o f f 20000 kg (44,092 lb) Dimensions: span 20.11m (65ft 11% in); length 18.30m (60ft O'/zin); wing area 58,30 m2 (627.3 sq ft) Armament: (V3) bombload of up to 4000 kg (8,818 lb) and gun armament in tail barbette
The most futuristic of all jets to fly during the war, theju 287V-1 was the only example built by Junkers. The
second prototype was completed by the Russians after the war, hying with six engines.
GERMANY
Messerschmitt Me 262 The Messerschmitt Me 262 was one of the first turbojet-powered aircraft to achieve combat status, and was the result of pre-war research with gas turbines in Germany. Design of the aircraft started in 1938 and prototype airframes were ready in 1941 but, as the Junkers jet engines were not then ready, the first flight on 18 April was made using a single Jumo 210G piston engine; it was not until 18 July 1942 that the Me 262 V3 first made an all-jet flight powered by two 840-kg (1,852-lb) thrust Junkers 109-004A-0 turbojets. Early prototypes featured tailwheel landing gear, but when production started in 1944 a tricycle arrangement had been standardized, As Hitler persisted in demanding development of the Me 262 as a bomber for reprisal raids on the UK, development of the fighter was badly delayed and it was not until late in 1944 that the aircraft entered Luftwaffe service. The Me 262A-la Schwalbe (swallow) fighter was armed with four 30-mm guns in the nose and joined Kommando Nowotny in October; it was followed by the Me 262A-la/Ul with two additional 20-mm guns, the Me 262A-la/U2 bad-weather fighter and the Me 262A-la/U3 unarmed reconnaissance aircraft. The Me 262A-2a Sturmvogel (stormy petrel) bomber could carry up to 500 kg (1,102 lb) of bombs in addition to the four 30-mm guns, and a two-seat version (with prone bomb-aimer), the Me 262A-2a/U2, was also produced. Before the end of the war Me 262s were being flown with some success against Allied bombers both as day and night fighters (the latter were radar-equipped Me 262B-la/Ul aircraft), and air-to-air rockets were being developed. Dogged by difficulties brought on by Allied raids on factories and airfields, the Luftwaffe's jet fighter units nevertheless posed a formidable threat to Allied air superiority
This bomb-carrying Me 262A-2a/Ul flew with Erprobungskommando Schenk, an experimental detachmen t from KG 51 to investiga te the opera tional use of this fine jet.
Specification Me 262A-la Type: single-seat interceptor fighter Powerplant: two 900-kg (1,984-lb) thrust Junkers Jumo 109-004B-4 turbojets Performance: maximum speed 870
km/h (541 mph) at 7000 m (26,965 ft); initial climb rate 1200 m (3,937 ft) per minute; service ceiling 11000 m (36,090 ft); normal range 845 km (525 miles) Weights: empty 4000kg (8,818 lb); maximum take-off 6775 kg (14,936 lb) Dimensions: span 12.50 m (41 ft OVs in); length 10.61m (34ft 91/?. in); height2 3.83 m ( 12 ft 6% in); wing area 21.68 m
(233.3 sq ft) Armament: four MK 108 30-mm cannon in nose Featuring a tailwheel, theMe262V-2 became the second Me 262 to fly solely on turbojet power, the first prototype having a piston engine as well as the jets mounted in the nose.
323
GERMANY
Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet The Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet (comet) rocket interceptor stemmed from prolonged research by Dr Alexander Lippisch over 15 years before the war. The prototype was initially test flown as a glider during the spring of 1941 before being fitted with a Walter RII-203 rocket using T-Stoffand ZStoff propellants. Powered flights by the Me 163 VI started in the late summer of 1941, and on 2 October the aircraft reached 1004.5 km/h (623.8 mph); two months later the Me 163B Komet was ordered into production. Production Me 163Bs were powered by Walter 109-509A rocket motors using T-Stoff (hydrogen peroxide) and C-Stoff (hydrazine hydrate, methyl alcohol and water) to give a thrust of 1700kg (3,748 lb). Early Me 163B-0 aircraft were armed with a pair of 20-mm guns, but Me 163B-1 fighters carried two 30-mm weapons. The aircraft possessed no conventional landing gear, but took off from a trolley which was jettisoned immediately after take-off. Introduction to Luftwaffe service was a protracted and hazardous process owing to difficulties in handling the fuels and a number of fatal accidents, and only very experienced pilots were selected. Production Me 163B-la fighters equipped I/JG 400 at Brandis, near Leipzig, in June 1944 and first intercepted B-17 Fortress daylight bombers on 16 August that year. All manner of difficulties faced the pilots, apart from the hazards already mentioned, and it was found difficult to aim and fire the guns with the result that upward-firing 50-mm shells and underwing rockets came to be developed, Although some 300 Me 163Bs were produced (as well as a few Me 163C aircraft with increased fuel) and JG 400's other two Gruppen re-equipped by the end of 1944, only nine confirmed air victories were achieved by the Geschwader.
324
Above: The badge of this Me 163B-1 ofJG 400 bears the legend Wie ein Floh, aber Oho!' (Only a flea, but ohoh!). The concept of this tiny fighter was sound, but the practice proved difficult, and only nine victories were confirmed.
Specification
Me 163B-la Komet Type: single-seat interceptor fighter Powerplant: one 1700-kg (3,748-lb) thrust Walter 109-509A-2 rocket motor P e r f o r m a n c e : m a x i m u m speed
Below: TheMel63B-l suffered the same problems as other German jets during the last few months of the war and did not change history. The prominent'T and 'C'stencils indicated fuelling points for the two liquid fuels, acciden tal con tact between which would result in catastrophe.
960 km/h (596 mph) at 3000 m (9,845 ft); initial climb rate 3600 m (11,810 ft) per minute; service ceiling 1 2 1 0 0 m (39,700ft); normal range 80km (50 miles)
Weights: empty 1905kg (4,200 lb);
maximum take-off 4110 kg (9,061 lb) Dimensions: span 9.33 m (30 ft 7!/4 in); length 5.69 m (18 ft 8 in); height 2.76 m2 ( 9 f t O'/ain); wing area 1 9 . 6 2 m (211.2 sq ft) Armament: two 30-mm MK 108 cannon
ITALY
Caproni-Campini NI (CC.2) It is perhaps surprising at first sight that, having been the second nation to fly an air-breathing jet-propelled aeroplane, Italy did not feature among the leading nations in this field of technology. But in truth the Caproni-Campini Nl was no more than an ingenious freak which employed a conventional piston engine to drive a variable-pitch ducted-fan compressor with rudimentary afterburning. As such it did nothing to further gas turbine research, and was to all intents and purposes a technical dead-end. The engineer Secondo Campini had created a company in 1931 to pursue research into reaction propulsion and in 1939 persuaded Caproni to build an aircraft to accommodate the fruits of this work, namely the adaptation of an IsottaFraschini radial engine driving a ducted-fan compressor; the compressed air was exhausted through a variable-area nozzle in the aircraft's extreme tail, and additional fuel could be ignited in the tailpipe to increase thrust. The two-seat low-wing Nl (sometimes referred to as the CC.2) was first flown at Taliedo on 28 August 1940 by Mario de Bernadi. A number of set-piece demonstration flights was undertaken, including one of 270 km (168 miles) from Taliedo to Guidoma at an average speed of 209 km/h (130 mph), but it was clear from the outset that use of a three-stage fancompressor driven by a piston engine would limit further development, and
The Caproni-Campini N l used an ingenious way of propelling itself. The piston engine inside the fuselage drove a ducted fan and fuel was bled and ignited in the compressed air emitted through the tailpipe. the experiment was abandoned early in 1942 when Italy was faced with sterner priorities, The Nl survives today in the Museo della Scienza Technica at Milan as a monument to ingenuity if not sophisticated technology.
Specification
375 km/h (233 mph) Weights: empty 3640kg (8,025 lb); maximum take-off 4195 kg (9,248 lb) Dimensions: span 15.85m (52ft 0 in); length 13,10 m (43 ft 0 in); wing area 36.00m2 (387.51sqft) Armament: none
doned, Production, which included versions for training, reconnaissance and air combat, had also been planned.
nutes; service ceiling 12000 m (39,370 ft); range 940 km (586 miles) Weights: empty 2300kg (5,071 lb); maximum take-off 4080 kg (8,995 lb) Dimensions: span 10.00 m7(32 ft 9% in); length 8.125m (26ft 7 /8in); height2 2.95 m (9 ft S'/s in); wing area 13.2 m (142.08sqft) Armament: one 500-kg (1,102-lb) or one 800-kg (1,764-lb) bomb; fighter version proposed with two 30-mm Type 5 cannon in nose
Type: two-seat research aircraft Powerplant: one 900-hp (671-kW) Isotta-Fraschini radial piston engine driving a three-stage ducted-fan compressor P e r f o r m a n c e : m a x i m u m speed
With a maximum speed of only 375 km/h (233 mph), theNl served only to prove its propulsion concept was possible. The design limitations meant that development would be fruitless, and as Italy's war effort gained momentum, thoughts turned to more immediate problems. JAPAN
Nakajima Kikka Encouraged by enthusiastic reports of the German Messerschmitt Me 262 from the Japanese air attachĂŠ in Berlin, the Japanese naval staff instructed Nakajima to develop a single-seat attack bomber based on the Me 262, capable of a speed of 690 km/h (430 mph) and able to carry a small bombload. Design started in September 1944 under the direction of Kazuo Ohno and Kenichi Matsumur, and the resulting aircraft resembled the German design although somewhat smaller owing to the very low power available from the early Japanese jet engines. Initially the first prototype Nakajima Kikka (orange blossom) was fitted with a pair of 200-kg (440-lb) thrust Tsu-11 ducted-flow engines, but these were quickly replaced by 340-kg (750Ib) thrust Ne-12 turbojets, These also proved inadequate and for the first flight two 475-kg ( 1,047-lb) thrust Ne-20 axial-flow turbojets were fitted; however, it was still necessary to employ an auxiliary rocket for assisted take-off, The Kikka was first flown on 7
August 1945 at Kisarazu Naval Air Base by Lieutenant Commander Sasumu Tanaoka; the second flight ended in damage when Tanaoka abandoned the take-off owing to the ATO rockets being incorrectly mounted. A second prototype was then nearing completion and manufacture of 18 further aircraft had started when, on 15 August, the entire programme was aban-
Specification Kikka (1st prototype) Type: single-seat attack bomber Powerplant: two 475-kg (1,047-lb) thrust Ne-20 axial-flow turbojets Performance: maximum speed 697 km/h (433 mph) at 10000 m (32,810 ft); climb to 10000 m (32,810 ft) in 26 mi-
Based on the Me 262, the Kikka had less power and had to be built smaller. Even then it had too little power and needed rockets to get it off the ground. Only one example flew before the programme was abandoned due to the impending Japanese defeat. 325
JAPAN
Yokosuka MXY7 Ohka It was during the summer of 1944 when, faced with overwhelming and fast-increasing Allied strength in the Pacific theatre, the Japanese naval staff first seriously entertained the concept of employing suicide tactics to defeat enemy attacks, and it was Ensign Mitsuo Ohta who first produced a rough design for a piloted flying bomb, a design which was assigned to Yokosuka for detailed completion. The resulting device was a small, mainly wooden aircraft with three solid-propellant rockets in the rear fuselage and a 1200kg (2,646-lb) explosive warhead in the nose. Carried aloft in the bomb bay of a modified Mitsubishi G4M bomber and flown towards the target area, the Yokosuka MXY7 Ohka (cherry blossom) bomb would be released, its rockets fired and then flown directly to impact on a selected target; the pilot was sealed into his cockpit before take-off. Initial powered flights started at Sagami in October 1944, followed by unmanned, powered flights the next month. Production was put in hand,
and a total of 755 Ohkas was built before March 1945 when production ended. The weapon was first employed by the 721st Kokutai on 21 March 1945, but the carrier aircraft were intercepted and forced to release their flying bombs too early. On 1 April the US battleship West Virginia and three transport vessels were hit and damaged by Ohkas. Limited success attended other suicide attacks by Ohkas, but the transport aircraft proved fatally vulnerable in the presence of powerful American defences and the Japanese suicide tactic was never a serious threat to Allied operations in the Pacific, for all its macabre implications.
Specification
Ohka Model 11 Type: single-seat suicide aircraft Powerplant: three solid-fuel Type 4 Mark 1 Model 20 rockets with total thrust of 800 kg (1,764 lb) Performance: maximum level speed
Powered by three rockets in the tail, the Ohka was a piloted bomb released from its mother aircraft when near the target. The pilot was
sealed into his cockpit before the night, so once released he had only one hope: to cause maximum damage to his target.
650 km/h (403 mph); terminal diving speed 927 km/h (576 mph); range 37 km (23 miles) Weights: empty 440 kg (970 lb); maximum take-off 2140 kg (4,718 lb)
Dimensions: span 5.12 m (16 ft 9'/2 in); length 6,07m (19ft. 10% in); height2 1.16m (3ft 9% in); wing area 6,0 (64.6 sq ft) Warhead: 1200 kg (2,646 lb)
UK
de Havilland Vampire Among the earliest British gas turbines destined for flight was the Haiford H, 1, designed by Major F.B. Haiford and manufactured by de Havilland. In response to Air Ministry Specification E.6/41 the de Havilland company decided to employ this engine in a radical little fighter prototype initially known as the Spidercrab. In an effort to avoid thrust losses through long intake and exhaust ducts the engine intakes were located in the wing roots and the fuselage terminated immediately aft of the engine jet pipe, the aircraft's tail being carried on slender twin booms. The result was an extremely neat and compact design, and the first flight of the prototype, made by Geoffrey de Havilland Jr, took place at Hatneld in Hertfordshire on 20 September 1943, just 16 months after the start of design, the aircraft (LZ548/G) featuring pointed fins, Two further prototypes (LZ551/G and MP838/G) guickly joined the flight programme, the latter carrying the planned armament of four
326
20-mm Hispano cannon under the nose, The name was changed to Vampire and on 13 May 1944 a contract for 120 production examples of the Vampire F.Mk I (later increased to 300) was placed for manufacture by the English Electric Company, Preston. The first production aircraft (TG274/G), with square-cut fins and Goblin turbojet (as the Halford engine was named) was flown at Samlesbury on 20 April 1945, becoming the first British fighter with a speed of over 805 km/h (500 mph), Pre-service and handling trials occupied the remainder of 1945, however, and the Vampire saw no operational
The first production Vampire made its first High t in April 1945, but production examples such as thisF.Mkl did not reach the RAF until 1946.
service during the war, entering RAF Fighter Command in the summer of 1946.
Specification
Type: single-seat interceptor fighter Powerplant: one 1225-kg (2,700-lb) thrust de Havilland Goblin centrifugalflow turbojet Performance: maximum speed 824 km/h (512 mph) at 10365 m (34,000 ft); initial climb 1235 m (4,050 ft) per minute; service ceiling 12620 m (41,400 ft); range 1190 km (740 miles) Weights: empty 2803kg (6,180 lb); maximum take-off 4627 kg (10,200 lb)
Dimensions: span 12,19 m (40 ft 0 in); length 9.37 m (30 ft 9 in); height 2,69 m (8 ft 10 in); wing area 24.71 m2 (266.0 sq ft) Armament: four 20-mm Hispano cannon under the nose TG278 was the fifth production Vampire F.Mk 1, all of which were built by English Electric to relieve de Havilland. The first 40 aircraft had Goblin I engines and carried an armament of four 20-mm cannon in the nose. Later versions had pressurized cockpits with bubble canopies.
UK
Gloster E.28/39 Assured of a place in aviation history, the Gloster E.28/39 was the first British jet aircraft to fly. Although its design was based on possible fighter requirements (with weight and space allowance for an armament of four riflecalibre machine-guns), the small lowwing aircraft was strictly a research vehicle intended to prove the flight characteristics of the pioneering Whittle W. l reverse-flow gas turbine with centrifugal compressor. It was an attractive aircraft with nosewheel landing gear and nose inlet for the midships-mounted turbojet, which exhausted through the extreme rear
fuselage. Specification E, 28/39 was issued to the Gloster Aircraft Company on 3 February 1940; the first prototype underwent taxiing trials at Hucclecote in April 1941 and on 15 May that year was first flown by P.E.G. Sayer from Cranwell with a 390-kg (860-lb) thrust W. l engine. On 4 February 1942 the aircraft was flown with a 526-kg (1,160Ib) thrust W. 1A; on 30 July 1942, while flying with a 692-kg (1,526-lb) thrust Rover W.2B engine, the aircraft entered an inverted spin with jammed ailerons, forcing the RAE pilot to bale out. A second prototype had joined the test programme, and was powered by
a 771-kg (1,700-lb) thrust Power Jets W.2/500 turbojet, later boosted to 798kg (1,760-lb) thrust, and it was with this engine that the aircraft survived to be put on permanent exhibition in the South Kensington Science Museum.
Weights: empty 1309kg (2,886 lb); maximum take-off 1700 kg (3,748 lb) Dimensions: span 8.84m (29ft 0 in); length 7.72m (25ft 3% in); height2 2.82m (9ft 3 in); wing area 13.61m (146.5 sq ft) Armament: none
Specification
Type: single-seat research aircraft Powerplant: one 798-kg (1,760-lb) thrust Power Jets W.2/500 turbojet P e r f o r m a n c e : m a x i m u m speed 750 k m / h ( 4 6 6 m p h ) at 3 0 5 0 m (10,000ft); service ceiling 9753m (32,000ft)
Two Gloster E.28139s were built; one was lost in an accident and the other survived to be displayed in the Science Museum in London. It was fitted with provision for armament but remained as a research aircraft throughout its flying career.
with Weiland engines, but fitted with sliding hoods. One of the production Meteor Mk Is was shipped to the USA in exchange for a Bell YP-59A for evaluation purposes, Another was the world's first turboprop-powered aircraft, being fitted with two Rolls-Royce Trents, although this aircraft was not flown until two weeks after the end of the war.
Powerplant: two 771-kg (1,700-lb) thrust Rolls-Royce Weiland I turbojets Performance! m a x i m u m speed 668 k m / h ( 4 1 5 m p h ) at 3 0 5 0 m (10,000ft); service ceiling 12190m (40,000 ft) Weights: empty 3692kg (8,140 lb); maximum take-off 6257 kg (13,795 lb) Dimensions: span 13,11m (43ft Oin); length 12.57 m (41 ft 3 in); height 3.96 m ( 1 3 f t O i n ) ; wing area 3 4 . 7 4 m 2 (374.0 sq ft) Armament: four nose-mounted 20-mm Hispano cannon (provision for six)
UK
Gloster Meteor The Gloster Meteor was the only Allied jet aircraft to reach combat status during the war, and indeed survived in service with the RAF as a fighter for some 15 years afterwards. Designed by George Carter to Air Ministry Specification F.9/40, the aircraft employed twin engines owing to the low power available from turbojets early in the 1940s. Eight prototypes were built: the first had Rover W.2B engines, the second Power Jets W.2/ 500s, the third Metrovick F.2 axial-flow turbojets, the fourth W.2B/23 engines, the fifth Halford/de Havilland H. Is, the sixth (prototype Meteor Mk II) DH Goblin engines, the seventh also Goblins but with modified fin and rudder, and the eighth Rolls-Royce W.2B/37 Derwent Is. Although the first prototype was completed first and underwent taxiing trials in July 1942 at Newmarket, it was the fifth aircraft that was first flown on 5 March 1943 at Cranwell. The first production batch comprised 20 Meteor Mk I aircraft with RollsRoyce W.2B/23 Weiland I reverse-flow
turbojets with centrifugal-flow compressors; roughly half of these were delivered to No. 616 Squadron at Culmhead in July 1944, and the squadron then moved to Mansion where it flew operational sorties against the flying bombs being launched against southern England; the first such weapon was destroyed on 4 August. The squadron later moved to Belgium where it was joined by No, 504 Squadron with Meteor Mk III aircraft, also
Specification Meteor F.Mk I Type: single-seat interceptor fighter
EE211IC was the second production Meteor, an F.Mk 1. Armed with four 20-mm cannon and powered by two Weiland I turbojets, it could reach a speed of 668 km/h (415 mph). 'Meteors provided good training for American bomber crews now faced with attacks from Me 262s. 327
USA
Bell P-59 Airacomet In the almost total absence of work on gas turbines for aircraft in the USA before 1941, the UK undertook to supply the General Electric Company (which had worked on industrial turbines for many years) with details of Frank Whittle's progress to date. On account of the Bell Aircraft Corporation's proximity to General Electnc's engine plant, that company was selected to develop a fighter around the USA's first turbojet on 5 September 1941. With a Whittle-type General Electric 1-A turbojet on each side of the fuselage beneath the wing roots, the Bell Model 27 was designated the XP-59A, the first of three being flown by Robert M, Stanley at Muroc Dry Lake on 1 October 1942. Named Airacomet, 13 development YP-59A aircraft followed during 1943-4 with the more powerful General Electric 1-16 (J31) turbojet, and these were used primarily to provide basic flight data on turbojets. Production orders for 20 P-59A aircraft with J31GE-3 engines and 80 P-59B aircraft with J31 -GE-5 engines were awarded but, as a result of successful development of the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star the last 50 of the latter were cancelled as superfluous. All production had been completed by the end of the war and many of the aircraft were issued to a special USAAF unit, the 412th Fighter Group, for use as drones or drone controllers, some aircraft having a second open cockpit in the nose for an observer. No P-59 ever achieved operational status, being found to lack adequate performance, although a single YP-59A was shipped to the UK for evaluation at the Royal Aircraft Establishment and the Aeroplane & Armament Experimental Establishment late in 1943.
Specification
P-59B Airacomet Type: single-seat interceptor fighter Powerplant: two 907-kg (2,000-lb) thrust General Electric J31-GE-5 tur-
Below:Bell YP-59A Airacomet whilst under evaluation for the USNavyinlate 1943 at NASPatuxent River.
bojets P e r f o r m a n c e : m a x i m u m speed 658 km/h (409 mph) at 10670m (35,000 ft); climb to 3050 m (10,000 ft) in 3 minutes 20 seconds; service ceiling 14040 m (46,200 ft); range 644 km (400 miles) Weights: empty 3704kg (8,165 lb);
maximum take-oĂź 6214 kg (13,700 lb) Dimensions: span 13.87m (45ft 6 in); length 11.62m (38ft I V Ă i n ) ; height2 3.66 m (12 ft 0 in); wing area 35.84 m (385.8 sq ft) Armament: one 20-mm M4 cannon and three 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns in the nose
Below: The first three prototypes (XP-59A) tea tared a Hush canopy later models having a stepped canopy. The P-59 was ordered in production but the P-80 was preferred, and the Airacomet never saw service, lacking adequate performance.
tric J33 engine of 1814-kg (4,000-lb) thrust, the first being flown by Tony Le Vier on 10 June 1944. With low-set equitapered laminar-flow wings and engine air intakes set into the fuselage just forward of the wing roots, this version had a top speed of 898 km/h (558 mph) at sea level, Thirteen development YP-80A aircraft for service trials, with J33-GE-9 or J33-GE-11 engines and an armament of six machine-
guns in the nose, started delivery to test establishments in October 1944 and it was aircraft of this type that arrived in Italy in May 1945. Production deliveries of the P-80A did not start until December that year, however, four months too late to see action against the Japanese, Subsequently the P-80 gave long and valuable service in the post-war USAF (particularly in the Korean War of 1950-3),
USA
Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star The second American jet fighter to fly during the war was the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star, two development examples of which reached the Italian war zone just before VE-day, but failed to fly an operational sortie. Designed under the leadership of Clarence L. Johnson around the British Haiford (de 328
Havilland) H.I turbojet of 1361-kg (3,000-lb) thrust, the first prototype XP80 was flown at Muroc Dry Lake by Milo Burcham on 8 January 1944, only 1,43 days after the start of the project. The next two prototypes were designated XP-80A and were powered by the Allison-developed General Elec-
Specification P-80A Shooting Star Type: single-seat interceptor fighter Powerplant: one 1814-kg (4,000-lb) thrust General Electric J33-A-11 turbojet P e r f o r m a n c e : m a x i m u m speed 933 k m / h (580 m p h ) at 8 5 3 5 m (28,000ft); initial climb rate 1395m
(4,580ft) per minute; service ceiling 13715 m (45,000 ft); range 870 km (540 miles) Weights: empty 3593kg (7,920 lb); maximum take-off 6577 kg (14,500 lb) Dimensions: span 12.17m (39ft 11 in);
length 10.52 m (34 ft 6 in); height 3.45 m ( l i f t 4 in); wing area 2 2 , 1 1 m 2 (238.0 sq ft) Armament: six 1 2 . 7 m m (0.5-in) machine-guns in the nose
TheP-80 was powered by a J33 engine which replaced the British Haiford H. l. Through its developm en ts it becam e the most successful firstgeneration jet, leading to the T-33 trainer and the F-94 Startire. This is a P-80A-1 -LO serving with the 412th Fighter Group in 1946. USSR
Berez-Isa BI Under the direction of Prof, Viktor Bolkhovitinov, with detail design by Aleksandr Bereznyak and Aleksei Isayev (accounting for the BI of the designation), the Berez-Isa BI was the first liquid rocket-engined fighter flown in the USSR. A low-wing monoplane, the BI had a Dushkin D-1A rocket engine in the tail, and this was highly temper- ^ amental, its volatile fuel mixture of kerosene and nitric acid being not only dangerous to handle, but also causing corrosion of tanks and fuel lines. The BI was flown initially as a glider on 10 September 1941, the first significant powered flight of 3 minutes 9 seconds, being made by the third prototype on 15 May 1942. Work on 50 pre-production aircraft was started, but halted when a prototype dived into the ground on 27 March 1943 during a low-level high-speed run, killing its pilot. The endurance of the BI was inadequate for operational use, but a two-chamber engine developed by Dushkin to overcome this deficiency, with low (cruising) and high (combat) thrust settings was almost double the weight and considered unsuitable. Wind tunnel testing that followed the fatal crash revealed a stability problem that could not be resolved and further development was abandoned. Before this, however, the seventh prototype with a more powerful engine had demonstrated a rate of climb of 4980 m (16,340 ft) per minute,
Below: The BI first appeared as a glider for testing purposes before having its rocket motor installed.
Above: The third prototype BI was fitted with retractable skis which could be in terchanged with wheels depending on the ground conditions. Armament was two 20-mm cannon.
Specification
Powerplant: one 1000-kg (2,205-lb) thrust Dushkin D-1A rocket engine Performance: (estimated) maximum speed 1000 km/h (621 mph) at 5000 m (16,405 ft); climb to 10000 m (32,810 ft) in 59 seconds; endurance 8 to 15 minutes Weights: empty 958 kg (2,112 lb); maximum take-off 1683 kg (3,710 lb) Dimensions: span 6.48m ( 2 1 f t 3 in); length 26.40m ( 2 1 f t 0 in); wing area 7.00m (75.35 sq ft) Armament: two nose-mounted 20-mm ShVAK cannon The third prototype Berez-Isa (Bolkhovitinov) BI seen taking off on its first powered night. Performance in terms of speed and rate of climb were phenomenal, but the aerodynamics showed insoluble stability problems and the project was abandoned. 329
Axis Ground Attack Aircraft Ground attack aircraft played a vital role in the victorious German campaigns of 1939-41. The German army's Blitzkrieg doctrine involved close integration of tactical air power and mechanized army units. This combination of Panzer mobility and airborne artillery firepower seemed to be unstoppable.
The Focke Wolfe FW 190, one of Germany's leading ground attack aircraft. This one, loaded and ready for action, has been abandoned at an aerodrome by retreating Axis forces in Italy. ne of the most significant aspects of the history of land warfare in Europe during World War II was the inexorable change in the relative air power of the Axis and Allies over the battlefields. When the war started the German army was the principal weapon of aggression, to which all else played a supporting role; its tactic was the Blitzkrieg the smashing of all opposition by assault troops with fast-moving armour continuously supported by tactical aircraft. So long as the
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Luftwaffe possessed air superiority over the ground battle, the German army held the initiative. This had been the pervading doctrine that dictated the swift expansion of Germany's armed forces after the Nazis had taken power in 1933. By contrast the Allies had almost totally ignored air support of their armies, other than to provide very limited tactical reconnaissance. This proved a major cause of one defeat after another during the first two years
of the war as Poland, Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Yugoslavia, Greece and Crete fell to the smashing blows of Blitzkrieg. Inevitably, the mounting losses suffered by the Luftwaffe on the Eastern Front and in the Mediterranean (as Allied strength increased everywhere) deprived the Luftwaffe of air superiority over the land battle. The traditional weapon of the Blitzkrieg, the notorious Stuka (the Junkers Ju 87), could no longer attack at
will, being faced by formidable fighter opposition almost everywhere. Yet in the absence of a more advanced replacement for the Stuka, the Germans were forced to persevere with this weapon, and as a result suffered catastrophic losses. Such efforts as they were able to extemporize tended to be set-piece expedients, planned and executed by the Luftwaffe, rather than continuous support that could be called up by ground forces in a moment of emergency - and immediately appreciated by the hard-pressed soldier below. Once the German army no longer saw friendly aircraft continuously flying overhead, the Blitzkrieg was impossible. No other Axis air force had been as closely integrated with its own land forces as had the Luftwaffe. The Allies were quick to appreciate the paramount importance of assuming air superiority over the ground battle, so much so that, after the pendulum of fortune swung back following the battles at Stalingrad and El Alamein, the British, Soviet and American armies were afforded powerful and continuous air support. The Luftwaffe no longer had it in its power to dispute Allied superiority in the skies over the German army.
JAPAN
Mitsubishi Ki-30 In May 1936 the Imperial Japanese Army issued its specification for a light bomber required to supersede the Mitsubishi Ki-2 and Kawasaki Ki-3 then in service. The Mitsubishi Ki-30 prototype that resulted was of cantilever mid-wing monoplane configuration with fixed tailwheel landing gear, the main units faired and spatted, and powered by a 615-kW (825-hp) Mitsubishi Ha-6 radial engine. Flown for the first time on 28 February 1937 this aircraft performed well, but it was decided to fly a second prototype with the more powerful Nakajima Ha-5 KAI radial engine. This aircraft showed some slight improvement in performance but, in any case, exceeded the army's original specification, so there was no hesitation in ordering 16 service trials aircraft. These were delivered in January 1938 and, two months later, the Ki-39 was ordered into production. First used operationally in China during 1938, the Ki-30s proved to be most effective, for in that theatre they had the benefit of fighter escort. The situation was very much the same at the beginning of the Pacific war, but as soon as the Allies were in a position to confront unescorted Ki-30s with fighter aircraft they immediately began to suffer heavy losses and were soon relegated to second-line use. The Allied codename 'Ann' was allocated to the Ki-30, but few were seen operationally after the opening phases of the war. A total of 704 had been built when pro-
Above: A Mitsubishi Ki-30 ofthe 2nd Chutai, WthHikosentai, in 1942. A two-seater light bomber, code-named 'Ann'by Allied forces, theKi-30 enjoyed some success over China but proved hopelessly vulnerable to hostile fighter aircraft unless closely escorted. duction ended in 1941, 68 manufactured by the First Army Air Arsenal at Tachikawa, and many of these ended their days in a kamikaze role during the closing stages of the war. Specification Type: two-seat light bomber Powerplant: one 708-kW (950-hp) Nakajima Ha-5 KAI radial piston engine Performance: maximum peed 423 km/ h (263 mph) at 4000 m (13,125 ft); cruising speed 380 km/h (236 mph); service ceiling 8570 m (28,115 ft); range 1700 km (1,056 miles) Weights: empty 2230 kg(4,916 lb); maximum take-off 3220 kg (7,099 lb) Dimensions: span 14.55 m (47 ft 8.8 in); length 10.35 m (33 ft 11.5 in); height 3,65 m (11 ft 11,7 in); wing area 30.58 m2 (329.17 sq ft)
Armament: one wing-mounted 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-gun and one gun of the same calibre on tramable mount in rear cockpit, plus a maximum bombloadof 400 kg (882 lb)
Above: By the time production ended in 1941 over 700 Ki-30s had been produced and the type had largely been relegated to second-line use.
war they were used in kamikaze attacks.
length 9.20 m (30 ft 2.2 in); height 2.73 m (8 ft 11.5 in); wing area 24.02 nf (258.56 sq ft) Armament: two wing-mounted 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns (early production) or two wing-mounted 12.7mm (0.5-in) guns (late production), and one 7.7-mm (0,303-in) gun on trainable mount in rear cockpit, plus a bombload of 200 kg (441 lb) increasing to 250 kg (551 lb) in kamikaze role
JAPAN
Mitsubishi Ki-51 To meet an Imperial Japanese Army specification of December 193^ for a ground-attack aircraft, which it was suggested could be a development of the Ki-30 light bomber, Mitsubishi produced two prototypes under the designation Mitsubishi Ki-51. Of similar external appearance to the Ki-30, the new design was generally of smaller dimensions, had a revised and simplified cockpit that put the two-man crew more closely together and, because the bomb bay was not required, the monoplane wing was moved from a mid- to low-wing configuration. Powerplant chosen was the Mitsubishi Ha-26-II radial engine, Tested during the summer of 1939, the two prototypes were followed by 11 service trials aircraft, these being completed before the end of the year. They differed from the prototypes by incorporating a number of modifications, but most important were the introduction of fixed leading-edge slots to improve slow-speed handling and armour plate beneath the engine and crew positions, In addition to the standard production aircraft, there were attempts to develop dedicated reconnaissance versions, initially by the conversion of one Ki-51 service trials aircraft which had the rear cockpit redesigned to accommodate reconnaissance cameras. Test and evaluation of this aircraft, redesignated Ki-51a, brought a realization that the standard Ki-51 could be modified to have provisions for the installation of reconnaissance cameras, and this change was made on the production line. Subsequently, three Ki-71 tactical reconnaisance prototypes were developed from the Ki-51, introducing the 1119-
kW (1,500-hp) Mitsubishi Ha-112-11 engine, retractable landing gear, two wing-mounted 20-mm cannon and other refinements, but no production examples were built. Allocated the Allied codename 'Sonia', the Ki-51 was used initially in operations against China, and was deployed against the Allies until the end of the Pacific war. In more intensely contested areas the fairly slow Ki-51s were easy prey for Allied fighters, but in secondary theatres, where an ability to operate from rough and short fields was valuable, these aircraft gave essential close support in countless operations. In the closing stages of the
Specification Mitsubishi Ki-51 Type: two-seat ground-attack/ reconnaissance aircraft Powerplant: one 701-kW (940-hp) Mitsubishi Ha-26-II radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 425 km/h (264 mph) at 3000 m (9,845 ft); service ceiling 8270 m (27,130 ft); range 1060 km (659 miles) Weights: empty 1873 kg (4,129 lb); maximum take-off 2920 kg (6,437 lb) Dimensions: span 12.10 m (39 ft 8.4 in);
Slow and vulnerable, the Mitsubishi Ki-51 nevertheless served throughout the war, mainly in secondary theatres, where its rough landing capability was a valuable asset.
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JAPAN
Kawasaki Ki-45 Toryu In early 1937 Kawasaki was instructed by the Imperial Japanese army to initiate the design and development of a twin-engine fighter that would be suitable for long-range operations over the Pacific, The concept derived from army interest in developments taking place in other countries, and particularly in the Messerschmitt Bf 110. The first Kawasaki Ki-45 Toryu (dragon killer) prototype flew in 1939, a cantilever mid-wing monoplane with retractable tailwheel landing gear. A slender fuselage provided enclosed accommodation for two in tandem. Problems followed with the engine installation, and it was not until September 1941 that the Ki-45 KAIa entered production. Armament of this initial series version comprised one forward-firing 20mm cannon, two 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns in the nose, and a 7.92mm (0,31-in) machine-gun on a flexible mount in the rear cockpit; there was also provision to carry two drop tanks or two 250-kg (551-lb) bombs on underwing racks, The type entered service in August 1942 but was first used in combat during October 1942, soon being allocated the Allied codename 'Nick'. The Ki-45 KAIa was joined by a new version developed especially for the ground-attack/antishipping role, the Ki-45 KAIb. Stan-
The Kawasaki Ki-45 KAIc was the nigh t-figh ter varian t of this highly successful twin-engined figh ter-bomber. Carrying one forward-firing and two obliquely-mounted upward-firing cannon, this is a machine belonging to the 1st Chutai, 53rdSentai, based atMatsudo in early 1945. dard armament comprised one 20-mm cannon in the nose, a forward-firing 37-mm cannon in the fuselage, and one rear-firing 7.92-mm (0.31-in) machinegun, plus the underwing provision for drop tanks or bombs; a number of alternative weapon installations were tried experimentally, including the use of a 75-mm (2.95-in) cannon for attacks on shipping. The Ki-45 KAIa was, for its day, heavily armed and proved effective against the USAF's Consoldiated B-24 Liberators and, when these bombers were used more extensively for night operations, the Ki-45 was adapted to attack them. Thus the night-fighting capability of the type was discovered, leading to development of the Ki-45 KAIc night-fighter, which proved to be
JAPAN
Kawasaki Ki-48 Imperial Japanese Army aircraft confronted by the Soviet-built Tupolev SB2 bomber, providing support for the Chinese during 1937, were rudely surprised by its capability, its maximum speed being such that Japanese army fighter aircraft were virtually unable to incercept it. Almost at once the army instructed Kawasaki to begin the design of a twin-engine light bomber of even better capability, specifying a maximum speed of about 485 km/h (301 mph). Work on what was to become known as the Kawasaki Ki-48 began in January 1938, the result being a cantilever mid-wing monoplane with conventional tail unit, retractable tailwheel landing gear and, in the type's ln l 937 the Japanese encountered the Tupolev SB-2 in Chinese hands, and were very impressed as the Soviet aircraft could outpace Japanese fighters. The Ki-48 was Japan 's reply: a Ugh t bomber of similar appearance. 332
one of the most successful Japanese aircraft in this category, Ki-45 Toryus remained in service until the end of the Pacific war, production totalling 1,701 including prototypes, being used for the defence of Tokyo, and in the Manchuria, Burma and Sumatra areas of operations.
Specification Kawasaki Ki-45 KAIc Type: two-seat night-fighter Powerplant: two 805-k W ( 1,080-hp) Mitsubishi Ha-102 radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 545 km/h (339 mph) at 7000 m (22,965 ft); climb to 5000 m (16,405 ft) in 6 minutes 7 seconds; service ceiling 10000 m (32,810 ft); range 2000 km
(1,243 miles) Weights: empty 4000 kg (8,818 lb); maximum take-off 5500 kg(12,125 lb) Dimensions: span 15.05 m (49 ft 4.5 in); length 11.00 m (36 ft 1.1 in); height 2 3.70 m (12 ft 1.7 in); wing area 32.00 m (344,46 sq ft) Armament: cannon and machine-guns as listed in text; all versions had provision for two drop tanks or two 250-kg (551 -lb) bombs on underwing racks Heavily armed by Japanese standards, the Kawasaki Ki-45 was developed as a long-range fighter. It doubled as a ground attack aircraft, one model being fitted with an experimental 75-mm (2.95-in) mount for the anti-shipping role.
prototype form, two 708-kW (950-hp) N a k a j i m a Ha-25 radial engines mounted in nacelles at the wing leading edges. The fuselage provided accommodation for a crew of four (the bombardier, navigator and radiooperator each doubling as gunners) and incorporated an internal bomb bay. Ki-48s entered service in the summer of 1940, becoming operational in China during the autumn of that year. In China their speed gave the Ki-48s almost complete immunity from enemy defences, but their deployment against Allied aircraft at the be-
ginning of the Pacific war revealed that their superior performance was illusory. Codenamed 'Lily' by the Allies, this initial production version had a number of deficiencies for the different kind of operations then required, and it was fortunate for the Japanese army that an improved version was already under development. This had the company designation Ki-48-II and differed from the earlier model by introducing a slightly lengthened fuselage, protected fuel tanks, armour protection for the crew, increased bombload and more powerful Nakajima Ha115 engines.
Unfortunately for the Japanese army, when the Ki-48-II was introduced into operational service its speed was still too low and its defensive armament inadequate. Attempts to increase armament merely upped the overall weight and speed suffered proportionately: it was clear by the summer of 1944 that the day of the Ki-48 had passed, and in October it was declared obsolescent.
Specification
Kawasaki Ki-48-IIb Type: four-seat light/dive-bomber Powerplant: two 858-kW (1,150-hp)
Nakajima Ha-115 radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 505 km/h (314 mph) at 5600 m (18,375 ft); service ceiling 10100 m (33,135 ft); maximum range 2400 km (1,491 miles) Weights: empty 4550 kg (10,031 lb); maximum take-off 6750 kg (14,881 lb) Dimensions: span 17.45 m (57 ft 3 in); length 12.75 m (41 ft 10 in); height 3.80 m ( 12 ft 5.6 in); wing area 40.00 m2 (430.57 sq ft) Armament: three 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns on trainable mounts in nose, dorsal and ventral positions, plus up to 800 kg ( 1,764 lb) of bombs
JAPAN
Kawasaki Ki-102 Derived from the Ki-96 twin-engine single-seat fighter, development of which was abandoned after three prototypes had been completed, the Kawasaki Ki-102b was intended as a two-seat attack fighter for primary deployment in the close-support role. Some assemblies of the Ki-96 prototypes were incorporated into the three Ki-102 prototypes, the first of which was completed in March 1944. A cantilever mid-wing monoplane with a conventional tail unit, retractable tailwheel landing gear and two Mitsubishi Ha-112-11 radial engines, the Ki-102 accommodated its two-man crew in separate enclosed cockpits in tandem, Completion of the prototypes was followed by the construction of 20 preproduction aircraft and in Octobei 1944 the type was ordered into production. With the Imperial Japanese Army still anxious to procure a twinengine high-altitude fighter, Kawasaki modified six of the preproduction Ki102s to serve as prototypes of such an interceptor. This differed from the attack fighter by having improved twoseat accommodation, a revised tail unit and Mitsubishi Ha-112-IIru engines with turbochargers. Successful testing of this version in mid-1944 resulted in a high-priority production order, but problems with the turbocharged engine resulted in only about 15 being
delivered to the army before the war ended. The design had also been revised to produce a night-fighter version under the designation Ki- 102c, but there was only time to complete two examples. These had increased wing span, a lengthened fuselage, redesigned tail surfaces, primitive AI radar, and armament comprising two 30-mm Ho-105 cannon in the underfuselage and two 20-mm Ho-5 cannon mounted obliquely in the fuselage to fire forward and upward. Ki-102b aircraft, which were allocated the Allied codename 'Randy', saw comparatively little service, some being used in action over Okinawa, but the majority were
held in reserve in Japan.
Specification
Kawasaki Ki-102b Type: twin-engine ground-attack aircraft Powerplant: two 1119-kW (1,500-hp) Mitsubishi Ha-112-11 radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 580 km/h (360 mph) at 6000 m (19,685 ft); service ceiling 11000 m (36,090 ft); range 2000 km (1,243 miles) Weights: empty 4950 kg ( 10,913 lb) ; maximum take-off 7300 kg (16094 lb) Dimensions: span 15.57 m (51 ft 1 in); length 11.45 m (37 ft 6.8 in); height
3.70 m(12 ft 1,7 in); wing area 34.00 mK (365.98 sq ft) Armament: one 57-mm Ho-401 cannon in the nose, two 20-mm Ho-5 cannon in the underfuselage, and one 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-gun on a flexible mounting in the rear cockpit, plus two 200-litre (44-Imp gal) drop tanks or two 250-kg (551 -lb) bombs carried on underwing racks TheKi-102b in its ground attack form entered service around November 1944, a few seeing action at Okinawa but the majority being retained to defend the homeland from the expected invasion.
ITALY
Caproni Bergamaschi Ca 306/Ca 309/310/314 At the 1935 Milan Exhibition there appeared the prototype of the Caproni Bergamaschi Ca 306 Borea (north wind), a six-passenger low-wing transport, Although built only in small numbers, the Borea was important as the progenitor of a range of light twinengine aircraft manufactured for a wide variety of roles, The first of these was the aptly-named Ca-309 Ghibli (desert wind), 78 of which were built for use in Libya. The military versions were used as light transports or reconnaissance bombers with a lengthened glazed nose, bomb racks, cameras, and with armament comprising three 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns. Another model featured a fixed forward firing 20-mm cannon. Seven squadrons equipped with Ghiblis were operational when Italy entered the war in 1940. Developed in parallel with the Ghibli, the Ca 310 Libeccio (south west wind) was structurally similar to the earlier machine, but was provided with retractable landing gear and po-
A Caproni Ca310 Libeccio (south west wind), is seen in Norwegian service based a t Sola airfield near Sta vanger. Other countries to acquire the Ca 310 included Peru and Yugoslavia. wered by two 350-kW (470-hp) Piaggio P. VII C. 35 radial engines. Export deliveries went to Norway, Peru and Yugoslavia, and this last nation also acquired 12 more under the designation Ca 31 Obis; this variant differed primarily by having an unstepped extensively-glazed nose. The prototype of the Ca SlObis served as a development aircraft for
the following Ca 311. As built they were similar to the Ca SlObis, but most were later modified by the introduction of a stepped windscreen, then being redesignated Ca 311M, Defensive armament of this version comprised a Caproni Lanciani turret with a single 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-gun, complemented by one machine-gun in the port wing root and another firing aft
through a ventral hatch. A modified Ca 310 with two Isotta-Fraschini Asso 120 IRCC 40 engines served as the Ca 313 prototype, first flown on 22 December 1939, but France had already confirmed an order for 200 of these aircraft on 1 October, followed closely by British and Swedish orders for 300 and 64 respectively. However, Italy's entry into the war prevented delivery of any 333
of the British machines and France received only five Ça 313F models, the remainder being diverted to the Regia Aeronautica. Most extensively built version was the Ca 314. Variants included the Ca 314A or Ca 314-SC (Scorta), a convoy escort/maritime patrol aircraft, the Ca 314B or Ca314-RA (Ricognizione Aerosiluranti) torpedo-bomber and the ground-attack Ca 314C.
Specification
CaproniCa314A Type: convoy escort and maritime patrol aircraft Powerplant: two 544-kW (730-hp) Isotta-Fraschini Delta RC.35 12cylinder inverted-Vee piston engines Performance: maximum speed 395 km/h (245 mph) at 4000 m (13,125 ft); cruising speed 320 km/h (199 mph) at 4200 m (13,780 ft); service ceiling 6400 m (21000 ft); maximum range 1690 km (1,050 miles) Weights: empty 4560 kg (10,053 lb); maximum take-off 6620 kg (14,595 lb) Dimensions: span 16.65 m (54 ft 7.5 in);
This Caproni Ca31 OM of the 8a Escuadrilla, Grupo 18, Agrupacion Espanola (theNa tionalist air force), opera ted in Spain during late 1938. length 11.80 m (38 ft 8.6 in); height 3.70 m(12 ft 1.7 in); wingarea39.20 m2 (421.96sqft) Armament: two 12.7-mm(0.5-in) machine-guns in the wing roots and one 7.7-mm (0.303-in) gun in a dorsal turret, plus a bombload of 500 kg (1,102 lb) The Caproni Ca314 was the last and most widely built of the series, and was used in maritime roles as well as for ground attack.
ITALY
Breda Ba.65 Intended as an aeroplano di combattimento, capable of fulfilling the roles of intereceptor fighter, light bomber, or reconnaissance/attack aircraft as required, the prototype Breda Ba.65 made its initial flight in September 1935. Experience in Spain indicated that the Ba.65 was suited only to the attack role, and the type served thenceforth with most of the eight squadriglie attached to the two Regia Aeronautica assault stormi (wings), the 5° and 50°, A second series of 137 aircraft was built by Breda (80) and Caproni-Vizzola (57), before production ended in July 1939, They differed from the first production batch by having Fiat A. 80 engines. Six Fiat-powered Ba.65s and four more of the GnomeRhone-powered version were sent to the Aviazione Legionaria in Spain in 1938. Following Italy's entry into World War II in June 1940, Ba.65s were involved in the fighting in North Africa against the British. They had a low serviceability rate in desert conditions and put up an unimpressive performance, The last serviceable aircraft was lost during the British offensive m Cyrenaica in February 1941. A large number of the Ba.65s serving with Italian units were of two-seat configuration, with an observer/gunner in an open cockpit above the trailing edge of the wing. A smaller number of the type had a Breda L type turret, but in either case the observer/ gunner operated a single 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-gun. While offensive armament could theoretically comprise up to 1000kg (2,205 lb) of bombs, the load usually carried was up to 300 kg (661 lb) in the fuselage bomb bay or, alternatively, up to 200 kg (441 lb) on underwing racks. Exports included 25 Fiat-powered Ba.65 two-seaters to Iraq in 1938, two of them dual-control trainers and the remainder with Breda L turrets; 20 Ba.65s with Piaggio P. XI C. 40 engines to Chile later in the same year, 17 of them single-seaters and three dual-control trainers; and 10 Fiat-powered two-seaters with Breda L turrets to Portugal in 334
Spanish experience showed theBa.65 to be suitable for ground attack only, although 25 two-seaters were sold to Iraq, where they served in No. 5 (Fighter) Squadron. November 1939. A single Fiatpowered production aircraft was tested with an American Pratt & Whitney R-1830 engine in June 1937 in anticipation of an order from the Chinese Nationalist government, but this failed to materialize. The Iraqi Ba.65s saw limited action against the British during the 1941 insurrection in that country.
Specification
Breda 65/A.80 (single-seat version) Type: ground-attack aircraft Powerplant: one 746-kW (1,000-hp) Fiat A.80RC.41 radial piston engine Performance: maximum level speed 430 km/h (267 mph); maximum level speed, two-seat version 410 km/h (255 mph); service ceiling 6300 m (20,670 ft); range 550 km (342 miles) Weights: empty equipped 2400 kg (5,291 lb); maximum take-off 2950 kg (6,504 lb) Dimensions: span 12.10 m (39 ft 8.4 in);
length 9,30 m (30 ft 6.1 in); height 2 3.20 m(10 ft6 in); wingarea23.50 m (252.96 sq ft) Armament: two 12.7-mm(0.5-m)and two 7.7-mm (0,303-in) Breda-SAFAT fixed forward-firing machine-guns in wings, plus up to 300 kg (661 lb) of bombs in fuselage bomb-bay and up to
TVie Breda Ba.65 served with most of the eight squadrons of the twoRegia Aeronautica assault Stormi (wings). These are from the original ba tch of 81 aircraft. 200 kg (441 lb) of bombs on underwing racks (usually alternatively)
11 AL Y
Breda Ba.88 Linee A propaganda triumph when its appearance was trumpeted by Mussolini's Facist regime in 1936, the Breda Ba.88 Linee (lynx) was a sleek all-metal shoulder-wing monoplane. In April 1937 it established two world speedover-distance records. Regarded as an aeroplano di combattimento, suitable for attack, long-range reconnaissance or bombing operations, the Ba.88 then had its military equipment and weapons installed. Immediately, performance and flight characteristics fell off dramatically, but by then production orders were already being executed. On 16 June 1940, just after Italy's declaration of war on France and her allies, the Ba,88 had its first taste of action. Twelve aircraft from the Regia Aeronautica's 19° Gruppo Autonomo made bombing and machine-gun attacks on the principal airfields of Corsica; three days later nine Ba.88s made a repeat attack, Analysis of these operations showed that the Ba,88 had only limited value, and any remaining doubts were settled when Ba.88s of the 7° Gruppo Autonomo joined action in Libya against the British. Fitted with sand filters, the engines overheated and failed to deliver their designed power. Attacks on targets at Sidi Barra m had to be aborted in September 1940, the aircraft failing to gain sufficient altitude or maintain formation, and reaching a speed less than half that claimed by the manufacturers. By mid-November 1940 most surviving Ba.88s had been stripped of useful equipment and were scattered around operational airfields as decoys for attacking British aircraft. Three Ba.88s were modified by the Agusta plant in 1942 to serve as ground-attack aircraft. Wing span was increased by 2.00m ( 6 f t 6.75 in) to alleviate wing loading problems, their
A Breda Ba.88 of 7° Gruppo, 5° Stormo, based at CastelBenito in Libya.
engines were replaced by Fiat A. 74s, nose armament was increased to four 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns, and dive brakes were installed. These Breda Ba.88Ms were delivered to the 103° Gruppo Autonomo Tuffatori (independent dive-bombing group) at Lonate Pozzolo on 7 September 1943. They were flight-tested by Luftwaffe pilots, but that was the last heard of the Breda Ba.88 which represented, perhaps, the most remarkable failure of any operational aircraft to see service in World War II. Specification Breda Ba.88 Type: fighter-bomber/reconnaissance
aircraft Powerplant: two 746-kW (1,000-hp) Piaggio P. XI RC.40 radial piston engines
Performance: maximum speed 490 km/h (304 mph); service ceiling 8000 m (26,245 ft); range 1640 km (1,019 miles) Weights: empty 4650 kg (10,251 lb); maximum take-off 6750 kg (14,881 lb) Dimensions: span 15.60 m (51 ft 2,2 in); length 10.79 m (35 ft 4.8 in); height 2 3.10 m (10 ft 2 in); wuigarea33.34 m (358.88 sq ft) Armament: three fixed forward-firing 12.7-mm (0.5-in) Breda-SAFAT machine-guns in nose and one 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Breda-SAFAT machine-gun
ln spite ofits sleek, powerful appearance, theBa.88was somewhat less than successful, since the excellen t prototype performance declined dramatically once in operational trim. Indeed, so bad was theLince's combat performance that within five mon ths from the start of the war survivors of the initial batch of 80 were gutted and used as ground decoys on airfields. on trainable mounting in rear cockpit, plus up to 1000 kg (2,204 lb) of bombs in fuselage bomb-bay or, alternatively, three 200-kg (441-lb) bombs carried semi-exposed in individual recesses in the fuselage belly
GERMANY
Junkers Ju 87 Forever deprecated as a Nazi terror weapon, the Junkers Ju 87 (widely referred to as the Stuka - a contraction of the word Sturzkampfflugzeug) was nevertheless an imaginative weapon of considerable accuracy when operating in skies clear of enemy fighters, Conceived as a form of support artillery for the Wehrmacht's Blitzkrieg tactics, the Ju 87 was first flown in 1935, a small number of Ju 87A-ls and Ju 87B-ls being flown by the Legion Condor in Spain in 1938-9. To support the invasion of Poland the Luftwaffe fielded all five Stukageschwader thus far equipped with Ju 87s, and it was in this campaign that, with little effective opposition in the air, the Stuka's legend was born, With sirens screaming, the cranked-wing dive-bombers wrought havoc among Poland's helpless troops and civilians, effectively destroying the country's lines of communications, bridges, railways and airfields. During the difficult Norwegian campaign the Ju 87R with underwing fuel tanks was introduced to cope with the great distances involved, and in the Battle of Britain this version and the Ju 87B were heavily committed until withdrawn temporarily as a result of losses suffered at the hands of British fighter pilots. At the end of 1941 the Ju 87D, a much cleaned-up version with an uprated Jumo 211, entered service on the
Russian front, and appeared in North Africa the following year. The Ju 87G, a specialist anti-tank aircraft, featured a pair of 37-mm guns under the wings and achieved spectacular success, particularly in the East. Unquestionably the greatest exponent of the Stuka was Hans-Ulrich Rudel whose personal tally of a battleship, cruiser and a destroyer sunk, and 519 tanks destroyed, far exceeded any other. Total Ju 87 production was said to be 5,709. Specification Junkers Ju87D-l Type: two-seat dive-bomber/assault
aircraft Powerplant: one 1044-kW(l,400-hp) Junkers Jumo 211J-1 inverted-Vee piston engine Performance: maximum speed 410 km/h (255 mph) at 3840 m (12,600 ft); cruising speed 320 km/h (199 mph) at 5090 m (16,700 ft); service ceiling 7290 m (23,915 ft); maximum range 1535 km (954 miles) Weights: empty equipped 3900 kg (8,598 lb); maximum take-off 6600 kg (14,55 lib) Dimensions: span 13.80 m (45 ft 3.3 in); length 11.50 m (37 ft 8.75 in); height z 3,90m(12ft9.5in);wingarea31.90m
The Stuka established its reputation in the hands of the Condor Legion in Spain. Here a formation ofju 87B-ls approaches its target. (343.38 sq ft) Armament: two 7.92-mm (0.31-in) forward-firing MG 17 machine-guns in wings and twin 7.92-mm (0.31 -in) MG 81Z machine-guns in rear cockpit, plus a maximum bombload of one 1800-kg (3,968-lb) bomb beneath fuselage, or various alternative loads beneath fuselage and wings, including antipersonnel bombs 335
GERMANY
Junkers Ju 88P Although the Junkers Ju 88 was originally intended to perform the dual roles of level and dive bombing, the early versions were seldom employed in the ground-support role in the same manner as the Ju 87 dive-bomber, being largely confined to level bombing attacks for which its excellent performance rendered it ideally suited. It was not until 1942, with the increasing ferocity of fighting on the Eastern Front, that attention focussed on a dedicated ground-attack version, the Ju 88P, The prototype Ju88P VI, modified from a standard Ju 88A-4, featured a single 75-mm (2.95-in) KwK 39 gun housed in a large fairing under the fuselage, and during trials against captured T-34 tanks at Rechlin in 1943 promising results were obtained. A small number of Ju 88P-1 aircraft followed, featuring the 'solid' nose of the C-senes Zerstörer, armour protection for the engines and the more suitable semi-automatic PAK 40L 75-mm antitank gun; production amounted to about 40 aircraft, these being distributed between the Versuchskommando für Panzerbekämpfung, the Panzerjägerstaffel 92 and 6./KG 3 for operational trials and development of tactics as train-busters, this role becoming increasingly important on the Eastern Front. The Ju 88P-1 proved both cumbersome and vulnerable, and was soon followed by the Ju 88P-2 with a large fairing offset' to port under the fuselage mounting a pair of 37-mm BK 3.7 cannon. The higher muzzle velocity proved more effective against Soviet armour and also prompted the air-
craft's use by Erprobungskommando 25 as a bomber-destroyer; the aircraft had lost the necessary manoeuvrability for air combat, however. The Ju 88P-3, with further increased armour protection for the crew, was delivered to one Staffel in each of the Nachtschlachtgruppen (night ground-attack groups) 1, 2, 4, 8 and 9 for combat use on the Eastern Front, in northern Norway (NSGr 8) and Italy (NSGr 9). Some success was achieved by these units, but in an effort to improve the aircraft's performance the Ju 88P-4 was introduced with a much smaller gun fairing mounting a single 50-mm BK5 gun, and at least one Ju 88P-4 was equipped with a 6.5-cm RZ 65 solid-fuel rocketlauncher with a 22-round magazine. The Ju 88P-4 was also planned to mount
an 88-mm Düka 8.8 U-boat gun as well as various types of flame-thrower; none of these reached operational units, however, and by the time that NSGr 2 was moved to the West late in 1944 few, if any, Ju 88Ps remained in service.
Specification
Junkers Ju88P-3 Type: three-crew ground attack aircraft Powerplant: 999-kW (1,340-hp) Junkers Jumo 211J-2 inverted V-12 piston engines Performance: maximum speed 360 km/h (224 mph) at 1600 m (5,250 ft); climb to 2700 m (8,860 ft) in 10.6 minutes; service ceiling about 5500 m (18,045 ft); normal range 1580 km (982
The Junkers Ju 88P-3 featured increased armour protection for the crew and it packed a devastating punch of twin 37-mm cannon in the ventral fairing. It was delivered to five Nachtschlachtgruppen. miles) Weights: empty about 11080 kg (24,427 lb); maximum take-off about 12670 kg (27,932 lb) Dimensions: span 20.00 m (65 ft 7.5 in); length 14.85 m (48 ft 8.5 in); height 4.85 m (15 ft 11 in); wing area 54.56 nf (587.30 sq ft) Armament: two 37-mm BK Flak 18 cannon in a fairing under the front fuselage, and up to six 7.92-mm (0.31in) MG 17 machine-guns on trainable mountings in the cockpit
GERMANY
Focke-Wulf Fw 190 A cantilever low-wing monoplane of stressed-skin construction, the prototype Focke-Wulf Fw 190 was rolled out in May 1939 and the first flight took place on 1 June 1939, A second aircraft, the Fw 190 V2, flew in October 1939, armed with two 13-mm (0.51-in) MG 131 and two 7.92-mm (0.31-in) MG 17 machine-guns. Initial production version was the Fw 190A-1 which, flown by 6,/JG 26, first clashed with RAF Supermarine Spitfires on 27 September 1941. Fighter-bomber versions included the Fw 190A-5/U6 and the longrange Fw 190A-5/U8, and the Fw 190A5/U11 close-support aircraft carried a 30-mm MK 103 cannon beneath each wing, The Fw 190A-5/U14 and Fw 190A-5/U15 were both torpedobomber variants, able to carry an LT F5b and LT 950 torpedo respectively, and a 30-mm MK 108 cannon mounted in the outboard wing position was standard for the Fw 190A-5/U16. In late 1943 several Fw 190A-7s were modified by the installation of Junkers Jumo 213A V-12 engines to serve as Fw 190D-0 prototypes, Thus was derived the Fw 190D-9 production version, known popularly as the 'longnose 190' or 'Dora 9'. A 300-litre (66-Imp gal) drop tank or a 250-kg (551-lb) bomb could be carried on each underwing rack. Variants included the Fw 190D-12, which was essentially a ground-attack aircraft with additional The Fw 190 was modified to produce a series of highly successful fighterbombers. This taxiing Fw 190A-5/U8 carries a crew member to give guidance to the pilot inside. 336
The Focke-Wulf Fw 190A-5/U8 was the long-range figh ter bomber varian toftheFwl 90A-5 introduced in early 1943. Engine overheating, which had been a problem with previous models, had been overcome by the introduction of a new mounting which positioned the engine further forward.
armour protection for the engine, and armed with two MG 151720s in the wings and a single Mk 108 cannon firing through the spinner. However, the Fw 190D had been preceded into service by the Fw 190F-1, a specialized ground-attack version which was introduced in early 1943; generally similar to the Fw 190A-4, it differed by having additional armour protection for the cockpit and powerplant, the outboard 20-mm cannon deleted, and an ETC 501 bomb rack installed beneath the fuselage. The Fw 190F-2 introduced a bubble canopy, and the Fw 190F-3 could carry a 250-kg (551-lb) bomb beneath the fuselage and, in the Fw 190F-3/R1 and Fw 190F-3/R3 versions, four ETC 50 underwing bomb racks or two similarly-located 30-mm MK 103 cannon. The Fw 190F-8/U2 and the Fw 190F-8/U3 were fitted with the TSA bomb sight for anti-shipping strikes with, respectively, a 700-kg ( 1,543-lb) BT 700 or a 1400-kg (3,086-lb) BT 1400 weapon. Alphabetically the
last of the Fw 190s, and a specialized ground-attack version like the F-senes which it preceded into service, the Fw 190G-1 fighter-bomber was derived from the Fw 190A-5, but carried a 1800kg (3,968-lb) bomb which necessitated the introduction of strengthened landing gear; wing-mounted armament was reduced to two MG 151/20 cannon, and the Junkers-designed wing racks accommodated two 300-litre (66-Imp gal) drop tanks.
Specification
Focke-Wulf Fw 190D-9 Type: single-seat fighter-bomber Powerplant: one 1324-kW(l,776-hp) Junkers Jumo 213 A-1 inverted-Vee piston engine Performance: maximum speed 685 km/h (426 mph) at 6600 m (21,655 ft); climb to 6000 m (19,685 ft) in 7 minutes 6 seconds; service ceiling 12000 m (39,370 ft); range 835 km (519 miles) Weights: empty 3490 kg (7,694 lb);
maximum take-off 4840 kg (10,670 lb) Dimensions:span 10.50 m(34 ft 5.4 in); length 10.20 m (33 ft 5.6 in); height 2 3.35 m (11 f t O in); wing area 18.30 m (196.99 sq ft) Armament: two 13-mm (0.51-in) MG 131 machine-guns and two 20-mm MG
TWoFw 190F-8s set off on a bombing mission in the USSR in 1944 carrying 250-kg bombs. 151 cannon, plus one 500-kg ( 1,102-lb) SC500 bomb
GERMANY
Henschel Hs 123 Designed to an official requirement for a dive-bomber, issued in 1933, the Henschel Hs 123 single-bay sesquiplane was of all-metal construction, with fabric covering used only for the rear portions of the wings and the control surfaces, Powered by a 485-kW (650-hp) BMW 132A-3 radial engine, the prototype flew in 1938 and quickly established its superiority over the rival Fieseler Fi 98. The third prototype was the first to be armed, carrying two fixed forward-firing 7.92-mm (0.31-in) MG 17 machine-guns in the fuselage top decking. The first three aircraft were flown to Rechlin for testing in August 1935, in the course of which activity two of them were destroyed when their wings came off in dives. A fourth prototype tested successfully the structural changes introduced to overcome this problem and initial production orders were placed for the Hs 123A-1, which retained the blistered cowling of the second and third prototypes, rather than the NACA cowling of the first. Power was provided by the BMW 132Dc radial engine and, in addition to the two fixed MG 17 machine-guns, a mounting for a 250-kg (551-lb) bomb or an external fuel tank was included beneath the fuselage, and four 50-kg (110-lb) bombs could be carried on underwing racks. The Hs 123 was built at Henschel's Schรถnefeld and Johanmsthal factories in Berlin, but although the company built two prototypes of an improved Hs 123B version with the 716-kW (960-hp) BMW 132K engine, the second having two additional MG 17 machine-guns and an enclosed cockpit, the Luftwaffe expressed its satisfaction with the Junkers Ju 87 and production ended. The Hs 123A first entered service with l./StG 162 in the autumn of 1936, although its career as a front-line divebomber was short-lived because the Junkers Ju 87A Stuka began to replace it in 1937. Five 123As were supplied to the Legion Condor in Spain in December 1936; the type also saw operational service as a close support aircraft in Poland during the closing months of 1939 and in the campaigns in France and Belgium during the spring of 1940. It was withdrawn finally in 1944.
Above: The Henschel H s 123 dive bomber entered service in 1936, butwas soon overshadowed by theju 87 Stuka, which joined the Luftwaffe the followingyear. Tested in Spain, it saw operational service in Poland and in the campaign in the West in 1940.
Specification
Henschel Hs 123a-l Type: dive-bomber/close-support aircraft Powerplant: one 656-kW (880-hp) BMW 132Dc radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 340 km/h (211 mph) at 1200 m (3,935 ft); cruising speed 315 km/h ( 196 mph) at 2000 m (6,560 ft); service ceiling 9000 m (29,530 ft); range 855 km (531 miles)
Above:An Hs 123A of 7. Staffel, Stukageschwader 165 'Immelmann' in 1937. Plans for an H s 123B with increased armament and enclosed cockpit were cancelled after theju 87 was introduced. Weights: empty 1500 kg (3,307 lb); maximum take-off 2215 kg (4,883 lb) Dimensions: span, upper 10.50 m (34 ft 5.4 in) and lower 8.00 m (26 ft 3 in); length 8.33 m (27 ft 4 in); height 3.20 m (10 ft 6 in); wing area 24.85 m?i (267,49 sq ft) Armament: two fixed forward-firing 7.92-mm (0.31-in)MG 17machineguns, plus provision for 450 kg (992 lb) of bombs
Three Henschel Hs 123s pose for the camera in pre-war colours. Production ceased after only one year. 337
GERMANY
Henschel Hs 129 Henschel was one of four companies (the others being Focke-Wulf, Gotha and Hamburger Flugzeugbau) to which, in April 1937, the Reichsluftfahrtministerium issued a spécification for a twin-engine ground-attack aircraft, It was required to carry at least two 20mm MG FF cannon and to have extensive armour plating protection for crew and engines. The two designs for which development contracts were awarded on 1 October 1937 were the Focke-Wulf Fw 189C and Henschel Hs 129. The latter was a Friedrich Nicolaus design with a light alloy stressedskin fuselage of triangular section. It contained a small cockpit with a restricted view, necessitating the removal of some instruments to the inboard sides of the engine cowlings. The windscreen was made of 75-mm (2.95m) armoured glass and the nose section was manufactured from armour plating. Nose armament comprised two 20-mm MG FF cannon and two 7.92-mm (0.31-m) MG 17 machineguns. Although the Henschel aircraft was considered to be underpowered and to have too small a cockpit, the company was awarded a contract for eight pre-production aircraft, two of which were converted at Schönefeld to accept Gnome-Rhône 14M 4/5 radial engines. It was with this powerplant that 10 Hs 129B-0 development aircraft were delivered from December 1941; armament comprised two 20-mm MG 151/20 cannon and two 7,92-mm (0.31in) MG 17 machine-guns. The production Hs 192B-1 series became operational on the Eastern Front, where the type was to be used most widely, although it served also in North Africa, Italy, and in France after the D-Day landings. By the end of 1942 the growing capability of Soviet tank battalions made it essential to develop a version of the Hs
129 with greater fire-power, leading to the Hs 129B-2 series which was introduced into service in the early part of 1943. They included'the Hs 129B-2/R1 which carried two 20-mm MG 151/20 cannon and two 13-mm (0,51-in) machine-guns; and the Hs 129B-2/R3 with the two MG 13s deleted but equipped with a 37-mm BK 3.7 gun. Final production variant was the Hs 129B-3 of which approximately 25 were built and which carried an electro-pneumatically operated 75-mm BK gun.
Specification
Henschel Hsl29B-l/R2 Type: single-seat ground-attack aircraft Powerplant: two 522-kW (700-hp) Gnome-Rhône 14M radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 407 km/h (253 mph) at 3830 m
TheHenschelHs 129 was designed to a 1937 specification for an armoured, twin-engined ground attack aircraft. Far superior to Allied equivalen ts, it showed how much importance the Germans attached to close air support. (12,565 ft); service ceiling9000 m (29,525 ft); range 560 km (348 miles) Weights: empty 3810 kg (8,400 lb); maximum take-off 5110 kg (11,266 lb) Dimensions: span 14,20 m (46 ft 7,1 in); length 9.75 m (31 ft 11.9 in); height
3.25 m(10 ft 8 in); wing area 29.00 m2 (312.16 sq ft) Armament: two 20-mm MG 151/20 cannon, two 7,92-mm (0.31 -m) MG 17 machine-guns and one 30-mm Mk 101 cannon
Above: An Hs 129B-1 ofS./SG 1 on the Russian front, February 1943. Later models carried increased armament to deal with heavily-armoured Soviet tanks.
Twenty-five Henschel Hs 129s mounted a 75-mm (2.95-in)gun capable of destroying even the most well-protected enemy AFVs. GERMANY
Messerschmitt Bf 110 Like so many German aircraft which underwent adaptation for service in operational roles other than those for which they were originally intended, the Messerschmitt Bf 110 Zerstörer (destroyer, or heavy fighter) had proved unsuitable in the role of day bomber escort when confronted by modern interceptor single-seat fighters, but came to be widely used in the ground attack/fighter-bomber role. During the Battle of Britain Bf HOCs and Ds of V(Z)/LG 1, II/ZG 26 'Horst Wesel', I/ZG 76, and 1. and 27 ErpGr 210 carried out numerous fighter-bomber attacks, the latter Staffeln being components of a Gruppe specifically created to introduce fighter-bombing/pathfinding tactics to the Luftwaffe under Hauptmann Walter Rubensdörffer (who was killed following a raid on Croydon on 15 August 1940). The first dedicated fighter-bomber version of the Bf 110, after the Bf 110C4B and D-2 sub-series adaptations, was the Bf 110E series, and this version equipped the two ground-attack units deployed in the East when Operation 'Barbarossa' was launched against the 338
USSR on 22 June 1941. These were Zerstörergeschwader 26 'Horst Wessel1 and Schnellkampfgeschwader (fast bomber wing) 210, the latter having been created out of ErpGr 210, expanded to Geschwader proportions and equipped with Bf 110E-1 aircraft following the failure of the Me 210 to meet operational demands. These were soon joined by Bf l lOE-equipped
Above: the Messerschmitt Bfll OC-2 was widely used in the ground attack role. This is an aircraft of II/ZG 1 over Italy in 1943. Right: A close-up of the BK 37-mm (1.45-in) anti-tank gun fitted to some Bfll OG-2s. No heavier weapons were in troduced, as the Bfll Os were diverted to the night-fighter role.
Staffeln of 1 l/ZG l, and were heavily committed during the early fast-*«--^^ advancing offensives, attacking Soviet aircraft on their airfields as well as softskinned transport vehicles with deluges of fragmentation bombs. The E-senes was joined early in 1942 by sub-variants of the DB 605Bpowered Bf llOG-senes. The Bf HOG2 was widely used in the ground A Messerschmitt BfllOE of8./ZG 26 based atBerca, North Africa, in September 1942. It is armed with the powerful attack/anti-tank role, the Rl, R2 and R3 MK 101 30-mm cannon, forusein the tank-busting role. Rustsatz field kit introducing 37-mm Flak 18 and 30-mm MK 108 cannon to ing offensive by RAF Bomber Com- Specification Weights: empty 5200 kg (11,464 lb); the Bf 110's armament. Towards the mand. Only in the closing weeks of the Messerschmitt Bf 110C-4/B maximum take-off 6910 kg(15,234 lb) end of 1942, however, these guns be- war, when the Allies were jamming the Type: two-seat ground attack fighterDimensions: span 16.28 m (53 ft gan to fail to penetrate Soviet tank night-fighters into helplessness, were bomber 4.75 in); length 12.10 m (39 ft 8.5 in); armour, particularly in the case of the the surviving Bf 110s ordered to pursue Powerplant: two 895-kW (1,200-hp) height 3.51 m ( 11 ft 6 in); wing area arrival of the T-34 tank, and much less night ground-attacks against the Daimler-Benz DB 601N inverted V-12 38,37m2 (413.0 sq ft) reliance came to be placed on the Zer- advancing Allied armies, but by then piston engines Armament: two 20-mm MG FF cannon störergruppen in the ground attack the RAF de Havilland Mosquitoes Performance: maximum speed andfour7.92-mm(0.31-in)MG 17 function. In any case almost all Bf 110 ruled the night skies over Germany. 473 km/h (294 mph) at sea level; climb machine-guns in the nose and twin production was by then being distrito 1650 m (5,415 ft) in 3.8 minutes; 7.92-mm MG 81 guns in the rear buted among night-fighter units for the service ceiling 8300 m (27,230 ft); cockpit, plus racks for two 250-kg (551defence of Germany against the grownormal range about 790 m (490 miles) Ib) bombs under the wing roots GERMANY
Messerschmitt Me 210 and Me 410 The Germans pinned high hopes on the Messerschmitt Me 210, which first flew on 2 September 1939, as an ultimate replacement for the Bf 110. However, after the prototype (with twin fins and rudders, like the Bf 110) displayed chronic instability and later crashed during flutter trials (even after resort to a large single fin and rudder), development was slow, It was not until the end of 1940 that a few preproduction aircraft were delivered to Erprobungsgruppe 210, the unit that had been formed to introduce the aircraft into operational service before the Battle of Britain, The principal ground attack variants were the Me 210A-2 with DB 601Aa engines and the Me 41ÛC-2 with DB 605B engines; these started to equip II/ZG 1 on the Eastern Front shortly after the German attack on the USSR opened but, following a number of fatal accidents when pilots lost control in shock stalls during ground attacks, the aircraft was quickly withdrawn from operational use. By the time a remedy had been found, in mid-1942 (by fitting wing slats), some 600 aircraft had been completed and the majority of these underwent modification, In the event no more than 258 Me 210s ever reached the Luftwaffe and few of the modified aircraft equipped fully-operational ground-attack units. This was because, by 1943, interest centred on the Me 410 Hornisse (hornet), which was in effect a DB 603Apowered Me 210 with lengthened engine nacelles and all the stabilityassociated modifications found essential in the earlier aircraft. By 1943 the operational distinction between closesupport and tactical bombing had become blurred in the Luftwaffe and, although the Me 410A equipped 5./KG 2 at Lechfeld, and 2.(F)/122 and III/ZG 1 in the central Mediterranean, only the operational sorties by the last-named unit could be described as 'close support' of the German army. Another bomber unit, I/KG 51 'Edelweiss', was equipped with Me 410As in June 1943 for night raids over the UK (and, on account of its excellent performance, proved a tough adversary even for the RAF's de Havilland Mosquito nightfighters); however, I/KG 51 switched to the tactical role at the time of the Nor-
mandy landings and became very active over the invasion area. Of the total of 1,160 Me 410s produced, not more than about 200 ever equipped groundattack units, the remainder serving as conventional medium-level light bombers, reconnaissance aircraft and as bomber-destroyers in the air defence of the Reich. Specification Messerschmitt Me 410A-1 Type: two-seat fighter/fighter-bomber Powerplant: two 1305-kW(l,750-hp) Daimler-Benz DB 603A inverted V-12 piston engines Performance: maximum speed 638 km/h (396 mph) at 6700 m (21,980 ft) or 549 km/h (341 mph) at sea level; climb to 6700 m (21,980 ft) in 10.7 minutes; service ceiling 10000 m (32,810 ft); normal range 1480 km (920 miles) Weights: empty 6050 kg (13,338 lb); maximum take-off 10530 kg (23,215 lb) Dimensions: span 16.35 m (53 ft 7.75 in); length 12.41 m (40 ft 8.5 in);
height 4.28 m (14 ft 0.5 in); wing area 36.19m 2 (389.6 sq ft) Armament: two MG 151/20 20-mm cannon and two 7.92-mm (0.31-in) MG 17 machine-guns m the nose and single 13-mm(0.51-m)MG 131 heavy machine-gun in each of two remotelycontrolled FDL 131 barbettes on the sides of the centre fuselage, plus a bombloadofuptotwo 1000-kg (2,205Ib) bombs internally, or up to 10 50-kg ( 110-lb) bombs internally and on external racks
This Me 210A-1 of III/ZG 1 was based in Tunisia during the final stages of the battle for North Africa, during April 1943. The aircraft were used in the Zerstorer/ground attack role. Seen during the aircraft's trials, one of the eigh t pre-production Me 210AOs is seen in formation with an Me210A-l, the nearer of the two. Seen in retrospect the craft was unsuccessful from the first.
339
Allied Ground Attack Aircraft The early ground attack aircraft of the war were easy pickings for air and ground defences alike, but later designs overcame these deficiencies by strength and speed. Here we describe the main types employed by the Allies along with their development and deployment.
The Hawker Typhoon was a devastating asset to the advancing Allied forces. Its 76.2mm (3in) rockets made it a pioneer of today's strike aircraft, such an essential concept in modern warfare. ontinuing the 'trench fighter' concept of World War I, most fighter aircraft of the warring nations in World War II were adapted to carry weapons with which to support their ground forces, both above the battlefield itself or at the enemy's immediate rear. Although the ground support tactic had been pursued by the Luftwaffe as an inherent feature
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340
since its formation in 1934, and demonstrated by the Legion Condor during the Spanish Civil War, the RAF was slow to convert its fighters to ground attack aircraft, preferring to employ specialist light bombers in the task; and when its Fairey Battles were shown to possess neither the speed nor defensive ability to survive enemy fighters and Flak, the
Hawker Hurricane eventually took over, using guns and bombs in the cross-Channel sweeps that started in 1941. In the early stages of the war, however, the UK and her fast diminishing European Allies were thrown almost entirely on the defensive, and such campaigns were not conducive to the use of fighter aircraft in the ground
attack role, but rather in disputing enemy air superiority. Only when the Allies were ready to take the initiative, at first in isolated operations, such as at Dieppe, and later in major campaigns in North Africa and ultimately throughout Europe, did the ground attack aircraft really come into its own. All manner of specialist support tasks were undertaken, including bombing, rocket-firing, smokelaying, tactical reconnaissance, anti-tank attack, and so on. What had euphemistically been termed the 'army co-operation' by the RAF for 20 years was now deemed a major strike element of the ground offensive. The Hawker Typhoon, a relative failure in its original role as an interceptor, was shown to be a devastating ground attack fighter, and can now be seen as the prototype of a new generation of strike aircraft, its rudimentary 76.2mm (3in) rockets presaging a new concept of artillery that would dominate the battleground of armour and entrenched or concrete defences. Indeed, the speed of land advances during the final year of the war in Europe and the Far East was directly proportional to the weight of tactical air support, whether by hordes of Soviet Shturmoviks in the Ukraine or by Hurricanes over Rangoon.
UK
Bristol Beaufighter Originally designed and introduced into service as the RAF's first purposebuilt twin-engine night-fighter in 1940, the Bristol Beaufighter was impressive from the outset as a rugged, powerful and heavily-armed aircraft. Its longterm success in this role was to some extent compromised by poor radar, however, and by the time this shortcoming had been overcome the de Havilland Mosquito night-fighter, with much improved performance, had arrived. Therefore, although remaining in service as a night-fighter overseas, from the autumn of 1942 the Beaufighter started service in the strike role, As early as March 1941 a Beaufighter had undergone trials as a torpedo bomber, and in September 1942 a Beaufighter Mk VIC was first armed with rocket projectiles. Two months later the first Beaufighter anti-shipping strike wing was formed at North Coates, Lincolnshire, comprising No. 143 Squadron with fighters, No. 236 Squadron with bombers (carrying two 113kg/250-lb bombs under the wings) and No. 254 Squadron with torpedo Beaufighters. The r o c k e t - f i r i n g Beaufighters (dubbed the Flakbeau as its task during strike sorties was to attack defending Flak ships and batteries) entered squadron service in March 1943. The first Beaufighter strike aircraft were all Mk Vis, although specific aircraft were designated for bomb-, rocket- or torpedo-carrying. In June 1943 the first Beaufighter TF.Mk X aircraft entered service with No. 39 Squadron in the UK and No. 47 Squadron in North Africa; this version, with nose-mounted ASV radar, could carry combinations of all these weapons and was particularly effective against Axis shipping in the Mediterranean in 1943. It was in South East Asia, however, that the Beaufighter earned lasting
fame as a strike fighter: here it was called 'Whispering Death' by the Japanese following a series of surprise strikes on enemy depots in the Burmese jungle. Early operations involved strikes against Japanese coastal shipping sailing along the Burma coast, but in due course, in the face of persistent attacks by the Beaufighters and other Allied aircraft, this traffic dwindled, leaving the Beaufighter free to engage land targets with cannon, rockets and bombs, a task they continued to perform right up to the end of the war. Specification Bristol Beaufighter TF.Mk X Type: two-seat strike fighter
The Bristol Bea ufigh ter was built in A ustralia and used by theRAAF against the Japanese in theFarEast theatre alongside the RAF machines. They came to be one of the most effective attack aircraft in theFarEast and their metal structure was suited to the climate. Powerplant: two l,770-hp(1320-kW) Bristol Hercules XVII air-cooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 488 km/h (303 mph) at 395 m (1,300 ft); climb to 1525 m (5,000 ft) in 3 minutes 30 seconds; service ceiling 4570 m (15,000 ft); range 2365 km (1,470 miles) Weights: empty 7076 kg (15,600 lb); maximum take-off 11431 kg (25,200 lb) Dimensions: span 17,63 m (57 ft 10 in); length 12.70 m (41 ft 8 in); height 4.83 m (15 ft 10 in); wing area 46,73 m2 (503 sq ft)
Armament: four 20-mm Hispano cannon in nose and one 7.7-mm (0.303in) machine-gun in dorsal hatch, plus either one 45.7-cm(18-in) torpedo, or eight 27,2-kg (60-lb) rocket projectiles, or two 227-kg (500-lb) and two 113-kg (250-lb) bombs A German train is blasted by an RAF Beaufighter over Norway in 1943. The Beaufighter became the prime strike aircraft early in the war before such types as the Mosquito came to the fore.
UK
Fairey Battle Envisaged as a replacement for the famous Hawker Hart and Hind light bombers of the early and mid-1930s, the Fairey Battle was selected as the cornerstone of the rapidly-expanding RAF and was intended to equip the large number of light bomber squadrons during the latter part of that decade. When the war started, however, the Battle was already obsolescent and was particularly vulnerable in the context of German Blitzkrieg tactics. Before the opening of the great German assault in the West on 10 May 1940, 10 Battle squadrons (Nos 12, 40, 88, 98, 103, 105, 142, 150, 218 and 226) had been sent to France to support the British Expeditionary Force, and were committed to action in the face of overwhelming enemy air superiority. Already unescorted daylight bombing operations had resulted in heavy losses (as early as 30 September 1939 four out of five No. 150 Squadron Battles had been shot down in a single raid), and, although escorts had been provided during the winter, little could be done to protect the slow bombers when the storm burst in the spring. Carrying no more than four 113-kg (250-lb) bombs at an operating speed of about 278 km/ h (160 mph), the Battles were sent against key river bridges being used by enemy armoured columns advancing through Belgium. In an attack by
No. 12 Squadron against the Maastricht bridges, carried out in the face of heavy Flak and fighter opposition, almost all the bombers were shot down, the RAF's first Victoria Crosses of World War II being awarded posthumously to Flying Officer D.E. Garland and Sergeant T. Gray. Four days later 71 Battles from Nos 12, 103, 105, 150 and 218 Squadrons were assembled for an attack on German pontoon bridges in the Sedan area; no fewer than 40 aircraft failed to return. The survivors of the squadrons were withdrawn from France, but several of them, based in England, continued to attack German-held ports on the Channel Coast until the threat of invasion receded. Thereafter the Battle was relegated to training and targettowing duties, many being shipped to Canada where they served with air gunnery schools. The Battle was an anachronism and
Fairey Battle of No. 106 Sqn as it appeared in 1938 whilst stationed at Abingdon. TheBa ttle was extremely vulnerable to both air and ground fire due to its sluggish performance, and its combat career was cut short in 1940. its shortcomings should have been anticipated long before the traumas of May 1940. It was, after all, powered by the same engine as the single-seat Hurricane, yet with a crew of three and 60 per cent heavier when fullyequipped, it was sent aganst singleseat fighters of twice its performance and expected to defend itself with only two rifle-calibre machine-guns. Specification Fairey Battle Type: three-seat light bomber Powerplant: one l,030-hp(768-kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin II liquid-cooled V12 piston engine Performance: maximum speed
388 km/h (241 mph) at 3050 m (10,000 ft); initial climb rate 280 m (920 ft) per minute; service ceiling 7620 m (25,000 ft); range 1450 km (900 miles) Weights: empty 3015 kg (6,647 lb); maximum take-off 4895 kg (10,792 lb) Dimensions: span 16.46 m (54 ft 0 in); length 12.85 m (42 ft 1% in); height 2 4.72 m (15 ft 6 in); wing area 39.20 m (422 sq ft) Armament: one 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-gun in starboard wing and one 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-gun in rear cockpit, plus a bombload of four 113-kg (250-lb) bombs carried internally 341
UK
Hawker Hurricane Rugged and combat-proven with flying colours in the Battle of Britain, the Hawker Hurricane was the natural choice of aircraft with which to carry the war back to the Germans when the RAF began to venture on to the offensive with cross-Channel attacks after the winter of 1940-1. The Hurricane Mk II, with a more powerful Merlin XX engine, began appearing in the autumn of 1940, the Hurricane Mk IIB introducing a 12-gun wing, and the Hurricane Mk IIC an armament of four 20-mm cannon, the latter being regarded as a very heavy punch for a single-seater. Stemming from early tests to fit long-range tanks to enable Hurricanes to reinforce the Middle East with minimum refuelling stops, the Hurricane Mk IIB was soon equipped with wing racks to carry a pair of 113-kg (250-lb) or, later 227-kg (500-lb) bombs, and it was this version that went into action as the 'Hurribomber' with No. 607 Squadron on 30 October 1941 in 'Channel Stop 1 antishipping strikes, later being joined by Nos 175 and 402 Squadrons. Hurricanes were particularly active in the ground-attack role in North Africa from mid-1941 and it was in this theatre that the next version, the Hurricane Mk IID tank-buster, made its first impact; armed with a pair of 40-mm
Vickers anti-tank guns under the wings, aircraft of No. 6 Squadron were used to excellent effect in support of the Free French forces in the Battle of Bir Hakeim in 1942. By 1943, outclassed as a pure interceptor, the .Hurricane was the RAF's first single-seater to be fitted with 76.2-mm (3-in) rocket projectiles, using these weapons on operations for the first time against the Hansweert Canal lock gates in the Netherlands on 2 September 1943. Ground-attack Hurricanes continued to operate on the European and Mediterranean fronts until 1944; in March the previous year there had a p p e a r e d a new v e r s i o n , t h e armoured Hurricane Mk IV in which a 'universal' wing was introduced, allowing application of bombs, anti-tank guns, rockets, smoke-laying equipment, drop tanks and other store combinations to be carried, and this ver-
Hurricane MkllCs saw service in the Far East as light ground attack aircraft. They carried an armament of four 20-mm cannon and could also carry small bombs. As here, long range fuel tanks helped the Hurricane reach the enemy
Below: Ready for take-off from an improvised sand strip in the Western Desert, Hurricane MkllDs such as these proved of enormous help to the ground forces in suppressing Axis armour. They were cumbersome, and easy meat for German fighters, so top cover was necessary.
342
The achievemen ts of the Hurricane in the early desert war led to its being adapted to carry two 40-mm cannon under the wings for tank-busting, this version being known as the MkllD. This example served with No. 6 Sqn in 1942. sion continued in service in the Far East until the end of the Pacific war. Hurricane Mk IVs fought with outstanding success in the final advance in Burma, one of their great achievements being the destruction of 13 Japanese tanks by No. 20 Squadron in a single attack during the advance on Rangoon.
Specification
Hawker Hurricane Mk IIB Type: single-seat fighter-bomber Powerplant: one 1,280-hp (955-kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin XX liquid-cooled V-12 piston engine Performance: maximum speed
549 km/h (341 mph) at 6555 m (21,500 ft); climb to 6095 m (20,000 ft) in 9 minutes; service ceiling 10850 m (35,600 ft); range 740 km (460 miles) Weights: empty 2604 kg (5,740 lb); maximum take-off 3649 kg (8,044 lb) Dimensions: span 12.19 m (40 ft 0 in); length 9,75 m (32 ft 0 in); height 24.00 m (13 ft Wz in); wing area 23.92 m (257.5 sq ft) Armament: 127.7-mm(0.303-m) machine-guns in the wings, plus an external load of up to two 227 kg (500lb) bombs, small bomb containers, smoke-laying equipment, six27.2-kg (60-lb) rocket projectiles or two longrange fuel tanks
UK
Supermarine Spitfire Immortalized as one of the greatest fighters of all time, the Supermarine Spitfire was also widely used as a fighter-bomber, although in this role it fell far short of the Hurricane, being tricky to fly with bombs attached, whether under fuselage or wings. With the adoption of the Spitfire Mk V as Fighter Command's standard single-seat fighter in 1941, the Spitfire Mk VC became the fighter-bomber version, capable of carrying a single 227-kg (500-lb) bomb centrally under the fuselage or two 113kg (250 lb) bombs under the wings. Most Spitfire Mk VCs featured clipped wings for better low-altitude performance, not being expected to engage enemy fighters above about 1525 m (5,000 ft). Originally a hastily-introduced answer to the Focke-Wulf Fw 190A, the Spitfire Mk IX was intended to operate at medium and high altitudes but, like the Spitfire Mk V, was also built in clipped-wing form (Spitfire L F.Mk IX) and entered service with a total of 27 squadrons of the RAF in the UK, Middle East and Far East. With a 1,720-hp (1283-kW) Merlin 66, this version had a top speed without bombs of 650 km/h (404 mph) and could carry two 227-kg (500-lb) bombs under the wings; normal gun armament was two 20-mm and four 7.7-mm (0.303-in) guns, but the Spitfire Mk IXE sub-variant had the four rifle-calibre guns replaced by two 12.7-mm (0.5-in) guns. Whereas the Spitfire Mk IX had been a hasty adaptation of the Spitfire Mk V to take the Merlin 61/66 series engine, the Spitfire Mk VIII was designed from the outset for this engine and included other refinements, including a retractable tailwheel; all were equipped for tropical service and therefore served mainly in the
Mediterranean and Far East theatres, the majority of them equipping fighterbomber squadrons. The Griffon 65-powered Spitfire Mk XIV served as both a fighter and a fighter-bomber, entering service in mid-1944 in the UK. Among their outstanding achievements in the latter role was the heaviest single RAF fighter-bomber attack of the war when, on 24 December that year, 33 Spitfire Mk XIVs of Nos 229, 453 and 602 Squadrons, each carrying a 227-kg (500-lb) and two 113-kg (250-lb) bombs, attacked a V-2 rocketlaunching site in the Netherlands. Final fighter-bomber version of the Spitfire to see service during the war was the Packard Merlin 266-powered Spitfire Mk XVI, whose sub-variants were the same as for the Spitfire Mk IX, and could be fitted with four underwing rails for 27.2-kg (60-lb) rocket projectiles in addition to an underfuselage 227-kg (500-lb) bomb. At the end of the war in Europe fighterbomber Spitfire Mk XVIs equipped 11 squadrons of the 2nd Tactical Air Force. Specification Supermarine Spitfire Mk XVI Type: single-seat fighter-bomber Powerplant: one 1,720-hp (1283-kW) Packard Rolls-Royce Merlin 266
lVo. 74 Sqn new the Spitfire LF.MkXVIE for only a couple of months at the end of the war on fighter-bomber sweeps through Germany. TheMkXVI had a Packard-built Merlin and could carry 113-kg (250-lb) bombs or rocket projectiles.
liquid-cooled V-12 piston engine Performance: maximum speed 652 km/h (405 mph) at 6705 m (22,000 ft); climb to 6095 m (20,000 ft) in 6 minutes 42 seconds; service ceiling 12650 m (41,500 ft); range without external tanks 690 km (430 miles) Weights: empty 2547 kg (5,615 lb); maximum take-off 4311 kg (9,505 lb) Dimensions: span, clipped 9.96 m (32 ft 8 in); length 9.55 m (31 ft 4 in); height 2 3.85 m(12 ft 7% in); wingarea21.46 m (231sqft) Armament: two 20-mm and four 7.7-
Although usually used for providing top cover for the Hurricanes in Italy, these Spitfire Mk Vs of the SAAF carry 113-kg (250-lb) bombs on the cen treline rack. After releasing the bombs, the aircraft could strafe targets at will. mm (0.303-in) or two 12.7-mm (0.5-in) guns, plus one 227-kg (500-lb) and two 113-kg (250-lb) bombs, or as an alternative to the wing bombs four 27.2-kg (60-lb) rocket projectiles
UK
Hawker Typhoon Compromised from the outset by a host of design and development difficulties, and no less by a disastrously accelerated engine development that left unsolved numerous weaknesses when it entered service, the Hawker Typhoon was intended to replace the Hurricane as an interceptor. However, after the anti-climactic debacle over Dieppe and its singularly disappointing performance as an interceptor, the Typhoon came to be recognized as potentially an effective ground-attack fighter and, following trials at Boscombe Down in 1942, it resumed cross-Channel operations carrying a pair of 113-kg (250-lb) bombs to supplement its four 20-mm Hispano cannon armament. Flying alongside the aged 'Hurnbombers', Typhoon Mk IB fighter-bombers of Nos 175, 181 and 245 Squadrons continued the 'Channel Stop' operations throughout 1943, while others ventured over enemyoccupied France and the Low Countries, attacking airfields, road and rail traffic and other key targets. Early operations had shown the Typhoon Mk IA, with its wing armament of 12 7,7-mm (0.303-in) Browning machine-guns, to be relatively ineffective in the ground-attack role, and this version was discontinued. Another weakness was found to lie in the joint of the tail unit to the rear fuselage, numerous early accidents being ascribed to the entire tail unit becoming detached
One of the last Typhoons to be built with the car- type door, this aircraft from No. 198 Sqn is seen before the application of invasion s tripes in early 1944. The squadron at the time was learning to use the new rocket projectiles.
in flight, for which a crude remedy was effected by simply riveting numerous plates around the joint. An early operational problem lay in the Typhoon's superficial resemblance to the FockeWulf Fw 190, resulting in a number of aircraft being shot down by 'friendly' guns, until prominent black and white recognition stripes were painted under the Typhoon's inner wing sections. For all these unfortunate tribulations the chunky aeroplane emerged in 1944 as one of the most powerful weapons m the Allies' armoury when the Normandy invasion was launched in June that year. With a bombload progressively increased to 907 kg (2,000 lb), the Typhoon was also used with devastating effect as a rocketfiring fighter, eliminating vital enemy coastal radar stations before the land-
ings themselves and destroying German armoured concentrations as the Allies broke out of the beach-head. Always something of a handful to fly, the Typhoon nevertheless provided an overwhelming form of powerful, accurate and mobile artillery for the Allies as they surged through northern Europe in the last nine months of the war.
Specification
Hawker Typhoon Mk IB Type: single-seat fighter-bomber Powerplant: one 2,180-hp (1626-kW) Napier Sabre II liquid-cooled H-24 piston engine Performance: maximum speed 652 km/h (405 mph) at 5485 m (18,000 ft); climb to 4570 m (15,000 ft) in 6 minutes 12 seconds; service ceiling 10365 m (34,000 ft); range with bombs
Close-up of the business end ota Typhoon MklB, showing the four Hispano cannon. 820 km (510 miles) Weights: empty 3993 kg (8,800 lb); maximum take-off 6341 kg(13,980 lb) Dimensions: span 12.67 m (41 ft 7 in); length 9.73 m (31 ft 11 in); height2 4.66 m (15 R3Vz in); wing area 25.92 m (279 sq ft) Armament: four wing-mounted 20-mm cannon, plus either two 454-kg (1,000Ib) bombs or eight 27.2-kg (60-lb) rocket projectiles 343
USA
Bell P-39 Airacobra The radical Bell P-39 Airacobra, with midships engine and tricycle landing gear, enjoyed a disappointing career as a fighter with the American and British air forces as a result mainly of the abandonment of the turbosupercharger which had promised to bestow excellent performance at high altitude; this equipment was in any case banned from export to the UK, with the result that the Airacobra did not match up to RAF requirements for an interceptor. The upshot of this was a gradual change to the ground-attack role in American service, and disposal of very large numbers to the Soviet Union from 1942 onwards, 4,773 of the 9,558 built being supplied to that nation, mainly through Iran, but also over the Trans-Siberian railway, More than 200 Bell Airacobras were also shipped to the USSR in the North Cape convoys. P-39s entered service with the V-VS early in 1943, the principal variant being the P-39N which featured a hubfiring 37-mm cannon, two nosemounted 12.7-mm (0.5-m) and four w i n g - m o u n t e d 7.62-mm (0.3-in) machine-guns; a single 227-kg (500-lb) bomb could be carried under the fuselage. In Soviet service the P-39 was used initially as a pure fighter, but gradually USA
Curtiss P-40 Although firmly rooted among the first generation of monoplane fighters of the late 1930s, the famous Curtiss P-40 family underwent progressive modernization, and as each version became outmoded by later fighters, it came to be employed as a passable fighter-bomber. Adopted as the USAAC's standard fighter and subject of heavy British purchasing in 1940, the early P-40B, P-40C and Tomahawk entered service in 1941, the first RAF squadron to receive the latter being No. 112 in the Middle East. The Tomahawk's performance as an interceptor was disappointing, being generally inferior to the Hurricane Mk II, and it was therefore employed mainly for ground attack, although the armament of six rifle-calibre machine-guns was far from adequate. Tomahawks (and the equivalent P-40B/Cs) were shipped to the USSR and Turkey, and were flown by American pilots in the Pacific and South East Asia. The P-40D represented something of a transformation, with the Allison engine installed in a shortened nose, fuselage guns removed and the radiator moved forward. Known as the Warhawk in American service (as were all P-40s) and Kittyhawk in RAF service, this and subsequent similar versions were built in very large numbers up to 1944, from mid-1942 being equipped as fighterbombers in the USAAF, RAF and other Allied air forces to carry up to three 227-kg (500-lb) bombs under fuselage and wings; later versions could carry a 454-kg (1,000-lb) bomb under the fuselage. They were particularly active in the close-support role in North Africa after the victory at Alamein and the 'Torch' landings, and in the campaigns in Sicily, Italy and the Balkans. The Packard built Merlin was used in the American P-40F and P-40L versions, but the P-40N (of which 5,219 were produced) reverted to the Allison engine and this served from 1943 344
as the tide of fortunes changed most Soviel polks (fighter regiments) undertook a dual role in response to the demands of the massive ground battles that raged on the Eastern Front. Often the P-39s would be called on to carry out specific bombing tasks, after which they would revert to fighters to provide cover while subsequent bombing attacks went in. The majority of P-39 polks were deployed on the central and southern fronts, and numerous Soviet pilots achieved considerable success in the aircraft; Captain Gngori Rechkalov scored 44 of his 58 air victories in a P-39 with the 9th Guards Fighter Division, and Aleksandr Pokryshkin, who commanded a P-39 eskadril m the 216th Guards Fighter Division's 16th Polk and later became the Soviet Union's second highest scoring pilot, shot down 48 of his 59 victims while flying P-39s, many of these falling in the course of dual-role fighter/ bombing missions. For all the P-39's
The Bell P-39L Airacobra was a failure as an air combat fighter (apart from notable exceptions such as the aircraft shown here, of the Russian, Major Pokryshkin) and was used mainly in the ground attack role. obvious success on the Eastern Front, wastage through accidents was by all accounts very high, relatively inexperienced pilots finding the aircraft tricky to handle and, with the big Allison engine located behind the cockpit, forced landings and other landing mishaps were frequently fatal. A much smaller number of the later but related Bell P-63 Kingcobra was also supplied to the Soviet Union, this aircraft being equipped to carry three 227-kg (500lb) bombs. Specification Bell P-39N Airacobra Type: single-seat fighter-bomber Powerplant:one l,200-hp(895-kW) Allison V-1710-85 liquid-cooled V-12
piston engine Performance: maximum speed 642 km/h (399 mph) at 3355 m (11,000 ft); climb to 4570 m (15,000 ft) in 5 minutes 20 seconds; service ceiling 11735 m (38,500 ft); range 1205 km (750 miles) Weights: empty 2562 kg (5,645 lb); maximum take-off 3720 kg (8,200 lb) Dimensions: span 10.36 m (34 ft 0 in); length 9.19 m (30 ft 2 in); height 3.78 m (12 ft 5 in); wing area 19.79 m2 (213sqft) Armament: one hub-firing 37-mm cannon, two nose-mounted 12.7-mm (0.5-in) and four wing-mounted 7,62mm (0.3-in) machine-guns, plus a single 227-kg (500-lb) bomb carried under the fuselage
The KittyhawkMk IV was the RAF equivalent of the P-40NWarhawk, and is shown here in the markings of No. 112 Sqn in 1944.
until the end of the war, Despite its widespread use as a fighter-bomber the P-40 was not generally appreciated as a result of its control sluggishness and lateral trim changes as speed built up in a diving attack; the latter behaviour, which gave rise to excessive yawing at the moment of bomb release, made accurate bombing extremely difficult, and P-40s were more usually employed for attacks on larger rather than smaller targets. Specification Curtiss P-40N Warhawk Type: single-seat fighter-bomber Powerplant: one l,360-hp(1015-kW) Allison V-1710-81 liquid-cooled V-12 piston engine Performance: maximum speed 609 km/h (378 mph) at 3200 m (10,500 ft); climb to 4570 m (15,000 ft) in 6 minutes 49 seconds; service ceiling 11580 m (38,000 ft); range on internal fuel 547 km (340 miles) Weights: empty 2722 kg (6,000 lb); maximum take-off 5171 kg (11,400 lb) Dimensions: span 11.38 m (37 ft 4 in); Bearing the famous shark's teeth markings of No. 112 Sqn, these Tomahawks are ready for take-off at SidiHaneish in the autumn of 1941. The difference in nose shape to the later Kittyhawk is obvious, with the chin radiator being much smaller.
length 10,16 m (33 ft 4 in); height 3.76 m ( 12 ft 4 in); wing area 21.92 n/ (236 sq ft)
Armament: six wing-mounted 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns, plus one 454-kg (1,000-lb) bomb under the fuselage and two 227-kg (500-lb) bombs under the wings
USA
Douglas A-20 Havoc/Boston Perpetuating a misconception of the nature of modern warfare during the late 1930s, the American 'attack1 bomber was envisaged as a means of saturating fixed enemy defences in the immediate area of the ground battle, and took little account of the swift movement of armies so capably demonstrated during the German conquests of 1939-41. Moreover the Douglas A-20, known as the Havoc and Boston by American and British air forces respectively, was so unwieldy that it could only be employed over a battleground in the face of enemy air opposition provided it was furnished with strong fighter escort. Nevertheless production momentum already gained by British and French orders at the beginning of the war resulted in the A-20 being available in quickly growing numbers when the United States entered the conflict. And, despite fairly heavy losses early on, the type eventually came to play an important tactical role, being used first as a 'light-medium' bomber for attacks on fixed battlefield targets, such as forward enemy landing grounds, road, rail and river bridges and vehicle parks, etc. The RAF was the first to use the aircraft, as the Boston (after a nightfighter version, confusmgly known as the Havoc, had been largely superseded in 1941) early in 1942; indeed the first combat use of the aircraft by the Americans in Europe involved RAF Bostons being flown from the UK by an American squadron in July that year, From late in 1942 both the British and American air forces flew the Boston and A-20 on close-support duties, particularly on 'softening up' raids before assaults by ground forces. RAF Bostons in particular were much in evidence during the numerous combined operations launched across the Channel in 1942-4, and were also used to lay smoke screens to cover amphibious landings. The A-20G introduced a
Douglas Boston MklHA ofNo. 342Sqn 'Lorraine', RAF, based at Hartford Bridge (today called Blackbushe). Aircraft from this squadron were the first French-flown aircraft to arrive back in France after D-Day.
'solid' nose and dispensed with the bomb aimer, a battery of cannon or machine-guns being substituted for true ground-attack work. In the Pacific theatre A-20s were widely used for low-level attack, using fragmentation bombs to good effect over Japanese shipping and airfields. RAF Boston Mk IV and Boston Mk V aircraft served with the 2nd Tactical Air Force and the Desert Air Force in Italy in the closesupport role right up to the end of the war against Germany. Specification Douglas A-20G Havoc
Type: three-seat attack aircraft Powerplant: two 1,600-hp (1194-kW) Wright Cyclone R-2600-23 air-cooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 546 km/h (339 mph) at 3780 m (12,400 ft); climb to 3050 m (10,000 ft) in 7 minutes 6 seconds; service ceiling 7650 m (25,100 ft); range 1755 km (1,090 miles) Weights: empty 7250 kg (15,984 lb); maximum take-off 12338 kg (27,200 lb) Dimensions: span 18.69 m (61 ft 4 in); length 14.63 m (48 ft 0 in); height 5.36 m (17 ft 7 in); wing area 43.11 n/ (464 sq ft)
One of the tasks for the airborne forces during the D-Day invasion was smoke-laying. These two Boston Mk Ills are equipped with four pipes under the fuselage for providing smoke over the beach-head.
less such facilities were captured wholly intact. It was for this reason, and the length of time taken to reach the front line from bases in the distant rear, that A-26 attacks were largely confined to fixed targets such as airfields and bridges, and these were more fre-
This formation ofA-26s of the 386th Bomb Croup en route to Germany in April 1945 contains aircraft with both glazed nose for bomb-aimer and solid nose packed with machineguns. They also carry machine-gun packs under the wings.
Armament: up to eight 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns in nose and two in rear dorsal position (later aircraft had electrically-operated turret), plus up to 1814 kg (4,000 lb) of bombs, comprising four 227-kg (500-lb) bombs internally and two 454-kg ( 1,000 lb) bombs on wing racks
USA
Douglas A-26 Invader The demarcation between the true ground-support aircraft and the socalled light bomber was conveniently defined by the American 'attack designation; nevertheless the Douglas A26 Invader leaned much closer to the latter category in that its battlefield operations were more of the set-piece strike and less of the ad hoc attack. Although three parallel versions were originally conceived (a nightfighter, a level bomber and an attack aircraft) the last-named version was selected for initial production and eventually entered combat service as the A-26B with the US 9th Air Force in Europe in November 1944. This version carried six heavy machine-guns in the nose, sometimes supplemented by eight in underwing packs, and by locking the dorsal turret guns to fire forward, making a total of 16 forwardfiring guns! The cabin and fuel tanks were heavily armoured to withstand ground small-arms fire, and a total of 1814kg (4,000 lb) of bombs was earned internally. Though obviously a very powerful weapon to unleash over the battlefield (and even more so when underwing 127-mm/5-in rocket projectiles were
added to its arsenal) the Invader enjoyed only partial success as a truly tactical support aircraft in Europe, being found generally unsuitable for operations from forward airfields un-
345
quently and effectively struck by the larger resources of medium bombers available, For the island-hopping' nature of the Pacific war against Japan, the USAAF employed the A-26C which retained a bombardier in place of the nose gun battery to facilitate bombing from medium altitude, and as such the Invader was operated almost exclusively as a conventional medium bomber,
Douglas A-26B Invader ofthe 552nd Bomb Squadron, 386thBomb Group, 9th Air Force based a t Bea umont-sur-Oise in April 1945. The Invader also saw valuable service over the hotly contested islands of Japan during the last few months of the
Specification Douglas A-26B Invader Type: three-seat tactical support aircraft Powerplant: two 2,000-hp (1492-kW) Pratt & Whitney R-2800-27 air-cooled radial piston engines
Performance: maximum speed 572 km/h (355 mph) at 3660 m (12,000 ft); climb to 3050 m (10,000 ft) in 8 minutes 6 seconds; service ceiling 6735 m (22,100 ft); range 2255 km (1,400 miles) Weights: empty 10147 kg (22,370 lb);
maximum take-off 15876 kg (35,000 lb) Dimensions: span 21,34 m (70 ft 0 in); length 15.24 m (50 ft 0 in); height 5.64 m ( 18 ft 6 in); wing area 50.17 n/ (540 sq ft) Armament: six fixed forward-firing 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns in nose
and two in each of dorsal and ventral turrets, plus an internal bombload of 1814 kg (4,000 lb) and an external load of up to 907 kg (2,000 lb) of bombs, or up to 16 127-mm (5-in) rocket projectiles
USA
Lockheed P-38 Lightning The Lockheed P-38 Lightning is, like its famous partners (the Republic P-47 and North American P-51), best remembered as a pure fighter both in the European and Pacific theatres. Yet from mid 1942 the P-38F destined for the USAAC possessed external racks for up to 907kg (2,000 lb) of bombs. (Although the Lightning was originally ordered for the RAF, the ban on export of turbosuperchargers so compromised the aircraft's performance that it did not enter British service.) USAAF fighter groups began flying P-38F aircraft in Europe and North Africa during 1942, but the aircraft proved disappointing in combat against German fighters, and it was in the last stages of the Tunisian campagin that the aircraft began to demonstrate its capabilities as a grounds u p p o r t f i g h t e r , b o m b i n g and machine-gunning the Axis forces in their final withdrawal to Tunis and Bizerta. The introduction of the much improved P-38J (identifiable by its 'chin' radiators) resulted in a new lease of life as an escort fighter, particularly during the 1943 daylight Boeing B-17 and Consolidated B-24 raids over Europe, but in 1944, as deliveries of P-47s and P-51 s were stepped up to the UK and the Mediterranean, the P-38J and the more powerful P-38L version came to be used more and more in the groundattack role, both versions being capable of lifting a pair of 726-kg ( 1,600-lb) bombs. The P-38L was also modified to carry 10 69.8-mm (2.75-in) rockets on 'Christmas-tree' tiers under the wings; it was also the first Allied fighterbomber to drop napalm bombs on the Germans in the latter half of 1944. The ability of the P-51 D to escort the daylight heavy bombers all the way to Berlin rendered use of the P-38 as a long-range fighter superfluous, and the type was employed almost exclusively as a support fighter-bomber during the last six months of the war, and a new tactic emerged involving1 the use of a two-seater P-38 'lead ship complete with bombardier; the aircraft would lead a formation of smgleTheLigh tninghad exceptional performance for a twin-engined aircraft and the secret of this lay in the small fron tal area made possible by the twin boom layout. The position of the racks for either bombs or, as here, fuel tanks is clearly visible. 346
Due to its size an d perform an ce, the P-38 Ligh tning proved an excellen t ground a ttack aircraft, able to carry rockets and bombs large distances into enemy territory. This is a P-38L serving with the 97th FS, 82ndFG, USAAF. A theatre in which the P-38 excelled was the Mediterranean. ThisP-38L of the 94th Figh ter Group is having a bomb winched on to its wing rack somewhere in Italy. During the height of the campaign, operations continued through the night.
seaters and, using its very accurate Norden bomb sight, would control the bombing of the entire formation. A refinement of this, involving bombingthrough-overcast (BTO) radar in the lead ship, was intended to enable close support to be given in conditions of bad weather over the ground battle, but in one of the only occasions it was employed with any numbers of P-38s (during the Battle of the Ardennes) heavy casualties were caused when most of the bombs dropped fell among American armoured vehicles. Specification Lockheed P-38L Lightning Type: single-seat fighter-bomber Powerplant: two 1,475-hp (1100-kW) Allison V-1710-111/113 liquid-cooled inline piston engines Performance: maximum speed 667 km/h (414 mph) at 7620 m (25,000 ft); climb to 6095 m (20,000 ft) in
7 minutes; service ceiling 13410 m (44,000 ft); range on internal fuel 730 km (454 miles) Weights: empty 5806 kg (12,800 lb); maximum take-off 9798 kg (21,600 lb) Dimensions: span 15.85 m (52 ft 0 in); length 11.53 m (37 ft 10 in); height 2 3.00 m (9 ft 10 in); wing area 30.42 m
(327.5 sq ft) Armament: one 20-mm and four 12.7mm (0.5-in) guns in the nose, plus a bombload of two 726-kg ( 1,600-lb) bombs, or 10 69,8-mm (2.75-in) rocket projectiles together with two 1173-litre (258-gal) drop tanks if required
USA
Republic P-47 Thunderbolt The big Republic P-47 Thunderbolt served for more than a year before being seriously considered for service as a ground-support aircraft; indeed, after considerable misgivings as to whether it would be able to match the nimble German interceptors in dogfighting, it came to represent a vital and effective long-range escort for the American day bombers over Europe during 1943, As mass production got under way (a total of 15,579 being ultimately produced) the P-47D-25 introduced underwing bomb racks capable of mounting a pair of 454-kg (1,000-lb) bombs, in addition to a 568litre 125-gal drop tank under the fuselage. In due course the P-47D-30 was capable of carrying up to 1134 kg (2,500 lb) of external ordnance, including up to 10 127-mm (5-in) rocket projectiles. P-47D fighter-bombers first entered service with the 348th Fighter Group in Australia, whence they were flown against Japanese targets in New Guinea, They were then issued to fighter and fighter-bomber groups of the US 9th and 15th Air Forces in the UK and the Mediterranean theatre. From mid-1944, as the superlative North American P-51D assumed the lion's share of air combat and escort duties over Europe, the P-47D was assigned more and more of the closesupport work over the Allied armies advancing through Italy and France, proving immensely strong in the punishing ground-attack role. A total of 826 Thunderbolts was delivered to the RAF, of which the majority were equivalent to the P-47D-25 and designated Thunderbolt Mk II. They entered service with the RAF in India and Burma in the summer of 1944, eventually serving with Nos 5, 30, 34, 42,60,79,81, 113, 123, 131, 134, 135, 146, 258, 261 and 615 Squadrons, Flying over the Burma jungle the 'cab rank' patrols that were being used to such good effect by Hawker Typhoons in Europe, these excellent fighterbombers gave constant support to the 14th Army during its final victorious advance towards Rangoon in the last year of the war. Time and again the Thunderbolts were called down by the mobile control officers to eliminate some Japanese strongpoint with guns and bombs. The P-47 and the Typhoon were the best American and British fighter-bombers of the year.
P-47D (razorback) ofthe 19th Fighter Squadron, 218th Fighter Group, based on Saipan island in the Marianas during July 1944. The 'Jug'was a hardy fighter, and the fierce war fought in the Far East suited its strength and speed.
As the P-51D took over in the long-range escort role, more P-47s were released to a ttack duties. This example served with the 352nd Fighter Squadron, 353rd Fighter Croup at Gaydon atthe time of the Normandy invasion, and features the 'bubble'cockpit.
Specification
Republic P-47D-25 Thunderbolt Type: single-seat fighter-bomber Powerplant: one 2,000-hp (1492-kW) Pratt & Whitney R-2800-59 air-cooled radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 689 km/h (428 mph) at 9145 m (30,000 ft); climb to 6095 m (20,000 ft) in 9 minutes; service ceiling 12800 m (42,000 ft); range on internal fuel 765 km (475 miles) Weights: empty 4536 kg (10,000 lb); maximum take-off 8808 kg (19,400 lb) Dimensions: span 12.42 m (40 ft 9 in); length 11.00 m (36 ft 1 in); height 4.32 m (14 ft 2 in); wing area 27.87 n/
(300 sq ft) Armament: eight fixed forward-firing 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns in
wings, plus two 454-kg ( 1,000-lb) bombs or six 69.8-mm (2.75-in) rocket projectiles under the wings
A-35. Tests with the first Vengeance Mk Is led to numerous alterations, and it was not until late 1942 that deliveries started in earnest. By that time the tactical weakness of the dive-bomber had been recognized, and it was decided not to employ the Vengeance in Europe where it would be easy prey for the excellent German fighters. In-
stead the type was sent to equip RAF squadrons in India and Burma where, operating under top cover provided by Hawker Hurricanes (and later by Supermarine Spitfires and Republic Thunderbolts), it would represent the
This 12th Air Force P-47 in Italy demonstrates the three main weapons of the wartime fighterbomber, namely machine-guns, bombs and rockets. Such aircraft were the workhorses of the Allied drive up the Italian mainland.
USA
Vultee Vengeance Powerfully influenced by the successes achieved by the German Junkers Ju 87 dive-bomber in the early months of the war, the British in 1940 ordered several hundred Vultee V-72 aircraft from the USA, a type that had not then been selected for the US Army Air Corps, and production lines were established at Vultee's Nashville plant and the Northrop plant at Hawthorne, California. Before the first British aircraft was delivered in 1942, however, the United States had entered the war, and further aircraft were ordered for the USAAF, The American aircraft (designated the A-31 and A-35, but generally referred to as the V-72) did not match up to expectations and almost all were relegated to targettowing and other training duties from the outset,
The Vengeance saw considerably more service in the RAF, a total of 1,205 being delivered, the Vengeance Nik I, Vengeance Mk II and Vengeance Mk III corresponding to the American A31, and the Vengeance Mk IV to the
lVo. 45 Sqn new the Vengeance for 15 mon ths in the Far East, where it achieved limited success. This example is a Vengeance MkII shown whilst based in India in 1943. The Vengeance was based on the German idea of the 'Stuka', and similarly needed figh ter cover to opera te with any success.
347
best weapon against difficult jungle targets. The Vengeance was first in action in July 1943 in Burma, having started to replace the veteran Bristol Blenheim with the RAF; it eventually equipped four squadrons (Nos 45, 82, 84 and 110) as well as several in the Indian Air Force. As expected, however, the Vengeance proved extremely vulnerable in the presence of Japanease fighters and so seldom ventured abroad without strong fighter escort.
The type did nevertheless prove very effective during the Arakan campaign, and in a number of successful raids destroyed a large number of Japanese vehicles and quantities of stores being assembled in the jungle. By the last year of the war conventional fighter-bomber tactics were seen as the best means of ground support, and demands for the Vengeance diminished rapidly. By mid-1945 most had been relegated to target-towing duties.
Specification
Vultee Vengeance Mk I Type: two-seat dive-bomber Powerplantone l,700-hp(1268-kW) Wright R-2600-A5B-5 air-cooled radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 449 km/h (279 mph) at 4115 m (13,500 ft); climb to 4570 m (15,000 ft) in 11 minutes 18 seconds; service ceiling 6795 m (22,300 ft); range 1930 km (1200 miles) Weights: empty 4672 kg (10,300 lb);
maximum take-off 7440 kg (16,400 lb) Dimensions: span 14,63 m (48 ft 0 in); length 12.12 m (39 ft 9 in); height 3.91 m (12 ft 10 in); wing area 30.84 m2 (332 sq ft) Armament: four wing-mounted 7.62mm (0.3-in) machine-guns and two 7.62-mm (0.3-in) machine-guns in the rear cockpit, plus a bombload of four 227-kg (500-lb) bombs carried internally
USSR
Ilyushin 11-2 The Soviet Ilyushin 11-2 succeeded where the British Fairey Battle had f a i l e d . I m m e n s e s t r e n g t h and armoured protection, powerful armament and committal to combat under heavy fighter protection all combined to render the bromrovannyi shturmovik (armoured assault aircraft) a decisive weapon in the Soviet armoury during the final two years of the war in Europe. Christened the 'flying tank1 by the Soviet infrantrymen, and the schwarzer Tod (Black Death) by the men of the German army, the 11-2 originated as a two-seater but was modified to a single-seater and in this form was entering service with the V-VS at the time of Germany's invasion of the USSR on 22 June 1941. However, in those early months of almost total German air supremacy the early Il-2s emerged amidst a welter of criticism, being found to lack punch against the enemy's armoured fighting vehicles (their principal targets) and hopelessly vulnerable in the presence of enemy fighters. The aircraft accordingly underwent rapid1 redesign, the great armoured 'bath that constituted the pilot's cockpit being extended to accommodate a rear gunner with heavy-calibre machine-gun. The 1,680-hp (1253-kW) AM-38 engine was replaced by a 1,750-hp (1306-kW) AM-38F, and the two wing-mounted 20-mm ShVAK cannon gave place to high muzzle velocity 23-mm VYa guns. The new two-seater Il-2m3 entered service from August 1942, and thereafter gun, bomb and rocket armament underwent progressive increase as the production accelerated. By the winter of 1943-4 vast numbers of II2m3s were in service (some sources put the number as high as 12,000), and remained in constant use up to and beyond the end of the war in Europe. Their use in combat was almost invariably confined to attacks from extremely low level, often no more than 6 m (20 ft), the favourite tactic being to circle to the rear of enemy forces in single line-ahead stream to attack the thinlyarmoured rear of German tanks. Many shturmovik pilots were holders of the Gold Star of Hero of the Soviet Union, and women pilots were by no means rare. The Il-2m3 proved to be extremely popular among its crews, par-
An ll-2m3 in late 1944 on the Eastern front. Soviet gunners often removed the rear cockpit canopy to give them a better field of fire.
During the winter, thell-2s were quickly painted with a soluble white scheme over their normal camouflage. This 11-2 served over the battlefields of Stalingrad in 1943.
ticularly on account of its ability to survive battle damage, many aircraft returning to base riddled by enemy ground fire, the armoured 'bath' alone remaining unscathed. More Il-2s were built (36,183) than any other single type of aircraft. Specification Ilyushin Il-2m3 (late model) Type: two-seat assault aircraft Powerplant: one 1,770-hp (1320-kW) Mikulin Am-38F liquid-cooled inline piston engine Performance: maximum speed 404 km/h (251 mph) at 760 m (2,500 ft); service ceiling 5945 m (19,500 ft); range 600 km (375 miles) Weights: empty 4525 kg (9,976 lb); maximum take-off 6360 kg (14,021 lb) Dimensions: span 14.60 m (47 ft 10% in); length 11.60 m (38 ftO'/a in); height 3.40 m (11 ft 1 Vz in); wing area 38.54m2 (414.4 sq ft)
USSR
Lavochkin La-5 and La-7 Syemyon Lavochkin's excellent fighters, the Lavochkin La-5 and La-7, were among the best Soviet fighters produced during the war, their relatively simple, mainly wooden struc348
ture assisting the production of large numbers, and their large, air-cooled radial engines making for ease of maintenance in the bleak, cold Russian winters.
Armament: (typical) wing-mounted armament of two 37-mm (1.46-in) and two 7.62-mm (0.3-in) guns, and one 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-gun in the rear cockpit, plus 200 2.5-kg (5.5-lb) PTAB hollow-charge anti-tank bombs, or eight RS-82 or RS-132 rocket projectiles
Armed with heavy cannon and rockets, and with bomb racks under the wings, thell-2s of the V-VSflew over all the battlefields of the Eastern Fron t in vast n umbers. This ability to absorb massive amounts of battle damage made them popular with their crews.
Developed in turn from the LaGG-1 and LaGG-3 of 1940-1, and the LaG-5 of 1941, the La-5 passed its state acceptance trials in May 1942 and, in view of the successive disasters being suffered at the hands of the Luftwaffe, was ordered into large-scale production, more than 1,000 aircraft being com-
pleted in the first six months, Despite some early t r o u b l e s w i t h the M-82 radial, in a most advanced installation, the La-5 entered squadron service with the V-VS in the autumn of 1942 and first saw widespread combat during the Stalingrad campaign that started in November
that year. The La-5 was essentially a low-altitude fighter, well capable of holding its own against the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 and Messerschmitt Bf 109 below about 3700 m (12,140 ft) and it was its good performance at low level that encouraged the La-5's employment in the ground-support role; in the great Battle of Kursk at least two regiments of La-5s were flown as anti-tank aircraft with rockets and hollow-charge bombs, which were particularly effective against lightly-armoured fighting vehicles. The La-5FN (forsirovannyi nyeposredstvenno, or direct fuelinjection engine) was the most widely used sub-variant, In mid-1944 a development of the La-5, the La-7, was introduced with numerous alterations, such as improved location of oil cooler intakes and changes in the cockpit outline, However, despite its improvements, production of the La-5FN was not terminated and both aircraft continued to operate side-by-side for the remainder of the war. The La-7 was seldom employed in the ground-attack role, usually being flown as top cover while the earlier aircraft attacked German army targets with the growing arsenal of assault weapons. Almost all the most famous Soviet pilots flew La-5s and La7s, among them Colonel Generals Ivan Kojedub (who destroyed 62 German aircraft, including a jet Me 262 while flying Las) and Aleksandr Pokryshkin
(59 kills); both these pilots were threetime recipients of the Gold Star, the only airmen thus decorated. Specification LavochkinLa-SFN Type: single-seat fighter-bomber Powerplant: one l,650-hp(1230-kW) Shvetsov M-82FN (ASh-82FN) aircooled radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 647 km/h (402 mph) at 5000 m (16,405 ft); climb to 5000 m (16,405 ft) in 4 minutes 42 seconds; service ceiling 10000 m (32,810 ft); range 700 km (435 miles) Weights: empty 2800 kg (6,173 lb); maximum take-off 3360 kg (7,408 lb) Dimensions: span 9.80 m (32 ft 2 in); length 8.67 m (28 ft 5 '/a in); height 2 2.54 m (8 ft 4 in); wing area 17,59 m (189.34sqft) Armament: two 20-mm ShVAK cannon and either four 82-mm (3.23-in) RS-82 rockets or four 150-kg (331-lb) bombs; later aircraft had two 23-mm NS
This LavochkinLa-SFN was presented to the V-VS by a Mongolian collective. The La-5 was a good all-round aeroplane and its low-level performance suited it well to the ground-attack role, often carrying rocket launchers.
Usedinmuch the same roving role as the Typhoon and Thunderbolt, the La-5/7 series saw much action during the victorious advance to
Berlin, flying ahead of the Soviet tanks and attacking German positions with light bombs and rockets.
service ceiling 8800 m (28,870 ft); range with bomb load 1100 km (683 miles) Weights: empty 3273 kg (7,216 lb); maximum take-off 4700 kg (10,362 lb) Dimensions: span 14.30 m (46 ft 11 in); length 10.46 m (34 ft 3% in); height 2 3.80 m (12 ft 6 in); wing area 29,0 m (312.1sqft) Armament: four fixed forward-firing 7.62-mm (0.3-in) machine-guns in wings and one or two in dorsal turret, plus a bombload of 400 kg (882 lb)
By 1942, the Su-2 was receiving such a battering from the German ground and air forces that it was quickly withdrawn to second-line units. This aircraft served with one such unit in the Sverdlovsk area in the winter of 1942.
USSR
Sukhoi Su-2 Only a marginally later design than the British Fairey Battle, the Soviet Sukhoi Su-2, designed by Pavel Sukhoi, previously of the Tupolev design bureau, entered service with the V-VS early in 1941 but, as far as is known, was not encountered during the Winter War which ended the previous year. Derived from Sukhoi's ANT-51 and designated BB-1 during its early trials, the aircraft was fairly efficient by current standards once the M-87 engine had been replaced by the M-88 and then the M-88B. Tactical concepts changed swiftly during the first two years of the war, however, and the use by the Germans of large forces of single-seat fighters in support of their advancing armies came as a body blow to the Soviets in mid-1941. Despite being further improved by installation of the 1,000-hp (746-kW) M-88B radial, the Su-2 was found to be desperately vulnerable and virtually unable to defend itself with its single small-calibre machine-gun in the unwieldy manually-operated dorsal turret. Estimates suggest that about 100 were in service with the Frontovaya Aviatsya at the time that the German army rolled into the Soviet Union in June 1941, but that dozens were shot down by Flak and fighters in the first few disastrous weeks; moreover, such was the generally poor standard of training in the Soviet air force that the Su-2 proved almost useless as a weapon against mobile battlefield targets. The parlous state of the Soviet aircraft industry in 1941 prevented much being done to remedy the immediate lack of suitable ground support aircraft (until production of the two-seat Il-2m3 could be stepped up) and recourse was made to further attempts-to im-
prove the Su-2 by installation of the 1,520-hp (1134-kW) M-82 radial and freguent deletion of the dorsal turret, but with little tactical benefit. Accepting that losses would remain high, the Soviets therefore simply loaded the aircraft with further bombs and rockets on the supposition that the more explosive delivered against the enemy the better the chances of some degree of success. This version, as well as the completely redesigned Su6, were abandoned in favour of all-out dependence on the Il-2m3. The Su-2 probably did not survive in production beyond mid-1942,
carried internally and either bombs or rockets up to about 500 kg ( 1,102 lb) carried externally
Specification
Sukhoi Su-2 (late production) Type: two-seat close-support aircraft Powerplant: one 1,520-hp (1134-kW) Shvetsov M-82 air-cooled radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 486 km/h (302 mph) at 1525 m (5,000 ft);
A SukhoiSu-2 with the 746-kW(1000hp) M-88B radial engine. Owing to the type's obsolescence and vulnerability, engines of increasing power were tried, but without success. When the 11-2 became generally available, the Su-2 was relegated to second-line units. 349
NightFighters World War II saw the development of night-fighting from a very imprecise, hit-or-miss art using rudimentary equipment in hastily converted aircraft, to a refined science using highly developed tactics in purpose-built aircraft equipped with sophisticated radar and weapons. hen World War II started in September 1939 no air force was equipped with aircraft specifically designed for the nightfighting role. Only the UK had woken up to the fact that, with the raison d'être of the modern air force being offensive bombing operations, such aircraft would be needed urgently; most air forces made do by using night-flying day fighters, in conjunction with ground searchlights. While the RAF was conducting experiments with rudimentary airborne radar in a handful of obsolescent Bristol Blenheims, the Bristol aircraft company was hard at work developing the Bristol Beaufighter, the world's first dedicated night-fighter to carry radar, produced entirely on their own initiative. This entered service during the Battle of Britain and first saw combat in the German night Blitz of 1940-1. From these small beginnings came an entirely new science of aircraft interception that has continued to advance ever since: the science of locating the enemy on ground radar, guiding the fighter towards its target by means of ground controllers and, eventually, vising airborne radar, closing to within range of the fighter's own weapons for the kill. Although more within the scope of the bombers' operations, the night-
W
350
Britain led the way in pioneering night-fighters to intercept enemy raiders. The Boulton Paul Defiant was an early design which was to be eclipsed by the Bristol Beaufighter and the de Havilland Mosquito in its highly effective night-fighter variant. fighter crews had to contend with a growing, parallel science of countermeasures, as the bombers began to include equipment able to blind the ground radar and to provide warning of the approach of a night-fighter. Although the British advanced relatively quickly with successively improved Beaufighters and de Havilland Mosquitoes (as well as discarding the outmoded Blenheims, Boulton Paul Défiants and Hawker Hurricanes), and unquestionably led the world in night-fighting techniques and
technology (until the arrival of the American-developed centimetric AI Mk X), German ingenuity produced highly efficient night-fighter adaptations of the Messerschmitt Bf 110 and Junkers Ju 88; these two aircraft, together with the excellent Heinkel He 219, provided the backbone of the Reich's night-fighter defence between 1942 and 1945. Not surprisingly, with so many RAF heavy bombers operating almost nightly over Europe during this period, there came onto the scene numerous Luftwaffe night-fighter
pilots whose individual victory scores far eclipsed any achievements of their Allied counterparts, it being fairly commonplace for German pilots to destroy four or more Avrò Lancasters and Handley Page Halifaxes on a single sortie; once they had entered the great bomber stream their victory bag was limited only by their use of ammunition and fuel. Moreover, the development of the upward-firing cannon (not to mention fairly efficient airborne radar) enabled the Germans to destroy RAF bombers in such a way that the British 'didn't know what had hit them'. Elsewhere, with concerted night operations conducted on a much lesser scale until the onset of the great American night offensive against Japan in 1944, night fighting demanded less attention to sophisticated equipment and tactics than in Europe, although these were quickly introduced when the Boeing B-29 started operations. By and large, during the first two years of the Pacific War, neither Japan nor the United States engaged in significant night bombing, and accordingly did little until 1943 to introduce specialist night-fighters, the Douglas P-70 (though widely employed) being unequivocally a makeshift adaptation of a light bomber.
UK
Bristol Blenheim Mk IF The Bristol Blenheim entered RAF service as a light bomber in 1937 and, despite great hopes for the type, it was becoming outmoded from the day it arrived, being under-armed and therefore capable of carrying no more than a puny bombload by later standards. It was a neat and compact sign, however, and lent itself to furtf development as a bomber, the Blenheim Mk IV with lengthened nose joining the RAF in 1939. In the realization that the Blenheim Mk I would quickly be superseded, plans were put in hand to introduce it as a nightfighter for service with Fighter Command, and in December 1938 four squadrons (Nos 23, 25, 29 and 64) started taking deliveries. Most of these early aircraft were ex-Bomber Command aircraft with sealed bomb doors and bomb gear removed; their armament remained a single fixed forwardfiring 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Browning gun and a Vickers 'K' gas-operated gun of the same calibre in the dorsal turret. These four regular squadrons, together with Nos 600, 601 and 604 of the Auxiliary Air Force (re-equipped in the following month) were employed principally to work up and calibrate the new CH coastal radar chain being built at top speed along the UK's south and east coasts, Early in 1939, however, there became available the first of 200 gun packs, each containing four Browning guns and manufactured by the Southern Railway's depot at
The nose transmitter and wing receiver aerials (antennas) of the early AI Mk III radar can be seen on this Blenheim Mk IF, which in 1941 was training crews at No. 54 Operational Training Unit, RAF. Ashford, Kent, and by the outbreak of war in September 1939 most converted Blenheim Mk I (now termed Blenheim Mk IF) aircraft had been modified to have such a pack fitted under the fuselage nose. Meanwhile one flight from No. 25 Squadron had had its Blenheims modified with the first 'breadboard' examples of airborne interception radar, and these were undergoing faltering trials over the Thames Estuary in collaboration with the Bawdsey Manor CH coastal radar when war broke out. In due course this radar was standardized to become AI Mk III and was fitted in about two dozen Blenheims, most of the remainder being flown by the Fighter Interception Unit (FIU). Several other Blenheim night-fighter squadrons (among them Nos 68, 145, 219 and 222) were formed, but they were most-
ly short-lived. At the time of the Battle of Britain night-fighter Blenheims soldiered on in search of the small numbers of German night raiders, and on 21/22 July 1940 an aircraft of the FIU made history when it became the first employing AI radar to destroy an enemy raider (a Dormer Do 17) at night. Possessing very pedestrian capabilities, the Blenheim could scarcely catch any of the modern aircraft of 1940 and, although it achieved further victories during the German night Blitz of 1940-1 (indeed, formed the backbone of the UK's night defence), it was gradually phased out of service with the arrival of the powerful Bristol Beaufighter.
Specification
Powerplant: two 840-hp (626-kW) Bristol Mercury VIII nine-cylinder aircooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 418 km/h (260 mph) at 4265 m (14,000 ft); initial climb rate 488 m ( 1,600 ft) per minute; service ceiling 8230 m (27,000 ft); normal range 1770 km (1,100 miles) Weights: empty 3651 kg (8,050 lb); maximum take-off 5489 kg (12,100 lb) Dimensions: span 17.17 m (56 ft 4 in); length 12.45 m (40 ft 10 in); height 2 3.00 m (9 ft 10 in); wing area 43.57 m (469 sq ft) Armament: four 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns in ventral tray firing forward, and one 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-gun in dorsal turret
Blenheim Mk IF Type: three-seat night-fighter
UK
Bristol Beaufighter First flown in prototype form on 17 July 1939, the Bristol Beaufighter took over the task of night-fighter defence from the makeshift Bristol Blenheim Mk IF fighter during the German night Blitz of the winter of 1940-1. Powered initially by 1,400-hp (1044-kW) Bristol Hercules III sleeve-valve radiais, the Beaufighter Mk IF was equipped with AI Mk IV radar (characterized by a 'broad-arrow' transmitter aerial on the aircraft's nose) and, having undergone initial operational trials with the Fighter Interception Unit during the latter stages of the Battle of Britain, started delivery to RAF night-fighter squadrons in September 1940. Lack of fami-
liarity with AI radar resulted in few combat successes during 1940, but in the last three months of the Blitz the Beaufighter began taking an increasing toll of German bombers, Home
This Beaufighter Mk II served with one of the RAF's Polish squadrons, No. 307, from August 1941 until about mid-1942, when theHercules-engined Beaufighter Mk VIF began to replace this Merlin-engined version. night-fighter squadrons equipped with Beaufighter Mk IFs included Nos 25,
29, 68, 141, 153, 219, 256, 600 and 604. Production was stepped up, and included 1,000 aircraft ordered from the 'shadow' factories, the 51st and subsequent aircraft being armed with six wing-mounted 7.7mm (0.303-in) machine-guns in addition to the four belly-mounted 20-mm cannon to guard. Delays with improved Hercules radiais resulted in the Rolls-Royce Merlin XX V-12 engine being selected to power the Beaufighter Mk II, the first production example of which was flown at Futon on 22 March 1941; the type entered Fighter Command service with No. 255 Squadron in July, followed by the Polish-manned No. 307 Squadron in August, and Nos 96 and 125 Squadrons in 1942. The Beaufighter Mk III (a lightened version) and the Beaufighter Mk IV (with Rolls-Royce Griffon engines) did not materialize as such, although a Beaufighter Mk II was experimentally flown with Griffon IIB
Three AI Mk IV-equipped Beaufighter Mk Is of No. 600 Sqn are seen here on a mission from Colerne during the winter of 1940-1. 351
engines. The Beaufighter Mk V featured a four-gun Defiant-type dorsal turret but was abandoned as this impeded the pilot's emergency exit. The Beaufighter Mk VIF then became standard as the RAF's principal nightfighter until the arrival of the de Havilland Mosquito Mk II, equipping as night-fighters Nos 29, 68, 96, 125, 141, 153, 219, 255, 256, 307, 600 and 604 Squadrons in the UK, and Nos 46, 89, 108, 144, 252 and 272 Squadrons in the Middle East during 1942-3. Among the home-based Beaufighter Mk V1F squadrons which moved to the Mediterranean theatre after the North African landings were Nos 255 and 600 Squadrons, and with the latter Flight Sergeant Downing and Sergeant Lyons in a Beaufighter Mk VIF shot down five Junkers Ju 52/3m transports in 10 minutes off Setif on 30 April 1943, In the Far East night-fighter Beaufighter Mk VIFs served with Nos 27, 89, 176 and 177 Squadrons, principally in the Calcutta area and over Burma. When it first arrived in service the Beaufighter was widely regarded as tricky to fly, particularly on one engine; in due course the fin area was increased and dihedral applied to the tailplane to improve lateral control, resulting in a fine night-fighter on which the RAF came to depend for two years in the mid-war period, Specification Beaufighter Mk VIF
Type: two-seat night-fighter Powerplant: two l,670-hp(1245-kW) Bristol Hercules VI or XVI air-cooled sleeve-valve radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 536 km/h (333 mph) at 4755 m (15,600 ft); climb to 4570 m (15,000 ft) in 7 minutes 48 seconds; service ceiling 8075 m (26,500 ft); normal range 2382 km (1,480 miles) Weights: empty 6623 kg (14,600 lb);
This Bea ufigh ter Mk VIF has a dihedralled tailplane, but is still fitted with original AI Mk IV radar, with a 'harpoon ' arrowhead on the nose and receiver dipoles on the
wings. The RAF unit is not known, but it was home-based because in the Mediterranean inlet air filters were fitted.
maximum take-off 9798 kg (21,600 lb) Dimensions: span 17.63 m (57 ft 10 in); length 12.70 m (41 ft 8 in); height 4.83 m (15 ft 10 in); wing area 46.73 m2 (503 sq ft)
Armament: four 20-mm cannon in nose and six 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machineguns in the outer wings, and one handheld 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-gun in dorsal hatch
UK
Boulton Paul Defiant The saga of the Boulton Paul Defiant Mk I began with the type's short and disastrous service in RAF Fighter Command as a day fighter, entering combat at the time of the Dunkirk evacuation. By the opening of the Battle of Britain the Luftwaffe had the measure of the British two-seat turret fighter and decimated the two squadrons, Nos 141 and 264, so equipped. Hurriedly withdrawn as a day fighter at the end of August 1940, the Defiant transferred to night fighting and gained its first two night victories during the latter half of September. Indeed for many years the Defiant was credited with the highest number of victories per interception of any RAF night fighter during the night Blitz; only relatively recently has this distinction been correctly assigned to the Bristol Blenheim in the last four months of 1940, and to the Beaufighter in the first five months of 1941. Early operations by Défiants at night were carried out without the benefit of AI radar, the aircraft simply being day fighters flown at night in conjunction with searchlights, The first Defiant squadron formed specifically for night fighting was No. 307, staffed by Polish pilots with the RAF in September 1940, followed by Nos 255 and 256 Squadrons in November, and No. 151 Squadron in December. All these became operational in early 1941 when the first conversions to mount AI Mk VI radar became available. No. 85 Squadron received Défiants in January 1941 but flew only three operational sorties before discarding the aircraft on receiving orders to convert to the Douglas Havoc; No. 96 Squadron, on the other hand, flew Défiants from February 1941 until June 1942, initially to provide night defen352
An original Defiant Mk I of No. 264 Sqn (CO's aircraft), with turret fairings raised and ventral radio masts extended.
sive patrols over Merseyside. Only two other squadrons flew the Defiant as a night-fighter (apart from the exday squadrons, Nos 141 and 264), No, 125 being formed in June 1941 and No. 153 in October the same year. All remained in the UK. The tactics employed by the Defiant night-fighter were as difficult as they were unique, as the turret guns (the only armament possessed by the aircraft) were seldom fired forward because their flash blinded the pilot. Instead the aircraft, using its AI radar, would engage in a long stern chase (for the Defiant was slow by comparison with other fighters), gradually draw alongside or beneath the enemy bomber before opening fire with its rifle-calibre guns. Quick direct hits were needed in vital parts of the target before the enemy gunners returned the fire or the German pilot took violent evasive action; by that time both Defiant crew members would have lost all night vision. One other night duty was undertaken by night-flying Défiants when aircraft of No. 515 Squadron, specially equipped by TRE (Telecommunications Research Establishment), were used to jam enemy coastal radar from 1942 onwards.
Specification Defiant Mk I Type: two-seat night-fighter Powerplant: one l,030-hp(768-kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin III V-12 liquidcooled piston engine Performance: maximum speed 488 km/h (303 mph) at 5030 m (16,500 ft); initial climb rate 579 m (1,900 ft) per minute; service ceiling 9295 m (30,500 ft); range 756 km (470
miles) Weights: empty 2722 kg (6,000 lb); maximum take-off 3788 kg (8,350 lb) Dimensions: span 11.99 m (39 ft 4 in); length 10.77 m (35 ft 4 in); height 3.71 m (12 ft 2 in); wing area 23.225 m2 (250 sq ft) Armament: four 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Browning machine-guns in Boulton Paul power-operated gun turret with 600 rounds per gun
ln contrast, this Defiant Mk II is seen much later in the war, serving as a nigh t figh ter with No. 151 Sqn, one of
the longest-established nigh t figh ter units in the world (that was its special task in 1917).
UK
de Havilland Mosquito Although originally conceived principally as an unarmed fast light bomber, the de Havilland Mosquito was also envisaged both as a photo-reconnaissance aircraft and as a nightfighter, the second aircraft flown (on 15 May 1941) being in fact the nightfighter prototype. This version differed from the bomber in having strengthened wing spars, a flat windscreen, an armament of four 20-mm cannon and four 7,7-mm (0,303-in) machine guns in the nose, crew entry through a starboard side hatch, and AI Mk IV radar. With a top speed of 595 km/h (370 mph), the Mosquito NF.Mk II (of which 466 were produced) entered service with No, 23 (Fighter) Squadron at Ford in May 1942, followed by No. 157 Squadron in August. The next night-fighter version was the Mosquito NF.Mk XII, 97 of which were produced by fitting AI Mk VIII radar in Mk Us, the four machine-guns being removed; it first joined the Polish-staffed No. 307 Squadron in December 1942; 270 MosTViis early Mosquito Mkll is running up on the ground, despite the fact that themain access hatch to the AI MkIVradar transmitter appears to have been removed.
quito NF.Mk XIII aircraft were similar but were newly built. One hundred Mk Us were converted to become Mosquito NF.Mk XVII aircraft by installation of the American centimetric AI Mk X in a somewhat enlarged nose radome. A derivative of this version, the Mosquito NF.Mk XIX, of which 220 were produced from new, operated at an increased all-up weight and were powered by 1,635-hp (1219-kW) RollsRoyce Merlin 25s, this version serving with eight RAF squadrons. A parallel design was initiated to produce a highaltitude night-fighter, the Mosquito NF.Mk XV, to combat the high-flying Junkers Ju 86P reconnaissance aircraft which started flying over the UK in 1942; with a span increased to 19,05 m (62 ft 6 in), armament reduced to four
W4082 was the fifth production Mosquito Mkll, delivered in Jan uary 1942. Note the exhaust flame dampers, which reduced flight performance. rifle-calibre machine guns, and 1,710hp (1275-kW) Merlin 76/77s, this aircraft was flown to 13260m (43,500ft), but was never flown in combat by the single squadron, No. 85, thus equipped. The last wartime night-fighter Mosquito was the Mosquito NF.Mk 30, which first equipped No. 219 Squadron at Bradwell Bay in July 1944 and went on to join a dozen other squadrons during the last year of the war. Powered by Merlin 72/73, 76/77 or 113/114 engines, this version had a top speed of 655 km/h (407 mph) and an operating ceiling of 11580 m (38,000 ft). Some 230 examples of this, the best of all Mosquito night-fighters produced during
the war, were built. The Mosquito was undoubtedly the finest Allied night-fighter of the war, replacing almost all Bristol Beaufighter night fighters in service in northern Europe by 1944, and being employed not only for home defence but also night intruder and bomber support/ night escort duties. The only enemy night-fighter capable of matching the Mosquito was the superb Heinkel He 219 (as well as the few night-fighter Me 262s), but these were so few in number as scarcely to affect the scale of night operations over the continent. The most famous of all Mosquito nightfighter pilots was Group Captain John Cunningham, who later became chief test pilot at the de Havilland company.
Specification
Mosquito NF.Mk 30 Type: two-seat night fighter/bomber support aircraft Powerplant: two l,710-hp(1275-kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin 76 V-12 liquid-cooled piston engines Performance: maximum speed 655 km/h (407 mph) at 8535 m (28,000 ft); climb to 4570 m (15,000 ft) in 7 minutes 30 seconds; service ceiling 11885 m (39,000 ft); normal range 2092 km (1,300 miles) Weights: empty 6985 kg (15,400 lb); maximum take-off 9798 kg (21,600 lb) Dimensions: span 16.51 m (54 ft 2 in); length 12.73 m (41 ft 9 in); height 4.65 m (15 ft 3 in); wing area 40.41 m (435 sq ft) Armament: four forward-firing 20-mm Hispano cannon under nose l, K
Hawker Hurricane Mk II From its earliest service days the Hawker Hurricane single-seater proved a pleasant aeroplane to fly at night (unlike the Supermarine Spitfire), and as early as the Battle of Britain Hurricanes were regularly flying night patrols to
complement those of the night-fighter Bristol Blenheims. For example No. 92 (Fighter) Squadron operated a detached flight at Bibury in Gloucestershire for this work, As the daylight battle petered out in October the Hurri-
cane was increasingly flown at night and with the introduction of the more powerful Hurricane Mk II with progressively heavier armament (eight machine-guns in the Hurricane Mk IIA, 12 machine-guns in the Hurricane Mk IIB and four 20-mm cannon in the Hurricane Mk IIC), the aircraft not only performed night defensive patrols but also
became increasingly used as an intruder over German bomber bases in northern France and the Low Countries. Among the best known night fighter/intruder squadrons to fly Hurricane Mk Us in 1941-2 were Nos 1, 3, 46, 79 and 87; to them was ascribed the destruction of 52 enemy aircraft, 16 coastal vessels, 105 road vehicles and 17 locomotives during the last six months of 1941. Without question the most successful pilot of this mid-war period was Flight Lieutenant Karel Kuttelwascher (a Czech veteran of the Battle of Britain) of No, 1 (Fighter) Squadron, who scored his first 'intruder' victory, a Junkers Ju 88, on 1 April 1942 and went on to shoot down 14 more enemy aircraft (seven Dormer Do 217s, five Heinkel He Ills, a Dornier Do 17 and another Ju 88) in the next eight weeks, for which he was After the mauled No. 87Sqn returned from France in June 1940 it was rem ustered as a nigh t figh ter unit, and in 1942 one of its aircraft was this Langley-built Hurricane Mk IIC, flown by the CO. 353
awarded two DFCs: among his victories were three He 11 Is shot down over St AndrĂŠ in the space of four minutes at midnight on 4/5 May, no mean feat for a single-seater without the benefit of radar. The specialist night intruder Hurricane differed from its day fighter counterpart only in being painted matt black overall and having small antiglare panels between the engine exhaust stubs and the pilot's windscreen. Hurricane Mk Us provided the first night-fighter equipment in the Middle East with the arrival of No. 213 Squadron in the Canal Zone in May 1941, and in May 1943 Hurricane Mk IICs with pilot-AI radar served with No. 176 Squadron in the Calcutta area, Finally, mention should be made of the Turbinlite squadrons which, using searchlight- and AI-equipped Douglas Havocs and Douglas Bostons to locate
enemy raiders, also flew Hurricane Mk IIBs and Mk IICs during 1942; an almost total absence of success, together with rapid development of AI radar, caused this wasteful and fruitless experiment to be abandoned in January 1943.
Specification
Hurricane Mk IIC Type: single-seat night-fighter/ intruder
The white hexagon has adorned No. 85 Sqn aircraft since 1916; since this Hurricane Mkl, No. 85 Sqn has flown most RAF nigh t figh ter types. Powerplant: one l,280-np(954-kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin XX V-12 liquidcooled piston engine Performance: maximum speed 546 km/h (339 mph) at 6705 m (22,000 ft); climb to 6095 m (20,000 ft) in 9 minutes 6 seconds; service ceiling 10850 m (35,600 ft); normal nightfighting range 740-km (460 miles)
Weights: empty 2631 kg (5,800 lb); maximum take-off 3583 kg (7,800 lb) Dimensions: span 12.19 m (40 ft 0 in); length 9,75 m (32 ftO in); height24.00 m (13 ft 1 Va in); wing area 23.92 m (257.5 sq ft) Armament: four wing-mounted 20-mm Hispano cannon, plus (intruder version) two 227-kg (500-lb) bombs
GERMANY
Dornier Do 17, Do 215 and Do 217 The Dornier Do 17 came to be employed in the night fighting role not so much because it was particularly suited to the task as for its availability in growing numbers as it approached the end of its service as a front line bomber. The opening of RAF bombing attacks on Germany in May 1940 caught the Luftwaffe wrong-footed, without an organized night-fighter defence, and although such a force was quickly established using the Messerschmitt Bf 110 and Junkers Ju 88C, consideration was also given to the use of other bombers converted to the night-fighter role, A standard Dornier Do 17Z-3 was therefore fitted with the nose of a Ju 88C-2 carrying an armament of one 20-mm MG FF cannon and three 7,92-mm (0,31-in) MG 17 machine-guns. Termed the Do 17Z-6 Kauz I (Screech Owl I), this version was found to be unsatisfactory and was abandoned. A fresh start was made with an entirely new nose accommodating two 20-mm cannon and four 7.92-mm (0.31-in) machine-guns together with an infra-red detection equipment (Spanner Anlage} operating in conjunction with a Q-Rohr sighting screen. Nine such Do 17Z-10 Kauz II aircraft were completed, and these served for a short time late in 1940 with I/NJG 2; the infra-red equipment was found to be too sensitive for operational use, however, and no further Do 17s were converted. A similar conversion was made to the Do 215 as the Do 215B-5, also with two cannon and four machine-guns, this version first joining 4./NJG 2 during the spring of 1941 for intruder sorties over British bomber bases and, following a fair degree of success (18 RAF bombers were lost to intruders between April and June 1941), further examples equipped I, III and IV/NJG 1 and I and II/NJG 2 later in that year. Rather more attention was paid to producing night-fighter versions of the Do 217, the first of which, the Do 217J-1 night intruder, entered service in the summer of 1942, folKD+MZ were the Dornier factory codes of the Do 217} development aircraft, seen here with the bomb bay of the Do 217J-1 but the Lichtenstein BC (FuC 202) radar of the Do 217J-2. Operational Do 217J-2s were allblack. 354
lowed by the Do 217J-2 night-fighter with Lichtenstein BC radar. These served in small numbers with NJG 1 and NJG 2, and equipped the whole of NJG 3 and III/NJG 4. The final variant, the Do 217N, existed in numerous forms of which one, the Do 217N-1/U3, often carried four 20-mm cannon in a schräge Musik upward-firing installation, but with a speed of around 525 km/h (326 mph) night interception was little more than speculative. Nevertheless Do 217Ns, of which some 200 are said to have been built, served with NJG 3 and NJG 4, as well as II/NJG
The Do 17Z-10 Kauz II was the first sensor-equipped Luftwaffe night fighter, with the Spanner sigh t projecting through the windscreen. R4+LKserved with I/NJC2atCilzeRijen (note NJCbadge on nose).
and II/NJG 2 in th Mediterranean theatre in 1943. However, their cost and the disruption to bomber production led to their discontinuation by the middle of that year in favour of the established Bf 110 and Ju 88. Specification Dol7Z-10KauzII Type: three-seat night-fighter Powerplant: two 1,000-hp (746-kW) Bramo 323P nine-cylinder air-cooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 415 km/h (258 mph) at 4000 m
(13,125 ft); initial climb rate 290 m (950 ft) per minutes; service ceiling 6650 m (21,820 ft); maximum range 1270 km (789 miles) Weights: empty 5150 kg ( 11,354 lb); maximum take-off 8445 kg (18,618 lb) Dimensions: span 18,00 m (59 ft OVz in); length 16.00 m (52 ft 6 in); height24.55 m (14 ft 11 !/4 in); wing area 55.00 m (592 sq ft) Armament: two 20-mm MG FF cannon and four 7.92-mm (0.31-in) MG 17 machine-guns in nose, and up to four 7.92-mm(0.31-in)MG 17 guns in lateral, dorsal and ventral positions
GERMANY
Focke-Wulf Fw 190A The Focke-Wulf Fw 190 was never strictly a night-fighter in the accepted sense of being designed or modified for night fighting yet, on account of operational circumstances forced upon the Luftwaffe, came to be employed under certain conditions very successfully in the night battle over Germany. Following the introduction of 'Window' jamming of German radar at the beginning of the Battle of Hamburg, which caused major dislocation of the Himmelbett (four-poster bed) defence system, a distinguished German bomber pilot, Major Hajo Herrmann, suggested employing day fighters at night, particularly when RAF jamming threatened paralysis of the radar control of night-fighters, Accordingly a special unit (codenamed wilde Sau, or 'wild boar' to differentiate its tactics from zahme Sau or 'tame boar' tactics, which embraced night-fighters operating under radar control) was formed as Jagdgeschwader 300, under Herrmann himself; based principally in north and west Germany, the Geschwaderstab and II/JG 300 flew Fw 190A-5/U2 fighters while I and III/JG 300 flew Messerschmitt Bf 109Gs at the outset. In its first major night operation, during the RAF attack on Peenemunde on 177
18 August 1943, JG 300 failed to make contact when bombing feints suggested that Berlin was the target, However, during the next month the vvilde Sau tactics paid handsome div i d e n d s , and H e r r m a n n was acclaimed a national hero, and promoted Oberstleutnant as commander of a much expanded Jagddivision 30, comprising JG 300, now commanded by Oberstleutnant Kurt Kettner, JG 301 under Helmut Weinrich at Neubiberg and JG 302 at Doberitz under Major Ewald Janssen. Henceforth wilde Sau tactics were employed on any moonlit night, and on any other occasion over the target where the light of the ground fires silhouetted the bombers. Winter flying conditions curtailed the operations severely, as did the wear on the
This Fwl90A-6/RII was flown by'Oberleutnant Krause of 1/NJGr 10 (notNJG 10). Note the wilde Sau badge on the cowl and the FuG 217Neptun aerials. aircraft themselves, of which Fw 190A- BMWSOlDg 14-cylinder air-cooled 5 and Fw 190A-8 fighters came to out- radial piston engine with GM-1 nitrous number the Bf 109. Among the most oxide power boosting succesful of the wilde Sau pilots were Performance: maximum speed Konrad Bauer (Staffelkapitän of 5,/JG 655 km/h (407 mph) at 6000 m 300 with 32 night victories), Kurt Wel- (19,685 ft); initial climb rate 720 m ter (JG 301 with 29 victories), Fried- (2,360 ft) per minute; service ceiling rich-Karl Müller (JG 300's technical 11400 m (37,400 ft); normal range officer with 23 victories) and Walter 800 km (497 miles) Loos (of Stab JG 300 with 22 victories); Weights: empty 3170 kg (6,989 lb); Hajo Herrmann himself destroyed nine maximum take-off 4430 kg (9,766 lb) RAF bombers in the course of 50 sor- Dimensions: span 34 ftSVa in (10.50 m); ties while Irò Ilk, Gruppenkomman- length8.80 m (28 ft 10V?. in); height deur of III/JG 300, shot down four Avrò 3.95 m (13 ft 0 in); wing area 18.30 m2 Lancasters in one night during April (196.98 sq ft) 1944. Armament: two 20-mm MG 151/20 cannon in wing roots, two 30-mm MG Specification 108 cannon in outer wings and two 13Fw 190A-8 mm(0.51-in)MG 131 heavy machineType: single-seat day/night fighter guns on nose, all firing forward Powerplant: one 1,700-hp (1268-kW)
GERMANY
Messerschmitt Bf 110 After proving something of a disappointment as a daylight 'heavy fighter' in the first year of the war (although continuing in that role to a lesser extent), the Messerschmitt Bf 110 became numerically Germany's most important night-fighter, being selected from the outset in mid-1940 to provide the basic equipment of Josef Kammhüber's Nachtjagdverband, Below: Most aerodynamically clu ttered o fall BfllO versions, the Bf 11 OG-4b/R3 had both SN-2 and C-l radars, usually carried a crew of
three and, with flame dampers and drop tanks as shown, had a maximum speed of typically 465 km/h (289 mph), barely faster than a Lancaster.
Above: Though fitted with enlarged fins and DB G05A engines, the early Bf 1 WG models lacked name-damped exhausts, and this BfllOG-2 of 12/NJG 3 had no radar. It was based atStavanger un til the final collapse in May 1945.
355
Seen serving with the N] Staffel Norway at the end of the war, theBf 11OG-4C/R3 was almost the last version built. By 1944 the problems with the SN-2 radar at short ranges had been overcome, and the C-l set could be eliminated. formed on 20 July that year, At first standard Bf 110C-2 and Bf 110D-1 aircraft were used, these equipping I Gruppe, Nachtjagdgeschwader l (previously I/ZG 1) under Hauptmann Günther Radusch, but they were soon replaced by the first dedicated nightfighter version, the Bf 110F-4 with 1,300-hp (969-kW) Daimler-Benz DB 601E engines, this version remaining in service, alongside later types, until the last year of the war, Within a year five Nachtjagdgruppen had been formed, four of them flying Bf 110s, The next night-fighter derivative, the Bf 110G series, was the principal version, usually powered by 1,475-hp (1100kW) DB 605B engines. The Bf 110G-4 possessed a basic armament of two 20-mm MG 151 cannon and four 7.92mm (0.31-in) MG 17 machine-guns, but this was varied by numerous Rüstsatz field kits, of which the R8 introduced the schräge Musik twin upward-firing cannon in 1943 (also fitted in the Bf 110F-4/U1); suffix letters-also identified changes in radar, the Bf 110G-4a with FuG 212 Lichtenstein C-l radar, the Bf 110G-4B with both C-1 and SN-2 radar, the Bf 110G-4c with SN-2 radar only, and the Bf 110G-4d with FuG 227 Flensburg homing radar (tuned to the British 'Monica' tail-warning radar). There
was also considerable work done with water-methanol and nitrous oxide injection in efforts to boost the performance of the Bf 110 and, although such improvements were only marginal, the aircraft remained in production almost up to the last months of the war. However, constant use of the nightfighters to assist in daylight defence against the American bomber offensive did much to prevent a much greater build-up of the night-fighter force, which nevertheless grew from 389 aircraft at the end of 1942 to 913 aircraft two years later. Only when the Messerschmitt Me 410 replaced the Bf 110
in service with the Zerstörergeschwader in 1944 were virtually all Bf HOGs allocated to the Nachtjagdverband. Even then priority was given to the new Junkers Ju 88G and Heinkel He 219 night-fighters, so by the end of 1944 only about 150 Bf 110 nightfighters remained in service.
Speóification
BfllOG-4b/R3 Type: two-seat night-fighter Powerplant: two 1,475-hp (1100-kW) Daimler-Benz DB 605B-1 inverted V-12 liquid-cooled piston engines Performance: maximum speed
550 km/h (342 mph) at 7000 m (22,950 ft); climb to 5500 m (18,045 ft) in 8 minutes 6 seconds; service ceiling 8000 m (26,245 ft); maximum range 2100 km (1,305 miles} Weights: empty 5100 kg (11,243 lb); maximum take-off 9900 kg (21,825 lb) Dimensions: span 16.27 m (53 ft 4% in); length 12.65 m (41 ft6y 4 in); heightz13 ft 1 Va in (4.00 m); wing area 38.40 m (413.33 sq ft) Armament: two 30-mm MK 108 and two 20-mm MG 151/20 cannon in the nose, and two 7.92-mm (0.31-in) MG 15 machine-guns in rear cockpit (MG 81Z installation)
GERMANY
Messerschmitt Me 262B- la/Ul The fast declining ability of the German night-fighter force to halt RAF Bomber Command's offensve in the latter half of 1944 (when it was resumed after the Normandy invasion) prompted Oberst Hajo Herrmann, well known for his advocacy of drastic fighting tactics and commander of
356
Jagddivision 30, to suggest adaptation of the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet aircraft as a night-fighter; both he and Oberleutnant Behrens of the E-Stelle R e c h l i n tested an Me 262 experimentally fitted with Lichtenstein SN-2 radar and pronounced it a potentially excellent night-fighter. It was
therefore proposed to undertake conversion of Me 262B- la two-seat trainers as night-fighters, installing a formidable collection of radar and radio equipment, including FuG 16ZY VHF radio, FuG 25a IFF, FuG 120a Bernadine visual read-out repeater, FuG 125, FuG 218 Neptun V search radar and FuG 350ZC Naxos radar homer; the use of an ungainly 'toasting fork' aerial array on the nose reduced the
Me 262's maximum speed from 873 km/h (542 mph) to 813 km/h (505 mph), but the ultimate production version, the Me 262B-2a, was intended All the Luftwaffe aircraft which went to the USA in 1945-6 were badly repainted with incorrect markings, the Hakenkreuz and in this case the lron Cross beingpre-1938 style, too early for this Me 262B- la/Ul.
to incorporate a rear fuselage extended by 114 cm (45 in) to accommodate approximately 910 litres (200 Imp gal) of additional fuel. A pair of upward-firing 30-mm MK 108 cannon was mounted in a schräge Musik installation. Only one example of this version was flown before the end of the war, although a second aircraft which, equipped with centimetric AI radar in a blunt nose fairing and so dispensing with the ungainly external aerial array, was awaiting flight test when the war ended; it was expected to possess a top speed of 860 km/h (534 mph).
In terms of performance, if not equipment, these aircraft were far in advance of Allied night-fighters, and had they existed in service in significant numbers (and had Germany possessed the fuel to operate them) they must have inflicted prohibitive losses upon Bomber Command. As it was, one experimental unit, Kommando Stamp (under Major Gerhard Stamp, previously of I/JG 300, a wilde Sau unit) flew about 10 Me 262B-la/Ul fighters, the unit later being redesignated Kommando Welter under Oberleutnant Kurt Welter and deployed for
the night defence of Berlin in March 1945; Welter himself is said to have shot down about 20 Allied aircraft at night in Me 262s in the last eight weeks of the war, and probably remains the world's most successful night-fighter jet pilot to this day. Specification Me262B-la/Ul Type: two-seat night-fighter Powerplant: two 900-kg (1,984-lb) thrust Junkers Jumo 109-004B-1 axialflow turbojets Performance: maximum speed
813 km/h (505 mph) at 6000 m ( 19,685 ft); climb to 6000 m ( 19,685 ft) in 6 minutes 54 seconds; service ceiling 10850 m (35,600 ft); normal range 1050 km (652 miles) Weights: empty about 4585 kg (10,110 lb); maximum take-off about 6585 kg (14,515 lb) Dimensions: span 12.48 m (40 ft 11 Va in); length 11.53 (37 ft 10 in); height 3.84 m (12 ft? in); wing area 21.70m 2 (233.6 sq ft) Armament: four forward-firing 30-mm MK 108 cannon in fuselage nose with a total of 360 rounds
USA
Douglas P-70 Havoc It is tempting to reason that it was on account of the USA's preoccupation with daylight bombing that the creation of a night-fighter force to counter any other nation's night bombing was regarded as superfluous. Whether such is even partly accurate or not, the fact remains that the USAAF possessed no dedicated night-fighter in service at the time of Pearl Harbor. Instead it was the British who first exploited the Douglas A-20 as a nightfighter, converting about one hundred Boston Mk II light bomber variants to that role during the winter of 1940-1 by fitting an armament of eight machineguns and AI Mk IV radar in the nose, flame-damping engine exhaust pipes and additional armour. Known as the Havoc in RAF service, this nightfighter first equipped No. 23 Squadron and was also involved in the lengthy Turbinlite (airborne searchlight) night fighting tactic, an almost worthless experiment that lasted about 18 months and occupied the efforts of no fewer than 10 squadrons. Another abortive RAF experiment involving Havocs was the 'Pandora' project, about 20 aircraft (eventually designated Havoc Mk III) being modified to trail the Long Aerial Mine' in the path of enemy bomber streams. When eventually faced with sporadic night air attacks by the Japanese in the Western Pacific in 1942, the Americans decided to modify the A-20 as an interim night-fighter (pending
the arrival of the P-61 in service), the first example originally produced for the USAAF undergoing conversion to feature a pair of 1,600-hp (1194-kW) Wright R-2600-11 radiais, AI radar in a 'solid' nose and an armament of four 20-mm cannon in a pack under the fuselage. Some 39 P-70A-1 nightfighters followed in 1943, in which the ventral guns were usually replaced by six 12.7-mm (0.5-in) guns in the nose, as well as a pair of hand-held guns in the rear cockpit; 65 conversions from A20Gs produced the P-70A-2, similar to the P-70A-1 but without the rear guns, Most of these night-fighters were delivered to the squadrons of the 18th Fighter Group, commanded by Colonels Charles R. Greening and Robert A. Zaiser, which flew from Guadalcanal, supported American forces on Bougainville and flew night patrols over US bases in the Solomons. This was the only group to fly the P-70 extensively on operations. The final version was the P-70B-2 night-fighter trainer, of which 105 were converted from A-20GS and A-20Js to feature American SCR-720 and SCR-729 radar. These served with the 50th Fighter Group at Alachua Army Air Field, Florida, under Colonel Robert S. Quinn as a night-fighter crew training group before moving to the UK in 1944 as a fighter-bomber unit flying Republic P47s. With the arrival of the P-61 in service in 1944, P-70 As were distributed among the USAAF's new night-fighter
squadrons to provide operational training in AI procedures, but by the end of the year almost all had disappeared from the service's front-line inventory, Specification P-70A Havoc Type: three-seat night-fighter Powerplant: two 1,600-hp (1193-kW) Wright R-2600-11 14-cylinder aircooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 529 km/h (329 mph) at 4265 m (14,000 ft); climb to 3660 m (12,000 ft) in 8 minutes; service ceiling 8610 m (28,250 ft); normal range 1706 km (1,060 miles) Weights: empty 7272 kg (16,031 lb); maximum take-off 9645 kg (21,264 lb) Dimensions: span 18.69 m (61 ft 4 in); length 14.50 m (47 ft 7 in); height 5.36 m (17 ft 7 in); wing area 43.11 n/
AW392 was the first Havoc Mkl (Turbinlite), originally supplied to the RAF on a diverted French contract in 1940 and one of the early small-tail series with Twin Wasp engines. AI MkIVradar was fitted to aim the searchlight, no guns being carried. (464 sq ft)
Armament: most aircraft (P-70A-2) had six 12,7-mm (0,5-in) machine-guns in nose and two others of the same calibre (hand-held) in rear cockpit A very rare bird, the Douglas P-70B-1 was a 1943 rebuild of an A-20C attack bomber with AI MkIVradar and forward-firing armament of six 'fiftycalibre'in packs at the sides of the fuselage. No ven trai cannon were fitted.
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USA
Northrop P-61 Black Widow Stung to action in 1940 by events in Europe where night bombing attacks were beginning to assume significant proportions, the US Army Air Corps issued a general requirement for a specialized night-fighter, and to meet this Northrop offered a large twinboom, twin-engine, three-seat aircraft with provision for yet-to-be developed airborne interception radar and a heavy offensive armament. Two Northrop XP-61 prototypes were ordered on 11 January 1941, and production contracts totalling 573 aircraft were issued within the next 13 months, The first prototype was flown on 21 May 1942, by which time the USA had been at war for nearly six months, and it was to be a further 18 months before the first production P-61A Black Widow aircraft appeared, the first 37 aircraft mounting a remotely-controlled dorsal turret with four 12,7-mm (0.5-in) guns in addition to four fixed 20-mm cannon in the fuselage belly. Air flow instability aft of the turret caused its deletion from the 38th aircraft onwards, and the first deliveries were made to the 18th Fighter Group of the USAAF, then based at Guadalcanal. This unit scored its first night victory on 7 July 1944, and the type progressively replaced all the interim Douglas P-70s in service. The P-61A was not generally considered wholly satisfactory, being plagued by unserviceability of the big R2800-65 engines; as the situation improved, after 200 of this version had been produced, deliveries of the first of 450 P-6 IB aircraft started, also injury 1944; this version, though still officially termed a night-fighter, was as much an intruder as a true fighter, being capable of carrying up to four 726-kg (1,600-lb) bombs or four 1136-litre (300-US gal) drop tanks under the wings. Some Far East units also carried out field modifictions to carry eight 12.7cm (5-m) rocket projectiles for night use against Japanese surface vessels, but their use was limited on account of the blinding flash of the rocket motors. The final 250 P-61 Bs had the dorsal turret reinstated, and the last production version was the P-61C, of which 41 were built with 2,800-hp (2088kW) R-2800-73 engines and a top speed of fractionally under 644 km/h (400 mph). In Europe the Black Widow was severely criticized when tested by the RAF, but deliveries of the first P-61 As
Unusual in having a completely unpainted radome over its SCR-720 radar, this early P-61A-1 was one of those delivered with the four-gun turret, and, like all three aircraft illustrated here went to thePacific. In this case the recipient unit was the USAAF 6th NFS based on Saipan.
Almost all Widows were painted black overall, like thisP-61B-15, one of the later models with the turret restored as standard. It was on the strength of one of the later units in the CPA (Central Pacific Area) in 1944, the 548th NFS. Note the 1173-litre (258-gal) drop tanks.
Almost identical to the machine above, thisP-61B-l was assigned to a unit of the US 13th Air Force, the 550th NFS operating in theNewGuinea andNew Britain area from Morotai in the final nine months of the Pacific war. The turret m ust have been fitted retroactively. went ahead to the 422nd Night Fighter Squadron at Scorton, England, on 23 May 1944, followed by the 425th at Charmy Down, their purpose being to provide night protection for the American bases after the Normandy landing then imminent. While based in the UK the P-6 Is were flown with limited suc-
cess against V-l flying bombs before being flown to the Continent, where they achieved a few night victories against the relatively small number of German aircraft which operated at night during the last eight months of the war.
Specification P-6 IB Black Widow Type: three-seat night-fighter Powerplant: two 2,000-hp (1491-kW) Pratt & Whitney R-2800-65 18-cylinder air-cooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 589 km/h (366 mph) at 6095 m (20,000 ft); climb to 6095 m (20,000 ft) in 12 minutes; service ceiling 10090 m (33,100 ft); maximum range 4506 km (2,800 miles) Weights: empty 9979 kg (22,000 lb); maximum take-off 13472 kg (29700 lb) Dimensions: span 20.12 m (66 ft 0 in); length 15.11 m (49 ft 7 in); height 4.46 m (14 ft8 in); wingarea61.69 n/ (664 sq ft) Armament: four 20-mm cannon in fuselage belly fixed to fire forward, plus provision to carry up to four 726kg ( 1, 600-lb) bombs under the wings; the last 250 aircraft were also armed with four 12,7-mm (0.5-in) machineguns in remotely-controlled dorsal turret One of the first P-6 Is to see action was this P-61A-10ofthe 422nd Nigh t Figh ter Squadron based a t Charmy Down, Scorton and then various advanced bases in France. Their kills were mainly flying bombs and locomotives.
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JAPAN
HT] Kawasaki Ki-45 Toryu Constant development frustrations delayed introduction into service of the Imperial Japanese Army's Kawasaki Ki-45 Toryu (dragon killer) until August 1942, its design having been initiated five years earlier, and it was not until 1944 that the night-fighter version, the Ki-45 KAIc, became operational as the only army night-fighter of the war. Retaining the two 1,080-hp (805-kW) Mitsubishi Ha-102 radiais of the previous Ki-45 KAIb heavy day fighter (an aircraft whose role was akin to that of the German ZerstĂśrer), the Ki-45 KAIc was armed with a single forward-firing semi-automatic 37-mm Type 98 cannon in a fairing under the fuselage, two oblique/upward-firing 20-mm Ho-5 cannon in the centre fuselage, and a single hand-held machine-gun in the rear cockpit. It had been intended to fit airborne radar in the nose, and therefore no nose guns were included; however, production difficulties seriously delayed this equipment and it did not enter service, although a single aircraft flew with centimetric radar shortly before the end of the war. Production of the Ki-45 KAIc got underway at Kawasaki's Akashi plant in March 1944, the first aircraft being completed the following month. On 15 June American Boeing B-29s of XX Bomber Command launched their first raid on the Japanese homeland, and were intercepted by eight Toryus
whose pilots shot down eight of the big bombers. At that time about 40 Ki-45 KAIc fighters had been completed, and the aircraft went on to serve with the 4th Sentai at Usuki in the Oita prefecture, the 5th Sentai at Usuki and Komachi in the Aichi prefecture, the 53rd Sentai at Matsudo in the Chiba prefecture, and the 70th Sentai at Kashiwa. Toryus shared the night defence of Japan with the navy's J1N1-S and Yokosuka P1Y1-S, and were probably the most successful in action against the massive American raids in the last six months of the war; the 4th Sentai alone was credited with 150 kills, of which 26 were gained by one pilot, Captain Isamu Kashiide, all despite the lack of any AI radar. Away from the homeland Ki-45 KAIc nightfighters also served with the 45th Sentai in the Philippines and New Guinea
The Kawasaki Ki-45 Toryu was the Imperial Japanese Army's only night fighter, and despite not being fitted with AI radar was probably their most effective one. late in 1944, and with the 71st Dokuritsu Hiko Chutai at Singapore in August 1945. Production of the Ki-45 KAIc reached 477 aircraft before being terminated in December 1944. The type was codenamed 'Nick' by the Allies.
Weights: empty 4000 kg (8,818 lb); maximum take-off 5500 kg(12,125 lb) Dimensions: span 15.02 m (49 ft 3 Vi in); length 11.00 m (36 ft 1 in); height 3.70 m (12 ft 1% in); wing area 32.00 m?1 (344.44 sq ft) Armament: one 37-mm cannon firing forward under nose, two upward-firing 20-mm cannon amidships and one 7.92-mm (0,31-in) hand-held machinegun in dorsal position
Specification Ki-45 KAIC Type: two-seat night-fighter Powerplant: two 1,080-hp (805-kW) Mitsubishi Ha-102 14-cylinder aircooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 540 km/h (335 mph) at 6000 m (19,685 ft); climb to 5000 m (16,405 ft) in 7 minutes; service ceiling 10000 m (32,810 ft); normal range 2000 km (1,243 miles)
Probably the best surviving picture of a Kawasaki Ki-45, this Ki-45 KAIc night fighter has no radar but carries a 37-mm Ho-203 cannon firing ahead and two 20-mm Ho-5 cannon firing obliquely upwards. A total of 477 was built at Akashi in late 1944.
and another pair firing forward and downward. When two Consolidated B-24s were quickly destroyed, the modifications came to the attention of the Japanese naval staff and an order was placed with Nakajima to go ahead with a dedicated night-fighter version, designed and built as such from scratch. This version, the J1N1-S, entered production in August 1943 and continued until December 1944, during which period a total of 420 JINs were produced, the great majority of them J1N1-S night-fighters. These differed from the earlier reconnaissance version in having the crew reduced from three to two, the observer's cock-
pit being eliminated and faired over; all aircraft retained the upward-firing cannon, but the downward firing guns (found difficult to aim and seldom used) were omitted from later aircraft, while a third upper gun and a forwardfiring 20-mm cannon was fitted in the JINl-Sa. Rudimentary centnmetric AI radar was installed in the nose and some airciaft also carried a small nose searchlight. In service with the 251st, 302nd and 322nd Kokutais, the J1N1-S night-fighters proved fairly effective against the B-24, which was not in any case well-suited to night operations, but with the appearance of the Boeing B-29 the Japanese night-fighters
JAPAN
Nakajima J1N1-S Gekko Just as specialist night-fighter design had largely been ignored by European nations before World War II, Japan's similar failing left the country without adequate night defence when the fortunes of war began their inexorable turn against her in 1943. Fortunately, however, the Imperial Japanese Navy possessed a number of excellent heavy fighters and reconnaissance aircraft, of which the Nakajima JIN Gekko (moonlight) had been arriving in service slowly since April 1942 with reconnaissance units in the
Western Pacific. When first encountered in action during the Solomons campaign the aircraft was mistakenly thought to be a fighter and codenamed 'Irving' by the Allies. As night air attacks were stepped up by the Americans it was the commanding officer of the 251st Kokutai, Commander Yasuna Kozono, then based at Rabaul, New Guinea, who first suggested adaptation of the JIN as a night-fighter by installing two 20-mm cannon in the observer's cockpit, fixed to fire obliquely forward and upward at an angle of 30°,
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Most JINI -S nigh t figh ters were black, but this} INI-Sa, with nose radar, wasunpainted.In therearisa P1Y1.
proved too slow and were seldom able to make more than a single firing attack. Most of them were expended during the final months of the war
when, equipped to carry two 250-kg (551-lb) bombs, they were employed in kamikaze attacks against ground targets.
Specification J1N1-S Type: two-seat night-fighter Powerplant: two 1,130-hp (843-kW)
NakajimaNKlFSakae21 14-cylinder air-cooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 505 km/h (314 mph) at 5840 m (19,160 ft); climb to 5000 m (16,405 ft) in 9 minutes 36 seconds; service ceiling 9320 m (30,610 ft); normal range 2540 km (1,578 miles) Weights: empty 4840 kg (10,670 lb); maximum take-off 8185 kg (18,045 lb) Dimensions:span 16.98 m(55 ft8!/2 in); length 12.77 m (41 ft 10% in); height 4.56 m (14 ft 11% in); wing area 40,00m 2 (430.56 sq ft) Armament: two (sometimes three) upward-firing 20-mm Type 99 cannon, two downward-firing 20-mm cannon and (optional) one forward-firing 20mm cannon
FRANCE
Potez631 The French Potez 631 night-fighter corresponded in many respects to the RAF's Bristol Blenheim, being very similar in size and performance (though somewhat lighter) as well as being conceived as a variation of a light bomber. The French aircraft was one of a family of design variations of the Potez 63 which had originated in a requirement issued in 1934 for a two/ three-seat 'multi-purpose' aircraft. Although a night-fighter prototype had flown in March 1937 as the Potez 631-0, French re-equipment policies were blurred by lack of purpose (being confused by the likely form of warfare being studied by Germany), with the result that orders for development aircraft included four-general purpose two/three-seat day/night fighters, three two-seat night-fighters, one light bomber, one reconnaissance aircraft and one close-support aircraft. Relatively little importance was placed on the Potez 631 night-fighter, and it was not until June 1938 that production orders totalling 207 were confirmed. By 1 April 1939 the Armée de l'Air
had taken delivery of 88 aircraft, of which 20 were in service; in May two night-fighter units, Groupes de Chasse de Nuit GCN III/l and II/4, and one day fighter unit, GC II/8, were equipped with about 30 aircraft; four other Potez 631s were serving at Djibouti. At the outbreak of war a total of 206 aircraft had been delivered, and the type had also joined GCN 1/13 and GCN 11/13, as well as seven escadres de chasse. Some aircraft were later transferred to the Aéronavale, When the German attack opened in the West the various Potez 631 units were in constant action both by day and night, although lack of
A reconnaissance version of the Potez 631 in Armée de l'Air markings, as carried during the Battle of France. The type 's similarity to the Bf 110 led to heavy losses a t the hands of the Allies. radar prevented much success during 29 German aircraft in the Battle of the hours of darkness. In the first 11 France, but for a loss of 93 of their own days of the campaign Aéronavale's number. Of the remainder about 110 Flotille F 1C shot down 12 German air- were in the Free French Zone (Vichy craft for the loss of eight, but the Armée France) at the time of the armistice, but de l'Air night-fighter units were their number dwindled quickly beordered to assume day ground-attack cause of a chronic lack of spares, duties, losing heavily to enemy flak. although ECN 3/13 moved to Tunisia Moreover, losses were exceptionally with a small number of Potez 631s in heavy to Allied guns and fighters as a June 1941. result of the Potez 631's superficial similarity to the German Messer- Specification schmitt Bf 110; it has been estimated Potez 631 that as many as 30 of the French aircraft Type: two-seat night-fighter were shot down in error. In all, Potez Powerplant: two 700-hp (522-kW) 631 night-fighters destroyed a total of Gnome-Rhône 14 air-cooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 442 km/h (275 mph) at 4500 m "(14,765 ft); climb to 4000 m (13,125 ft) in 5 minutes 54 seconds; service ceiling 8800 m (28,870 ft); range 1220 km (758 miles) Weights: empty about 2450 kg (5,401 lb); maximum take-off about 3760 kg (8,289 lb) Dimensions: span 16,00 m (52 ft 6 in); length 11.07 m (36 ft 4 in); height 23.62 m (11 ft lOVa in); wing area 32.70 m (351.98sqft) Armament: two fixed forward-firing 20-mm cannon under fuselage and one hand-held 7.5-mm (0.295-in) machinegun in dorsal position; some aircraft were also fitted with two 7.5-mm (0.295-in) machine-guns under each wing Though over 300 Potez 631 night figh ters had been delivered at the time of the French Armistice on 25 June 1940, at least 70 and possibly many more either had no propellers or had them removed deliberately. This one was luckier, and flew with a unit of GCN 13 in the Ba ttle for France.
360
Allied and Axis Flying-Boats During the early years of World War II, flying-boats were of crucial importance in allowing long-range maritime patrols. However, with the introduction of very longrange land-based aircraft, which had greater flexibility and which could operate from ordinary airfields, the flying-boats gradually faded from the scene. f glamour ever attached to fighting men there was little hut monotony in the work of the flying-boat crews of World War II. Few nations had paid heed to this class of military aeroplane in the years of peace beforehand, with the result that when war came recourse was widely made to the adaptation of ageing commercial aircraft and none of the belligerent powers produced a wholly new design from concept during the war years in time to reach production and service. As might be expected from the maritime nations, the USA, the UK and Japan possessed the most consistently successful aircraft from the outset: the Consolidated PBY Catalina, the Short Sunderland and the Kawasaki H8K 'Emily' boats respectively. For the UK alone the work of RAF Coastal Command's flyingboats was vital for the nation's survival: given the existence of brutally effective submarine warfare, responsibility for airborne countermeasures and protection of the UK's vulnerable shipping lanes fell squarely on that command's aircrews and their Sunderlands and Catalinas. Germany, on the other hand, had afforded low priority to the military flying-boat and only an adaptation of the excellent but
I
The Consolidated PBY Catalina was the workhorse of Allied maritime reconnaissance work and the leading type in its class. It was the 'Cat' which shadowed the German battleship Bismarck. venerable Dornier Do 18 had reached service status by 1939. The radical Blohm und Voss Bv 138 had been slow in development and suffered numerous problems before finally achieving an acceptable combat status. Both Japan and the United States produced really superlative military flying-boats, the Kawasaki H8K proving to possess a most
impressive performance; the Catalina, of which more were produced than all other flyingboats of all nations combined, came to provide the yardstick by which all maritime reconnaissance work would be measured. Yet World War II was to sound the death knell of the big 'boat' for, even as the Catalinas and Sunderlands were ranging far
over the oceans, the very-longrange land-based aeroplane (exemplified by the Consolidated Liberator) was proving to be no less effective. Being more readily available and requiring none of the special base facilities of the flying-boat, this craft pointed a different path to the future, a path that has consigned these graceful 'boats' to the pages of history.
361
UK
Sarò Lerwick The twin-engine Sarò Lerwick was an attractive and compact design intended to meet a medium-range maritime reconnaissance requirement, Specification R. 1/36, but was a total failure, First flown before the end of Ì938, the prototype featured twin fins and. rudders but from the outset was found to be seriously lacking in lateral stability, and displayed a determination to roll and yaw in cruising flight, making the aircraft impossible to fly 'hands off, a damning indictment for a maritime patrol aircraft. In due course a single fin and rudder was fitted, but not until this was considerably enlarged was any improvement in the handling characteristics discernible. Starting with the seventh production example, wing incidence was increased and enlarged propellers fitted to the Hercules II radiais, but the latter were found unsuitable for operating on rough water. Moreover, stalling tests showed the Lerwick to have vicious traits, the stall under alighting conditions being accompanied by sharp wing-drop. Nevertheless 21 examples were produced and the Lerwick was first delivered for service with No, 209 Squadron in December 1939 at Oban, but after the type had flown a small number of semi-operational patrols it was decided to abandon further efforts to rectify its problems. The last eight aircraft were powered by Hercules
IVs and the final example was completed in November 1940; one aircraft was flown by No, 240 Squadron but was lost on 20 February of that year, and some flew with No. 4 Operational Training Unit at Invergordon, Specification Sarò Lerwick Type: six-crew medium-range reconnaissance flying-boat Powerplant: two l,375-hp(1026-kW) Bristol Hercules II 14-cylinder aircooled radiais
Performance: maximum speed 348 km/h (216 mph) at 1220 m (4,000 ft); initial climb rate 268 m (880 ft) per minute; service ceiling 4265 m (14,000ft) Weights: normal loaded 12928 kg (28,500 lb); overload take-off 15060 kg (33,200 lb) Dimensions: span 24.63 m (80 ft 10 in); length 19.39 m (63 ft 7Vz in); height 2 6.10 m (20 ft 0 in); wing area 78.50 m (845 sq ft) Armament: one 7,7-mm (0.303-in) machine-gun in nose turret, twin 7.7-
The ill-fa ted Sarò Lerwick, which served with only a single Coastal Command squadron, No. 209, at Oban, Pembroke Dock and Stranraer. As can be seen, the aircraft rode very low in the water and demanded considerable distance to become airborne.
Dimensions: span 24.38 m (80 ft 0 in); length 17.31 m (56 ftgVz in); height 2 5.71 m (18 ft 9 in); wing area 132,38 m (l,425sqft) Armament: single hand-held 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Lewis machine-guns in open bow, midships and tail positions, plus up to 907 kg (2,000 lb) of bombs, mines or depth charges carried externally under the lower wings
Sarò London flying-boats still served with Nos 201,202 and 240Sqns when war broke out in 1939. This example, of No. 240 Sqn, was based at Sullom Voe and Invergordon in 1939-40.
mm (0.303-in) machine-guns in dorsal turret and four 7,7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns in tail turret, plus up to 907 kg (2,000 lb) of bombs, mines or depth charges
UK
Sarò London Reflecting the design concept of British flying-boats that had originated in the 1920s, the Sarò London twinengine biplane was an all-metal aircraft with fabric-covered wings and tail, and a metal-skinned hull. The type served with RAF Coastal Command during the first two years of World War II. Designed to Air Ministry Specification R. 24/31, the prototype first flew in 1934 with two 750-hp (559-kW) Bristol Pegasus III radiais, the engines being mounted on the top wing to be well clear of spray while taking off and landing; the prototype went on to serve for periods between 1934 and 1936 with Nos 209 and 210 Squadrons at Felixstowe and Gibraltar. Production deliveries started in March 1936 with Pegasus III engines, but from the eleventh aircraft the Pegasus X was fitted and the aircraft's designation changed to London Mk II, this variant equipping Nos 201 and 204 Squadrons in 1936 at Calshot and Mount Batten repectively. In 1937 they joined No. 202 Squadron at Kalafrana (Malta) and No. 228 Squadron at Pembroke Dock respectively. By the outbreak of war in September 1939 Londons still equipped No. 201 Squadron, then at Sullom Voe in the Shetland Islands, and No. 202 Squadron still at Gibraltar, while No. 240 Squadron had re-equipped with Londons in July 1939 and was stationed at Invergordon, These flyingboats carried out sea patrols over the North Sea and the Mediterranean, some aircraft being fitted with a large dorsal fuel tank to increase their range. Bombs, depth charges and (occasionally) mines up to a total weight of 2,000 lb (907kg) could be carried under the lower wing roots. Indeed, the old biplanes undertook a considerable share of the patrol work over the North Sea, keeping watch for the likely 362
breakout into the Atlantic by German surface and submarine raiders as well as the return to German port by blockade runners. Gradually maritime reconnaissance aircraft such as the Lockheed Hudson came to assume these responsibilities while Short Sunderland flying-boats equipped the squadrons flying over the Atlantic and Mediterranean. The Londons were replaced on No. 201 Squadron in April 1940, followed two months later by those on No. 240 Squadron. Only No. 202 Squadron continued to fly Londons at Gibraltar until June 1941. Specification Sarò London Mk II Type: six-crew coastal reconnaissance flying-boat Powerplant: two 920-hp (686-kW) Bristol Pegasus X nine-cylinder aircooled radiais Performance: maximum speed 228 km/h (142 mph) at sea level; initial climb rate 360 m ( 1,180 ft) per minute; service ceiling 6065 m (19,900 m); maximum range 2800 km ( 1,740 miles) Weights: empty 5035 kg (11,100 lb); maximum take-off 9979 kg (22,000 lb)
A pre-war shot of a Sarò London MkL These big aircraft, together with the Supermarine Stranraer, marked the end of a nostalgic era.
UK
Supermarine Walrus One of the unsung heroes of World War II, the Supermarine Walrus amphibian was a private venture development of the 1922 Seagull I, and indeed first flew as the Seagull V on 21 June 1933. A production order by the Australian government prompted evaluation by the Royal Navy's No. 702 Catapult Flight, which in turn led to an initial contract for 12 Walrus Mk I aircraft being placed by the Air Ministry in 1935, Following further trials, during which a Walrus was catapulted fullyloaded from HMS Nelson, production orders for 204 aircraft with the 635-hp (474-kW) Pegasus II M2 radial were placed, and the little flying-boat entered Fleet Air Arm service in 1936. Early in World War II Walrus amphibians were serving aboard battleships and cruisers of the Royal Navy all over the world as components of No. 700 Squadron, as well as with Nos 701, 711, 712 and 714 Squadrons, their principal duties being over-the-horizon search for enemy shipping; they were also employed for gunnery spotting, antisubmarine and convoy protection duties. A Walrus was even catapulted from the cruiser HMS Dorsetshire to bomb a target in Italian Somaliland on 18 November 1940. Undoubtedly the work for which the Walrus (affectionately known as the Shagbat) will be best remembered was air/sea rescue, serving in this role with Nos 269, 275, 276, 277, 278, 281 and 282 Squadrons at stations in the United Kingdom, and with Nos 283, 284, 292 and 294 Squadrons in the Middle East. Called out in any weather, day or night, Walrus air/sea rescue aircraft frequently alighted in enemy coastal waters to pick up ditched Allied airmen from their dinghies, sometimes putting down in minefields where rescue launches could not venture. With their curious pusher engine nacelle located between the wings (and angled off centre), the sight of a Walrus to a shotdown airman meant the difference between rescue and years in a prison camp. The Walrus was slowly replaced in service from 1944 onwards by the tractor Mercury-powered Sea Otter from the same stable, although No. 624 Squadron was re-formed at
The Supermarine Walrus served with the Royal Air Force principally in the air-sea rescue role, mainly in the UK but also abroad; although frequently required to fly close to enemy shores, they were not provided with a gun with which to offer defence.
An example of a Walrus in Fleet Air Arm markings. Although ostensibly supplied to the larger vessels of the Royal Navy for gunnery spotting duties, they were more frequently used to transport officers and despa tches between ships and shore.
Grottaglie in Italy in December that year with Walrus aircraft for minespotting duties. A total of 740 Walrus aircraft was built, production of the Walrus Mk I with metal-clad hull being terminated at Supermarine after 287 had been completed; thereafter production was switched to Saunders-Roe who built 453 Walrus Mk II aircraft with wooden hulls before finally ending in January 1944. Specification Supermarine Walrus Mk II Type: three/four-crew shipboard
observation and air/sea rescue amphibian flying-boat Powerplant: one 775-hp (578-kW) Bristol Pegasus VI nine-cylinder aircooled radial Performance: maximum speed 200 km/h (124 mph) at sea level; initial climb rate 320 m ( 1,050 ft) per minute; service ceiling 5640 m (18,500 ft); range 965 km (600 miles) Weights: empty 2223 kg (4,500 lb); maximum take-off 3266 kg (7,200 lb) Dimensions: span 13.97 m (45 ft 10 in); length 11.45 m (37 ft 7 in); height 4.65 m ( 15 ft 3 in) ; wing area 56,67 n/
(610sqft) Armament: one 7,7-mm (0.303-m) machine-gun on open bow position, plus up to 227 kg (500 lb) of bombs or depth charges on underwing racks (shipboard version only)
A Walrus taxis in to be hoisted aboard its paren t cruiser; the crew member perched beside the engine nacelle will attach the lifting gear to a lug in the top wing for hoisting.
UN
Supermarine Stranraer Designed to the same specification, R. 24/31, as the Sarò London, the Supermarine Stranraer twin-engine biplane flying-boat survived in service slightly longer than the other, and was generally preferred by those crews who were able to compare the two types. The prototype, originally known as the Singapore V, was powered by Bristol Pegasus HIM radiais driving twoblade wooden propellers and first flew in mid-1935, but was immediately renamed Stranraer. It also underwent comparative trials with the London on No. 210 Squadron in October and November 1935, during which it was found to be somewhat underpowered. Production deliveries of aircraft powered by a pair of Pegasus X radiais driving a three-blade Fairey Reed metal propeller started December 1936, and the type was declared operational in April the following year with No. 228 Squadron at Pembroke Dock, remaining with this squadron until April 1939, In December 1938 Stranraers joined No. 209 Squadron at Felixstowe, and later moving to Invergordon and Oban for patrols over the North Sea until supplanted by the illfated Lerwick the following year. No, 240 Squadron was the only other RAF Coastal Command squadron to fly the Stranraer, converting to the aircraft in June 1940 at Pembroke Dock for shortrange patrol work over the Western Approaches; the Stranraers were eventually replaced by Catalina 'boats in March 1941, Although RAF Stranraers did not serve at overseas stations, a total of 40 aircraft was licencebuilt by Canadian-Vickers between 1939 and 1941, and served in the coastal reconna'ssance/anti-submarine role with the RCAF until finally replaced by the Consolidated Canso (Catalina) during 1943, Specification Supermarine Stranraer Type: seven-crew coastal reconnaissance flying-boat Powerplant: two 920-hp (686-kW) Bristol Pegasus X nine-cylinder aircooled radiais Performance: maximum speed
Above: No. 240 Sqn Stranraer flyingboat K7295 based a t Pembroke Dock, South Wales, in 1940 for patrols over the Western Approaches; in July that year the squadron moved to Oban and converted to Catalina boats the following March.
Right: A quartet of Stranraers of No. 209 Sqn at Felixstowe, Suffolk, in May 1939. Note the absence of camouflage (applied on the outbreak of war) and the underwing fuel tanks. Just before the war the squadron moved north tolnvergordon. 241 km/h ( 150 mph) at sea level; initial climb rate 411 m (1,350 ft) per minute; service ceiling 5640 m (18,500 ft); range 1609 km (1,000 miles) Weights: empty 5103 kg (11,250 lb); maximum take-off 8618 kg (19,000 lb) Dimensions: span 25.91m (85 ft 0 in); length 16.71 m (54 ft 10 in); height 2 6.63 m (21 ft 9 in); wing area 135.36 m (l,457sqft) Armament: single hand-held 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine guns in open bow, midships and tail positions, plus up to 454 kg (1,000 lb) of bombs, mines or depth charges carried on underwing racks
UK
Short Sunderland The graceful Short C-class 'Empire' flying-boat, ordered for Imperial Airways in 1934, marked the greatestever single step forward in the design of the flying-boat and, with the issue of a military specification, R.2/33, for a four-engine monoplane reconnaissance flying-boat, it was perhaps logical to adapt the new airliner to meet this requirement. The first prototype Short Sunderland was flown in October 1937 and was followed only eight months later by the first production Sunderland Mk I aircraft. By the outbreak of war four squadrons, No. 204 at Sullom Voe, No. 210 at Pembroke Dock, No. 228 returning to the UK from Egypt and No, 230 at Singapore, had been equipped with the Sunderland Mk I. The big 'boat was quickly in the news when, on 21 September 1939, two aircraft of Nos 204 and 228 Squadrons rescued the entire crew of the torpedoed merchantman Kensington Court. In January 1940 a U-boat scuttled itself on sighting an aircraft of No. 228 Squadron. Some 75 Sunderland Mk Is were 364
produced and went on to equip Nos 95, 201 and 270 Squadrons before the Sunderland Mk II with Pegasus XVIII radiais and ASV.Mk II radar was introduced at the end of 1941, a year which saw Sunderlands carrying to safety hundreds of British troops during the evacuation of Greece and Crete. A total of 55 Sunderland Mk Us were built by Short Bros and Blackburn, equipping Nos 119, 201, 202, 204, 228 and 230 Squadrons. The Sunderland Mk II introduced a new planing bottom to the hull, the less pronounced forward step giving better unstick characteristics; 407 of this version (including the Sunderland Mk IIIA with ASV.Mk III radar) were produced by the same two manufacturers and joined Nos 95, 119, 201, 202, 204, 228, 230, 246, 270, 330 and 343 Squadrons. Late in 1943 the final production version, the Sunderland Mk V with Pratt & Whitney engines and ASV.Mk Vic radar, started to appear; 143 examples of this version were produced, and by the end of the war Sunderlands equipped no fewer
than 28 RAF squadrons the world over. Very early in the war this fine aeroplane had earned the German nickname Stachelschwein (porcupine) on account of its ability to defend itself with its bristling machine-guns, and indeed the Sunderland gained an impressive war record, often having to engage U-boats on the surface (and sinking many of them), and being engaged by enemy fighters and other aircraft. Yet for all its spectacular achievements, the Sunderland's real contribution to the war at sea lay in the long, monotonous patrols far out over the oceans in company with the UK's shipping convoys, when the mere presence of the big 'boat was enough reason to discourage many a U-boat commander from launching an attack.
Specification Short Sunderland Mk V Type: 10-crew long-range maritime reconnaissance flying-boat Powerplant: four 1,200-hp (895-kW) Pratt & Whitney R-1830-90 Twin Wasp 14-cylinder air-cooled radiais Performance: maximum speed 349 km/h (213 mph) at 1525 m (5,000 ft); climb to 3660 m (12,000 ft) in 16.0 minutes; service ceiling 5445 m (17,900 ft); normal range 4765 km (2,960 miles) Weights: empty 16738 kg (36,900 lb); maximum take-off 27216 kg (60,000 lb) Dimensions: span 34.36 m (112 ft 9Vfe in); length 26.00 m (85 ft 3Vfe in); height 10.52 m (34 ft 6 in); wing area 138,14m2 (1,487 sq ft) Armament: two fixed forward-firing 7,7-mm(0,303-in) machine-guns, two 7,7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns each in bow and dorsal turrets, and four 7.7mm (0.303-in) in tail turret, plus a bombload of up to 2250 kg (4,960 lb) of bombs, mines or depth charges on retractable racks in hull sides
GERMANY
Blohm und Voss Bv 138 Originally conceived in 1934 as a verylong-range reconnaissance flyingboat, the Blohm und Voss Ha 138 VI prototype was first flown on 15 July 1937 as a shoulder gull-wing flyingboat with twin tail booms and three Jumo 205C engines. Directional stability and poor water handling characteristics in the prototype caused extensive redesign in the pre-production version, the Bv 138A-0, of which six were built with a considerably enlarged hull and an ungulled wing. The first 25 production Bv 138A-1 aircraft flew in April 1940, taking a limited part in the invasion of Norway, and entered general service in western France late that year. Considerable structural strengthening was found to be necessary and this was incorporated in the Bv 138B-1, 14 of which emerged from the production line in December, and seven more in 1941, powered by 880-hp (656-kW) Jumo 205D engines. A new turret was introduced mounting a single MG 151 20-mm cannon forward of the pilot's cockpit and another in the rear of the hull. The Bv 138Bs were very active in 1941, particularly those based in Norway after the sailing of the first North Cape convoys. Trouble had been experienced with the Bv 138B-l's engines and propellers, however, and an improved version, the Bv 138C-1, in which all the previous problems were eliminated, began appearing in March 1941; 227 of this version were built before production was terminated midway through 1943. In this model the centre Jumo 205D drove a four-blade propeller and provision was made for increased bombloads. The most successful exponents of the Bv 138C were probably the crews of K체stenfliegergruppe 406 based in northern Norway, this unit being responsible for much of the successful locating and shadowing of the North Cape convoys, particularly PQ 16 in April 1942. Some aircraft were equipped with FuG 200 Hohentwiel search radar for anti-shipping duties, while in the transport role the Bv 138 could carry up to 10 passengers. All versions could be fitted with two 500-kg (1,102-lb) thrust assisted take-off rockets, and a number of redundant Bv 138B-횤S, redesignated Bv 138MS, were fitted with a large durai hoop energized by an auxiliary generator for magnetic mine clearance with the Mmensuchsgruppe.
Specification Blohm und Voss Bv 138C-1 Type: five-crew long-range maritime reconnaissance flying-boat Powerplant: three 880-hp (656-kW) Junkers Jumo 205D 12-cylinder inline diesel engines Performance: maximum speed 285 km/h (177 mph) at 3000 m (9,845 ft); normal service ceiling 5000 m (16,405 ft); maximum range 4300 km (2,672 miles) Weights: empty 11780 kg (25,970 lb); maximum take-off 17670 kg (38,995 lb) Dimensions: span 26.94 m (88 ft 4 in); length 19.85 m (65 ft 1 Vz in); height 5.90 m(19 ft4!/4 in); wing area 112.00 m 2 (l,205,56 sg ft) Armament: one 20-mm MG 151 cannon each in bow and stern turrets, one 13mm(0,51-in)MG 131 machine-gun in open position aft of central engine, and one 7.92-mm (031 -m) MG 15 gun in
Wearing the customary splinter camouflage and yellow theatre bands, this Blohm und Voss Bvl38C-l served with 3(F) Staffel, Seeaufkl채rungsgruppe 125, based at Constanza, Bulgaria, in April 1943 for service over the Black Sea.
Nicknamed the Flying Clog (der fliegende Holschuh; -reflected in its unit badge - this Bv 138C-1/U1 ofl.(F)/SAGr 130 was based a t Trondheim, Norway, in April 1944 and sports a temporary win ter camouflage.
Blohm und Voss Bv 138 three-engine flying-boats replaced Dornier Do 18s of6/MSGr 1 (previously K체stenfliegergruppe 506), thisBvl38MS being based at Grossenbrode in the last year of the war.
hatch of starboard side of hull, plus up to four 150-kg (331-lb) depth charges or equivalent weight of bombs on six racks
The curious three-engined Blohm und Voss Bvl38C-l suffered lengthy development problems but eventually emerged as an effective
aircraft. It was chiefly employed in the Baltic and against the North Cape convoys to the Soviet Union. 365
GERMANY
Blohm und Voss Bv 222 Wiking Largest flying-boat to achieve production status during World War II, the six-engine Blohm und Voss Bv 222 Wiking was designed in 1936 to provide Deutsche Lufthansa with a 24passenger airliner for the North and South Atlantic routes, but it was not until 7 September 1940 that the first prototype Bv 222 VI was first flown by Flugkapitän Helmut Wasa Rodig. Flying characteristics were pronounced good and the first operation for the Luftwaffe was flown by a civilian crew between Hamburg and Kirkenes, Norway, on 10 July 1941. Usually escorted by a pair of Messerchmitt Bf 110 fighters the Bv 222 VI, with six Bramo Fafnir radiais, then started flying regular supply missions across the Mediterranean for German forces in North Africa. Several narrow escapes from Allied fighters emphasized the need for some defensive armament and the second and subseguent prototypes included a number of gun positions, while the Bv 222 VI was fitted with seven single 7.92-mm (0.31-in) and 13-mm (0.51-in) machineguns, and under each wing a gondola mounting a pair of the latter. The Bv 222 V3 featured gun turrets on top of the wing between the outboard engines, each with a 20-mm cannon, By March 1943 a total of seven transport prototypes had been completed, all with armament variations; all served with Lufttransportstaffel See 222 (LTS See 222) in the Mediterranean, three being lost (two shot down by fighters and one sunk after striking a buoy while landing at Athens). The remaining aircraft, the Bv 222 V2, Bv 222 V3, Bv 222 V4 and Bv 222 V5, were converted for maritime reconnaissance and served with Fliegerführer Atlantik, some with FuG 200 search radar; the Bv 222 V3 and Bv 222 V5 were destroyed at their moorings at Biscarosse by Allied fighters in June 1943, and another aircraft was shot down by an Avrò Lancaster over the Bay of Biscay in the following October. The Bv 222 V7 was the prototype
The fifth Blohm und VossBv222A-O was delivered to Lufttransportstaffel (See) 222 atPetsamo, Finland, in 1943 for transport duties over the northern sector of the Eastern Front. Note the over-wing gun turret. of the production version, the Bv 222C, of which five examples were completed with six 1,000-hp (746-kW) Junkers Jumo 205D or 207C diesel inlines and a total armament of three 20mm and five 13-mm (0.51-in) guns. Of these one was shot down by a British night-fighter near Biscarosse and another was hit by strafing Mustangs at Travemunde; the Bv 222 V2 was destroyed during the Allied reoccupation of Norway; two others were sunk by their crews at the end of the war, two were flown to the USA and one was ferried to the UK after the end of hostilities. Specification Blohm und Voss Bv 222C-0 Type: 11/14-crew long-range reconnaissance and transport flyingboat Powerplant: six 1,000-hp (746-kW) Junkers Jumo 207C 12-cylinder diesel inline engines Performance: maximum speed 390 km/h (242 mph) at 5000 m (16,405 ft); initial climb rate 144 m (472 ft) per minute; service ceiling 7300 m (23,950 ft); range 6100 km (3,790 miles) Weights: empty 30680 kg (67,367 lb); maximum take-off 50000 kg (108,026 lb)
GERMANY
DornierDo 18 Culmination of a series of successful pre-war flying-boats, which had begun as the Dornier Wai (whale) in the 1920s and progressed through the transatlantic mailplanes (the Monsun, Zyklon, Zephir, Pampero and Aeolus), the Dornier Do 18D was the first military adaptation of this attractive aeroplane. Powered by a pair of liquidcooled 600-hp (448-kW) Jumo 205C diesel inline engines mounted in tandem in a nacelle on the high-mounted wing, the Do 18D-1 and Do 18D-2 started appearing in 1938 and were operational in September that year, it becoming customary to equip the second Staffel on each of the Luftwaffe's Küstenfliegergruppen (coastal patrol groups) with the Do 18 (eg 2./ KüFlGr 306), the others usually flying Heinkel He 59 floatplanes. Armament of these aircraft comprised a single 7.92-mm (0.31-in) machine-gun in an open bow position and another in a midships position, In 1939 a more powerful version, the Do 18G-1 with a pair of 880-hp (656-kW) Jumo 205Ds, was introduced with a 13-mm (0.51-in) MG 131 heavy machine-gun in the open bow position and a poweroperated gun turret amidships mount366
Developed from the successful commercial mail-carrying flyingboats, the Dornier Do 18D entered Luftwaffe service in 1938. The aircraft shown served on 3.1 Küstenfliegergruppe 406 at List, Sylt, in August 1939. Note the open bow and midships gun positions.
ADornierDo 18C is hoisted from the water onto its servicing trolley; the nose and midships armament is clearly visible, as are the unusual tandem engine arrangement and stabilizing sponsons.
Dimensions: span 46,00 m (150 ft 11 in); length 37,00 m (121 ft 4% in); height 2 10.90 m (35 ft 9 in); wing area 255,00 m (2,745 sq ft) Armament: one 13-mm (0.51-in) machine-gun in bow position, one 20mm cannon each in forward dorsal turret and in two overwing turrets, and four 13-mm (0.51-in) machine-guns in cabin windows; in the transport role
The considerable size of the Blohm und Voss Bv 222 six-engined flyingboa t is eviden t from this photo of what is probably one of the prototypes. The struts on top and sides of the nose are the mountings for the FuG 200 search radar antennae. the Bv 222 could carry about 92 fullyarmed troops
ing a single 20-mm MG 151 cannon. At the beginning of World War II Do 18Gs were equipping KĂźstenfliegergruppen 106, 406 and 906. Indeed it was an aircraft of 2,/KuFlGr 106 that was the first German aircraft to fall to British guns on 26 September 1939; three Do 18s were shadowing British capital ships in the North Sea when they were attacked by nine Blackburn Skuas of No, 803 Squadron; one of the Dormers was forced down and, after its crew had been taken aboard a British destroyer, it was sunk by gunfire. A total of 49 Do 18Gs was produced during 1940, but manufacture was terminated in September that year after fewer than 100 aircraft, including 70 Do 18Gs, had been completed. During the Battle of France six Staffeln were flying Do 18s, but in June 1940 most were withdrawn for conversion to the Do 18H dualcontrol trainer and the Do 18N-1 airsea rescue versions. During the Battle of Britain only 2./KuFlGr 106 was still fully operational with the Do 18, the majority of work being confined to air-
TheDornierDo 18 entered service over the Mediterranean in 1941, performing air-sea rescue duties in the Malta-Sicily area. This Do 18G of 6. Seenotstaffel tea lures the midships gun turret of the la ter service versions. sea rescue in the English Channel. However, 3,/KuFlGr 906 returned to operations and continued to fly Do 18s over the North Sea until 1942, when the Do 18s were replaced by Blohm und Voss Bv 138s. Specification DornierDol8G-l Type: four-crew medium-range maritime reconnaissance flying-boat
Powerplant: two 880-hp (656-kW) Junkers Jumo 205D 12-cylinder liquidcooled diesel inline engines Performance: maximum speed 266 km/h (165 mph) at 2000 m (6,560 ft); climb to 1000 m (3,280 ft) in 7 minutes 48 seconds; service ceiling 4200 m (13,800 ft); maximum range 3500 km (2,175 miles) Weights: empty 5980 kg (13,180 lb); maximum take-off 10800 kg (23,810 lb)
Dimensions: span 23.70 m (77 ft 91A in); length 19.37 m (63 ft 7 in); height2 5.32 m (17 ft S'/a in); wing area 98.00 m ( 1,054,86 sq ft) Armament: one 13-mm(0.51-in)MG 131 machine-gun in bow position and one 20-mm MG 151 cannon in poweroperated turret amidships, plus provision for four 50-kg ( 110-lb) bombs
GERMANY
Dornier Do 24 Another graceful Dormer flying-boat was the Dornier Do 24, originally designed in 1936 to meet a Royal Netherlands naval air service requirement for a flying-boat to operate in the East Indies. The Do 24 was a large parasolwing monoplane with three engines on the wing and with Flossentummeln (sponsons) for stability on the water, The first flight by a prototype Do 24, powered by three 890-hp (664-kW) Wright R-1820 Cyclone radiais, was made on 3 July 1937, this aircraft being delivered to The Netherlands that year and followed by the export of 11 similar production aircraft designated Do 24K. Licence production by Aviolanda/de Scheide accounted for 25 further aircraft before the invasion by Germany of 10 May 1940; many of these Dutch aircraft subsequently saw service in the Pacific theatre and six eventually found their way into the Royal Australian Air Force. Meanwhile the aircraft that had been partly completed in The Netherlands were transferred to Germany, and under the designation Do 24N-1 were completed and issued to the Luftwaffe for air-sea rescue duties. Production in The Netherlands was resumed in 1941 under German supervision, 16 maritime reconnaissance/ transport derivatives (the Do 24T-1 and Do 24T-2) being completed that year. In 1942 the French seaplane m a n u f a c t u r e r , Chantiers AĂŠroMaritimes de la Seine (CAMS), then of course under German control, joined the Do 24T production programme and produced 46 examples to add to 154 from The Netherlands. Some of the French-built aircraft had not been completed at the time of the German retreat from France in 1944 and these were subsequently delivered to the French navy, whose Flottille 9F Tr was formed on 5 December that year to operate them. In Luftwaffe service the Do 24N served on three Staffeln of the Seenotgruppe (air-sea rescue group) at Berre, near Marseilles, and at Biscarosse. The 2. and 3./KG 200 (which flew Focke-Wulf Fw 200s on long distance maritime patrols) also flew a small number of Do 24Ns for rescue pur-
ADornierDo24 wearing the skull emblem of the 8.Seenotstaffel, SBKX11 operating in theBlackSea area during 1942. The Do 24 was especially suitable for the air-sea rescue role due to its unrivalled rough-water capabilities.
Con trary to wartime propaganda by the Allies, the Germans were scrupulous in omitting all armamen t from aircraft bearing Red Cross markings, as in this Dornier Do 24 flying-boa t employed in casualty evacuation and air-sea rescue. poses, as did the small semiautonomous ASR flights under command of the Seenotdientstfuhrer. Specification Dornier Do 24T-1 Type: five/six-crew maritime reconnaissance and transport flyingboat Powerplant: three l,000-hp(746-kW) BMW/Bramo Fafmr 323R-2 ninecylinder air-cooled radiais Performance: maximum speed 340 km/h (211 mph) at 2000 m (6,560 m); climb to 2000 m (6,560 ft) in 14 minutes 30 seconds; service ceiling 5900 m (19,355 ft); maximum range 4750 km (2,950 miles) Weights: empty 9100 kg (20,062 lb); maximum take-off 18400 kg (40,564 lb) Dimensions: span 27.00 m (87 ft 7 in); length 22.00 m (72 ft 4 in); height 5.75 m
(18 ft 10'/4 in); wing area 108.00 m2 (1,162,5 sq ft) Armament: one 7.92-mm (0,31 -in) MG 15 machine-gun each in bow and tail positions and one 20-mm MG 151 cannon in midships turret, plus provision to carry up to 12 50-kg ( 110lb) bombs
A Dornier Do 24, probably one of the Netherlands-built Do 24N-ls which were modified for service with the Luftwaffe and served with the Seenotstaffeln on air-sea rescue duties in the Mediterranean.
367
JAPAN
Kawanishi H6K Owing much to current American and French flying-boat design of the mid19303, the large four-engine Kawanishi Type 97 parasol monoplane flyingboat, which had first flown in July 1936, was Japan's only in-service long-range reconnaissance flying-boat when that nation went to war in December 1941, much effort having been dissipated in transport conversions and deliveries to Japan's commercial operators in the Pacific. The H6K1 initial military version entered limited service with the Imperial Japanese Navy in 1938, and was followed by 10 H6K2 flying-boats. The first major production version, the H6K4 was powered by four Mitsubishsi Kinsei 43 radiais and armed with four 7.7-mm (0.303-m) machine-guns in bow and midships positions and a 20mm cannon in a tail turret, and was capable of carrying two 800-kg (1,764Ib) bombs or torpedoes, a total of 66 being in service at the time of Pearl Harbor; later aircraft were powered by Kinsei 46 engines. These 'boats were widely employed, although the initial heavy defeats inflicted on the Allies in the Pacific rendered maritime reconnaissance duties subordinate to the need for air transportation of Japanese troops during the swift conquests in the East Indies and elsewhere. A number of aircraft, designated H6K4-L, were therefore converted for transport duties and were each able to accommodate about 18 fully-armed troops; lacking armour and self-sealing fuel tanks, however, they were extremely vulnerable to fighter attacks and, after a number had been shot down, a new version entered production as the H6K5 in August
1942; by that time the maritime reconnaissance version had been given the reporting codename 'Mavis' by the Allies, the transport derivative being named Tillie'. Powered by either Kinsei 51 or 53 radiais, the H6K5 was intended to eliminate the shortcomings of the earlier versions, but although the open bow gun position was replaced by a single-gun turret immediately aft of the pilot's cockpit, the overall armament was not increased. Only 36 H6K5s were completed by 1943, when production gave place to the greatly superior H8K, H6Ks served with the 8th, 14th, 801st, Toko and Yokohama Kokutais, and some of the H6K5s were employed as naval staff transports throughout the Pacific in 1943. Eighteen aircraft served on the quasicommercial courier services in South East Asia, a number of them being destroyed by Allied aircraft both in the air and at their moorings.
cooled radiais Performance: maximum speed 385 km/h (239 mph) at 6000 m (19,685 ft); climb to 5000 m (16,405 ft) in 13 minutes 24 seconds; service ceiling 9600 m (31,495 ft); maximum range 6775km(4,210miles) Weights: empty 12380 kg (27,293 lb); maximum take-off 23000 kg (50,705 lb) Dimensions: span 40.00 m ( 131 ft 23/4 in); length 25.63 m (84 ft 0% in); height 6,27 m (20 ft 6% in); wing area 170.00m2 (1,829.86 sq ft) Armament: four 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns in front and midships dorsal positions and two beam blisters, and one 20-mm cannon in tail, plus a bombload of up to 2000 kg (4,409 lb) or two 800-kcr ( 1,764-lb) torpedoes
Final production version of the graceful Kawanishi Navy Type 97 Flying Boat Modell wastheHGKS which, though highly vulnerable to modern Allied fighters over the Pacific, remained in service up to the end of the war.
to a run-down in production of flyingboats during 1945 in favour of fighters for home defence, and later versions of the H8K were accordingly abandoned. Nevertheless this excellent aircraft saw considerable service, being flown by the 14th, 801st, 851st, 1001st, 1021st, Takuma, Toko, Yokohama and Yokosuka Chinjufu Kokutais.
Weights: empty 18380 kg (40,521 lb); maximum take-off 32500 kg (71,650 lb) Dimensions: span38.00 m (14 ft 8 in); length 28.13 m (92 ft 3Vz in); height 2 9.15 m (30 f t O in); wing area 160.00 m (l,722sqft) Armament: single 20-mm cannon each in bow, dorsal and tail turrets and in two beam blisters, and four hand-held 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns in beam hatches, plus a bomb load of up to 2000 kg (4,409 lb) or two 800-kg (1,764-lb) torpedoes
A KawanishiH6K5Navy Type 97 flying-boat of the Imperial Japanese Navy; its midships gun blisters are essentially similar to those of the American Catalina PBY. Note the weapon racks under the wing struts.
Specification Kawanishi H6K5 Type: nine-crew maritime reconnaissance flying-boat Powerplant: four 1,300-hp (970-kW) Mitsubishi Kinsei 53 14-cylmder air-
Kawanishi H8K Although only 167 examples were produced, the large Kawanishi H8K was the most outstanding and advanced flying-boat to achieve production status during World War II. Designed to meet a requirement issued in 1938 for a four-engine maritime reconnaissance flying-boat superior in all respects to the British Short Sunderland, the H8K1 prototype was first flown in January 1941, but proved initially to possess very poor water handling qualities. Extensive modifications were made and after successfully completing its service trials the aircraft was ordered into production as the Navy Type 2 FlyingBoat Model 11, powered by four 1,530hp (1141-kW) Mitsubishsi Kasei 11 or 12 radiais. Armament of these early aircraft comprised two 20-mm cannon and four 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machineguns. With armour protection, selfsealing fuel tanks and a maximum speed of 433 km/h (269 mph), the new flying-boat indeed represented a considerable advance over the H6K. It carried out its first operational mission in March 1942 when two aircraft of the Yokohama Kokutai set out from Wotje Atoll in the Marshalls to bomb Oahu Island (Pearl Harbor), putting down at French Frigate Shoals to refuel from a submarine; however, arriving over the American base, the Japanese crews found heavy cloud and the raid was ineffective. Nevertheless as a longrange maritime reconnaissance aircraft, the H8K1 (codenamed 'Emily' by the Allies) with its 7200-km (4,475-mile) range heavy armament and good per368
formance proved a highly competent aircraft much respected by the Allies. The further-improved H8K2, with 1,850-hp (1380-kW) Kasei 22 radiais and armament increased to five 20-mm cannon and four 7.7-mm (0.303-m) machine-guns, of which 112 were built between 1943 and 1945, was unquestionably the toughest opponent faced by the Allies in the Pacific. It was also equipped with ASV radar, being responsible for the sinking of at least three American submarines in the area north of the Philippines during the last 18 months of the war. Additional to the maritime reconnaissance version, 36 H8K2-L 'boats were built in the last two years of the war, these being equipped as naval staff and troop transports capable of accommodating either 29 staff passengers or 64 fullyarmed troops. The progressively deteriorating war situation for Japan led
Specification Kawanishi H8K2 Type: 10-crew maritime reconnaissance bomber flying-boat Powerplant: four 1,850-hp (1380-kW) Mitsubishi Kasei 22 14-cylinder aircooled radiais Performance: maximum speed 467 km/h (290 mph) at 5000 m (16,405 ft); climb to 5000 m (16,405 ft) in 10 minutes 12 seconds; service ceiling 8760 m (28,740 ft); maximum range 7180 km (4,460 miles)
A captured Kawanishi H8K2 which had previously been flown by the 801st Kokutai over the Pacific and was la ter extensively evaluated by the US Navy. The aircraft's maximum range of 4,445 miles (7200 km) was impressive by any standards.
USA
Consolidated PB2YCoronado While pursuing a course of isolationism the United States had recognized during the mid-1930s the spectre of world war, the possibility of such a war being waged on the oceans bordering the North American continent encouraging interest by the US Navy in the evolution of large maritime reconnaissance bombers. On 27 July 1936 the Consolidated Aircraft Corporation was contracted to design and build such an aircraft. Designated Consolidated XPB2Y-1, the resulting design was a big four-engine shoulder-wing monoplane with single fin and rudder and retracting wing-tip stabilizing floats. First flown on 17 December 1937, the prototype disclosed serious directional instability in the air and much to be desired in handling on the water, and in due course the tail unit was redesigned to incorporate a pair of circular endplate fins and rudders. After trials with the US Navy six production PB2Y-2 aircraft were ordered and entered service with US Navy Patrol Squadron VP-13 on 31 December 1940. These aircraft, lacking armour and self-sealing fuel tanks, were largely confined to trials but a new version, the PB2Y-3, of which 210 were produced, started delivery in 1941 with .907-kg (2,000 lb) of armour plate as well as self-sealing fuel tanks; they also featured enlarged 'zulĂš shield' fins and rudders that were a characteristic of the Consolidated B-24 Liberator bomber. Ten of these aircraft were transferred to the Royal Air Force whose Transport Command flew them as Consolidated Coronado Mk I freighters on a North Atlantic service with No. 231 Squadron. An American transport version was designated PB2Y-3R, 31 examples being converted to accommodate up to 45 passengers or a 7258-kg (16,000-lb) freight load. For relatively low altitude work some PB2Y3s were re-engined with R-1830-92s for
The ConsolidatedPB2Y-3 Coronado en tered service la te in the war with increased armament, armour and self-sealing fuel tanks; its bomb bays were located in the relatively thick wing roots. oversea patrol work below 3050 m (10,000 ft) under the designation PB2Y5, and an ambulance version which served in the Pacific as the PB2Y-5R. Other distinctive features of the PB2Y3 and PB2Y-5 versions included the rearward extension of the rear hull chine to improve water stability and handling. In the event the Coronado was not widely used in the maritime reconnaissance role as preference grew for use of land-based aircraft such as the Consolidated PB4Y-1 which required no specialist training in water operation, while the excellent Consolidated PBY Catalina remained unequalled for long distance ocean reconnaissance. Specification Consolidated PB2Y-3 Type: 10-crew maritime reconnaissance bomber flying-boat Powerplant: four 1,200-hp (895-kW) Pratt & Whitney R-1830-88 Twin Wasp
14-cylinder air-cooled radiais Performance: maximum speed 359 km/h (223 mph) at 6095 m (20,000 ft); initial climb rate 174 m (570 ft) per minute; service ceiling 6250 m (20,500 ft); maximum range 3815 km (2,370 miles) Weights: empty 18568 kg (40,935 lb); maximum take-off 30845 kg (68,000 lb) Dimensions: span 35.05 m (115 ft 0 in); length 24,20 m (79 ft 3 in); height 8.38 m (27 ft 6 in); wing area 175.4 n/ (1,780 sq ft) Armament: twin 12.7-mm(0.5-in) machine-guns each in bow, dorsal and
The big Consolida ted PB2Y Coronado four-engined flying-boat, seen here with ASVradome above the cockpit, featured retractable wingtip floats like those of its forebear, the Catalina. tail turrets, and two 12.7-mm(0.5-in) guns in beam hatches, plus a bombload of up to eight 454-kg ( 1,000Ib) bombs internally and four 454-kg ( 1,000-lb) bombs or two torpedoes externally; transport version furnished to carry up to 45 passengers
USA
Martin PBM Mariner Stung to competition by the success of the PBY Catalina from Consolidated, the US Navy's other great flying boat manufacturer came up with a twinengine shoulder-wing monoplane boat, the Martin Model 162, in 1937. Featuring a deep hull and twin fins and rudders, the prototype XPBM-1 was first flown on 18 February 1939 with 1,600-hp (1194-kW) Wright Cyclone R2600-6 radiais mounted at the crank of the gull wing so that the propellers were clear of the spray, Twenty PBM-1 aircraft had been ordered for the US Navy before the end of 1937 and these entered service with Patrol Squadron VP-74 during 1941. Further orders for 379 PBM-3 Mariner aircraft were placed in 1940, these and all later aircraft having'the underwing stabilizing floats fixed instead of being retractable as in the earlier aircraft; the engine nacelles were also lengthened to accommodate a 907-kg (2,000-lb) load of ordnance. Variants included 50 unarmed PBM-3R transports with accommodation for up to 20 passengers, 274 PBM-3C aircraft with standardized American/British equipment and 201 PBM-3D 'boats with R-2600-22 engines, and improved armament and armour. Many of the PBM-3Cs and PBM-3Ds were equipped with ASV search radar in a large fairing over the cockpit and,
Representing a later generation of maritime patrol flying-boats than thePBY Catalina, the Martin PBM Mariner nevertheless never achieved the widespread popularity and use of its predecessor. The aircraft shown here served with US Navy Patrol Squadron VP-74 in 1942.
following initial experience with these aircraft, a new, specialized long-range anti-submarine version, the PBM-3S, appeared in 1944; 156 were built. The PBM-5, of which 631 were completed, was the last version of the Mariner to be produced during the war, being delivered to the US Navy from August 1944 onwards; this featured an armament of eight 1 2 . 7 - m m ( 0 , 5 - i n ) machine-guns and AN/APS-IS search radar, Five examples of the PBM-3B were delivered to the RAF under Lend-Lease and were flown as Marine GR.Mk I aircraft for a short period at the end of 1943 by No, 524 Squadron of Coastal Command at Oban, this squadron being formed to evaluate the aircraft in service, but it was not adopted.
Most of the PBM's service was in the Pacific theatre, and from 1943 onwards was widely deployed, being constantly engaged in searching for and shadowing elements of the declining Japanese navy, although many came to be used on air-sea rescue duties as long-range land-based aircraft gradually assumed a greater share of the maritime reconnaissance role.
Specification
Martin PBM-3D Type: seven/nine-crew maritime reconnaissance flying-boat Powerplant: two l,900-hp(1417-kW) Wright R-2600-22 Cyclone 14-cylmder
air-cooled radiais Performance: maximum speed 340 km/h (211 mph) at 4875 m (16,000 ft); climb to 3050 m (10,000 ft) in 22 minutes 12 seconds; service ceiling 6035 m (19,800 ft); range 3605 km (2,240 miles) Weights: empty 15048 kg (33,175 lb); maximum take-off 26309 kg (58,000 lb) Dimensions: span 35.97 m (118 ft 0 in); length 24.33 m (79 ft 10 in); height 2 8.38 m (27 ft 6 in); wing area 130,80 m ( 1,408 sq ft) Armament: twin 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns each in bow, dorsal and tail turrets, and one 12.7-mm(0.5-m) machine-gun in each of two beam hatches, plus a bombload of up to 3629 kg (8,000 lb) 369
USA
Consolidated PBY Catalina Outstanding among parasol monoplane flying-boats, Isaac Laddon's Consolidated PBY was originally ordered by the US Navy as far back as October 1933, and was first flown with a pair of 825-hp (615-kW) Pratt & Whitney R-1830-58 radiais on 28 March 1935. Among its distinctive features were the stabilizing floats which, when retracted, formed the wing tips. Production orders followed quickly and the PBY-1 entered service with more powerful R-1830-64 engines with Patrol Squadron VP-HF in October 1936, The next year the modified PBY-2 joined the US Navy, followed by the PBY-3 with 1,000-hp (746-kW) engines. The PBY-4, which appeared in 1938, featured the large midships 'blister' gun positions that were to become a well-known characteristic of the Catalina, as the boat came to be named. The outbreak of World War II brought orders from the UK, Australia, Canada and the Dutch East Indies for a new version, the PBY-5 with 1,200-hp (895kW) R-1830-92 radiais, and by the date of the USA's entry into the war the US Navy possessed 16 PBY-5 squadrons, three of PBY-3s and two of PBY-4s. Following tests with a retractable tricycle wheel landing gear in last PBY-4, the final 33 US Navy PBY-5s were completed in this amphibian form, as were 761 PBY-5A aircraft. Following early successful use of the PBY-5 by the RAF's Coastal Command in 1941 as the Catalina Mk I, large orders continued to be placed for the US Navy, additional production being undertaken by Canadian Vickers and Boeing of Canada. A total of more than 500 examples eventually served with the RAF alone, while in Canadian service the PBY-5 was named the Canso. Another version, the PBN-1, was produced by the Naval Aircraft Factory with taller fin and rudder, and 138 of the 156 built were supplied to the USSR; 235 PBY6A amphibians with search radar mounted over the cockpit were built, of which 112 were delivered to the US Navy, 75 to the USAAF (as the OA-10B) and 48 to the USSR, Production of this classic aeroplane, which ended in April 1945, included 2,398 by Consolidated and 892 by NAF and the Canadian manufacturers, plus an unknown number built in the Soviet Union under the designation GST. Among the Catalina's memorable achievements were the successful shadowing of the German battleship Bismarck which led ultimately to the warship's destruction, and the magnificent trailing of the Japanese fleets in the early stages of so many of the great naval battles in the Pacific.
Specification
Consolidated PBY-5A Type: seven/nine-crew maritime reconnaissance flying-boat amphibian Powerplant: two 1,200-hp (895-kW) Pratt & Whitney R-1830-92 Twin Wasp 14-cylinder air-cooled radiais Performance: maximum speed 288 km/h(179 mph)at2135 m(7,000 ft); climb to 3050 m (10,000 ft) in 19 minutes 18 seconds; service ceiling 4480 m (14,700 ft); maximum range 4095 km (2,545 miles) Weights: empty 9485 kg (20,910 lb); maximum take-off 16067 kg (35,420 lb) Dimensions: span 31.70 m (104 ft 0 in); length 19.45 m (63 ft lOVa in); height 2 6,15 m (20 ft 2 in); wing area 130.06 m (l,400sqft) 370
Shown here in US Navy colours and markings, the Consolidated PBY-5 included retractable tricycle landing gear which considerably increased its operational flexibility and allowed on-land maintenance while retaining its water-borne capability for operations over the Pacific.
An ASV-equipped Consolidated Catalina IVA (PBY-5A) of RAF Coastal Command. Although generally regarded as under-powered, the 'Cat'gave magnificen t service with the RAF, its very long endurance bestowing a capability to cover huge areas of ocean.
Armament: two 12.7-mm(0.5-in) machine-guns in bow turret, one 12.7mm (0,5-in) gun in each beam blister, and one 7.62-mm (0.3-in) machine-gun in ventral tunnel, plus a bombload of up to 1814 kg(4,000 lb)ofbombs, mines or depth charges, or two torpedoes
Above: An early Catalina of an RAF Coastal Command training unit. The Catalina is armed with four depth charges for an opera tional sortie.
Below: Catalina MklB (PBY-5B) in RAF service. The extensive radar aerial arrays on fuselage and wings were fitted by Scottish A via tion or Saunders Roe after delivery from the American factory. Note the retractable wingtip floats.
ITALY
Cant Z.501 Gabbiano The Cant Z.501 Gabbiano (gull) light reconnaissance flying-boat was serving in fairly large numbers with the Regia Aeronautica when Italy entered World War II in June 1940. Designed by Filippo Zappata in the early 1930s, the prototype was first flown in 1934 at Monfalcone, Trieste, and later in that year established a new world seaplane distance record of 4120km (2,560 miles) with a nonstop flight from Monfalcone to Massawa in Eritrea. In July the following year the Gabbiano raised the record to 4957km (3,080 miles) by flying from Monfalcone to Berbera in Somaliland. The Z.501 entered production in 1935 and the first deliveries were made to the maritime reconnaissance squadrons (squadriglie da ricognizione marittima] of the Regia Aeronautica the following year. Of all-wood construction with fabric-covered control surfaces, the Z.501 was a parasol monoplane with its single Isotta Fraschim 12-cylinder liquid-cooled inline engine with semi-annular cowling in a long nacelle on the wing above the fuselage. A curious feature was the location of an enclosed gun position with single 7.7-mm (0.303-in) BredaSAFAT machine-gun in this nacelle; early production aircraft were also armed with single machine-guns in part-enclosed bow and midships positions; later aircraft had the bow gun removed and the observer's cockpit in the bows fully enclosed. Bomb shackles were fitted at the intersection of the wing and float struts and these were capable of carrying up to four 160-kg (353-lb) or two 250-kg (551-lb) bombs. The planing bottom of the hull was also of unusual design being of concave section. In June 1940 202 Cant Z.SOls were in service with the Regia Aeronautica, flying patrols along the Adriatic coasts as well as in the central Mediterra-
Despite its archaic appearance, theCantZ.501 Gabbiano gave long service in the Mediterranean, the example shown here serving with the 2° Escuadrilla, CrupoNo. 62, Agrupacion Espagnola (the Spanish Na tionalist Air Force) at Majorca in 1939. nean, where they performed air-sea rescue and other short-range maritime duties. More than 40 known instances are on record of encounters with Allied aircraft and many were shot down, although they were also involved in the rescue of several ditched RAF aircrews. After the armistice with Italy in September 1943 19 Cant Z.50 Is continued to serve in the Italian CoBelligerent Air Force, while others went on flying with the Aviazione della RSI, Specification Cant Z.501 Gabbiano Type: four/five-crew light reconnaissance flying-boat Powerplant: one 900-hp (671 -kW) Isotta Fraschini Asso XIR2C, 15 12cylinder liquid-cooled inline engine Performance: maximum speed 275 km/h 171 mph at 2500 m (8,200 ft); climb to 4000 m (13,125 ft) in 16 minutes; service ceiling 7000 m (22,965 ft); maximum range 2400 km (1,490 miles) Weights: empty 3850 kg (8,488 lb); maximum take-off 7050 kg (15,342 lb) Dimensions: span 22,50 m (73 ft 9% in);
length 14,30 m (46 ft 11 in); height 4,40 m ( 14 ft 6 in) ; wing area 62.00 m2 (667,36 sq ft) Armament: single 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-gun each in of bow, engine nacelle and dorsal positions, plus a bombload of up to 640 kg ( 1,411 lb)
A Cant Z.501 flying-boat at its moorings atPreveza on the West Coast of Greece, during a low level attack by two RAF Beau fighters. The Z.501 was a useful maritime reconnaissance tool, not least because o fits long range.
to eight passengers; a pre-war commercial example had established a number of world altitude records for women pilots, and one of these records remained intact for more than 20 years.
The Beriev MBR-2 was a short range flying-boat and had its inline engine mounted above the wings, driving a pusher propeller. This Soviet navy example carries an unusual winter camouflage scheme.
Specification MBR-2bis Type: four/five-crew short-range reconnaissance flying-boat Powerplant: one 860-hp (642-kW) AM34NB 12-cylinder liquid-cooled inline engine Performance: maximum speed 248 km/h (154 mph) at 2000 m (6,560 ft); service ceiling6000 m (19,685 ft); maximum range 1400 km (870 miles)
Weight: maximum take-off 4245 kg (9,359 lb) Dimensions: span 19,00 m (62 ft 4 in); length 13.50 m (44 ft 3% in); wing area 55.00m2 (592 sq ft) Armament: one hand-held 7.62-mm (0.3-in) machine-gun in open bow position and one 7.62-mm (0.3-in) gun in midships dorsal turret, plus up to 300 kg (661 lb) of bombs, mines or depth charges on underwing racks
USSB
BerievBe-2(MBR-2) Never seriously countenancing the possibility of being involved in all-out maritime warfare with a major nation, the Soviet Union accorded low priority to military flying-boats in the 1930s within an air force which in most respects lagged behind other nations in modern technology. Only the designs of G, M, Beriev had attracted any significant attention and these, together with his later designs, constituted almost the only flying-boats flown by the VVS-VMF during World War II. The MBR-2 (later redesignated Beriev Be-2) was first flown back in 1931 and was then considered to be modern by the current international standards, It was a small single-engine monoplane with wooden hull and strictly tailored to the needs of coastal units in the Baltic and Black Seas, though it could also be operated with skis or wheel landing gear. The outbreak of World War II triggered hurried efforts to develop a new version, the MBR-2bis, which was powered by an 860-hp (642-kW) AM-34 engine in place of the earlier 680-hp (507-kW) M-17 engine; increased fuel tankage raised the range from 960 km (597 miles) to 1400 km (870 miles); for the purposes of maritime reconnaissance over the confined waters of the Baltic and Black Seas, as well as the northern
Arctic seaboard, the new version was seen as an ideal interim aircraft pending the arrival in service of substantial numbers of the MDR-6 (Be-4), and in 1942 about 1,500 aircraft were delivered to the VVS-VMF. Being thus the most widely-used Soviet short-range 'boat in the first Ihree years of the war one of its principal tasks was the sea rescue of downed airmen although, with only token defensive armament and no performance worth mention, the MBR-2 fell easy prey to the massively superior aircraft of the Luftwaffe during that period. Away from such depredations another version, designated the MP-1, was employed as a transport with accommodation for up
371
Allied and Axis Seaplanes Seaplanes served in a wide variety of roles in all major theatres of war. A Japanese floatplane launched from a submarine dropped the only bombs to hit the US mainland; more significantly, seaplanes reconnoitred for many German commerce raiders, including Bismarck and Atlantis, and directed their long-range naval gunfire.
A German seaplane, the Arado A 196, about to leave the ship Prinz Eugen. Used to mount sea patrols and intercept Allied ASW missions, they also facilitated ship-to-shore communications. T\ cgardecl with hindsight as J-Vsomething of an anachronism, the float seaplane was flown with varying success by all the major powers during World War II, performing all manner of tasks from active combat to clandestine roles such as delivering agents to hostile coastlines. Of all the major warring nations, however, the UK employed this type 372
of aircraft least and was the first to discard it, most of its usual duties being more conveniently performed by carrierborne aircraft, flying-boats or even longrange land-based aircraft. Indeed in the Royal Navy the Swordfish and Fairey Seafox seaplanes survived in service only in the traditional role of gunnery spotting with cruisers and capital ships
until superseded for ever by the advent of radar relatively early in the war. It was perhaps ironic that four other seaplanes, the German Heinkel He 115, the French Latecoere 298, and the American Vought Kingfisher and Northrop N-3PB Nomad, gave more extensive service with the British forces than did the indigenous types. The great maritime powers,
the UK, the USA and Japan, all employed floatplanes aboard their capital ships, as did Germany and Italy, the use of these planes being mainly confined to limited sea patrols and ship-to-shore communications. However, whereas all-out efforts were made by the UK and the USA to bridge the Atlantic with flying-boats and long-range land-based aircraft to counter the depredations of enemy surface raiders and submarines, the Pacific's vast expanse encouraged widespread use of floatplanes, particularly by the Japanese; indeed the only bombs dropped by aeroplanes on the USA during the war were two light bombs from a Yokosuka E14Y1 carried by a Japanese submarine to within range of the American mainland. The US Navy was equipped with a variety of floatplanes, including the Curtiss SOC Seagull and Grumman J2F Duck biplanes and the Curtiss SO3C, SC-1 Seahawk and Vought OS2U Kingfisher monoplanes. Of all these the venerable Seagull probably enjoyed the most illustrious service career, being present in the actions at Guadalcanal, Wake, Gilbert and Marshall Islands, and also serving aboard American warships in the Atlantic and Mediterranean until 1944.
FRANCE
Latécoère 298 Most widely used of a dozen French floatplane types that were in service in 1939, the Latécoère 298 saw considerable action during the Battle of France the following year. Of all-metal construction, this robust twin-float aircraft was intended for service with the seaplane carrier Commandant Teste and made its maiden flight on 8 May 1936, and by the beginning of World War II a total of 81 aircraft had been ordered, of which 53 had been delivered. Most aircraft (Late 298A machines with fixed wings) were serving with Escadrilles TI at Berre and T2 at Cherbourg, while about 17 Late 298B and Late 298D aircraft with folding wings and fixed wings respectively, were with Escadrilles HB 1 and HB 2 aboard the Commandant Teste. Another 65 Late 298s were ordered on 22 November, a further escadrille, T3, having been formed on 15 September; T4 was to be formed on 15 January. When the German attack in the West opened on 10 May 1940 the French navy possessed some 60 Late 298s in front-line service; all were now shore-based as the Commandant Teste had been relegated to other duties, roughly half the force being based on the Channel Coast and the remainder in the Mediterranean. In the early stages of the Battle of France the Late 298s were flown as cover for the Allied occupation of Walcheren, but were forced to evacuate Boulogne on 21 May, thereafter engaging in dive and level bombing attacks on the advancing German columns; on 23 May 18 of the seaplanes dive-bombed a number of key bridges in northern
France with 500-kg (1,102-lb) bombs, losing four aircraft to enemy fire. Losses began to mount so that by 3 June the number of serviceable Late 298s stood at 27, and it was deemed prudent to confine their attacks to night sorties, although a daylight attack was carried out by Late 298s of T2 against enemy columns near Abbeville on 6 June. Seven other aircraft were lost before the armistice but about 30 aircraft (including the survivors of T2) made their way to Lac d'Oubeira in Algeria. Production was reinstated in 1942 by the Vichy government, some 30 Late 298F aircraft (similar to the Late 298D) being built. Units of the Vichy air force in North Africa continued to fly the Late 298s throughout 1942-3, and at least two
escadrilles flew alongside the RAF in the Mediterranean until 1944 when French forces once more regained their autonomous identities.
Specification Latécoère 298D Type: two/three-seat torpedo-bomber and bomber floatplane Powerplant: one 656-kW (880-hp) Hispano-Smza 12Ycrs-l inline piston engine Performance: maximum speed 290 km/h (180 mph) at 2000 m (6,560 ft); climb to 1500 m (4,920 ft) in 5 minutes 42 seconds; service ceiling 6500 m (21,325 ft); range with maximum warload 800 km (497 miles) Weights: empty 3071 kg (6,770 lb);
A Latécoère 298 of the Vichy French air force passes a German Dornier Do 24 on the Aegean coast. Themost widely-used French floatplane in 1940, La té 298s were also flown by two escadrilles of the Free French. maximum take-off 4800 kg (10,582 lb) Dimensions: span 15,50 m (50 ft 10.2 in); length 12.56 m (41 ft 2.5 in); height25.23 m (17 ft 1.9 in); wingarea 31,6m (340.15 sg ft) Armament: two fixed forward-firing 7.5-mm (0.295-in) machine-guns in the wings and one 7.5-mm (0.295-in) trainable machine-gun in the rear cockpit, plus 500 kg (1,102 lb) of bombs or one 670-kg ( 1,477-lb) torpedo, or depth charge
ITALY
Cant Z.506B Airone Largest float seaplane to give widespread operational service during World War II (although arguably the convertible Junkers Ju 52/3mW might lay claim to this achievement), the Italian Cant Z.506B Airone (heron) threeengine twin-float reconnaissance bomber was developed from the commercial Z.506A in 1936, production of the military aircraft starting the following year with a batch of 32 aircraft (Sene I) and differing from the earlier aircraft in featuring a long ventral gondola accommodating bomb bay, bomb-aimer's station and a rear ventral gun position; a semi-retractable gun turret was also added. The early Z.506B aircraft were evaluated with the Aviazione Legionaria in Spain during 1939, 30 other aircraft having also been ordered by the Polish naval wing (in the event only one of the latter had arrived in Poland when the Germans invaded in September, and the remaining aircraft were taken on charge by Italy's Regia Marina), By the date of Italy's entry into the war in June 1940 the Z.506B was in full production, 95 aircraft having been completed by the parent company. Most of these were serving with the 31° and 35° Stormi Bombardamento Marittimo at Elmas and Brindisi respectively; these units were fairly heavily engaged during the campaign in Greece, although they seldom operated when likely to be opposed by RAF fighters. They participated in the capture of Corfu, Cefaloma and Zante, and attempted to shadow British naval forces after the Battle of Cape Matapan
but sheered away when faced by Fleet Air Arm Fairey Fulmar fighters. Thereafter the Airone was almost entirely withdrawn from use as a bomber and torpedo attack aircraft, the Italian navy calling for its greater use in maritime reconnaissance, air-sea rescue, convoy escort and anti-submarine patrol roles: such had been the shift in naval superiority in the Mediterranean following the debacle at Taranto and the Battle of Cape Matapan. Development and production of the Airone continued, with small modifications being introduced with each new production batch (serie), of which Serie XII was the most important, A special air-sea rescue conversion was the Z.506S (Soccorso), this version being also used in small numbers by
the Luftwaffe. After the Italian surrender 23 Z.506B and five Z.506S aircraft were flown to Allied ports and subsequently flew with the Co-Belligerent Air Force's Raggruppamento Idro, performing transport and other second-line tasks. Specification Cant Z.506B Serie XII Type: five-seat bomber and torpedobomber floatplane Powerplant: three 559-kW (750-hp) Alfa-Romeo 126RC. 34 radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 350 km/h (217 mph) at 4000 m (13,125 ft); climb to 4000 m (13,125 ft) in 20 minutes 6 seconds; service ceiling 7000 m (22,965 ft); range 2000 km
(1,243 miles) Weights: empty 8750 kg (19,290 lb); maximum take-off 12705 kg (28,010 lb) Dimensions: span 26.50 m (86 ft 11.3 in); length 19.24 m (63 ft 1.5 in); height7.45 m(24 ft 5.3 in); wingarea 86.26m 2 (928.53 sg ft) Armament: one 12,7-mm (0.5-in) trainable machine-gun in the dorsal position, and three 7.7-mm (0,303-in) trainable machine-guns in the two beam and one ventral positions, plus a bombload of 1200 kg (2,646 lb) or one 800-kg ( 1,764-lb) torpedo The largest opera tional floa tplane of the war was the CantZ.506, an example of which was forced down at Mon dello beach, Sicily, in November, 1943.
GERMANY
Arado Ar 196 Although the attractive Arado Ar 196 twin-float seaplane was frequently encountered by Allied aircraft around the coasts of Europe during World War II, it had originally been developed to replace the Heinkel He 60 float biplane aboard Germany's larger warships whose construction was advancing apace during the late 1930s. Of all-metal structure with metal and fabric covering, the Ar 196 was by all accounts an extremely pleasant aeroplane to fly, the crew being afforded excellent fields of view. After first flights by the four prototypes in 1938 (of which one featured a single central float and small underwing outrigger floats), the first service deliveries of the Ar 196A-1 were made in July 1939, in time to embark examples in the pocket battleships Deutschland and Admiral GrafSpee before they sailed for their war stations in August. During the following six weeks 18 Ar 196s were embarked in the battlecruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, the pocket battleship Admiral Scheer, the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper at Kiel and the light cruisers Emden, Köln, Königsberg, Leipzig and Nürnberg at Wilhelmshaven, The Deutschland made constant use of her aircraft during her early foray into the Atlantic (which resulted in the sinking of nine merchantmen), as did the Scharnhorst and Gneisenau during their sortie northwards late in November, but the GrafSpee did not attempt to launch her aircraft during the Battle of the River Plate because of the difficulty of its recovery during the chase by the British cruisers; in any case her guns were apparently adequately served by radar. During the pursuit of the battleship Bismarck in May 1941, which led ultimately to her destruction, at least two Ar 196s were launched in attempts to prevent RAF Consolidated Catalinas from shadowing the warship. In 1940 the Ar 196A entered service
with Luftwaffe coastal units throughout northern Europe, and an aircraft of Küstenfliegergruppe 706 attacked and damaged the submarine HMS Seal in the Kattegat, leading to the boat's capture by the Germans. Although several Ar 196s were shot down by the RAF during the Battle of Britain, most losses were attributable to storms at their anchorages. In 1941-2, flown from French bases, they were used to intercept RAF Coastal Command antisubmarine patrols over the Bay of Biscay, their pilots claiming more than a dozen victories. Total production amounted to 593 aircraft. Specification Arado Ar 196A-3 Type: two-seat shipborne and coastal patrol floatplane Powerplant: one 723-kW (970-hp) BMW 132K radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 310 km/h (193 mph) at 4000 m (13,125 ft); climb to 3000 m (9,845 ft) in 8 minutes 42 seconds; service ceiling 7020 m (23,030 ft); range 1070 km (665 miles) Weights: empty 2335 kg (5,148 lb); maximum take-off 3303 kg (7,282 lb) Dimensions: span 12.40 m (40 ft 8.2 in); length 11.00 m (36 ft 1.1 in); height 2 4.45 m (14 ft 7.2 in); wing area 28.3 m (304.62 sq ft) Armament: two fixed forward-firing 20-mm cannon and one fixed forwardfiring 7.92-mm (0.31 -in) machine-gun, and two 7.92-mm (0,31 -in) trainable machine-guns in the rear cockpit, plus provision for two 50-kg ( 110-lb) bombs under the wings Arado Ar 196s were embarked on several of Germany's major warships, including the 'Scharnhorst', 'Deutschland'and 'Hipper'classes. This example is embarked on the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper.
Designed to replace the Heinkel He 60 floa tplane aboard German warships, the Arado Ar 196 was pressed into service with Luftwaffe coastal units in 1940. Flying from French bases during 1941 andi 942, they in tercepted ASW pa trois mounted by RAF Coastal Command and claimed over a dozen victories.
Arado Ar 196A-3 cutaway drawing key 1 Spinner 2 Propellerhub 3 Starboard fuselage fixed 7.9-mm MG 17 gun port 4 Schwarz adjustable-pitch three-blade propeller 6 Cylinder head fairings 7 BMW 132K nine-cylinder air cooled radial engine 8 Cowling panel frame 9 Quick-release catch 10 Cowling flaps 11 Engine lower bearers 12 Handholds 13 Engine accessories 14 Airlouvre 15 Firewall bulkhead frame 16 Oil tank 17 Starboard MG 7 trough 18 Fuselage frame/engine support attachment 19 Engine upper bearers 20 Forward fuselage decking 21 Starboard wing skinning 22 Leading-edge rib stations 23 Starboard outer rib 24 Starboard navigation light 25 Starboard wingtip 26 Starbord aileron 27 Aileron mass balance 28 Underwing access panel 29 Aileron control linkage 30 Windscreen 31 Instrument panel 32 Forward fuselage upper frame 33 Sea rudder lever 34 Handhold
35 Sea equipment locker(inc drag-line and anchor/ heaving-line) 36 Rudderpedalassembly 37 Seat support frame 38 Entry footstep 39 Seatadjustment handwheel 40 Armrestand seat harness 41 Control column 42 Pilot's seat 43 Sliding canopy 44 Rear-view mirror 45 Aerial mast 46 (Starboard) wing fold position 47 Pilot's headrest
48 49 50 51 52
Support frame Canopy aft section Aft canopy lock/release First-aid kit Observer/gunner's sliding seat 53 Entry footstep 54 Flare cartridge stowage
Left: An Arado Ar 196A-3oflJ BordHiegergruppe 196, based on the Lofoten Islands in February 1944. A pleasant machine to fly, the Ar 196 afforded excellent fields of vision and achieved considerable success. One aircraft ofKĂźstenfliegergruppe 706 crippled the submarine HMS Seal, leading to the boat's capture by the Germans.
Right:Arados were exported to two of Germany's Balkan allies; this aircraft belongs to Romanian Escadrilla 102, operating from the Black Sea port of Odessa in 1943. Others served with the Royal Bulgarian air force's 161st Coastal Squadron, based at Varna.
55 Charitable 56 Radioequipment 57 Fuselage frame/aft spar attachment
58 Wingrootfillet 59 Obsever's sliding seat port runner 60 Ammunition box 61 Dorsal gun swivel mounting 62 Wind deflector plate 63 Ammunition feed
64 Ring sight 65 Twin7.9-mmMG81Z flexible machine-guns 66 Flare bomb stowage 67 Gun support bracket 68 Fuselage aft frame 69 Mastercompassaccess 70 Fuselage skinning 71 Stringers
72 Elevatorcontrol cable linkage 73 Rudder controls 74 Tailfin/fuselage support/ attachment bracket 75 Tailfin root fillet 76 Starboard tailplane section 77 Elevator mass balance 78 Starboard elevator section
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97
Rudder upper hinge Rudder frame Rudder post Ruddertab Elevator tab Tab hinge Elevatorframe Elevator mass balance Tailplane structure Elevatorattachment Ruddercontrol linkage Tailplane attachment Elevator cable/rod link
98 99 100 101 102
Tie-down lug Catapult attachment Control leads MG 81Z counterbalance Wing attachment strengthening plate 103 Wing fold line 104 Gun charging cylinder
105 Ammunition drum (60 rounds) 106 Port wing fixed 20-mmMG FF cannon 107 Cannon aft mounting bracket 108 Cartridge collector box 109 Cannon barrel support sleeve 110 Watertight muzzle cap Forward spar attachment 112 Float forward strut/ fuselage attachment 113 Tubularstrutfairing 114 InnerVee-strut 115 Cross-brace struts 116 Entry steps 117 Exhust outlet 118 Oil cooler intake 119 Strut/float attachment cover 120 Starboard fuel cell (66 Imp al/300 litre capacity) 121 Starboard float 122 Upperstrake 123 Handholds 124 Port float 125 Sidestrake 126 Portfuelcell(66lmpgl/300 litre capacity)
127 Vent pipe 128 Filleraccesscap 129 Strut/float forward attachment 130 Fuel lines (feed and return) 131 Float cross-bracing 132 Strut cross-bracing 133 Smoke canister (port and starboard floats)
136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 I 53 154
Float step Emergency stowage bin (inc. flares/emergency rations) Sea rudder cable links Strut/float aft attachment Strut attachment shoe Fuselage aft strut Wing brace aft strut Wing front spar Wing rib stations Rear spar Starboard sea rudder Port flap Aileron tab Handholds Sea rudder cable runs Sea rudder control linkage Port sea rudder Port aileron Port outer rib Portwingtip Port navigation light
375
NETHERLANDS
Fokker T.VIIIDesigned in 1937 to replace ageing reconnaissance/torpedo-bomber biplanes in service with the Dutch Marine Luchtvaardienst (MLD), the twin-engine twin-float Fokker T.VIIIW seaplane was of mixed wood and metal construction and accommodated a three-man crew. The aircraft, initially powered by Wright Whirlwind radiais, was considered to be very underpowered, but plans to introduce Bristol Mercury engines were effectively overtaken by the German invasion of the Netherlands. The T.VIII-W entered service with the MLD in 1939 and by the time of the German attack the following May 11 aircraft had been delivered (including one that had been shot down in error by the Luftwaffe). Quickly realizing the futility of flying the seaplanes in the presence of the Luftwaffe's fighters, the MLD ordered the nine serviceable aircraft to be flown to French bases on the Channel coast, one aircraft being used to fly two members of the Dutch government to the UK. Arriving in France on 12 May, the T, VIII-Ws flew a number of patrols over the Channel during the following 10 days, but such operations lacked cohesion and purpose as there remained little unified command in the rapidly dwindling air forces in northern France. Therefore,
A reconnaissance seaplane in service with the Royal Netherlands navy, the Fokker T. Vili could do little to stem the German invasion in 1940. Eight T. VIIIs reached England and formed the nucleus of No. 320 (Dutch) Sqn, which operated over the Western Approaches. on 22 May, the MLD ordered all surviving Dutch aircrews to fly their aircraft to the UK, a total of eight T.VIII-Ws eventually assembling at Pembroke Dock in South Wales where, on 1 June, these crews formed the nucleus of No, 320 (Dutch) Squadron of the RAF, For two months the Fokkers (carrying the British serials AV958-AV965) flew antishipping patrols over the Western Approaches until an increasing lack of spares forced the withdrawal of the Dutch seaplanes m favour of Avrò Ansons and Lockheed Hudsons, which were flown from Carew Cheriton. In the meantime Fokker had, at the time of the German invasion, been pro-
ducing a larger version of the aircraft, the T.VIII-W/C, for Finland; powered by Bristol Mercury XI radiais, this aircraft possessed a top speed some 72 km/h (45 mph) faster than the MLD version. In all the Germans took over 20 partially-completed T.VIII-Ws and five T.VIII-W/Cs, these aircraft subsequently being completed by Fokker and entering service with the Luftwaffe on anti-shipping and air-sea rescue duties over the North Sea.
When the German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee was being hunted in the South Atlantic during November 1939 Seafoxes were in constant use by the British cruisers, and during the Battle of the River Plate the light cruiser HMS Ajax launched one of her two aircraft for gunnery spotting, although difficulty was experienced with the air-to-ship radio contact. Later the Seafox crew kept a watch on Montevideo harbour while the Graf Spee was seeking shelter from British warships before her scuttling. Seafoxes continued
to serve at sea until 1943, two aircraft being lost when the Ajax'-class cruiser HMS Orion was severely damaged by German air attack during the evacuation of Crete on 28 April 1941.
Specification
Fokker T.VIII-W Type: three-seat reconnaissance and torpedo-bomber floatplane
Powerplant: two 336-kW (450-hp) Wright R-975-E3 Whirlwind radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 285 km/h (177 mph) at sea level; service ceiling 6800 m (22,310 ft); range 2100 km ( 1,305 miles) Weights: empty 3100 kg (6,834 lb); maximum take-off 5000 kg ( 11,023 lb) Dimensions: span 18.00 m (59 ft 0.7 in); length 13.00 m (42 ft 7,8 in); height 2 5.00 m (16 ft 4.9 in); wing area 44.00 m (473.6 sq ft) Armament: one fixed forward-firing and two tramable 7.92-mm (0.31 -in) machine-guns, plus 605 kg (1,334 lb) of bombs or one torpedo
UK
Fairey Seafox Designed to a 1932 spĂŠcification the Fairey Seafox prototype was first flown on 27 May 1936; its operational purpose was to equip Royal Navy tradeprotection light cruisers which, in time of war, would patrol the world's oceans on the lookout for enemy surface raiders and blockade runners. Equipped with cross-braced twin-float alighting gear, the Seafox was unable to carry a torpedo (being some 40 per cent lighter than the Swordfish) and its role was entirely passive; its value was, however, accepted as lying in its ability to spot for the cruiser's guns if brought to action by enemy warships, The Seafox was of all-metal structure with monocoque fuselage and fabric-covered wings and tail; it was fully stressed for c a t a p u l t i n g and the p i l o t was accommodated in an open cockpit, his observer being enclosed beneath a glazed canopy. A total of 64 production Seafoxes was built (K8569-K8617 and L4519L4533), the first being delivered to the Royal Navy on 23 April 1937; they subsequently served with Nos 702, 713, 714, 716 and 718 Catapult Flights, as well as Nos 753 and 754 Training Squadrons. The Catapult Flights embarked single or pairs of aircraft in ships of the 3rd Cruiser Squadron in the Mediterranean, the 9th Cruiser Squadron and South American Division of the South Atlantic command. At the outbreak of war 32 Seafoxes were at sea with the Royal Navy as well as light cruisers of the Royal Australian Navy and the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy. Fairey Seafoxes were embarked on Royal Navy cruisers of the 3rd and 9th Squadrons as well as those of the South American division of South Atlantic Command. HMS Ajax launched one others during the fight with KMS Graf Spee. 376
Specification
Fairey Seafox Type: two-seat light fleet reconnaissance floatplane Powerplant: one 295-kW (395-hp) Napier Rapier VI inline piston engine Performance: maximum speed 200 km/h (124 mph) at 1785 m (5,860 ft);
climb to 1525 m (5,000 ft) in 10 minutes 24 seconds; service ceiling 3355 m (11,000 ft); range 708 km (440 miles) Weights: empty 1726 kg (3,805 lb); maximum take-off 2459 kg (5,421 lb) Dimensions: span 12.19 m (40 ft 0 in); length 10.81 m (35 ft 5.5 in); height 2 3.68 m(12 ft 1 in); wing area 40.32 m (434 sq ft) Armament: provision for one 7.7-mm (0.303-m) Lewis gun in the rear cockpit; some aircraft were adapted to carry underwing racks for flares or four 9-kg(20-lb) bombs
GERMANY
Heinkel He 59 The Germans' use of float seaplanes to deliver combat troops into action is believed to have been unique during World War II, and principally involved the large Heinkel He 59 two-float twinengine biplane, an aircraft designed back in 1930 as a reconnaissance bomber landplane during the clandestine activities which eventually resulted in the creation of the Luftwaffe, The first floatplane example made its maiden flight in January 1932 and the first major production version, the He 59B-2, saw operational service in Spain with the Legion Condor as a night bomber and for coastal patrol. By the outbreak of war about 70 He 59Bs had been completed and served with the third Staffeln of Küstenfliegergruppen 106, 406, 506 and 706 for coastal reconnaissance, anti-shipping patrols and minelaying (being capable of carrying two 500-kg/l, 102-lb magnetic mines). They also equipped the Seenotdienststaffeln and the Staffel Schwilben for air-sea rescue duties over the North Sea and Baltic. Later they joined KGrzbV 108 for specialist coastal assault troop-carrying duties, and I Gruppe of KG 200 for air-sea rescue work. During the invasion of Norway most of these units were pressed into use for coastal patrol and air-sea rescue, and during the initial assault phase were occasionally employed to deliver assault parties into the fjords. During the German assault in the West on 10 May 1940 12 He 59Bs of the Staffel Schwilben transported 120 troops to the banks of the River Maas to capture the key bridge at Rotterdam, losing four aircraft to the Dutch defences. During the Battle of Britain the He 59s of the Seenotdienstkommando
This Heinkel He 59 D served with Seenotzentrale Agäisches Meer in theAegeanSea during 1941. Although the V model was ostensibly a trainer, it was used on air-sea rescue duties in the south well into 1943, long after the type's presumed obsolescence. were extremely active all round the coasts of the UK, ostensibly on the lookout for downed German aircrew, but when it became apparent that despite displaying prominent Red Crosses the aircraft were being used to shadow and report British convoys, orders were given to RAF pilots to shoot down enemy seaplanes; no fewer than 31 He 59s (11 of them from Seenotflugkommando 3, based at Boulogne) were lost during the Battle of Britain, with seven others badly damaged, Set against this more than 400 German airmen were recovered from the sea round the UK. Specialist versions included the He 59C-2 air-sea rescue aircraft, the He 59D-1 and He 59N series trainers, the He 59E-1 torpedo trainer and He 59E-2 long-range reconnaissance aircraft. Air-sea rescue He 59s continued to serve in the Mediterranean and Ae-
gean until mid-1943. At least one Staffel served on the Black Sea,
Specification
Heinkel He 59B-2 Type: four-seat maritime reconnaissance and air-sea rescue floatplane Powerplant: two 492-kW (660-hp) BMW VI 6.0ZU V-12 piston engines Performance: maximum speed 220 km/h (137 mph) at sea level; climb to 1000 m (3,280 ft) in 4 minutes 48
seconds; service ceiling 3475 m (11,400 ft); range 1750 km (1,087 miles) Weights: empty 5000 kg (11,023 lb); maximum take-off 9100 kg (20,062 lb) Dimensions: span 23.70 m (77 ft 9 in); length 17.40 m (57 ft 1 in); height 7,10 m (23 ft 3.5 in); wing area 152,8m2 ( 1,644,78 sq ft) Armament: three 7.92-m (0.31-in) trainable machine-guns (one each in the bow, dorsal and ventral positions), plus a load of up to 1000 kg (2,205 lb) of bombs and/or mines or one torpedo
Although an old, outdated design, the He 59 was pressed into a number of duties: as a trainer, minelayer, assault transport, air-sea rescue and coastal reconnaissance aircraft.
GERMANY
Heinkel He 115 Flown largely by Kriegsmarine pilots during much of the war, the Heinkel He 115 twin-engine two-float seaplane was almost certainly the best such aircraft to serve with any air force in World War II, Designed in competition with the Blohm und Voss Ha 140, the He 115 was first flown in 1936 and two years later established eight world speed records for its class in various payload and range categories. Technically in advance of any British, French or American maritime aircraft of similar concept, the type was ordered into production, the He 115A1 version joining the Luftwaffe in 1938 (being followed by the He 115A-2, of which six were exported to Norway and 10 to Sweden in 1939). In September 1939 about 60 He 1 ISA and He 115B aircraft (the latter with increased fuel capacity) were serving with the Kustenfliegergruppen. Apart from some reconnaissance work over the Baltic during the Polish campaign, their first important task involved sealing the gaps in the minefields along the east coast of the British Isles, the first such mission being flown by 3./ KüFlGr 906 on 20/21 November 1939. These activities continued for more than 18 months (and sporadically thereafter for two years), the mining units losing 33 aircraft destroyed and six aircraft severely damaged during the period of the Battle of Britain; most casualties were suffered from British coastal flak.
The Heinkel 115 served the Luftwaffe in a wide variety of theatres, from the Mediterranean to the North Cape. This particular aircraft was operated byl.lKuFlGr 406 out of northern Norway in 1942. Before the end of the Battle of Britain the first examples of the He 115C series were in service with increased defensive armament while the He 115C-2, introduced in 1941, featured strengthened floats to allow operation from snow and ice surfaces. The He 115C-3 and He 115C-4 were respectively specialist minelayers and torpedo bombers, the latter being flown against the North Cape convoys. Production was halted in 1941 when operations in the USSR made more pressing demands for other aircraft. In 1943 production was resumed and 141 He 115E multipurpose aircraft were delivered to the Luftwaffe in the following year; some He 115Cs and He llSEs were armed with single forward-firing MG 151 20mm cannon under the nose for flak-
suppression during torpedo attacks. At the end of the Norwegian campaign three ofthat country's He 115A2s and a captured He 115B-1 were flown to the UK, where they were evaluated by the RAF before being committed to clandestine operations between the UK and Norway, and in the Mediterranean for carrying agents into enemy-occupied territory in North Africa. Total production was about 500 aircraft. Specification Heinkel He 115C-1 Type: three-seat minelaying, torpedobombing and reconnaissance floatplane Powerplant: two 716-kW (960-hp) BME 132K radial piston engines
Performance: maximum speed 300 km/h (186 mph) at 1000 m (3,280 ft); climb to 1000 m (3,280 ft) in 5 minutes 6 seconds; range 2800 km (1,740 miles) Weights: empty 6870 kg (15,146 lb); maximum take-off 10680 kg (23,545 lb) Dimensions: span 22.28 m (73 ft 1.2 in); length 17,30 m (56 ft 9.1 in); height 2 6.59 m (21 ft 7.5 in); wing area 86,7 m (933.26 sq ft) Armament: one 7.92-mm (0.31-in) trainable machine-gun and one 15-mm fixed cannon in the nose, one 7.92-mm (0.31-in) fixed rearward-firing machine-gun in each engine nacelle, and one 7.92-mm (0.31 -in) trainable machine-gun in the rear cockpit, plus a load of 1250 kg (2,756 lb) of bombs and/or mines, or one 500-kg (1,102-lb) torpedo 377
JAPAN _â&#x20AC;˘_
Aichi EISA
Numerically the most important of all Japanese float seaplanes during World War II, the Aichi EISA monoplane (of which 1,418 were produced) originated in a naval staff specification issued to Aichi, Kawamshi and Nakajima in 1937 for a three-seat reconnaissance seaplane to replace the six-year-old JCawamshi E7K2 float biplane. A prototype was completed late in 1938 and after competitive trials with the Kawanishi E13K in December 1940 was ordered into production as the Navy Type 0 Reconnaissance Seaplane Model 1. E a r l y a i r c r a f t were embarked in Japanese cruisers and seaplane tenders the following year and, carrying a single 250-kg (551-lb) bomb apiece, flew a series of raids on the Hankow-Canton railway. Soon afterwards E13A1 floatplanes accompanied the Japanese 8th Cruiser Division for reconnaissance patrols during the strike against Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Thereafter, as production switched to Kyushu Hikoki KK at Zasshonokuma and accelerated, the seaplanes (codenamed 'Jake' by the Allies) were embarked in the battleships and cruisers of the Kantais (fleets), including the battleship Haruna and cruisers Chikuma and Tone of Vice Admiral Nagumo's Carrier Striking Force at the Battle of Midway, Because of mechanical problems with the ships' catapults there were delays in launching one of the four E 13Als to search for the American carriers at dawn on the crucial 4 June 1942, depriving the Japanese of the vital initiative during the early stages of the assault on Midway. Furthermore the Chikumäs E13A1 was forced to return early when it suffered engine trouble, further reducing the all-important search area, One of the other 'Jake' pilots, from the cruiser Tone, eventually sighted the American fleet but at first failed to report the presence of carriers, causing a further 30-minute delay in arming the strike aircraft awaiting orders to launch from
An Aichi El 3A 'Jake'of the Imperial Japanese Navy is seen in the early wartime colour scheme that would havebeen worn at sea aboard the fleet's cruisers and battleships.
Japanese carriers. As it was, when the Americans launched their first strike, the pilots found the decks of the carriers Akakgi, Kaga, Soryu and Hiryu clogged with aircraft which should have been attacking the American fleet, In all, it is estimated that by mid-1943 more than 250 EISA Is were at sea aboard Japanese ships, though their use was severely curtailed whenever American fighters were in evidence. Nevertheless they continued to serve right up to the end of the war, many of them being ultimately used in suicide attacks on the huge American invasion fleets closing on the Japanese homeland.
Specification
AichiElSAla Type: three-seat reconnaissance floatplane Powerplant: one 790-kW (1,060-hp) Mitsubishi Kinsei 43 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 377 km/h (234 mph) at 2180 m (7,155 ft); climb to 3000 m (9,845 ft) in 6 minutes 5 seconds; service ceiling 8730 m (28,640 ft); range 2089 km (1,298 miles) Weights: empty 2642 kg (5,825 lb); maximum take-off 4000 kg (8,818 lb) Dimensions: span 14.50 m (47 ft 6.9 in);
length 11.30 m (37 ft 0.9 in); height 2 7,40 m(24 ft 3,3 in); wing area 36.0 m (387.5 sq ft) Armament: one 7.7-mm (0.303-in) trainable machine-gun in the rear cockpit, plus 250 kg (551 lb) of bombs and/or depth charges
A t a Japanese seaplane base somewhere in the Pacific the crew of an El 3A leave their cockpits. With a range of nearly 2100 km (1,300 miles), sorties could, and often did, mean up to 15 hours at a time in the cockpit for the three-man crew.
the 'Rufes' of the Otsu Kokutai from Lake Biwa in defence of central Honshu against the increasing American raids on Japan. It was ironic that so promising was the N I K I that the Japanese had reversed the process of adaptation, and with it produced the N1K2-J 'George' landplane fighter, certainly one of the best Japanese aircraft to see combat during the war.
5 minutes 30 seconds; service ceiling 10600 m (34,775 ft); range 1050 km (652 miles) Weights: empty 2752 kg (6,067 lb); maximum take-off 3712 kg (8,184 lb) Dimensions: span 12.00 m (39 ft 4.4 in); length 10.59 m (34 ft 8,9 in); height 2 4.75 m (15 ft 7 in); wing area 23.5 m (252.96 sq ft) Armament: two fixed forward-firing 20-mm cannon and two fixed forwardfiring 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns, plus two 30-kg (66-lb) bombs under the wings
JAPAN
Kawanishi NIK Kyofu Anticipation of a need for single-seat float-equipped interceptor seaplanes prompted the Japanese navy to initiate a development programme for such aircraft in 1940, the Nakajima A6M2-N floatplane adaptation of the famous Mitsubishi A6M2 Zero being intended as a stopgap until a purpose-designed aircraft could be introduced. This was to be the highly-imaginative and attractive Kawanishi N I K Kyofu (mighty wind), whose design was started in September of that year. Featuring a central float and twin wingmounted stabilizing floats, the new prototype retained the same gun armament as the A6M2 but was powered by a 1089-kW (1,460-hp) Kasei 14 radial engine driving two-blade contraprops in an attempt to counter the torque-induced swing on take-off. The wing-mounted floats were originally intended to be retractable but design problems led to these being fixed before the aircraft's first flight. Persistent trouble with the contraprop gearbox resulted in a change to the Kasei 13 engine driving a single threeblade propeller from the second prototype onwards. First flown on 6 May 1942, the NIKI
378
went on to trials with the navy, whose pilots were enthusiastic about the performance, although expressing misgivings over the tricky take-off characteristics. In the air, with its combat flaps, the Kyofu handled beautifully and possessed excellent manoeuvrability. At a time (the end of 1942) when the Zero naval fighter had effectively won air superiority for the Japanese in the Pacific, the N I K I was ordered into production, but the delivery rate was slow to accelerate and fortunes changed rapidly during 1943. Thus in December of that year, with only 15 aircraft being completed each month and Japanese offensive initiative dwindling, it was decided to end production of the aircraft, and in March 1944 the last of 89 Kyofus was delivered to the service. Codenamed 'Rex' by the Allies, the N I K I was first deployed for the defence of Balikpapan in Borneo, whose recovery by the Allies was regarded as no longer pressing as American forces surged closer to the Japanese homeland, while the Japanese then lacked the carriers with which to protect their isolated garrisons. In the final weeks of the war N l K l s flew alongside
Specification
Kawanishi NIKI Type: single-seat interceptor fighter floatplane Powerplantone 1089-kW( 1,460-hp) Mitsubishi MK4C Kasei 13 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 489 km/h (304 mph) at 5700 m (18,700 ft); climb to 5000 m (16,405 ft) in
Designed as a fighter to support offensive operations far from landbased air cover, the Kyofu was a fine machine overtaken by events in the Pacific which saw its planned role made superfluous.
JAPAN
Mitsubishi F IM Roughly equivalent to the American Curtiss SOC Seagull observation float biplane, the smaller Mitsubishi F1M was of more compact and neater design, its development starting about two years later in 1934, First flown in June 1936; the FIMI embodied all the efforts of its designers to achieve an exceptionally clean aerodynamic shape, including low-drag float mountings, single interplane struts and allmetal construction, only the control surfaces being fabric-covered. The early aircraft displayed poor water handling and a lack of in-flight directional stability, however, but after fairly extensive alterations the production F1M2 emerged as a thoroughly efficient aircraft, acceptable in all respects. Initial production by Mitsubishi, w h i c h got u n d e r way in 1938, amounted to 524 aircraft before it was transferred to the 21st Naval Air Arsenal (Dai-Nijuichi Kaigun Kokusho) at Sasebo, where a further 590 were built. In due course the F1M2 equipped all but one of the K-Maru (6,900-ton) and S-Maru (7,200/8,300-ton) classes of converted merchant seaplane tenders, as well as numerous battleships and cruisers of the Imperial Japanese Navy. Codenamed 'Pete' by the Allies, FlM2s were present at the Battle of Midway, two aircraft being launched from the battleship Kirishima (but being lost when the Japanese scuttled the sorely-crippled ship at the end of the Battle of the Solomons). The giant superbattleships Musashi and Yamato each carried several 'Petes' to spot for their 460-mm (18.1-in) main gun armament at the time of the Marianas bat-
tles, but none was used in earnest; instead the Musashi succumbed to American bombs and torpedoes in the Sibuyan Sea; the Yamato, bent on a suicide mission to Okinawa, followed her to the bottom on 7 April 1945. Nevertheless 'Pete' seaplanes were widely used throughout the Pacific war, accompanying every seaborne landing by Japanese forces, providing gunnery spotting during preliminary bombardment by supporting warships and subsequently serving as covering fighters (and even dive-bombers) once the assault forces were ashore. It was also flown on convoy escort duties with the many supply convoys sailed by the Japanese during the mid-war period. In the last stages of the war, the
type was committed to the unequal task of defending the Japanese homeland from the devastating American raids, serving alongside 'Rex1 and 'Rufe' seaplane fighters with the Otsu Kokutai in 1945,
Unlike the reconnaissance types carried by major Japanese surface units, the MitsubishiF1M 'Pete'was an observation aircraft, designed for such tasks as gunfire direction, but was rarely used for that purpose.
Specification
Weights: empty 1928 kg (4,251 lb); maximum take-off 2550 kg (5,622 lb) Dimensions: span 11.00 m (36 ft 1.1 in); length 9.50 m (31 ft 2 in); height24.00 m (13 ft 1.5 in); wing area 29.54 m (317.97 sq ft) Armament: two fixed forward-firing 7.7-mm (0,303-m) machine-guns and one 7.7-mm (0.303-in) trainable machine-gun in the rear cockpit, plus two 60-kg ( 132-lb) bombs under the wings
Mitsubishi F1M2 Type: two-seat observation floatplane Powerplant: one 611 -kW (820-hp) Mitsubishi Hikari 1 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 370 km/h (230 mph) at 3440 m (11,285 ft); climb to 5000 m (16,405 ft) in 9 minutes 36 seconds; service ceiling 9440 m (30,970 ft); range 740 km (460 miles)
JAPAN
Nakajima A6M2-N Japan was the only nation to produce and deliver into service f l o a t equipped single-seat interceptor fighter seaplanes (the British Spitfire float adaptation did not progress beyond the experimental stage). When in 1940 the Japanese navy initiated the design of a new interceptor seaplane (the Kawamshi NIKI Kyofu, or 'Rex'), the need was also expressed for a stopgap aircraft and the Nakajima company was instructed in February 1941 to develop a float-equipped version of the excellent Mitsubishi A6M2 Zero naval interceptor. As evidence of Japan's long-standing plans for territorial expansion through the Pacific, it had been recognized that in the inevitable 'island-hopping' war there would be few ready-made air bases from which to provide air cover during the occupation of the smaller islands, and that the construction of runways would be impractical. Although equipped with almost a dozen aircraft-carriers, the Japanese would be unable to use them in support of every single island invasion. After removing the wheel landing gear and fairing over the wheel wells of a standard A 6 M 2 , N a k a j i m a mounted a large float under the fuselage by means of a forward-raked central pylon and a pair of V-struts below the cockpit; two cantilever stabilizing floats were also mounted under the wings. The standard Zero gun armament was retained, and the first prototype was flown on 7 December 1941, the day on which the Japanese navy
attacked Pearl Harbor. Entering production as the Nakajima A6M2-N and codenamed 'Rufe' by the Allies, the new fighter still displayed a creditable performance, being first issued to the Yokohama Kokutai and deployed to Tulagi in the Solomons where the Japanese had first landed during the Battle of the Coral Sea. However, almost all the 'Rufes' were destroyed in a strike on the seaplane base by 15 Grumman F4Fs from USS Wasp on 7 August 1942, Better success attended the 'Rufes' which fought in the later Aleutian campaign, but losses soared as soon as American fighter strength could be built up. During the final year of the war, when American heavy bombers and naval aircraft opened their great attacks on the Japanese homeland, 'Rufes' of the Otsu Kokutai, based on Lake Biwa, were thrown into the battle as interceptors in defence of Central Honshu but suffered very heavy losses. Total production of 'Rufe1 amounted to 327 before being halted in September 1943.
Specification
Nakajima A6M2-N Type: single-seat interceptor fighter floatplane Powerplant: one 708-kW (950-hp) Nakajima NK 1C Sakae 12 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 435 km/h (270 mph) at 5000 m (16,405 ft); climb to 3000 m (9,845 ft) in 3 minute 54 seconds; service ceiling
10000 m (32,810 ft); range 1781 km (1,107 miles) Weights: empty 1912 kg (4,215 lb); maximum take-off 2880 kg (6,349 lb) Dimensions: span 12.00 m (39 ft 4.6 in); length 10.10 m (33 ft 1.6 in); height 4.30 m(14 ft 1.3 in); wing area 22.44 m2 (241.54sqft) Armament: two fixed forward-firing 20-mm cannon and two fixed forward-
firing 7.7-mm (0.303-m) machine-guns, plus provision for two 60-kg ( 132-lb) bombs under the wings Until the purpose-designed NIK could be produced, the Japanese navy acquired a stopgap floatplane fighter in theNakajima adaptation of Mitsubishi's famed A6M 'Zero'.
USA
Curtiss SOC Seagull At the climax of its Service life the Curtiss SOC Seagull scout-observation seaplane in 1940 was serving aboard every battleship, cruiser and carrier in the US Navy, as well as a destroyer, a seaplane carrier and two gunboats, with a US Marine Corps squadron and at a US Coast Guard station. It had entered production in 1935 having beaten the Douglas XO2D-1 and Vought XO5U-1 in competition, and on 12 November that year the first operational SOC-1 was assigned to the light cruiser USS Marblehead. Subsequent versions were the SOC-2, SOC-3 and SOC-4 (the SOC-2A and SOC-3A being fitted with arrester gear) and the SON1 produced by the Naval Aircraft Factory. Featuring interchangeable wheel and float alighting gear (in the latter configuration it was fitted with single central float and outngged wing floats), the SOC replaced Vought O2Us and O3Us, and was used to spot for the fleet's big guns, increasing the accuracy of the main gun armament of the US Navy's battleships. Each such battleship embarked three or four SOCs, the heavy cruisers four and the light cruisers two. Flagships usually carried an additional Seagull for use by the force commander. Production contracts, totalling 304 aircraft for the US Navy (plus three for the US Coast Guard), had been placed by the end of 1938; within two years 279 were in service, including 83 aboard the battleship divisions of the Battle Fleet and
63 with the cruiser divisions of the Scouting Force; there were also 30 SOCs with the Atlantic Squadron and 15 with Carrier Divisions One and Two in the Pacific. During the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor nine embarked SOCs and 13 ashore were listed as destroyed, and although no SOC was directly involved in the great Battle of Midway about 20 Seagulls undertook scouting sorties before the Solomon campaign, flying with Task Force 61, They were still extremely active in 1943, particularly in the Wake, Marshalls and Gilberts campaigns. Although by 1943 most of the 150-odd aircraft still surviving in service were usually equipped with wheel landing gear aboard American escort carriers, some cruisers still continued to carry the floatplanes, and these were present at the American landings in North Africa in November that year. The Curtiss SO-3C Seamew monoplane had been introduced to replace the SOC in 1942, but this later machine proved disappointing and, although a greater number was produced, it was the old Seagull that remained in US Navy service longer, surviving up to the end of 1944.
Specification
Curtiss SOG-1 Seagull Type: two-seat scout and observation floatplane Powerplant: one 447-kW (600-hp) Pratt & Whitney R-1340-18 Wasp radial piston engine
Performance: maximum speed 253 km/h (157 mph) at sea level; climb to 1525 m (5,000 ft) in 5 minutes 54 seconds; service ceiling 4540 m (14,900 ft); range 1535 km (954 miles) Weights: empty 1591 kg (3,508 lb); maximum take-off 2466 kg (5,437 lb) Dimensions: span 10.97 m (36 ft 0 in); length 9.65 m (31 ft 8 in); height 4,29 m (14 ft 1 in); wing area 32.33 m2 (348 sq ft) Armament: one fixed forward-firing
7.62-mm (0.3-in) machine-gun and one 7.62-mm (0.3-in) tramable machinegun in the rear cockpit, plus two 45-kg ( 100-lb) bombs under the wings
Dimensions: span 12.50 m (41 ft 0 in); length 11,09 m (36 ft 4.5 in); height 2 5.49 m (18 ftO in); wing area 26,01 m (280 sq ft)
Armament: two fixed forward-firing 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns, plus two 113- and two 45-kg (250- and 100lb) bombs
A Curtiss SOC Seagull stands ready for launch on the catapult aboard the battleship USS West Virginia, ln l 940 this scout-observation seaplane was shipped aboard every battleship, cruiser and carrier in the US Navy.
USA
Curtiss SC-1 Seahawk The Curtiss SC-1 Seahawk monoplane was unique among American scout seaplanes of World war II in being a relatively high performance singleseater with an almost fighter-like speed. It was almost the last of a long line of aircraft in the scout-observation category built by Curtiss to serve aboard American battleships and cruisers. Like its immediate predecessor, it featured a single large central float with stabilizing wing-tip floats, these being replaceable by fixed wheel landing gear for shore base operation. Subject of Curtiss design proposals, the SC-1 Seahawk was accepted by US Navy letter of intent on 30 October 1942 and prototypes were ordered on 31 March 1943. The first of two SC-1 aircraft made its first flight on 16 February 1944, by which time production orders for 500 SC-1 s had been placed. Production deliveries started in the late summer that year, the aircraft being completed with wheel landing gear for delivery to shore depots; the Edo float assemblies, being purchased separately, were fitted to the aircraft according to fleet requirements; the first aircraft were shipped aboard transports to Australia late in 1944 for delivery to warships of the US 7th Fleet. The first aircraft was embarked in USS Guam on 22 October. The Seahawk saw little operational service other than constant air-sea rescue patrols, this despite the provision of a somewhat cramped bunk in the rear fuselage limiting such rescues to single ditched airmen. In the relatively straightforward recovery of Borneo, however, which was regarded as something of a sideshow at the end of 380
The Seahawk vvas a high-performance single-seater ordered by the US Navy in 1942, and entering service in 1944 aboard USS Guam, ln the event it saw little comba t and was mainly used for air-sea rescue patrols. the war with Japan and which was opposed by only small numbers of Japanese aircraft, a few Seahawks with the 7th Fleet were used for gunnery control during the preliminary bombardment before the seaborne landings. Some aircraft were said to have been used in the 'attack' category, the Seahawk being capable of carrying a pair of 45-kg (100-lb) bombs in a bay in the central float; for anti-submarine work the aircraft would mount an ASH radar set in a pod under the starboard wing and a 113-kg (250-lb) bomb under the port wing. Total production of the Seahawk, before VJ-Day brought cancellation of outstanding orders, was 566 aircraft; nine examples of an improved twoseat version, the SC-2, were delivered to the US Navy in 1946, Specification Curtiss SC-1 Seahawk Type: single-seat shipborne scout and air-sea rescue floatplane Powerplant: one 1007-kW(l,350-hp) Wright R-1820-62 Cyclone radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 504 km/h (313 mph) at 8715 m (28,600 ft); climb to 3050 m (10,000 ft) in 4 minutes 6 seconds; service ceiling 11370 m (37,300 ft); range 1016 km (625 miles) Weights: empty 2867 kg (6,320 lb); maximum take-off 4082 kg (9,000 lb)
USA
Vought OS2U Kingfisher Displaying many of the traditional features of the American naval observation and scouting biplanes of the 1930s (radial engine, deep spacious cockpit, large 'glasshouse' over the rear cockpit and central main float), the Vought OS2U monoplane was the first military aircraft to employ spot welding in its primary structure. Ordered in prototype form in 1937, the first XOS2U-1 made its maiden flight on 20 July of the following year, initial service deliveries being made in August 1940. The first aircraft to serve aboard an American battleship was embarked in USS Colorado. Of the 54 OS2U-1 floatplanes completed in that year the majority was distributed between the Pearl Harbor Battle Force, Alameda NAS Battle Force and the Pensacela naval air station. Progressively improved OS2U-2 and OS2U-3 aircraft were delivered up to 1942, the latter being the most widely used version with increased fuel capacity and improved armour protection for the crew; a total of 1,306 was produced (including 300 OS2N-1 aircraft built by the Naval Aircraft Factory at Philadelphia). Apart from ships of the US Navy, the type equipped the Inshore Patrol Squadrons (which became exclusively equipped with the type), and OS2U-3s also served at Pensacola and Jacksonville naval air stations; their operational tasks included scouting for the fleet, gunnery spotting, anti-submarine patrol, ship-to-shore communciations and rescue of ditched airmen, of whom Captain Eddie Rickenbacker (forced down in the South Pacific) was the most famous. The interchangeable float/wheel landing gear enabled them to operate from shore bases when necessary. There were even occasions when OS2U floatplanes were flown into action as divebombers. The OS2U-3 was selected by the British Purchasing Mission in 1941, and 100 aircraft (FN650-FN749) entered service with the Fleet Air Arm as the Kingfisher Mk I. Some of these joined No. 703 Squadron and, equipped with floats, served aboard British armed merchant cruisers for sea patrol during operations to combat German blockade runners, Most aircraft were delivered direct to the Middle East and West Africa, where they found limited Below: Over 1,300 Kingfishers were manufactured and became the exclusive equipment of the Inshore Patrol Squadrons, as well as serving with the fleet in various roles.
A Vought Kingfisher Mk 1 of No. 107'Squadron, Royal Australian Air Force, in 1942. Kingfishers also served with the Fleet Air Arm aboard armed merchant cruisers. In the US Navy most Kingfishers were catapulted from the fan tails of battleships and cruisers.
use for coastal patrol and air-sea rescue. Fourteen aircraft were also used as trainers in Jamaica; 20 others intended for British use were in fact delivered to the US Navy.
Specification Vought OS2U-3 Type: two-seat shipborne observation and scout floatplane Powerplant: one 336-kW (450-hp) Pratt & Whitney R-985-AN-2 or -8 Wasp
Junior radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 264 km/h (164 mph) at 1675 m(5,500 ft); climb to 1525 m (5,000 ft) in 12 minutes 6 seconds; service ceiling 3960 m ( 13,000 ft); range 1851 km ( 1,150 miles) Weights: empty 1870 kg (4,123 lb); maximum take-off 2722 kg (6,000 lb) Dimensions: span 10.95 m (35 ft 11 in); length 10.24 m (33 ft 7.25 in); height 4.60 m (15 ft 1 in); wing area 24.34 m2 (262 sq ft)
A Kingfisher catapults from USS Texas in the Mediterranean, 1944. Texas was the first US battleship to launch aircraft after being fitted with a flying-offplatform while serving with theBritish CrandFleetin 1918. Armament: one fixed forward-firing 7.62-mm (0.3-in) machine-gun and one 7.62-mm (0.3-in) machine-gun in the rear cockpit, plus 295 kg (650 lb) of bombs
381
USA
Grumman J2F Duck The Grumman J2F was an attractive float biplane embodying a wheel landing gear that retracted into the sides on the central float, an ingenious arrangement successfully developed by Grumman in 1930 and incorporated in the JF-1 utility amphibian which served aboard the carrier USS Lexington with VS-3 from 1934 onwards. A development of this, which it closely resembled, was the slightly larger J2F, popularly known as the Duck, which was first flown on 25 June 1935. Some 89 J2F-1 aircraft were supplied to the US Navy. As well as accommodating a crew of two under a long canopy the aircraft could carry two additional crew members or passengers sideby-side within the large fairing that joined the central float to the fuselage, These aircraft also served aboard American carriers immediately before the war (being equipped with arrester gear), and were followed by 30 J2F-2 aircraft, of which nine J2F-2A variants with two 7.62-mm (0.3-in) machineguns and light bomb racks were produced for the US Marine Corps Squadron VMS-3 serving at St Thomas in the Virgin Islands, Further minor changes resulted in 20 J2F-3 aircraft (with Wright R-1820-36 engines) and 32 J2F-4 aircraft (with -30 engines) being produced, but the increasing risk of war prompted the US Navy to order 144 J2F-5 machines from Grumman at the end of 1940, powered by -50 engines. These aircraft undertook a multitude of 'utility1 tasks with the US Navy, including communications with off-shore vessels, target-towing, air-sea rescue, ambulance and nonoperational reconnaissance work. Several aircraft served with the US Coast Guard, and one was evaluated by the USAAF as the OA-12 in the observation role.
ThisJ2F-3 Duck was thepersonal transport of a Rear Admiral, the allover blue being reserved for flag officers. The stars of his rank were attached to the rear of the cockpit. Increasing pressure on the Grumman plant at Bethpage, New York, for production of Wildcat fighters caused production of the Duck (as the J2F-5 was now officially known) to be transferred to Columbia Aircraft's Valley Stream factory when a new order for 330 J2F-6 aircraft was placed immediately after Pearl Harbor. These, powered by 671-kW (900-hp) -54 engines, brought the total Duck production to 653, the last being completed in 1945. Most aircraft served at shore stations during the latter part of the war, their arrester gear being removed or omitted. They were also employed on anti-submarine patrol work, equipped to carry two 147-kg (325-lb) depth bombs,
Specification
Grumman J2F-5 Duck Type: three-seat utility amphibious floatplane Powerplant: one 634-kW (850-hp) Wright R-1920-50 Cyclone radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed
303 km/h (188 mph) at 3960 m (13,000 ft); climb to 3050 m (10,000 ft) in 10 minutes 12 seconds; service ceiling 7955 m (26,100 ft); range 1255 km (780 miles) Weights: empty 1950 kg (4,300 lb); maximum take-off 3044 kg (6,711 lb) Dimensions: span 11.89 m (39 ft 0 in); length 10.36 m (34 ft 0 in); height 3.76 m ( 12 ft 4 in) with wheels retracted; wing area 38. Om2 (409 sq ft) Armament: one 7.62-mm (0.3-in)
The main external distinguishing feature of the GrummanJ2F compared with the originalJF series was the later aircraft's lack of a strut linking the ailerons on the upper and lower wings. The retractable landing gear was a particularly neat feature.
floatplane Powerplant: one 820-kW (1,100-hp) Wright GR- 1820-G205A radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 414 km/h (257 mph) at sea level; climb to 4570 m ( 15,000 ft) in 14 minutes 24 seconds; service ceiling 7315 m (24,000 ft); range 1609 km (1,000 miles) Weights: empty 2808 kg (6,190 lb); maximum take-off 4808 kg (10,600 lb) Dimensions: span 14,91 m (48 ft 11 in); length 10.97 m (36 ft 0 in); height 3,66 m (12 ft 0 in); wing area 34.93 m (376 sq ft)
The first Hying tests of the Northrop N-3PB patrol bomber took place at LakeElsinor, California. The aircraft were in Norwegian colours, but had not been delivered when the German invasion took place.
trainable machine-gun in the rear cockpit, and up to 295 kg (650 lb) of bombs and/or depth charges under the wings
USA
Northrop N-3PB Nomad The company headed by John K. Northrop had been successful in securing US Army contracts for its A-17 attack bombers in the mid-1930s but at the time of its merger with the Douglas Aircraft Company business was beginning to fall away. Among the few projects then being pursued was a twinfloat seaplane whose design owed much to the earlier wheel-equipped attack bombers. Believing that such an aircraft would be required by the US Navy, Northrop persisted with its design. This was shown to members of a Norwegian Purchasing Commission which visited the USA early in 1940, seeking to obtain a patrol/attack seaplane for coastal work to discourage the use of Norwegian waters by German shipping. Twenty-four such Northrop N-3PB aircraft were ordered straight from the drawing board. Before these aircraft could be delivered Norway fell to the Germans in April/June 1940. Production went ahead, however, at the request of the UK and, as a number of Norwegian aircrew had succeeded in escaping the German invasion, it was decided to form a squadron manned by volunteers in Iceland to serve alongside the RAF. Accordingly No. 330 Squadron was formed at Reykjavik on 25 April 1941; a month later the Norwegian freighter Fjordheim arrived from Canada bringing 18 dismantled N382
3PBs. These were disembarked and assembled in a seaplane hangar at Reykjavik, the first aircraft being air tested on 2 June. Employed for convoy escort and anti-submarine patrols, and named Nomad, the floatplanes were flown from Reykjavik, Akureyn and Bordheyn, and remained with the squadron for well over a year being joined later by Consolidated Catalina flying-boats, Most of the early North Cape convoys, which were sailed from Iceland to the North Russian ports during 1941-2, were provided with escort patrols by Nomads for the first 240 km (150 miles) of their voyages. In July 1942 two prowling Focke-Wulf Fw 200s long-range reconnaissance aircraft were intercepted by the seaplanes and chased away. Despite their sterling service the Nomads were not wholly suited to the demands of service in the far north, and the long range and better seagoing qualities of the flying-boat caused their withdrawal from service in January 1943. (The N-3PB Nomad should not be confused with the Northrop 8-A5 Nomad which, surplus to American needs as the A-17A, was supplied under Lend-Lease, principally to South Africa.)
Specification
Northrop N-3PB Nomad Type: three-seat patrol and bomber
Armament: four fixed forward-firing 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns, one 7.62-mm (0.3-in) trainable machinegun in the dorsal position, and one 7.62-mm (0,3-in) trainable machinegun in the ventral position, plus four 227-kg (500-lb) bombs
Anti-Shipping Aircraft Attacks against shipping around the war-zone coasts, and the incessant vigil against submarines, kept many aircraft busy throughout the war. These ranged from fighters to heavy bombers, all playing their part in denying the enemy freedom of the seas. f all the nations drawn into World War II during 1939 and 1940 none had a more pressing need for anti-shipping aircraft than the UK for, as a sea-girt power, her lifelines were critically vulnerable to attack from surface raider, submarine and aircraft alike. Yet all responsibility for defence against this threat was, as it had been for centuries, vested almost exclusively in the British Royal Navy. Lip service had been paid to the RAF with the provision of such aircraft as the Avrò Anson, while the Lockheed Hudson began arriving from America in 1939 to provide relatively long-range reconnaissance/attack muscle for Coastal Command. As in so many of the wartime air forces, the emergence of the maritime strike role after the outbreak of hostilities brought about the demand for adaptation of obsolescent aircraft (fighters, bombers and even transports) to meet the operational requirements. The parameters of the requirements themselves were so broad (the equation involving long-range navigation accuracy over featureless oceans, precision of attack equipment and a wide assortment of weapons which included cannon, depth charges, bombs, rockets and torpedoes)
O
The mighty Consolidated B-24 Liberator had a long-range capability which made her an ideal choice for adaptation to an ocean patrol and long-distance attack role, the latter in which she excelled against Japanese cargo shipping. that no single aircraft could be considered ideal. Moreover, beyond the scope of this section were the other important antishipping aircraft, the minelayers. It may be said that premeditated anti-shipping operations, as distinct from long-range anti-submarine attacks which were usually the result of chance sightings during tedious ocean patrols, were confined largely to the 'narrow seas' around Europe, from the North Cape of Norway to the Mediterranean, although the US and Japanese air forces also
engaged in anti-shipping operations in the Pacific, particularly during the latter part of the war, as did the RAF in the Bay of Bengal. Ignoring the relatively fruitless efforts by Bristol Blenheims and Avrò Ansons in the early months, the RAF began to achieve worthwhile successes when such aircraft as the Vickers Wellington, Bristol Beaufort and Bristol Beaufighter arrived at Coastal Command, while in the Axis air forces the Dornier Do 217 and Junkers Ju 88 proved fairly effec-
tive, particularly in operations against the Allied North Cape convoys, in which the Heinkel He 111 also participated. In the Savoia-Marchetti S.M.789 the Italians also possessed an excellent torpedo bomber which was flown to good effect against British shipping in the Mediterranean. The Americans, however, were caught largely unprepared for anti-shipping tasks and so relied heavily on adaptation of the Boeing B-17 and Consolidated B-24, the latter's very long range suiting it admirably for ocean patrol and long-distance attack. Likewise the Japanese, despite embarking on their far-flung Pacific campaign, had assumed that carrierborne attack bombers would embrace the majority of maritime strike operations. Such was the nature of the organization of the Imperial Japanese Navy, however, that from the first days of the Pacific war considerable dependence was placed on land-based anti-shipping bombers, and it was the Mitsubishi G3M that participated in the successful attack on the British capital ships HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Repulse, one of the war's most successful air strikes against major warships at sea. 383
UK
Avrò Anson Anachronistic relic of pre-war RAF expansion, the Avrò Anson was originally the result of a coastal reconnaissance aircraft requirement, and was developed from a six-seat commercial aircraft. It first flew on 24 March 1935 and, powered by Cheetah engines, the Anson Mk I entered service with No. 48 Squadron in March 1936, and was the first RAF aircraft with a retractable landing gear, albeit manually operated. The Anson subsequently served with 12 squadrons of Coastal Command up to the beginning of the war, when the first Lockheed Hudsons were just beginning to arrive from America. Nevertheless Ansons were retained on short-range coastal reconnaissance duties in diminishing numbers until 1942, occasionally having brushes with the enemy. By the beginning of the war, however, the Anson was already in use as an aircrew trainer for navigators, wireless operators and air gunners, and it was for this long and priceless service that the 'faithful Annie' is best remembered. Jacobsand Wright-powered Anson Mk III and Anson Mk IV aircraft were shipped to Canada to equip the growing numbers of flying schools under the Commonwealth Air Training Scheme. Canadian manufacturers also producing the Anson Mks II, V and VI. Light transport conversions from the Anson Mk I resulted in the Anson Mks X, XI and XII, some of which were employed as air ambulances; the Anson Mk XI was powered by Cheetah XIX engines driving Fairey-Reed metal propellers, and the Anson Mk XII had Cheetah XVs driving constant-speed Rotol propellers. Production, which continued after the war with the Anson
Avrò Anson CR.MkI of No. 220 Sqn, Coastal Command, in the overall silver pre-war paint scheme.
Mks 19,20,21 and 22, reached a total of 11,020 aircraft, including 2,822 built in Canada. Specification Avrò Anson Mk I Type: three-seat generalreconnaissance aircraft Powerplant: two 350-hp (261- kW) Armstrong Siddeley Cheetah IX radial piston engines
Performance: maximum speed 303 km/h (188 mph) at 2134 m (7,000 ft); initial climb rate 219 m (720 ft) per minute; service ceiling 5791 m (19,000 ft); range 1271 km (790 miles) Weights: empty 2438 kg (5,375 lb); maximum take-off 3629 kg (8,000 lb) Dimensions: span 17.22 m) (56 ft 6 in); length 12.88 m (42 ft 3 in); height 3.99 m (13 ft lin); wing area 43.01 m2 (463.0 sq ft) Armament: one fixed forward-firing
Ever on the alert, an Anson of No. 48 Sqn keeps watch on a convoy out of Liverpool. At the outbreak of war, the Anson formed the bulk of Coastal Command's fleet. lVo. 48 Sqn was based at Hooton Park to protect the Western Approaches. 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-gun in nose and one 7.7-mm machine-gun in dorsal turret, plus provision to carry up to 163 kg (360 lb) of bombs
Uk
Bristol Beaufighter To a large extent responsible for the defence against the German Blitz of 1940-1 as the RAF's first purpose-built night-fighter, the Bristol Beaufighter remained in service as such almost to the end of the war. Such was its performance, however, that in 1941 it also came to be developed, first as an intruder and, as a natural follow-on, a specialist anti-shipping strike aircraft. It was moreover no stranger to RAF Coastal Command, the Beaufighter Mk 1C having been specially prepared as a long-range maritime fighter with additional navigation and radio equipment. The Beaufighter Mk VIC with 1,650-hp (1230,4-kW) Hercules VI or XVI radiais featured for the first time an additional dorsal machine-gun to provide token defence against enemy fighters which Coastal Command squadrons frequently encountered over the Bay of Biscay. As early as March 1941 a Beaufighter Mk I underwent trials with a torpedo, and in September the following year another aircraft was fitted with 76.2-mm (3-in) rocket projectiles. Two months later the first Beaufighter Strike Wing was formed at North Coates, Lincolnshire, comprising No. 143 Squadron (Beaufighter fighters), No. 236 Towards the end of the war, the unguided rocket became the major anti-shipping weapon, especially against the small targets often encountered in the Channel. These were usually ripple-fired. 384
Bristol Beaufighter TF.MkX of No. 455 Sqn armed with eight underwing, unguided rockets.
Beau fighters were particularly accurate against snipping, proving tobe a steady plat form during the diving a ttack. As well as serving in home waters, theBeaufighter had great success againstjapanese shipping. Squadron (Beaufighter bombers with a pair of 113- or 227-kg/250- or 500-lb bombs) and No, 254 Squadron ('Torbeau' torpedo-carrying Beaunghters). By the spring of 1943 the wing was in frequent action against German supply ships sailing between enemy-held ports in the North Sea. In May that year rocket-firing Beaufighter Mk VICs entered service, their principal task
being to attack escorting Flak ships while the torpedo aircraft and bombers went for the enemy merchantmen. As the Beaufighter was gradually replaced in service as a night-fighter its importance as a maritime strike aircraft grew. The Beaufighter TF.Mk X was introduced with ASV (air-tosurface vessel) radar and carried universal racks which enabled combinations of bombs, rockets and torpedo to be carried. Strike Beaufighters served with a total of 11 home-based Coastal Command squadrons, and seven in the Middle East. The aircraft reached the Far East in January 1943 and soon afterwards began to re-equip five strike
squadrons (Nos 22, 27, 177, 211 and 217), proving deadly when flown against Japanese shipping being sailed along the Burma coast. Specification Bristol Beaufighter TF.Mk X Type: two-seat torpedo-strike fighter Powerplant: two l,770-hp(1319,9-kW) Bristol Hercules XVII 14-cylinder aircooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 488 km/h (303 mph) at 396 m (1,300 ft); climb to 1524 m (5,000 ft) in 3.5 minutes; service ceiling 4572 m ( 15,000 ft); normal range 2366 km ( 1,470 miles) Weights: empty 7076 kg (15,600 lb); maximum take-off 11431 kg (25,200 lb)
Beaufighter attack! Trailing vortices from its wingtips, this 'Beau'is pulling out from its strike against a German ship. Further aircraft behind it succeed in turning the water white. Dimensions: span 17.63 m (57 ft 10 in); length 12.70 m (41 ft 8 in); height 4,82 m (15 ft 10 in); wing area 46.73 m2 (503 sq ft) Armament: four 20-mm Hispano cannon in nose and one 7.7-m (0.303in) machine-gun in dorsal position, plus either eight 76.2 mm (3-in) rocket projectiles and two 227-kg (500 lb) bombs or a single 748-kg ( 1,650-lb) or 965-kg (2,127-lb) torpedo
UK
Bristol Beaufort Until superseded by the torpedocarrying Beaufighter, the Bristol Beaufort was the RAF's standard torpedo-bomber from 1940 to 1943, replacing the aged Vickers Vildebeest biplane. First flown on 15 October 1938, the Beaufort Mk I, of which early versions were powered by 1,010-hp (753.2-kW) Bristol Taurus II radiais (later replaced by Taurus Vis), joined No. 22 Squadron in December 1939 and carried out their first minelaying sortie on 15-16 August 1940. Beauforts also dropped the RAF's first 907-kg (2,000Ib) bomb on 7 May. Total production of the Beaufort Mk I was 965, and this version was followed by the Beaufort Mk II with American Pratt & Whitney Twin Wasp radiais, production continuing until 1943, by which time 415 had been produced, The final Beaufort Mk Us were completed as trainers with the two-gun dorsal turret deleted. Beauforts equipped six Coastal Command squadrons in the United Kingdom and four in the Middle East, their most famous operations being carried out against the German warships
Scharnhorst and Gneisenau on 6 April 1941 in Brest harbour (which earned a posthumous VC for Flying Officer K. Campbell of No. 22 Squadron), and during the warships' escape up the English Channel early in 1942. Beauforts were also very active while based on Malta, attacking Axis shipping being sailed to North Africa. The Beaufort Mks V-IX were built in Australia for the RAAF in the Far East, production totalling 700,
Specification
Bristol Beaufort Mk I Type: four-seat torpedo-bomber
Bristol Beaufort Mkl of No. 22 Sqn, Coastal Command. No. 22 Sqn was the first in service with this torpedo-bomber. Despite early problems, it went on to provide useful service. Powerplant: two 1,130-hp (842,6-kW) Bristol Taurus VI radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 426 km/h (265 mph) at 1829 m (6,000 ft); service ceiling 5029 m (16,500 ft); range 2575 km ( 1,600 miles) Weights: empty 5942 kg (13,100 lb); maximum take-off 9629 kg (21,228 lb) Dimensions: span 17.62 m (57 ft 10 in); length 13.49 m (44 ft 3 in); height 4.34 m (14 ft 3 in); wing area 46.73 n/ (503.0 sq ft) Armament: two 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns in nose and dorsal turret
(some aircraft had a rear-firing machine-gun under the nose and two in beam-firing positions), plus a bombload up to 907 kg (2,000 lb) or one 728-kg ( 1,605-lb) 457-mm ( 18-in) torpedo lVo. 217 Sqn Hew its Beau forts from Malta, and these were responsible for many of the problems faced by Axis shipping in the Mediterranean. Only one torpedo could be carried, but the aircraft possessed bombing and minelaying capability.
385
UK
de Havilland Mosquito In much the same manner that the Beaufighter came to be introduced into RAF Coastal Command as an antishipping strike fighter, so the classic de Havilland Mosquito achieved considerable success in this role, being used principally with rocket projectiles and bombs. A torpedo-carrying version was under development at the end of the war. It was not until the Mosquito had been successfully developed as a fighter-bomber (effectively combining its night-fighter cannon armament with its ability to carry bombs internally) that the Mosquito FB.Mk VI was selected for service with Coastal Command, trials being undertaken at Boscombe Down with an aircraft fitted with eight 76.2-mm (3-in) rocket projectiles under the wings, In addition to a nose armament of four 20-mm and four 7.7-mm (0.303-in) guns, the Mosquito FB.Mk VI could also carry a pair of short-finned 227-kg (500-lb) bombs in the rear of the bomb bay; alterna-
tively, later aircraft were strengthened to carry a further pair of 227-kg (500-lb) weapons under the wings in place of the rockets. Following the success of the Beaufighter anti-shipping strike wings in 1943, a Mosquito Strike Wing was formed at Banff in Scotland before the end of that year, No. 333 (Norwegian) Squadron being the first to receive Mosquito FB.Mk Vis in November, No. 248 Squadron followed in the next month, and No. 235 in June 1944. Employed almost exclusively against enemy shipping off the Norwegian coast, the Norwegian pilots of No, 333 Squadron usually flew as pathfinders for the wing, leading Mosquito formations along the winding fjords in search of German vessels. Of greater interest than true operational value was the Mosquito FB.Mk XVIII anti-shipping strike aircraft, armed with a single 57-mm Molins gun in the nose, A converted Mosquito FB.Mk VI thus armed made its first
flight on 25 August 1943, after which 27 production aircraft were built and entered service with No, 248 Squadron at Banff m January 1944. Detachments were sent south for patrols over the English Channel and on 25 March a Mosquito FB.Mk XVIII pilot attacked and claimed to have sunk an enemy submarine off the French coast. Weighing over 907kg (2,000 lb), the Molins gun was not considered a success as its recoil constantly caused local structural damage in the Mosquito's nose. No. 248 Squadron retained its aircraft until February 1945, after which the survivors were handed over to No, 254 Squadron at North Coates for the remainder of the war.
Performance: maximum speed 612 km/h (380 mph) at 3962 m (13,000 ft); climb to 4572 m (15,000 ft) in 7.0 minutes; service ceiling 10972 m (36,000 ft); normal range 2092 km (1,300 miles) Weights: empty 6486 kg ( 14,300 lb); maximum take-off 10115 kg (22,300 lb) Dimensions: span 16.51 m (54 ft 2 in); length 12.34 m (40 ft 6 in); height 4.63 m (15 ft 3 in); wing area 40.4 In/ (435 sq ft) Armament: four 20-mm and four 7.7mm (0.303-in) guns in the nose, plus either two 227-kg (500-lb) bombs and eight 76,2-mm (3-inch) rocket projectiles or up to four 227-kg (500-lb) bombs
Specification
de Havilland Mosquito FB.Mk VI Type: two-seat anti-shipping strike fighter Powerplant: two l,230-hp(917.2-kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin XXI 12-cylinder liquid-cooled inline piston engines
As effective as the Beaufighter, the de Havilland Mosquito was also usedin low-level rocket and strafing attacks against shipping. No. 143 Sqn flew its FB.Mk Vis from Banff in Scotland against shipping off Norway.
wide range of a n t i - s u b m a r i n e weapons including two 190,5-kg (420Ib) depth charges or a single 457-mm (18-in) torpedo. The Wellington GR.Mk XII was also equipped with a Leigh Light, which retracted into an aperture in the midships fuselage structure. The Wellington GR.Mk XIII, intended for daylight use only, omitted the Leigh light but carried two 457-mm (18-in) torpedoes in addition to ASV Mk III radar, while the Wellington
GR.Mk XIV could carry depth charges or bombs, and featured Leigh Light and ASV Mk III for night operations. Anti-shipping Wellingtons remained in service for the remainder of the war, serving on a total of 21 squadrons at home, in the Mediterranean and Middle and Far East. A bomber development was the Vickers Warwick which, overtaken by technological progress, never survived to serve as such; instead it, like
UK
Vickers Wellington and Warwick The famous Vickers Wellington bomber enjoyed a long and valuable career with RAF Coastal Command in a number of roles, not least in the maritime general reconnaissance role, a term that euphemistically embraced anti-shipping duties. Apart from a small number of Wellingtons equipped for mine-exploding in 1940, Coastal Command's first aircraft specifically prepared for maritime work were Wellington Mk VIII machines de386
veloped in 1941 for use with the Leigh Light for illuminating surfaced U-boats, particularly in the Bay of Biscay; the first such aircraft were delivered to No. 221 Squadron in the Mediterranean in January 1942, however. ASV radar came to be fitted in some Mk VIIIs (which were in effect conversions of the Wellington Mk 1C bomber), but the Wellington GR.Mk XI employed the improved airframe of the Wellington Mk X and was capable of carrying a
The Vickers Wellington GR.MkXIV was the final version of this able aircraft used by Coastal Command. This example is a MkXIVissued to No. 304 (Polish) Squadron in 1944. the Wellington, came to be developed f o r m a r i t i m e duties. However, although it gave considerable service with Coastal Command in the air-sea rescue role from 1943 onwards, lengthy delays in development (and shortage of Centaurus engines) prevented the Warwick GR.Mk V, with Leigh Light and ASV, from entering service with No. 179 Squadron until November 1944; this squadron flew antisubmarine patrols over the Bay of Biscay and the Western Approaches during the last three months of the war. Specification Vickers Wellington GR.Mk XIII Type: srx/seven-seat anti-shipping/ submarine aircraft Powerplant:two l,735-hp(1293.8-kW) Bristol Hercules XVII air-cooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 406 km/h (252 mph) at 1219 m (4,000 ft); climb to 1219 m (4,000 ft) in 6,9 minutes; service ceiling 4877 m (16,000 ft); normal range 2816 kg ( 1,750 miles) Weights: empty 9974 kg (21,988 lb); maximum take-off 14107 kg (31,100 lb) Dimensions: span 26.26 m (86 ft 2 in); length 19.68 m (64 ft 7 in); height 5.38 m ( 17 ft 8 in); wing area 78.04 rrr (840 sq ft) Armament: two 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns in nose turret and four in tail turret, and some aircraft mounted two machine-guns in fuselage beam positions, plus an offensive load of either bombs and depth charges up to 2041 kg (4,500 lb) or two 457-mm (18in) torpedoes
The Warwick GRMkV did not enter service until late 1944. It carried ASV radar and a Leigh light and was used over the Bay of Biscay on anti-submarine patrols. This aircraft served with No. 179Sqn.
Transmitting and receiving aerials for the ASV Mk II radar adorn this Wellington on routine patrol over the Mediterranean. This radar enabled the aircraft to detect small objects projecting above the surface, such as submarine conning towers. USA
Boeing B-17 Fortress America's enforced entry into World War II undoubtedly caught her air forces unprepared for maritime operations, and the sudden appearance of long-range U-boats off her eastern seaboard and in the Caribbean caused some 122 aged Douglas B-18Bs to be deployed on anti-submarine patrols along the coasts of the USA. Meanwhile, however, the Boeing B-17D Fortress, which had supplanted the B-18 in service with the USAAC's heavy bombardment groups in 1941, had already pioneered anti-shipping operations by this aircraft with an attack against Japanese vessels on 10 December 1941. This was the first occasion on which American aircrews flew an offensive mission. No specialist B-17 version was produced for the antishipping role with the American air forces, the machines that were later employed in maritime operations being standard B-17E and B-17F aircraft. Fortresses were supplied to the RAF in fairly large numbers, however,
and after a period of inauspicious service as bombers the survivors of a batch of 20 B-17C (Fortress Mk I) aircraft were pressed into service with Nos 206 and 220 Squadrons of Coastal Command for maritime reconnaissance duties over the Western Approaches. Starting in mid-1942 about 150 of the improved B-17E were delivered to Coastal Command as the Fortress Mk II and Fortress Mk IIA, serving with Nos 59, 86, 206 and 220 Squadrons, operating from Benbecula, Chivenor, Thorney Island, the Azores and Iceland, Although possessing shorter range than the B-24 Liberator, the Fortress
contributed considerably to the patrol efforts demanded by the frequent sailing of wartime convoys, particularly at the height of the great U-boat campaign in the Atlantic. RAF Fortresses were employed on anti-shipping strike missions, their weapons being almost entirely confined to depth charges. Specification Boeing Fortress Mk II Type: eight-seat maritime reconnaissance aircraft Powerplant: four 894.8-kW (1,200-hp) Wright Cyclone GR-1820-65 aircooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 480 km/h (298 mph) at 6096 m (20,000 ft); climb to 1524 m (5,000 ft) in
7.5 minutes; service ceiling 10363 m (34,000 ft); normal range 1835 km (1,140 miles) Weights: empty 12542 kg (27,650 lb); maximum take-off 24041 kg (53,000 lb) Dimensions: span 31.62 m (103 ft 9 in); length 22.50 m (73 ft 10 in); height 2 5.84 m (19 ft 2 in); wing area 131.92 m (l,420sqft) Armament: total of 10 12.7-mm(0,5-m) machine-guns in nose, dorsal, ventral, tail and beam positions, plus a normal bombload of up to 2722 kg (6,000 lb) of bombs and/or depth charges
Boeing Fortress Mk HA (B-17E) of No. 220 Sqn flying from the Azores on long-range anti-submarine patrols over the Atlantic.
387
USA
Consolidated B-24 Liberator With its long-range performance the Consolidated B-24 Liberator, when introduced into service in the maritime reconnaissance role, did more than any other aircraft to turn the tide in the Allies' favour in the long Battle of the Atlantic, effectively 'closing the gap' between the patrol areas of east- and west-based aircraft and thereby denying German U-boats (and surface vessels) a vast tract of ocean in which they had been wholly safe from air attack. First to use the B-24 in the maritime role, was the RAF whose first Liberator Mk I aircraft reached the UK during March 1941 and joined No. 120 Squadron at Nutts Corner, Northern Ireland, in June of that year. These were joined by the Liberator Mk II (equivalent to the B-24C) in December 1941, and later by the Liberator Mk III (B-24D), these three versions equipping a total of 16 RAF squadrons. Subsequent deliveries to Coastal Command included the Liberator Mk IV (B-24E), Liberator GR.Mk V (B-24G), Liberator GR.Mk VI (B-24G and B-24H) and Liberator GR.Mk VIII. With well over 1,000 Liberators flying with RAF maritime reconnaissance squadron in almost every war theatre, it was to be expected that their achievements should be unsurpassed in the war's ocean struggle For example, in November 1942 the" Liberators of No. 224 Squadron in the Bay of Biscay sank two U-boats which were manoeuvring to attack the troop convoys sailing for the 'Torch' landings, attacks that would otherwise have caused enormous casualties among the troops. In March 1945 Liberators of five RAF squadrons sank seven U-boats in six days. Like other RAF maritime patrol aircraft Liberators were widely equipped with the Leigh Light, and other aircraft were armed with rocket projectiles and batteries of cannon for use against submarines. In US Navy service the Liberator served as the PB4Y-1, 977 such aircraft being delivered. A developed version, the PB4Y-2 Privateer, entered service with at least one squadron, VP24, some PB4Y-2Bs being armed with
388
Consolidated Liberator Mk I of No. 120 Sqn Hying from Nutt's Corner in 194 I . I t carries a four-cannon pack under the fuselage for strafing.
Liberator CRMkVofNo. 224 Sqn in November 1942. This was the RAF version of the B-24C, and introduced greater range and armament over its predecessor.
an ASM-N-2 Bat anti-shipping glide bomb under each wing. Total Privateer production amounted to 736 aircraft.
Specification
Consolidated PBY-1 Liberator Type: 10-seat maritime patrol bomber Powerplant: four 1,200-hp (894.8-kW) Pratt & Whitney R-1830-43 or -65 aircooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 449 km/h (279 mph) at 8077 m (26,500 ft); climb to 1219 m (4,000 ft) in
PB4Y-1 Liberator ofVPB-110, US Navy based in Devon, during the winter of 1944. Such US units provided a much-needed back-up to the Coastal Command squadrons. 7.8 minutes; service ceiling 9693 m (31,800 ft); normal patrol range 4764 km (2,960 miles) Weights: empty 16761 kg (36,950 lb); maximum take-off 27216 kg (60,000 lb) Dimensions:span33.53 m(110 ftO in); length 20.50 m (67 ft 3 in); height 5,46 m ( 17 ft 11 in); wing area 97.36 m2 (1,048 sq ft) Armament: eight 12,7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns in nose, dorsal and tail
turrets and waist hatches amidships, plus up to 5806 kg (12,800 lb) of bombs, mines or depth charges Arriving in service late in the war, the Consolida ted PB4 Y-2 Priva teer was developed from the Liberator, the main difference being the single fin. These mainly saw action in theFar East and continued in use for many years after the war's end.
GERMANY
Dornier Do 217 After the departure eastwards of the bulk of Germany's light bombing force from western Europe in May 1941, the principal bomber unit remaining in the Netherlands was Kampfgeschwader 2 This unit by itself was inadequate to sustain a prolonged bombing campaign against the UK, but was nevertheless re-equipped with a new version of the Do 17, the Dornier Do 217. At about the same time the specialist antishipping unit in the West, KG 40, received its first Do 217s, II/KG 2 receiving Do 217E-1 aircraft in August 1941. Although these aircraft were fundamentally standard bombers, concessions were soon forthcoming to suit the aircraft to the anti-shipping role with the issue of Rüstsätze (conversion kits); among these were the R-10 and R-15 kits to enable the Do 217E to mount anti-shipping weapons, later to include the Henschel Hs 293A guided missiles; the Do 217E-5 was designed from the outset to accommodate these weapons. Other anti-shipping variants were the Do 217K-2 equipped to deliver two Fritz X rocket-propelled missiles, and the Do 217K-3 capable of carrying either Hs 293As or Fritz Xs, Sub-variants of the Do 217M were also produced for the anti-shipping role. In mid-1943 II and HI/KG 100 were withdrawn from the Eastern Front and re-equipped with Do 217E-5s and Do 217K-2s respectively, the former unit moving to Cognac with Hs 293As and the latter to Marseilles with the Fritz X. The first success in action was gained on 27 August when Hs 293As sank the Canadian destroyer HMCS Athabaskan and the corvette HMS £gret in the Bay of Biscay. In the Mediterranean HI/KG 100 sank the Italian battleship Roma and damaged the ltalia with Fritz Xs on 9 September; shortly afterwards Major Bernhard Jope (the pilot who, in a Fw 200, had fatally damaged the Empress of Britain back in October 1940) discharged a Fritz X against HMS Warspite, putting the battleship out of
Dornier Do 217E-2 of9.Staffel, Kampfgeschwader 40 based at Bordeaux-Mérignac in 1942. The badge on the nose shows a winged bomb over Britain.
Dornier Do 217E-5 of KG 40. This aircraft is carrying two of the Henschel Hs 293A stand-off guided anti-ship missiles, which were used with some degree of success in the Mediterranean. action. In terms of Allied shipping sunk or severely crippled, the Do 217 was unquestionably the most effective of all German anti-shipping aircraft when armed with these guided weapons.
Specification
Dornier Do 217E-5 Type: four-seat anti-shipping bomber Powerplant: two 1,580-hp (1178.2-kW) BMW 801C 14-cylinder air-cooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 515 km/h (320 mph) at 5200 m (17,060 ft); climb to 925 m (3,035 ft) in 4.45 minutes; service ceiling 9000 m (29,528 ft); normal range 2300 km (1,429 miles) Weights: empty 8855 kg (19,522 lb); maximum take-off 16465 kg (36,299 lb)
Dimensions: span 19.00 m (62 ft 4 in); length 18.20 m (59 ft 8,5 in); height 2 5.02 m (16 ft 6 in); wing area 57.00 m (613.54 sq ft) Armament: one fixed 15-mm (0.59-in) gun in the nose, one 13-mm (0.51 -in) gun in a dorsal turret, one 13-mm (0.51in) gun in ventral position, and three
trainable 7.92-mm (0,31 -in) guns in nose and beam positions (the Do 217E5/R19 also carried four 7.92-mm/0.31in) guns in the extreme tail), plus an offensive load of two 1045-kg (2.304-lb) Hs 293A remotely-controlled weapons, with 295-kg (650-lb) warheads, carried under the wings
(27,887 ft); normal range 1900 km (1,181 miles) Weights: empty 8690 kg (19,158 lb); maximum take-off 14000 kg (30,864 lb) Dimensions: span 22.60 m (74 ft 1.75 in); length 16.45 m (53 ft 11.5 in); height 4.00 m (13 ft 1.75 in); wing area 86.50m 2 (931.07 sq ft) Armament: six 7.92-mm (0.31 -in) machine-guns in nose, dorsal, beam and ventral positions, one 20-mm cannon in the extreme nose, and
(some aircraft) a remotely-fired 7,92mm (0.31 -in) gun in the extreme tail, plus an offensive load of either two 1000-kg (2,205-lb) bombs or two 765kg ( 1,687-lb) LT F5b torpedoes carried on external PVC racks
Another KG 40 Do 217 is loaded with bombs. The camouflage is typical of German maritime paint schemes, with disruptive wave patterns applied over the standard paint.
GERMANY
Heinkel He 111 Combat experience gained by the Luftwaffe during the first 18 months of the war suggested that in anti-shipping attacks the bomb was a relatively wasteful and inaccurate weapon, except when delivered by fighterbombers and dive-bombers, a conclusion amply borne out as the defensive armament on British ships was progressively increased. Thus it was that early in 1941 the Luftwaffe chose to place greater emphasis on the torpedo (notwithstanding considerable difficulties then being experienced in the German navy with their arming pistols) and, following trials and aircrew training at Grossenbrode in the Baltic and Grosseto in Italy, the Heinkel He 111H6, carrying two 765-kg (1,687-lb) LT F5b torpedoes under the wing roots, was first delivered to I/KG 26 at Grosseto early in 1942. By June that year the whole Geschwader had been reequipped and had moved to Banak and Bardufoss in northern Norway for operations against the Allied North Cape convoys. Until the inclusion of British escort carriers in these convoys, the German torpedo bombers (which also numbered some He 115 floatplanes) achieved outstanding success. Nevertheless, even when con-
fronted by fighters over the convoy PQ.18, the He Ills of KG 26, led by Major Werner Klümper, sank eight Allied ships. Increasingly bad weather and fighter opposition led to diminishing success in the Arctic, and in November 1942 KG 26 was redeployed to the Mediterranean. New torpedo variants were introduced, including the He 111H-15 which featured FuG 200 antishipping search radar and increased gun armament. Rüstsätz conversion kits were also introduced to modify bomber variants to the torpedo role, but the He 111H-12 variant, which underwent trials with two underwing Henschel Hs 293A anti-shipping weapons in conjunction with FuG 203b Kehl III guidance system, failed to achieve operational status.
A pair ofLTFSb practice torpedoes are loaded on to the underfuselage racks of a Heinkel He 111H-6. The H-6 was also used for trials with guided missiles and glide-bombs.
Specification Heinkel He 111H-6 Type: six-seat torpedo bomber Powerplant: two l,400-hp(1044-kW) Junkers Jumo 211F-1 12-cylmder liquid-cooled Vee piston engines Performance: maximum speed 435 km/h (270 mph) at 6000 m (19,685 ft); climb to 2000 m (6,562 ft) in 8.5 minutes; service ceiling 8500 m
389
GERMANY
Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor Famous as a pre-war airliner with a number of formidable long-distance flights and records to its credit, the four-engine Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor was dsigned by Kurt Tank in 1936, and underwent military adaptation into a fairly potent anti-shipping aircraft with the Luftwaffe. Ten pre-production Fw-200C-0 maritime reconnaissance aircraft were delivered to the Luftwaffe in September 1939, some of them serving with I/KG 40 in 1940. The fivecrew production Fw 200C-1 was powered by four 830-hp (618.9-kW) BMW 132H engines, was armed with a 20-mm gun in the nose and three 7.92mm (0.31-in) guns in other positions and could carry four 250-kg (551-lb) bombs. Apart from long-range maritime patrols over the Atlantic, the Fw 200C-1S also undertook extensive mmelaymg in British waters during 1940, each carrying two 1000-kg (2,205-lb) mines. Numerous subvariants of the C-series appeared, of which the Fw 200C-3 with 1,000-hp (745.7-kW) Bramo 323R-2 radiais was the most important. Later in the war the Fw 200C-6 and Fw 200C-8 were produced in an effort to enhance the Condor's operational potential by adaptation to carry two Henschel Hs 293 missiles in conjunction with FuG 203b missile control radio. Rugged operating conditions highlighted the Fw 200's numerous structural weaknesses and there were numerous accidents in service, and for a short time in the mid-war years Fw 20s were employed as military trans-
Based a t Bordea ux-Merignac in la te 1940, this Fw 200C of 1 ./KG 40 carries the badge associated with many pre-war record-breaking High ts by civil Con dors.
The Fw 200C-6 featured FuC 200 Hohentwiel radar and the ability to carry the Hs 293A guided missile. Two missiles could be carried under the outboard engine nacelles. ports, 18 aircraft being flown by Kampfgruppe zur besonderen Verwendung 200 m support of the beleaguered German forces at Stalingrad. Other Condors were used by Hitler and Himmler as personal transports. Focke-Wulf Fw 200 production for the Luftwaffe amounted to 252 aircraft between 1940 and 1944.
Specification
Focke-Wulf Fw 200C-3/U4 Type: seven-seat long-range maritime reconnaissance bomber
Powerplant: four 1,000-hp (745.7-kW) BMW-Bramo 323R-2 radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 360 km/h (224 mph) at 4700 m (15,420 ft); service ceiling 6000 m (19,685 ft); range 3560 km (2,211 miles) Weights: empty 17000 kg (37,478 lb); maximum take-off 22700 kg (50,044 lb) Dimensions: span 32.84 m (107 ft 9.5 in); length 23.85 m (76 ft 11,5 in); height 6.30 m (20 ft 8 in); wing area 118.00 m a (l,290.0 sq ft) Armament: one 7,92-mm (0.31-in) gun
in forward dorsal turret, one 13-mm (0,51 -in) gun in rear dorsal position, two 13-mm (0.51 -in) guns in beam positions, one 20-mm gun in forward position of ventral gondola and one 7.92-mm (0.31 -in) gun in aft ventral position, plus a maximum bomb load of 2100 kg (4,630 lb).
GERMANY
Junkers Ju 88 and Ju 188 Just as the Heinkel He 111 corresponded roughly to the RAF's Vickers Wellington in the maritime role, so the Junkers Ju 88 was a contemporary of and superficially equivalent to Coastal Command's Bristol Beaufighter. However, whereas the latter was conceived from the outset as a fighter, the Ju 88 was fundamentally a bomber which came to serve as a night-fighter and intruder. Ju 88s flew anti-shipping missions with specialist Kampfgeschwader, notably KG 30, as early as the Norwegian campaign of April 1940, although the aircraft themselves were standard Ju 88A bombers. And it was KG 30's Ju 88s that were flown with such devastating success against British shipping during the Greek campaign of 1941. In an attack by 7./KG 30 on the approaches to Piraeus harbour Hauptmann Hajo Herrmann's bombs struck the freighter Clan Frazer which was loaded with explosives and blew up, destroying 10 other ships. Soon afterwards KG 30 was assembled in northern Norway for attacks against the North Cape (PQ) convoys being sailed between Iceland and Soviet ports. Although no version of the Ju 88 was developed specifically for the antishipping strike role, the extensively redesigned Junkers Ju 188, which began making real progress before the end of 1942, appeared in several versions as a torpedo bomber. The first, the Ju 188E-2, could carry two 800-kg (1,764-lb) torpedoes under the wings and some aircraft also carried FuG 200 sea-search radar. This version and another, the Ju 188A-3 with water methanol boosted engines, served in 390
Junkers Ju 188D-2 ofl./FAGr 124 based atKirkenes in Norway. Note the disruptive wave camouflage for m aritim e opera tions.
small numbers with the anti-shipping unit HI/KG 26 towards the end of 1944. The Ju 188 was a popular aircraft with its crew but, following the switch of priorities by the Germans in favour of fighters in the latter half of 1944, production of the bomber and torpedo bomber versions was halted, although they remained in fast-diminishing service until the end of the war. Specification Junkers Ju 188E-2 Type: four-seat torpedo bomber Powerplant: two 1,700-hp (1267,7-kW) BMW 80 ID air-cooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 500 km/h (311 mph) at 6000 m (19,685 ft); climb to 6000 m (19,685 ft) in 17.6 minutes; service ceiling 9300 m The superlative Ju 88 was effective in many roles, and anti-shipping was no exception. This aircraft bears 10 ship kills from the Mediterranean, denoted by the fuselage theatre band.
(30,512 ft); normal range 1950 km (1,212 miles) Weights: empty 9860 kg (21,737 lb); maximum take-off 14470 kg (31,898 lb) Dimensions: span 22,00 m (72 ft 2 in); length 14.90 m (48 ft 0.5 in); height 2 4,44 m (14 ft 6,8 in); wing area 56.00m
(602.78 sq ft) Armament: gun armament (commonly) of two 13-mm (0,51 -in) machine-guns in nose and dorsal positions, plus an offensive load of up to 3000 kg (6,614 lb) or two 800-kg (1,764-lb) LT lb torpedoes carried under the wings.
GERMANY
Junkers Ju 290 Developed directly from the Ju 90 commercial and military transport, the four-engine Junkers Ju 290 was in-tended to replace the Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor which by 1942 was provingslow and vulnerable when confronted by RAF aircraft over the 'narrow seas' around Europe. Developments of the Ju 290 nevertheless embraced considerable work to suit it for the transport role, and it was not until early 1943 that the Ju 290A-1 underwent extensive modification as a maritime reconnaissance aircraft, including the installation of marine radio, FuG 200 Hohentwiel sea search radar and a second dorsal HDL 151 gun turret mounting an MG 151/20 cannon. At the same time a long-range reconnaissance group, Fernaufklärungsgruppe 5, was formed and during the late summer of 1943 three of the new Ju 290A-2S were delivered to its 1. Staffel, which became operational at Mont de Marsan in France on 15 October ofthat year. Five Ju 290A-3 aircraft with more powerful BMW 80ID engines followed, as did five Ju 290A-4 aircraft with improved dorsal turrets. In November a second Staffel was acti-
vated and, with a range of over 6100km (3,790 miles) the Ju 290s ranged far out over the Atlantic, relaying convoy sightings to U-boats. Eleven Ju 290A-5 aircraft with increased armour protection and 20-mm cannon in place of the earlier beam machine-guns were delivered to FAGr 5 early in 1944, as were about a dozen of the Ju 290A-7 variant; the latter was a true anti-shipping strike aircraft capable of carrying either three Henschel Hs 293 or Fritz X weapons under fuselage and wings. It also featured a new nose section combining a nose gun position with 20-mm cannon with the FuG 200 aerial array, Only three Ju 290A-9 aircraft were completed with reduced armament and increased fuel capacity which bestowed a maximum range of 8000km (4,971 miles).
Fernaufklärungsgruppe (FACr) 5 was the only operator of the Junkers Ju 290 maritime versions and used these from Mont de Marsan in France. TheA-7 variant could carry up to three oftheHs 293A missiles. As the Battle of the Atlantic swung irrevocably in favour of the Allies with the loss by the Germans of French bases in August 1944, FAGr 5 was withdrawn eastwards and began operating as a transport unit, some of the Ju 290s even being flown nonstop to Manchuria carrying special supplies to the Japanese and returning with raw materials vital to Germany.
Specification
Junkers Ju290A-5 Type: nine-seat maritime reconnaissance aircraft Powerplant: four 1,700-hp (1267.7-kW) BMW 80 ID air-cooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed
440 km/h (273 mph) at 6000 m (19,685 ft); climb to 1000 m (3,281 ft) in 4,2 minutes; service ceiling 6000 m (19,685 ft); maximum range 6150 km (3,822 miles) Weights: empty about 27700 kg (61,067 lb); maximum take-off 45000 kg (99,206 lb) Dimensions: span 42.00 m (137 ft 9.5 in) ; length 28.64 m (93 ft 11.5 in); height 6.83 m (22 ft 4.75 in); wing area 204.00m 2 (2,195.9 sq ft) Armament: six MG 151/20 20-mm cannon in ventral gondola, two dorsal turrets, a tail position and two beam hatches, and one 13-mm(0.51-in) machine-gun in the ventral gondola; bombs were not normally carried
ITALY
Savoia-Marchetti S.M.79 Developed from an eight-seat commercial airliner of 1934, the threeengine Savoia-Marchetti S.M.79 Sparviero entered service as a conventional medium bomber with the Regiav Aeronautica in 1937, and served oper- ationally with the Aviacion del Tercio alongside the Nationalist forces during the Spanish Civil War. Also in 1937 the S.M.79 embarked on trials at Gorizia as a torpedo bomber, being equipped to launch a single 450-mm (17.7-in) naval torpedo from an offset rack under the fuselage. The following year trials with paired torpedoes led to the adoption of the S.M.79-II aircraft as standard torpedo bomber equipment. Following Italy's entry into the war in June 1940, when Sparvieri (sparrowhawks) equipped 14 stormi'based in Italy, Sicily, Sardinia and Libya, the aircraft was constantly in action in the anti-shipping role, its first action being an attack by 19 S.M.79s of the 9° and 46° Stormi on French shipping off the Riviera coast on 13/14 June. During the invasion of Crete S.M.79s of the 92° Gruppo and the 28 la Squadriglia were active against Allied shipping in the Aegean, after which most aircraft were redeployed to Libya for operations against British naval forces and convoys in the Central Mediterranean as well as the naval base at Malta. Among the ships of the Royal Navy sunk by S.M.79s in the Mediterranean were the destroyers HMS Husky, HMS Jaguar, HMS Legion, and HMS Southwall, while the battleship HMS Malaya and the carriers HMS Indomitable and HMS Victorious were all struck by torpedoes launched by the Italian torpedo bombers; the majority of these ships were hit during the attacks on the Operation 'Pedestal' convoy which sailed with 14 merchant ships and
heavy escort for the relief of Malta. Among the famous Italian pilots of the Sparviero were men such as Capitani Buscaglia, Cimicchi, di Bella and Melley, An improved version was the S.M.79-III without the ventral gondola but with a forward-firing 20-mm cannon, Despite the obvious value of the S.M.79 to the Axis forces in the Mediterranean, the aircraft (like so many Italian aircraft) suffered from poor servicing facilities, and it was unusual for even as much as half the available strength of Sparvieri to be fit for operations at any given time. Nevertheless the S.M.79 was acknowledged
Operating in athe Mediterranean in 1942, this Savoia-Marchetti S.M.79 served with the 283 Squadriglia, 130° Gruppo Autonoma. One torpedo is carried beneath the fuselage. as being among the best torpedo aircraft to serve in the Mediterranean theatre during World War II.
Specification
Savoia-Marchetti S.M. 79-11 Type: five-seat torpedo bomber Powerplant: three 1,000-hp (745.7-kW) Piaggio P. XIRC 40 air-cooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 435 km/h (270 mph) at 3650 m (11,975 ft); service ceiling 7000 m (22,966 ft); normal range 2000 km (1,243 miles)
Weights: empty 7600 kg (16,755 lb); maximum take-off 11300 kg (24,912 Ib^i Dimensions: span 21.20 m (69 ft 6,66 in); length 16.20 m (53 ft 1.75 in); height24.10 m (13 ft 1.5 in); wing area 61,7m (664.14 sq ft) Armament: three 12.7-mm(0.5-m) Breda-SAFAT machine-guns in two dorsal positions and one ventral position, and one 7.7-mm (0,303-in) Lewis gun on a sliding mount in the rear fuselage to provide beam defence plus two 450-mm (17.7-in) torpedoes or 1250 kg (2,756 lb) of bombs.
The S.M. 79 was a fine torpedobomber which scored many hits against Allied shipping in the Mediterranean. It was fast for its size, and this enabled it to become one of the best Italian aircraft. 391
JAPAN
Mitsubishi G3M 'Nell' As far back as 1935, in response to Japanese naval requirement for a landbased twin-engine reconnaissance aircraft, Mitsubishi flew the first Ka-15 prototype, an aircraft which possessed a design potential that allowed development as a long-range medium bomber, Accordingly, following successful flight trials, the aircraft entered production in June 1936 as the Navy Type 96 Attack Bomber Model 11 (Mitsubishi G3M1). The initial version, of which 34 were produced, was powered by 910-hp (678.6-kW) Kinsei 3 radiais and possessed a maximum speed of 360 km/h (224 mph) at 1975 m (6,480ft). As the improved Kinsei 41 and 42 engine became available in 1937 a new version, the G3M2, started production and, with a total of 581 built by mid-1941, was the principal variant. With a top speed now increased to 374 km/h (232 mph), a bombload of up to 800kg (1,764 lb) carried externally and a defensive armament of three 7.7mm (0.303-in) machine-guns, the G3M2 possessed a maximum range of 4380 km (2,722 miles). A yet further improved version, of which production was undertaken by Nakajima during 1941-3, was the G3M3 with 1,300-hp (969.4-kW) Kinsei 51 radiais and a top speed of 415 km/h (258 mph) at 6000 m (19,685ft). Mitsubishi G3M2s were first flown in action by the Japanese navy's Kanoya Kokutai in August 1937 in raids on Hangchow and Kwangteh in China. By 1940 four kokutais in China were equipped with a total of about 130 G3M2s, a number that grew to 204 by the date of Pearl Harbor with the deployment of forces against Wake Island, the Philippines and the Marianas. And it was a force of 60 G3M2s of the Genzan and Mihoro Kokutais (with 26 Mitsubishi G4Mls of the Kanoya Kokutai) which, flying from bases in IndoChina, found and sank the British warships HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Repulse as they steamed without fighter protection off the Malayan coast on 10 December 1941. The type was known to the Allies as the 'Nell',
Mitsubishi C3M2 of the Genzan Kokutai flying from Saigon, Indo-China, in December 1941. This aircraft participa ted in the sinking of HMS Prince of Wales and Repulse. Specification Mitsubishi G3M2 Model 22 Type: five/seven-seat medium/ torpedo bomber Powerplant: two 1,075-hp (801.6-kW) Mitsubishi Kinsei 45 14-cylinder aircooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 374 km/h (232 mph) at 4200 m (13780 ft); climb to 3000 m (9,843 ft) in 8.34 minutes; service ceiling 9130 m (29,954 ft); maximum range 4380 km (2,722 miles) Weights: empty 4965 kg (10,946 lb); maximum take-off 8010 kg (17,659 lb) Dimensions: span 25.00 m (82 ft 0.25 in); length 16.45 m (53 ft 11.66 in); heighta3.685 m (12 ft 1.1 in); wing area 75.0m (807.32sqft) Armament: three 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Type 92 machine-guns in a retractable dorsal turret and two lateral blisters, and one 20-mm Type 99 cannon in a second dorsal turret, plus one 800-kg ( 1,764-lb) torpedo or equivalent bomb load carried externally A formation of Mitsubishi C3Ms cross the Japanese coast during a training exercise. This aircraft was widely used, especially in the early days of the war, on all kinds of maritime operations, including torpedo dropping, bombing and patrol. Its successor, the same company's C4M, was employed alongside the G3M on similar
JAPAN
Mitsubishi Ki-67 'Peggy' Like the Ki-21 and G4M, the Mitsubishi Ki-67 was classified by the Japanese as a heavy bomber, yet by Western standards would have scarcely rated the medium bomber category. It was nevertheless the best bomber to serve Japan in the war, albeit too late to influ- i enee the tide of events of the last year. By then the American air raids on the Japanese homeland were devastating aircraft plants and production was seriously affected. The Ki-67 Hiryu (flying dragon) was designed to a 1940 specification, issued in 1941, for a strategic bomber intended for use in an anticipated war with the Soviet Union on the Sibena-Manchukuo border. By d e p a r t i n g f r o m established Japanese practice and including armour protection and self-sealing fuel tanks, design of the prototype Ki-67 was protracted, and it was not until 27 December 1942 that the first aircraft flew; it proved to be highly manoeuvrable and pleasant to fly, and possessed a top speed of 538 km/h (334 mph). In the same month it was decided to adapt some Ki-67s as torpedobombers. The army put forward such a
392
host of suggestions for additional equipment that production suffered long delays, and it was not until October 1944 that the Ki-67 (codenamed 'Peggy' by the Allies) was first flown in combat by the 7th and 98th Sentais, and by the navy's 762nd Kokutai in the torpedo role during the battle off Formosa, Thereafter modifications were held to a minimum as production was afforded the highest priority; but by then American raids (and a devastating earthquake in December 1944) severely disrupted production, and no more than 698 Ki-67s were produced, some of them being flown in kamikaze strikes in the last months of the war.
Specification Mitsubishi Ki-67 Type: six/eight-seat heavy bomber Powerplant: two 1,900-hp ( 1416.8-kW) Mitsubishi Ha-104 radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 537 km/h (334 mph) at 6090 m (19,980 ft); climb to 6000 m (19,685 ft) in 14.5 minutes; service ceiling 9470 m (31,070 ft); range 2800 km (1,740 miles) Weights: empty 8649 kg (19,068 lb); normal loaded 13765 kg (30,347 lb) Dimensions: span 22.50 m (73 ft 9.75 in); length 18.70 m (61 ft 4.25 in); height 7.70 m (25 ft 3.2 in); wing area 65.85 m?' (708.8 sq ft)
Proving highly manoeuvrable and fast, the Mitsubishi Ki-67 Hiryu was used in the torpedo role (especially during the Battle of Formosa). Production of this effective aircraft was severely restricted following American bombing raids and an earthquake. Armament: single trainable 12.7-mm (0.5-in) Type 1 machine-guns in nose, two beam positions and tail, and one 20-mm Ho-5 cannon in dorsal turret, plus a bombload of 800 kg ( 1,764 lb) or one 1070-kg (2,359 lb) torpedo, or 2900-kg (6,393-lb) of bombs for kamikaze mission
Carrier Aircraft Carrierborne airpower reached such a peak in World War II that several battles which took place over the Pacific were fought solely with carrierborne aircraft. Elsewhere the carriers were protecting convoys, fighting submarines and covering beach assaults.
T
he overwhelming importance of carrierborne air power to warfare at sea was only dimly foreseen in the years which led up to World War II. Historically, it had been the battleship and the naval gunnery which had dominated the oceans ever since the days of the Spanish Armada right up to the Battle of Jutland. In addition, battleships considerably outnumbered carriers in navies throughout the world. Nevertheless, the 1930s saw the evolution of the methods and tactics that were to dominate the Pacific War and which were also to contribute greatly to the successful conclusion of the war in the Atlantic. It was the US Navy that was eventually to become the master of carrier warfare; however, both the Royal Navy and the Imperial Japanese navy were able to make significant contributions. The demands made by this new form of warfare were considerable, especially upon the aircraft used and upon the young pilots who flew them. The 'controlled crash' of a carrier landing demanded strong nerves and a strong aircraft. If the sea itself was anything other than calm (which unfortunately it so often was), the motion of the waves would cause the deck to pitch and roll alarm-
The US Navy led the field in carrier warfare. These Grumman TBF Avengers and F-6F Hellcats are on the deck of USS Monterey in the Pacific theatre. ingly, making landings rather tricky. In general, purpose-designed carrier aircraft had inferior performance when compared to their land-based contemporaries although this did not prevent the Fairey Swordfish from amassing a war record which was second to none - while conversions of landplanes, such as the
Supermarine Spitfire produced performance - at the expense of durability. Instead, it was left to the Japanese to show that the carrier aircraft, in the shape of the Mitsubishi AoM Zero, could outfly and outfight its land-based opponents. It was, however, the swarm of big, beefy US Navy aircraft, which were based upon the navy's
massive American carrier force, that was to prove decisive in the Pacific. Led by the Grumman F6F Hellcat and the Vought F4U Corsair, US and Allied naval aircraft in their thousands ranged the skies over Japan during the final months of the war, in a display of naval air power undreamed of only five years before. 393
JAPAN
Aichi D3A 'Val' Although thought to be obsolescent when Japan entered the war, the Aichi D3A with fixed spatted landing gear was the first Japanese aircraft to drop bombs on American targets when aircraft of this type took part in the great raid on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. Designed to a 1936 carrier-based dive-bomber requirement, the prototype was flown in January 1938 with a 529.4-kW (710-hp) Nakajima Hikari 1 radial, Production D3A1 aircraft had slightly smaller wings and were powered by the 745.7-kW (1,000-hp) Mitsubishi Kinsei 43 radial. A dorsal fin extension considerably improved the aircraft's manoeuvrability, although the armament of only two forwardfiring 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns, with another of the same calibre in the rear cockpit, was undeniably puny. After limited land-based operations in China and Indo-China, D3As were flown in all major carrier actions during the first 10 months of the war and sank more Allied naval vessels than any other Axis aircraft. Among British casualties in D3A1 attacks were HMS Hermes (the world's first carrier to be sunk by carrier aircraft), and the cruisers Cornwall and Dorsetshire, Heavy losses among DSAls during and after the Battle of the Coral Sea, however, forced withdrawal by most of the survivors to land bases. In 1942 the D3A2 was introduced with increased fuel capacity and more powerful engine, but by 1944 the aircraft were hopelessly outclassed by American fighters; a
AichiDSAl oftheYokosukaKokutaiin 1940. 'Vais'were among the most accurate of dive-bombers owing to the steep dive employed.
small number was subsequently employed in kamikaze attacks. Production amounted to 476 DSAls and 1,016 D3A2. The Allied reporting name was 'Val'. Specification Aichi D3A2 Type: two-seat carrierborne divebomber Powerplant: one 969.4-kW ( 1,300-hp) Mitsubishi Kinsei 54 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 430 km/h (267 mph) at 6200 m (20,341 ft); climb to 3000 m (9,843 ft) in 5.76 minutes; service ceiling 10500 m (34,449 ft); range 1352 km (840 miles) Weights: empty 2570 kg (5,666 lb); maximum take-off 3800 kg (8,378 lb) Dimensions: span 14,38 m (47 ft 2.1 in);
TheD3A was the standard divebomber of the Japanese air groups during the early years of the campaign. Its most notable
successes were the attacks on Pearl Harbor and the sinking of the British carrier HMS Hermes. This is the better-looking D3A2.
length 10.20 m (33 ft 5.6 in); height 2 3.85 m(12 ft 7.6 in); wingarea34.90 m (375.7 sq ft) Armament: two forward-firing 7,7-mm (0.303-in) Type 97 machine-guns in the
nose and one trainable 7,7-mm (0,303in) Type 92 gun in the rear cockpit, plus one 250-kg (551 -lb) bomb under the fuselage and two 60-kg ( 132-lb) bombs under the wings
JAPAN
Mitsubishi A6M 'Zeke' The famous Mitsubishi A6M, popularly known as the 'Zero', was the first carrierborne fighter in the world capable of outperforming any contemporary land-based fighter it was likely to confront. Because of inept Allied intelligence it was able to achieve immediate air superiority over the East Indies ^ and South East Asia from the day Japan entered the war. Designed under the leadership of Jiro Honkoshi in 1937 as a replacement for the neat but obsolescent A5M, the prototype A6M1 was first flown on 1 April 1939 with a 581.6kW (780-hp) Mitsubishi Zuisei 13 radial; production A6M2 fighters with two wing-mounted 20-mm guns and two nose-mounted 7,7-mm (0.303-in) guns were fitted with the 708.4-kW (950-hp) Nakajima Sakae 12 radial, and it was with this version that the Japanese navy escorted the raiding force sent against Pearl Harbor, and gained air superiority over Malaya, the Philippines and Burma. In the spring of 1942 the A6M3 with two-stage supercharged Sakae 21 entered service, later aircraft having their folding wing tips removed. The Battle of Midway represented the Zero's combat zenith; thereafter the agile Japanese fighter found itself ever more outclassed by the American F6F Hellcat and P-38 Lightning. To counter the new American fighters the A6M5 was rushed to front-line units; this version, with Sakae 21 engine and improved exhaust system, possessed a top speed of 565 km/ h (351 mph), more A6M5s (and subvariants) being produced than any other Japanese aircraft. It was five A6M5s of the Shikishima kamikaze unit that sank the carrier St Lo and damaged three others on 25 October 1944. 394
Mitsubishi A6M2 of the fighter complement aboard Hiryu during the a ttack on Pearl H arbor in December 1941. Other versions were the A6M6 with water-methanol boosted Sakae 31 engine and the A6M7 fighter/divebomber. Total production of all A6Ms was 10,937. (The reporting name'Zeke' was given to the A6M, and 'Rufe' to a float version, the A6M2-N.)
Specification
Mitsubishi A6M5b 'Zeke' Type: single-seat carrierborne fighter Powerplant: one 820.3-kW (1,100-hp) Nakajima NK2F Sakae 21 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 565 km/h (351 mph) at 6000 m (19,685 ft); climb to 6000 m (19,685 ft) in 7.0 minutes; service ceiling 11740 m (38,517 ft); range 1143 km (710 miles) Feared by all Allied pilots before the arrival of the Melica t in Pacific waters, theA6M featured astonishing m an oeuvrability and good endurance, especially when equipped with an underfuselage fuel tank, as here. These A6M2s are on a long-range figh ter pa trol.
Weights: empty 1876 kg (4,136 lb); normal loaded 2733 kg (6,025 lb) Dimensions: span 11.00 m (36 ft 1,1 in);
length 9.12 m (29 ft 11.1 in); height 2 3.51 m (11 ft 6.2 in); wing area 21.30 m (229.28 sg ft)
Armament: one 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Type 97 and one 13.2-mm(0.52-in)Type3 machine-gun in nose, and two wingmounted 20-mm type 99 cannon, plus underwing provision for two 60- or 250kg( 132-or 551-lb) bombs Mitsubishi A6M2 of the 6th Kokutai based atRabaul, New Britain, in November 1942. JAPAN
Nakajima B5N 'Kate' Designed to a 1935 requirement, and already in service for four years when Japan entered the war, the Nakajima B5N was in 1941 without question the best carnerborne torpedo-bomber in the world. Powered by a Nakajima Hikan radial engine, the low-wing three-crew monoplane with inwardsretracting wide-track landing gear was exceptionally clean, and first flew in January 1937. The following year production B5N1 aircraft were embarking in Japan's carriers and shore-based units were deployed in China. In 1939 the improved B5N2 appeared with a more powerful Sakae 11 engine in a smaller cowling, although armament and bombload were unchanged, and this version remained in production until 1943, When Japan attacked the USA the B5N2 had wholly replaced the B5N1 with operational units, and 144 B5N2s were involved in the fateful attack on Pearl Harbor; within the next 12 months aircraft of this type sank the American carriers USS Hornet, Lexington and Yorktown. Given the reporting name 'Kate' by the Allies, the B5N certainly earned the respect of the Americans, and in all the major carrier battles of the Pacific War attracted the undivided attention of defending fighters. With its puny defensive armament of a single machine-gun and laden with a large bomb or torpedo, however, the B5N began to suffer very heavily, and although the type was fully committed during the Solomons campaign the
survivors were withdrawn from combat after the Philippine battles of 1944, Thereafter, on account of their excellent range, they were assigned to antisubmarine and maritime reconnaissance duties in areas beyond the range of Allied fighters. Production of all B5Ns reached 1,149.
Weights: empty 2279 kg (5,024 lb); maximum take-off 4100 kg (9,039 lb) Dimensions: span 15,52 m (50 ft 11 in); length 10.30 m (33 ft 9.5 in); height 2 3.70 m(12 ft 1.7 in); wing area 37.70 m (405.8 sq ft Armament: one 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Type
Nakajima BSN of a Japanese navy unit. This type was responsible for many successful attacks on Allied shipping in the Pacific theatre. 92 tramable machine-gun in rear cockpit, plus one 800-kg ( 1,764-lb) torpedo or an equivalent weight of bombs
Specification
Nakajima B5N2'Kate' Type: three-crew carnerborne torpedo-bomber Powerplant: one 745,7-kW (l.OOOhp) Nakajima NK l B Sakae 11 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 378 km/h (235 mph) at 3600 m (11,811 ft); climb to 3000 m (9,843 ft) in 7,7 minutes; service ceiling 8260 m (27,100 ft); range 1990 km (1,237 miles) These two BSNs are seen flying over the mighty 70,000-ton battleship Yamato (the largest ever). The underfuselage shackles for the torpedo (or bombs) are visible.
JAPAN
Nakajima B6N 'Jill' At a time when the triumphs of the B5N were still almost three years in the future, the Japanese navy issued a specification for a replacement, recognizing that only limited overall design improvement of the B5N could be achieved in the B5N2. Accordingly design went ahead in 1939 of the Nakajima B6N and, despite the navy's preference for the Mitsubishsi Kasei radial, a Nakajima Mamoru was selected for the prototype which flew early in 1941, Superficially the B6N Tenzan (heavenly mountain) resembled the earlier aircraft, but the much increased power and torque of the big engine and four-blade propeller was found to impose considerable directional stability problems, demanding that the vertical tail surfaces be offset to one side, Flight trials dragged on, and were further delayed by troubles during carrier acceptance tests; then Nakajima was ordered to stop production of the Mamoru engine, so modifications had to be introduced to suit installation of the Kasei, In due course B6N1 aircraft (of which only 133 were
built) were embarked in the carriers Shokaku, Taiho, Hiyo, Junyo and Zuikaku, and took part in the great Battle of the Philippine Sea of June 1943, many being lost when the three first-named carriers were sunk. In that month production started of the slightly improved B6N2 (of which 1,133 were produced before the end of the war), but the heavy losses among Japanese carriers resulted in the 'Jill' being largely deployed ashore, particularly after the Battle of Leyte Gulf. Thereafter many BSNs were consigned to the kamikaze role.
Specification Nakajima B6N2'Jill'
Type: three-crew camerborne torpedo bomber Powerplant: one 1379.5-kW ( 1,850-hp) Mitsubishi MK4T Kasei 25 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 481 km/h (299 mph) at 4900 m (16,076 ft); climb to 5000 m (16,404 ft) in 10.4 minutes; service ceiling 9040 m (29,659 ft); range 1746 km ( 1,085 miles) Weights: empty 3010 kg (6,636 lb); maximum take-off 5650 kg (12,456 lb) Dimensions: span 14.89 m (48 ft
Nakajima B6N2 Tenzan of the Imperial Japanese Navy. This type was designed to supersede the BSN and saw intensive use during the latter part of the war. 10.2 in); length 10.87 m (35 ft 8 in); height 3.80 m (12 ft 5.6 in); wing area 37.20m 2 (400.43 sq ft) Armament: one trainable 13-mm (0.51m) Type 2 machine-gun in rear cockpit and one 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Type 97 machine-gun in ventral tunnel position, plus one 800-kg ( 1,764-lb) torpedo or an equivalent weight of bombs 395
JAPAN
Yokosuka D4Y 'Judy' Well-proportioned and purposeful in appearance, the Yokosuka D4Y possessed an excellent performance and owed much of its concept to the German He 118, for whose manufacturing rights Japan negotiated in 1938. Designed as a fast carrier-based attack bomber and powered by an imported Daimler-Benz DB 600G engine, the D4Y1 was first flown in December 1941; D4Y1-C reconnaissance aircraft were ordered into production at Aichi's Nagoya plant, the first of 660 aircraft being completed in the late spring of 1942. The first service aircraft were lost when the Soryu was sunk at Midway. Named Suisei (comet) in service and codenamed 'Judy' by the Allies, many D4Yls were completed as dive-bombers, and 174 Suiseis of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Koku Sentais were embarked in nine carriers before the Battle of the Philippine Sea. However, they were intercepted by American carriers, and suffered heavy casualties without achieving any success. A new version with 1044-kW (1,400-hp) Aichi Atsuta 32 engine appeared in 1944 as
the D4Y2 but, in the interests of preserving high performance, nothing was done to introduce armour protection for crew or fuel tanks, and the sole improvement in gun armament was the inclusion of a 13.2-mm (0.52-in) trainable gun (replacing the previous 7.92-mm/0.31-m gun) in the rear cockpit. This version suffered heavily in the battle for the Philippines. Problems of reliability with the Atsuta (DB 601) engine led to adoption of a Kinsei 62 radial in the D4Y3, and this engine was retained in the D4Y4 which was developed in 1945 as a single-seat suicide dive-bomber. A total of 2,033 production D4Ys was completed.
Yokosuka D4Y3 of the Imperial Japanese Navy. This version introduced the MitsubishiMK8PKinsei 62 radial engine, which avoided the reliability problems of the earlier Aichi Atsuta engine. Specification Yokosuka D4Y3'Judy' Type: two-seat carrierborne divebomber Powerplant: one 1163.3-kW(l,560-hp) Mitsubishi MK8P Kinsei 62 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 575 km/h (357 mph) at 6050 m (19,849 ft); climb to 3000 m (9,843 ft) 4.55 minutes; service ceiling 10500 m (34,449 ft); range 1520 km (944 miles)
Weights: empty 2501 kg (5,514 lb); maximum take-off 4657 kg (10.267 lb) Dimensions: span 11.50 m (37 ft 8.75 in); length 10.22 m (33 ft 6.4 in); height 3.74 m (12 ft 3.2 in); wing area 23.60m2 (254.04 sq ft) Armament: two fixed forward-firing 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Type 97 machineguns in nose and one 13,1-mm (0.5-in) Type 2 trainable gun in rear cockpit, plus a maximum bombload of 560 kg (1,235 lb)
USA
Curtiss SB2C Helldiver Last of a long line of Curtiss aircraft to carry the name Helldiver (the earlier aircraft being inter-war biplanes), the Curtiss SB2C was first flown as the XSB2C-1 on 18 December 1940. Production SB2C-1 aircraft featured an enlarged fin and rudder assembly, increased fuel capacity and four 12,7mm (0.5-in) guns in the wings. The SB2C-1C earned an armament of two 20-mm guns in the wings. The SB2C-3 appeared in 1944 with more powerful engine, and the SB2C-4 had provision to carry eight 127-mm (5-in) rockets or 454 kg (1,000 lb) of bombs under the wings (in addition to the 454-kg/1,000Ib internal bombload); the SB2C-4 carried radar in a small pod under the wing, and the SB2C-5 had increased fuel. Production amounted to 7,199 of all aircraft, including 3QO by Fairchild in Canada, 984 by the Canadian Car and Foundry, and 900 produced for the USAAF as the A-25A (most of which were taken over by the US Marine" Corps and redesignated SB2C-1A). Helldivers first went into action on 11 November 1943 with a raid by VB-17 on Rabaul, During 1944 they gradually replaced the Douglas SBD Dauntless, and were in constant action against the Japanese. Some 26 Canadian-built aircraft were supplied to the UK.
Specification
Curtiss SB2C-4 Helldiver Type: two-seat scout-bomber Powerplant: one 1416.8-kW(l,900-hp) Wright R-2600-20 radial piston engine
Curtiss SB2C-1 Helldiver of VB-8 aboard USS Bunker Hill, serving in the Pacific theatre.
Right: These two SB2C-1C Helldivers from VB-1 are on patrol in 1944. The Helldiver was not liked by pilots or ground crew and was referred to by many derogatory nicknames, the most common of which was 'The Beast'. Despite its reputation, the type put in m uch service in the thick of the battle againstjapan. Performance: maximum speed 475 km/h (295 mph) at 5090 m (16,700 ft); initial climb rate 549 m (1,800 ft) per minute; service ceiling 8870 m (29,100 ft); range 1875 km (1,165 miles) Weights: empty 4784 kg (10,547 lb); maximum take-off 7537 kg (16,616 lb) Dimensions: span 15.16 m (49 ft 9 in); length 11.18 m (36 ft 8 in); height 4.01 m ( 13 ft 2 in) ; wing area 39.20 n/ (422.0 sq ft)
Armament: two fixed forward-firing 20-mm guns in the wings and two 7.62mm (0.3-in) trainable guns in the rear
cockpit, plus a bomb load of 454 kg ( 1,000 lb) under the wings and 454 kg (1,000 lb) internally
USA
Vought F4U Corsair Distinctive yet not unattractive with its inverted gull wing, the Vought F4U Corsair was unquestionably the best shipborne fighter of the war, and gained an 11:1 kill: loss ratio in the Pacific. Designed by Rex B. Beisel, the XF4U-1 was flown on 29 May 1940, the first production F4U-1 fighters being delivered to VF-12 in October 1942, although most of the early aircraft went1 to the US Marine Corps. It was a land 396
Vough tF4U-lA Corsair of No. 17 Sqn, Royal New Zealand Air Force, based on Guadalcanal island in theSolomon group during August 1944.
based US Marine squadron, VMF-124, that first flew the Corsair into action, on 13 February 1943 over Bougainville. Additional production lines were set up by Brewster and Goodyear, these companies producing the F3A-1 and FG-1 respectively. To improve the pilot's field of view, later aircraft introduced a raised cockpit, and the F4U1C had a four 20-mm cannon armament. The F4U-1D, FG-1D and F3A-1D were powered by water-injection boosted R-2800-8W engines, and could carry two 454-kg (1,000-lb) bombs or eight 127-mm (5-in) rockets under the wings. Late in the war a night-fighter version, the XF4U-2, saw limited service with VFN-75 and VFN101. Wartime production of the Corsair (which continued until 1952 with later versions) reached 4,120 F4U-ls, 735 FSA-ls and 3,808 FG-ls; of these 2,012 were supplied to the UK's Fleet Air Arm and 370 to New Zealand. Indeed, if was the Royal Navy's Corsair Mk II aircraft of No, 1834 Squadron that were the first Corsairs to operate from a carrier when, on 3 April 1944, they took part in operations against the Tirpitz.
F4U-1D aboard USS Essex (CV-9) in April 1945, armed with rockets for softening-up attacks on Okinawa.
Goodyear-built Corsair Mk IV (FC-ID) serving with No. 1850 Sqn, Fleet Air Arm, HMS Vengeance, whilst on Pacific duty in 1945.
Specification Vought F4U-1 Corsair Type: single-seat shipboard fighter Powerplant: one 1491.4-kW (2,000-hp) Pratt & Whitney R-2800-8 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 671 km/h (417 mph) at 6066 m (19,900 ft); initial climb rate 881 m (2,890 ft) per minute; service ceiling 11247 m (36,900 ft); range 1633 km (1,015 miles) Weights: empty 4074 kg (8,982 lb); maximum take-off 6350 kg(14,000 lb) Dimensions: span 12.50 m (41 ftO in); length 10.17 m (33 ft 4.5 in); height 2 4.90 m (16 ft 1 in); wing area 29.17 m (314.0 sq ft) Armament: six forward-firing 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns in the wings The finest naval fighter produced in the war, Vought's distinctive Corsair was also an excellent ground-attack platform with bombs and rockets. USA
Douglas SBD Dauntless Developed directly from the Northrop BT-1 (the Northrop Corporation became a division of Douglas), the prototype of the Douglas SBD Dauntless two-seat carnerborne dive bomber was in fact a much modified production BT-1, Production orders for 57 SBD-1 and 87 SBD-2 aircraft were placed in April 1939, the former being delivered to US Marine Corps bombing and scout-bombing squadrons, and the latter to US Navy scout and bombing squadrons. The SBD-3, with two additional 12.7-mm (0.5-in) guns in the nose, self-sealing tanks and R-1820-52 engine, appeared in March 1941, and by the time of Pearl Harbor m December that year 584 SBD-3s had been delivered. Some 780 SBD-4 aircraft (with 24-volt electrical system but otherwise as the SBD-3 and produced at El Segundo, California) were built in 1942; photo-reconnaissance modifications (the SBD-1P, SBD-2P and SBD-3P) were also produced during 1941-2, A new Douglas plant at Tulsa, Oklahoma, built 2,409 SBD-5 aircraft with 894.8-kW (1,200-hp) R-1820-60 engines, follow-
ing these with 451 SBD-6 aircraft with -66 engines. The USAAF took delivery of 168 SBD-3A, 170 SBD-4A and 615 SBD-5A aircraft as the A-24, A-24A and A-24B respectively, bringing the total Douglas production to 5,936 SBDs. They were unquestionably one of the USA's most important weapons in the Pacific war, and sank a greater tonnage of Japanese shipping than any other aircraft, as well as playing a key part in the great battles of Midway, the Coral Sea and the Solomons.
Specification Douglas SBD-5 Dauntless Type: two-crew carrierborne scout/ dive-bomber Powerplant: one 894.8-kW (1,200-hp) Wright R-1820-60 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 394 km/h (245 mph) at 4816 m (15,800 ft); initial climb rate 363 m ( 1,190 ft) per minute; service ceiling 7407 m (24,300 ft); range 1770 km (1,100 miles) Weights: empty 3028 kg (6,675 lb);
maximum take-off 4924 kg (10,855 lb) Dimensions: span 12.65 m (41 ft 6.25 in); length 10.06 m (33 ft 0 in); height 3.94 m (12 ft 11 in); wing area 30.19m2 (325.0 sq ft) Armament: two fixed forward-firing 12,7-mm (0,5-in) machine-guns and two trainable 7.62-mm (0.3-m) guns in rear cockpit, plus a bombload of one 726-kg ( 1,600-lb) bomb under the fuselage and two 147-kg(325-lb) bombs under the wings
Douglas SBD-4 Da un tless of VMSB-243,1st Marine Air Wing, USMC, based on Munda, New Georgia island (Solomons) in August 1943.
397
USA
Grumman F4F Wildcat When first flown on 2 September 1937, the Grumman XF4F-2 single-seat naval fighter prototype proved to be only 16 km/h (10 mph) faster than the Brewster F2A-1, and only when a twostage supercharged XR-1830-76 was fitted was the true potential of the design recognized, and a speed of 537 km/h (333.5 mph) was recorded during US Navy trials with the XF4F-3. Some 54 production F4F-3 fighters were ordered in August 1939, 22 of which had been delivered by the end of 1940. These aircraft (Grumman's first monoplanes for the US Navy and later named Wildcat) served with VF-4 and VF-7, and were followed by 95 F4F-3A aircraft with single-stage supercharged R-1830-90 engines, The Wildcat was ordered by France in 1939 but the entire batch of 81 aircraft was transferred to the UK, with whose Royal Navy they served as the Martlet, being first flown in combat during 1940. US Navy and US Marine Corps F4Fs were heavily engaged during the early months of the war with the Japanese, numerous aircraft being destroyed on the ground, but also scoring a number of outstanding victories. The F4F-4, with manuallyfolding wings (of which 1,169 were produced), was delivered during 1942, and an unarmed long-range reconnaissance version of this, the F4F-7, had a range of over 5633km (3,500 miles), The F4F-4 was also built by General Motors as the FM-1, and a more powerful version, the FM-2, for operation from escort carriers. FM-Is and 2s were supplied to the UK as the Wildcat Mk V and Wildcat Mk VI (the name Martlet having been dropped). F4F-4s were heavily committed in the battles of the Coral Sea and Midway. Total production of the Wildcat (excluding prototypes) was 7,885, including 5,237 FM-Is and FM-2s by General Motors, and 1,100 for the UK.
Specification
Grumman F4F-4 Wildcat Type: single-seat shipboard fighter Powerplant: one 894.8-kW ( 1,200-hp) Pratt & Whitney R-1830-86 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed
General Motors (Grumman) Wildcat MkVI (FM-2) of No. 835 Sqn, Fleet Air Arm, aboard HMSNairansL in August 1944. Although slow and unmanoeuvrable when compared with the Mitsubishi A6M, the Grumman F4F was the best that the US Navy could field in the early days of the war. Flown by highly trained and brave pilots, the Wildca t held its own un til more modern aircraft arrived in service. 512 km/h (318 mph) at 5913 m (19,400 ft); initial climb rate 594 m (1,950 ft) per minute; service ceiling 10638 m (34,900 ft); range 1239 km (770 miles) Weights: empty 2624 kg (5,785 lb); maximum take-off 3607 kg (7,952 lb) Dimensions: span 11.58 m (38 ft 0 in); length 8.76 m (28 ft 9 in); height2 3.61 m (11 ft 10 in); wing area 24.15 m (260.0 sq ft) Armament: six forward-firing 12.7-mm
(0.5-in) machine guns; FM-2 had four guns and provision to carry two 113-kg
(250-lb) bombs or six 127-mm (5-m) rockets
USA
Grumman F6F Hellcat One of America's best wartime shipboard fighters, and ably partnering the F4U Corsair, the Grumman F6F Hellcat was the logical development of the F4F Wildcat, and was first flown as the XF6F-3 on 26 June 1942; this was given an uprated engine and flew again five weeks later. Deliveries to VF-9 aboard USS Essex started early in 1943; nightfighter versions were the F6F-3E and F6F-3N with radar in a wing pod. In 1944 the F6F-5 appeared with provision for 907 kg (2,000 lb) of bombs and two 20-mm cannon sometimes replacing the inboard wing 12.7-mm (0.5-in) guns: the radar-equipped night-fighter version was the F6F-5N; production totalled 6,435 F6F-5Ns, while 252 F6F3s and 930 F6F-5s served with the British Fleet Air Arm as the Hellcat Mk I and Hellcat Mk II respectively. Production of all F6Fs amounted to 12,275, and official figures credited the US Navy and Marine Corps aircraft with the destruction of 5,156 enemy aircraft in air combat, about 75 per cent of all 398
the US Navy's air combat victories in the war. The Hellcat's greatest single victory was in that largest of all carrier operations, the Battle of the Philippine Sea, in which 15 American carriers
embarked 480 F6F fighters (plus 2a2 dive-bombers and 199 torpedobombers); by the end of a week's fighting Task Force 58 had destroyed more than 400 Japanese aircraft and
Grumman Hellcat Mkll of No. 800 Sqn, Fleet Air Arm, Hying from HMS Emperor off the coast of Malaya in September 1945. The Fleet Air Arm adopted US-style midnigh t blue in theFarEast and some aircraft sported white bars each side of the national insignia. sunk three carriers, Hellcats were still serving with the US Navy several years after the war.
Grumman F6F-6Hellcat of VF-12, US Navy aboard USS Randolph operating in Japanese waters in early 1945. Specification Grumman F6F-5 Hellcat Type: single-seat shipboard fighter Powerplant: one 1491.4-kW (2,000-hp) Pratt & Whitney R-2800- 10W radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 612 km/h (380 mph) at 7132 m (23,400 ft); initial climb fate 908 m (2,980 ft) per minute; service ceiling 11369 m (37,300 ft); range 1521 km (945 miles) Weights: empty 4190 kg (9,238 lb); maximum take-off 6991 kg (15,413 lb) Dimensions: span 13.05 m (42 ft 10 in); length 10.24 m (33 ft 7 in); height 3.99 m (13 ft 1 in); wingareaSl.03 n/ (334.0 sq ft) Armament: six 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns in wings, or two 20-mm cannon and four 12.7-mm (0.5-in) guns in wings, plus provision for two 454-kg (1,000-lb) bombs
The Hellcat finally enabled the Americans to defeat the Mitsubishi A6M. This VD-5 aircraft was used in the photo-reconnaissance role. USA
Grumman TBF Avenger Destined to become one of the best shipborne torpedo-bombers of the war, the Grumman TBF-Avenger first saw combat during the great Battle of Midway. The XTBF-1 prototype was first flown on 1 August 1941 after an order for 286 aircraft had already been placed. The first TBF-1 aircraft appeared in January 1942 and VT-8 ('Torpedo-Eight') received its first aircraft during the following May. On 4 June six .of VT-8's aircraft were launched at the height of the Battle of Midway, but only one returned - and this with one dead gunner and the other wounded. Despite this inauspicious start, production was accelerating as General Motors undertook production in addition to Grumman, producing the TBM-1 version. Sub-variants included the TBF-1C with two 20-mm cannon in the wings, the TBF-IB which was supplied to the UK under Lend-Lease, the TBF-ID and TBF-IE with ASV radar, and the TBF-1L with a searchlight in the bomb bay. Production of the TBF-1 and TBM-1, as well as sub-variants, were 2,290 and 2,882 respectively. General Motors (Eastern Divison) went on to produce 4,664 TBM-3 aircraft with R-2600-20 engines, and the sub-variants corresponded with those of the TBF-Is. The UK received 395 TBF-IBs and 526 TBM-3Bs, and New Zealand 63. The TBM-3P cameraequipped aircraft and the TBM-3H with search radar were the final wartime versions, although the Avenger went on to serve with the US Navy until 1954,
Grumman TBF Avenger of the US Navy. Armament of the dorsal turret was one 0.5-calibre machine-gun. 444 km/h (276 mph) at 5029 m (16,500 ft); initial climb rate 628 m (2,060 ft) per minute; service ceiling 9174 m (30,100 ft); range 1625 km (1,010 miles) Weights: empty 4783 kg (10,545 lb); maximum take-off 8117 kg (17,895 lb) Dimensions: span 16.51 m (54 ft 2 in);
length 12.48 m (40 ft 11.5 in); height 2 4.70 m(15 ft 5 in); wingarea45.52 m (490.0 sq ft) Armament: two fixed forward-firing 12.7-mm(0.5-in)guns, one 12.7-mm (0.5-in) gun in dorsal turret and one 7.62-mm (0.3-in) gun in ventral position, plus an offensive load of up to
907 kg (2,000 lb) of bombs, or one torpedo, in weapons bay Avengers replaced the hopelessly outclassed Devasta tor on the torpedo squadrons from 1942 onwards. These Avengers are seen on a practice torpedo run.
Specification Grumman (General Motors) TBM-3E Avenger Type: three-crew carrierborne torpedo-bomber Powerplant: one 1416.8-kW (1,900-hp) Wright R-2600-20 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 399
UK
Hawker Sea Hurricane Based on the RAF's Hurricane, the Hawker Sea Hurricane was introduced to provide modern fighter protection for convoys of merchant ships, Over 800 were delivered, the majority of them being conversions of Hurricanes, including many which had seen operational service. A number were modifications of newly delivered Canadian-built aircraft. The first version to appear was the Sea Hurricane Mk IA fitted with catapult spools so that they could be flown from specially fitted merchant ships in the event of the appearance of an enemy aircraft. This was followed by the Sea Hurricane Mk IB, which in addition to the spools had deck arrester gear to enable it to be used for carrier operations. The Sea Hurricane Mk 1C, of which only a few were produced, had four wing-mounted 20-mm cannon in place of the machine-guns of the earlier versions. Re-engined with the Rolls-Royce Merlin XX it became the Sea Hurricane Mk IIB when fitted with machine-guns, and the Sea Hurricane Mk IIC with cannon. Canadianbuilt aircraft also used these designations, irrespective of their original mark numbers. Sea Hurricanes first entered operational service in February 1941 with No. 804 Squadron for deployment from catapult-armed merchantmen, or CAM-ships as they were generally known. The first carrier squadron to equip was No. 880 Squadron in March 1941, seeing action in July from HMS Furious during a raid on the Arctic port of Petsamo, The following month an aircraft of No. 804 Squadron catapulted from HMS Maphn accounted for a Focke-Wulf Condor, The disadvantage of this method of operation was
that unless the pilot could reach land he had no choice but to ditch his aircraft. The CAM-ship task and aircraft were later passed on to the RAF's Merchant Ship Fighter Unit at Speke, When the first escort carriers came into service with the Royal Navy, Sea Hurricanes were attached to several of them, seeing service in the Arctic and the Mediterranean until being replaced in 1943 by Seafires and Wildcats.
Specification
Hawker Sea Hurricane Mk IIC Type: carrierborne fighter Powerplant: one 954.5-kW ( 1,280-hp) Rolls- Royce Merlin XX V-12 piston engine Performance: maximum speed 505 km/h (314 mph) at 5944 m (19,500 ft); service ceiling 10516 m (34,500 ft); range 1207 km (750 miles) Weights: empty 2617 kg (5,770 lb); maximum take-off 3511 kg (7,740 lb)
Dimensions: span 12.20 m (40 ft 0 in); length 9.83 m (32 ft 3 in); height24.00 m (13 ft 1,5 in); wing area 23.92 m (257.5 sq ft) Armament: four 20-mm cannon After the failure of such types as the Sea C la dia tor and Fulmar to provide adequate fighter protection, the Hurricane was hastily adapted for carrier decks. The result was a fine fighter which saw much action.
UK
Supermarine Seafire Following the success of the Sea Hurricane adaptation, a Spitfire VB was fitted with a V arrester hook and satisfactory trials were carried out in HMS Illustrious towards the end of 1941. A number of these aircraft with 'B' type wings were similarly modified and named Supermarine Seafire Mk IB. In May 1942 the Seafire Mk IIC began to come off the production line, fitted with the 'C type Spitfire wing with provision for four 20-mm cannon, and having a reinforced fuselage, catapult spools and rocket-assisted take-off gear (RATOG). A low-altitude version was the Seafire L.Mk IIC, and a few were fitted with cameras for photographic reconnaissance work, being designated Seafire LR.Mk IIC. A manuallyoperated folding wing was introduced on the Seafire F.Mk III, and as with the earlier mark there was a Seafire L.Mk III variant for low-altitude work, a few being modified as the Seafire LR.MK III for photo-reconnaissance duties. In 1945 the Griffon-engined Seafire F.Mk XV appeared, with a sting-type arrester hook, being followed by the Seafire F.Mk XVII with a clear-view bubble hood, cutaway rear fuselage and increased fuel capacity. The Seafire FR.Mk XVII reconnaissance variant had two cameras. Based on the Spitfire F.Mk 21, the Seafire F.Mk 45 had a later Griffon fitted with either a five-blade propeller or two threeblade counter-rotating propellers. The clear-view bubble hood and cutaway 400
rear fuselage were fitted to the Seafire F.Mk 46, a reconnaissance version being the Seafire FR.Mk 46. The final version, the Seafire F.Mk 47, and the Seafire FR.Mk 47 variant, had powerfolding wings and other changes, The Seafire participated successfully in the North African landings in November 1942, and later at Salerno and the south of France, Its principle failing was highlighted at Salerno, where lack of windspeed over the carrier decks led to numerous collapsed landing gears, Several squadrons were active in the Pacific, and after the
war the Griffon-engined versions remained in service until 1954, many with reserve squadrons. Specification Supermarine Seafire F.Mk III Type: carrierborne fighter Powerplant: one 1096-kW(l,470-hp) Rolls-Royce Merlin 45, 50 or 55 V-12 piston engine Performance: maximum speed 566 km/h (352 mph) at 3734 m (12,250 ft); service ceiling 10302 m (33,800 ft); range 748 km (465 miles) on internal fuel
Weights: empty 2449 kg (5,400 lb); maximum take-off 3175 kg (7,000 lb) Dimensions: span 11.23 m (36 ft 10 in); length 9.12 m (29 ft 11 in); height 3.48 m (11 ft 5 in); wing area 22.48 n/ (242.0 sq ft) Armament: two 20-mm cannon and four 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns, plus provision for one 227-kg (500-lb) bomb or two 113-kg (250-lb) bombs Seafires were poten t figh ters with high performance for a decklaunched aircraft but suffered a great deal from weak undercarriages and relatively high landing speed.
UK
Fairey Albacore Wholly eclipsed by the Swordfish, which it was intended to replace, the Fairey Albacore was in essence a cleaned-up version of the celebrated 'Stringbag' with an enclosed cabin to improve the operational efficiency of the crew and a Bristol Taurus radial to provide higher performance despite considerably greater weights. First flown in December 1938, the initial prototype was fitted with a wheel landing gear, while the second had twin floats. The Albacore, which was inevitably called the Applecore' in service, differed from the Swordfish in being used o p e r a t i o n a l l y only on the wheeled type of landing gear. The type entered service with the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm in 1940, and production amounted to 798 aircraft, The Albacore was first flown in action during attacks on Boulogne in September 1940. Most Albacores were landbased throughout their careers, but the type's brief moment of glory arrived when the Albacores from the carrier HMS Formidable severely damaged the Italian battleship Vittorio Veneto during the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941. After this time the Albacore was occasionally used for bombing in the Western Desert, usually at night to prevent the depredations of Axis fighters, and the type played an important part in the operations leading up to the Battle of Alamein in October 1942. In carrier operations the Albacore saw service in the North Atlan-
Fairey Albacore of the Fleet Air Arm. It was not as well liked as its predecessor, the Swordfish, despite its enclosed cockpit. Aigh t: Inevitably called the _ 'Applecore', the Albacore gave good if undistinguished service, especially in North Africa and the Mediterranean. This aircraft is seen dropping a practice 457-mm (18-in) torpedo. tic, Arctic, Mediterranean and Indian oceans; and the type was also used with some success as a support aircraft during seaborne invasions, notably those of Sicily, Italy and northern France, the last in the hands of Royal Canadian Air Force squadrons. Specification Fairey Albacore Type: three-crew naval torpedobomber Powerplant: one 794.2-kW (1,065-hp) Bristol Taurus II radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed
259 km/h (161 mph) at 2134 m (7,000 ft); climb to 1829 m (6,000 ft) in 8.0 minutes; service ceiling 6309 m (20,700 ft); range 1320 km (820 miles) Weights: empty 3266 kg (7,200 lb); maximum take-off 5715 kg (12,600 lb) Dimensions: span 15.24 m (50 ft 0 in); length 12,13 m (39 ft 9.5 in); height
4.65 m (15 ft 3 in); wing area 57,88 m2 (623.0sqft Armament: one forward-firing 7.7-mm (0.303in) Vickers machine-gun and two 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Vickers 'K1 machine-guns in the rear cockpit, plus one 457-mm ( 18-m) torpedo or up to 907 kg (2,000 lb) of bombs
UK
Fairey Barracuda Intended to replace the Albacore, itself a replacement for the Swordfish, t h e F a i r e y B a r r a c u d a was a n altogether more advanced aircraft conceptually, and was designed as a high-performance monoplane to meet a 1937 requirement, The intended powerplant was the Rolls-Royce Exe, and the programme was delayed substantially when this engine was abandoned and the structure had to be revised to accommodate a Merlin engine from the same manufacturer. Thus the "Barracuda prototype did not fly until 7 December 1940, and it was immediately apparent that the performance of the heavy Barracuda would be limited by the power available: the 939.6-kW (1,260-hp) Merlin XXX in the Barracuda Mk I and the 1222.9-kW (1,640-hp) Merlin 32 for the Barracuda Mk II and Barracuda Mk III. At a time when production priorities were afforded mostly to the RAF, deliveries of the Barracuda to the Fleet Air Arm were slow to start, and it was January 1943 before Barracuda Mk Is began to enter service with the Fleet Air Arm. The Barracuda Mk I was little more than a service-test type, only 23 being built. The two main wartime models were thus the Barracuda Mk II with ASV Mk UN radar (1,635 built by Fairey, Blackburn, Boulton Paul and Westland) and the Barracuda Mk III torpedo-reconnaissance version with ASV Mk X radar (912 built by the parent company). The Barracuda saw only limited service in home waters, the highpoint of its career being a highly successful strike on the German battleship Tirpitz in April 1944; but in the Pacific campaigns of 1944 and 1945 the Barracuda was one of the more prominent British aircraft.
Fairey Barracuda Mk II of the Fleet Air Arm, complete with anti-submarine radar and underwing depth bombs.
Specification
Fairey Barracuda Mk II Type: three-crew shipborne torpedoand dive-bomber Powerplant: one 1222.9-kW (1,640-hp) Rolls-Royce Merlin 32 V-12 piston engine Performance: maximum speed 367 km/h (228 mph) at 533 m ( 1,750 ft); climb to 1524 m (5,000 ft) in 6.0 minutes; service ceiling 5060 m (16,600 ft); range 1851 km ( 1,150 miles) Weights: empty 4241 kg (9,350 lb); maximum take-off 6396 kg ( 14,100 lb) Dimensions: span 14.99 m (49 ft 2 in); length 12,12 m (39 ft 9 in); height 4,60 m (15 ft 1 in); wing area 34.09 nr (367.0 sq ft) Armament: two 7.7-mm (0,303-in) Vickers 'K' machine-guns in the rear cockpit, plus one 735-kg ( 1,620-lb) torpedo, or four 204-kg (450-lb) depth charges, or six 113-kg (250-lb) bombs Altogether more advanced than the Albacore, the Barracuda was delayed by difficulties with enginemounting. When it did reach service in January 1943, the aircraft acquitted itself well, especially during the attacks on Tirpitz. 401
U IS
Fairey Firefly Numbered amongst the most successful aircraft ever used by the Fleet Air Arm, the Fairey Firefly served in its various versions for nearly 15 years, a total of 1,702 being produced before production ceased in 1956, The prototype took the air on 22 December 1941, and the first production Firefly F.Mk I entered service in March 1943. Later production Mk Is were fitted with ASH radar, in which form they became Firefly FR.Mk I reconnaissance fighters. A number of aircraft were produced as Firefly NF.Mk I nightfighters equipped with a different radio for night flying, and with shrouded exhausts. Another nightfighter version, the Firefly NF.MK II, had AI.Mk X radar mounted on each wing, whilst the Firefly F.Mk IA was a modification of the Mk I brought up to FR.Mk I standard by the addition of ASH radar. A trial modification fitted with a Griffon 61 and a nose radiator was designated Firefly F.Mk 3, but this was superseded by the Firefly FR.Mk 4 reconnaissance fighter with a Griffon 74. This went into service in 1946, but from 1948 it gave way to variants of the Firefly Mk 5 with improved equipment, the surviving FR.Mk 4s being
converted to Firefly TT.Mk 4 target tugs, Then followed the Firefly AS.Mk 6 anti-submarine reconnaissance and strike aircraft, the final version to enter first-line service, of which 152 were delivered as such, including some converted from Mk 5s on the production line, in addition to many other Mk 5s converted after seeing service. Other versions of the Firefly included trainers and target drones, the last to appear being the Firefly U.Mk 9 drone in 1956. The Firefly was an immediate success on entering service, participating in attacks on the German battleship Tirpiiz as well as taking part in numerous Norwegian raids. It was equally successful in the Pacific, making raids against Japanese occupied islands early in 1945, and against the Japanese mainland shortly before VJ-day. In the post-war years several squadrons took an active part in the Korean War, and one squadron later carried out attacks against Malayan bandits.
Specification
Fairey Firefly F.Mk I Type: two-seat carrierborne fighter Powerplant: one 1294-kW ( 1,735-hp)
Rolls-Royce Griffon IIB V-12 piston engine Performance: maximum speed 509 km/h (316 mph) at 4267 m (14,000 ft); service ceiling 8534 m (28,000 ft); range 2092 km (1,300 miles) Weights: empty 4423 kg (9,750 lb); maximum take-off 6359 kg (14,020 lb) Dimensions: span 13.56 m (44 ft 6 in); length 11.46 m (37 ft 7 in); height 4,14 m (13 ft 7 in); wing area 30.47 n/ (328.0 sq ft)
Fairey Firefly Mkls reached squadron service in October 1943, and were soon active against such targets as the Tirpitz. A transfer to the Far East saw more action for the aircraft, but, as with the Fulmar, it was hampered by its size and twoman crew. Armament: four 20-mm cannon, plus eight 27.2-kg (60-lb) rockets or two 454 (1,000-lb) bombs
UK
Fairey Fulmar The first true shipborne monoplane fighter for the Fleet Air Arm, the eightgun Fairey Fulmar tends to be overlooked in the part it played in the first three years of the war, until replaced by deck-operating adaptations of the Hurricane and Spitfire, and by the Martlet. Developed from the Fairey P. 4/34 light bomber prototypes which flew in 1937, the Fulmar fleet fighter prototype was flown on 4 January 1940, with production aircraft being completed soon after. Early trials showed the aircraft to have a disappointing performance, although it was recognized as being a fairly large aeroplane with the same engine as the Hurricane single-seater. In 1942, after 127 production Fulmar Mk 1 fighters had been completed, the Fulmar Mk II appeared with 939.6-kW (1,260-hp) Merlin XXX, an engine which raised the top speed to 438 km/h (272 mph). Fulmar Mk Is of No. 808 Squadron of the Fleet Air Arm were listed in RAF Fighter Command's order of battle during the Battle of Britain, although they were not engaged in combat. By November 1940, however, Fulmars were in action from HMS Illustrious at the time of the Battle of Taranto, and soon afterwards from Arlc Royal defending the vital convoys sailing to Malta. At the Battle of Cape Matapan Fulmars from Formidable escorted the Albacores and Swordfish which torpedoed the Italian battleship Vittorio
Fairey Fulmar Mk I in standard early war Fleet Air Arm finish.
Right: Although powered by the same Merlin engine as the Hurricane and Spitfire, the Fulmar was considerably larger and carried an extra crew member. It was not the equal of the best enemy fighters, but gave a good account of itself. Veneto. Early in 1942, as Japanese naval forces sailed into the Indian Ocean to threaten Ceylon, two squadrons of Fulmars were based there as part of Colombo's air defences; when confronted for the first time by the much superior carnerbased Mitsubishi A6M fighters the Fulmars were utterly outclassed and almost all were shot down or damaged. A total of 450 Fulmar Mk Us was built, and some served as nightfighters.
Specification
Fairey Fulmar Mk II Type: two-seat carrierborne fighter
UK
Fairey Swordfish Of all aircraft regarded as anachronisms the Fairey Swordfish torpedobomber must be the supreme example, for even back in the 1930s it appeared archaic and cumbersome. Stemming from an earlier design whose prototype had crashed, the first prototype Swordfish (the TSR.II) first flew on 17 April 1934 and the production Swordfish Mk I was prepared to 402
Specification S.38/34 with slightly swept-back top wing; construction was all-metal with fabric covering. By the outbreak of war in 1939 a total of 689 aircraft had been delivered or were on A Fairey Swordfish Mkll is 'struck down ' following an an ti-submarine patrol.
Powerplant: one 939.6-kW ( 1,260-hp) Rolls-Royce Merlin XXX V-12 piston engine Performance: maximum speed 438 km/h (272 mph) at 5029 m (16,500 ft); initial climb rate 402 m ( 1,320 ft) per minute; service ceiling 8291 m (27,200 ft); range 1255 km (780 miles) Weights: empty 3349 kg (7,384 lb);
maximum take-off 4627 kg (10,200 lb) Dimensions: span 14.14 m (46 ft 4.5 in); length 12.24 m (40 ft 2 in); height 3,25 m (10 ft8 in); wingarea31.77 n/ (342.0 sq ft) Armament: eight 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns in wings, and a few aircraft also had a single trainable 7.7mm (0.303-in) machine-gun in the rear cockpit
Fairey Swordfish Mkl of No. 820 Sqn serving aboard HMS Ark Royal in l 939. This aircraft is carrying the standard 457-mm (18-in) torpedo.
Throughout the later months of the war, Swordfish were used on general attacks against German shipping in the North Sea. These were often small vessels and their light defences proved inadequate against the tough Swordfish. Rockets were the favoured weapon for these strikes. order, serving with both wheel and float landing gear aboard Royal Navy carriers, battleships, battle-cruisers and cruisers in the torpedo-spotter reconnaissance role. Among the memorable events in which the old 'Stringbag' Seemingly an anachronism in World War II, the Swordfish remained unmatched by any other British naval aircraft in terms of battle honours. At the heart of this was the aircraft's immense sturdiness and basic good design. This typically well-worn example is carrying a practice bomb.
Fairey Swordfish Mkll of No. 811 Sqn aboard HMS Biter in 1944, complete with invasion stripes. participated was the action at Tarante on 11 November 1940, when Swordfish aircraft from HMS Illustrious severely damaged three Italian battleships; the crippling of the Bismarck in the Atlantic; and the suicidal attack on the German warships, Scharnhorst, Gneisenau and Prinz Eugen during their famous escape up the English Channel in February 1942. Production of the Swordfish was undertaken largely by Blackburn, the Swordfish Mk II being introduced with a strengthened lower wing to allow eight rocket projectiles to be mounted, the Swordfish Mk III
with ASV radar between the landing legs, and the Swordfish Mk IV conversion of the Mk II with a rudimentary enclosed cabin. Production ended on 18 August 1944, by which time a total of 2,396 Swordfish had been completed, Specification Fairey Swordfish Mk II Type: three-crew torpedo/antisubmarine aircraft Powerplant: one 559.3-kW (750-hp) Bristol Pegasus XXX radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed
222 km/h (138 mph) at sea level; initial climb rate 372 m (1,220 ft) per minute; service ceiling 5867 m ( 19,250 ft); range 879 km (546 miles) Weights: empty 2132 kg (4,700 lb); maximum take-off 3406 kg (7,510 lb) Dimensions: span 12.87 m (45 ft 6 in); length 10.87 m (35 ft 8 in); height 3.76 m (12 ft 4 in); wing area 56.39 n/ (607.0sqft) Armament: one fixed forward-firing 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-gun and one tramable 7,7-mm (0,303-in) gun in rear cockpit, plus an offensive load of one 457-mm ( 18-in) torpedo or eight 27.2-kg (60-lb) rocket projectiles
403
Transport and Assault Aircraft Military transport aircraft were to make a significant breakthrough during World War II by developing the ability to deliver manpower and weapons direct to the battlefield from the air: this was the ultimate expression of mobile warfare.
Douglas C-47 Dakotas and Waco CG-4 Hadrian gliders lining an airstrip in March 1945; both were essential tools for delivering forces direct to the battlefield.
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corps of at least 5000 parachute troops.' Thus wrote Winston Churchill to his chief of staff on 22 June 1940. This message was, in effect, to give birth to the British airborne division. It has long been the dream of military men to have the means and the capability to 404
transport large numbers of soldiers by air around the war zone, and at least one Napoleonic print exists showing this being achieved across the English Channel, each man under an individual balloon! However, it was the Soviet Union and not Britain which was to give the dream substance, for it was during the summer manoeuvres of 1936
that a demonstration troop of 1200 Soviet soldiers complete with 150 machine-guns served to impress the world. Even so, Nazi Germany was quick to imitate such a manouevre and it was her paratroops and a new method of transporting armed men, by means of towed gliders, that first saw both methods of transport
used in action during the opening months of World War II. The lessons learned from this experience were soon being applied by the Germans to the altogether larger action in Crete. Up until this time, transport aircraft had been used only as aerial troop carriers. However, following on from the advances initiated by the Soviet Union and Germany, a third method of transportation now awaited these aircraft: that of airlanding operations in which soldiers were disembarked directly under fire on to enemy territory. All three methods were used on a scale hitherto only imagined when the UK, the USA and their allies invaded the continent of Europe in 1944, moving by air not only men and arms, but also heavy equipment and vehicles, some (like the human cargoes) even being deposited by parachute. Although made as perfect as possible, the susceptibility to error of these schemes was brought sharply home by the Arnheim operation, while the aerial movement of armies had spawned a whole range of ancillary systems, such as the reclaiming of gliders by the snatch method. After almost 200 years the dream had become a reality.
USA
Curtiss C-46 Commando In common with its more prolific contemporary, the Douglas C-47, the Curtiss C-46 Commando was initially developed for the civil market, in the shape of the CW-20 prototype which first flew on 26 March 1940 on the power of two 1193.1-kW (1,600-hp) Wright Cyclone 586-C14-BA2 engines. The aircraft featured a twin-finned tail unit but this was soon changed to a large single unit. In September 1940 a large order was placed for a militarized version which was to be designated C-46 and powered by the Pratt & Whitney Double Wasp. Quickly following the C-46 was the main production version, the C-46A, which featured double cargo doors and a hydraulic winch. This allowed the crew to load the aircraft without ground assistance, Other main versions were the C-46D with revised nose and doors for paratroop operations, and the C-46F which introduced more powerful engines and blunted wing tips. The C-46E sported a stepped windscreen, In service the C-46 proved reliable and able to carry much greater loads than the C-47, and the large-diameter cabin allowed awkward items to be carried. The cabin floor was strengthened to allow the airlift of light vehicles and artillery, The C-46 entered service in mid1942 and was used initially on local duties, Its operations were soon extended to cover the South Atlantic routes supplying the Allied troops in Seen here flying above the Himalayas (the famous 'hump'between India and China), the Curtiss C-46 Commando was capable of carrying 50 troops, compared with about 28 by the C-47.
North Africa but it was in Europe and the Far East that the aircraft was used extensively, its most famous route being over the 'Hump' between India and China. This consisted of mountainous passes and treacherous makeshift airfields, the cargoes often consisting of ammunition and fuel, The C-46 was used in most of the 'trucking' operations during the last two years of the Pacific war in the hands of the US Army Air Force and the US Marine Corps (designated R5C-1), and the end of hostilities in the Far East spelt the end of production for this hardworking beast of burden. A total of
of 3,180 C-46s was built, and many of these continued in US service throughout Korea until the early days of the Vietnam conflict. A handful continue in small-scale civil freighting today.
Specification
Curtiss C-46 Commando Type: paratroop and general transport Powerplant: two 1491.4-kW(2,000-hp) Pratt & Whitney R-2800-43 18-cylmder air-cooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 425 km/h (264 mph) at 3962 m (13,000 ft); service ceiling 8412 m (27,600 ft); range 3701 km (2,300 miles)
On account of its better performance at altitude than the C-47 153 Sky train, the Curtiss C-46 Commando was extensively used by the USAAFin the Pacific theatre and for the supply of war matĂŠriel from India to China over the 'hump'. Herelndian troops embark in a C-46A. Weights: empty 13374 kg (29,485 lb); maximum take-off 21773 kg (48,000 lb) Dimensions:span32.92 m(108 ftO in); length 23,27 m (76 ft 4 in); height 6.71 m (22 ft 0 in); wing area 126.16 m2 ( 1,338 sq ft) Armament: none
405
USA
Douglas C-47 Skytrain Probably the best known transport aeroplane of all time, whether as an airliner or military transport, the Douglas C-47 Skytrain evolved from the DC3 airliner which introduced new levels of speed and comfort to travel during the late 1930s. First flown as a commercial aircraft on 17 December 1935, the C-47 was not ordered by the US Army Air Corps until 1940, the airline interior giving way to bucket seats along the cabin sides, and Pratt & Whitney R1830 radiais replacing the DC-3's Wright Cyclones. Some 93 C-47s were built before production switched to the C-47A with 24-volt in place of 12-volt electrical system; a total of 4,931 C47As was built. High-altitude superchargers and R-1830-90 engines were introduced in 3,241 C-47B aircraft (including 133 TC-47B trainers) intended for use in South East Asia, Many other variations were produced under separate designations, of which the C-53 Skytrooper was the most important, being in effect an airline standard aircraft for military purposes. Wartime military production of the C-47
reached 10,048, plus an estimated 2,700 produced in the Soviet Union as the Lisunov Li-2. It was also produced in Japan as the L2D. In the USAAF the C-47 became the standard transport and glider tug in service from 1942 onwards, being flown in large numbers in every airborne forces operation during the war; furthermore, some 1,895 Dakotas served with 25 RAF squadrons, the Dakota Mk I corresponding to the C-47, the Dakota Mk II to the C-53, the Dakota Mk III to the C-47A and the Dakota Mk IV to the
Above: The C-47'/Dakota gained affection borne of familiarity among Allied troops the world over, affectionately dubbed 'OldBucket
Seats'and 'GooneyBird''. Shown here is a USAAF aircraft in South East Asia that survived a suicide ramming by a Japanese figh ter.
A sight typical of any one of a score of airfields in Britain occupied by the C-47s and C-53s of the US IX Troop Carrier Command in 1943-4. At peak
strength the command in Britain fielded 52 squadrons in 13 groups, with almost 900 C-47s/53s. This picture was taken early in Ă?944.
406
Developed from the DC-2 and DC-3 airliners, theC-47was the most important transport in the Allied inventory by the time of the invasion of France. C-47B. As late as 1961 the USAF still had over 1,000 C-47s on its inventory, and the type was also used by the US Navy as the R4D in several variants. Douglas C-47 Skytrain (Dakota Mk I) Type: three-crew 27-troop military transport Powerplant: two 894.8-kW (1,200-hp) Pratt & Whitney R-1830-92 14-cylinder radial piston engines
Performance: maximum speed 370 km/h (230 mph ) at 2591 m (8,500 ft); climb to 3048 m (10,000 ft) in 9.6mmutes; service ceiling7315 m (24,000 ft); range 2575 km (1,600 miles) Weights: empty 8255 kg (18,200 lb); maximum take-off 11793 kg (26,000 lb) Dimensions: span 29.11 m (95 ft 6 in); length 19.43 m (63 ft 9 in); height 5.18 m (17 ft 0 in); wing area 91.69 n/ (987.0sqft) Armament: none
A C-47BSkytrain, the version developed specifically for nigh ts over the 'hump' to China. In the opinion ofCeneralDwightD.
Eisenhower the C-47 joined the bazooka, jeep and atomic bomb as the Allied weapons that contributed most to the victory in World War II.
Specification
USA
Consolidated C-87 Liberator Whilst it is jnost widely remembered as one of the most important bombers to see wartime service, the Consolidated B-24 Liberator also saw extensive use as a transport. Initial deliveries were to the British airline BOAC in March 1941; designated LB-30A, the first six aircraft were later transferred to RAF Ferry Command, along with aircraft subsequently delivered from the USA. By June 1941, the US Air Corps Ferrying Command was receiving B-24A transports, these being similar in configuration to the LB-SOAs, and going on to see extensive wartime service around the world. From those initial models, plans were put in hand to.produce a dedicated transport variant, this taking shape in 1942 as the C-87, a development of the B-24D; 287 were ordered by the USAAC. Apart from use by the US Army and US Navy (RY), this Consolidated C-87 version of the Liberator was also used by the RAF which flew its Liberator C.Mk VII transports for air trooping on an extensive scale. The purpose of this new mobility was at first the necessity of moving men to India for operations against the Japanese and the repatriation of time-expired troops; six RAF Liberators were earmarked for the work in company with Short Stirlings and Douglas Dakotas, there being two each of these latter types. With room for 38 men and stores, the capacious ex-bomber was the subject for several experiments into the new art of mass-transportation of troops, so that two were the subject of trials after
Both the USAAF and RAF flew the B-24 Liberator as VIP transports. The aircraft depicted here, an LB-30B diverted from an RAF order to an early USAAF con tract, was a VIP transport based a t Boiling Field, Washington, in the autumn of 1941. The prominent American flag marking was applied to emphasize America 's neutrality at that time. the war to compare the advantages of matting (on which the men could lie) with those of conventional seats. But the design was not without its problems, such as a weak nose wheel, so swift had been the C-87's development. Specification Consolidated C-87 Liberator Type: air trooping and cargo transport Powerplant: four 894,8-kW ( 1,200-hp) Pratt & Whitney Twin Wasp R-1830-43 14-cylinder air-cooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 435.5 km/h (270 mph) at 6096 m (20,000 ft), service ceiling 9754 m (32,000 ft); range 3685 km (2,290 miles) Weights: empty 16783 kg (37,000 lb); maximum take-off 28123 kg (62,000 lb) Dimensions: span 33.53 m (110 ft 0 in); length 20.45 m (67 ft 1 in); height 5.46 m (17ft 11 in); wing area 97,55m 2 (l,050sqft) Armament: none
Utilizing the aircraft's long range, RAF Transport Command used various versions of the Consolidated Liberator, converted for trooping and staff transport. Flying the
command's routes between the UK, the Middle East and the Far East, these makeshift transports served with theRAF'sNos 46 and 229 Groups.
bers was the CG-15A, with span reduced to 18.95 m (62 ft 2 in), a revised nose and cantilever landing gear.
Smaller and lighter than the British Horsa glider, the American Waco Hadrian could carry 15 troops, a standard Jeep ora 75-mm howitzer and crew. Towed by C-46s and C-47s, Hadrians took part in landings in Sicily, Burma, Normandy, Holland and in the Rhine crossing. A total of 12,393 was delivered.
USA
Waco CG-4A Hadrian The only US glider to see combat service, the Waco CG-4A (known to the British as the Hadrian and to the Americans as the Haig) was constructed from steel tube and wood (covered with fabric) with a large hinged nose to allow the loading and unloading of light vehicles, although the type could also be used for the transport of 15 fully armed troops who travelled seated on benches along the fuselage walls. Developed from the smaller XCG-3, which seated only nine, the CG-4A, or 'Jayhawk as it was nicknamed, was produced in large numbers at several plants, Beech, Boeing, Cessna and Ford all being involved, while the subassemblies were the products of often quite small cabinet-making firms. Hadrians were first used in an operation by British and American airborne forces, when they were employed in the preliminary assaults of 1943 which led to the capture of Sicily during that summer. A second claim to history was made in July of the same year when a British-operated Douglas Dakota towed one in stages from Montreal to England in a total flying time of 28 hours over the distance of 5633 km (3,500 miles). A load of vaccines for the USSR formed the cargo. A number of experiments were carried out to investigate the possibility of producing a powered version, and to this end different engines (including the Franklin four-cylinder horizontallyopposed type) were tried out, a pair of engines being fitted to the wing struts, None of these PG variants entered full production.
Two years of CG-4 production saw a total of 12,393 delivered, and several thousand of the type were in use in 1944 and 1945, not only for the D-Day landings, but also for the Rhine crossing. Later, a vast number was taken to the Far East as a preliminary to the planned invasion of Japan; had these been used, it seems likely that some would have been towed in side-byside pairs in the manner reported by observers of the D-Day assault. An improved version built in limited num-
Specification
WacoCG-4A Type: troop and supply glider Performance: maximum towing speed 201 km/h (125 mph) Weights: empty 1719 kg (3,790 lb); maximum take-off 4082 kg (9,000 lb) Dimensions: span 25.50 m (83 ft 8 in); length 14.73 m (48 ft 3.75 in); height
3.85 m (12 ft 7.5 in); wing area 83.61 nf (900 sq ft) Armament: none 407
GERMANY
DPS 230 What was to become Nazi Germany's chief troop glider for a substantial part of the war years was designed before 1937, when the DPS 230 was demonstrated to senior officers who were impressed by the quick deployment of its eight-man load when the glider landed, having cast off from a Junkers Ju 52/3m at 1000m (3,280ft). Thus a production contract quickly followed, a small glider command being formed in the next year. The DPS 230A-1 initial production model made history on 10 May 1940 when the fort of Eben-Emael on the strategic perimeter of the Albert Canal in Belgium was captured in the early hours of the morning with little resistance after a gliderborne party of assault engineers had landed on its roof. This was the first time in history that gliders had been used in action and the sortie was sufficient to prove that troops delivered to a target in this way had distinct advantages over paratroops; both types shared the common factor of a silent approach, but all the gliderborne troops were concentrated at a single point and wasted no time in linking up. However, the major action in which the DFS 230 was deployed was certainly that carried out exactly a year later when Crete was invaded, the numbers involved being indicated by the fact that the lead group alone was made up of 53 of these aircraft, On the other hand, the losses sustained were such that an operation of this type was never again attempted. One reason for the enormous waste of life and matériel had been the small capacity of the DFS, and reports current at the time spoke of trains of up to
Above; First assa ult glider used by any air force was the DFS 230A, of which this example was allocated to I Gruppe, Luftlandgeschwader l for the invasion of Crete in 1941. Though small in size, theDFS230A could carry 10 troops and 275 kg (606 lb) of military equipm en t. six gliders being towed by a single Junkers Ju 52/3m, although the usual number was two or three. The DPS 230B-1 was similar to the DFS 230A-1 but for a braking parachute and provision for defensive armament. DFS gliders were also used in North Africa, but probably the most interesting operation in which they were involved was the rescue of the imprisoned Mussolini from the Rifugio Hotel, Abruzzi by a party dropped from 12 DFS 230C-1 gliders (each with three braking rockets in the nose), the Italian dictator then being flown out in a Fieseier Storch. A later version, the DFS 230F-1, had a capacity of 15 men but it was not produced in numbers. Specification DFS230A-1 Type: troop glider
Performance: maximum towing speed 210 km/h (130 mph) Weights: empty 860 kg (1,896 lb); maximum take-off 2100 kg (4,630 lb) Dimensions: span 20.87 (68 ft 5.7 in); length 11.24 m (36 ft 10,5 in); height ?1 2.74 m (8 ft 11.9 in); wing area 41.3 m (444.56 sq ft)
The German eight-man DFS 230A glider featured in the first-ever assault by glider-borne troops when 41 of these aircraft carried some 300 members of S türm-Abteilung Koch into action against Fort Eben-Emael and other key targets in Belgium on 10 May 1940. The DFS 230A also participated in the costly invasion of Crete.
GERMANY
Gotha Go 242 and Go 244 Capable of carrying either 21 troops and their equipment or a military vehicle, the Gotha Go 242 with its capacious central pod and twin booms offered obvious advantages over the small DFS 230 in that its capacity was something like three times greater. Early models of both the freighter (Go 242A-1) and troop (Go 242A-2) versions appeared with rather crude landing gears but 1942, the year when the first examples were entering service, saw the introduction of a more refined landing gear with sprung oleo legs at each side (Go 242B-2). Additionally, the Gotha was the subject of trials of various rocket units to assist take-off, and was developed as the Go 242B-2 and Go 242B-3 paratroop versions with a large loading door at the rear, while the Go 242C version had a hull and floats so that landings on water were possible. Some 1,500 Go 242 were delivered, the first operational use of these being made in the Middle East, but of this total 133 were converted to Go 244 standard. This was a powered glider version with tricycle landing gear and two engines mounted on forward extensions of the tail booms, the first examples of this type being delivered to operational units in Crete and Greece in March 1942. Some also formed the equipment of transport Geschwader in the Middle East and southern USSR, but on the former front they proved vulnerable to anti-aircraft fire and were withdrawn, 408
The Gotha Go 244B was a powered version of the Go 242 glider, the example shown carrying the insignia of 4. Staffel, KGrzbV 106, early in 1943 in the Mediterranean theatre. The aircraft saw limited service in the Balkans and among the Aegean islands. being replaced by Junkers Ju 52/3m or Messerschmitt Me 323 transports. Although the engines of most Go 244s were of French origin, some captured Soviet engines were tried, and plans were submitted for nosemounted single-engine versions powered by the Argus As IOC or Junkers Jumo 211. Other developments included a pair designated Go 245 which would have had Argus pulsejets mounted under the wings and a conventional fuselage. Specification Gotha 244B Type: transport Powerplant: two 850.1-kW (1,140-hp) Gnome-Rhône 14N 14-cylinder aircooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 290 km/h (180 mph) at 3000 m (9,843 ft); service ceiling 7500 m (24,607 ft);
range 740 km (460 miles) Weights: empty 5100 kg (11,244 lb); maximum take-off 7800 kg (17,196 lb) Dimensions: span 24.50 m (80 ft 4,6 in); length 15.80 m (51 ft 10 in); height
4.70 m (15 ft 5 in); wing area 64.4 m?' (693,2 sq ft) Armament: four manually-operated 7.92-mm (0.312-m) MG34 machineguns
Capable of lifting a standard Kübelwagen or 21 fully-armed troops, the Gotha Go 242 was Germany's most-used glider, more than 1,500 being produced. Seldom -
if ever-used for assault, the Go 242 was, however, employed on the Eastern Front, the Balkans, Sicily and the Western Desert in support of the Wehrmacht in the field.
GERMANY
Heinkel He 11 IH and He 111Z Originally built as a bomber and used as a civil transport, the Siegfried and Walter Günther Heinkel He 111 design is better known as a bomber, so it is something of a surprise to learn that with the development of the special transport matters had come full circle. The designation of this variant was He 111H-20/R1, which was built from the outset as a paratroop transport with accommodation for 16 men, and as such had a ventral jump hatch and external racks for two 800-kg (1,764-lb) supply containers. Similar to this type was the He 111H-20/R2, the glider tug version, although it was also capable of employment as a freighter. Armament included an electrically-operated dorsal turret with a 13-mrn (0.51 -in) MG131 machine-gun. The suffix of these designations indicated that the necessary changes were carried out by means of Rüstsätze, or standard equipment sets, and this is also true of the earlier He 111H16/R2, which was fitted with boom-type glider-towing gear in the rear of the fuselage. Other conversions were the He 111H-11/R2 glider tug, and the He 111H-23 for eight paratroops. Yet probably the strangest version of the basic He 111 design was that which became known as the He 111Z1, consisting of two He 111H airframes joined by a special centre section containing a fifth Jumo liquid-cooled
motor, so that a span of 35.20 m (115 ft 5,8 in) resulted, as did a loaded weight of 28500 kg (62,832 lb). The task for this model was to tow the huge Messerschmitt Me 321 glider, or even three Gotha Go 242s, although the maximum speed possible when this was done was a mere 225 km/h (140 mph). Historically the Heinkel transport is of interest in that the type was responsible for one of the last paratroop operations of the war. This took place when aircraft of TGr 30 based at Grossostheim dropped men behind the Allied lines in 1944 during the battle of the Ardennes.
Specification
Heinkel He 111H-16/R Type: glider tug and paratroop transport Powerplant: two 1006.7-kW ( 1,350-hp) Junkers Jumo 211F-2 12-cylmder liquid-cooled piston engines Performance: maximum speed 400 km/h (249 mph) at 6000 m (19,685 ft); service ceiling 6700 m (21,982 ft); range 1950 km (1,212 miles) Weights: empty 8680 kg (19,136 lb); maximum take-off 14000 kg (30,865 lb) Dimensions: span 22.60 m (74 ft 1.8 in); length 17.50 m (57 ft 5 in); height 4.40 m (14 ft 5.2 in); wing area 87.6 m5
One of the war's strangest expedients was the Heinkel He 111Z (Zwilling, or Twin), consisting of two Hell Is joined together with a new centre wing section anda fifth engine. TheZ-1 glider-tug saw limited service behind the Eastern Front, capable of towing the huge Me 321 or three Co 242 gliders. (942.9 sq ft) Armament: one 13-mm(0.51-in) MG 131 in electrically-operated dorsal turret, and one 20-mm MG FF cannon in nose
GERMANY
Messerschmitt Me 321 and Me 323 Making its first flight in March 1941 behind a Junkers Ju 90 tug, the Messerschmitt Me 321 (a massive welded steel and wood glider with mixed ply and fabric covering) had surprisingly only one pilot on board, a man of sufficient stature to use the controls by physical means alone since there was no power assistance, although later three crew members became the accepted complement. Designed to transport a company of soldiers, or an anti-aircraft gun, or a tracked vehicle or the equivalent weight of freight, the Me 321A initial version was supported on the ground by a multi-wheel bogie at each side, although in the later Me 32 IB a more conventional type with two largediameter wheels was adopted. Even with a tow provided by means of three Messerschmitt Bf 110s or one Heinkel He 111Z, there was often insufficient power to lift the huge glider off the ground, so auxiliary rockets were provided. Trials were also made with pulsejets to increase range after release from the tow. This problem led to the evolution of the similar Me 323D 'powered glider' series with six piston engines and a suitably-strengthened a i r f r a m e , although the prototype was fitted with only four motors. Structurally similar to the earlier design, all the powered variants retained the clamshell doors in the nose and reverted to the bogie landing gear, and in this form the type was capable of providing transport for a minimum of 130 troops and a crew which was now increased to five on the Me 323D-6 variant which appeared in December 1942. The additional members were a pair of engineers to look after the problem of engine synchronization, while in the later Me 323E-1 version with engines of increased
power this number was augmented by a further pair of men to operate an extra two gun turrets. Production was planned to continue into 1945, but it in fact ceased in the spring of the previous year when less than 200 examples had been delivered of the powered type, a design which (like its predecessor) was understandably unpopular with those who had to fly it and which proved devastatingly vulnerable to fighter interception. Specification Messerschmitt Me 323D-6 Type: heavy transport Powerplant: six 850. l-kW(l, 140-hp) Gnome-Rhône 14N 14-cylinder aircooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 285 km/h (177 mph) at sea level; range 1100 km (684 miles) Weights: empty 27330 kg (60,252 lb); maximum take-off 43000 kg (94,799 lb) Dimensions: span 55.00 m (180 ft 5,4 in); length 28.15 m (92 ft 4,3 in); height2 8.30 m (27 ft 2.8 in); wing area 300 m (3,229,3 sq ft) Armament: varied, but frequently consisted of a maximum of 10 7.92-mm (0,312-in) MG34 or 42 machine-guns aimed through the sides of the fuselage, and five of similar calibre in the nose and upper fuselage
The six-engine Me 323 transport normally carried up to about 120 troops, though in emergencies about 200 could be crammed in. The aircraft here was an Me 323E with a defensive armament of six machine-guns and two 20-mm cannon.
Born of desperation, the huge sixengine Messerschmitt Me 323 transport was never intended for fron t-line service, being employed for movement of supplies and
reinforcements behind the Eastern Front. When indeed they were used to support the doomed Axis forces in Tunisia in 1943 they were decimated by Allied fighters over the sea. 409
ITALY
Savoia-Marchetti S.M.81 Pipistrello After Italy's surrender to the Allies in September 1943, elements of the Italian air force continued to serve alongside theLuftwaffe. ThisSavoiaMarchettiS.M.81 of the Gruppo Trasporti 'Terraciano', Republica Sociale Italiana, carried Luftwaffe markings on the Eastern Fron t in 1944. Like the larger Junkers Ju 52/3m which it resembled, the Savoia-Marchetti S.M.81 Pipistrello (bat) had originally been designed as a bomber, the work of Alessandro Marchetti, and as such had seen service in both the Spanish and Abyssinian wars; also like the German, design it had its root in civil aviation, being based on the S.M.73, which also had a fixed landing gear arrangement. Dating as it did from 1935, the S.M.81 was already suffering a degree of obsolescence when Italy entered World War II, so that despite the robust mixed construction which proved capable of absorbing much battle damage, it was rapidly replaced as a bomber by the S.M.79, production having ceased in March 1938 after 534 had been delivered; the 304 which remained on the strength of the Regia Aeronautica were converted to troop carriers (18 men) after withdrawal from front-line squadriglie. In this capacity, the S.M.81 was relegated to service on the African and Eastern fronts, where it proved sufficiently useful for production to be resumed in 1943 of the version which by then had been designated S.M.81/T. However, the coming of the armistice with the Allies in September 1943 meant that only about 80 of these additional aircraft were built, and only four remained in the south by this time
although no less than two complete transport units were still equipped with the type in the 'Salò' Republic of Italy (Fascist-controlled northern Italy). An interesting historical fact is that one transport model of the S.M.81 was later used as the personal transport of Mussolini, a specimen that received the inappropriate name Taratuga (tortoise), A variety of different radial motors was fitted, including the 484.7-kW (650-hp) or 507.1-kW ,(680-hp) Alfa Romeo 125 RC.35 or 126 RC.34 respectively, the 484.7-kW (650-hp) GnomeRhône 14K or the 499.6-kW (670-hp) Piaggio P.X RC.35. Specification Savoia-Marchetti S.M.81/T Type: troop transport Powerplant: three 499.6-kW (670-hp) Piaggio P,X RC.35 9-cylmder aircooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 340 km/h (211 mph) at 1000 m (3,281 ft); service ceiling 7000 m (22,966 m); range 2000 km ( 1,243 miles)
Weights: empty 5800 kg ( 12,787 lb); maximum take-off 10500 kg (23,149 lb) Dimensions: span 24,00 m (78 ft 8.9 in); length 17,80 m (58 ft 4.8 in); height 4.45 m (14 ft 7,2 in); wing area 92.80 ma (998.9 sq ft) Armament: five 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Breda-SAFAT machine-guns
The Italian Savoia-Marchetti S.M.81 'Pipistrello'served both as a bomber anda troop transport. In the latter role aircraft of the 37° Stormo took part in the 1939 invasion of Albania; dubbed Lumace ('slugs') on account of their very low speed, they also took part in the Axis evacuation of Tunisia in 1943.
capacity being greater than that of the Hadrian, many Horsas went for use by US forces, although these continued to be towed into action by British tugs. Wheels, although able to be jettisoned, were largely retained in action.
Runway scene in Britain in 1944 as Stirling MkIVs start their take-offs with Horsa gliders in towresplendent in their black and white 'invasion stripes'. The Horsa Mkll had a hinged nose for ease of loading.
Specification
Weights: empty 3402 kg (7,500 lb); maximum take-off 6917 kg (15,250 lb) Dimensions: span 26.82 m (88 ft 0 in); length 20.42 m (67 ft 0 in); height 6.40 m (21 f t O in); wing area 106.65 m2 (l,148sqft)
UK
Airspeed Horsa It was December 1940 when the design staff of the Airspeed Company at London Colney received Specification X. 26/40 calling for a type capable of taking 25 soldiers with their equipment in a glider with a wing span greater than that of a Wellington bomber. About 11 months later one of a-pair of Airspeed Horsa prototypes was towed off from Fairey's Great West Aerodrome, later incorporated into London Airport, by an Armstrong Whitworth Whitley. Simultaneously, five more were being put together at Portsmouth to facilitate trial loading of military vehicles. Two types of glider were evolved, the Horsa Mk I with a hinged doorramp on the port side and towed by a T tow rope, and the Horsa Mk II with a single cable and a hinged nose to facilitate the loading of light guns etc. Being made almost entirely of wood, the Horsa could be manufactured quite simply by the furniture industry, the well-known firm of Harris Lebus producing the majority, although the Austin Motor Company produced a quantity. The parent firm was responsible for a mere 700, the only Horsas built, assembled and tested on a single site. The overall total was 3,633. One of the first uses of the Horsa was when 30 were towed in daylight to North Africa from the UK, and of this total only three were lost, one alone 410
apparently to enemy action. A short time later the type received its baptism of fire during the invasion of Sicily: of 137 Waco Hadrian and Horsa gliders despatched, only 12 reached their correct landing zones, and 10 of these were Horsas, About a year later Horsas were in use during the D-Day invasion, and were employed in subsequent actions, including that at Arnhem when about 600 were operated, On occasions such as these 20 men per aircraft were carried. The Horsa's
Airspeed Horsa Mk II Type: troop and general transport glider Performance: maximum towing speed 161 km/h (100 mph)
UK
Armstrong Whitworth Albemarle Originally a Bristol design for a reconnaissance bomber with Taurus motors, the Armstrong Whitworth Albemarle was transferred from its parent organization, When the prototype first flew on 20 March 1940 it was something of a pioneer in that not only did it incorporate composite steel and wood construction, which would have facilitated wide sub-contracting, but it also boasted a tricycle landing gear, an arrangement not hitherto used in the UK on a production design, Delivery of the first examples was slow, not beginning until October 1941, the first 42 Albemarle Mk I aircraft alone being completed as bombers and subsequently converted, the remaining 558 Albemarles being produced as special transports and glider tugs. Manufacture was entirely subcontracted outside the aircraft industry, final assembly being undertaken at a plant set up at Gloucester by Hawker Siddeley with the name of A.W. Hawksley Ltd. Before December 1944 when production ceased, a total of 247 had been delivered as tugs (Albemarle. Mk V and Albemarle Mk VI for the most part), the first RAF sguadron to receive the type being No. 295 in January 1943. It fell to another squadron, No. 297, to use the type first in action, when in July 1943 they towed gliders at the invasion of Sicily in company with those of No. 296. An example of the special transport role of the Albemarle Mk II and Albemarle Mk VI took place during the DDay landings in June 1944: on this occasion six Albemarles acted as pathfinders dropping men of the 22nd Independent Parachute Company. However, the type acted chiefly as a
glider tug, four Albemarle squadrons taking Airspeed Horsas to France, while in September two squadrons from No. 38 Group took the gliders of the 1st Airborne Division to Arnhem. But probably the most abiding memory of the type is the pall of smoke in which they taxied on return, caused by the overheating engines having to supply high power at low speed.
This Armstrong Whitworth Albemarle MkV of No. 297 Squadron was employed in the invasion of Sicily in July 1943. A generally unpopular aircraft among both aircrew and passengers, it was unusual among British-designed wartime aircraft in being fitted with a tricycle landing gear.
Specification
Armstrong Whitworth Albemarle Mkll Type: glider-tug and special transport Powerplant: two 1185.7-kW (1,590-hp) Bristol Hercules XI 14-cylmder radial air-cooled piston engines Performance: maximum speed 412 km/h (256 mph) at 3200 m (10,500 ft); service ceiling 5486 m (18,000 ft); range 2173 km (1,350 miles) Weights: empty 10251 kg (22,600 lb); maximum take-off 16556 kg (36,500 lb) Dimensions: span 23.47 m (77 ft 0 in); length 18.26 m (59 ft 11 in); height ?i 4.75 m (15 ft 7 in); wing area 74.65 m (803.6 sq ft) Armament: two 7.7-mm (0.303-in) manually-operated Vickers 'K' machine-guns
The Albemarle, of largely wooden construction, having failed to find favour as a bomber, entered service as a transport with No. 295
Squadron, RAF, in January 1943 and, as a glider tug towing Horsas, took part in the landings in Sicily, Normandy and Arnhem.
The venerable Whitley, veteran of early wartime bombing missions, was employed from 1941 as a troop transport. In Operation 'Biting', the
airborne landing at Bruneval on 27 February 1942,12 Whitleys from Thruxton dropped 119paratroops round the German radar station.
liquid-cooled piston engines Performance: maximum speed 357 km/h (222 mph) at 5182 m (17,000 ft); service ceiling 5364 m (17,600 ft); range 2655 km (1,650 miles) Weights: empty 8768 kg (19,330 lb); maximum take-off 15195 kg(33,500 lb)
Dimensions: span 25.60 m (84 ft 0 in); length 21.49 m (70 ft 6 in) ;2height 4.57m (15 ft 0 in); wing 114.45 m (1,232 sq ft) Armament: (as bomber) four 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Browning machine-guns m a power operated rear turret, and one 7.7-mm machine-gun in a nose turret
UK
Armstrong Whitworth Whitley The first glider-tug and paratroop trainer had been an Armstrong Whitworth Whitley Mk II used by No. 1 Parachute Training School at Ringway in the summer of 1940, The drops were made from a platform in place of the rear turret, although exit was later made via the ventral turret aperture, and the aircraft made a strange sight with its landing gear lowered to reduce speed on practice runs. Initial use of the type in airborne action was when Whitley Mk V aircraft were used in the first British paratroop action, the abortive operation 'Colossus' of 10 February 1941 when an attempt was made to destroy the viaducts at Tragino, Campagna, which would have cut the supply of all water to southern Italy. The second paratroop action involving the Whitley was that led by Wing Commander P.C. Pickering against Nazi radar installations at Bruneval on the night of 27/28 February 1942, the aircraft in this case being found by No, 51 Squadron. Used only for training was the Whitley glider-tug. For this use the aircraft
had their rear turrets removed, leaving the position open, and Whitleys in this configuration were a common sight over the Oxfordshire countryside and elsewhere, the former being those which operated with Airspeed Horsas from Brize Norton with No. 21 Heavy Glider Conversion Unit. In June 1943 the last Whitley from a total of 1,814 was delivered by the parent company, 1,466 being of the Whitley Mk V model distinguished by a 38.1-cm (15-in) increase to the fuselage length and straight leading edges to the fins. However, not all airborne versions were used for their intended role, it being on record that the summer of 1943 saw some tugs pressed into service to drop leaflets over the Low Countries after a flight from Thruxton!
Specification
Armstrong Whitworth Whitley Mk V Type: glider-tug trainer and paratroop transport Powerplant: two 853.8-kW (1,145-hp) Rolls-Royce Merlin X 12-cylmder Vee
Although Whitleys were not used operationally as glider tugs, many were converted to tow Horsas with No. 21 Heavy Glider Conversion Unitat Brize Norton in 1943. 411
UK
General Aircraft Hamilcar The General Aircraft Hamilcar was the largest and heaviest glider used by the RAF, and the first capable of accommodating a 7-ton tank. A total of 412 of the Hamilcar Mk I was built after the first flight of the prototype on 27 March 1942, all the tests being completed within three weeks. This may in part have been due to the previous construction of a half-scale model for tests at one-eighth of the loaded weight. To facilitate the loading and rapid unloading of heavy equipment, the nose was hinged, this enabling vehicles to be driven straight out immediately on landing. This feature proved invaluable at the first use of the type in support of the 6th Airborne Division in Normandy at the beginning of June 1944, when tugs were supplied by units flying the Handley Page Halifax, 70 being used in the first action. With an eye to re-use on the return journey as well as improving take-off from indifferent airfields, the powered Hamilcar Mk X was evolved primarily for the proposed invasion of Japan. The powerplant for this variant consisted of two 719.6-kW (965-hp) Bristol Mercury 31 radiais with simplified controls including a single-lever engine operation, no cooling gills, fixed-pitch wooden propellers, and hydraulic hand-pumps to restore the 'sinking undercarriage' (designed to ease loading) to its original position. Singlepoint towing was used for the Hamilcar Mk X instead of the bifurcated system of the pure glider Hamilcar Mk I. The type was quite capable of being used alternatively as a solo aeroplane with a loaded weight not exceeding 14742 kg (32,500 lb). Maximum speed and range were 233 km/h (145 mph) and 1135 km (705 miles) respectively. It is interesting to note the fact that the military load of the Hamilcar Mk I
consisted of some 50 per cent of the all-up weight compared with 30 per cent in the Hamilcar Mk X.
Specification General Aircraft Hamilcar Mk I Type: transport glider
Performance: maximum towing speed 241 km/h (150 mph) Weights: empty 8845 kg (19,500 lb); maximum take-off 16783 kg (37,000 lb) Dimensions: span33.53 m ( 110 ft 0 in); length 20.73 m (68 ft 0 in); height 6.17 m (20 ft 3 in); wing area 154,03 m2 ( 1,658 sq ft)
Seen benea th the wing of a Halifax is a line-up of British Hamilcar assault heavy gliders at the time of the Normandy landings. The only Allied aircraft capable of delivering a light tank into battle, the Hamilcar could carry a Tetrarch or Locust.
panels joined by a common centre section and tailplane; although a prototype was built in 1942 this version did not go into production.
TheHotspurwas a familiar sight throughout Britain during the war years. Capable of being towed by redundant biplanes, most members oftheBritish airborne forces and their pilots were introduced to glider s in these all-wooden craft.
UK
General Aircraft Hotspur Toward the end of 1940 a British specification was issued for an assault glider capable of flying 161 km (100 miles) from its point of release at 6096 m (20,000ft), and the General Aircraft Hotspur Mk I was the result. In fact it could glide only 134 km (83 miles), but this was quite an achievement since the original demand, that this be done with a load of seven fully equipped troops and a pilot, was really too stringent. The Hotspur Mk I had a span of 18.90 m (62 ft 0 in) and was distinguishable from the later models by having cabin portholes. Despite the fact that 23 examples were built, the type was not accepted for widespread operational use, being developed instead into the Hotspur Mk II training glider whose simple wooden construction lent itself admirably to large-scale subcontracted manufacture, Although never used for its intended purpose, the Hotspur was nevertheless built in numbers and performed useful service at glider schools where dual instruction was carried out following a period on single-engine powered aircraft at an EFTS. Apart from the reduced span, the Hotspur Mk II differed in some detail from the earlier Hotspur Mk I, which had proved difficult to handle on the ground. The changes included the adoption of inset ailerons, revised sea412
ting and a deeper cockpit canopy, although it retained the jettisonable landing gear legs (and the central skid on which the type was designed to land after the wheels had been dropped, although this facility was seldom used). The monocoque structure of the glider naturally lent itself to quite a high degree of adaptation, and a further variant was the Twin Hotspur, consisting of two fuselages with outer wing
Specification
General Aircraft Hotspur Mk II Type: training glider Performance: maximum towing speed 145 km/h (90 mph) Weights: empty 753 kg ( 1,661 lb); maximum take-off 1632 kg (3,598 lb)
Dimensions: span 13.99 m (45 ft 10 75 in); length 12.11 m (39 ft 8.75 in); height 3.30 m (10 ft 10 in); wing area 25.27m a (272sqft)
UK
Handley Page Halifax Another bomber used for both glidertowing and the dropping of paratroops was the Handley Page Halifax, of which the Halifax A.Mk III, Halifax A.Mk V and Halifax A.Mk VII were" commonly used throughout Europe for this work, Indeed, the Halifax was the only type capable of towing the giant General Aircraft Hamilcar glider when the latter was loaded with its light tank, while the final version, the paratroopcarrying Halifax A.Mk 9 produced after the war, was able to take 16 men with their associated equipment. The first experimental flights of an airborne forces' Halifax with a Hamilcar glider took place in February 1942 at Newmarket, although the first operational sortie, which was carried out nine months later on the night of 19/20 November, was conducted with two Airspeed Horsas. This was Operation 'Freshman', which took men to attack the German-run heavy water plant in southern Norway. Halifaxes also towed two Horsas apiece to North Africa for the invasion of Sicily, Operation 'Husky' launched on 10 July 1943. Operation 'Elaborate' mounted over a period between August and October 1943 was intended to bring reinforcements to this theatre, and 10 Halifaxes plus Armstrong Whitworth Albemarles were used to take 25 Horsas. Unfortunately five of the gliders fell into the sea on the Portreath to Sale leg of the journey, either due to bad weather or enemy action, while three force-landed in Portugal, together with their Halifax tugs; another had to put down in the sea, where it was lost. Other operations with which the Halifax is associated were, of course, that at Arnhem and the final crossing of
the Rhine. In the latter the German forces were on the defensive on 24 March 1945, when 440 tugs were involved with an equal number of gliders, both Hamilcars and Horsas, all the troops in the former having emplaned at Woodbridge. Almost half of this force of tugs was made up of Halifaxes, there being an equal number of Short Stirlings and only a small number of Douglas Dakotas.
The powerful Handley Page Halifax was the only type used for glider towing which could handle the massive General Aircraft Hamilcar glider when fully loaded. It was also used for clandestine missions over Europe.
Specification
Handley Page Halifax A.Mk III Type: glider tug and paratroop transport Powerplant: four 1204.3-kW ( 1,615-hp) Bristol Hercules XVI 14-cylinder aircooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 454 km/h (282 mph) at 4115 m (13,500 ft); service ceiling 6096 m (20,000 ft); range 1733 km (1,077 miles) Weights: empty 14969 kg (33,000 lb); maximum take-off 24675 kg (54,400 lb) Dimensions: span 30,12 m (98 ft 10 in); length 21,82 m (71ft 7 in); height 6.32 m (20 ft 9 in) wing area 116.13 m? ( 1,250 sq ft) Armament: one Vickers 'K 1 7,7-mm (0.303-m) manually-operated machine-gun in nose, four 7.7-mm Browning machine-guns in poweroperated Boulton Paul dorsal turret, and four guns of similar calibre in tail turret (if fitted)
The H ali fax, apart from giving excellen t service as a heavy bomber, proved adaptable as a glider-tug and transport during the war, equipping a total of 13 RAF
squadrons. TheMkVIIIversion, shown here with a large ventral freight pannier, entered service with three squadrons shortly after the war's end.
Bristol Hercules XVI 14-cylinder aircooled radial piston engines Performance: maximum speed 451 km/h (280 mph) at 3200 m (10,500 ft); service ceiling 5182 m ( 17,000 ft); range 4828 km (3,000 miles) Weights; empty 19595 kg (43,200 lb); maximum take-off 31751 kg (70,000 lb)
Dimensions: span 30.20 m (99 ft 1 in); length 26.59 m (87 ft 3 in); height 6.93 m (22 ft 9 in); wing area 135.63 m2 (l,460sqft) Armament: four 7.7-mm (0.303-m) Browning machine-guns in poweroperated tail turret
UK
Short Stirling From the beginning of 1944 the main role of the Short Stirling, designed as a bomber, was that of glider tug and transport operating with No. 38 Group, Transport Command. The prototype of the Stirling Mk IV, a converted Stirling Mk III, had first flown in 1943, and although the powerplant was unchanged, considerable alteration had taken place in the armament with the nose and dorsal turrets deleted (the former being replaced by a transparent fairing), and glider towing gear was installed in the rear fuselage, which retained the defensive turret in this position. The capacious fuselage meant that the troop-carrying version was capable of taking either 40 fully-equipped soldiers or half that number of paratroops, but the first use of the Stirling in its new role was towing Airspeed Horsa gliders into action when the continent of Europe was invaded on 6 June 1944, the aircraft being drawn from Nos 190 and 622 Squadrons at Fairford and Nos 196 and 299 Squadrons at Keevil. The type also participated in
the historic action at Arnhem and in the final assault across the river Rhine in March 1945. Production was dispersed among a number of contractors, the largest number (236) coming from Short & Harland at Belfast; the Austin Motor Company was responsible for 198, and the remainder being produced by the company's Rochester works. In all 577 Stirling Mk IVs were delivered, although not all had originated in this form, a number being converted Stirling Mk Ills. Another task performed by this version of the Stirling was the paradropping of supplies to parachute troops in forward areas, as well as the delivery of food and ammunition to Resistance workers on the continent. The type was also used to ferry petrol, a capacity load consisting of 2841.25 litres (625 Imp gal) in 139 cans.
Specification
Short Stirling Mk IV Type: glider tug and general transport Powerplant: four 1230,4-k W ( 1,650-hp)
Above; Formerly hea vy bombers, Short Stirling glider tugs were employed in all the major airborne operations over Northern Europe in 1944-5. The Stirling Mk IV, seen here taking off with a Horsa glider at Harwell, Oxfordshire, belonged to No. 295 squadron. Converted to carry 40 troops, the Stirling Mk V transport en tered service with No. 46 Squadron, RAF Transport Command, in February 1945 but was too late to see combat. 413
Ai r-to-G round Weapons After World War I it was believed that air power would make all other machines of war obsolete. World War II quickly exposed the limitations of air power: daylight bombing could be prevented by aggressive fighter aircraft, and night bombing was wildly inaccurate. But by 1943 new weapons and tactics had been developed.
An 'Upkeep' or bouncing-bomb equipped Avrò Lancaster of the RAF's 617 Squadron. This bomb was a specially designed dam-busting mine.
T
he art of dropping explosives from an aircraft at great height is almost as old as aviation itself. For example, it has been recorded that in 1911 Giulio Gavotti dropped a quartet of picric acid bombs of 1.8kg (41b) on Turkish troops in the Libyan desert. Seven years later the art of'launching' air-toground weapons had progressed 414
a little bit futher than this crude (but no doubt reasonably effective) experiment, and was beginning to develop into a science. This progress was as a direct result of the design of such specialist machines as the Sopwith Salamander. Such new developments meant new tactics. That new targets would have to include
armoured vehicles had already became clear during the 'dress rehearsal' of World War II that was the Spanish Civil War. Soon after this, refinements, such as the Dinort extension rods (added on to the noses of the SC 50 bombs delivered by that supreme exponent of the early ground attack, the Junkers Ju 87) were to become a commonplace
means of ensuring a maximum blast effect over a wide area of ground. Although heavier guns were soon in great demand as the thickness of armour on 'hardskinned' vehicles began to increase, it was really the reinvention of the rocket as a weapon that was to move the science forward. In addition, taking on a less hit-and-miss aspect was the manner of dropping conventional free-fall bombs. The early methods of bombing merely entailed destroying everything with huge quantities of high explosive released over a target. This rather wasteful method later gave place to what became known as controlled 'carpet bombing'. It also gave place to the system which was to prove the comparative crudity of earlier methods, namely that of opening up buildings by blowing the roofs off with high explosive and then destroying the unprotected structures with a rain of incendiary bombs. Over and above all these advances, some thoughts were given to increasing the psychological effect of ground attack by adding screamers to bomb fins to augment the normal 'whistle', and 'Jericho trumpets' on the legs of diving Stukas.
GERMANY
German standard bombs Three categories of standard bomb were in use by the Luftwaffe, all in the general-purpose group designated according to their nature and weight. First of these was the high explosive SC (Sprengbombe Cylmdnsch), a thinwalled type for normal free-fall use; then there was the semi-armour piercing SD (Sprengbombe Dickwandig), a thick-walled type; and finally there was the armour-piercing PC (Panzersprengbombe Cylmdnsch) with extra thick walls, Of these, among the most commonly used were the SC 250 type, the second part of the designation indicating the weight of the explosive in kilogrammes (551 lb), and eight of these or 32 of the SC 50 or SD 50 (10 lb) type would make up a typical load for a Heinkel He 111 bomber, and be deposited on target mixed with incendiaries. Many of these bombs rapidly acquired names so that while the latest of the GP bombs (the SD 1700) for some reason had none, the SD 1400 became 'Fritz', the slightly smaller SD 1000 being 'Esau'. Strangely, there was none for the common SD 500 of which there were two types, one with strengthening bands and trunnion bolts on a differently shaped case. At the other end of the scale the SC 1000 was 'Herman' and the SC 1800 was 'Satan'. Carried either on external or interBelow: A Junkers Ju 88A-5 prepares for take-off, carrying a pair ofSC 250 bombs underneath the wings inboard of the engine nacelles. Lacking capacious bomb bays, many German bombers carried the majority of their ordnance on external mountings.
TheSC 2000 was among the heaviest of air-to-ground weapons used by the Luftwaffe. The number after the letter designation was supposed tobe the weight of the weapon in kilograms but it actually weighed 1953 kg (4,306 lb). nal racks, German bombs were suspended from single 'H1' or T lugs (or less commonly a ring bolt), and were colour-coded with a stripe between the quadrants of the tail cone (or the entire cone in the case of small bombs such as the SC 50 etc.) denoting their classification: SC was yellow, SD red and PC blue. Electrically-charged impact fuses were fitted with charging plungers above the main fuse body with its tumbler switch, Below this lay the flash pellet, Penthrite wax and picric acid to complete the whole, although variations were incorporated such as the Type 17 clockwork delayed action devices or the Type 50 with a trembler switch fuse acting as a booby trap, or the infamous Z.U.S.40 set beneath the normal fuse in such a way that the extraction of one, made 'safe', activated the other concealed beneath it, Right: A Heinkel He 111 could carry up to 32 of the SC 50 (110-lb) bombs seen here, although it was common practice to mix a number of incendiaries into the bombload.
SD 250s were thicker-walled than theSC series togive them limited armourpiercing capability at the cost of a slight reduction in payload.
Specification SC20Ă&#x203A;O Type: high explosive bomb Weights: 1953.2 kg (4,306 lb) Dimensions:length3.44 m(ll ft3.4 in); diameter 0.661 m (2 ft 2 in) Filling: Tinalin
Above: This 1800-kg (3,968-lb) German bomb was found at Barce, an air base in Libya, in 1942. The 1800 kg bomb was one of the biggest in general use by the Luftwaffe, and was generally carried by Heinkel He Ills.
Allied forces found these German bombs scattered from a wrecked amm unition train near Taran to. Most of the bombs appear to be of the SC 250 type, which had stiffening stays between thefins, whereas some larger bombs had annular rings.
GERMANY
Ruhrstahl/Kramer X-l (Fritz X) The agreed surrender of the Italian fleet to the Allies on 9 September 1943 saw the battleships ltelia (damaged) and the Roma (sunk) as the targets of a new type of air-launched weapon, the Ruhrstahl/Kramer X-l (or Fritz X). This was a free-fall bomb that could be guided towards its target after release from an altitude of about 6000 m (19,685 ft); by the time it had reached its target perhaps 2.4km (1.5 miles) distant it had gained a velocity approaching that of sound. Control was by means of electromagnetically operated spoilers activated in sympathy with radio signals from the aircraft (frequently a Dormer Do 217) that, after releasing the bomb, had its motors throttled back and was taken to a higher altitude so that it was over the target at the moment of impact, the observer having kept track of the missile with the aid of a conventional Lotfe 7 bombsight. Wire-link control using transmission lines some 8 km (4.97 miles) long was later discarded as an economy measure. Tests were begun in Germany during 1942, later being moved to Italy, Here pneumatic power was experimentally substituted for the electro-magnetic actuation of the spoilers, but variations in temperature created problems so the concept was dropped.
The Allied assault on Italy meant that the Fritz X was pressed into increased use: the cruiser USS Savannah was successfully attacked, as were some naval transports, while in the confusion created by a night attack two British cruisers came into collision. Seven days later the battleship HMS Warspite was hit by these armour-piercers, so that a tow to Malta was necessary. About 66 of the bombs were produced each month, far short of the target figure, and about half of these were used during tests conducted during 1943 and into the following year.
But the real end to the Fritz X programme was brought about not by production difficulties but by the high loss rate among the bombers equipped to deliver the missile: because of the need for relatively slow speed over the target area, the launch aircraft became particularly vulnerable.
Specification X-l
Type: free-fall guided bomb Powerplant: none Performance: maximum speed 1035 km/h (643 mph)
This is all that remained of the 45,000-ton battleship Roma after tvvo X-l glide bombs struck her as she steamed to Malta to surrender to the Allies. The first bomb passed through the ship and detonated underneath; the second penetrated the forward magazine, which blew her in half. Weights: round 1570 kg (3,461 lb); explosive 320 kg (705.5 lb) Dimensions: span (over fins) 1.352 m (4 ft 5.2 in); length 3.262 m (10 ft 8,4 in); fuselage diameter 0.562 m (1 ft 10.1 in)
GERMANY
German unguided missiles Although ground attack was one of the major roles of the Luftwaffe, this task was generally carried out with conventional aircraft armament, plus either normal free-fall bombs up to the 250-kg (551-lb) capacity, or those of specialist design including the small SD 2 fragmentation ('butterfly') bomb, which was first used on the opening day of the German assault on the Soviet Union, It was, however, this same country that was to influence the Luftwaffe's introduction of rockets as air-toground weapons. The slow advent of these weapons 416
was in part due to the lack of results seemingly achieved by the Soviet 82mm (3.23-in) rockets, and the importance of such unguided weapons seemed to be further devalued by experience of German field trials, These had taken place during 1942 when Jagdgeschwader 54 had been temporarily equipped for operational tests against targets crossing Lake Ladoga to supply Leningrad. The missiles employed were adapted army-type 210mm (8.27-in) rockets on launchers under the wings of Messerschmitt Bf 109Fs. Unfortunately these rockets
proved almost impossible to aim since their low velocity after release resulted in a sudden drop in their trajectory. However, although these were discarded, two years later some FockeWulf Fw 190s were fitted with an improved rocket variant in October 1944, the first to be fitted to these aircraft. These were Panzerschreck missiles of 88-mm (3.46-in) calibre, the design source being originally the infantry 'bazooka'. Each aircraft was fitted to take six of these weapons, and in December the new Panzerblitz Pb 1 mis-
sile (also of 88-mm calibre) was introduced: this packed something like twice the punch of the Panzerschreck, but neither was used on any scale,
Specification
Panzerblitz Pb 1 Type: air-to-ground aircraft-launched roclcGt Weight: 6.9 kg (15.2 lib) Dimensions: length 0.70 m (2 ft 3,6 in); diameter 8.8 cm (3.46 in)
GERMANY
Henschel Hs 293 The beginnings of what was to evolve into the Henschel Hs 293 were laid as early as 1939, and a test model taking the form of a glider was constructed the following year, the ultimate intention being to develop a missile that could be used against shipping under remote control from a launching aircraft. Although a suitable rocket motor was still not available, development went ahead using a standard SC 500 bomb fitted with wings and tail unit, although no rudder was incorporated, and as time progressed the programme saw the fitting of the first version with a propulsive unit, this taking the form of a liquid rocket (using T-stoff and Z-stoff propellants) slung under the main body. An 18-channel radio system ensured control. It was anticipated that the missile would be carried into action under a parent aircraft, from which warm air was channelled to prevent the missile from freezing up at the high altitude at which it was released, but at 1400 m (4,595 ft) a maximum of 3 km (5 miles) could be anticipated. Once released the Hs 293 dropped some 90 m (295 ft) before the rocket developed maximum thrust, and the parent aircraft continued to fly a set course parallel with the target, while permitting the bomb-aimer to keep the missile in sight and guide it with the aid of a small control box on which was mounted a miniature control column, keeping in sight the red guidance flare in the tail, the actual flight path being a series of arcs as corrections were received. The main disadvantage of the Hs 293A was that the launching aircraft had to maintain a steady, level course and evasive action to escape AA fire was impossible. An improved Hs 293D with a television aiming system was planned, but the war ended before it could be constructed. However, icing was a problem never really overcome and as a consequence further propulsion units were developed. But these were never taken beyond the experimental stage.
The Henschel Hs 293A stand-off guided bomb was dropped from the carrier aircraft on a parallel course to the target on the port side, and radio-guided to the target. A Hare in the rear of the bomb gave visible evidence of the missile's position to the aimer.
Specification Hs293 Type: rocket-propelled anti-ship missile Powerplant: one 600-kg ( 1,323-lb) thrust Walter 109-507B rocket Performance: maximum speed
Crew members learn to control the Henschel Hs 293 guided bomb in a simulator. The guidance operators always sat on the starboard (right) side of the cabin, and therefore it was always necessary to attack a target from the port side and in the same movement direction.
900 km/h (559 mph) Weights: round 1045 kg (2,304 lb); explosive 295 kg (650 lb) Dimensions: span 3.14 m (10 ft 3.6 in); length 3.58 m ( 11 ft 9 in); fuselage diameter 0.48 m ( l ft 6.9 in); wing area 1.92m 2 (20,67 sq ft)
Above: This Henschel Hs 293 has had its rocket propulsion unit removed to show the internal equipment. The flare unit for visual location of the missile in night can be seen at the backofthe weapon.
A Henschel Hs 293A stand-off guided bomb. This example was found near Parisin 1944 by Allied for ces. The flat disc around the nose of the bomb prevented deep penetration before exploding. 417
About 50 slightly smaller Ohka Model 22 aircraft (with a reduced 600-kg/ 1,323-lb warhead and a gas turbine engine, and designed to be carried by Yokosuka P1Y1 Ginga bombers) proved a failure as they were underpowered, and the jet-powered Ohka Model 33 (with the original-capacity warhead and designed to be transported by the Nakajima G8N1 Renzan bomber) was not completed by the end of the war, The jet-powered Ohka Model 43A and Ohka Model 43B (the former with folding and the latter with fixed wings) remained no more than projects; an interesting feature of the Model 43B was the facility for the pilot to jettison the wingtips during the final dive to increase impact speed. Specification Ohka Model 11 Type: rocket-propelled suicide
The Ohka Model 11 piloted Hying bomb's shallow dive speed was boosted by three solid fuel rockets. The Ohka Model 22 was a longerranged version powered by a Tsu-II gas-turbine engine.
explosive missile Powerplant: three Type 4 Mk 1 Model 20 solid-propellant rockets providing a combined thrust of 800 kg ( 1,764 lb) Performance: maximum speed 649 km/h (403 mph) at 3500 m ( 11,485 ft); dive velocity 927 km/h (576 mph); range 37 km (23 miles) Weights: maximum take-off 2140 kg (4,718 lb); explosive 1200 kg (2,646 lb) Dimensions: span 5.12 m (16 ft 9.6 in); length 6.066 m (19 ft 10,8 in); height2 1.16 m (3 ft 9.7 in); wing area 6.0 m (64.59 sq ft)
JAPAN
Japanese standard bombs Ranging from comparatively simple bomb containers capable of taking 30 bombs weighing 0,735kg (1.6 lb), each albeit for anti-aircraft work, via the larger ones capable of scattering no less than 76 such bomblets to the 800-kg (1,763.7-lb) general-purpose high explosive naval bomb, Japan possessed a good range of air-to-ground missiles in World War II. Smallest of these was the 15-kg (33.07-lb) antipersonnel type with a 10.16-cm (4-in) diameter body measuring only 64 cm (25.2 in) in length. In the majority of Japanese bombs, fuses were carried in the nose, and it was only on the introduction of the 50kg (110.23-lb) HE bomb that both nose and tail fuses were employed, although this combination is usually associated with the 250-kg (551.15-lb) high explosive bomb, of which there were two variants. Construction of Japanese bombs followed conventional lines with plain fins lacking a ring, and prominentlyriveted sheet metal was frequently employed. Forged steel was, however, used for the body of the 800-kg (1,763.7-lb) armour-piercing bomb, an impressive naval weapon with a pair of B-2(b) tail fuses. Filling was Trinitro Anisol with an aluminium plug in the forward end of the cavity, deep in the steel body, to prevent the filling taking too great a shock on striking the target; the single-piece machined-steel body had eight recesses in the nose for the fixing of windshields if the bomb was adapted as a projectile. The most widely used Japanese general-purpose bomb was the naval 250-kg type and its army equivalent. There were two versions of the naval weapon, the later model being slightly larger with thicker walls and having a
Above: The Type 99 no. 80 750-kg GP bomb was one of the largest bombs regularly employed by the Japanese.
continuous welded/spot-welded nose, although the tail cone was still fastened by rivets. The army favoured screwed steel bodies and nose, with a welded tail cone. The Japanese armoury included a contemporary of the German 'oil bomb', used by the navy. This contamed a central thermite core surrounded by a mixture of kerosene, petrol and alchohol-soap; alternatively rubber pie-shaped pellets impregnated with iron and aluminium were packed round the explosive in its central tube to act as a bursting and scattering charge. Specification 250-kg GP Type: high explosive general-purpose bomb Weight: 250 kg (551.15 lb) Dimensions: length 1.937 m (6 ft 4.3 in); diameter 30. Ocm (11.8 in) Filling: preformed picric
The Type 97 no. 6 59-kgbomb was a general-purpose weapon carried by a variety of Japanese aircraft, from heavy bombers to fighters. 418
Left: The Japanese Type 2 no. 25 Mk 111 250-kg bomb had twisted fins to spin-stabilize the bomb and to activate the fuses by centrifugal force. Below: Japanese armourers unload bombs, probably of50-kg GP type, from a truck. Judging from the Hying gear being worn, the photograph suggests that the Hying crew members also acted as armourers and loaded their own bombs into their aircraft.
UK
British standard bombs Although there existed in 1918 not only the 816.5-kg (1,800-lb) GP highexplosive bomb used principally by No. 207 Squadron RAF, together with the 1496.9-kg (3,300-lb) HE bomb intended to be delivered by the Handley Page V/1500, these were comparatively crude weapons. The art of bomb design was concentrated on the lighter types, so that at the outbreak of World War II offensive loads consisted in the main of bombs weighing 113.4 kg (250 lb) or 226.8 kg (500 lb). Certainly there was still scope for the use of smaller free-fall bombs, and these particularly came into their own with the1 advent of the Hawker 'Hurribomber equipped to take four 22.68kg (50-lb) bombs under each wing. Nevertheless, British bombs did present some variations of shape, and while the ones carried by fighters soon assumed near-conical noses with flattened fronts, the majority were of con-1 ventional appearance with 'egg-like contours until the 1 introduction of the 'thousand-pounder , the 453.6-kg type designed for the external racks of the Hawker Typhoon, all illustrations of the advancing state of the art in refining the shape of bombs for the RAF. A degree of agreement was certain-
Left: The 54-kg(120-lb) GP HE bomb was one of a series of new, improved bombs of better aerodynamic shape than those used since World War I. This weapon replaced the old 50-kg (112-lb)GPbomb.
Righ t: The 227-kg (SOO-lb) MC, Mklll HE bomb was m uch more effective than the earlier 500-lb GP bomb, due to a higher filling-to-overall'Weight ratio. The cropped annular vane permitted four of these bombs to be carried by the Mosquito bomber. It did not affect stability. ly evident concerning the design of that vital part of a bomb, the tail, and almost throughout the design of British standard bombs, the assembly here consisted of four sheet fins with a broad ring containing their trailing edges. These facts were in part dictated by the British practice of stowing bombs horizontally, the resultant release being the most aerodynamic that could be achieved, since a bomb dropping away from an aeroplane of the time inevitably spun or otherwise
became unstable when struck by the slipstream; it was the tail that finally straightened its flight as the forward momentum imparted by the launch aircraft was lost and the downward path commenced in an arc towards the target as gravity exerted a pull, All these factors were common to the standard bombs of the day which were all of pre-1940 design and included the largely-forgotten HE type of 54 kg (120 lb); there were different versions of all types, some of these variants
being readily identified from their casing that might have strengthening bands as on some '500-pounders'.
Specification
MkltoMkSGP Type: general-purpose high explosive bomb Weight: 119.4 kg (263 lb) Dimensions: length 1.37 m (4 ft 6 in); diameter 0.26 m (10.3 in) Filling: TNT or Amatol 80/20
ThebombsoftheRAF.Fromthetop:9979-kg(22,000-lb)MC;5443-kg(12,000Ib) HC; nose of5443-kg (l 2,000-lb) MC; 3629-kg (8,000-lb) HC; 1814-kg (4,000lb)HC;(right) 862-kg(l,900-lb) GP; 907-kg (2,000-lb) AP; (front) 454-kg (1,000-lb) and 227-kg (500-lb) GPs. The small bomb is 18 kg(40-lb).
454-kg (1,000-lb) MC bombs drop from an RAF bomber into the jungle of Burma. Earlier RAF bombs had long annular tail vanes, but by cropping the vanes of 227-kg (500-lb) bombs the bomb bay of Mosquitoes could accommodate four instead of two of these weapons.
Airfields have always presented a challenge to the bomber, proving very difficult toknockout. Lacking today's specialist weapons, theRAFhad to rely on accuracy and delayed action bombs to frustrate repair work. Here, a stick of bombs impacts on a Japanese airfield in Burma.
A 227-kg (500-lb) Mklll MC bomb is loaded on the wing rack of a Hawker Typhoon. The pistol and detonator has not yet been installed in the nose of the bomb; the armed bomb had pistols and detonators in both nose and tail. 419
UK
British heavy bombs The largest of the British war-time bombs was the well-known 'Grand Slam', a 9979-kg (22,000-lb) missile designed chiefly for deep penetration, equipped with aerodynamically shaped fins to impart an assisting twist to its fall. Forty-one of these monsters were dropped by specially-modified Avrò Lancasters in 1945, the first on 14 March when Lancaster B.Mk 1 (Special) PD112 of No, 617 Squadron, with Squadron-Leader C.C. Calder at the controls, demolished two spans of the Bielefeld Viaduct with one of these weapons only a single day after the first test-drop had been made. British heavy bombs of 5443-kg (12,000-lb) capacity were of two types, the most sophisticated being the Tallboy' designed for deep penetration, and of which no less than 854 were dropped by Avrò Lancasters following the first attack with them on the night of 8/9 June 1944. While the 'Tallboy' was of conventional streamlined shape, the other 5443-kg missile was a departure from common practice in that it was cylindrical and was in fact formed from three 1814-kg (4,000-lb) 'Cookies' bolted together (the sections being clearly visible) with an annular-ringed six-fin tail attached. This was the General-Purpose 'Factory Buster', also much used in 1944, but in fact first used during a raid on the Dortmund-Ems Canal during the hours of darkness of 15/16 September in the previous year. 'Big, b e a u t i f u l ' b o m b s were pioneered by the 907-kg (2,000-lb) version first used during the night attack on the Emden shipyards on 31 March/1 April 1941. However, a comparison of weight alone is deceptive, since the explosive power of the later bomb was greater than that of the fillings used at the beginning of the war, when a 907-kg 'heavy' certainly existed in armour-piercing form for attacks on shipping, although the version of a mere 227-kg (500-lb) weapon was the accepted 'big bomb' in the RAF. The ordinary 'Cookie' had made its operational debut over Wilhelmshaven on 8 July 1942, observers at the time reporting that 'whole houses took to'the air', thus gaining for the weapon the name of 'Block Buster' in the UK, although the Germans knew the type as Bezirkbomben. The existence of these was, however, not announced until some time after their first use, not in fact until September, and it was not
Above: The 1814-kg (4,000-lb) HCMk III HE bomb had three pistols and detonators in the nose. In the centre of the bomb there was a continuous tube with exploders linked into the central detonator. These bombs had a very high explosive filling to overall weight ratio. Right:A 1814-kg (4,000-lb) HCMk I high-explosive bomb is wheeled up to a Wellington B.Mklll. This was an early version with a single pistol and detonator in the nose. This example is painted in the yellow-buff shade originally used on high-explosive bombs. for a further two years that the general public was to know the name of the man who had taken such a prominent part in the development of British wartime bombs, Air Commodore Patrick Huskinson, who had himself been blinded during a raid by the Luftwaffe in 1941.
Specification
GP'Factory Buster' Type: general-purpose high explosive bomb Weight: 5443 kg (12,000 lb) Dimensions: length 5,33 m (17 ft 6 in); diameter 1,02 m (3 ft 4 in) Filling: 2358.7 kg (5,200 lb) of Torpex 'cemented' within a 25.4-mm ( 1-in) jacket of TNT
A typical scene on any Lancaster base during later years of World War II: a 3629-kg (8,000-lb) HC blast bomb is brough t up by tractor for loading into the capacious bomb bay of a Lancaster. The Lancaster, Manchester and Halifax could carry these bombs in ternally.
UK
British 25-lb rocket British rockets employed a solid propellant inside a cast iron tube and « mounted a variety of warheads and fuses. Their bodies were a length of 7.62-cm (3-in) diameter cast pipe fitted with a set of flat plate fins to constitute a cruciform tail, and a pair of lugs by means of which it was slung from the aircraft's launching rail. On one end was screwed the 11.34-kg (25-lb) armour-piercing warhead. A solidpropellant filling was packed into the length of pipe that made up the greater part of the missile, which was electrically fired in such a way that, although exhausting from the open end, burning was initiated from the front, a system necessary in order to ensure that the balance of the rocket was not dis420
rhree versions of the l l .34-kg (25-lb) warhead existed, two armourpiercing and one semi-armourpiercing. The AP shell no. l,MkI shown was used a t dive angle of 15 degrees or over, while the AP shell no. 2, Mkl was used under 15 degrees. The SAP shown was for training only.
turbed as the charge was consumed. Concrete heads were employed for practice. Experimental work took up the greater part of 1942, and included tests mounted under the wings of the new Hawker Typhoon, but it was the Hawker Hurricane that was to fly the rocket into action for the first time when aircraft of No. 184 Squadron made Fighter Command's first operational strike. Unfortunately the long rails necessary for launching exacted a serious penalty from the aircraft's performance, and except from a very steep dive the missiles were difficult to aim because of their sharp trajectory drop, aiming being by means of the standard Mk IIG reflector gunsight, which was not real-
ly equal to the demands made on it. This British innovation was disliked by pilots because of its effect on performance, and there was a sharp temptation to expend them on the first available target, whatever it was, regardless of what warhead was being carried.
Specification
Type: air-to-ground aircraft-launched armour-piercing rocket Warhead weight: 11.34 kg (25 lb) Dimensions: length 1.69 m (5 ft 6.5 in); diameter 8.89 cm (3.5 in)
UK
British 60-lb rocket With a similar basic concept to the 11.34-kg (25-lb) armour-piercing projectile, the rocket with a 27,22-kg (60lb) high explosive head became standard after 1943, while later in the war fragmentation missiles of similar weights were introduced, By this time a method of delivery designed to ensure maximum destruction of the target had been perfected, This called for the aircraft formation, now usually Typhoons, to make an approach at between 1829 m (6,000 ft) and 3048 m (10,000 ft), and from this the leader would make the first dive at about 40° to mark the target, he being followed at a similar angle at 644 km/h (400 mph) or at 30° when a lower speed of some 612 km/h (380 mph) was indicated. At an altitude of not more than 152 m (500 ft) and a distance of 500 m (550 yards) from the target the complete salvo, said to have a striking power equivalent to the broadside from a destroyer's guns, might be fired before the pilot pulled up sharply and took himself out of the radius of action, there being about five seconds before the shrapnel from the exploding rockets constituted a real danger to the aircraft that had launched them. Unfortunately it is on record that some 25 per cent of the rockets failed to detonate, particularly in the earlier days, and there was a definite tendency to undershoot and the trajectory drop to be inaccurately estimated. Before the end of the war, zerolength rocket rails were introduced which affected the aircraft's performance less markedly. Some of these revised the position of the missiles so that
The 76.2-mm (3-in) rocket was used by the Royal Air Force for attacking a variety of targets, including ships, tanks, strongpoints, submarines and troop concentrations. A number of warheads were evolved for different types of target; the most-used was the 27.22-kg (60-lb) HE head shown here.
a load of four weapons under each wing was no longer carried side by side but instead, on the Mk 7 installation, fitted in two vertical pairs. A variation of this was to be found on the Mk 6 fitted to the Bristol Beaufighter, which grouped the four round a central fairing from which they could be jettisoned, Developments of the basic 27.22-kg rocket included the 81.65-kg (180-lb) projectile with its three tubes of propellant, and the 'Admomtor' with seven motors inside a large diameter casing fitted with six fins, and having a 113.4kg (250-lb) warhead.
Specification
Type: air-to-ground aircraft-launched high explosive rocket Warhead weight: 27.22 kg (60 lb) Dimensions: length 1,88 m (6 ft 2 in); diameter 15.24 cm (6 in)
76.2-mm (3-in) rockets speed towards locomotives waiting in a siding, fired from a South African Air Force Beaufighter. The 27.22-kg (60-lb) shell was effective for penetrating locomotive boilers, but the 11.34-kg (25-lb) AP shell was specified for use against merchant ships and submarines.
A Hawker Typhoon MklB, with the old 'car door' type canopy, carries 76.2mm (3-in) rockets. The shells attached are the 27.22-kg (60-lb) SAP type. Other types used were the 27.22-kg (60-lb) T'fragmentation shell, 11.34-kg (25-lb) AP and 25-lb SAP shells, and concrete practice versions of these shells.
For use against 'soft' targets the 27-kg (60-lb) HE Type F shell was developed. This was a thick-walled shell, which exploded into small high-velocity fragments. Pilots using this weapon were warned not to use it under 550 m (600 yards) because of Hying fragments.
Left:Debris nies high in the air after a rocket strike by an SAAFBristol Beaufighter against locomotives waiting in a siding. This locomotive target was in Yugoslavia during the German occupation of that country.
Above: Four rockets are launched from a Hawker Typhoon at a German barge on the Wester Scheide. These are 76.2-mm (3-in) aircraft rockets with 27.22-kg (60-lb) semi-armourpiercing shells. Heat from the rocket motor ignited the thermal initiator. 421
USA
American bombs Observers in 1945 were in the habit of making comparison between what they called the 'superior aerodynamic shape' of British bombs and the more standardized lines of those dropped by the Luftwaffe. Be this as it may, the United States probably displayed the greatest variety of profiles among its free-fall bombs, Almost German in their appearance were the 907-kg (2,000-lb) AN-M66 GPs used by the US Army and Navy; this type proved its value against ammunition dumps, railway junctions, airfields and factory sites, while a modified version of the AN-M66 could be fitted with an AN-Mk 230 hydrostatic fuse, enabling it to be employed against heavily armed surface vessels, as well as submarines. Either Amatol or TNT were the fillings used for this type. The 454-kg (1,000-lb) generalpurpose bomb resembled the larger version, but probably less closely than it did the 227-kg (500-lb) bomb with its squat construction and a semi-braced tail with sheet fins, which was really the typical United States weapon of World War II. Employed once more by both the US Army and Navy, these were used against similar targets to the larger versions, their nose fuses being in the main of AN-M103 pattern, although the AN-M125 long-delay time fuse could be substituted if the target justified such a change. A feature of United States bombs, some of which were equipped with lugs permitting British-style single-
point suspension, was that they carried an external arming wire. This ran fore and aft of the lifting lug position, where it was formed into an eye. From this point it was led through the twin suspension eyes to the nose and tail fuses. The weight of the released bomb tugged this wire free as it left the rack and thus armed the missile in a crude but effective safety system. Both the Mk 1 and Mk 4 'thousandpounders' were declared obsolete in 1944, although they continued in service as long as bases held any in store, so that they remained in use until the end of the fighting in one theatre or another. These, in common with the majority of American bombs for general-purpose use, had a tail formed by four vanes welded to the tail cone which was fastened to the body by screws, A box form resulted from webs connecting the fins, and the whole was strut-braced internally, At the opposite end of the scale of United States bombs mention must be made of the obsolete armour-piercing types forming the 'M' series, Of these the heaviest was the 408-kg (900-lb) M6, which like the rest of the group were converted artillery projectiles,
The 454-kg (1,000-lb) armour-piercing bomb used by the USAAF was a thickcased weapon with an explosive filling to weigh t ra tio of only 14 per cen t.
A typical general purpose bomb in use with US forces was the 227-kg (500-lb) weapon shown. It had an explosive filling to weight ratio of 51 per cent brough t about by the use of a thin case. The bomb had two fuses, one in the nose and the other in the tail.
Specification
AN-M81 Type: high explosive fragmentation bomb Weights: 117.9 kg (260 lb) Dimensions: length 1.092 m (3 ft 7 in); diameter 0.203 m (8 in)
This shower of bombs descends from B-17s during an 8th Air Force raid on Germany in Jan uary 1945. Despite enormous advances in aiming techniques and naviga tional aids, errors still occurred and sometimes it was not only the wrong city that was bombed, but the wrong country.
The familiar pictures of Hiroshima have tended to obscure the fact that US conventional raids on Japan often caused greater destruction; this is Hammamatsu attera visit from the B-29 Superfortresses. Japanese cities proved horribly vulnerable to incendiary munitions.
Armourers ride on two 454-kg (1,000-lb) GP bombs being brough t up for loading in to Boeing B-17E day bombers of the United Sta tes Army Air Corps. The front bomb still has the transit plug fitted in thenose; this would have been replaced by the fuse and arming vane.
In the Pacific war the aircraft made little use of guided weapons, relying on torpedoes and accurate bombing. Here a Japanese escort takes a direct hit from a bomb dropped by a B-25 during an attack on a convoy offLeyte.
422
i i SA
American heavy bombs Rapidly becoming known by the generic title of 'concrete-piercers', United States bombs designed for attacks against reinforced targets of concrete or steel construction were, although formidable, never to rival the British 'heavies' in power and size. Largest was the 725.7-kg (1,600-lb) armour-piercing AN-Mk 1 fitted with a single tail fuse, the AN-Mk 228 with a 0.08-second delay. Filled with pressed 'Explosive D' or TNT, the AN-Mk 1 was formed from a single piece of steel, forged and machined, with a pointed nose, parallel sides and slight boat tailing leading to a male-type base plate, To this was fitted the normal box type tail assembly while the body was equipped with side trunnions between the two suspension lugs on the upper segment, with British single point below. Similar to this type in detail was the AN-Mk 33, 272 kg (600 lb) lighter but capable of being used against similar targets, which might also include battleships and cruisers. These smaller bombs were later modified (as were the Mk Is) for suspension by means of screw-in lugs secured by bolts, thus replacing those of the welded type fitted to bands set in grooves in the casing. A second type of 454-kg (1,000-lb) American bomb, intended for use against land targets of concrete or
The US1814-kg(4,000-lb) light case bomb was used for large-scale demolition of targets such as factories. 11 had an explosive filling to weigh t ra tio of 80 per cen t. steel construction, was the SAP (semiarmour-piercing) type. This was capable of having an alternative fitting of either AN-M102A2 or AN-M103 fuses in the tail and nose respectively so that fragmentation could be achieved on suitable targets. These weapons were of single-piece cast or spun construction with streamlined, semi-pointed noses in which a threaded opening received a fuse-seat liner and steel plug, which could be exchanged for an instantaneous fuse if required, A modified version of the generally similar AN-M58 weighing only 227 kg (500 lb) was produced by the removal of 4,31 kg (9.5 lb) of the Amatol filling and replacing it with 14.29 kg (31.5 lb) of steel to improve penetration. They were then re-designated AN-M58A1.
Specification
AN-Mk l Type: armour-piercing high explosive bomb Weight: 721.2 kg (1,590 lb) Dimensions: length 2.11 m (6 ft 11 in) Filling: compressed explosive 'D' or cast TNT
A good example of the high concentra tion of bombing obtained by US day bombers: the target in this case was Marifu railyard, two miles south ofOtaka, Japan, which was bombed by Boeing B-29s of the 21st Bombardmen t Croup during August 1945.
USSR
Soviet rockets The Soviet Union may well be able to claim that it pioneered the introduction of the rocket as a modern aerial weapon, but this was when they were envisaged as air-to-air weapons, tested first in 1937, the idea being that all fighters would be equipped to carry a battery of six to eight rockets on underwing launchers. They were to receive the designations RS-75 and RS82, the numerical suffix referring to their diameters, 75 mm (2.95 in) and 82 mm (3,23 in) respectively. A ground-attack version was developed during the following year, and this was larger and of increased diameter, This RS-132 was intended for fitting to bombers. Meanwhile the RS-75 was used for the first time over Mongolia, during the Nomonhan Incident against Japanese aircraft, but although some successes were claimed, the RS-75 and RS-82 missiles ceased to be mentioned in reports after the opening months of the war against Germany, although their development was to make an important contribution in another field. This took the form of a specialized ground-attack rocket, the RBS-82, that was introduced in 1941. It was from this that a new variant was produced with an improved velocity and increased propellant capacity as the armourpiercing ROFS-132, while much the same time saw the introduction of a version intended for use against con-
crete defensive positions, the BETAB150DS. It is perhaps not fully realized that one of the contributions to the acclaim heaped on the Ilyushm 11-2 aircraft as the war progressed was the type's effective use of 82-mm rockets, which were deployed with success against targets such as soft-skinned transport and troop concentrations, particularly if the latter were caught unprepared in the open. Introduced at a later date were the RS-132 variants: similar to the ROFS132, these could be fitted with two types of head, the solid version being intended for building demolition, while that with a hollow-charge head was directed against armour. Specification RS-82 Type: air-to-ground aircraft-launched rocket Weight: 24.9 kg (55 lb) Dimensions: length 0.864 m (2 ft 10 in); diameter 82 mm (3.23 in)
The 100-kg(220-lb) high-explosive bomb was a standard weapon used by llyushin Il-2s for ground attack work. The famous heavily-armoured attack aircraft could carry six of these bombs.
The Soviet Union commenced production of airborne rocket weapons in 1937, the first being the RS-75, a 750-mm diameter rocket. At first this was used for air-to-air combat, but later these weapons were used for ground attack. The rocket shown is equipped with a fragmentation head.
The Soviet Union 's rocket weapons for airborne use were produced in three sizes, RS-75, RS-82 and RS-132, the numerals denoting the diameter in millimetres. The RS-132 shown has an explosive head for piercing strongpoints. Il-2s used these bombs and 37-mm cannon to great effect.
A MiC-3 of the 12th Fighter Regiment in 1942 carries RS-82 rocket weapons under the wings. This 82-mm rocket could be used as an air-to-air or air-toground weapon. Firings of rockets of 75,82 and 132-mm diameter began in the USSR in 1933, and theRS-75 was first produced in 1937. 423
Light
A i re raft Light aircraft were used for all manner of tasks in World War II, from everyday missions like artillery spotting and general liaison duties to clandestine flights behind the lines, carrying agents. Aircraft like the Lysander and the ubiquitous Fieseier Storch performed valuable work throughout the war.
A British Taylorcraft Auster artillery observation plane. It played a vital part in the war effort, being used for spotting and co-ordinating purposes.
T
he use of light aircraft by the warring nations of World War II for operational purposes (as distinct from training tasks) was widespread and covered a host of duties. The reasons why they were used so extensively are equally diverse, ranging from ready availability of the aircraft, via low-cost production, operation and performance suitable 424
for a specific task, to simplicity of training and flying. In general terms the category which was termed 'light aircraft' may be said to include those aircraft whose normal loaded weight was below about 2750kg (60601b), although in most instances the true light aircraft of World War II actually took off at a third of this weight. At one end of
the scale the UK's Westland Lysander was a relatively large aeroplane but qualified for inclusion in the category on account of its outstanding agility, short field performance and slow-speed capability, attributes which should all have rendered it ideal for that nebulous duty undertaken by the RAF during the first half of the war: army co-operation.
When it was discovered that the British Westland Lysander (and the German Henschel Hs 126) actually fell short of the requirements which the true ground support role demanded (for the harsh battle conditions of the Blitzkrieg could never have been countenanced), the whole gamut of air operations over the battlefield had to change: the true army cooperation duties (in particular artillery observation) were undertaken by genuine lightplanes (such as the Austers and 'Grasshoppers') while ground support moved up the scale to embrace the capabilities of the high-performance fighterbomber. For duties that involved covert operations, such as the transport of secret agents, the rescue of airmen who had been shot down in enemy territory and in other duties involving the use of remote or confined sites, the lightplane was the obvious solution to use. Of all the aircraft employed in these tasks none better than the Fieseier Storch was ever produced: its great agility became and then remained forever legendary, even after the helicopter had become an accepted component of arsenals all around the world.
UK
British Taylorcraft Auster series In 1936 the Taylorcraft Aviation Company was formed in the USA to design and manufacture lightplanes for private use. Most successful of the prewar aircraft to emanate from this company were designated Models B, C, and D, and in November 1938 Taylorcraft Aeroplanes (England) Ltd was established at Thurmaston, Leicestershire, to build these aircraft under licence. Six American-built Model As were imported into the UK, followed by one Model B. Of braced high-wing monoplane configuration, with a fabric-covered wing of composite wood and metal construction, the aircraft featured a fuselage and tail unit both of welded steel tube with fabric covering. Accommodation within the enclosed cabin was for two persons, seated side by side, and landing gear was of basic non-retractable tailwheel type, with main unit shock-absorption by rubber bungee. Powerplant of the imported Model As consisted of one 30-kW (40-hp) Continental A-40 flatfour engine. The British-built equivalent to the Model A was designated the British Taylorcraft Model C, but this was soon redesignated Plus C, reflecting the improved performance resulting from installation of a 41-kW (55-hp) Lycoming O-145-A2 engine. Other than provision of split trailingedge flaps to improve short-field per-
The Auster AOP.6 was the las t development of the wartime Taylorcraft design. With a more powerful deHavilland engine and a larger propeller (making longer wheel struts necessary) it was actually a poorer performer in many respects than its predecessors. formance, the aircraft of the Plus-C derived British Taylorcraft Auster series were to change little throughout the war. During this time more than 1,600 were built for service use, the Auster Mk I entering service with No, 654 Squadron in August 1942. At the height of their utilization, Austers equipped Nos 652, 653, 657, 658, 659, 660, 661, 662, 664 and 665 Squadrons of the 2nd Tactical Air Force, and Nos 651, 654, 655, 656, 663, 666, 671, 672 and 673 Squadrons of the Desert Air Force, They were used also in small numbers by associated Canadian and Dutch squadrons, Their initial deployment in an operational role was during
the invasion of Algeria, and they were to prove an indispensible tool in the Sicilian and Italian campaigns. Just three weeks after D-Day, these unarmed lightplanes were in the forefront of the action as the Allied armies advanced into France.
Specification
British Taylorcraft Auster Type: light liaison/observation aircraft Powerplant: (Auster Mk V) one 97-kW (130-hp) Lycoming O-290-3 flat-four piston engine Performance: maximum speed 209 km/h (130 mph) at sea level; cruising speed 180 km/h (112 mph);
normal range 402 km (250 miles) Weights: empty 499 kg (1,100 lb); maximum take-off 839 kg (1,850 lb) Dimensions: span 10.97 m (36 ft 0 in); length 6.83 m (22 ft 5 in); height 2.44 m (8 ftO in); wing area 15.51 n/(167,0sq ft) Armament: none Unglamorous and unglamorized artillery observation aircraft played a decisive part in the war; themain British types were the five British Taylorcraft Austers. This is the Mk III, which had a de Havilland Gypsy Major engine.
UK
Westland Lysander First flown in prototype form during June 1936, the Westland Lysander was a two-seat high-wing monoplane army co-operation aircraft with excellent STO L capabilities. The first production series was the Lysander Mk I, and aircraft of this version entered service in late 1938 with No. 16 Squadron, based at Old Sarum. Lysanders went on to equip some 30 RAF squadrons, and these served in Europe, the Middle East and the Far East. The type was built in three marks, these being distinguished mainly by the different powerplants used. The Lysander Mk I featured the 664-kW (890-hp) Bristol
Mercury XII radial; the Lysander Mk II, which was built in the UK by Westland and in Canada by the National Steel Car Corporation, had the 708-kW (950-hp) Bristol Perseus XII radial; and the Lysander Mk III, which was also built in the UK and Canada, used the 649-kW (870-hp) Mercury XX or Mercury XXX radial. The Lysander operated in its intended role for only a short time in the war, European operations confirming that such large and relatively slow aircraft were deathtraps in the presence of determined opposition, both ground and air. However, the type went on to a
notably successful second career in air-sea rescue, radar calibration and, perhaps most significantly, agent dropping and recovery in occupied Europe. Total production was 1,368 aircraft.
Specification
Westland Lysander Mk I Type: two-seat army co-operation aircraft and short-range tactical reconnaissance aircraft Powerplant: one (664-kW) 890-hp Bristol Mercury XII radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed
369 km/h (229 mph) at 3050 m (10,000 ft); climb to 3050 m (10,000 ft) in 5.5 minutes; service ceiling 7925 m (26,000 ft); range 966 km (600 miles) Weights: empty 1844 kg (4,065 lb); normal loaded 2685 kg (5,920 lb) Dimensions: span 15.24 m (50 ft 0 in); length9.30 m(30 ft 6 in); height 3.51 m (11ft 6 in); wing area 24.15 m2 (260, Osq ft) Armament: two forward-firing 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns in wheel fairings and two 7,7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns in the rear cockpit, plus provision for eight 9.07-kg (20-lb) bombs on stub winglets 425
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
Letov S 328 The Czech Letov company began in 1932 the design of a general-purpose biplane for service with the Finnish air force. An equal-span single-bay biplane with fixed tailwheel landing gear and conventional braced tail unit, this Letov S 328 had accommodation for a pilot and observer/gunner in separate open cockpits in tandem, The S 328 F prototype for Finland was completed during 1933, its powerplant a 433-kW (580-hp) Bristol Pegasus IIM-2 radial engine. Armament comprised two 7,7-mm (0.303-in) forward-firing machine-guns in the upper wing, and two more weapons of the same calibre on a flexible mounting in the rear cockpit. Although no production aircraft were ordered by Finland, political changes and growing tension in Europe caused the Czech air ministry to order the type into production during 1934 for use by its own air force in the role of a bomber/reconnaissance aircraft. A total of 445 was built under the designation S 328, and most of these were impressed for service with the Luftwaffe or the new Slovak air force when Bohemia-Moravia was occupied by German forces in March 1939, but a small number were later supplied to Bulgaria. When production ended a total of 470 had been built, and included 13 examples of a night-fighter variant designated S 328 N which was armed with four fixed forward-firing and two trainably-mounted machineguns. Letov had plans to produced developed versions, one S 428 prototype resulting from the conversion of an S 328 production aircraft by replacing the standard powerplant with a 485kW (650-hp) Avia Vr-36 (licence-built Hispano-Suiza 12Nbr) and with armament of four forward-firing machineguns. Slovak S 328 aircraft took part in the
This Letov S 328 was one of three flown by Slovak patriots during the Nationalist uprising of August 1944. The aircraft operated out of Tri Duby airfield in the foothills of the Carpa thians, largely on reconnaissance duties against Slovakia 's erstwhile masters, the Germans. campaign against Poland in 1940 and were operating on the Eastern Front in 1941, but by 1944 there came a reversal of loyalties, many Slovak pilots defecting to the USSR in their S 328s to take part in operations against the German forces on Soviet territory.
Specification
Letov S 328 Type: two-seat bomber/ reconnaissance aircraft Powerplant: one 474-kW (635-hp) Walter-built Bristol Pegasus IIM-2 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 280 km/h (174 mph) at 1800 m (5,905 ft); service ceiling 7200 m (23,620 ft); range 700 km (435 miles) Weights: 1680 kg (3,704 lb); maximum take-off 2675 kg (5,897 lb) Dimensions: 13.70 m (44 ft 11.4 in); length 10.40 m (34 ft 1.4 in); height 2 3.40 m (11 ft 1.9 in); wing area 67.10m (722.28 sq ft) Armament: four 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns, two in upper wing and two on flexible mount in rear cockpit, plus up to 500 kg ( 1,102 lb) of bombs
Widely used on the Eastern Fron t by Slovak and Luftwaffe pilots, the È 328 was operated in the battlefield reconnaissance and light bomber roles as well as nigh t harassm en t missions in 1943.
Repulogpégyàr Levante In October 1940 Repulogpégyàr flew the prototype of a parasol-wing twoseat primary trainer which it designated Repulogpégyàr Levente I. This was modified subsequently to serve as the prototype of an improved Levente II which entered service with the Hungarian air force during 1943. By then, Hungary had allied itself with Germany and had participated in the invasion of the USSR. The result was that the 100 Levente Us built to serve with the air force as primary trainers were, in fact, deployed with operational squadrons where they were used in communications/liaison roles until the end of the war. Specification Repulogpégyàr Levente II Type: two-seat liaison/training aircraft Powerplant: one licence-built 78-kW (105-hp) Hirth HM 504 A-2 inverted inline piston engine Performance: maximum speed 180 km/h (112 mph); cruising speed 160 km/h (99 mph); service ceiling 4500 m (14,765 ft); range 650 km (404 miles) Weights: 470 kg (1,036 lb); maximum take-off 750 kg (1,653 lb) Dimensions: span 9.45 m (31 ft 0 in); length 6.08 m (19 ft 11.4 in); height 2 2.53 m (8 ft 3.6 in); wing area 13.50 m ( 145.32 sq ft) Armament: none 426
The Levente 11 was used on the Eastern Front as a comm unica tions and liaison aircraft by the Hungarian air force. It was powered by a licence-built Hirth 4-cylinder engine, giving a maxim urn speed of 180 km/h (112 mph).
JAPAN
Mitsubishi Ki-15 In July 1935 the Imperial Japanese Army drew up its specification for a new two-seat reconnaissance aircraft, and Mitsubishi responded with a cantilever low-wing monoplane, the Mitsubishi Ki-15. Service testing was completed without difficulty and the type was ordered into production under the officiai designation Army Type 97 Command Reconnaissance Plane Model 1. In May 1937, a year after the first flight, delivery of production aircraft to the army began, Just before that, however, military observers in the west should have gained some premonition of Japan's growing capability in aircraft design when the second (civil) prototype was used to establish a new record flight time between Japan and England. The army's Ki-15-I had been received in time to make a significant impact at the beginning of the war with China, the type's high speed giving it freedom of the skies until China introduced the- Soviet Polikarpov 1-16. However, plans had already been made to upgrade performance of the KI-15-I, this being achieved by installing the 671-kW (900-hp), smaller-diameter Mitsubishi Ha-26-I engine, its incorporation providing an opportunity to overcome what had been the major shortcoming of the type, a poor forward field of view past the large-dia-
meter Nakajima engine, The improved version entered production for the army in September 1939 as the Ki15-11, but before that the Japanese navy, impressed by the performance of this aircraft, ordered 20 examples of the Ki-15-11 under the official designation Navy Type 98 Reconnaissance Plane Model 1, Mitsubishi designation C5M1. The navy acquired subsequently 30 C5M2 aircraft that were generally similar except for installation of the more powerful 708-kW (950-hp) Nakajima Sakae (prosperity) 12 engine. When production ended almost 500 of all versions had been built, the majority being in first-line service when the
Pacific war started. Given the Allied codename 'Babs', the type was relegated to second-line roles in early 1943, but many survived to be used in kamikaze attacks at the war's end.
Specification
Mitsubishi Ki-15-I Type: two-seat reconnaissance aircraft Powerplant: one 477-kW (640-hp) Nakajima Ha-8 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 480 km/h (298 mph) at 4000 m (13,125 ft); cruising speed 320 km/h (199 mph) at 5000 m (16,405 ft); service ceiling 11400 m (37,400 ft); range 2400 km (1,491 miles)
A Navy version oftheKi-15-II designated C5M, featured the smalldiameter Ha-26-I engine. For its time the 'Babs', as it came to be called by the Allies, had an excellent performance, superior to some con temporary figh ters. Weights: empty 1400 kg (3,086 lb); maximum take-off 2300 kg (5,071 lb) Dimensions: span 12,00 m (39 ft 4.4 in); length 8.70 m (28 ft 6.5 in); height 2 3.35 m (11 ft 0 in); wing area 20.36 m (219.16 sq ft) Armament: all versions had one 7.7mm (0.303-in) machine-gun on a trainable mount in the rear cockpit
JAPAN
Tachikawa KĂ&#x152;-36/KĂ&#x152;-55 First flown in prototype form on 20 April 1938, the Tachikawa Ki-36 was a cantilever low-wing monoplane of allmetal basic structure, covered by a mix of light alloy and fabric. Landing gear was of fixed tailwheel type, the main units enclosed in speed fairings, and power was provided by a 336-kW0, (450-hp) Hitachi Ha-13 radial engine. The two-man crew was enclosed by a long 'greenhouse' canopy and both men had good fields of view, that of the observer being improved by clearview panels in the floor. The type was ordered into production in November 1938 as the Army Type 98 Direct CoOperation Plane. Generally similar to the prototypes, the type was armed with two 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machineguns and introduced the more powerful Hitachi Ha-13a engine. When construction ended in January 1944, a total of 1,334 had been built by Tachikawa (862) and Kawasaki (472), The handling characteristics and reliability of the Ki-36 made the army realize that it was ideal for use as an advanced trainer, resulting in development of the Ki-55, intended specifically for this role and having armament reduced to a single forward-firing machine-gun, Following the testing of a prototype in September 1939, the army ordered this aircraft as the Army Type 99 Advanced Trainer; when production was terminated in December 1943 a total of 1,389 had been built by Tachikawa (1,078) and Kawasaki (311). Both versions were allocated the Allied codename 'Ida', and the Ki-36 was first deployed with considerable success in China. However, when confronted by Allied fighters at the beginning of the Pacific War it was found to be too vulnerable, being redeployed in China where it was less likely to be confronted by such aircraft. It was also
The Chinese People's Liberation Army operated Tachikawa Ki-55 advanced trainers in the years following 1945. Large numbers had been supplied to the Japanese puppet regime ofManchukuo, and these fell into the hands of the Communists (with the considerable assistance of the invading Russians).
considered suitable for kamikaze use in the closing stages of the war, being modified to carry internally a bomb of up to 500kg (1,102 lb).
Specification
Tachikawa Ki-36 Type: Powerplant: one 380-kW (510-hp) Hitachi Ha- 13a radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 348 km/h (216 mph) at 1800 m (5,905 ft); cruising speed 235 km/h (146 mph); service ceiling 8150m (26,740 ft); range 1235 km (767 miles) Weights: empty 1247 kg (2,749 lb); maximum take-off 1660 kg (3,660 lb) Dimensions: span 11.80 m (38 ft 8,6 in); length 8.00 m (25 ft 3 in); height 3,64 m (11 ft 11,3 in); wing area 20.00 m2 (215.29sgft) Armament: two 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns (one forward-firing and one on a trainable mounting in the rear cockpit), plus an external bombload of up to 150 kg (33 lib)
The Type 98 Chokusetsu-Kyodoki (Direct Co-opera tion Plane) was built by Tachikawa under the designation Ki-36. Trainer versions were designated Ki-55 and were used for kamikaze attacks late in the war. 427
GERMANY
Henschel Hs 126 In 1935 Henschel developed the parasol-wing Henschel Hs 122 short-range reconnaissance aircraft as a replacement for the Heinkel He 45 and He 46, but although a few of the 492-kW (660hp) Siemens SAM 22B-engined aircraft were built, the Hs 122 was not adopted) for Luftwaffe use. From it, however, Henschel's chief designer Friedrich Nicolaus derived the Henschel Hs 126 which incorporated a new wing, cantilever main landing gear and a canopy over the pilot's cockpit, the observer's position being left open. During 1937 Henschel built 10 pre-production Hs 126A-0 aircraft based on the third prototype, and some were used for operational evaluation by the Luftwaffe's Lehrgruppe reconnaissance unit in the spring of 1938. Initial production version was the Hs 126A-1, generally simi- ferred later to ihe Spanish air force, lar to the pre-production aircraft but and 16 were delivered to the Greek air powered by the 656-kW (880-hp) force. An improved but similar He BMW 132dc radial engine, Armament 126B-1 was introduced during the sumcomprised one forward-firing 7.92-mm mer of 1939, this incorporating FuG 17 (0.31-in) MG 17 machine-gun, plus one radio equipment and either the Bramo similar weapon on a trainable mount- 323A-1 or 671-kW (900-hp) 323A-2. ing in the rear cockpit, and five 10-kg Production aircraft were built in Ber(22-lb) bombs or a single 50-kg (110- lin, at SchĂśnefeld and Johanmsthal, Ib) bomb could be carried on an from 1938 and entered operational serunderfuselage rack. A hand-held Rb vice first with AufklGr, 35. By the out12,5/9x7 camera in the rear cockpit break of World War II the re-equipwas supplemented by a Zeiss instru- ment of He 45- and He 46-equipped ment in a rear-fuselage bay. Six of this reconnaissance units with the Hs 126 version were used by the Legion Con- was well under way. The type was dor in Spain during 1938, being trans- withdrawn progressively from front-
AHenschelHs 126B-1 of the tactical Aufklärungsstaffel 3.(H)l 21 as it appeared on the Don fron t in Jan uary!943. Stalingra d was abou t to fall, and the initia five in the East was at last to swing decisively in favour of the Soviet army and air force. line service during 1942 on replacement by the Focke-Wulf Fw 189. Just over 600 aircraft were built. Specification Henschel Hsl26B-l Type: two-seat short-range reconnaissance aircraft Powerplant: one 634-kw (850-hp) Bramo 323A-1 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 310 km/h (193 mph) at sea level; service ceiling 8300 m (27,230 ft); maximum range 720 km (447 miles) Weights: empty 2030 kg (4,475 lb); maximum take-off 3090 kg (6,812 lb)
Dimensions: span 14,50 m (47 ft 6.9 in); length 10.85 m (35 ft 7.2 in); height 2 3.75 m(12 ft 3.6 in); wingareaSl.60 m (340,15sqft) Armament: two 7.92-mm (0.31-in) MG 17 machine-guns, plus one 50-kg (110Ib) or five 10-kg (22-lb) bombs An early Hs 126 in pre-war markings displays the distinctive parasol wing. A contemporary of the Lysander, the Henschel was initially more successful because it operated under a protective umbrella ofMesserschmitt Bfl09 fighters and in conditions of near-total air superiority.
Fieseler Fi 156 Storch Best-known of all the Fieseler designs because of its extensive use during World War II, the Fieseler Fi 156 Storch (stork) was a remarkable STOL (short take-off and landing) aircraft that was first flown during the early months of 1936. A braced high-wing monoplane of mixed construction, with a conventional braced tail unit and fixed tailskid landing gear with long stroke main units, the Fi 156 was powered by an Argus inverted-Vee piston engine, and its extensively glazed cabin provided an excellent view for its threeman crew. As with the Fi 97, the key to the success of this aircraft was its wing incorporating the company's high-lift devices. The capability of this aircraft more than exceeded its STOL expectations, for with little more than a 428
light breeze blowing it needed a takeoff run of only about 60 m (200 ft) and could land in about one-third of that distance, Service tests confirmed that Germany's armed forces had acquired a 'go-anywhere' aircraft, and for the remainder of World War II the Storch was found virtually everywhere German forces operated, production of all variants totalling 2,549 aircraft. The designation Fi 156C-1 applied to a variant intended to be deployed in liaison and staff transport roles, and the Fi 156C-2 was basically a two-crew reconnaissance version carrying a single camera; some late examples of the Fi 156C-2 were, however, equipped to carry one stretcher for casualty evacuation, The Fi 156C-3 was the first to be equipped
for multi-purpose use, the majority of the type being powered by the improved Argus As 10P engine, which was also standard in the generally similar Fi 156C-5 which had provision to carry an underfuselage camera or jettisonable fuel tank. Because of their capability, Fi 156s were used in some remarkable exploits, Best known are the rescue of Benito Mussolini from imprisonment in a hotel amid the Apennine mountains, on 12 September 1943, and the flight made by Hanna Reitsch into the ruins of Berlin on 26 April 1945, carrying Generaloberst Ritter von Greim to be appointed by Adolf Hitler as his new commander of the Luftwaffe.
Specification Fieseler Fi 156C-2 Type: two-seat army co-operation/ reconnaissance aircraft Powerplant: one 179-kW(240-hp) Argus As 10C-3 inverted-Vee piston engine Performance: maximum speed 170 km/h (109 mph) at sea level; economical cruising speed 130 km/h (81 mph); service ceiling 4600 m (15,090 ft); range 385 km (239 miles) Weights: empty 930 kg (2,050 lb); maximum take-off 1325 kg (2,921 lb) Dimensions: span 14.25 m (46 ft 9 in); length 9.90 m (32 ft 5.8 in); 3.05 m (10 ft 0 in); wing area 26,00 m2 (279.87 sq ft) Armament: one rear-firing 7.92-mm (0,31 -in) machine-gun on trainable mount
GERMANY
Focke-Wulf Fw 189 Uhu In February 1937 the Reichsluftfahrtmimstenum issued a specification for a short-range reconnaissance aircraft. Focke-Wulf responded with the Focke-Wulf Fw 189 Uhu (eagle owl), an all metal stressed-skin low-wing monoplane that had an extensively glazed fuselage pod, and twin booms carrying the tail surfaces. The crew nacelle provided accommodation for pilot, navigator/radio operator and engineer/gunner, and power for the prototype was supplied by two 321-kW (430-hp) Argus As 410 engines. Construction of this aircraft began in April 1937, and designer Tank performed the first flight in July 1938, It was a dual-control trainer version which gained the first order in the summer of 1939, These Fw 189B aircraft preceded the Fw 189A into manufacture and service, some being used as conversion trainers by 9,(H)/LG 2 during the spring and summer of 1940. In a similar manner the construction of 10 Fw 189A-0 pre-production aircraft began in 1940, some of them being delivered to 9,(H)/LG 2 for operational trials, and being followed by the initial production Fw 189A-1. Further developments of this version included the Fw 189A-1/ Trop which carried desert survival equipment, and the Fw 189A-1/U2 and Fw 189A-1/U3 which were equipped as personal transports for the use of Generalfeldmarschall Kesselring and General Jeschonnek respectively. The remaining Fw 189A variants included the Fw 189A-2 introduced m 1942, which had the trainably mounted MG 15 machine-guns replaced by twin 7.92-mm (0.31-in) MG 81Zs; the Fw 189A-3 two-seat dual-control trainer which was built in limited numbers; and the light ground-attack Fw 189A-4 which was armed with two 20-mm MG 151/20 cannon and two 7.92-mm (0.31in) machine-guns in the wing roots, and had armour protection for the underside of the fuselage, engines and fuel tanks. Total production of the Fw 189 then amounted to 864 aircraft including prototypes, built not only by Hemkel but also by Aero in Prague from 1940 to 1943, and by SNCASO at BordeauxMengnac until 1944. Fw 189s were supplied in small
A Focke-WulfFwl89A-l Uhu (owl) of Aufklärungsstaffel l.(H)/32 based at Kemi, Finland, in the summer of1942. The later years of the war were to see theFw 189 as the Wehr macht's primary tactical 'eye in the sky', particularly on the Eastern Front.
numbers to the Slovakian and Hungarian air forces operating on the Eastern Front, in which theatre the type was deployed most extensively by the Luftwaffe, but at least one Staffel used the type operationally in North Africa. Specification Focke-WulfFwl89A-l Type: two-seat short-range reconnaissance aircraft Powerplant: two 347-kW (465-hp)
Argus As 410A-1 inverted-Vee piston engines Performance: maximum speed 335 km/h (208 mph); cruising speed 315 km/h (196 mph); service ceiling 7000 m (22,965 ft); range 670 km (416 miles) Weights: empty 2805 kg (6,184 lb; maximum take-off 3950 kg (8,708 lb) Dimensions: span 18.40 m (60 ft 4.4 m); length 12.03 m (39 ft 5.6 in); height 2 3.10 m (10 ft 2 in); wing area 38.00 m (409.04 sq ft)
AFoclce-WulfFivl89A-2ofthe Hungarian 3/1 Short Range Reconnaissance Squadron based at Zamocz, Poland, in March 1944. The A-2 model differed from theA-1 solely in having twinMCSlsin the dorsal and tailcone positions. Armament: two trainable 7,92-mm (0.31-in)MG 15macnine-gunsandtwo fixed 7,92-mm (0.3 l-m)MG 17 machine-guns, plus four 50-kg ( 110-lb) bombs
Fw 189A-Is lined up fresh from the factory, awaiting armament. Very tough machines, they handled superbly and some reportedly returned minus one tail boom as a result of ramming attacks by Soviet aircraft. USA
Stinson L-l Vigilant The two-seat light observation aircraft had been an essential adjunct to US Army operations, the concept dating back to World War I. In the years between then and the late 1930s, observation aircraft had, of course, been developed to offer much improved performance, some with highlift devices which made it possible for them to operate into and out of quite small unprepared areas. When, in 1940, the US Army Air Corps realized the need to reinforce its aircraft in this category, specifications were circulated and resulted in several contracts. Stinson was
awarded a contract for 142 of its design, a braced high-wing monoplane, with an all-metal basic structure, part metal- and part fabric-covered, designated Stinson O-49. To provide lowspeed and high-lift performance, the whole of the wing leading edge was provided with automatically-operated slats, and the entire trailing edge was A Stinson O-49F casualty evacua tion plane fitted with twin Edo amphibious floats comes in to land, lt was re-designated as theL-1 in 1942, when the 'observation'classification was changed to 'liaison '. 429
occupied by wide-span (almost twothirds) slotted flaps and large slotted ailerons which drooped 26° when the flaps were fully down. The non-retractable tailwheel landing gear was designed specially for operation from unprepared strips. The powerplant consisted of a 213-kW (285-hp) Lycoming R-680-9 radial engine with a twoblade constant-speed propeller. An enclosed cabin seated two in tandem, and the pilot and observer had an excellent field of view all around, above and below. A second contract covered the construction of 182 O-49A aircraft, which differed by having a slightly longer fuselage and minor equipment changes, Designation changes in 1942 resulted in the O-49 and O-49A becoming the L-l and L-1A respectively. Both versions were supplied to the RAF under Lend-Lease, and these were given the British name Vigilant, No further production of new Vigilant aircraft followed, for the type was
superseded by the more effective lightweight Grasshopper family. Nevertheless, Vigilants saw quite wide use in both the European and Pacific theatres, the RAF operating many of its aircraft for artillery liaison in Italy, Sicily and Tunisia,
Specification
StinsonL-lA Type: two-seat light liaison/ observation aircraft Powerplant: one 220-kW (295-hp) Lycoming R-680-9 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 196 km/h (122 mph); service ceiling 3900 m (12,800 ft); range 451 km (280 miles) Weights: empty 1211 kg (2,670 lb); maximum take-off 1542 kg (3,400 lb) Dimensions: span 15.52 m (50 ft 11 in); length 10.44 m (34 ft 3 in); height 3,10 m ( 10 ft 2 in); wing area 30.56 n/(329 sq ft)
Armament: none
A United States Army Air Force L-IF is seen in Burma. Converted from a standardL-lA, it is metallic silver except for the top surfaces, which have been sprayed olive drab.
USA
Taylorcraft L-2 Grasshopper In 1941 the US Army conducted an operational evaluation with four of each of three types of two-seat light aircraft for use in the artillery spotting and liaison roles, the three types being the Taylorcraft YO-57, the Aeronca YO-58 and the Piper YO-59; all were known as Grasshoppers. The successful use of the aircraft during the US Army's manoeuvres, operating directly with ground forces, resulted in increased production contracts for all three, although the Piper design was to be the most prolific. The first four Taylorcraft YO-57s were standard civil Taylorcraft Model Ds, powered by the 48-kW (65-hp) Continental YO-170-3 flat-four engine, and were followed by 70 basicallysimilar O-57 aircraft. However, the need to provide an all-round view resulted in modifications to the cabin and
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rear fuselage and the introduction of trailing-edge cut-outs at the wing roots. Other alterations to fit the aircraft for its specialized tasks included an observer's seat which could be turned around to face the rear, and the installation of radio. In this form the type was designated O-57A and 336 were manufactured. A further 140 were built under the designation L-2A, US Army aircraft of this class having been reclassified, from observation to liaison in 1942. The YO-57s and O-57s were reclassified L-2 and the YO-57As were redesignated L-2A. Some 490 aircraft with special equipment, built for service with the field artillery, were designated L2B and the final variant, with a production run of 900, was the L-2M, identified by the fully cowled engine and the fitting of wing spoilers.
Taylorcraft were involved in the training programme of military glider pilots, involving 43 impressed civil machines which were used to provide an initial powered flying course. The company also developed a light training glider version which was known as the Taylorcraft ST-100 and given the designation TG-6. The front fuselage was extended and a 'glasshouse' canopy fitted, the landing gear simplified and a skid added under the nose; the lengthened nose necessitated increased fin area. Production totalled 253, including three for US Navy trials,
Specification
Taylorcraft L-2A Type: two-seat liaison aircraft/training glider Powerplant: one 48-kW (65-hp)
Continental O-170-3 flat-four piston engine Performance: maximum speed 142 km/h (88 mph); service ceiling 3050 m (10,000 ft); range 370 km (230 miles) Weights: empty 397 kg (875 lb); maximum take-off 590 kg (1,300 lb) Dimensions: span 10.79 m (35 ft 5 in); length 6.93 m (22 ft 9 in); height 2.44 m (8 ft 0 in); wing area 16.81 n/( 181 sq ft) Armament: none
A Taylorcraft L-2 A liaison aircraft is seen in 1942. This was a fully militarized version of the civilian Taylorcraft Model D, with improved rear vision and trailing edge cut-outs at the wing roots. The design was the progenitor of the British Auster.
USA
Aeronca L-3 Grasshopper The name Aeronca Aircraft Corporation had been adopted in 1941 by the company established in late 1928 as the Aeronautical Corporation of America, One of its most successful products was the Aeronca Model 65 highwing monoplane, developed to meet commercial requirements for a reliable dual-control tandem two-seat trainer. The four of these aircraft supplied initially to the USAAC became designated YO-58, and these were followed by 50 O-58, 20 O-58A and 335 O-58B aircraft, serving with the USAAF (established on 20 June 1941). In the following year the O (Observation) designation was changed to L (Liaison), and the O-58, O-58A and O-58B designations became respectively L-3, L3A and L-3B Grasshopper. An additional 540 aircraft were delivered as L-SBs and 490 L-3C aircraft were manufactured before production ended in 1944, The designations L-3D/ -3E/-3F/-3G/-3H/-3J were applied to civil Model 65s with varying powerplant installations and impressed into military service when the United States became involved in World War II. Most L-3s were generally similar, with small changes in equipment representing the variation from one to another. All shared the welded steeltube fuselage/tail unit with fabric covering, and wings with spruce spars, light alloy ribs and metal frame ailerons, all fabric-covered. Landing gear was of non-retractable tailwheel type, with the main units divided and incorporating oleo-spring shockabsorbers in the side vees, With the requirement for a trainer suitable for glider pilots, Aeronca de-
An Aeronca L-3B of a US Army Air Force liaison/observation unit is seen in a late war colour scheme. The various L-3 models differed only in equipment fit, with A, Band C models being externally very similar. Over 1,400 L-3s had been delivered by 1944. veloped an unpowered version of the Model 65, This retained the wings, tail unit and aft fuselage of the L-3, but introduced a new front fuselage providing a third seat forward for an instructor, the original tandem seats being used by two pupils: all three occupants had similar flying controls and instruments. A total of 250 of these training gliders was supplied to the USAAF under the designation TG-5, and three supplied to the US Navy for
evaluation were identified as LNR. Production of Aeronca liaison aircraft continued after the war, with planes supplied to the USAF under the designation L-16.
Specification
Aeronca L-3 Type: two-seat light liaison and observation monoplane Powerplant: one 48-kW (65-hp) Continental O-170 flat-four piston
engine Performance: maximum speed 140 km/h (87 mph); cruising speed 74 km/h (46 mph); service ceiling 3050 m (10,000 ft); range 322 km (200 miles) Weights: empty 379 kg (835 lb); maximum take-off 590 kg ( 1,300 lb) Dimensions: span 10.67 m (35 ft 0 in); length 6.40 m (21 f t O in); height 2,34 m (7 ft 8 in); wing area 14,68 nr (158sqft) Armament: none
An Aeronca L-3Cis seen during the last months of the war. Together with the Taylorcraft and Piper models of the Grasshopper, theL-3Cwas powered by a 65-hp 0-170-3 Continental piston engine. USA
Piper L-4 Grasshopper Evaluated for the role of artillery spotting and front-line liaison, four examples of the Piper Cub Model J-3C-65 were acquired for this purpose by the US Army Air Corps in mid-1941. These were allocated the designation YO-59 and, almost simultaneously, 40 additional examples were ordered as O-59 aircraft. Experience on manoeuvres made it possible to procure a new version more specifically tailored to the US Army's requirements. This, designated O-59A, was of braced high-wing monoplane configuration and was of composite construction comprising wooden spars, light alloy ribs and fabric covering, The fuselage and braced tail unit had basic structures of welded steel tube and were fabric-covered. Landing gear was of the fixed tailwheel type, and the powerplant of the O-59A comprised a 48-kW (65-hp) Continental O-170-3 flat-four engine. Primary requirement of the O-59A specification was improved accommodation for pilot and observer, which was achieved with a modified enclosure for the tandem cockpits to provide better all-round visibility. The
The original designation of the wartime military Cub was O-59, but these early aircraft were subsequently identified in the 'liaison'category as L-4s when the redesignation of'observation'aircraft was carried out in 1942. ThisL-4His painted in standard Army drab. The wire and cork fuel indicator is clearly visible. type was later redesignated L-4A. In 1942 Piper was requested to develop a training glider from the basic L-4 design, this involving the removal of the powerplant and landing gear. In its modified form it had a simple crossaxle landing gear with hydraulic brakes, and the powerplant was replaced by a new front fuselage to accommodate an instructor, and he
and both pupils were provided with full flying controls. A total of 250 was built for the USAAF under the designation TG-8, plus three for evaluation by the US Navy which designated them XLNP-1. Apart from the three XLNP- Is which the US Navy acquired for evaluation, this service also procured 230 NE-1 aircraft basically similar to the US
Army's L-4s, and these were used as primary trainers. Twenty similar aircraft procured at a later date were designated NE-2, and 100 examples of the Piper J-5C Cub which were acquired for ambulance use (carrying one stretcher) were originally HE-1. When, in 1943, the letter H was allocated to identify helicopters, the HE-Is were redesignated AE-1. 431
Specification
Piper L-4 Type: two-seat lightweight liaison aircraft Powerplant: one 48-kW (65-hp) Continental O-170-3 flat-four piston engine Performance: maximum speed 137 km/h (85 mph); cruising speed 121 km/h (75 mph); service ceiling 2835 m (9,300 ft); range 306 km (190 miles) Weights: empty 331 kg (730 lb); maximum take-off 553 kg ( 1,220 lb) Dimensions: span 10.74 m (35 ft 3 in); length6.71 m (22 f t O in); height 2.03 m (6 ft 8 in); wing area 16.63 n/(179sqft) Armament: none The Piper Cub vvas built in improved versions up until 1981, and has been used by a great many air forces. The Israeli air force, opera tors of this late-model Super Cub, have been using the type since its creation in the late 1940s. USA
Stinson L-5 Sentinel The Stinson (part of Vultee) 105 Voyager was an attractive three-seat civil lightplane, and in 1941 the US Army acquired six of these civil aircraft which it evaluated for use in a light liaison role. Successful testing resulted in an initial order of 1941 for 275 aircraft to be powered by the Lycoming O435-1 flat-four engine. The following order covered 1,456 similar aircraft, under the designation L-5. Construction of the L-5s was changed from that of the original Voyager design following a decision to reserve alloy materials for the construction of combat aircraft. Instead of the mixed construction which had been used for the wing and tail unit of the Voyager, those of the L-5 were allwood, but retained the welded steeltube fuselage structure. Other changes included rearrangement of the enclosed cabin to seat two in tandem, a reduction in height of the rear fuselage to provide an improved rearward view, and the provision of clear transparent panels in the roof. The original wing design had included leading-edge slots and slotted trailingedge flaps, and these were retained. The main units of the non-retractable tailwheel type landing gear were modified so that the stroke of the oleospring shock-absorbers was almost doubled. The L-5C, of which 200 were built, had provision for the installation of a K-20 reconnaissance camera. In addition to the aircraft procured directly by the US Army, eight commercial Voyagers were commandeered in 1941 and designated AT-19A (later L-9A), and 12 others as AT-19B (L-9B). Used extensively by the USAAF throughout World War II, especially in the Pacific theatre, many L-5s were still in use to provide valuable service
Developed from the Stinson 105 Voyager, the L-5 Sentinel was used extensively by the USAAF, especially in the Pacific. This example is from the 163rd Liaison Squadron, based on Okinawa in the middle of 1945. 432
during the Korean War. The RAF was allocated 100 of these aircraft under Lend-Lease, and these were used widely in Burma for liaison spotting and air ambulance duties under the name Sentinel. The US Marine Corps acquired a total of 306 L-5s of differing versions, but all were designated OY1, the Y signifying origin from Consolidated after a merger with Vultee in early 1943. The US Marine Corps deployed its Sentinels for similar missions to those of the RAF and USAAF in support of its operations in the Pacific.
Specification
Stinson L-5 Type: two-seat light liaison aircraft Powerplant: one 138-kW(185-hp) Lycoming O-435-1 flat-four piston engine Performance: maximum speed 209 km/h (130 mph); service ceiling 4815 m (15,800 ft); range 676 km (420
miles) Weights: empty 703 kg (1,550 lb); maximum take-off 916 kg (2,020 lb) Dimensions: span 10.36 m (34 ft 0 in); length 7,34 m (24 ft 1 in); height 2.41 m (7 ft 11 in); wing area 14.40 m2 ( 155 sq ft)
Armament: none
Above: Two of the 100 Stinson Sentinels supplied under LendLease to theRAFin Burma flyover the paddy fields. They were used for artillery spotting, air ambulance and general liaison duties.
Polikarpov U-2 Occupying a unique position in Soviet aviation history, the Polikarpov U-2 primary trainer biplane had an inauspicious start. The U-2TPK prototype, which appeared in early 1927, had been built to achieve economy in repair and maintenance, the wings comprising four identical thick-section interchangeable rectangular panels with square tips. Similarly, a common control surface was used for ailerons, elevators and rudder. The result was a biplane with very poor flight characteristics. It had thus to be redesigned, appearing as a neat, manoeuvrable biplane having staggered single-bay wing with rounded tips, conventional cross-axle landing gear, and tandem open cockpits for instructor and pupil. Powered by a 75-kW (100-hp) radial engine, the,new prototype made its first fligtĂŹt on 7 January 1928. An immediate success, it was placed in quantity production, deliveries starting in 1928, and by the time of the German invasion of the Soviet Union in mid-1941 over 13,000 had been completed. Though its principle role was primary training, the U-2 was soon modified as a light passenger transport, air ambulance and agricultural aircraft. Production continued on a massive scale during World War II, and the U-2 took on an even wider range of duties, including liaison, light attack, night nuisance raider and propaganda aircraft complete with microphone and loudspeaker. After Polikarpov's death, on 30 July 1944, the U-2 was redesignated Po-2 in
his honour, and post-war it continued in production in the USSR for several years. Trainer and ambulance variants were built on a large scale in Poland from 1948 to 1953, Po-2s served with many Soviet allies and a small number still remain in flying condition in the USSR and several other countries. The total built is credibly reported to be in excess of 40,000.
Specification
Polikarpov U-2VS Type: trainer and multi-purpose aircraft Powerplant: one 75-kW (100-hp) M-11 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 156 km/h (97 mph); service ceiling 4000 m (13,125 ft); range 400 km (249 miles) Weights: empty equipped 635 kg (1,400 lb); maximum take-off 890 kg (1,962 lb) Dimensions: span 11.40 m (37 ft 4,8 in); lengths, 17 m(26 ft9.78 in); height 2 3.10 m (10 ft 2 in); wing area 33,15 m (356,84 sq ft) Armament: none
Built on a large scale in Poland as the CSS-13, the Polikarpov U-2 (known as the Po-2 after the designer's death in 1944) was used in a wide array of both civil and military roles, and has probably been built in greater numbers and in more variants than any other aircraft in history.
A Soviet built U-2 supplied to the Polish forces at the end of World War II, preserved at a Polish museum. Over 100 regiments, each of 42 aircraft, operated the 'Kuburuznile' ('Corn Cutter') at the height of the
ITALY
Meridionali Ro.37bis Meridionali, then named Officine Ferroviarie Meridionali, first became involved in the Italian aircraft industry in 1923, beginning manufacturing activities two years later by licence-construction of Fokker designs. Subsequently, after two years under the name Romeo, the title Industrie Meccaniche e Aeronautiche Meridionali (IMAM) was adopted in 1936. In 1934 the company had started design and production of a two-seat fighter/reconnaissance biplane under the designation Romeo Ro.37. This was an unequal-span single-bay biplane of mixed wood and metal construction. Its design included fixed tailwheel landing gear, all three wheels being provided with speed fairings; a braced tail unit incorporating a variable-incidence tailplane; and accommodation for two in tandem enclosed cockpits, Power was provided by a 522-kW (700-hp) Fiat A.30RA Vee engine. An improved Ro.37bis was developed subsequently, and this introduced an optional radial powerplant comprising either the Piaggio P. IX or P.X supercharged engine. Both models proved popular for their day, with production of the Ro.37 and Ro.37bis exceeding 160 and 475 respectively, and export orders were received from Afghanistan, Hungary and from countries in Central and South America. Ro,37 and Ro.37bis aircraft were involved in the Spanish Civil War from October 1936 and were used extensively by the Regia Aeronautica during Mussolini's invasion of Abyssinia between October 1935 and May 1936 and during the Italian occupation of
that country until 1941. Some 275 Ro.37bis aircraft were in service with the Regia Aeronautica when Italy became involved in World War II, and these saw first-line service in the East and North African campaigns and in the Balkans. After withdrawal from first-line service they found a variety of uses, but all had been retired; before Italy's armistice with the Allies on 8 September 1943, Specification Meridionali Ro.37bis Type: two-seat fighter/reconnaissance
aircraft Powerplant: one 418-kW (560-hp) Piaggio P. IX RC. 40 radial piston engine Performance: maximum speed 330 km/h (205 mph) at 5000 m (16,405 ft); cruising speed 250 km/h (155 mph); service ceiling 7200 m (23,620 ft); maximum range 1120 km (696 miles) Weights: empty 1585 kg (3,494 lb); maximum take-off 2420 kg (5,335 lb) Dimensions: span 11.08 m (36 ft 4.2 in); length 8.56 m (28 ft 1 in); height 3.15 m (10 ft 4 in); wingarea31.35 m2(337.46
sqft) Armament: two fixed forward-firing 7,7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns and one gun of same calibre on trainable mount in rear cockpit, plus up to 180 kg (397 lb) of bombs on underfuselage racks The Meridionali Ro.37 saw its heyday during the Spanish Civil War. A few soldiered on into World War II, this example being captured during the battle for Monte Corvino near Salerno in 1943.
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Axis Submarines The struggle for supremacy above and beneath the swirling waters of the North Atlantic was the most important battle fought by the submarine forces of the Axis navies. However, Axis submarines ranged the sealanes from the Atlantic through the Indian Ocean to the South Pacific.
U47, a Type VIIB U-boat under the command of ace commander GĂźnther Prien, returning to port. Germany built some 1100 U-boats of which well over half were lost in action. uring World War II the common factor that permitted the USA to wage war in both Europe and the Pacific simultaneously, and which allowed the UK to exist at all, was merchant shipping. Losses of warships could cause problems, but losses of merchantmen were potentially disastrous. If the loss rate had exceeded the construction rate
D
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for a significant period, the Allies' capacity to wage war would have slowed, to the point of eventual capitulation. As World War I had adequately proved to the Germans that submarines were the best vehicles for this form of warfare, it seems extraordinary that more resources were not put into their construction in the late 1930s.Those
available caused damage enough, but greater numbers and a higher construction rate from the outset would have swamped the ability to cope of current Allied defences. Throughout the conflict, the Germans strove to improve both the technical quality of their boats and the methods by which they could best be employed, a
natural energy that contrasted strangely with that of their Axis partners. Both Italy and Japan had sizeable submarine fleets and, as each joined the war at later dates, they had adequate time to learn at first hand the problems of submarine warfare before actually committing themselves. Italy, however, found her boats to be deficient in quality and their crews both poorly trained and, in many cases, suffering from the same lack of motivation and conviction that affected her surface fleet. Japan, on the other hand, had no lack of motivation but was stricken with an inflexibility of purpose that worked to the American advantage. War waged against merchant shipping was viewed as 'defensive' so, despite in most cases being manifestly unsuitable for the purpose, Japanese submarines were employed almost exclusively against warships. The twin facts that American lines of communication vulnerably straddled two oceans and that American submarines were throttling Japan by blockade went unnoticed. There was no lack of sacrifice. In pursuing their various objectives, the Axis partners lost more than 950 boats in action and many more from other causes.
JAPAN
'RO-100' and 'RO-35' classes Small- to medium-sized boats in the IJN were designated 'RO', equivalent to the Western 'B'. In the case of the 'RO100' class, the term 'Kaisho' or Type KS was also used, denoting 'small', They were designed originally as limitedendurance boats for use in the waters off the Japanese home islands, and for this reason operational depth could be reduced to only 75 m (245 ft). The function of the boats was, however, extended to protection of the numerous islands that were acquired to defend the outer perimeter of the new empire. As these were often surrounded by deep water, the 'RO-100' boats started at a disadvantage, Once submerged, the boats' small sonar profile did not compensate for their poor performance and all 18 of the class were sunk, significantly only two by aircraft. That one was sunk off eastern India says much for the endurance of its crew. No less than five of the class were des-
troyed by the American destroyerescort USS England on various dates, The design was a diminutive of, but very different from, the earlier 'RO-33'. In size and potential it equated roughly with the British U-class. They were unsuitable for attacking the warships that were designated their prime targets yet, whilst they could have operated effectively against mercantile targets, the Japanese submarine command showed the lack of imagination and flexibility that was characteristic throughout the war and which was primarily responsible for its poor showing. The class of 18 was ordered pre-war
but were being completed up to 1944. Nine further projected units were cancelled. The parallel RO type, the 'RO-35' class ('Kaichu' or 'Type K6') was larger and comprised the last medium-sized boats built by the IJN. Of the 18 completed only one survived the war, having been used defensively despite their superior potential. Between them, the combined 'RO-35' and 'RI100' classes are credited with four minor warships and six merchantmen sunk, a catastrophically poor rate of exchange that led also to the cancellation of 60 further 'RO-35s'.
worth, and several boats had such provision removed in favour of a second gun to suit them better for the attack role. As such, the boats were among the more successful of Japanese classes, being credited with the sinking of eight warships (including the carrier USS Wasp by 7-l 9) and 59 merchantmen of about 400,000 gross registered tons. Despite these successes, the losses of the '1-15' boats were catastrophically high, as a result mainly of their poor submerged performance and of the fact that only three full salvoes of torpedoes were carried; only one boat of 20 survived to surrender, A couple of the class, along with others from the very
similar 'Type B2' and 'Type B3' variants, were modified to cany Kalten (suicide midget submarines), The 'Type B2' was the '1-40' class (six completed) and the 'Type B3' was the '1-54' class (three completed).
Directly comparable in performance and size to theBritish 'U-class'boats, the 'RO-100s'should have been equally successful, but were to prove less able to cope with operational limitations.
Specification 'RO-100'class Type: coastal submarine Displacement: 601 tons surfaced and 782 tons submerged Dimensions: length 60.90 m (199 ft 10 in); beam 6.10 m (20 ft 0 in); draught 3.50 m(11 ft 6 in) Propulsion: surfaced diesels delivering 1,100 bhp (820 kW) and submerged electric motors delivering 760 hp (570 kW) to two shafts Speed: surfaced 14 ktsand submerged 8 kts Range: surfaced 6500 km (4,040 miles) at 12 kts and submerged 110 km (68 miles) at 3 kts Armament: one 76-mm (3-in) gun (often removed), and four 533-mm (21 in) torpedo tubes (all forward) with eight torpedoes Complement: 38
JAPAN
'1-15' class An T prefix, equivalent to the Western 'A, denoted a larger submarine designed for fleet or cruising work. These two functions were tending to merge, for the 'fleet' concept was a hangover from earlier British ideas of using large boats with a good surface performance to act closely as an element of the surface fleet, a concept that was not successful at that time. The '1-15' class was, therefore, derived from twin sources. First of these was the 'Type KD' fleet submarine of the mid-1930s, capable of a 23-kt surface speed and a range suitable for a return trip across the Pacific. The other was the 'Junsen', or cruiser submarine, of a slightly later date, which incorporated one or two floatplanes in a pressuretight hangar forming part of the superstructure. It would seem that the idea of these aircraft was to increase the boat's scouting capability rather than for offensive purposes. Really the first variant 'Type BI' of three, the '1-15' group was 20 strong, with the hangar a low, streamlined structure protruding (usually forward) from the tower, The freeboard was high to improve aircraft handling in a seaway, and was made higher by a sloping catapult track; a folding crane was also incorporated for recovery purposes. A 140-mm (5.5-in) gun was set on a substantial bandstand. In practice, the aircraft and its equipment proved more trouble than they were
Specification 'I-15'class Type: ocean-going submarine Displacement: 2,590 tons surfaced and 3,655 tons submerged Dimensions: length 108.60 m (356 ft 4 in); beam 9,30 m (30 ft 6 in); draught 5.10 m (16 ft 9 in) Propulsion: surfaced diesels delivering 12,400 bhp (9245 kW) and submerged electric motors delivering
This picture portrays the high surface speed of the Japanese Type BI ('1-15') class. To improve targeting in the commerce-raiding role, a 'Glen'floatplane was carried. 2,000 hp (1490 kW) to two shafts Speed: surfaced 23.5 kts and submerged 8 kts Range: surfaced 26000 km (16,155 miles) at 16 kts and submerged 185 km (115 miles) at 3 kts Armament: one 140-mm (5.5-in) gun, two 25-mm AA guns, one Yokosuka E14Y1 aircraft, and six 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes (all forward) with 17 torpedoes Complement: 100
7n terms of naval architectural problems, the 'I-15'class boats were a clean and satisfactory solution to putting aircraft into submarines. The * Âť reasons for doing so were, however, questionable.
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JAPAN
'Ha-201' class Technically the most interesting of Japan's many submarine designs, the little 'Ha-201' class boats, complemented by the 78-m (255,9-ft) '1-201' class boats, were the equivalent of the German Types XXIII and XXI respectively. With the Americans pressing ever closer to the home islands, the Japanese seem in 1943 at last to have grasped the fact that they had the wrong types of submarine to tackle their chosen prime targets, warships. Their strategy would best have been served by concentrating their existing boats, as did the Americans, on mercantile targets but, persevering to the end, the Japanese developed the 'Ha 201' class or 'Type STS' as a fast, manoeuvrable design to protect the home islands against warships, Like similar German boats, however, they arrived too late to be of use, their enemy already having achieved absolute superiority. Using experimental data derived from the prewar experiments with the 43-m (141-ft) evaluation boat, lVo. 71,
the Japanese planned the rapid production of 90 boats. Even with extensive prĂŠfabrication and the use of five separate yards, they managed to complete only about 10, none of which managed an offensive patrol, though 28 more were in an advanced state of construction at the surrender. The prefix 'Ha' corresponds to 'C', denoting a small boat. The exterior was kept as clean of protruberances as possible, though there was rather a lot of forward casing, The boats were capable of 'grouping-up' for limited bursts of high submerged speed, necessary as they had only two torpedo tubes and attacks needed to be carried out from close range to guarantee success, Interestingly, they were propelled by a
single, centreline propeller, set abaft a cruciform control surface assembly, r e m a r k a b l y similar to modern arrangements. They possessed only limited endurance and their crew of 22 could be supported for about 15 days. A type of snort was fitted to allow prolonged periods of submersion, necessary for them to survive at a time when American air power was virtually unchallenged. Together with advanced German submarine types, they yielded the Americans much valuable post-war data to apply to their 'Guppy' programmes.
Specification
'Ha-201'class Type: coastal submarine
Displacement: 377 tons surfaced and 440 tons submerged Dimensions: length 53.00 m (173 ft 11 in); beam 4.00 m ( 13 ft 1 in); draught 3.40 m (11 ft 2 in) Propulsion: surfaced diesel delivering 400 bhp (298 kW) and submerged electric motor delivering 1,250 hp (930 kW) to one shaft Speed: surfaced 10.5 kts and submerged 13 kts Range: surfaced 5600 km (3,480 miles) at 10.5 kts and submerged 185 km (115 miles) at 2 kts Armament: one 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-gun, and two 533-mm (21 -in) torpedo tubes (both forward) with four torpedoes Complement: 22 Like the German TypeXXIIIs, the 'Ha-201 ' class boats were small, fast and handy. They were also too late to be of use, in spite of prefabricated construction. Larger than their German equivalents, they had superior endurance.
GERMANY
Type II In 1935 Germany repudiated the treaty by which she was prevented from operating submarines, forcing an Anglo-German agreement which allowed direct construction up to a ceiling of total tonnage equivalent to 45 per cent ofthat operated by the British. A major task for the submarine supremo, Karl DĂśnitz, was to break this figure down into numbers and types of boat that would fulfil a wartime strategy. One requirement identified was that of a coastal submarine roughly equivalent to the later UB series that operated successfully in UK waters during World War I. During the fallow years of the treaty, German design expertise was maintained through work for export, and the prototype for the Type IIA can thus be found in the Vesikko, itself based on an amalgam of data from the UBII and the later UF. This boat was built in Finland in 1933 to German design. The Type IIAs went quickly into production following the go-ahead, and proved to be handy and manoeuvrable, being able to crash-dive in 25 seconds. Their profile and lively surface characteristics earned them the nickname of 'canoes', Though the small displacement of the Type IIA favoured larger numbers in a restricted ceiling, the design was very limited on endurance, requiring progressive 'stretch-
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ing' through the Type IIB, Type IIC and Type IID sub-types: the Type IIB had greater bunkerage and radius, the Type IIC was modelled on the Type IIB with more powerful engines, and the Type IID had saddle tanks. The design encompassed a single hull with a trim tank at each end of the pressure hull and an internal 'rapiddive' tank amidships. As only three torpedo tubes and limited reloads were carried, a load of mines was an alternative rather than an addition, With the emphasis of the sea war moving deep-sea, construction of the
Type Us ceased in 1941, the boats thereafter being used much for training and trials purposes, including early experimentation with snort gear. In total, there were built six Type IIAs, 20 Type IIBs, eight type IICs and 16 Type IIDs. Specification Type IID Type: coastal submarine Displacement: 314 tons surfaced and 364 tons submerged Dimensions: length 43.95 m (144 ft 2 in); beam4.87 m(16 ftO in); draught 3.90 m (12 ft 9 in) Propulsion: surfaced diesels delivering 700 bhp (522 kW) and
The small size of the German Type IIB is emphasized by the scale of the crew in the tower. Seen here in prewar livery, U-9 was sunk by bombing in 1944 in the Black Sea. submerged electric motors delivering 410 hp (306 kW) to two shafts Speed: surfaced 13 kts and submerged 7.5 kts Range: surfaced 6500 km (4,040 miles) at 12 kts and submerged 105 km (65 miles) at 4 kts Armament: one (later four) 20-mm AA guns and three 533-mm (21 -in) torpedo tubes (all forward) with six torpedoes Complement: 25 Type I I coastal boats lacked the endurance necessary for much of the war a t sea, and were not built after l 941. Shown here is the U-3, an early command of the aceSchepke.
GERMANY
Type VII Like that of the Type II, the design of the Type VII seagoing boat had export origins in a Finnish-built series of 19301 (the 'Veteranen' class) and, beyond that, in the UB III of 1918, To permit the greatest number of hulls to be built within the ceiling tonnage agreed, size was severely limited in the 10 Type VIIA boats (626/745 tons). With performance and offensive capacity optimized, conditions aboard were somewhat spartan even with internal space saved by mounting the after tube in the casing (where it could be reloaded only with difficulty and then on the surface) and by the stowage of spare torpedoes and part of the bunker capacity externally (where they were vulnerable to depth charging). The Type VIIB and Type VIIC were, therefore, stretched to increase internal volume to rectify some of the shortcomings and to allow more powerful diesels to be fitted, a significant factor in surface operations. This modified boat was highly successful, nearly 700 units being built in various sub-variants until the war's end. Later improvements included greater operational depths, reinforced towers, enhanced AA armament and snorts, all features reflecting developing Allied antisubmarine procedures. Significantly, most lacked a deck gun as surface operations became impossible, While mines configured to the standard 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tube could be laid by all German submarines, these weapons could not guarantee a sinking as opposed to disablement. ' To lay the largest moored mines, therefore, six Type VIIs were stretched by the addition of an extra 10-m (32.8-ft) section amidships containing five vertical free-flooding tubes, each containing three complete mine assemblies, These tubes protruded upward to 01 level into an extended tower. The class was known as the Type VIID, A further four boats, the Type VIIF sub-class, were similarly lengthened, with the additional space given over to spare torpedoes for transfer to extend the operational duration of other boats. Up to 25 torpedoes could be carried but transfer operations with both boats temporarily immobilized on the surface became increasingly upopular and were abandoned. The Type VUE, a study in improved propulsion, never progressed beyond the drawing board,
Specification
Type VIIC Type: sea-going submarine Displacement: 769 tons surfaced and 871 tons submerged Dimensions: length 66.50 m (218 ft 2 in); beam 6.20 m (20 ft 4 in), draught 4.75 m (15 ft 7 in) Propulsion: surfaced diesels delivering 2,800 bhp (2089 kW) and submerged electric motors delivering 750 hp (559 kW) to two shafts Speed: surfaced 17.5 ktsand submerged 7.5 kts Range: surfaced 15750 km (9,785 miles) at 10 kts and submerged 150 km (93 miles) at 4 kts Armament: one 88-mm (3.465-in) gun, one 37-mm AA gun, two (later eight) 20-mm AA guns, and five 533-mm (21 in) torpedo tubes (four forward and one aft) with 14 torpedoes Complement: 44
Above: A Type VIIC boat, probably U-402, is re-launched after maintenance, her broad keelson allowing her to sit on the cradle with little auxiliary support. Note the blisters of the external ballast tanks and the skeg aft spreading braces to keep wires clear of the twin rudders.
Below: A clutch of Type VIIA boats of the Second Flotilla alongside at Kiel prewar. The tender is the converted minesweeper Fuchs. U-27 on the left of the picture was an early loss, sunk by British destroyers off Scotland.
Below: Belonging to the best-known German submarine flotilla, the 7th (Stier), U-52Ă&#x152;S a Type VIIB which survived until the war's last days. Larger than the 'A'variant, the 'B' lacks the odd hump aft, the after torpedo tubes having been relocated within the hull.
437
GERMANY
Type IX The Type IX class was designed for ocean warfare, Loosely based on the far smaller Type II, it differed fundamentally in having a double hull. This feature increased useful internal volume by enabling fuel and ballast tanks to be sited externally, in turn, the extra hull improved survivability by cushioning the inner (pressure) hull from explosive shock and gave the boats greatly improved seakindliness on the surface. Habitability was improved for operations of longer duration and the number of torpedoes carried, at 22, was about 50 per cent more than those of a Type VIIC. The deck gun was increased in calibre from 88 to 105mm (3.465 to 4.13m). To give an idea of how designs developed during the course of the war, the Type IXA and Type VIIA variants were, respectively, 76.5 and 64,5m (251 and 211.6ft) long, while the final Type IXD and Type V11F marks, were 87.5 and 77.6m (287.07 and 254.6ft) long, The major objective with the Type IX variants was to improve range rather than offensive capability. Thus the eight Type IXA boats could achieve 19500 km (12,120 miles) on the surface at 10 kts yet, even before September 1939, were being complemented by the first of 14 Type IXB boats capable of 22250km (13,825 miles). These were followed by the largest group, the Type IXC and slightly modified Type IXC-40, 149 boats with bunkers for 25000km (15,535 miles), From the opening of hostilities, the Type IXs worked the western and southern Atlantic and, on the entry into the war of the United States, were supplemented by Type VIICs for the 'Happy Time', ravaging shipping down the USA's eastern seaboard to the Caribbean before a proper convoy system had been instituted. As early as 1940, the Type IXD was on the board, with an extra 10,8-m (35.4-ft) section worked in. Two examples of the Type IXD1 were built, with
no armament, but capable of stowing over 250 tons of fuel for the topping-up of other boats. The 29 Type IXD2s boats were operational boats with the phenomenal range of 58400 km (36,290 miles), enabling them to work the Indian Ocean and even reach Japan. Some included a small, single-seat towed gyro kite to increase their visual search radius. The Type IXD2 was further refined to the Type IXD2-42, but only one of this variant was ever completed. Advanced diesels in the Type IXD Is gave a 21-kt surface speed, but were found unreliable and not repeated.
Specification Type IXC Type: ocean-going submarine Displacement: 1,120 tons surfaced and 1,232 tons submerged Dimensions: length 76.70 m (251 ft 8 in); beam 6.75 m (22 ft 2 in); draught 4,70 m (15 ft 5 in) Propulsion: surfaced diesels delivering 4,400 hp (3281 kW) and submerged electric motors delivering 1,000 hp (746 kW) to two shafts Speed: surfaced 18.2 kts and submerged 7.5 kts Range: surfaced 25000 km ( 15,535 miles) at 10 kts and submerged 115 km
Already wearing the 'Old Glory', a surrendered Type IX U-boat wallows in a quiet sea off the American coast, inMayl945, watched by a DE and a blimp. This example was a V variant, longer than earlier versions.
(71.5 miles) at 4 kts Armament: one 105-mm (4.13-in) gun, one 37-mm AA gun, one 20-mm AA gun, and six 533-mm (21 -in) torpedo tubes (four forward and two aft) with 22 torpedoes Complement: 48
With each variant operating ever further afield, the Type IX was a most successful design. Shown is the 'B'variant U-106, which was particularly successful in the North Atlantic, off the American eastern seaboard, in the Caribbean and off West Africa. She also torpedoed the battleship Malaya.
GERMANY
Type X and Type XI Of the five main types of U-boat identified by pre-war staff requirements, the patrol submarines of short-, medium- and long-endurance capabilities became the Type II, Type VII and Type IX respectively, The others were a 'small' minelayer and a longrange cruiser submarine; with modifications, these became the Type X and Type XI. Only three type XIs were ever built, these being very large boats with a length of 115 m (377.3 ft) and a surface displacement of 3140 tons, Essentially submersible surface raiders, they had a useful surface speed of 23 kts, and a superstructure that included stowage for a small scout seaplane and paired 127-mm (5-in) guns at each end, Though the large cruiser submarine had enjoyed some success during 438
World War I, its mode of operation rapidly became impossible in World War II and the type was discontinued. Indeed, the boats' most noteworthy achievement seems to have been U601's initial sighting of the British convoy JW 55B in the Norwegian Sea on Christmas Day 1943. Her contact report was responsible for the sailing of the Scharnhorst, bent on interception. She, in turn, was met by the Royal Navy and sunk the following day. The Type XA was, in fact, a very large minelayer design, a 2,500-tonner incorporating multiple vertical minestowage shafts of the type used successfully in the Type VIIDs. Possibly considered vulnerable because of its size, the Type XA never progressed beyond the drawing board, being superseded by the Type XB. These eight
boats were smaller, with a circularsection pressure hull flanked by a slab-sided outer hull of generous proportions. On the centre-line forward, six mine storages projected from keel to the top of a hump in the casing, each accommodating three mine assemblies. On each side, in the space between the hulls, were fitted 12 shorter stowages, each containing two mines. The total load was, therefore, 66 large mines. Built to avoid action as far as possible, the type XBs had only two torpedo tubes, squeezed in right aft. They proved to be better employed in resupply rather than minelaying. Specification TypeXB Type: minelaying submarine Displacement: 1,763 tons surfaced and
2,177 tons submerged Dimensions: length 89,80 m (294 ft 7 in); beam 9.20 m (30 ft 2 in); draught 4.11m(13ft6in) Propulsion: surfaced diesels delivering 4,200 bhp (3131 kW) and submerged electric motors delivering 1,100 hp (820 kW) to two shafts Speed: surfaced 16.5 kts and submerged 7 kts Range: surfaced 34400 km (21,375 miles) at 10 kts and submerged 175 km 109 miles) at 4 kts Armament: one 105-mm (4.13-in) gun (later removed), one 37-mm AA gun, one (later four) 20-mm AA guns, two 533-mm (21 -in) torpedo tubes (both aft) with 15 torpedoes, and 66 mines Complement: 52
Plannedata time when the larger cruiser submarine idea was still in vogue, only three Type XI were built, due to changing priorities. With a length of 115 m (377 ft), the four boats (U-112/-115) would have had a range of 25430 km (15,800 miles) at 12 kts. Their armament included four 127-mm guns and an autogyro was carried.
GERMANY
Type XVII A combination of anti-submarine aircraft and radar gradually made it impossible for U-boats to use their high surface speed as a basis for attack and, to ensure their survival as a viable attack platform, submarines had to be optimized for submerged performance. Only a machinery system independent of surface air in combination with a cleaned-up, high-speed hull would suffice, and the Type XVII marked this fundamental and transitional step forward, The key to the concept was the Walter closed-cycle propulsion system that relied on the near-explosive decomposition of concentrated hydrogen peroxide in the presence of a catalyst, The reaction produced a high-temperature mix of steam and free oxygen into which fuel oil was injected and fired, resulting in highpressure gases that were made to drive .a conventional turbine. A weakness of the principle was that almost any impurity could act as a catalyst to initiate the process at a disastrously early stage. Two prototype boats proved the machinery feasible, and the system was pressed into service in the Type XVIIs. A drawback was the extreme thirst of the system, dictating a small boat with a single propeller. For cruise purposes, this was driven by a conventional diesel/electric combination, with the Walter coupled up only to force or decline an engagement. Externally, the hull was cleaned-up, with no guns and a minimum of proturberances. It was of figure-eight section, formed of two overlapping circular pressure hulls of unequal diameter. In practice, the length to beam ratio was too high, resulting in an unnecessarily high drag. This meant that the Type XVIIA never realized its theoretical top speed of 25 kts possible with two turbines on a common shaft. So only four such boats were built, the
modified Type XVIIB (three completed) having only one turbine. Space was available for only two torpedo tubes, with but one reload for each, a deficiency offset by the increasing lethality of the weapon. A projected Type XVIIK would have abandoned the volatile Walter for conventional diesels aspirated with pure oxygen stored aboard. Specification TypeXVIffi Type: coastal submarine Displacement: 312 tons surfaced and 357 tons submerged Dimensions: length 41.50 m (136 ft 2 in); beam 3.40 m (l l ft 2 in); draught 4,25 m (14 ft 0 in)
Propulsion: surfaced diesel delivering 210 bhp (157 kW) and submerged Walter closed-cycle engine delivering 2,500 hp (1865 kW) or electric motor delivering 77 hp (57 kW) to one shaft Speed: surfaced 9 kts and submerged 21.5 kts on Walter engine or 5 kts on electric motor Range: surfaced 5550 km (3,450 miles) at 9 kts and submerged 210 km ( 130.5 miles) on Walter engine or 75 km (46.6 miles) on electric motor Armament: two 533-mm (21 -in) torpedo tubes (both forward) with four torpedoes Complement: 19
One of the nearly complete TypeXVII Walter turbine boats is transferred by a 350-ton floating crane through the sha tiered Kiel yard of Howaldtswerke. Advanced features include a hydrodynamically clean hull and a single propeller set in cruciform control surfaces. Note the sonar dome forward.
Few in n umbers b u t rich in varian ts, the TypeXVII U-boat was not a success, trying to press the Walter turbine into service before its time. Planned to run to a dozen boats (U1081/1092), the 'G'variant was halted before any were complete. It was designed for an ultimate submerged speed of 25 kts.
439
GERMANY
Type XXI One of the most influential designs in the history of the submarine, the Type XXI was to set standards until the introduction of the nuclear boat a decade later. Though both closed-cycle turbines and diesels had been introduced, both still needed development, so a stopgap high-power electric boat was produced, using mostly established technology. With the lower pressure hull packed with high powerdensity cells, the Type XXIs could, for the first time, develop more power submerged than surfaced. Their main p r o p u l s i o n m o t o r s were supplemented by low power units for silent manoeuvring. Like that in the Type XVII, the pressure hull1of the Type XXI was of 'doublebubble cross section, though externally framed. It was prefabricated in eight sections at a variety of sites, being brought together for final assembly at the shipyard. The external framing increased volume and facilitated the addition of a hydrodynamically clean outer skin. Construction was allwelded for a target of three boats per week in an ambitious programme to produce an eventual 1,500 units (U2500 to U-4000). Most other submarine programmes were curtailed or cancelled to this end. The Type XXIs were designed to spend their full patrol time submerged, so the snort was used mainly to run diesels for battery recharge. Habitability was greatly improved, with a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g and airregeneration apparatus. The only guns were paired automatic weapons set into the forward and after profiles of the elongated fin. A combination of active and passive sonars was used to provide a full torpedo-firing solution without recourse to the periscope. Two proposed but unbuilt variants, the Type XXIB and Type XXIC, would have increased the number of torpedo tubes from six to 12 and 18 respectively by the insertion of extra sections into the hull. Fortunately
Above: Lack of paint on both tower and stemhead are clues to the high speeds a ttained by this Type XXI. The hull is faired into an almost elliptical cross-section, leaving little deck, and the forward hydroplanes fold back into slots to reduce drag. Left: The Blohm und Voss slips in May 1945 give an idea of the level to which series production of submarines had progressed. These TypeXXI boats are being assembled from hull sections prefabricated at many inland sites and transported to Hamburg by wa ter. for the Allies, the Type XXI never became fully operational. Several were sunk, all by aircraft and in home waters. Specification TypeXXIA Type: ocean-going submarine Displacement: 1,621 tons surfaced and 1,819 tons submerged Dimensions: length 76.70 m (251 ft i 8 in); beam 6.62 m (21 ft 9 in); draught
GERMANY
Type XXIII Rather than search the Atlantic for convoys it may, in retrospect, have been more rewarding for the German submarine arm to develop tactics to tackle them at their known points of arrival and departure, despite the likely concentrations of escorts. A suitable vehicle would have been the Type XXIII, small and agile for shallow water operations and, like its larger cousin the Type XXI, packed with high-capacity battery cells for maximum underwater speed. Its hull had the 'double-bubble' cross section over the forward half but was internally framed and prefabricated in four sections. The partiallength lower hull contained both batteries and some ballast and fuel capacity. A departure was the near abandonment of outer casing except in the transitional zones and this, together 440
The very small size of the German Type XXIII is apparent from this view of U-2326 alongside a Dundee quay in May 1945. Few fittings protrude to spoil the flow over the very clean hull and tower. Only two bow torpedo tubes were fitted. with a very low reserve buoyancy (the difference between surfaced and submerged displacements was only 24 tons) allowed for rapid crash-dive, times of less than 10 seconds being recorded, Even smaller than the Type XVII Walter boats, the Type XXIIIs also had a single shaft but a propeller proportionately larger in diameter for greater propulsive efficiency. Though the boat was designed to operate submerged, its silhouette on the surface was very small, being little more than the slim tower with the attached low casing that enclosed the
6.20 m (20 ft 4 in) Propulsion: surfaced diesels delivering 4,000 bhp (2985 kW) and
Optimized for submerged performance, the profile of the TypeXXI contrasts with those of earlier submarines. No deck gun is needed, but chin sonar and sonar mast are prominent. The first to commission, U-2511, was Norwegian-based, but, beyond a 'dummy' a ttack on a cruiser, had no luck.
submerged electric motors delivering 5,000 hp (3730 kW) or electric motors delivering 226 hp (169 kW) to two shafts Speed: surfaced 15.5 kts and submerged 16 kts on main electric motor or 3.5 kts on creeping electric motors Range: surfaced 28800 km (17,895 miles) and submerged 525 km (325 miles) at 6 kts Armament: four 30-mm or 20-mm AA guns, and six 533-mm (21 -in) torpedo tubes (all forward) with 23 torpedoes Complement: 57
snort induction and engine exhaust arrangements. No guns were carried and, oddly, only two torpedo tubes. With no space inboard for orthodox loading, the boat needed to be trimmed by the stern to expose the bow caps. As no spares could be carried an extra two or four tubes forward would have been a bonus. As it was, attacks had to be carried out positively, from close range and with very fast or very stealthy disengagements, That this was possible was shown by the last U-boat attack in European waters, which occurred on 7 May 1945 well inside the Firth of Forth, when the U2336 sank two British merchantmen of an escorted convoy. One torpedo was used on each, fired on the strength of passive sonar bearings from ranges of
less than 500 m (545 yards), By this time 62 type XXIIIs had entered service and their only losses had been to aircraft; it was fortunate for the Allies that the enemy's training and dedication no longer matched his technology.
Specification
Type XXIII Type: coastal submarine Displacement: 232 tons surfaced and 256 tons submerged Dimensions: length 34.10 m ( 112 ft 0 in); beam 3.00 m (9 ft 10 in); draught
3.75 m (12 ft 3 in)
Propulsion: surfaced diesel delivering 580 bhp (433 kW) and submerged electric motor delivering 600 hp (447 kW) or electric motor delivering
35 hp (26 kW) to one shaft Speed: surfaced 10 kts and submerged 12.5 kts on main electric motor or 2 kts on creeping electric motor Range: surfaced 2500 km ( 1,555 miles) and submerged 325 km (202 miles) at 4 kts Armament: two 533-mm (21 -in) torpedo tubes (both forward) with two torpedoes Complement: 14 From the tower aft the Type XXIII was all machinery. The forward quarter was all torpedo room and, except for a miniscule control room, the crew was squeezed above the banks of high-capacity ba ttery cells. Note the single screw and un usual control surf aces.
ITALY
'Sirena', 'Perla', 'Adua' and Bonaventure. Once converted, she 'Acciaio' classes went on to attack the harbour at Dating from a period of great expansion for the Italian navy's submarine arm, the 12 'Sirena' class submarines were known also as the '600' class boats. This figure was indicative of their standard surface displacement and, though the final design exceeded it by a considerable margin, they proved very handy boats for the constricted conditions of the Mediterranean. Their detail design was greatly influenced by that of the preceding 'Argonauta' class, but, as they were laid down before the latter's entry into service, they did not benefit from working experience. Simple and robust, they were heavily used and suffered accordingly, only one surviving beyond the armistice of September 1943. Ten almost identical derivatives, the 'Perla'class, folio wed on. Two of these, Iride and Onice, served somewhat c o n t r o v e r s i a l l y u n d e r Spanish Nationalist colours during the Spanish Civil War. During World War II, the Iride, together with the Ambra, were converted to carry SLC human torpedoes. The latter boat had already distinguished herself when, two days after the Battle of Cape Matapan, she had sunk the British cruiser HMS
r
Above:Handy-sized'Mediterranean boats, then-strong 'Adua'class were named after places in Italian North Africa. Boats of the class were modified to SLC carriers.
Algiers in December 1942, heavily damaging four ships totalling 20,000 gross registered tons. Yet another virtual repeat class had followed in the 17 'Adua' class boats, launched 1936-8. Two of these also were converted to carry SLCs and one of these the Sore, was particularly successful. She attacked Gibraltar on no less than four occasions, the raid of September 1941 accounting for two ships, including the auxiliary tanker Denbydale. Her greatest coup, however, was in December 1941 when her three SLCs put the battleships HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Valiant, together with a tanker, on the bottom of Alexandria harbour. She was finally sunk by the anti-submarine trawler May outside Haifa in August 1942. The final expression of the '600' type was in the enlarged 13-boat Acciaio' class of 1941-2.
Specification
'Sirena' class Type: sea-going submarine Displacement: between 679 and 701
tons surfaced and between 842 and 860 tons submerged Dimensions: length 60.18 m ( 197 ft 6 in); beam 6,45 m (21 ft 2 in); draught 4.70 m (15 ft 5 in) Propulsion: surfaced diesels delivering 1,200 bhp (895 kW) and submerged electric motors delivering 800 hp (597 kW) to two shafts
The Italian submarine Perla at Beirut after capture in 1942. The shadow accentuates the unusual tumblehome of the casing. Speed: surfaced 14 kts and submerged 8 kts Range: surfaced 9000 km (5,590 miles) at 8 kts and submerged 135 km (84 miles) at 4 kts Armament: one 100-mm (3.9-m) gun, two (later four) 13.2-mm(0.52-in) machine-guns, and six 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes (four forward and two aft) with 12 torpedoes Complement: 45
Below: A m ore powerful 'A dna 7 'Perla ' with reduced tower, Acciaio was lead boa t o f a class of l 3. She was sunk by HM Submarine Unruly on 13 July 1943.
441
ITALY
'Cagni' class It is not clear how the Italian navy, with minimal commitments outside the Mediterranean, could justify investment in submarines for ocean warfare. Italy's merchant marine, while of reasonable size, could not be protected on a worldwide basis by Italy's surface fleet, which was geared to short-endurance, high-speed undertakings, so coherent operations in the defence of trade were out of the question, even against the rival neighbour France. Despite this, the four 'Cagni' class submarines were all laid down in September and October 1939 on the outbreak of hostilities between Germany and the Anglo-French alliance. As these submarines were aimed specifically at long-range commerce raiding, one can only speculate that Italy, as yet uninvolved, saw involvement against the maritime powers as only a matter of time. The 'Cagnis' were the largest attack boats yet built for the Italian navy and, interestingly, were armed with small 450-mm (17.7-in) torpedoes. Though these were longer than the standard 450-mm (17.7-in) weapons, enabling them to carry a warhead of 200 kg (441 lb) in place of the more usual 110 kg (243 lb), this payload was still considerably less than the 270 kg (595 lb) of the larger 533-mm (21-in) torpedoes, As the torpdoes were for use primarily against 'soft' targets, however, this was judged acceptable, together with their lack of range. The bonus for this compromise was the ability to carry 36 torpedoes, the eight tubes forward and six aft permitting large spreads to enhance chances of success. An unusual feature was that torpedoes could be transferred from one end of the boat to the other. Two large deck guns were also carried to conserve torpedoes.
Unfortunately for Italian plans, the Mediterranean sea war required the keeping open of the vital North Africa supply route. Following heavy surface losses, the navy pressed large submarines into this service. In completing 15 trips, three of the four boats in the class were sunk in only three months. Only the name boat Ammiraglio Cagni worked as designed, but unsuccessfully, sinking less than 10,000 gross registered tons in two long patrols.
Specification
Displacement: 1,680 tons surfaced and 2,170 tons submerged Dimensions: length 87.90 m (288 ft 5 in); beam 7.76 m (25 ft 6 in); draught 5.72 m (18 ft 9 in) Propulsion: surfaced diesels delivering 4,370 bhp (3260 kW) and submerged electric motors delivering 1,800 hp (1345 kW) to two shafts Speed: surfaced 17 kts and submerged 8.5 kts Range: surfaced 20000 km (12,425 miles) at 12 kts and submerged 200 km (124 miles) at 3.5 kts
Ammiraglio Cagni returns from sea vvith a damaged after casing. The heavy armament of two 100-mm and four 13.2-mm guns can be seen, also the generally bulky appearance typical of most Italian ocean-going boats. Armament: two 100-mm (3,9-in) guns, four 13.2-mm(0.52-in)machine-guns, and 14 450-mm (17.7-in) torpedo tubes (eight forward and six aft) with 36 torpedoes Complement: 82 Nameship and sole survivor of her class, Cagni is seen here with a modified and rather Germanic-style tower, reducing her radar profile.
'Cagni' class Type: ocean-going submarine
ITALY
'Archimede' class The four 'Archimede' class submarines were enlargements of the preceding 'Settembrini' design with ballasting rearranged to improve bunker capacity, An extra gun was also fitted, in keeping with the boats' 'ocean' role. All were launched in 1934 and, as part of their covert support of the Nationalist cause during the Spanish Civil War, the Italians transferred two to Spanish colours. These were the Archimede and the Torricelli and, to 'conceal' their transfer, two of the follow-on 'Brins' assumed their names. The three classes of boat formed a closely-related group, used extensively in colonial work. That part of the Italian navy stationed in the Red Sea in June 1940 was cut off from the homeland and severely handled by the British as a threat astride the route from the Suez Canal eastward. The Galilei sank a Norwegian tanker less than a week after the outbreak of hostilities and announced her position further only two days later by stopping a neutral for examination. On the following day she was intercepted by the 442
British anti-submarine trawler Moonstone, which inflicted damage that caused the boat to be filled with noxious fumes. Unable to dive, she fought it out on the surface. Far larger, faster and more heavily armed than her opponent she should have been successful had not the Moonstone shot up every gun's crew that emerged topside. With most of its officers dead, the demoralized crew surrendered. Captured, the boat assumed the British pennant P711 until her eventual disposal in 1946. Galilei's replacement Torricelli was also apprehended by British forces. Forced to the surface near Perim Island, she engaged in a gun action with three 'K' class destroyers and a sloop. She was, inevitably, sunk but not before she had hit both the sloop and the destroyer HMS Khartoum. The hit on The 'Archimede'class submarine Galilei is seen about to be talcen in tow by the British destroyer Kandahar. Noxious gases filled the boat and caused her surrender.
the latter was on one of the banks of torpedo tubes and, apparently, caused a compressed air explosion followed by the detonation of a torpedo warhead, The ship was destroyed. Specification 'Archimede' class Type: sea-going submarine Displacement: 985 tons surfaced and 1,259 tons submerged Dimensions: length 70.50 m (231 ft 4 in); beam 6.83 m (22 ft 5 in); draught 4.10 m (13 ft 6 in) Propulsion: surfaced diesels
delivering 3,000 bhp (2235 kW) and submerged electric motors delivering 1,300 hp (970 kW) to two shafts Speed: surfaced 17 kts and submerged 8 kts Range: surfaced 19000 km (11,805 miles) at 8 kts and submerged 195 km (121 miles) at 3 kts Armament: two 100-mm (3.9-in) guns, two 13.2-mm(0,52-in) machine-guns, and eight 533-mm (21 -in) torpedo tubes (four forward and four aft) with 16 torpedoes Complement: 55
Allied Submarines While not achieving the notoriety of the German 'wolf packs', Allied submarine forces still made significant contributions to the war effort. In Europe they were active from Norway to the Mediterranean, and in the Far East the collapse of the Japanese economy at the end of the war was largely due to the US submarine blockade. ubmarines sighted in the Atlantic during World War II were, very likely, those of the Germans, for the area was largely devoid of targets for Allied boats. The British, reinforced by such submarines as were able to escape their various countries' rapid collapse, concentrated their efforts in European waters, where the Axis forces were forced to risk surface movement. Thus, submarine attack was used effectively in the Norwegian campaign, against Uboats that were in transit, and also in the long struggle in the Mediterranean. The shortage of boats, as in everything else in World War II, obliged the British initially to a virtvial denuding of the Far East of larger submarines for use in constricted waters where they proved to be both unsatisfactory and vulnerable. When, eventually, the Far East itself was engulfed in war, the British submarine presence was only minimal, many of the diverted boats having already been lost. It was only when the Mediterranean sea war effectively came to an end following the surrender of enemy forces in North Africa that the Royal Navy was able to redeploy its improved 'T' class boats to the eastern theatre, where the submarine
S
USS Swordfish being launched in 1941. The US Navy used its submarines to good effect in a blockade of Japan, and Swordfish sank the first of more than 1000 Japanese merchant ships. war against Japan was already dominated by the Americans. The position of the American submarine arm vis-a-vis the Japanese mercantile marine was analogous to the relationship between the Germans and the British at this time. Both maritime-based empires depended upon their seaborne trade; it stood to reason that if this area
could be throttled the empire would inevitably collapse. Because the British were experienced they were also prepared. As a result they were to survive the onslaught (albeit narrowly). The Japanese, however, laid themselves wide open and were totally blinkered to the truth of their own shortcomings. The typical skipper of an American subma-
rine time and again proved himself to be determined, adaptable and highly innovative, devising original and bold attack techniques. His fleet organization gave him full backing with temporary advanced bases and tenders used to the full to follow the war's advance, shortening transit times and maximizing time on patrol. 443
FRANCE
'Saphir' class Like the Royal Navy, the French had a six-strong class of minelaying submarines, the 'Saphir' class of 1925-9. These were much smaller than the British boats, being geared to Mediterranean operations. Again, as a mine capable of being launched through a standard torpedo tube had not been developed, the hull design was dominated by the mine stowage. The design for this had been produced by the well-known submarine builder, Normand, but was based on that of the British 'E' class minelayers of 1914-8: 16 vertical chutes were built into the space between the widely-separated double hulls, in four groups of four, and each chute could accommodate two mines, though a weakness of the arrangement was that these were of special manufacture. The British had abandoned the system in favour of laying over the stern with the mines stowed within the upper casing.
Four stretched versions, continuing the 'jewel' names as the 'Emeraude' class, were scheduled to follow in 1937-8. Lengthened by nearly 7m (22.97 ft), they would have carried 25 per cent more mines, but only the nameship was ever laid down and she was destroyed on the slip at the occupation. Of the 'Saphirs', three (Nautilus, Saphir and Turquoise) were taken by the enemy at Bizerta and one (Le Diamant) was scuttled at Toulon. The Rubis and Perle operated for the duration of the war (the latter was sunk in error by British aircraft in July 1944) under the Free French flag. The Rubis began operating with the British Home Fleet in April 1940, laying mines in Norwegian waters. Between then and
the end of 1944 she carried out no less than 22 successful minelaying operations, most to interrupt the enemy's coast-hugging mercantile routes. The total of 15 ships known to have been destroyed on her mines included several Scandinavians carrying German ore cargoes, a minesweeper and four small anti-submarine vessels. She also torpedoed and sank one more, a Finn.
torpedo tube fit. This comprised four 550-mm (21,65-in) tubes set in an orthodox bow arrangement, with six reloads; one quadruple 550-mm trainable mounting in the casing threequarters aft; and a quadruple 400-mm (15.75-in) tramable mounting in the casing right aft, with four reloads. The suggested mode of operation of submarines such as these was always rather woolly and the Surcouf, like the rest of her kind, was never to find a proper role. Seized in Plymouth in July 1940, she was operated by a Free French crew on several Atlantic pat-
rols, In December 1941 she participated with three French corvettes in the seizure of the Vichy islands of St Pierre and Miquelon, in the St Lawrence estuary. In February 1942 she sank in the Caribbean after a collision.
Specification
'Saphir' class Displacement: 761 tons surfaced and 925 tons submerged Dimensions: length 65.90 m (216.21 ft); beam?. 12 m(23.36 ft); draught4,30 m (14.11ft)
Propulsion: two diesels delivering 969.4 kW (1,300 bhp) and two electric motors delivering 820.3 kW ( 1,100 hp) to two shafts Speed: 12 kts surfaced and 9 kts submerged Endurance: 12970 km (8,059 miles) at 7.5 kts surfaced and 148 km (92 miles) at 4 kts submerged Armament: one 75-mm (2.95-in) gun, three 550-mm (21.65-in) torpedo tubes (two bow and one stern), two 400-mm (15.75-in) torpedo tubes in a tramable mounting, and 32 mines Complement: 42 The most successful minelaying submarine of the war, Rubis was responsible in her 22 minelaying patrols for the sinking of at least 15 vessels. These included five warships as well as vessels running iron ore in coastal convoys to Germany.
FRANCE
'Surcouf class Most of the major maritime nations at sometime or other experimented with the idea of the cruiser submarine. All were larger than usual, with an exceptional surface armament and good endurance. Some carried an aircraft to increase their effective search radius. The only design to combine, reasonably successfully, all these features in one hull was the Surcouf Ordered under the 1926 programme as the first in a class of three, she was destined to be the only unit of the 'Surcouf class, and the largest submarine in the world in terms of displacement, though shorter than both the American 'Narwhal' and the Japanese 'A boats, At the time of the Washington Treaty the British Ml to M3 had 304,8-mm (12in) guns and, to prevent further escalation in this direction (though even these were overlarge and totally unwieldy) the treaty limited future submarines to 203.2-mm (8-in) weapons. Only the French ever fitted the latter, and these to the Surcouf, paired in a complex pressure-tight turret. This structure was faired into a pressuretight 'hangar' abaft it and containing a specially-designed Besson M.B.411 floatplane, This had to be taken out and the wings attached before it could be lowered into the water, a timeconsuming and highly risky business which, while acceptable in 1926, was certainly not in 1939-45, Only the French could ever have specified the Surcouf, seen here in the Clyde estuary, was a product of the interwar concept of the 'cruiser submarine', espoused by many navies. She was the closest of all such designs to being a success, without ever having the chance to be employed against enemy merchant shipping. 444
Specification 'Surcouf class Displacement: 3,270 tons surfaced and 4,250 tons submerged Dimensions: length 110.00 m (360.89 ft); beam 9.00 m (29,53 ft); draught 9,07 m (29.76 ft) Propulsion: two diesels delivering
5667.3 kW (7,600 bhp) and two electric motors delivering 2535.4 kW (3,400 hp) to two shafts Speed: 18 kts surfaced and 8.5 kts submerged Endurance: 18531 km (11,515 miles) at 10 kts surfaced and 111 km (69 miles) at 5 kts submerged Armament: two 203,2-mm (8-in) guns, two 37-mm guns, eight 550-mm (21.65in) torpedo tubes (four bow and four in a trainable mounting), and four 400mm (15,75-in) torpedo tubes (ma trainable mounting aft) Complement: 118
l, S A
Old 'S' class Like the 'O' and 'R' classes, the World War I-designed 'S' class (or 'Sugar') boats were well represented in the US Navy in December 1941, when the USA found itself in World War II. Sixtyfour of these boats were still available, though many had for years been involved only in training, All suffered from having been designed at a time when the submarine was still regarded by the US Navy as a weapon for use in the defence of home territory. None, therefore, had adequate endurance for the Pacific operations that, with Japan as an ally in 1914-8, had not been foreseeable. The 'O' and 'R' boats were fitted with 457-mm (18-in) torpedo tubes and had poor endurance, and the general specification for the improved 'S' class had
been put out to competition. At this time, US submarine practice was dominated by the companies owned by Holland and Lake; each tendered, together with the Portsmouth Navy Yard. Three prototypes were built to the designs, the S2 by Lake being thought unsatisfactory. In total, 25 Holland-designed boats, known as the 'S' class Group 1, were launched between 1918 and 1922, followed by six of an improved version known as the 'S' class Group 3. The 15 'S' class Group 2 boats were to the naval design (some built by Lake's yard), and these were followed by four improved 'S' class Group 4 boats. Though all had about the same speed, armament and complement, they varied greatly in size and, somewhat, in endurance. All
were of double-hulled design, one carried a seaplane for an experimental period, and four were fitted with an extra tube aft. Six were transferred to the Royal Navy early in the war, one then being passed on to the Poles. As the/astrzab she was sunk in error by the British in the course of a convoy action in 1942; by tragic irony, one of the escorts concerned was also ex-American, the 'four-piper' HMS St Albans. Most of the American 'S' class boats in the Far East had been replaced by newer boats by late 1943, but some had success. Before the Savo Island action, for instance, Mikawa's approach was sighted and reported by the S38, and the S44 exacted a toll of the victors by sending
the Kako to the bottom. In October 1943 this old veteran's luck ran out and she was sunk near the Kamchatka peninsula.
(370.58 ft); beam 10.13 m (33.25 ft); draught 4.80 m (15.75 ft) Propulsion: combination drive with four diesels delivering 4026.8 kW (5,400 bhp) and two electric motors delivering 1894. l kW (2,540 hp) to two shafts Speed: 17 kts surfaced and 8 kts submerged Endurance: 33354 km (20,725 miles) at 10 kts surfaced and 93 km (58 miles) at 5 kts submerged Armament: two single 152.4-mm (6-in)
Narwhal and her sisters were the largest submarines in US service until the arrival of the nuclear submarines of the 1950s. In a scene from the happier pre-war days, Narwhal is seen towing a seaplane with engine trouble back to Pearl Harbor.
S28 as she appeared in 1943. One of the Holland-designed boats, she, along with her sisters, sawaction early in the war, and at that time was not devoid of success. While most of the class was replaced by 1943, S28 was lost in 1944.
Specification
Old 'S' class (first group) Displacement: 854 tons surfaced and 1,065 tons submerged Dimensions: length 66.83 m(219.25 ft); beam 6.30 m (20.67 ft); draught 4,72 m (15.5ft) Propulsion: two diesels delivering 894.8 kW ( 1,200 bhp) and two electric motors delivering 1118.6 kW ( 1,500 hp) to two shafts Speed: 14,5 kts surfaced and 11 kts submerged Endurance: 9270 km (5,760 miles) at 10 kts surfaced Armament: one 101,6-or76.2-mm(4or 3-in) gun and four or five 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes (all bow or four bow and one stern) for 12 torpedoes Complement: 42
USA
'Narwhal' class The two 'Narwhal' class units USSlVarvvhal and Nautilus must be classed as a group with the USS Argonaut that immediately preceded them. The large German transport submarines that worked the eastern US seaboard during World War I made a great impression on an oceanically-mmded navy, and the early 1920s saw designs produced for a minelayer (V-4, later Argonaut} and two cruiser submarines Narwhal (V-5) and Nautilus (V-6). They were all large, even the latter boats (3.20 m/10.5 ft the shorter) being of greater length than the monstrous French Surcouf. As a minelayer, the V-4 could load 60 mines, which were laid through two tubes exiting beneath the counter, Forward of the after bulkhead of the engine room the 'Narwhals' were nearly identical, mounting two torpedo tubes aft in place of the mine stowage, a smaller demand on space that accounted for their shorter length. To match the boat's endurance, torpedo stowage was on a grand scale, upwards of 36 being carried both within the hull and the casing topside. To stretch them even further, two 152.4mm (6-in) deck guns were mounted, the largest in any American submarine. Scouting for targets was the task for a small seaplane, the plans for which were, however, dropped.
All were considered slow by US standards but, though all were due to be re-engined, only the Nautilus was so modified by the outbreak of war. The latter was fitted also with two extra tubes in the after casing and the other two gained four, all in the amidships casing, two firing forward and two aft. Despite the US fleet's shortage of submarines in 1942, these three boats were considered too slow and vulnerable for combat patrols and were modified in various degrees for clandestine operations, running personnel and supplies. The Nautilus had facilities for refuelling long-range seaplanes, an echo of Japanese practice, but was never so used during hostilities. All operated particularly between their west Australian bases and'the Philippines. The Nautilus finished off the stricken Japanese carrier Soryu after Midway, and landed personnel on an unoccupied island near Tarawa to build a secret airstrip. Other raids were carried out on Makin Island and Attu in the Aleutians. The Argonaut was lost in 1943. Specification 'Narwhal' class (as built) Displacement: 2,730 tons surfaced and 3,900 tons submerged Dimensions: length 112.95 m
guns and six 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes (four bow and two stern) later increased to 10 tubes for 40 torpedoes Complement: 89
USS Nautilus in pre-war trim. The two 'Narwhals'were though t to be too slow for fleet submarine work during the war, and were often used for clandestine operations, although it was Nautilus that finished off the stricken Soryu after Midway.
445
USA
New 'S' class Known as the New 'S' class because the early units confusingly took pendants of the Old 'S' class boats still in service, 16 boats were built in two very similar groups. Their design was based closely upon that of the preceding 1,320-ton 'P' class, but differed particularly in having a deeper stern to accommodate an increase in the after torpedo tube complement from two to four. The 'P' and 'S' class boats were the first all-welded submarines in the US Navy and, though techniques were still being developed, the workmanship was sound, as evinced by the survival of the USS Salmon (SS 182), lead boat of the New 'S' class Group 1, which was severely depth charged in October 1944 by four Japanese escorts after torpedoing a tanker off Kyushu. The combination of concussion and the effects of overpressures through being driven far below design depth left the hull dished between frames, but the boat made it home. Irreparable, she was eventually scrapped. The double hull of the American boats was a protective feature, provided that the ballast and fuel tanks within retained an ullage space over the liquid contents, Composite propulsion systems were fitted in some, arrangements whereby the two forward diesels drove generators directly and the two after units were geared to the shafts, the gearing being shared also by two propulsion motors on each shaft. Though complex, the arrangement proved satisfactory. Twelve reload torpedoes were located within the pressure hull and four more in external stowage in the casing, an arrangement vulnerable to the effects of depth charge attack. Two mines could be carried for each internal torpedo and laid through the tubes. Originally a 76.2-mm (3-in) gun was fitted, but this was changed to a 101.6mm (4-in) weapon in the majority of boats. Wartime modifications saw the bulky 'sails' cut down to a profile similar to that of later classes,
The New 'S' class Group 2 included the USSSgualus (SS 192), which foundered through an induction valve failure while on trials in May 1939, Salvaged and refitted, she survived the war as the USS Sailn'sh. The USS Swordfish (SS 193) was credited with the first Japanese merchantman sunk, a week after the outbreak of war, Specification New 'S' class ('Salmon' group) Displacement: 1,440 tons surfaced and 2,200 tons submerged
Dimensions: length 93.88 m (308.0 ft); beam 7.98 m (26,17 ft); draught 4.34 m (14.25ft) Propulsion: composite drive with four diesels delivering 4101.4 kW (5,500 bhp) and four electric motors delivering 1983.6 kW (2,660 hp) to two shafts Speed: 21 kts surfaced and 9 kts submerged Endurance: 18532 km (11,515 miles) at 10 kts surfaced and 158 km (98 miles) at 5 kts submerged Armament: one 76.2-mm (3-in) gun
The launch of USS Swordfish, on l April l 941. Few of those presen t could have foreseen thatinnine months, within a week of Pearl Harbor, Swordfish would sink the first of 1,113Japanese merchan t ships to fall victim to the US submarine fleet.
automatic weapons, regular and nonregular, the structures gaining various platforms to support them. Even extra main-calibre deck guns appeared, all in the cause of making the 24 torpedoes aboard last longer. After 73 boats the hull was secretly improved by the adoption of HT steels and advanced sections, increasing their official limit to 122-m (400-ft) depths. No less than 256 of these were ordered and known as the 'Balao' class, but only 122 were actually completed, a further 10 unfinished hulls being scrapped.
The combined group formed the backbone of the US Navy's wartime submarine strength, achieved much and suffered 29 losses. Post-war, with the example of German developments, many were modernized under the GUPPY programmes, remaining the greater part of the fleet's underwater arm until introduction of the nuclear boats. Many 'went foreign', some still serving.
(later upgraded to one 101.6-mm/4-in gun in most units) and eight 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes (four bow and four stern) for 24 (later 20) torpedoes Complement: 75
USA
'Gato' class From the New 'S' class design the Americans developed the T class submarine, a dozen of which were launched in barely 13 months, mostly in 1940, They differed primarily in receiving two extra tubes forward (10 in all) and later substituting a speciallymodified 127-mm (5-in) deck gun for the earlier 101.6-mm (4-in) gun, or 76.2mm (3-in) gun in some cases. This gradual evolutionary process was successful and produced at the right time a submarine with acceptable characteristics for the Pacific war. What was needed was a long endurance and self-sufficiency, Because of the distances involved, patrols were much longer than those in the European theatre and more boats were needed
to maintain numbers on station. Thus the 'Gato' class was an improved T and went into volume production, the first of class, the USS Drum (SS 228), being completed shortly before hostilities commenced, Officially capable of operating down to 91 m (300 ft) they often went deeper. The earlier boats had a large, solid looking sail, similar to those of pre-war designs. These were soon reduced as boats came in for repair but, although the structure could be lowered the very high standards ('shears') demanded by the long periscopes remained a lofty feature. Operating on the surface more than would have been possible in European waters, they began also to accumulate varied outfits of
A 'Gato'class boat of late 1942. By this time production was approaching three per month from three separate yards, and operational experience was being incorporated through the adoption of a smaller sail and more weapons for surface work.
446
Specification
'Gato' class Displacement: 1,525 tons surfaced and 2,415 tons submerged Dimensions: length 95.02 m (311.75 ft); beam8.31 m(27.25 ft); draught4.65 m (15,25ft)
i/SS Darter aground on Bombay shoal during the ba ttle ofLeyte Gulf. After the triumph of the previous day when she torpedoed and sanlc the cruiser Atago ("flagship of Admiral Kurita), as well as damaging the cruiser Takao, she was badly damaged and finally scuttled on 24 October. Propulsion: four diesels delivering 4026.8 kW (5,400 bhp) and four electric motors delivering 2043.2 kW (2,740 hp) to two shafts Speed: 20 kts surfaced and 8.5 kts submerged Endurance: 21316 km (13,245 miles) at 10 kts surfaced and 175 km (109 miles) at 5 kts submerged Armament: one 127-mm (5-in) gun and 10 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes (six bow and four stern) for 24 torpedoes Complement: 80 USA
'Tench' class The 'Tench' class marked the ultimate refinement in the basic design whose ancestry could be traced back to the 'P' class. Externally they were virtually identical with the 'Balaos', and so closely related was the design that some of the later Balao contracts were converted to 'Tenches'. Though 25 boats had been completed by the end of hostilities, most were still working up in home waters; not a dozen, therefore, managed to see operational duty and none of these was lost. Total production was 33 boats between 1944 and 1946, with another 101 cancelled or scrapped incomplete. Differences, though not obvious, were important. The first concerned machinery. In the 'Balao' class the four diesels each ran a direct-coupled generator, which served both to charge batteries and power the electric propulsion motors when surfaced. Each shaft had two motors, coupled to it via reduction gearing. Both the highspeed motors and the reduction gear were noisy (to the extent where it was fortunate that Japanese ASW techniques and equipment were so backward). Reduction gears were also expensive, temperamental, easy to damage and, traditionally, a slow delivery item in the USA (as was the turboelectric propulsion in battleships), It made sense, therefore, to develop a large and slow-turning motor that could be direct-coupled. Two of these larger units, with no associated gear housings, could be accommodated without the earlier awkward crank in the hull, but illustrates some of the problems facing submarine designers. Fuel and ballast tanks were better organized, firstly to obviate the need to lead the vents of the ballast tanks through the pressure hull (where they constituted a flooding hazard) and, secondly, the better to compensate for the considerable change in weight and trim as stores were consumed during a long patrol. Even a further four torpedo reloads were squeezed in, and this, combined with radar and efficient mechanical fire-control computers, put the 'Tenches' far ahead of the opposition. In order to improve on the average, but slow, diving times of 55-60 seconds, the casings were pierced with many more lightening holes.
Specification
'Tench' class Displacement: 1,570 tons surfaced and 2,415 tons submerged Dimensions: length 95.0 m (311.67 ft); beam8.31 m(27.25 ft); draught 4,65 m (15.25ft) Propulsion: four diesels delivering 4026.8 kW (5,400 bhp) and two electric motors delivering 2043,2 kW
(2,740 hp) to two shafts Speed: 20 kts surfaced and 9 kts submerged Endurance: 21316 km (13,245 miles) at 10 kts surfaced and 204 km ( 127 miles) at 4 kts Armament: one or two 127-mm (5-in) guns and 10 533-mm (21 -in) torpedo tubes (six bow and four stern) for 28
USS Pickerel, one of the later warbuilt fleet submarines, caught during one of the most dramatic methods of surfacing. Transferred to Italy in 1972 after extensive updating, she served under the name Gianfranco Gazzana Priaroggia un til 1981.
torpedoes
Complement: 81 447
UK
'O', 'P' and 'R' classes The 'O' class (later 'Oberon' class) was developed as a replacement for the ocean-going 'L' class of World War I design. They were categorized as overseas patrol submarines, and it is of interest to note that, even as early as the concept stage in 1922, there was a requirement for long range with an eye to possible future operations against Japan (an ally during 1914-8). The lead boat, HMS Oberon, was laid down by Chatham Dockyard in 1924 and was closely followed by two sisters, HMS Otway and Oxley. Six bow and two stern tubes were fitted, with a reload for each. These, together with extensive bunker spaces, made for a large hull which proved distinctly unhandy, with speed reduced by a plethora of external fittings. Even after much fairing and attention they barely achieved their designed surface speed, and failed altogether to reach
the required speed submerged. The hull was fitted with saddle tanks, which contained most of the ballast capacity. Some could double as extra fuel tanks but were unpopular as they inevitably emitted telltale oil traces through leaky rivet heads. As with the 'L' class boats, a 101.6-mm (4-in) gun was fitted in the tower to allow it to be worked in heavy seas. Because of the limitations with the 'ObĂŠrons', an improved 'Odin' class was evolved: longer to accommodate more p o w e r f u l machinery and beamier to improve stability in the surfaced condition. Completed in 1928-9, these boats were HMS Odin, Olympus, Orpheus, Osiris, Oswald and Otus. Though still plagued by weeping oil, their outsides were marked by a great clean-up of general clutter. An interesting idea, fortunately not pursued, was to install auxiliary accom-
modation in the upper casing to ease the confines of the crew on extended patrols. The 'Parthian' and 'Rainbow' classes were essentially 'Odin' repeats; six of each were ordered, differing only in detail. Two 'Rainbows' were ultimately cancelled, and the units completed in 1929-30 were HMS Parthian, P e r s e u s , Phoenix, Poseidon, Proteus, Pandora, Rainbow, Regent, Regulus and Rover Most of the O' class boats were in the Far East in September 1939 but one of those in home waters, the Oxley, had the melancholy record of being the first British submarine lost when torpedoed in error by another British submarine, HMS Triton. Of the joint class total of 18, 12 were lost, most by the end of 1940 and many in the Mediterranean, for whose confines they were totally unsuited,
Specification
pared with the 152m (500ft) of the 'Parthians'. The main function of the 'Porpoises' was, officially at least, superseded by the development of a mine capable of being laid through a conventional torpedo tube. But despite this the class was still to lay some 2,600 mines operationally. They proved invaluable during the height of the siege of Malta -when, in concert with the available 'O' class boats, they moved in personnel and supplies. The Seal, after damaging herself by mine in the Kattegat and unable to dive, had to surrender to two Arado floatplanes. Repaired, she was recommissioned as the UB-A but not used operationally. Only the Rorqual survived World War II.
Specification
'Odin' class Displacement: 1,781 tons surfaced and 2,038 tons submerged Dimensions: length 86.41 m (283.5 ft); beam 9.12m (29,92 ft); draught 4.17 m (13.67ft) Propulsion: two diesels delivering 3281. l kW (4,400 bhp) and two electric motors delivering 984.3 kW (1,320 hp) to two shafts Speed: 17.5 kts surfaced and 9 kts submerged Endurance: 21123 km (13,125 miles) at 8 kts surfaced and 97 km (60 miles) at 4 kts submerged Armament: one 101.6-mrn (4-in) gun and eight 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes (six bow and two stern) Complement: 53
HMS Odin as she appeared at the start of the war. Completed in the late 1920s, the V class were large vessels designed to operate down to 90 m (300 ft). OdinwassunA-in 1940byltalian destroyers.
UK
'Porpoise' class Based on the recently-completed 'Parthians', the 'Porpoise' class submarines were purpose-built minelayers. German practice tended to near-vertical mine shutes located within the envelope of the pressure hull, but the British preferred external stowage, despite risk of damage from overpressures or depth-charging. 'ÂŁ' and 'L' class minelayers had had stowages in the saddle tanks on each side but, in the experimental conversion of the M3 in 1927, tracks were laid atop the hull over the greater part of her length and inside the free-flooding space contained within an extra-deep casing, An endless-chain mechanism fed the mines through doors right aft as the submarine moved slowly ahead. This system was basically that incorporated in the 'Porpoises'; in the name ship it extended over about threequarters of her length, but was longer in the remainder. All this gear added about 54 tons of topweight, making the boats very tender when first surfaced with a full load in a heavy sea. Extra
448
lightening holes improved both draining and flooding time, allowing the boats also to dive more quickly. Launched between 1932 and 1938, the boats were HMS Porpoise, Grampus, Narwhale, Rorqual, Cachalot and Seal Three other units were cancelled. Being weight-critical the class took rather small diesel engines, resulting in a modest surface speed. To avoid detection from fuel leaks all bunkers were internal, it being found necessary to extend the pressure hull downwards like a box keelson to meet the saddle tanks. This oddly-shaped and weaker cross-section undoubtedly contributed to the designed depth being limited to 91 m (300ft) com-
'Porpoise' class Displacement: 1,768 tons surfaced and 2,053 tons submerged Dimensions: length 88.09 m (289.0 ft); beam 9.09 m (29.83 ft); draught 4,88 m (16,0ft) Propulsion: two diesels delivering 2460,8 kW (3,300 bhp) and two electric motors delivering 1215,5 kW ( 1,630 hp) to two shafts Speed: 15.5 kts surfaced and 9 kts submerged Endurance: 21308 km ( 13,240 miles) at 8 kts surfaced and 122 km (76 miles) at 4 kts submerged Armament: one 101.6 mm (4-in) gun, six 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes (all bow) for 12 torpedoes, and 50 mines Complement: 59 Similar to the 'Parthian ' class from which it was derived, Porpoise could lay some 50 mines. She was sunk by Japanese aircraft in January 1945.
DK
'Thames' class With the steam-driven 'K' class boats and the experimental XI, the Royal Navy had attempted to produce submarines with characteristics appropriate for operations with the surface fleet. Unfortunately, the 'K' boats were disastrously problem-prone and the XI remained a one-off. The requirement still existed, therefore, for a boat to fill the role while avoiding the weaknesses of the 'O' class. Adhering to the limitations of the Geneva Conference it was decided to build 20 boats, each of the maximum allowable surface displacement of 1,800 tons, with the combined functions of fleet work and longrange patrols. In the event, with the surface fleet becoming faster, policy was changed and only three of the class were completed between 1932 and 1934 as the 'Thames' class units HMS Thames, Severn and Clyde. The boats were only 1.83m (6ft) shorter overall than the monstrous 'K' class boats and were actually beamier overall, despite a narrower pressure hull. In cross-section the hull was carried downward at the keel to meet the line of the outer hull. Little oil fuel was carried inboard, most of it being stowed in spaces above the main ballast tanks. Weepage was apt to be into the main hull through started rivet-heads. Only now were diesels available of the size and power to match the 'K' class legend speed of 23.5 kts. Engine design was by the Admiralty, and turned out to be lighter than forecast. This was fortunate as the boats were highly weight-critical. For their extended patrols, for instance, 41 tons of fresh and distilled water were carried, some two per cent of surface displacement. General submarine policy of substituting 101.6-mm (4-in) for 119.4-
mm (4.7-in) guns saved some 6 tons, while a further 8 tons was gained by burning fuel of a lower specific gravity. In the Norwegian campaign of 1940, the Thames was lost on a mine, while the Clyde succeeded in damaging the Gneisenau by torpedo, The Clyde ran an invaluable 1,200 tons of supplies to a beleaguered Malta and sank several enemy merchantmen while working out of Gibraltar. The Severn was active for a time in the little-known Levant operations.
Specification
'Thames' class Displacement: 2.165 tons surfaced and 2,680 tons submerged Dimensions: length 105.16 m (345.0 ft); beam 8,61 m (28.25 ft); draught 4.78 m (15.67ft) Propulsion: two diesels delivering 7457.0 kW(l0,000 bhp)andtwo electric motors delivering 1864.25 kW (2,500 hp) to two shafts Speed: 22.5 kts surfaced and 10.5 kts submerged Endurance: 18532 km ( 11,515 miles) at
The 'Thames'class submarine HMS Clyde is seen acting as escort while the tanlcerDingledale refuels the 'Dido' class cruiser Hermione. These large boa ts were very capable and about 20 had been planned in the early 1930s. 8 kts surfaced and 219 km ( 136 miles) at 4 kts submerged Armament: one 101.6-mm (4-in) gun and six 533-mm (21 -in) torpedo tubes (all bow) for 12 torpedoes Complement: 61
UK
'S' class Though its origins went back to 1928, the 'S' class was highly successful during the war and, with 62 completions, was the Royal Navy's most prolific class, Ostensibly 'H' class replacements, the performance of the 'S' class boats was required to be enhanced to allow operation in the Baltic and Mediterranean. A tight, 600-ton surfaced displacement target was set to produce a small submarine which, nevertheless, was required to be able to transit 805 km (500 miles) to and from its patrol area, where it was expected to remain up to 10 days. Any increase in the 805-km (500-mile) range meant having to find space for very much larger radio equipment. The specification was later to be altered drastically, calling for 1930-km (1,200-mile) passages at not less than 9 kts and eight days on station. Initially, a class of four ('Swordfish' type) was built; launched between 1931 and 1933 by Chatham Dockyard, these displaced 640 tons despite every effort at weight control. The design was really too tight and was relaxed to 670 tons for the eight lengthened 'Shark' type boats of 1934-7, Though it was planned to terminate the class at 12, war saw the design stretched further and constructed in series, To save on topweight a 76,2-in (3-in) gun was fitted but, with the extra hull length, a further torpedo tube was worked-m aft on some boats. Others traded both of these for a single 101.6-
mm (4-in) gun. With only 12 or 13 torpedoes aboard, the gun was a useful means of disposing of 'soft' targets which, while not warranting the expenditure of a torpedo, were often reluctant to sink. Earlier boats had fuel tanks within the pressure hull, but later units supplemented these with external capacity, which allowed them to work even in the Far East.
Interestingly, eight units were lost from the original 12, the same number as were lost from the following 50. All of the first group losses occurred before February 1941, while the first hull of succeeding groups was not launched until October 1941. Submarine operations in European waters during the early months of the war were clearly hazardous.
HMS Storm returns to the UK in 1945. During her Far East commission, she sank 20 Japanese supply vessels -19 by gunfire - together with a destroyer and four escorts. On her most successful patrol she sank 11 vessels, nine on a single day. Note that torpedoes were reserved for warships, gunfire sufficing to despatch cargo ships. 449
Specification
'S' class (later boats) Displacement: 860 tons surfaced and 990 tons submerged Dimensions: length 66,14 m (217.0 ft); beam 7.16 m (23.5 ft); draught 3,20 m (10.5ft) Propulsion: two diesels delivering 1416.8 kW ( 1,900 bhp) and two electric motors delivering 969,4 kW (1,300 hp) to two shafts Speed: 15 kts surfaced and 9 kts submerged Endurance: 13897 km (8,635 miles) at 10 kts surfaced
HMS Sibyl en ters Algiers harbour in May l 943. Originally in tended for operations in the Mediterranean and Baltic, 'S' class boa ts also found themselves in the East Indies. Sixtytwo were produced, making them the largest class in the Royal Navy.
Armament: one 101.6-mm(4-in)gun and six 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes, or one 76.2-mm (3-in) gun and seven 533-mm torpedo tubes Complement: 44
UK
'T' class Instantly recognizable as a result of their oddly cranked profiles, the T class boats were the Royal Navy's standard wartime patrol submarines, Between HMS Triton and Tabard, launched in October 1937 and November 1945 respectively, the class reached a respectable 54 in number. With the 'Thames' class abandoned for the reasons discussed and a replacement1 required for the unsatisfactory 'O class, the T class design needed not only to rectify shortcomings but also to conform to the treaty agreements that bedevilled mterwar planning. The London Naval Treaty limited total (rather than individual) displacement so, to obtain maximum numbers of boats, a 1,000-ton target was set. Into this a 42-day endurance was to be packed. That the final result was only some 9 per cent heavy, while being highly reliable, was a credit to the design team. Because of their limiting parameters, the T class boats could ship only small-sized diesels and their surface speed was thus modest, In contrast they carried a large punch, the six forward tubes within the pressure hull
being augmented by a pair in the bulged bow casing and a further pair in the casing, one on each side of the tower. Thus, a 10-torpedo forward salvo could be fired, albeit at the cost of a highly individual profile. This arrangement applied to all 22 boats built before World War II, later units having the amidships tubes taken farther aft and reversed, and a single tube added in the casing right aft, Warbuilt boats also had their bows altered to set the external tubes higher, and some external ballast tanks converted to bunker space. Oil fuel capacity was almost doubled and the endurance of the boat became more than that of her crew and their supplies. Fourteen of the pre-war boats were lost, mainly in the Mediterranean. Those from the wartime programmes were completed largely after the end of the Mediterranean war and only one was lost at sea. Post-war many were sold, while others were stretched and streamlined, serving alongside their successors, the A' class, until the late 1960s. Four units were cancelled and another only projected.
Below: HMS Tigris seen alongside a depot ship just before her final patrol. She was one of the original'T class boats, launched in October 1939, but she was lost in March 1943, probably to mines. Note the external tubes a t the bow and amidships, and the unusual hull profile.
Above: HMS Tally-ho in transit to the Far East. Such passages oftheBitter Lakes of the Suez canal had become more common in January 1945, with any German naval threat extinct and resources gradually being released for service against thejapanese.
Specification
'T' class Displacement: 1,325 tons surfaced and 1,570 tons submerged Dimensions: length 83.82 m (275.0 ft); beamS. 10 m (26.58 ft); draught 4,50 m (14.75ft) Propulsion: two diesels delivering 1864.25 kW (2,500 bhp) and two electric motors delivering 1081.3 kW ( 1,450 hp) to two shafts Speed: 15.25 kts surfaced and 9 kts submerged Endurance: 20382 km (12,665 miles) at 10 kts surfaced Armament: one 101.6-mm(4-in)gun and 10 or 11533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes (in first group 10 bow and in second group eight bow and three 3tern) Complement: 56 (first group) or 61 (second group) Below: The'T' class 1940 designs were slow but of long endurance, although beca use of their limited size they were not capable of supporting their crews for such a length ottime.
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UK
'U' and 'V classes For a simple, unsophisticated type, the 'U'class proved remarkably successful. Seen in Mediterranean colours, and with the original bow form, it was boats like this, out of Malta, that put a stranglehold on Rommel and his army.
A successful type, the single-hulled 'U' class boats were designed originally as unarmed targets to replace the elderly 'H' class boats, and were little larger. Three were laid down as such but, as the Royal Navy did not possess a modern 'coastal' submarine, it seemed advantageous to modify the bow to take torpedo tubes from the outset. The after hull had a sharp taper and the casing ended short of the stern, so all armament was set forward, four tubes in the pressure hull and, surprisingly (though a reflection on the doubtful accuracy of the torpedo salvoes of the day), the bow casing was also bulged to take two more. This was not a good feature as the restricted height of the design meant a shallow
periscope depth, and the oversize bow casing made it both difficult to maintain constant depth and also caused a distinctive 'pressure hump' in the water above. With the outbreak of war a further group of 12 boats was ordered, 1.6m (5.25ft) longer to improve the lines and ease the cramped internals; most of these had only four tubes, Thirty-four more boats of this type followed, with improved lines and increased bunker space. Though extremely handy, the 'U' class boats were rather limited in diving depth and had a low surface speed. Again, therefore, the design was updated. This time an extra midbody section was inserted to house uprated machinery, and the hull was rede-
The V class represented an improved and updated 'U' design permitting deeper diving and quieter underwater operations. All survived the war, unlike the preceding version, and many served post-war with Europan navies.
HMS Utmost alongside a depot ship (either Forth or MaidstoneJ and the'S' class boa t Seawolf. Utmost had receu tly returned from a Mediterranean commission, during which she torpedoed the heavy cruiser Trieste, causing severe damage as well as sinking several supply vessels and also undertaking other clandestine operations.
signed to permit submergence to 91 m (300 ft) rather than the 60 m (200 ft) of the earlier boats, and to facilitate allwelded construction in modules that would produce faster building times. This later type was known as the 'V class, of which 33 were ordered but only 21 completed. It is a noteworthy fact that, except for two early units built in Chatham Dockyard, all 81 boats were built in the two Vickers Armstrong yards at Barrow and on Tyneside. The 'U' and V classes were particularly suited to the shallow and confined waters of the North Sea and Mediterranean but, though successful, they suffered 19 losses. After the end of the Mediterranean war they had little use and many were either transferred or reverted to a training role.
Specification 'V class Displacement: 670 tons surfaced and 740 tons submerged Dimensions: length 62.79 m (206.0 ft); beam 4.88 m (16.0 ft); draught 4.72 m (15.5ft) Propulsion: two diesels delivering 596.6 kW (800 bhp) and two electric motors delivering 566.7 kW (760 hp) to two shafts Speed: 12,5 kts surfaced and 9 kts submerged Endurance: 8715 km (5,415 miles) at 10 kts surfaced and 113 km (70 miles) at 7 kts submerged Armament: one 76,2-mm (3-in) gun and four 533-mm (21 -in) torpedo tubes (all bow) for eight torpedoes Complement: 37
HMS Uproar shows the small size of these boa ts. ln a short-range war, such as in the North Sea or the Mediterranean, endurance is much less importan t than manoeuvrability, and the 'U'class proved very handy, in spite of having been designed as a training boat. 451
British Aircraft Carriers With a limited number of ships but with worldwide responsibilities, the Royal Navy deployed and operated its carriers in a very different way to the Americans. Yet despite their lack of numbers and mediocre aircraft, British carriers made a vital contribution to the victory at sea.
HMS Victorious fought in every major theatre of operations during World War II, even surviving two kamikaze attacks by the Japanese.
T
hough the British pioneered aviation at sea and at the end of World War I were well ahead of everybody in the field, they lost their way badly between the wars, squandering their great initial advantage. Probably the most contentious issue of the time was RAF control of the Fleet Air Arm for the two decades from 1918 to 1938, with interservice problems doing 452
nothing for the spirit of the service. Second was the deteriorating performance of FAA aircraft in comparison with foreign equivalents: this problem was as much naval as RAF in origin but meant that, initially at least, the Royal Navy's aircraft were almost invariably outclassed in combat. Lastly, there were the ships themselves. The UK's naval appropriations
between the wars resulted in the first of the third-generation carriers coming forward too late for working experience to be gained before the emergency programmes began. Thus, the Royal Navy entered the war with too few flightdecks, while those that were coming forward were, it could be argued, over-protected. With massive vertical armouring, their aircraft capaci-
ty was drastically reduced and construction times lengthened. Late in the war, it was quite convincingly shown that the later fleet carriers, with the same horizontal but much reduced vertical protection, survived kamikaze strikes as well as their heavier sisters, while enjoying the benefits of an enhanced aircraft capacity. The Royal Navy fought a different type of war to the Americans and Japanese. Instead of the latters' vast trials of strength in a comparatively limited theatre, there were worldwide responsibilities in the defence of trade and vital outposts, together with long and patient operations against unwillingly disturbed fleets-inbeing that could not be ignored. These functions, together with the value placed on each carrier, engendered a defensive approach. Only with the formation of the British Pacific Fleet could the Royal Navy permit itself the luxury of hazarding major units by going on the offensive. For the first time, four and five fleet carriers worked together, the irony being that they were fighting a war already won by a US fleet that overshadowed their efforts in every way. Yet a similar force working in European waters, even only a couple of years previously, would have rewritten maritime history.
UK
HMS Furious The several guises of HMS Furious represented the transitional stages between what might be termed 'aircapable' ships and the true aircraftcarrier. As the third of Admiral Fisher's 'tin-clad' light battle-cruisers (laid down in 1915), she was launched in August 1916 but delayed in completion to allow her to ship the navy's largest gun, a 457-mm (18-in) weapon, in single mounts at each end. Although virtually complete in March 1917, she then had her forward gun removed in favour of a sloping flying-off deck some 69.5 m (228 ft) in length. A hangar beneath this deck accommodated up to 10 aircraft (some seaplanes and some wheeled). Completed thus in July 1917 she rapidly showed the limitations of carrying aircraft that could not (officially at least) be recovered after a flight. In November 1917, therefore, her after gun mounting made way for a 86.6-m (284-ft) flying-on deck over a second hangar. Much of her superstructure still remained, however, and the high speeds at which she steamed to create the necessary wind-over-deck resulted in severe turbulence, causing an unacceptable accident rate among would-be landers-on. Relegated again to flying-off only, the Furious still had the distinction of mounting the first real carrier-based air strike when, on 19 July 1918, seven of her Sopwith Camels destroyed two Zeppelins and their sheds at Tondern. A through-deck was obviously required, as on the new Argus, and she was thus modified between 1921 and 1925. Even following this, she was still of interim design, having no island. Not until her final prewar rent did she acquire a vestigial superstructure, topped-off by a diminutive mast that supported a distinctive homing beacon. Despite her age and infirmities, the Furious saw service in Atlantic hunting groups and convoy escorts, the Norwegian campaign, aircraftferrying to both Malta and West Africa, and the North African landings. Her last flying was against the Tirpitz, immured in a Norwegian fjord, before she went into reserve during September 1944. She was scrapped in 1948.
Above: Landing on HMS Furious's forward deck was very dangerous; Squadron Commander Dunning was killed when his Sopwith Pup overshot. In November 1917 the after 18-in gun was removed in favour of a flying-on deck. Right: The first ship to launch an air strike, HMS Furious was originally designed for Admiral Fisher's plan to attack Germany's Baltic coast during World War I. Right:HMS Furious in April 1927. The superstructure was removed in 1921 as it created serious turbulence problems. Further alterations took place in the 1930s, cross-deck arrester gear was fitted and theAA gun arrangement changed. Below: In her World War II guise HMS Furious looked radically different from the ship that attacked the Zeppelin sheds in 1918. By the time she took par t in Operation 'Torch', the Allied landings in North Africa, she carried 33 aircraft.
Specification
HMS Furious Type: fleet aircraft-carrier Displacement: 22,500 tons standard and 28,500 tons full load Dimensions: length 239,5 m (785.75 ft); beam 27.4 m (90 ft); draught 7.3 m (24 ft)
Propulsion: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 90,000 shp (67113kW) Speed: 31.5 lets Armour: belt 51-76 mm (2-3-in); hangar deck 38 mm (1.5 in) Armament: six twin 102-mm (4-in) AA, three octuple 2-pdr AA, and several smaller-calibre guns Aircraft: 33 Complement: 750 excluding aircrew Below: The World WarII camouflage does not conceal HMS Furious's battlecruiser origins. The island was not added un til 1939.
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UK
HMS Argus Proposals had been made before World War I for an aircraft-carrier with a straight-through flightdeck capable of handling the launch and recovery of wheeled aircraft, but the Royal Navy had to 'make do' with improvised seaplane carriers, and it was not until 1916 that the proposer, the Beardmore commercial yard, was given the contract to complete a half-finished Italian liner as a prototype carrier. The ship, the Conte Rosso, had been laid down in 1914 and had suitable dimensions plus the high freeboard necessary for the job, No superstructure was planned to interrupt the flightdeck which, like those of all pioneering carriers, was pointed at the forward end, A single hangar was provided and the necessary small charthouse was made retractable into the flightdeck. As full of character as she was devoid of grace, HMS Argus was understandably known as 'The Piatirò n'. Her name (Argus was all-vigilant, with 100 eyes) suggests that she was seen by planners as being strongly reconnaissance-orientated, particularly with the recent memory of Jutland, a victory lost for want of good intelligence. She was wanted for the end of 1917 but was launched only in December of that year, and eventually commissioned only weeks before the Armistice of November 1918, carrying a squadron of the unpopular Sopwith Cuckoo torpedo aircraft,
In the late 1920s the Argus was bulged to improve stability as much as to enhance survivability and, after the completion of the larger fleet carriers, acted as a training and target aircraftcarrier, Small and slow by World War II standards, she gave valuable service ferrying fighter aircraft to Gibraltar, Malta and Takoradi (for onward staged flights to Egypt), Lack of carriers saw her also in operational roles from time to time, notably on an Arctic convoy and at the North African landings. From mid-1943 she was used only for training in home waters, being paid off in 1944. She was scrapped in 1947,
HMS Argus o f f the lVorth African coast, November 1942. The Royal Navy's first flush-decked carrier started life as an Italian liner. She was
extensively used as a trials ship in the years after World War I, proving the validity of the straight-through flightdeck design.
Specification HMS Argus Type: training, aircraft-ferry and second-line aircraft-carrier Displacement: 14,000 tons standard and 15,750 tons full load Dimensions: length 172.2 m (565 ft); beam 20.7 m (68 ft); draught 7,3 m (24 ft)
Propulsion: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 21,000 shp (15660kW) Speed:20.5kts Armour: none Armament: six 102-mm (4-in) AA, and several smaller-calibre guns Aircraft: about 20 Complement: 370 excluding aircrew Handicapped by her lack of speed, HMS Argus was removed from frontline service during the l 930s. She nevertheless had to act as a replacement carrier for Force H after Ark Royal was sunlc.
UK
HMS Eagle Before World War I, Chile ordered two stretched 'Iron Duke' class battleships from Armstrong's Elswick yard. Only one of these, the Almirante Latone, was well advanced by August 1914; compulsorily purchased by the Admiralty, she was completed in 1915 as HMS Canada. Work on her unlaunched sister, the Almirante Cochrane (laid down in 1913), ceased with hostilities but she was taken in hand, postJutland, for completion as an aircraftcarrier, Like the Hermes she was far too late for the war, being launched in June 1918 and commissioning for extended trials in 1920. Several versions of the pioneering island superstructure were tried after initial experiments on the Argus. This kept her in dockyard hands for a great portion of the period between 1920 and 1923, when the Hermes was commissioned. The final version of the island was long
454
and low, topped-off by two funnel casings with the same thick and thin proportions as the ship's erstwhile sister. Her more ample battleship proportions made her considerably slower than the large cruiser conversions, but she had better stability. Despite the fact that she introduced the two-level hangar, she still had only modest aircraft capacity. Much of the Eagle's pre-World War II service was in the Far East, but the carrier moved into the Indian Ocean in September 1939, thence to the Mediterranean to replace the Glorious. Following air strikes against Italian shipping at Tobruk she was badly shaken by bombing during the action off Calabria, suffering damage that eventually caused her to miss the
HMS Eagle flew Spitfires to Malta during March 1942 and was sunk in August during Operation 'Pedestal'. HMS Eagle spent the bulle ofher service career on the China sta tion, returning to the Mediterranean in spring 1940.
Taranto raid. Before she could refit in the UK, she saw further action in the Red Sea and the South Atlantic. Arriving back in the Mediterranean early in 1942, she was later involved in the famous August convoy (Operation 'Pedestal') when 41 warships fought through just five out of 14 merchantmen to lift the Malta siege. The Eagle was a major casualty, sunk by four torpedoes from U-73 on 11 August 1942,
Specification
HMS Eagle Type: fleet aircraft-carrier Displacement: 22,600 tons standard and 26,500 tons full load Dimensions: length 203.3 m (667 ft); beam 32.1 m (105.25 ft); draught 7.3 m (24 ft) Propulsion: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 50,000 shp (37285 kW) Speed: 24 kts Armour: belt 102-178 mm (4-7 in); flightdeck25 mm(l in); hangar deck 102 mm (4 in), shields 25 mm (1 in) Armament: nine 152-mm (6-in), four
102-mm (4-in) AA, and eight 2-pdr AA guns Aircraft: 21 Complement: 750 excluding aircrew
HMS Eagle photographed from a 'Queen Elizabeth ' class battleship, probably HMS Malaya, in the Mediterranean, March 1942. During
thatmonth Eagle made three sorties to Malta, Hying off a total of 31 Spitfire M k Vs.
UK
HMS Hermes TheArgus concept was obviously considered sound for early in 1918, before her completion, the keel was laid down for HMS Hermes. Though she was designed for the job, it was obviously not with the benefit of operational experience, Lacking a precedent, her designers made her too small, prompting the Japanese to repeat the error with their pioneer Hosho, laid down in the following year. With the end of World War I, construction was leisurely, the ship being launched in September 1919 and with completion delayed until 1923. As a result she entered service after the much larger but converted HMS Eagle, which had meanwhile proved the idea of the island superstructure. Like that of the Eagle, Hermes' island seemed disproportionately large, with a massive battleship-style tripod and fighting top, bearing rangefinders for the unusual armament of six 140-mm (5.5-in) guns: early carriers were expected to be able to repel light surface attack, the potential of their aircraft not having been fully evaluated. A light armour belt was also worked in. An improvement on the Argus was a doubling of installed power to give a speed increase of over 4 kts. A distinctive feature on the after flightdeck was a low hump, designed to decelerate incoming aircraft. This was also copied by the Japanese, but neither fleet found it a success and abandoned it. Though obsolete by World War II, the Hermes made an extremely valuable contribution in lower-threat areas. This found her hunting for raiders in the Atlantic, undertaking spotting and reconnaissance missions in operations against the Vichy French in West Africa and the Italians in the Red Sea, giving shore support during the suppression of the Iraqi rebellion of
HMS Hermes served in theFarEast for most of her career. This photograph clearly shows her un usually large islan d superstructure. Purpose-built, she carried almost as many aircraft as Eagle, a ship of twice her displacement. 1941 and escorting Indian ocean convoys. She was sunk in April 1942 off Ceylon during the Japanese carrier raids, but had adequately demonstrated the value of even a small flightdeck in areas where no other aviation support existed.
Specification
HMS Hermes Type: second-line light aircraft-carrier Displacement: 10,850 tons standard and 12,950 tons full load Dimensions: length 182.3 m (598 ft); beam 21.4 m (70.25 ft); draught 6.9 m (22.6 ft) Propulsion: 2-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 40,000 shp (29828 kW) Speed: 25 kts Armour: belt 51-76 mm (2-3 in); hangar deck 25 mm ( 1 in) shields 25 mm ( 1 in) Armament: six 140-mm (5.5-in), and three 102-mm (4-in) AAguns Aircraft: about 20 Complement: 660 excluding aircrew The first British carrier actually designed as such, HMS Hermes was built along the lines ofa light cruiser. She carried six 140-mm (5.5-in) guns, as it was not believed that aircraft alone could repel enemy surface attack.
Above: HMS Hermes sinks off Ceylon (Sri Lanka) after a Japanese carrier aircraft attack in April 1942. Symptomatic of British handling of the war in theFarEast at this time, she had no aircraft aboard and no means of signalling for help if attacked.
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UK
HMS Courageous and HMS Glorious Known, for political reasons, as large light cruisers, Jackie Fisher's famous trio of light battle-cruisers were supposed to be the largest units of a 600strong, shallow-draught armada constructed to realize his vision of landing an army on the Baltic coast of Germany, only 130 km (80 miles) from Berlin, The plan died with Fisher's departure from the Admiralty in 1915 but his strange ships were completed as a legacy. Ready for sea in 1917, the first two were HMS Courageous and HMS Glorious (laid down in 1915, and launched in February and April 1916), but were found to be virtually unemployable in the active fleet, unprotected and, with only four of their great 381mm (15-in) guns, slow to get on to the target. On the only occasion when they saw serious action, against conventional light cruisers, they suffered more damage than they inflicted. Under the terms of the Washington Treaty, the two ships were eligible for conversion into aircraft-carriers. Rebuilding of both started in 1924, the Courageous completing in 1928 and the Glorious in 1930. Furious (with no island) had had her uptakes led well aft, detracting from her hangar space, but these later conversions had the benefit of developments on the Hermes and Eagle, their combined funnel and bridge structure boosting their air complement considerably. The Courageous and Glorious had similar forward flightdecks, which terminated about 20 per cent of the ship's length back from the bows. The hangar deck was extended forward at forecastle level, allowing fighters to take off from the lower level in favourable circumstances. Both ships were extensively bulged to improve stability. The Courageous was the Royal Navy's first major casualty of World War II, being sunk only a fortnight after hostilities commenced. Her loss brought the Glorious back from the Mediterranean as a replacement and she, too, was lost only nine months later during the evacuation of Norway.
HMS Courageous and Glorious, like Furious, were ligh t ba ttlecruisers in tended for Admiral Fisher's illconceived Baltic stra tegy. This is Glorious on her sea trials in l 9 l 7. Her speed was an impressive 31 knots but her lack of armour made her unfit for serious comba t.
Specification
'Courageous' class Type: fleet aircraft-carrier Displacement: 22,500 tons standard and 26,500 tons full load Dimensions: length 239.5 m (785.75 ft); beam 27.6 m (90.5 ft); draught 7.3 m (24 ft)
Propulsion: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 90,000 shp (67113kW) Speed:31kts Armour: belt 38-76 mm ( 1.5-3 in); hangar deck 25-76 mm (1-3 in) Armament: 16 120-mm(4.7-m)AAguns Aircraft: about 45 Complement: 1,215 including aircrew
HMS Glorious could be distinguished from her sister by her longer High t deck aft. Her aircraft ga ve sterling service over Norway in 1940, but she
was caught and sunk during the withdrawal by the German battlecruisers Schamhorst and Gneisenau. HMS Courageous and Glorious carried a balanced airgroup of 16 Flycatchers, 16 III F spotter/ reconnaissance aircraft and 16 Ripon torpedo bombers.
UK
HMS Ark Royal Completed in 1938, HMS Arlc Royal was the Royal Navy's first 'modern' carrier. A combination of meagre naval budgets and the lowly status of the Fleet Air Arm meant that she was the first carrier to join the fleet since the remodelled Glorious back in 1930. Plenty of time had thus been available to plan her, resulting in a thoroughly workmanlike and influential design laid down in 1935 and launched in April 1937. Though much of a size and displacement as the Glorious, she appeared much larger, having two levels of hangars with adequate headroom. Three elevators were incorporated but they were small and, had the ship enjoyed a longer career, would 456
have required replacement to cater for the rapidly increasing size of aircraft. She had two catapults ('accelerators') from the outset, The Ari:Royal's most innovatory feature was her strength, the ship introducing armoured flight and hangar decks, with the hangar walls an integral part of the main hull girder. Despite the space-consuming aspects of this configuration, she could stow a far greater number of aircraft than the Glorious. Capable of 31 kts, she was also as fast as the earlier ships. Though the earlier conversions had 16 medium-calibre guns, these were poorly sited, mainly with a view to defence against surface attack. The Arlc
Royal carried eight twin-barrelled destroyer-type mountings, with high elevations conferring a true dualpurpose capability and sited four on each beam at the flightdeck edges to give good firing arcs. Designers were, at last, alive to the dangers of air attack and a comprehensive fit of smaller automatic weapons was also incorporated. Though aircraft were, indeed, to prove the main hazard to both American and Japanese carriers, the Royal Navy was pitted primarily against fleets without carriers, so suffering most of its carrier casualties, the Ark Royal included on 14 November 1941, from submarine attack.
Specification HMS Arlc Royal
Type: fleet aircraft-carrier Displacement: 22,000 tons standard and 26,700 tons full load Dimensions: length 243,8 m (800 ft); beam 28.9 m (94.75 ft); draught 6,9 m (22.66ft) Propulsion: 3-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 102,000 shp (76061 kW) Speed: 31 kts Armour: belt 114 mm (4.5 in); deck 64 mm (2.5 in) Armament: eight twin 114 mm (4.5-in) AA, six octuple 2-pdr AA, and eight quadruple 12.7-mm(0.5-in) AAguns Aircraft: about 65 Complement: 1,575 including aircrew
UK
'Illustrious' class The Ark Royal was very much a prototype, combining speed with capacity and new standards of protection. Though late coming, she had hardly been launched when a new 'Illustrious' class of four aircraft-carriers was laid down in 1937 to respond to the already increasing likelihood of war. Operational experience was, therefore, not a part of the later concept, which took the scale of the Arlc Royal's belt and horizontal protection, and added a 114mm (4.5-in) hangar well. Thus the whole of the vulnerable aircraft accommodation became an armoured box, but so much weight high in the ship limited the protection to only one hangar and, though HMS Illustrious, HMS Victorious and HMS Formidable (all launched in 1939) were not significantly smaller than the Ark Royal, they carried far fewer aircraft. There must have been second thoughts on reducing the ships' primary arm so drastically, for HMS Indomitable, launched in 1940 as last of the four, and the two 'Implacable' class ships that followed, reverted to lighter protection and an extra half-length hangar. The immense strength of the ships stood them in good stead, for their war turned out to be one of air, rather than submarine attack. Soon after Tarante, the Illustrious survived punishment from dive-bombing that would have sunk any other carrier afloat, a performance echoed by the Formidable after Matapan. In the Pacific War most of them withstood one or even two kamikaze strikes without having to leave station. But all these immense blows were absorbed mainly by the ships' horizontal protection and it would seem in retrospect that the vertical armour was bought at an excessive price in operational efficiency even though, in the Pacific, the class worked with something like 60 per cent over its designed aircraft complement, When the Americans copied the armoured deck concept, it was not at the cost of capacity, so carrier sizes began their inevitable escalation. The ships were scrapped in 1956, 1969 1955 and 1953 respectively,
Above: HMS Formidable, seen here from HMS Warspite, fought for most of the war in the Mediterranean. An attack by her aircraft on the Italian fleet on 28 March 1941 damaged the ba ttleship Vittorio Veneto and crippled the cruiser Pola, which was subsequen tly sunk. Left:Joining the fleet in A ugust 1940, HMS Illustrious steamed straight to the Mediterranean, where her airgroup sank two Italian destroyers and raided North Africa.
Specification
'Illustrious' class Type: fleet aircraft-carrier Displacement: 23,000 tons standard and 25,500 tons full load Dimensions: length 229.7 m (753.5 ft); beam 29.2 m (95.75 ft); draught 7.3 m (24 ft) Propulsion: 3-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 110,000 shp (82027 kW)
Speed:31kts Armour: belt and hangar wall 114 mm (4.5 in) excepUndomitable 38 mm (1.5 in); deck 76 mm (3 in) Armament: eight twin 114-mm (4.5-in) DP, six octuple 2-pdr AA, and eight 20-mm AA guns Aircraft: about 45 except Indomitable about 65 Complement: 1,400 including aircrew
Despite having rather lighter protection than hersisterships, HMS Indomitable absorbed a great deal of punishment, surviving two hits from 500 kg (1,100 lb) bombs during Operation 'Pedestal', a torpedo hit off Sicily in 1943 and several kamikaze attacks in theFarEast.
Below: The 'Illustrious' class were probably the toughest carriers afloat in World WarII, but although their thick armour enabled them to withstand some heavy blows it was only achieved by a large reduction in aircraft strength.
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UK
'Implacable' class Completed some 30 months after the four 'Illustrious' class ships, the two 'Implacable' class aircraft-carriers were more closely related to the prototype Ark Royal, with the hangar walls slimmed down to only 38 mm (1.5 in). This allowed a better weight distribution for the ships' increased displacement, including the all-important lower hangar. The ships were slightly longer but appeared much bulkier than their halfsisters, their larger hull containing also a fourth set of machinery. This gave them the extra speed that enabled them to pace an American 'Essex' class unit in the Pacific war, although they were considerably smaller in terms of both size and capacity. Though both were laid down in 1939, HMS Implacable and HMS Indefatigable were launched in 1942 and 1944 respectively, but their completion went back because of higher shipyard priorities. When they were most needed, they were still on the stocks, underlining the truth that the navy fights a war largely with what it has available at the beginning. Once finally completed in 1944 they were active for a comparatively short period. In March 1944, while still a new ship, the Indefatigable achieved a 'first' in the first-ever deck landing by a twinengine aircraft, a de HavĂźland Mosquito. Before heading east to join the rapidly-expanding British Pacific Fleet, she participated in some of the
many carrier strikes against the Tirpitz, holed-up in Norwegian waters. Though damaging the target sufficiently to keep her almost permanently under repair, the aircraft of the time were the ship's weakest link until they were replaced, Once in the BPF, the ships were engaged in a war already won, in which the British participation was not welcomed in all quarters. Postwar, they were employed mainly in the training role and were scrapped in 1955 and 1956 after hardly a decade of service, being thought not worth the vast expense of a rebuilding along the lines of the Victorious, Specification 'Implacable' class Type: fleet aircraft-carrier Displacement: 26,000 tons standard and 31,100 tons full load Dimensions: length 233.4 m (765.75 ft); beam 29.2 m (95.75 ft); draught 7.9 m (26ft) Propulsion: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 110,000 shp (82027 kW) Speed:32.5kts Armour: belt 114 mm (4.5-in); hangar wall 38 mm (1.5 in); deck 76 mm (3 in) Armament: eight twin 114-mm (4.5-in) DP, six octuple 2-pdr AA and about 38 20-mmAAguns Aircraft: about 70 Complement: 1,800 including aircrew
HMS Implacable was faster and carried many more aircraft than the 'Illustrious' class. She is seen (above)
returning to Sydney in 1945 and (below) on her way through the Suez Canal to join the Pacific Fleet.
Speed: 24 kts Armour: none Armament: four twin 114-mm (4,5-in) DP, three quadruple 2-pdr AA, and 12 20-mm AA guns Aircraft: 35 when used as a light fleet carrier Complement: 1,050
Designed as an 'aircraft maintenance carrier', wartime shortage of carriers led to HMS Unicorn being pressed into frontline service. Aspart of Force V, Unicorn helped provide figh ter support for the Salerno landings in 1943 and saw action off Okinawa the next year.
UK
HMS Unicorn With commendable foresight, considering the quantity of tonnage then being ordered, the 1938 Naval Estimates allowed for the construction of one of a new type of ship, to be employed on the maintenance of the aircraft of a Fleet Air Arm that was obviously due for expansion. She was to be the aviation equivalent of a submarine or destroyer depot ship in providing major forward repair facilities for jobs beyond the capabilities of the average carrier. Though described as an 'aircraft maintenance carrier', it would appear that acting as a carrier was part of her specification, an option taken up due to the wartime shortage offlightdecks. Like the Ark Royal, HMS Unicorn was given two hangars and a flightdeck increased in length by an ungainly overhang aft. She possessed great freeboard with only moderate length, giving an oddly foreshortened aspect. The Unicorn was laid down in 1939, launched in 1941 and completed in 1943, in time to join the CVEs of Force V, tasked to provide the fighter cover for both fleet and forces ashore in the first 24 hours following the landings at Salerno, In the event, it was nearly four days before the capture of an airfield ashore could relieve the force of the
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responsibility, during which time the combination of the CVEs' low speed and small decks while operating in near windless conditions, wrote off over 40 fragile Supermarine Seafire fighters in deck accidents alone. The Unicorn's 6-kt speed advantage and larger deck prevented even more losses. By early 1944 the Unicorn was in the Far East, still doubling as operational carrier pending the delayed arrival of the Victorious. Laid up for several years after the war, she was reactivated for the Korean War, finding at last her true vocation at a time when shore air support was almost all carrier-based. The Unicorn shuttled with replacement aircraft to and from Singapore, her space frequently being used as short-term trooping accommodation. She was scrapped in 1959. Specification HMS Unicorn Type: maintenance carrier and secondary light fleet aircraft-carrier Displacement: 14,750 tons standard Dimensions: length 195. l m (640 ft); beam 27,4 m (90 ft); draught 5.8 m (19 ft) Propulsion: 2-shaft geared steam tur bines delivering 40,000 shp (29828 kW)
Equipped with a double hangar like Ark Royal, Unicorn had a shortened hull, giving her a rather cumbersome appearance. In reserve from 1946 to 1949, she was recommissioned as a transport carrier for the Korean war, ferrying aircraft and serving as a troopship.
UK
CAM ships With the European coast from the North Cape to the Spanish border under enemy control by mid-1940, long-range German aircraft began to prove a serious menace to British convoys. The latter, beyond the range of their own air-support and with the escort carrier still in the future, were shadowed relentlessly, the aircraft vectoring in marauding U-boats and, increasingly boldly, attacking stragglers. In 1940, aircraft alone accounted for 192 Allied ships of 580,000 gross registered tons, a total passed-in the first four months of 1941. A somewhat desperate measure to counter these pests was the Catapult-Armed Merchantman or CAM ship, a series of which were converted while the CVEs were building. Initially, three merchantmen and the old seaplane carrier HMS Pegasus were each fitted with a catapult upon which was mounted an early Hawker Hurricane or Fairey Fulmar fighter. This group, termed Fighter Catapult Ships, proved the idea and a 50-ship programme was initiated, using merchantmen of various sizes. All wore the red ensign, carried cargo and had civilian crews but, spanning the forecastle and No. 1 hatch, was the ungainly catapult structure fixed axially and facing forward. Pilots, drawn from the RAF's Merchant Ship Fighter
Unit, would sit for hours, strapped in the cockpit, awaiting the sighting of a 'snooper'. Once launched, they were committed to catching the enemy and returning on a limited amount of fuel. There was no landing-on; if friendly land were close enough (a rare event) the pilot would try to reach it, but, more usually, he had to return to the convoy (often getting shot at) and 'ditch' alongside a likely ship, hoping to be rescued quickly before death arrived from exposure or drowning. It demanded a special sort of bravery. Once contact was made, the enemy usually fell easily to the highperformance eight-gun fighters. The first recorded kill was by a Hurricane from the FCS Maplin early in August 1941, shortly before the C VE HMS Audacity's epic maiden run and, by the end of the year, some six successes had been achieved. The first CAM ship was the Empire Rainbow. The Empire Lawrence formed part of the contentious USSRbound convoy PQ16 in mid-1942. Her aircraft downed one Heinkel He 111 torpedo bomber and damaged another, returning to find her ship sunk. During PQ18, the Empire Morn's Hurricane, during its brief flight, destroyed one aircraft, broke up the attacks of others and succeeded in
making Soviet soil, The CAMs served briefly before being supplemented and then displaced by MACs and CVEs, but their gallant contribution at a desperate time deserves to be fully recognized. No specification is possible for this widely disparate group of ships.
Once launched from a CAM ship there was no way of landing; after hopefully destroying the intruder, the pilot had to bale out over the convoy knowing that unless he was quickly rescued he would die in the icy water. Britain 's chronic shortage of aircraft carriers in the early years of the war left the Atlantic convoys very , vulnerable to long-range German aircraft. A desperate solution was the CAM ship, a merchantman with a fighter plane on a forward catapult.
UK
HMS Audacity Though contingency plans existed pre-war to convert merchant ships to auxiliary aircraft carriers, the production of the first such ship seems, in retrospect, to have been leisurely considering the urgency of the situation. The hull selected for conversion was that of the fire-damaged Hannover, an almost new Hamburg-Amerika cargo liner seized by the Royal Navy off San Domingo in February 1940. She commissioned as HMS Audacity in June 1941 with the functions of carrying fighters to curb the menace of the longrange German maritime aircraft and, if possible, Fairey Swordfish to provide a measure of anti-submarine protection. Her facilities were basic, a 140-m (460ft) flightdeck being laid from the raised forecastle over a lowered bridge structure to a built-up poop. There were just two arrester wires and a barrier; no elevator was fitted because there was no hangar: the six aircraft were stowed and serviced on deck, flight operations involving much manual rearrangement. Because of a shortage of Hawker Sea Hurricanes, she took Grumman F4F-3 Wildcats to sea for the first time in the Royal Navy. Contrasting with the spartan aviation
arrangements, Audacity retained much of her original accommodation, September 1941 saw the little carrier's first trip, with the UK-Gibraltar convoy OG41. Heavy attacks from both submarine and aircraft sank six ships but greater losses were prevented by the Audacity's aircraft, which caused several U-boats to dive and lose contact. They also shot down a Focke-Wulf Fw 200C and chased off other intruders. The Audacity returned with the next convoy, HG76, in mid-December 1941, During a four-day nonstop battle the enemy lost five submarines for two
merchantmen, With radar direction, the carrier had downed two more snoopers and spoiled the attacks of various U-boats. On 21 December she herself fell victim to three submarine torpedoes but had proved the value of the escort carrier.
Specification HMSAudacify
Type: escort aircraft-carrier Displacement: 5,540 tons standard Dimensions: length 144.7 m (474.75 ft); beam 17.1 m (56 ft); draught 8.3 m (27.25ft) Propulsion: 2-shaft diesels delivering
The first escort carrier, HMS Audacity's handful of fighters could mean the difference between life or death fora convoy. With convoy OG41 herairgroup destroyed a Focke- WulfFw 200C and chased off several U-boats. 4,750bhp(3542kW) Speed: 15 kts Armour: none Armament: one 102-mm (4-in) and some smaller guns Aircraft: six Complement: not known 459
UK
MAC ships Lead orders for escort carriers (CVEs) were placed in early 1942, but urgent measures were required to close the mid-Atlantic gap during their building, One such was the CAM ship, the other the MAC (Merchant Aircraft Carrier), an ingenious solution later copied by the Japanese. The Ministry of War Transport was, understandably, reluctant to release good-class cargo tonnage^ for conversion to dedicated CVEs, but the MAC retained the greater part of its cargo capacity while having a flight deck topside. Breakbulkers required hatches and cargo-handling gear to function, but grain carriers required only small apertures to their holds, through which the hoses for loading and discharging grain could be inserted, This arrangement was fully compatible with fitting a flightdeck. Like the CAMs, the MACs sailed under the red ensign, only their flight personnel being Royal Navy, Similarly, they were integrated more with the convoy than its escort, though requiring more manoeuvring space. Appropriately carrying Empire 'Mac' names (particularly so as they came from Scottish yards), the first six were all converted from incomplete ships, with 129 by 19 m (423 by 62 ft) flightdecks and a diminutive hangar aft capable of accommodating four Fairey Swordfish aircraft,
From the point of view of cargo requirements and dimensions, tankers were also very suitable candidates for conversion, but the Admiralty had grave doubts of the fire risk. AngloSaxon Petroleum (now Shell) resolved the problem on their behalf, resulting in nine of their tankers being converted (though retaining their familiar Shell names) and four more liquidcargo Empire 'Macs' being launched for the job. The main difference between the wet and dry cargo carriers lay in the lack of a hangar on the tankers, the aircraft remaining topside in all weathers. Despite the urgency of the programme, it was April 1943 before the first MAC entered service. They were exceedingly fortunate ships, all 19 surviving the war to be reconverted. The dry-cargo 'Empire Mac' class ships were the Empire Macalpine, Empire Macandrew, Empire Maccallum, Empire Macdermott, Empire Mackendrick and Empire Macrae. The equivalent tanker 'Empire Mac' class comprised the Empire Maccabe, Empire Maccoll, Empire Mackay and Empire Macmahon. Finally, the units of the 'Shell' class were the Acavus, Adula, Alexia, Amastra, Ancylus, Cadila, Macoma, Miralda and Rapana.
Specification 'Empire Mac' dry class Type: merchant aircraft-carrier Displacement: 7,930 to 8,250 gross tons Dimensions: length between 135.6 and 139.9 m (445 and 459 ft); beam between 17.1 and 17.7 m (56 and 58 ft); draught 7.5 m (24.66 ft) Propulsion: 1-shaft diesel delivering 3,300bhp(2461kW) Speed:12.5kts Armour: none Armament: one 102-mm (4-in), two 40mm AA and some smaller guns Aircraft: four Complement: 110 Specification 'Empire Mac' tanker class Type: merchant aircraft-carrier Displacement: 8,850 to 9,250 gross tons Dimensions: length 146.7 to 148 m (481.3 to 485.5 ft); beam 18.0 to 18.8 m (59 to 61.66 ft); draught 8.0 to 8.4 m (26.25 to 27.5 ft)
Propulsion: 1-shaft diesel delivering 3,300bhp(2461kW) Speed: 11.5 lets Armour: none Armament: one 102-mm (4-in) and some smaller guns Aircraft: four Complement: 110 Specification 'Shell' class Type: merchant aircraft-carrier Displacement: 8,000 gross tons Dimensions: length 146.5 to 147 m (480,66 to 482.25 ft); beam 18,0 m (59 ft); draught 8.4 m (27.66 ft) Propulsion: 1-shaft diesel delivering 3,750bhp(2796kW) Speed: 13 kts Armour: none Armament: one 102-mm (4-in) and some smaller guns Aircraft: four Complement: 105 MAC ships were merchant vessels only partially converted in to aircraft carriers; a fligh t deck was fitted, but they could still carry cargo. Their aircraft protected convoys in the 'Atlantic Gap', the area in midAtlantic out of range of Allied shorebased aircraft.
UK
British-built escort carriers Few escort carriers were produced by British yards, which worked on more specialized ships, leaving series production to the Americans. There was, understandably, also reluctance to release good-quality mercantile tonnage for conversion at a time of severe shortage, As a result, only five Britishbuilt CVEs saw service, HMS Kinde.? and the roughly-similar HMS N air ana, the smaller HMS Activity, the larger HMS Campania and the ex-passenger liner HMS Pretoria Castle Unlike their American counterparts, built from similar hulls, they were all different, tending to have longer but narrower flightdecks. In addition the hangar was served by only one elevator, which made for much manhandling of aircraft. They were more solidly built than the American CVEs, with steelsided hangars and steel flightdecks. On average, they stowed 15 to 18 aircraft, in the approximate ratio of two Fairey Swordfish to one fighter (Hawker Sea Hurricane, Grumman Wildcat or Fairey Fulmar). The Activity stowed fewer, and the larger Pretoria Castle spent most of her operational career in the training role. The four smaller ships were converted from twin-screw diesel cargo liners of the Blue Funnel and Port Lines, which could be reconverted post-war.
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Short of spare merchant tonnage, Britain built few escort carriers, but ships like HMS Vindex, seen here in 1944, proved very successful working with submarine h un ting groups. The British CVEs ran extensively with convoys to and from Gibraltar. Working in pairs, they became potent anti-submarine ships. Their Swordfish were equipped with search radar and they themselves with Asdic (sonar), which allowed co-operation with dedicated hunter-killer groups, a luxury possible only after all the convoys were adequately escorted. Later in the war they were used on the Arctic convoy route, the significance of their contribution being recognized by their wearing the flag of the senior naval officer. They were less successful in the severe northern conditions, their lack of length making them extremely lively in pitch, which restricted flight operations.
Specification HMS Activity
Type: escort aircraft-carrier Displacement: 11,800 tons standard Dimensions: length 156.2 m (512,5 ft); beam 20.3 m (66.66 ft); draught 6.7 m (22 ft)
Propulsion: 2-shaft diesels delivering 12,000 bhp (8948 kW) Speed: 18 kts Armour: none Armament: two 102-mm (4-in) AA and 10 twin 20-mm AA guns Aircraft: 15 Complement: 700 Specification HMS Pretoria Castle Type: escort aircraft-carrier Displacement: 17,400 tons standard Dimensions: length 181.1m (594 ft); beam 23.3 m (76.6 ft); draught 8.8 m (28.75ft) HMS Nairana is seen here in her l 943 colour scheme.
Propulsion: 2-shaft diesels delivering 11,400 bhp (850 IkW) Speed: 16 kts Armour: none Armament: two twin 102-mm (4-in) AA, four quadruple 2-pdr AA, and 10 twin 20-mm AA guns Aircraft: 15 Complement: not known
UK/USA
American-built escort carriers Like the British, the Americans had pre-war ideas on the conversion of mercantile hulls to auxiliary carriers. Early in 1941, two C3 hulls were thus earmarked and the first was rebuilt in only three months, commissioning as the USS Long Island (AVG. 1) within days of the British Audacity. In concept, the American ship was well ahead, having both hangar and elevator, though making poor use of available space. Such early AVGs had a hangar occupying only the after quarter or so of the underdeck space, a similar volume ahead of it being devoted to accommodation (which should have gone below in the original cargo spaces in the hull proper). Below the forward half of the flightdeck the space was open, the overheads being supported on frame structures. What they did have was a catapult (known as an 'accelerator') and the popular bunk beds and cafeteria messing. The Long Island's first sister was not completed until November 1941, and was transferred to the British as HMS Archer (BAVG.1), being joined later by three more 'Archer' class ships. As the programme got into its stride the Royal Navy received eight of the 'Attacker' class and 26 of the very similar 'Ruler' class. Both had full-length hangars, the later class having improved stowage factors. Following early experience, the British required higher standards of fuel and fire protection than the Americans, promoting a measure of criticism of 'gold-plating', Early American ships were dieseldriven, later units having steam plant; both types experienced a fair share of
machinery problems. With limited capacity for flexibility, CVEs tended to be fitted out for roles either in convoy escort or in assault support, their organization and aircraft complement being tailored to suit. Once available in larger numbers they were often integrated directly with AS groups. They often worked in larger groups (five at Salerno and nine for the South of France landings), but some saw no action, being engaged on aircraft ferrying, All that were still fit were converted back to mercantile roles after the war. The 'Archer' class comprised five ships, namely HMS Archer, HMS Avenger, HMS Biter, HMS Charger and HMS Dasher, though the Charger was retained by the US Navy as CVE.30 for the training of British aircrews in American waters. The 'Attacker' class was larger, and was made up of HMS Attadter, HMS Battler, HMS Chaser, HMS Fencer, HMS Pursuer, HMS Stalker, HMS Striker and HMS Trailer. Finally there was the 'Ruler' class, which was made up of HMS Patroller, HMS Puncher, HMS Ravager, HMS Reaper, HMS Searcher, HMSSlinger, HMSSmiter, HMS Speaker, HMS Tracker, HMS Trouncer, HMS Trumpeter, HMS Ameer, HMS Arbiter, HMSAtheling, HMS Begum, HMS Emperor, HMS Empress, HMS Khedive, HMS Nabob, HMS Premier, HMS Queen, HMS Ra;ah, HMS Ranee, HMS Ruler, HMS Shah and HMS Thane.
Specification
'Archer' class Type: escort aircraft-carrier
Displacement: 8,250 tons standard except Archer 9,000 tons standard Dimensions: length 150.0 m (492.25 ft); beam 20.2 m (66.25 ft); draught 7. l m
HMS Avenger and Biter, pictured herein heavy seas, wereboth 'Archer' class escort carriers.
(23,25ft)
Propulsion: 1-shaft diesel delivering 8,500 bhp (6,338 kW) except Archer 1shaft diesel delivering 9,000 bhp (6711kW) Speed: 16.5 ktsexceptArcher 17 kts Armour: none Armament: three 102-mm (4-in) AA, and 15 20-mm AA guns Aircraft: 15 Complement: 555
Specification
'Attacker' class Type: escort aircraft-carrier Displacement: 11,400 tons standard Dimensions: length 150.0 m (492.25 ft); beam 21,2m (69,5 ft); draught 7,3m (24ft)
Propulsion: 1-shaft geared steam turbine delivering 9,350 shp (6972 kW) Speed: 17 kts Armour: none
Armament: two 102-mm (4-in) AA, four twin 40-mm AA, and 15 20-mm AA guns Aircraft: 18 Complement: 645
Specification
'Ruler' class Type: escort aircraft-carrier Displacement: 11,400 tons standard Dimensions: length 150.0 m (492.25 ft); beam 21,2 m (69.5 ft); draught 7.7 m (25,25 ft) Propulsion: 1-shaft geared steam turbine delivering 9,350 shp (6972 kW) Speed: 17 kts Armour: none Armament: two 102-mm (4-in) AA, eight twin 40-mm AA, and 20 20-mm AAguns Aircraft: 22 Complement: 645
Britain received eight 'Attacker'class submarine warfare as well as providing air support during several and 26 'Ruler' class escort carriers of the Mediterranean amphibious from the USA. They were used both assaults. for convoy escort and anti-
UK
HMS Perseus and HMS Pioneer Far Eastern operations had to be conducted far from established bases and maintenance facilities. High attrition rates in aircraft would demand 'repair by replacement' to keep the front-line carriers fully operational, CVEs being used extensively in the exchange process. Lightly damaged aircraft or routine maintenance tasks could be carried out on the fleet carrier herself but lack of space and time demanded that anything more complex be shipped out for repair and, by the very nature of things, the repair facilities had to be afloat. With the only specialist maintenance carrier Unicorn used permanently in an operational role, two of the new light fleet carriers of the 'Colossus' class were earmarked as replacements. Though lacking the extra
hangar, they were marginally faster but looked 'unfinished' with few of the deck-edge fixtures sported by the operational carriers. Both HMS Perseus and HMS Pioneer were completed by the end of the war, but only the Pioneer succeeded in getting to an operational theatre, with the 11th ACS, arriving in the Far East just in time for the Japanese surrender. Paradoxically, earlier in the war when they could have been of use, they would (like the Unicorn) almost certainly have been pressed into an operational role, leaving CVEs to be used as auxiliaries, while in peace too few active flightdecks were maintained to warrant their existence, With little post-war application, the Pioneer was scrapped as
early as 1954 (earlier intentions of conversions to passenger liners were not pursued due probably to a combination of cost and a diminishing demand for these ships by a public acquiring a taste for air travel), The Perseus was nearly recommissioned for the Suez affair of 1956, but then scrapped in 1958.
Specification
HMS Perseus and HMS Pioneer Type: maintenance aircraft-carrier
Displacement: 13,300 tons standard Dimensions: length 211.8 m (695 ft); beam 24.4 m (80 ft); draught 5.6 m (18,4ft) Propulsion: 2-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 42,000 shp (31319kW) Speed: 25 kts Armour: minimal Armament: three quadruple 2-pdr AA and 10 20-mm AA guns Aircraft: none Complement: not known HMS Perseus and Pioneer were 'Coloss us' class carriers, completed as maintenance ships unable to operate in a combat role. Too late to serve in the wartime fleet, they were among the first British carriers to be scrapped.
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Japanese Aircraft Carriers The six months following 7 December 1941 saw the Imperial Japanese Navy wage one of the most astonishing campaigns in naval history. From the attack on Pearl Harbor to the defeat at Midway, it was carrier power that proved decisive, and the transformation of war at sea was irrevocable.
Japanese aircraft carrier Zuiho under aerial attack off Cape Engano by planes from USS Enterprise during the decisive action at Leyte Gulf in October 1944. nlike her Axis partners, Japan was a true maritime power that well understood the potential of aviation at sea. Launching a war of her own choosing in the Pacific, she had not succeeded in significantly outbuilding the Americans in aircraft-carriers but had the advantage that the 11 she had in service in 1941 did not have to be split between two
U
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oceans. The grouping of the six best units into Nagumo's 1st Air Fleet showed bold innovation, a gamble that paid off by exploiting the old principle of the Schwerpunkt: overwhelming force where it mattered. In the initial phase of the Pacific war, the Allied fleets were caught ill-prepared and for a while the Japanese seemed
unstoppable, but inevitably as their boundaries expanded and their commitments grew, the Japanese had to break up the hard-worked cohesive carrier units. At the same time the Americans, stung to war, prepared their challenge. The Coral Sea demonstrated that the enemy could be checked but Midway was a total triumph for American
intelligence, organization and strategy. After Midway, the good days were clearly over for the Japanese. Despite a long period of balance, the advantage slowly changed sides.The 2nd Battle of the Solomon Sea, riposted at Santa Cruz, saw the pendulum at mid-swing. The Saipan amphibious operation forced the Japanese to act in strength against a powerful American defence; the Philippine Sea battle, as it was known, cost the Japanese carriers their main strength, namely the last of their trained aircrews. Shortly after this, at Leyte Gulf, came Armageddon, with virtually the whole of the surviving fleet engaged in a final, one-way, do-ordie mission to destroy the spearhead of the American advance. Short of fuel, aircrew, aircraft and ammunition, the remnants of the Japanese carrier force had no use other than to act as a lure at a crucial point in the action. They succeeded brilliantly, but in vain, for the Americans were too many. In the short term, the bold uses to which the Japanese put naval air power proved decisive but, once the war was allowed to drag on, the old tag was once again proved right:'a good big'un will always beat a good little 'un.1
JAPAN
HOS/.O The first carrier built for the Imperial Japanese Navy, like so many others, was a conversion. The naval oiler Hiryu, laid down late in 1919, was taken over in 1921 and emerged as the carrier Hosho at the end of the following year. The design owed much to a British technical mission, which had broad details of the new British carrier Hermes and the details of the Sopwith Cuckoo torpedo-bomber. The original triple-expansion steam engines were replaced by destroyer-type turbines to give a speed of 25 knots and, as in the USS Langley, smoke was vented
Hosho, converted from an oiler, was commissioned as a carrier in 1922 following the visit òf a British technical mission. Originally equipped with an island navigating bridge, within a year she was flush decked, and provided the Imperial Japanese Navy with valuable early experience in carrier operations.
through triple folding funnels, which hinged downwards when flying was in progress. The ship was the first to have an 'island' navigating bridge, but this proved so unpopular with the pilots that it was removed in 1923. The Hosho proved very small and lacked sufficient margin of stability to be able to carry her full armament and complement of aircraft. By the outbreak of World War II her air group had shrunk from 21 to 12 aircraft, and all the original guns had been replaced by light anti-aircraft weapons. However, the Hosho provided invaluable experience for the conversion of Akagi and lCaga, as well as design of Ryujo, the first Japanese carrier built as such from the keel up. She also saw considerable action off the China coast in the late 1930s and ferried aircraft during the Sino-Japanese War,
Despite her drawbacks the elderly training carrier served with Carrier Division 3 from December 1941, alongside the Zuiho, but after four months in the Palau Islands she was returned to training duties in Japan. Then she became operational again for the Midway campaign, carrying 11 Nakajima B5N 'Kate' bombers to provide reconnaissance for Admiral Yamamoto's battleships. Finally withdrawn in June 1942, the Hosho thereafter led a charmed life. Although damaged by grounding in 1944 and hit twice by American bombs at Kure she was still afloat when the war ended. She had been finally laid up in April 1945 for lack of aircrew to man her aircraft, and was thus one of the few Japanese carriers still in existence on VJ-Day. She was to have a second lease of life, however, for she was recommissioned as a transport to
repatriate Japanese servicemen from all over the Far East. She continued in this job until August 1946, but was finally scrapped in 1947 after nearly 25 years of service.
Ten years later she was completely rebuilt, with a small island superstructure on the port side, and a full-length flight deck. It was hoped that the portside island would simplify operations when operating in company with other carriers (allowing her aircraft to be marshalled separately) but it caused far more landing accidents than a starboard island. With her half-sister Kaga she formed Carrier Division 1 and as Vice Admiral Nagumo's flagship led the attack on Pearl Harbor. She then led the other carriers on a brilliant series of raids through the East Indies and Indian Ocean, the force sinking the British carrier Hermes, driving the Allies out of Java and Sumatra and even getting as far as Darwin in northern Australia. At the Battle of Midway on 4 June 1942 Afcagi's air group attacked Midway itself, and she suffered slight damage when a shore-based torpedo-
bomber bounced off the deck early in the morning. At 10.22 she was attacked by aircraft from the USS Enterprise, which hit her twice with bombs. A 1,000-lb (454-kg) bomb burst in the hangar and started a fire among torpedo-warheads which spread to aviation fuel spilling from fractured lines; a second bomb (of 500 lb/227 kg) also started a fire among aircraft parked on the flight deck, Within 30 minutes the fire was out of control and Nagumo had shifted his flag to a light cruiser. The Akagi was abandoned but burned for another 9 hours or more. After vain efforts to board her the order was given to a destroyer to torpedo her.
draught 8.6 m (28 ft 3 in) Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 133,000 shp (99180kW) Speed: 31 knots Armour: uncertain Armament: six 200-mm (7.9-in), six twin 120-mm (4.7-in) AA, and 14 twin 25-mm AAguns Aircraft: (June 1942) 21 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters, 21 Aichi D3A Val1 divebombers and 21 Nakajima B5N 'Kate' torpedo-bombers Complement: 1,340 officers and men
Specification Hosho
Displacement: 7,470 tons standard, 10,000 tons full load Dimensions: length 168. l m (551 ft 6 in); overall; beam 18.0 m (59 ft 0 in); draught 6.2 m (20 ft 4 in) Machinery: 2-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 30,000 shp (22370 kW) Speed: 25 knots Armour: uncertain Armament: ( 1941) eight twin 25-mm AAguns Aircraft: (1942) 11 'Kate' torpedobombers Complement: 550 officers and men
JAPAN
Akagi The outcome of the Washington Naval Disarmament Treaty left the Imperial Japanese Navy with several incomplete capital ships destined for the scrapyard, As the Americans and British had declared their intention of converting similar hulls into carriers, and in the light of successful experience with the Hosho, the naval staff decided to press ahead with two similar carrier conversions Two battle-cruisers, to be known as Akagi and Amagi, were chosen; these were projected as 40,000-ton ships capable of 30 knots. Work started in 1923 but the hull of the Amagi was badly damaged during the great Tokyo earthquake in September, and she was scrapped. The Akagi was completed in March 1927, a flush-decked ship with two funnels at the starboard edge of the flight deck, a triple flight deck forward, and 10 200-mm (7.9-in) guns, six of them in old-fashioned casemates low down aft.
Specification Akagi
Displacement: (1941) 36,500 tons standard, 42,000 tons full load Dimensions: length 260,6 m (855 ft 0 in) overall; beamSl.S m(102 ft8 in);
Akagi at sea, a few months prior to Pearl Harbor. The left-hand island is noteworthy, as she was designed to operate in tandem with Kaga. With an operational aircraft complement of 70 or more, Akagi was a considerable advance on Hosho.
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JAPAN
Kaga The Japanese battleship Kaga was laid down in 1918 and launched in November 1921, but as a result of the Washington Naval Disarmament Treaty of 1922 was scheduled to be scrapped, In September 1923, however, the Tokyo earthquake caused severe damage to the battle-cruiser Amagi, which was about to start her conversion to an aircraft-carrier, and the hull of the slightly1smaller Kaga was substituted. The 4 /2-year conversion produced a carrier similar to the original Afe-agi' conversion, with a flush deck and two short 'flying-off decks forward. But unlike Akagi she had her smoke-ducts trunked on the starboard side. She was not an unqualified success, and was not operational until two years of trials had been conducted, and only four years after that, in 1934, she was taken in hand for modernization. In her new guise she was considerably better, with more aircraft (90 instead of 60) and a small 'island' superstructure. However, unlike Western carriers, she still had a large downward-angled funnel below the edge of the flight deck. As displacement had gone up by 9,000 tons (standard) more powerful machinery had to be installed, with endurance to match, and many of the original faults were eliminated, The Kaga was one of the six carriers which attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 De-
cember 1941, and she launched 27 N a k a j i m a B5N ' K a t e ' torpedobombers, followed by 18 Mitsubishi A6M Zeros and 26 Aichi D3A Val' divebombers. She and the Akagi (Carrier Division 1) then took part in the devastating series of strikes in the East Indies, South Pacific and Indian Ocean which destroyed Allied military power in the first half of 1942. At Midway on 4 June 1942, two hours after beating off American attacks succesfully, Kaga was hit by four bombs from Douglas SBD Dauntless divebombers from the USS Enterprise, and near-missed by five more. Blast fractured fuel lines, feeding fuel to the fires already started among the aircraft waiting, fully armed and fuelled. With-
in 30 minutes the 38,000-ton carrier had to be abandoned, though she continued to burn for another 9 hours. At dusk the flames reached a magazine, and she blew up and sank quickly. Over 800 men went down with her, many trapped by the fires and others killed by the blast of the original explo-
Specih'cation Kaga
Displacement: (1941) 38,200 tons standard, 43,650 tons full load Dimensions: length 247.6 m (812 ft 4 in) overall; beam 32.5 m ( 106 ft 7 in) over flight deck; draught 9.5 m (31 ft 2 in) Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 127,400 shp
Kaga in wartime configura tion; a maximum of 90 aircraft could be carried, but 81 was a more normal complement. Kaga wassunlcby Douglas SBD Dauntlesses from USS Enterprise. (95020 kW) Speed: 28'/s knots Armour: uncertain Armament: 10200-mm(7.9-m), 16 127mm (5-in) AA and eight twin 25-mm AA guns Aircraft: 90 fighters, dive-bombers and torpedo-bombers Complement: 2,016 officers and men Kaga was completed in 1928 with a flush declcand two short 'flying o f f ' decks forward of each hangar. These were nota success, andai 934 refit eliminated them.
JAPAN
Ryujo Under the Washington Treaty Japan was limited to 80,000 tons of carriers, but as the treaty exempted vessels under 10,000 tons the naval staff thought that it was worth trying to build an extra carrier inside the limit. The initial design was for an 8,000-ton ship carrying 24 aircraft, but the staff then insisted on adding a second hangar to double the aircraft capacity. This pushed the standard displacement 150 tons over the limit, but nothing was said to Japan's fellow-signatories - the first significant cheating by Japan, but not the last. Even with the illicit extra tonnage the new carrier, called Ryujo, was top-heavy when she was completed in 1933. She was twice rebuilt, with bulges added, some guns removed and the forecastle raised, but the true displacement was now nearer 12,000 tons. As may be imagined, the Ryujo was not popular in the fleet, Quite apart from her topweight problems, her flight deck was too small and she carried too few aircraft to be effective; she took longer than other carriers to launch and recover aircraft, because of congestion on the deck. However, the experience was put to use in designing the Hiryu and Shokaku classes. The Ryujo was not part of the main carrier force which attacked Pearl Harbor, but supported the amphibious landings in the Philippines, In April 464
1942 she attacked Allied merchant shipping and two months later she joined in operations against the Aleutian Islands, but her only major action was the Battle of the Eastern Solomons. The Ryujo was chosen to spearhead an operation to reinforce the defenders of Guadalcanal, and with an escort of a heavy cruiser and two destroyers, was to lure the Americans away from the main force. It worked well, for at 09.05 on 24 August 1942 she was spotted from the air, but other search planes also located the Shokaku and Zuikaku. Ryujo was heavily attacked by aircraft from the Enterprise and Saratoga in the afternoon, In a brilliant attack divebombers and five torpedo-bombers smothered the carrier, scoring an esti-
mated 10 bomb hits and two torpedo hits and escaping without casualties. Japanese records say that only one torpedo hit the carrier, but that was enough to set her on fire from end to end. Her rudder was also jammed, and the doomed ship was unable to steam or steer. Only 300 survivors left the ship, including Captain Kato, and she sank about four hours later.
Specification Ryujo
Displacement: 10,600 tons standard, 14,000 tons full load Dimensions: length 180.0 m (590 ft 6 in) overall; beam 20.8 m (68 ft 3 in); draught 7.1m (23 ft 4 in)
An attempt to build as much as possible into limited tonnage, Ryujo was not a popular ship. The double hangar made her top heavy, her fligh t decl< was too small, and she carried too few aircraft to be an effective fleet carrier. Machinery: 2-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 65,000 shp (48470 kW) Speed: 29 knots Armour: uncertain Armament: four twin 127-mm (5-in) AA and 12 twin 25-mm AA guns Aircraft: 24 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters and 12 bombers Complement: 924 officers and men
JAPAN
Shokaku Japan's withdrawal from the international treaties limiting the size of warships at the end of 1936 enabled her constructors at last to design carriers that suited requirements. Under the 1937 Reinforcement Programme two more carriers were to be built, basically similar to the Hiryu but large enough to accommodate all that was required. In the 'Shokaku' class all the earlier faults were remedied. Two catapults were provided, and a much larger hangar enabled aircraft capacity to be increased from 63 to 75. Even with a considerable increase in power (the most powerful machinery ever fitted in a Japanese warship) the two ships could achieve a range of nearly 10,000 miles (16000 km) as they carried 5,000 tons of fuel. Equally important, they were well armoured and carried a much heavier anti-aircraft armament than their predecessors. In most reProbably the best carriers extan t a t the time of their introduction, the 'Shokakus'had a strong anti-aircraft armament, but suffered from the common Japanese vulnerability of the fuel systems. Indeed, a fuel explosion following torpedo damage sank Shokaku in June 1944.
spects they were the best carriers in the world, being surpassed only by the later 'Essex' class, but like all Japanese carriers they suffered from vulnerable fuel systems. Not only were the fuel lines to the hangars and flight deck liable to be ruptured by explosions some distance away, but the fuel storage tanks were inadequately protected against shock. Shokaku was begun at the end of 1937 and went to sea in August 1941, just two months before Pearl Harbor. Although she took part in the attack her aircrews were too inexperienced to do more than bomb the airfields on Oahu. With her sister Zuikaku she formed Carrier Division 5, and after their work-up early in 1942 they operated off Ceylon and New Guinea. During the Battle of the Coral Sea Shokaku was damaged by a strike from the Yorktown; although she caught fire she was saved with some difficulty, and had to return to Japan for repairs. The worst casualties were, however, the loss of 86 aircraft and most of their aircrews, so that neither carrier could take part in the Battle of Midway. On 14 July they joined the new Carrier Division 1, with the light carrier Zuiho. In the Battle of the East-
ern Solomons they damaged the Enterprise but again lost precious aircrew and aircraft. On 26 October the Shokaku was severely damaged by a divebomber strike from the Hornet. During the Battle of the Philippine Sea on 19 June 1944 she was hit by three torpedoes from the submarine USS Cavalla, and an explosion from ruptured aviation fuel tanks subsequently sank her.
Specification
Shokaku Displacement: 25,675 tons standard, 32,000 tons full load Dimensions: length 257.5 m (844 ft 9 in) overall; beam 26,0 m (85 ft 4 in); draught 8.9 m (29 ft 2 in) Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam
Shokaku on acceptance trials in August 1941. In Shokaku, the majority offa ults ofHiryu and Soryu were rectified, although the aircraft capacity was similar. Speed remained above 34 knots, and protection was increased dramatically. turbines delivering 160,000 shp (119310kW) Speed: 34.2 knots Armour: belt 215 mm (8 Vä in); deck 170mm(6 3 /4in) Armament: eight twin 127-mm (5-in) dual-purpose and 12 triple 25-mm AA guns Aircraft: 27 fighters, 27 dive-bombers and 18 torpedo-bombers Complement: 1,660 officers and men
JAPAN
Zuikaku Zuikaku, the second ship of the 'Shokaku' class, was laid down in May 1938 and entered service in September 1941. She joined her sister in Carrier Division 5, and for the next three years the two were inseparable. The inexperience of CarDiv 5's aircrews prevented the ships from having anything more than a supporting role during the Pearl Harbor attack, but they were fully worked up by the time CarDiv 5 began its destructive raids on the British in Ceylon. They then left the main carrier force and went to Truk, from where they covered the invasion of Port Moresby on 1 May 1942. In the ensuing Battle of the Coral Sea CarDiv 5 scored a tactical victory by sinking the Lexington, in exchange for the light carrier Shoho, The Japanese carriers wasted their efforts on sinking a destroyer and a fleet oiler, which they misidentified as a cruiser and a carrier. A strike of 24 Nakajima B5N 'Kate1 and 36 Aichi D3A 'Val' bombers failed to penetrate the US carriers' screen, but on 8 May a similar strike failed to find the Zuikaku in a rain squall. Although Zuikaku was undamaged her highly trained aircrew had suffered serious attrition, and she had to return to Japan with her damaged sister to retrain her air group. As a result CarDiv 5 missed the Battle of Midway, and in the month after Midway they were incorporated into a new CarDiv 1. In the following month they left for the Solomons to challenge American power in Guadalcanal, but so severe was the shortage that neither
carrier had her full complement of aircraft embarked. In the Battle of the Eastern Solomons on 24 August Zuikaku damaged the .Enterprise but at the price of heavy losses. She escaped from the slaughter of the Philippine Sea Battle in June 1944 but as part of the reconstituted CarDiv 3 she was part of the forlorn hope which tried to lure the American fast carriers away from Leyte Gulf. They sailed on 20 October, and four days later Zuikaku launched her last air strike against the enemy. All were shot down, and next day the American pilots took their revenge by sinking all four Japanese carriers, in the Battle of Cape Engano. The Zuikaku was made the chief target, some 80 aircraft
attacking her from all sides with bombs and torpedoes. She took an early hit from a torpedo and started to list heavily. A second wave of more than 100 aircraft attacked and hit with an estimated seven torpedoes and four bombs, No ship could withstand such damage, and she soon rolled over and sank.
Specification
Zuikaku Displacement: 25,675 tons standard, 32,000 tons full load Dimensions: length 257.5 m (844 ft 9 in) overall; beam 26,0 m (85 ft 4 in); draught 8,9 m (29 ft 2 in) Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 160,000 shp
(119310kW) Speed: 34.2 knots
Armour: belt 215 mm (8 Va in); deck 170 mm (6% in) Armament: eight twin 127-mm (5-in) dual-purpose and 12 triple 25-mm AA guns
Aircraft: 27 fighters, 27 dive-bombers and 18 torpedo-bombers Complement: 1,660 officers and men Zuikaku lasted some four months longer than her sister, but was finally lost off Cape Engano during the Battle of Leyte Gulf. As the ship sank, crew m embers foun d positions to salute the naval ensign as it was lowered.
JAPAN
Zuiho In a desperate attempt to remedy the shortage of aircraft-carriers, the Japanese naval staff decided that certain large fleet auxiliaries such as submarine tenders should be designed for rapid conversion to carriers in wartime.1 One such class was the 'Tsurigizaki class of high-speed oilers, which were ordered under the 1934 Second Reinforcement Programme; their hulls were specially strengthened. The design was then altered to submarine tenders, and the lead-ship entered service in that role early in 1939. Her sister ship Takasaki, however, was not completed, and was laid up in the shipyard for nearly four years. Work on her conversion to a carrier started in January 1940, under the new name Zuiho. Apart from the replacement of the unreliable diesels with geared steam turbines, as much of the original hull was retained as possible, A single hangar was provided, accommodating a maximum of 30 aircraft, with two centreline lifts; there were two catapults but no island superstructure. To retain the high speed and endurance all planned armouring was deleted. The conversion was carried out in a year, and the Zuiho joined the Combined
Fleet in January 1941. With the old Hosho (Carrier Division 3) she was sent to the Palaus in the late autumn of that year and took part in the attack on the Philippines. She then returned to Japan for repairs before taking part in the conquest of the East Indies in the spring. Luckily for the carrier, she was with the Support Force at Midway, and escaped the destruction of the main carrier force. In the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands she was part of Admiral Nagumo's Carrier Strike Force. At 07,40 on 25 October 1942 a divebomber from the USS .Enterprise made a surprise attack out of low cloud, dropping its bomb in the centre of the flight deck. With a 50-ft ( 15-m) crater in her flight deck the Zuiho could no longer operate aircraft, and so after launching her aircraft the Zuiho returned to base. In February 1944 Zuiho rejoined Carrier Division 3, and she took part in the Battle of the Philippine Sea, when her aircraft scored a hit on the battleship South Dakota. In the fighting around Leyte Gulf she was one of the doomed carriers which attempted to decoy the Americans: in the Battle of
Cape Engano she was hit by two bombs on the flight deck and was near-missed six times. In spite of a serious fire and flooding she was under way for another 6 hours, as the other carriers were picked off. Finally it was her turn, and three waves of attackers finished her off.
Zuiho off Tateyama a year before Pearl Harbor. Part of the support force at Midway, she escaped destruction and went on to serve in the Solomons and the Philippine Sea before meeting her fa te off Cape Engano at Leyte Gulf.
Specification Zuiho Displacement: 11,262 tons standard, 14,200 tons full load Dimensions: length 204.8 m (672 ft 0 in) overall; beam 18.2 m (59 ft 8 in); draught 6.6 m (21ft 8 in) Machinery: 2-shaft geared steam
turbines delivering 52,000 shp (38770 kW) Speed: 28,2 knots Armour: none Armament: four twin 127-mm (5-in) dual-purpose and four twin 25-mm AA guns Aircraft: 30 Complement: 785 officers and men
Originally diesel-powered submarine support ships, Zuiho and her sister Shoho were fitted ivith
steam turbines during conversion. With single hangars, aircraft capacity was 30.
reconnaissance planes for a dawn sweep on the next day. At 07.30 they reported a carrier and a cruiser, and the Shokaku and Zuikaku immediately flew off a large strike. Unfortunately the 'task force' turned out to be the US Navy oiler Neosho and her escorting destroyer, the USS Sims. It was a fatal error, for while the Japanese were sinking these ships they missed the chance of finding Task Force 17, and left the Americans time to discover the Shoho's carrier group,
The luckless Shoho had been ordered to launch all available aircraft for an attack on the American carriers, and when at 09.50 the Lexington's
JAPAN
Shoho The submarine tender Tsurigizaki had been serving with the Combined Fleet in 1939-1940, but as soon as the conversion of her sister Takasaki into a carrier was completed in December 1940 she was taken in hand, re-emerging in January 1942 as the light carrier Shoho. Shoho did not see any action until the spring of 1942, when she covered the Port Moresby invasion, in the Support Force commanded by Rear-Admiral Aritomo Goto. It was this move by the Japanese which led to the Battle of the
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Coral Sea, the first carrier-versuscarner battle in history. The Shoho was heading for Port Moresby on 6 May 1942 when at 10.30 she was sighted 60 miles (100km) south of Bougainville by four Boeing B-17 bombers. The four aircraft attempted a high-level bombing attack on the carrier, but caused negligible damage. The two sides were largely ignorant of each other's whereabouts. In a desperate attempt to find the American carriers, Takagi flew off
Shoho entered service in January 1942, but unlike Zuiho her operational career was extremely brief. Shoho had the unhappy distinction of being Japan 's first aircraft carrier loss, sunk by aircraft from USS Yorktown on 7 May 1942 in the Coral Sea.
strike spotted her turning into wind they encountered no resistance. The first strike scored no hits, but a nearmiss blew five aircraft off her deck. At 10.25 a second strike arrived, from the Yorktown this time. This strike scored two devastating hits with 1,000-lb (454kg) bombs on the flight deck, in spite of a curtain of anti-aircraft fire from the Shoho's escorts. The carrier reeled under the blows, and as she began to
lose speed more bombs and torpedoes found their mark. According to Japanese records as many as 11 more bombs and seven torpedoes hit, and Shoho burst into flames. Only six minutes after the last American plane had departed the order was given to abandon ship, and at 10,35 the burning carrier rolled over and sank. Only 255 men out of an estimated total of 800 on board were saved. The
Japanese had lost their first aircraftcarrier.
Specification
Shoho Displacement: 11,262 tons standard, 14,200 tons full load Dimensions: length 204.8 m (672 ft 0 in) overall; beam 18,2 m (59 ft 8 in); draught 6.6 m (21 ft 8 in) Machinery: 2-shaft geared steam
turbines delivering 52,000 shp (38770 kW) Speed: 28.2 knots Armour: none Armament: four twin 127-mm (5-in) dual-purpose and four twin 25-mm AA guns Aircraft: 30 Complement: 785 officers and men
JAPAN
'Junyo' class aircraft-carriers
Like the trio of 'Taiyo' class ships that preceded them, the/unyo and her sister Hiyo of the 'Junyo' class were useful conversions from Nippon Yusen Kaisha liners that had been designed from the outset with this procedure in mind, Where the earlier ships had undergone rebuilding at a late stage, the larger Taiyo' class ships were taken in hand before launching, both being in the water by June 1941, over five months before the Pacific War began, and completed in mid-1942. As they had been designed as passenger liners, they had considerable freeboard and could accommodate two hangars, albeit of restricted headroom. They also had respectably-sized flight decks, measuring 210.2m by 27.3 m (689.6 ft by 89.6 ft), and two centreline elevators, but suffered badly from the combination of their low mercantile speed and lack of catapults.
The two ships were the first Japanese carriers to incorporate a funnel as part of the island, though it was of strange aspect, canted outward at a sharp angle. Except for the nevercompleted Italian Aquila, this pair of carriers were the largest ever converted from mercantile hulls. Junyo's 53 aircraft could have had a decisive effect at Midway but the ship was engaged in the rather fruitless Aleutians diversion. At Santa Cruz in October 1942 her aircraft damaged the battleship USS South Dakota and a cruiser, playing also a significant role in the sinking of the carrier USS Hornet. The two sisters operated together as Kakuta's Carrier Division Two but, at the battle of the Philippine Sea, where Ozawa took on the vastly superior force of Mitscher's TF 58, the partnership was broken, the Junyo being heavily damaged by bombing and
Hiyo sunk after blowing up. The Hiyo had been struck by two torpedoes and was probably lost from the detonation of a build-up of vapour from leaking Avgas tanks. The/u.nyo, newly repaired, was torpedoed in December 1944 and, though she was not sunk, she never re-entered service, surviving to be one of the very few Japanese naval ships of any size to fall eventually into American hands.
Specification
'Junyo' class Displacement: 24,500 tons standard and 26,950 tons full load Dimensions: length 219,2 m (719 ft 2 in); beam 26.7 m (87 ft 7 in); draught 8.2 m (26 ft 11 in) Propulsion: geared steam turbines delivering 56,000 shp (41760 kW) to two shafts
Seen a t Sasebo after the surrender of Japan, Junyo displays the unusual funnel of the class. Converted from passenger liners, the two 'Junyo'class carriers were the first in Japanese service to fea ture a funnel on the island. Speed: 25 knots Armament: 12 127-mm (5-in) DP and 24 25-mm AA guns Aircraft: 53 Armour: none Complement: about 1,220 While their capacious liner hulls had room for two hangars, the 'Junyo' class vessels suffered from a lack of speed, and without catapults aircraft operations were hampered. Both were at the Battle of the Philippine Sea, Junyo being damaged and Hiyo sinlcing.
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JAPAN
Taiho In many ways technically the most advanced of the Japanese carriers, the Taiho was unique. In 1939 Japanese intelligence learned that the British 'Illustrious1 class carriers would have armoured decks, and so a new type of armoured carrier was planned under the Fourth Reinforcement Programme. The appalling carnage of Midway lent even more emphasis to the need for armoured flight decks, and two units more were ordered in 1942. The Japanese design differed considerably from the British 'box-hangar' concept, for only the flight deck was protected by 75-mm (3-in) armour, and then only between the lifts. There Probably the most advanced of all Japanese carriers, Taiho had an armoured night deck, enclosed bow and the la test in Ă&#x201E;A defences (including an air warning radar for the first time). Taiho vvas lost just before the Battle of the Philippine Sea.
were two hangars, the lower hangar being protected by 35mm (1.3 in) armour as well. Waterline armour was also provided but on a more lavish scale, 150mm (5.9 in) abreast of the magazines and 55 mm (2.2 in) over the machinery. All this armour involved a colossal topweight penalty, and to preserve stability the designers were forced to allow one less deck above the waterline, in comparison with the 'Shokaku' class. This meant that the lower hangar deck was just above the waterline, and the bottom of the liftwells was below the waterline. The opportunity was taken to use the latest defensive guns: a new highvelocity 100-mm (3.9-in) Type 98 twin mounting, For the first time an airwarning radar was included. It had been hoped to operate 84 aircraft, but only 75 could be spared by the time the ship was ready: the aircraft were available, but not sufficient aircrew. The new carrier, to be called Taiho,
was laid down in July 1941 and went to sea in March 1944, Immediately she joined Carrier Division 1, and was sent with the Shokaku andZwkaku to Singapore. As soon as her air group was trained CarDiv 1 was sent to Tawi Tawi in the southern Philippines to join the First Mobile Fleet. On 19 June, during the Battle of the Philippine Sea, the Taiho had just launched her aircraft when the American submarine Albacore fired a spread of six 21-in (533mm) torpedoes, one of which hit, Although her fuel tanks were ruptured, the Taiho lost only a little speed, and preparations were made to plank over the jammed forward lift, to permit flying operations to continue. But deadly gasoline vapour was spreading throughout the ship, and about 5 hours after the torpedo hits, some mischance (probably the switch on an electric pump) sparked off a colossal explosion, The armoured flight deck was split down the middle, the sides of the
hangar were blown out, and it seems that holes were blown through the keel. About 90 minutes later the remains of the Taiho sank, taking with her all but 500 of her crew,
Specification 'Unryu' class Displacement: 17,250 tons standard and 22,550 tons full load Dimensions: length 227.2 m (745 ft 5 in); beam 22.0 m (72 ft 2 in); draught 7.8 m (25 ft 7 in); flight deck dimensions 216.9 m (711 ft 7 in) by 27. Om (88 ft 7 in) Propulsion: geared steam turbines delivering 152,000 shp (113345 kW) in Unryu and 104,000 shp (77555 kW) in Aso andl<ateuragi to four shafts Speed: 34 kts for Unryu and 32 kts for Aso and Katsuragi
Unryu at sea in l 944. She was not destined to serve long, being sunk in December 1944 in the East China Sea. Two torpedoes from the American submarine USS Redfish sufficed to send her to the bottom.
Specification Taiho Displacement: 29,300 tons standard, 37,270 tons full load Dimensions: length 260.5 m (854 ft 8 in); beam 27.7 m (90 ft 10 in); draught 9.6 m (31 ft 6 in) Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 180,000 shp (134225kW) Speed: 33 Mi knots Armour: see text Armament: six twin 100-mm (3.9-in) AA and 15 triple 25-mm AA guns 1 Aircraft: 30 Yokosuka D4Y 'Judy divebombers, 27 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters and 18 Nakajima B6N Jill' torpedo-bombers Complement: 2,150 officers and men
JAPAN
'Unryu' class aircraft-carriers Like the Americans, the Japanese recognized that series production of a standard design was the only way of commissioning adequate numbers of good quality carriers in time to be of any use. To this end the basic 'Hiryu' design was modified and simplified, orders being placed at a variety of shipyards under the 1941-2 War Programme. Seventeen units of this 'Unryu' class were planned initially but, even though construction of some had started before Midway, the catastrophe of this battle convinced the Japanese that shorter-term solutions needed to be found in a variety of conversions. These seem to have enjoyed higher priorities in the cause of haste, and the 'Unryu' class programme slowed badly, eventually halting through lack of materials. In the event, only three were ever completed and three more launched. The three completed were theAmagi (August 1944), the Katsuragi (October 1944) and Unryu (August 1944); the three others launched were the Aso, Ikoma and Kasagi. The main differences between the 'Unryu' and the 'Hiryu' designs was an elevator less and an altered layout of main armament in the former. Though of about the same length, the 'Unryo' class ships gained stability through a greater beam yet, for some reason unknown, had a smaller aircraft capacity, For their size, The 'Unryu ' class were to have been a standard design, produced in quantity. Although 17 were planned, only three of the modified, simplified
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they were well protected over vitals. Like all larger 'regular' Japanese carriers, the 'Unryu' class units had a good turn of speed, having the same machinery as later heavy cruiser classes. With shortages biting, however, two of those launched had to take a couple of sets each of destroyer machinery. Despite a one-third reduction in power, the speed penalty was only a couple of knots. The Amagi was lost to air attack in Kure during July 1945, the Katsuragi survived and was surrendered (for scrapping in 1947) and the Unryu was sunk in December 1944 by a US submarine. 'Hiryu'design were built, with only Unryu being completed in time to get some war service.
Armament: 12 127-mm(5-in)DPand between 51 and 89 25-mm AA guns Aircraft: 64 Armour: belt 25-150 mm (1-5.9 in); deck 55 mm (2.17 in) Complement: 1,450
JAPAN
'Shinano' class aircraft-carrier The catastrophic loss of four carriers at Midway, solely from the attentions of aircraft from US carriers, convinced the Japanese not only that carriers were more useful than battleships, but also that they needed to increase their numbers as a matter of great urgency. Most of their ambitious programme of conversions date from this point, none of them more impressive than the Shinano Created from the incomplete third 'Yamato' class battleship, this giant displaced nearly 72,000 tons full load, a figure not eclipsed until the advent of the US post-war supercarriers. The hull was already fitted with a 200mm (7.87-in) armoured deck and vertical protection of the same order, and the ship's great beam (increased further by bulging) allowed for a flight deck
of 80-mm (3.15-in) thickness over most of its area. Despite the ship's size, her flight deck was over l m (3.3 ft) shorter than that of the Taiho of less than half the displacement, although it was far wider, Viewed probably as too slow to act as an attack carrier, Shinano was not even fitted with catapults and, although originally slated to have a small air group of 18 aircraft, she was completed to carry a still-undersized complement of 47. Her considerable stowage was looked upon mainly as a repair and re-supply facility for the front-line carriers. Like the Taiho, the Shinano had an integral funnel and island, but lacked the smaller ship's British-style 'hurricane bow'. Her shortcomings were, in
the event, of only academic interest, Not quite complete in time for the Japanese fleet's self-immolation at Leyte Gulf in October 1944, she transferred from Yokosuka to Kure for final fitting-out. On the way she was hit by a full spread of six torpedoes from an American submarine: her watertight subdivision still incomplete, she foundered from virtually uncontrolled flooding on 29 November. Specification 'Shinano' class Displacement: 64,000 tons standard and 71,900 tons full load Dimensions: length 265,8 m (872 ft); beam 36.3 m (119 ft); draught 10.3 m (33 ft 10 in); flightdeck 255,9 (839 ft 7 in) by 40.1m (131 ft 7 in)
Propulsion: geared steam turbines delivering 150,000 shp (111855 kW) to four shafts Speed: 27 kts
Armour: belt 205 mm (8.07 in); flight deck 80 mm (3.15 in); hangar deck 200 mm (7.87 in) Armament: 16 127-mm(5-in)DPand 145 25-mm AAguns, and 12 28-barrel AA rocket-launchers Aircraft: 18 (later 47) Complement: 2,400
By far the largest carrier of the war, Shinano was to have been the third 'Yamato' class battleship. Her small aircraft capacity and slow speed poin ted to her even tual role as repair andresupply vessel to fron t-line carriers, a role she was destined never to fulfil.
JAPAN
'Taiyo' class escort carrier Carriers were required by the Japanese for other than fleet purposes. Firstly, and with increasing urgency, for the defence of trade, This was a function that had been badly neglected prewar due to a lack of hard experience and the belief that the war that they would promote would be a short one, Secondly, for the training of large numbers of aircrew for carrier operations, a task for which first-line units could not be spared. Thirdly, for the ferrying of aircraft, a task made essential by the sheer size of the newly-acquired empire, which had airfields thousands of miles from the homeland itself. Like Western fleets, the Japanese navy rebuilt good-class mercantile tonnage into auxiliary carriers, particularly NYK ships, which had government-subsidized features built into them. The Taiyo was the first such example, converted from the Kasuga Maru in 1941 as the lead ship of the 'Taiyo' class, before the outbreak of the Pacific war. After a few months of evaluation, the similar rawata Maru and Nitta Maru were rebuilt into the Unyo and Chuyo respectively. Though The three 'Taiyo'class vessels were largely used for aircraft transport and training. Their heavy AĂ&#x201E; armament was to no avail, all three succumbing to submarine attacks from USS Rasher (which sank Taiyo), Barb (Unyo) and Sailfish (Chuyo).
of a larger size than Western escort carriers, none of them was equipped with arrester gear or catapults which, combined with their low speed, made aircraft launch and recovery difficult. All were lost to submarine torpedo attack within a space of 10 months between December 1943 and September 1944 having spent their lives engaged in auxiliary tasks. Probably for reasons of availability, the first of the class, the Taiyo, was armed with 120-mm (4.7-in) guns,
probably spare weapons from older destroyers. Specification 'Taiyo' class Displacement: 17,850 tons standard Dimensions: length 180. l m (590 ft 11 in); beam 22,5 m (73 ft 10 in); draught 8.0 m (26 ft 3 in); flight deck 171,9 m (564 ft)by 23,5 m(77 ft 1 in) Machinery: geared steam turbines delivering 25,200 shp (18790 kW) to twn shafts
Like theBritish and American fleets, Japan 's need for escort carriers was met by converting merchant hulls. Kaiyo, seen herein late 1943, was similar to the 'Taiyo'class conversions. Armament: eight 127-mm (5-in) DP (except Tai'yo, see text) and eight (later 22) 25-mm AA guns Aircraft: 27 Armour: none Complement: 800
469
American Aircraft Carriers The Pacific War was to a large extent the war of the aircraft carrier; from Pearl Harbor to Okinawa, it was the effective use of the carrier forces which proved decisive. For the first time, battles were fought with hundreds of miles of ocean between the combatants.
An early shot showing a biplane Corsair flying over USS Saratoga in 1929. With her sister USS Lexington, she played a major role in developing the concept of the fast carrier task force. rom the moment Japanese carrier aircraft struck at the US Pacific Fleet on 7 December 1941, a new era in naval warfare was horn. Although naval air power had already proved its ability to strike at an enemy fleet in its own harbours, Pearl Harbor was the dawn of carrier warfare across the broad oceans, in a way that prewar theorists had never imagined. The reason for this lay in the fact that the battleships with which aircraft carriers had been meant to fight were now sunk or
F
470
disabled. For at least six months the US Pacific Fleet could only take the offensive with its carriers, and so the concept of the fast carrier task force was created, using the carriers' dive-bombers and torpedo-bombers as long-range substitutes for the 4o6mm (loin) gun. Because the tactics and the aircraft were comparatively primitive, the first attempts by the US Navy to carry the war to the Japanese were barely effective, and there was little that could be done to stop the Japanese carriers from
overrunning the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies. The first pitched battle, in the Coral Sea, was fought in May 1942 to stop the Japanese from gaining a foothold in Port Moresby, New Guinea. It cost the Americans one of their biggest carriers, the USS Lexington, but the amphibious operation was called off after the small carrier Shoho was sunk. What distinguished the battle was that opposing fleets never saw each other: it was the first carrierversus-carrier battle.
A rash attempt by the Japanese to capture Midway Island brought on the next battle in June 1942, but superior American intelligence and much improved tactics made the Battle of Midway decisive. The Japanese lost their four front-line carriers in quick succession, and with them the best-trained aircrews in the world. In the months that followed the Japanese squandered the lives of their carrier aircrews faster than they could be replaced. Thus, when the Allies took the offensive by landing in the Solomons, the Battles of the Eastern Solomons and the Santa Cruz islands thinned the ranks of Japanese naval pilots to a fatal degree. In contrast the US Navy replaced lost pilots with thousands of new aircrew and a generation of more powerful aircraft. In June 1944 the US assault on the Marianas brought on another great carrier battle, the PhilippineSea. The 'Great Marianas Turkey Shoot' saw the slaughter of hundreds of semi-skilled pilots, and when four months later the remnants of the Imperial Navy were flung into the Battle of Leyte Gulf there were hardly any pilots left for the carriers. From October 1944 the survivors of the oncemighty force were sunk at their moorings in Japan, unable to move because of the total lack of fuel.
USA
USS Langley The potential of naval aviation was so clearly seen at the end of World War I that the US Navy wanted to press ahead with the construction of aircraft carriers. But to gain practical experience before building new ships it was essential to carry out experiments, and the quickest and cheapest way was to convert an existing ship. The big fleet collier Jupiter (AC. 3) was taken in hand in March 1920. A month later she was renamed USS Langley (CV. 1) and started trials in July 1922, The ship which emerged was flush-decked, with two hinged funnels on the port side, The former coal holds had been converted to workshops, accommodation and storerooms, while the former upper deck was now the hangar. The biggest drawback to the Langley was her low speed, for the 5335-kW (7,150-shp) turbo-electric machinery was badly underpowered. In service the Langley could only make 14 knots, which was some 7 knots below the speed of the battle fleet. However in spite of this handicap she served with the fleet, and for five years she played the role which was to be taken over so successfully by the Lexington and Saratoga from 1928 onwards. Although originally designed to operate 24 aircraft, her capacious hangar allowed a maximum of 33 to be accommodated. She did not stop operating aircraft until 1936, when she was converted to a seaplane carrier and redesignated AV.3. After a short refit she reappeared in April 1937 with a short flight deck, as the forward part had been removed. One most important contributions made to naval aviation by the Langley was to test various systems of arrester
gear. When she was first commissioned she had a British system of longitudinal wires, which were intended to engage hooks in the landing gear of the aircraft, and prevent it from slewing from side to side. However, the US Navy added a back-up system of transverse wires, whose retarding action was achieved by hanging sand-filled shellcases on the ends. This system (refined into a proper hydraulic arrester system) ultimately proved better, and is the basis of all modern carrier landings. Another innovation was a pair of flush-mounted pneumatic catapults on the flight deck; intended for seaplanes, they later proved that they could speed up the launching of con-
ventional aircraft, and like the arrester gear, this procedure is still standard today. The veteran 'Covered Wagon' spent her short war service as a humble aircraft transport. On 27 February 1942 a group of Japanese naval bombers operating from Bali caught her en route for Tjilatjap in Java, and sank her with five bombs.
Specification
USS Langley (CV.l) Displacement: 11,050 tons standard, 14,700 tons full load Dimensions: length 165,3 m (542 ft 4 in) overall; beam 19.96m (65ft 6 in); draught 7.32m (24ft 0 in)
The old Langley, vvith the forward part of her Hight deck removed, served as a seaplane carrier from 1936. In her short wartime career, the first US aircraft carrier h umbly acted as an aircraft transport until sunk by Japanese bombers in February 1942.
Machinery: 1-shaft steam turboelectric delivering 5335 kW (7,150 shp) Speed: 14 knots Armour: none Armament: four 127-mm (5-in) guns Aircraft: (1923) 30 fighters Complement: 410 officers and enlisted men
USA
USS Lexington Under the Washington Treaty the US Navy was allowed to convert two incomplete 33,000-ton battle-cruisers into aircraft-carriers. The ships chosen were the Lexington and Saratoga, and the opportunity was taken to incorporate many ideas from a cancelled carrier design of 1919. When completed in 1925 the USS Lexington (CV.2) was a remarkable ship, with a massive 'island' superstructure on the starboard side, flanked by two twin 203-mm (8in) gun turrets forward and two aft, At the time of Pearl Harbor the ship was delivering aircraft to the US Marines on Midway Island, and so escaped the disaster. She was hurriedly refitted, losing her cumbersome 203-mm (8-in) guns and four 127-mm (5-in) guns, although she received a few single 20-mm Oerlikon guns to supplement her meagre close-range anti-aircraft armament. The Lexington's first operation was an abortive attempt to relieve Wake Island immediately after Pearl Harbor, but at the end of January 1942 she provided distant cover for a raid on the
Marshall Islands and thereafter saw limited action in the South West Pacific. Not until she was joined by the newer carrier Yorktown in March 1942 did the Lexington really begin to flex her muscles. After a short refit at Pearl Harbor the ship returned to the Coral Sea, where the Japanese carriers were supporting an attack on Port Moresby, New Guinea. On 8 May her Douglas SBD Dauntless dive-bombers attacked the Shokaku and Zuikaku, but without scoring any hits. Unfortunately while this attack was in progress a Japanese counter-strike succeeded in hitting the Lexington with two torpedoes on the port side, and the ship also suffered two bomb hits and several near misses. The 'whip' of the 270.7 -m (888-ft)
hull from the explosions ruptured the aviation gasoline tanks, so that even after the fires had been extinguished the lethal vapour continued to seep through the ship. About an hour after the attack a chance spark ignited this vapour, and the ship began to suffer a series of devastating internal explosions. Six hours after the first hit the order was given to abandon ship, and after escorting destroyers had rescued as many of her crewmen as possible the blazing wreck was torpedoed. Surprisingly only 216 lives out of 2,951 were lost. In her short war career the Lexington had failed to inflict severe damage on the enemy, largely as a result of the inexperience of her air group and because of faulty tactical US Navy doctrine, and the loss of a big carrier was a heavy price to pay for the Coral Sea victory.
Specification USS Lexington (CV.2) Displacement: 36,000 tons standard, 47,700 tons full load Dimensions: length 270.66m (888ft 0 in) overall; beam 39.62 m (130 ft 0 in) over flight deck; draught 9,75 m (32 ft Oin) Machinery: 4-shaft steam turboelectric delivering 1 5 6 6 6 0 k W (210,000 shp) Speed: 34 knots Armour: belt 152 mm (6 in); flight deck 25 mm (1 in); main deck 51 mm (2 in); lower deck 25-76 mm (1-3 in); turrets 38-76 mm (IVfe-Sin); barbettes 152 mm (6 in) Armament: (in 1942) eight 127-mm (5in) AA, 30 20-mm AA and six quadruple 27.94-mm (1.1-in) AA guns Aircraft: (1942) 22 fighters, 36 divebombers and 12 torpedo-bombers Complement: 2,951 officers and enlisted men To encase the uptakes from 16 boilers, the Lexington and Saratoga vvere each given a massive funnel. Both ships had their 8-inch guns removed at the outbreak of World War II, and Saratoga was considerably altered in appearance by 1945.
471
USA
USS Saratoga Like her sister Lexington, the USS Saratoga (CV.3) was launched in 1925 after three years of conversion from an incomplete battle-cruiser hull. Like her sister she played a major role in developing the concept of the fast carrier task force, and from 1928 the two ships took part in the annual 'Fleet Problem' or war game of the Pacific Fleet. At the time of Pearl Harbor the 'Sara' was back at San Diego on the US west coast undergoing a short refit, but she sailed shortly afterwards and took part with her sister 'Lex' in an abortive attempt to relieve Wake Island. During her refit the four twin 203-mm (8-in) turrets were removed, and in their place she received four twin 127-mm (5-in) dual-purpose mountings. She was torpedoed by a Japanese submarine off Hawaii, on 11 January 1942, and needed four months of repairs. The 'Sara' was used to ferry fresh aircraft out to the Central Pacific, and so missed the Battle of Midway, but she was a welcome reinforcement by 8 June, the day after the sinking of the Yorktown. Her fighters and divebombers were given the task of softening up the defences of Guadalcanal on 7 August 1942 before the big amphibious landing by the US Marines. The Japanese responded vigorously to this challenge, and by 20 August a powerful carrier task force was nearing the Eastern Solomons, The Saratoga, Enterprise and Wasp were heavily engaged in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons, but ihe 'Sara' escaped lightly, Not until 31 August did she sustain damage, when she was torpedoed by the submarine 1-68 just after dawn. The carrier was not badly damaged by the hit, in spite of having one boiler room flooded and another partly flooded, but an electrical failure soon put her machinery out of action. Two hours later she got back limited
The USS Saratoga (CV.3) in March 1932 with a large part of her air group at the forward end of the night deck. She and her sister 'fought' each other in annual manoeuvres. power, and reached Pearl Harbor six days later; repairs took six weeks to complete. In 1943-4 the Saratoga took part in the great 'island-hopping' drive across the Pacific, and in 1944 was detached to the East Indies, where she cooperated with the British and Free French in attacking Japanese positions in Java and Sumatra. On 21 February 1945 she was hit by a kamikaze while supporting the landings on Iwo Jima. By now she was showing her age, and although repaired was restricted to training duties at Pearl Harbor, On 25 July 1946 the stripped hull of the Saratoga was sunk in Bikini Atoll during a series of nuclear tests. Specification USS Saratoga (CV.3) Displacement: 36,000 tons standard, 47,700 tons full load Dimensions: length 270.66m (888ft 0 in) overall; beam 32.2 m (105 ft 6 in) hull; draught 9.75 m (32 ft 0 in) Machinery: 4-shaft steam turboelectric delivering 156660kW (210,000shp) Speed: 34 knots Armour: belt 152 mm (6 in); flight deck 25 mm (1 in); main deck 51 mm (2 in); lower deck 25-76 mm (1-3); barbettes 152 mm (6 in) Armament: (in 1945) eight twin 127-mm (5-in) dual-purpose, 24 quadruple 40mm Bofors AA, two twin 40-mm AA and 16 20-mm AA guns Aircraft: (1945) 57 fighters and 18 torpedo-bombers Complement: (1945) 3,373 officers and enlisted men
'Sara'in September 1944, painted in Camouflage Measure 32/11 A. Twin 5inch and light AA guns have
replaced the 8-inch guns. Despite her age she was still the biggest US carrier, if not the most capacious.
transferred to the Pacific after Pearl Harbor. Under Rear Admiral Frank J. Fletcher she was sent to the South West Pacific in the spring of 1942 and took part in the Battle of the Coral Sea. Her Air Group 5, comprising 20 Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters, 38 Douglas SBD Dauntless dive-bombers and 13 Douglas TBD Devastator torpedobombers, played a major role in the battle, sinking the light carrier Shoho in a brilliant attack lasting only 10 minutes, On the next day, 8 May, her dive-bombers inflicted damage on the carrier Zuikaku, but in return a force of Nakajima B5N 'Kate' torpedo-bombers and Aichi D3A 'Val' dive-bombers penetrated a dense screen of fighters and gunfire to score a devastating hit
on the flight deck. The bomb went through three decks before exploding, and numerous fires were started. The damage control parties brought the fires under control, and the ship was able to return to Pearl Harbor for repairs. Working around the clock, the repair teams were able to get Yorktown back in action in only four days, just in time for the Battle of Midway in June 1942. At a crucial point in the battle YorktowrĂŹs dive-bombers took part in the attack on the Japanese carriers, and her aircraft were the only ones able to mount a search for the surviving Japanese carrier Hiryu. Even after the Yorktown was hit by three 250-kg (551Ib) bombs she was able to operate her aircraft, and it was not until she was hit by two torpedoes that she was fully out of action.
The Yorktown might have survived even this heavy damage, for by first light on 6 June salvage parties had put out the fires and had started to pump out flooded compartments. But the submarine l-l68 put two more torpedoes into her, and early next morning she capsized and sank.
USA
USS Yorktown The USS Yorktown (CV.5) was the lead-ship of a new class of aircraftcarrier authorized out of President Roosevelt's Public Works Administration, the Federal unemployment relief agency. She and her sister Enterprise (CV.6) were authorized in 1933, and were followed by the Hornet (CV.8) five years later. The design was a development of that of the Ranger, with an 'open' hangar rather than the 'closed' type of the Lexington and Saratoga, to allow up to 80 aircraft to be carried. This arrangement proved highly successful, and formed the basis for the even more successful 'Essex1 class. The ship was commissioned in September 1937, and was hurriedly The Yorktown (CV.5) and her sisters were prototypes for the successful 'Essex' class. Much smaller than the 'Lexingtons', they could actually carry more aircraft.
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Specification USS Yorktown (CV.8) Displacement: 19,800 tons standard, 27,500 tons full load Dimensions: length 246.7 m (809 ft 6 in) overall; beam 25,3m (83ft 0 in); draught 8.53 m (28 ft) Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines d e l i v e r i n g 8 9 5 2 0 k W (120,000shp) Speed: 33 knots Armour: belt 102 mm (4 in); main deck 76 mm (3 in); lower deck 25-76 mm (13 in) Armament: (1942) eight 127-mm (0.5in) AA, four quadruple 27.94-mm (1,1in) AA and 16 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns Aircraft: (1942) 20 fighters, 3^8 -divebombers and 13 torpedo-bombers Complement: 2,919 officers and enlisted men
USA
USS Enterprise Easily the most distinguished carrier of the Pacific War, the 'Big E' played a major role in the US Navy's victory and epitomized the new type of warfare. The USS Enterprise (CV.6) was the second of the 'Yorktowri class, and joined the Pacific Fleet in 1938. Fortunately she and the other two carriers of the Pacific Fleet were away from Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 when the Japanese attacked. When they returned to Oahu they were immediately put into the front line, for the battle fleet no longer existed, Three days afterwards ihe Enterprise's aircraft sank the submarine 1-170, the first Japanese submarine to be destroyed, The Enterprise escorted her sister Hornet on the Tokyo Raid in April 1942 but did not embark B-25 bombers as her aircraft were to be used to sink the Japanese early warning picket line. Neither carrier was back in time for the Battle of the Coral Sea in the following month, but they joined the Yorktown in time for Midway in June. Here the Douglas SBD Dauntlesses from the Enterprise sank the carriers Kaga and Akagi, and Yorktown's Dauntlesses flying off Enterprise's deck joined the group which sank the Hiryu. Two days later the Enterprise's dive-bombers sank the heavy cruisr Mikuma and damaged the cruiser Mogami and two destroyers. The .Enterprise covered the Guadalcanal landings in August 1942, and her aircraft shot down 17 Japanese aircraft in two days. During the Battle of the Eastern Solomons on 24 August she was hit by three bombs, and returned to Pearl Harbor for two months' repairs. In the Battle of Santa Cruz on 26 October she once again took three hits, but was still able to operate her aircraft, and as she was now the only US carrier left she had to remain in the forward area, On 13 November her Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo-
bombers finished off the damaged battleship Hiei, and next day devastated a troop convoy of 11 ships with no fewer than 26 bomb and'six torpedo hits, Enterprise was finally given lengthy repairs in the United States and did not return to the Pacific until mid-1943. On 25 November 1943 one of her Avengers achieved the world's first night 'kill' at sea, She took part in the massive strike on Truk in February 1944, and in the famous 'Marianas Turkey Shoot' during the Battle of the Philippine Sea the following June. She continued in action into 1945, surviving two lcamikaze attacks. A third kamikaze strike on 14 May finally brought her career to an end, for she had to return to the United States for major repairs, As the holder of 19 Battle Stars the 'Big E' was a candidate for preservation as a memorial, but efforts to save her came to nothing and in 1958 she was sold for scrap, releasing her name for the first nuclear carrier.
Right: The USS Enterprise (CV.6) with aircraft ranged on the after part of the fligh t deck. No Hying opera tions are in progress; the crewmen are clearly relaxing on deck.
Below:Hellcats spotted on the port and starboard catapults. Although aircraft could take off in the ordinary way, catapulting them speeded up the launch of a large strike and enabled more of the flight deck to be used.
Specification USS Enterprise (CV.6) Displacement: 19,800 tons standard, 25,500 tons full load Dimensions: length 246.74m (809ft 6 in; beam 34.75m (114ft 0 in) over flight deck; draught 8.84 m (29 ft 0 in) Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 8 9 5 2 0 k W (120,000shp) Speed: 33 knots Armour: belt 102 mm (4 in); main deck 76 mm (3 in); lower deck 25-76 mm (13 in) Armament: (1942) eight 127-mm (5-m) AA, four quadruple 27.94-mm (1.1-in) AA and 16 12.7mm (0.5-in) machineguns Aircraft: (1942) 27 fighters, 37 divebombers and 15 torpedo-bombers Complement: 2,919 officers and enlisted men
USA
USS Hornet Although she was the third member of the 'Yorktown' class, the USS Hornet (CV.8) was authorized some years after her sisters. She commissioned on 20 October 1940, seven weeks before Pearl Harbor. After a shakedown cruise with her air group in the Caribbean in J a n u a r y 1942 the ship embarked the first twin-engine North American B-25 bombers for the famous Doolittle Raid on Tokyo, After two months of intensive trials and training the Hornet left for the Pacific on 2 April, carrying 16 B-25 Mitchell bombers. The raid on 18 April took the Japanese completely by surprise, and most of the bombers reached China safely. The Hornet's next assignment was the Battle of Midway, on 4-6 June 1942. Although her air group lost all its Douglas TBD Devastator torpedobombers and five Grumman TBF Avengers in an unsuccessful strike, and failed to hit the Japanese carrier Hiryu in a second strike, on the last day of the battle it made amends by sinking the damaged heavy cruiser Mikuma and inflicting severe damage on her sister Mogami. The Hornet was ferrying US Marine Corps fighters at the time of the Guadalcanal landings in August 1942, but after landing her aircraft she joined the Wasp and Saratoga in the covering
force. Although withdrawn to Espiritu Santo to avoid being sunk by submarines, she sortied early in October to attack Japanese targets, and on 25 October met the Japanese carriers once more, in the Battle of Santa Cruz. On 26 October, after the two sides had located one another, the two American carriers launched an air strike (a total of 158 aircraft), while the four Japanese carriers launched most of their 207 aircraft. But while the Hornet's torpedo-bombers and divebombers were on their way, 27 Japanese strike aircraft broke through the fighter screen and scored six bomb and two torpedo hits on the Hornet. Although heroic efforts were made to extinguish the fires and get the carrier under way, four hours later another Japanese strike scored a torpedo hit and two more bomb hits. By now the American destroyers screening the Hornet were dangerously exposed, with the Japanese searching for them in the darkness. The decision was taken to scuttle the Hornet, but to the Americans' dismay several torpedoes failed to detonate, and a total of 430 127-mm (5-in) shells fired at the carrier's waterline had no appreciable effect. The waterlogged hulk was abandoned, but the Japanese found it impossible to tow her, and finally two Japanese destroyers gave the Hornet her death-blow in the early hours of 27 October.
Specification
USS Hornet (CV.8) Displacement: 19,000 tons standard, 29,100 tons full load Dimensions: length 252.2 m (827 ft 5 in overall; beam 34.8 m (114 ft 2 in) over flight deck; draught 8.84 m (29 ft 0 in) Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 89520 kW ( 120,000 shp) Speed: 33 knots Armour: belt 64-102 mm (21/a-4in); main deck 76 mm (3 in); lower deck 25-76 mm (1-3 in)
Armament: (1942) eight 127mm (5-in) AA, four quadruple 27.94-mm (1,1-in) AA, 30 20-mm AA and nine 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns Aircraft: (1942) 36 fighters, 36 divebombers and 15 torpedo-bombers Complement: 2,919 officers and enlisted men The new carrier Hornet (CV.8) on trials in 1941. She was commissioned seven weeks before Pearl Harbor and left for the Pacific in March 1942.
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USA
USS Wasp Under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty the US Navy was restricted to 135,000 tons of aircraftcarriers, and so could only build a further 14,700 tons of carriers after the completion of Lexington, Saratoga, Ranger, Yorktown and Enterprise. Thus in 1935 an improved version of the Ranger was ordered, also with modest speed and light armour but big aircraft capacity. The opportunity was taken to eradicate the worst faults of the Ranger, and the new carrier was given a proper island superstructure and better compartmentation. The USS IVasp (CV.7) was commissioned in April 1941, and from the autumn ofthat year was in the Atlantic on training duties. Late in March 1942 she went to the Mediterranean to ferry RAF Spitfires to Malta. At the beginning of July she left San Diego for the Pacific and took part in the Guadalcanal landings, where her aircraft flew more than 300 sorties. She missed the Battle of the Eastern Solomons as she had been detached to refuel, and she returned to Noumea to take on board a consignment of fighter aircraft for the US Marines on Guadalcanal, Early in the afternoon of 15 September 1942 the Wasp flew off her fighters, but shortly afterwards she was hit by three torpedoes fired by the Japanese submarine 1-19. Two of the torpedoes struck her on the port side near the aviation gasoline tanks, while the third
struck higher up and damaged the refuelling system, which had already been ruptured. The ship was very quickly gutted by fire and explosions, which proved impossible to contain as the torpedo detonations had also ruptured the fire mains. In less than an hour the order to abandon ship was given, and she continued to burn for another 3 Vz hours; finally the destroyer Lansdowne was ordered to sink her, and four torpedoes were fired. The Wasp proved the least battle-
worthy of all American carriers, and her loss provided important lessons for the future. A board of enquiry showed that the majority of the damage was caused by the third torpedo-hit, for the first two hits had left the machinery and auxiliary power undamaged. However, the shock of the explosions and the 'whip' of the hull had knocked out electrical switchboards and the damage control organization. Thereafter a series of subsidiary explosions of bombs, torpedoes, ammunition and aircraft fuel tanks wrecked the ship.
The Wasp (CV.7) at Pearl H arbor on 8 August 1942, a month before she was sunk.
the Fast Carrier Task Force, with the Enterprise and Saratoga and the light fleet carriers of the 'Independence' class, In the spring of 1944 the Essex was withdrawn for a short refit, but returned to join Task Group 12,1 for the raid on the Marcus Islands. Later she formed part of the famous Task Group 38.3 in Task Force 38. On 25 November 1944, while supporting the Leyte Gulf landings, she was hit on the port side by a kamikaze, suffering 15 dead and 44 wounded, and had to be withdrawn for repairs. However, she was back in action after only three weeks. In 1945 the Essex returned to TF 38, and took part in the attacks on Lingayen, Formosa, Sakishima Gunto and Okinawa. With TF 58 she took part in the final assault on Japan, and was one of the enormous fleet mustered in Tokyo Bay for the Japanese surrender in August 1945. On her return the battered carrier received her first full repairs and was put into reserve. In retrospect, the 'Essex' design proved ideal for the Pacific. It was seaworthy and had the endurance needed to cover the enormous distances involved, not only for itself but for its aircraft. Despite its 'open' hangars, the class proved surprisingly rugged, and during the first 14 months
in action only three units of the class were damaged by enemy action; apart from the Franklin (CV, 13) all returned to active service after sustaining severe battle damage.
Speed: 33 knots Armour: belt 64-102 mm (2V2-4in); flight deck 38mm (IVsin); hangar deck 76 mm (3 in); main deck 38 mm (IVain); turrets and barbettes 38mm (IVain) Armament: (1943) 12 127-mm (5-in) AA, 11 quadruple 40-mm bofors AA, and 44 20-mm AA guns Aircraft: (1943) 6 fighters, 36 divebombers and 18 torpedo-bombers Complement: 3,240 officers and enlisted men
Port profile of the Wasp. Her tall funnel made her unique among US carriers.
Specification USS Wasp (CV.7) Displacement: 14,700 tons standard, 20,500 tons full load Dimensions: length 225.93m (741ft 3 in) overall; beam 24.61 m (80 ft 9 in); draught 8.53m (28ft 0 in) Machinery: 2-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 5 5 9 5 0 k W (75,000shp) Speed: 29 Vz knots Armour: belt 102 mm (4 in); main and lower decks 38 mm (\l/z in) Armament: (1942) eight 127-mm (5-m) AA, four quadruple 27.94-mm (1,1-in) AA and 30 20-mm AA guns Aircraft: (1942) 29 fighters, 36 divebombers and 15 torpedo-bombers Complement: 2,367 officers and enlisted men
USA
USS Essex The 'Essex' class can claim to be the most cost-effective and successful aircraft-carriers ever built. The specification, issued in June 1939, was for an improved 'Yorktown' class, but with displacement increased by 7,000 tons to provide stronger defensive armament, thicker armour, more power and above all, more aviation fuel. With more than 6,300 tons of oil fuel the endurance was 27360km (17,000 miles) at 20 knots, while 690 tons of gasoline and 220 tons of ammunition pushed up the number of sorties which could be flown. Above all, the same number of aircraft could be earned, although in practice many more could be carried; the nominal strength was 82 but by 1945 108 of the latest aircraft could be embarked. Eleven of the class were ordered in 1940 and a further 13 were built during World War II. Building times were extremely short; USS Essex (CV.9) was built in 20 months, and the wartime average was cut to YlVz months, The lead-ship of her class, the Essex reached the Pacific in May 1943, by which time the worst was over, but she saw considerable heavy fighting with 474
Specification
USS Essex (CV.9) Displacement: 27,100 tons standard, 33,000 tons full load Dimensions: length 267.21m (876ft 8 in) overall; beam 45.0 m (147 ft 8 in) over flight deck; draught 8.69 m (28 ft 6 in) Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 111900kW (ISO.OOOshp)
USS Essex being fitted out at Pearl Harbor in 1942.
USA
USS Franklin The fifth unit of the 'Essex' class was authorized in 1940 but was not started until a year after Pearl Harbor as there were no slipways of the right length available. However, her builders, Newport News Shipbuilding Company, made up for the delay by completing her in less than 14 months. The USS Franklin (CV. 13) was commissioned at the end of January 1944 and joined Task Group 58.2 exactly six months later for an attack on the Bonin Islands. From then on she was constantly in action: during an attack on Formosa and the Ryukyus in October she was hit by a bomber which crashed on deck, and two days later her deck-edge lift was hit by a bomb which killed three men, During the Battle of Surigao Strait on 24 October 1944 the Franklin's aircraft sank a destroyer, and then attacked the giant battleship Musashi in the Sibuyan Sea, On the next day, during the Battle of Cape Engano, they crip-
pled the light carrier Chiyoda and finished off the Zuikaku, The Franklin's run of good luck ended on 30 October, While defending the Leyte Gulf landing area she and the light carrier were attacked by five kamikaze aircraft which had broken through the fighter screen: she lost 56 dead and 60 wounded, while 33 aircraft were destroyed by the fire which followed. She had to return to Bremerton Navy Yard for major repairs, and did not return to active service until February 1945. As part of TF 58 the Franklin attacked Kyushu in the Japanese home islands on 18 March. On the next day two Yokosuka D4Y Judy' bombers made a daring low-level attack, and hit the Franklin with two 250-kg (551-lb) bombs just as she was preparing her The Franklin (CV. 13) was gutted by fire after being hit by bombs off Kyushu on 19March 1945, butstillgot home.
second strike, At first the damage did not seem serious for the bombs had not penetrated below the hangar deck, but as the aircraft caught fire their bombs and rockets, as well as the spare ordnance in the hangar, started to explode. Toxic smoke was drawn through the ship's ventilation system, with the result that many of the 724 dead were suffocated (another 265 were wounded), The ship lay dead in the water for three hours as the engine rooms and boiler rooms could not be manned, Finally the fires were put out and on the next day the Franklin was able to get up steam once again. She limped back to Pearl Harbor and then across the Pacific to New York Navy Yard for lengthy repairs. She did not reappear until after the end of the war, and never returned to full commission, being laid up permanently in reserve in February 1947.
Specification USSFranWin (CV.13) Displacement: 27,100 tons standard, 36,500 tons full load Dimensions: length 267.21m (867ft 8 in); beam 45.0m (147ft 8 in) over flight deck; draught 9.40 m (30 ft 10 in) Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 111900kW (150,000shp) Speed: 33 knots Armour: belt 64-102 mm (2V2-3in); flight deck 38mm (IVain); hangar deck 76 mm (3 in); main deck 38 mm (IVain); turrets and barbettes 38mm (IVfein) Aircraft: (1945) 74 fighters, 15 divebombers and 30 torpedo-bombers. Complement: 3,240 officers and enlisted men
the Princeton. The bombs passed through three decks before exploding, and the blast started fierce fires in the hangar. Six armed Avengers caught fire, and their torpedoes exploded, adding to the carnage. At 10.10, about half an hour after the attack, other ships were ordered alongside to take off all but essential firefighters and damage control personnel. The light cruisers Birmingham and Reno lay alongside, pumping water and providing power for pumps, and all the while ships and friendly aircraft fought off Japanese air attacks. At 14,45 it appeared that all fires were out, but at 15.23 the Princeton blew up in a huge explosion. The blast swept the crowded decks of the Birmingham, killing 229 men and wounding another 420; the carrier herself had over 100 men killed and 190 injured. Surprisingly the shattered hulk of the Princeton was still afloat, but wrecked beyond any hope of salvage. At 16.00 she was abandoned and the cruiser Reno was ordered to sink her with two torpe-
does, after the destroyer Irwin had missed her with four.
Although cleaned up, the Franklin still shows her battle scars on her return to the USA. She was never recommissioned.
USA
USS Princeton To meet the acute shortage of carriers after Pearl Harbor the US Navy decided to complete nine 'Cleveland' class light cruisers as carriers. The Amsterdam (CL.59), Tallahassee (CL.61), New Haven (CL.76), Huntington (CL.77), Dayton (CL.78), Fargo (CL.85), Wilmington (CL.79), Buffalo (CL.99) and Newark (CL. 100) thus bec a m e t h e U S S Independence (CVL.22), Princeton (CVL.23), Ă&#x;elleau Wood (CVL.24), Cowpens (CVL.25), Monterey (CVL.26), Langley (CVL.27), Cabot (CVL.28), Bataan (CVL.29) and Sanjacmto (CVL.30), Although it was an ingenious conversion, the results were disappointing, for the small hangar (65.5 m/215 ft by 17.7 m/58 ft) could accommodate fewer aircraft than that of the 'Sangamon' class CVEs, 33 instead of the 45 planned. However, this The Princeton (CVL.23) was converted on the stocks from the hull of the light cruiser Tallahassee. Although cramped, the CVLs were fast and could keep up with the Fast Carrier Groups. Later they operated night fighters.
'Independence' class had the speed to keep up with the fast carriers, and that fact kept its members in the front line. The USS Princeton was commissioned late in February 1943, just over a month after the lead-ship Independence. She arrived at Pearl Harbor in August 1943 and began exercising with the new Essex and Yorktown. They launched their first strike on 1 September against Marcus Island. Five weeks later she and two sisters joined in a successful raid on Wake Island. During the Battle of Leyte Gulf the Princeton was part of Task Group 38.3, in the main Fast Carrier Group, On the morning of 24 October 1944 a lone Yokosuka D4Y 'Judy' bomber came out of cloud cover and dropped two 250kg (551-lb) bombs on the flight deck of
Specification USS Princeton (CVL.23) Displacement: 11,000 tons standard, 14,300 tons full load Dimensions: length 189.74m (622ft 6 in) overall; beam 33,3 in (109 ft 3 in) over flight deck; draught 7.92 m (26 ft Oin) Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 7 4 6 0 0 k W (lOO.OOOshp) Speed: 31 Vz knots Armour: belt 38-127 mm (IVa-S-m); main deck 76 mm (3 in); lower deck 51 mm (2 in) Armament: (1943) two 127-mm (5-in) AA, two quadruple 40-mm Bofors AA, nine twin 40-mm Bofors AA and 12 20mm AA guns Aircraft: (1943) 24 Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters and nine Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo-bombers Complement: 1,569 officers and enlisted men
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USA
USS Bogue The urgent need for air cover for convoys in the Battle of the Atlantic was met by converting mercantile hulls into small aircraft-carriers, In the summer of 1941 both the British and the Americans converted merchantmen into the first experimental 'escort carriers' or CVEs, and when these proved their worth orders went out for the first production class of 21 CVEs from US shipyards. Of these 11 went straight to the Royal Navy as the Attacker1 class, while the remainder became the US Navy's 'Bogue' class. Being conversions of partially completed hulls, the 'Bogue' class was a great improvement on the prototypes, and had a full-length hangar, with two centreline lifts. The USS Bogue (CVE. 9) and her sisters Card (CVE.ll) and Core (OVE, 13) even had two catapults. They earned 28 aircraft, and the Bogue was launched in January 1942. With a good outfit of air-warning radar and more space than the destroyers and frigates, the escort carriers made good flagships for 'hunter-killer' or anti-submarine support groups, which were being established in the autumn of 1942. The Bogue and her
support group sank no fewer than 13 U-boats, while planes from her sisters Card, Core, Block Island and Croatan helped to sink another 20. The USS Bogue joined the Atlantic Fleet in February 1943 as the Battle of the Atlantic reached crisis point. On her fourth crossing of the Atlantic her aircraft sank their first U-boat; two more followed on her next trip. On the seventh cruise, late in July 1943, her aircraft sank one U-Boat, and one of her escorting destroyers sank another, The worst point of the battle was now over, and the tide had turned against the U-boats. The hunter-killer groups could not take the offensive against U-boats farther out in the Atlantic, and in November-December 1943 the Bogue and her group accounted for three U-boats. After a short break early in 1944 to ferry aircraft to the UK she returned to submarine-hunting, and in March helped to sink U-575. Three more U-boats were sunk by September 1944, when the Bogue returned to the United States for a period on training duties, Her last hunterkiller mission in April 1945 accounted for the last of 13 U-Boats, U-546, when
she was operating as part of Captain G. J. Dufek's Second Barrier Force. In the closing months of the war the Bogue was sent to the Pacific, ferrying aircraft and stores to outlying garrisons, but with the collapse of Japan she was re-assigned to the Magic Carpet' operations, ferrying PoWs and servicemen back to the United States.
Specification
USS Bogue (CVE.9) Displacement: 11,000 tons standard, Port profile of the 'Bogue'class, showing the ex-mercantile hull clearly. Despite their austere design they were a grĂŠa t success, particularly in anti-submarine warfare in the A tlan tic.
i ISA
USS Sangamon The conversion of escort carriers was given top priority in 1942, but the rate at which these useful utility carriers could be brought into service was limited by the number of hulls available, Four newly-built US Navy oilers, the Sangamon (AO.28), Santee (AO.29), Chenango (AO.31) and Suwannee (AO.33), were taken out of commission in January 1942, reclassified as AVGs (Aircraft Escort Vessels) and were immediately stripped of superstructures and fittings for a conversion lasting six to eight months. Despite being an adaptation, the 'Sangamon' class was more successful than the earlier escort carriers, being larger and faster. Designed as tankers, they had their machinery right aft, and thus the small smoke-ducts caused The Sangamon's port profile shows her tanker origin, with the original well deck marked by large openings in the sides. Being fast and capacious, they were the most successful of all the CVE conversions.
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less interference with flying operations. Provision was made for two catapults, although the second unit was not installed until 1944, and a number of large openings in the sides provided good ventilation for the hangar. The Santee (AVG.29, later CVE. 29) was the first to be commissioned, on 24 August 1942, followed a day later by the USS Sangamon (CVE.26); the Suwannee (CVE. 27) was commissioned on 24 September, five days after the Chenango (CVE.28). The acute shortage of carriers in late 1942 and early 1943, combined with their good turn of speed and aircraft capacity meant that these new carriers were used with the main fleet more than other CVEs, and frequently operated together. All four supported the land-
ings in North Africa in October and November 1942, and then transferred to the Pacific, where they operated with CarDiv 22 in the South Pacific, The Santee returned to the Atlantic in March 1943, operating south of the Azores and off the coast of Brazil with a hunter-killer group, but rejoined her sisters in the Pacific in February 1944, as the great 'island-hopping' drive across the Pacific got under way. All four took part in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, forming 'Taffy One' (under Rear Admiral Thomas L. Sprague) as part of Task Group 77.4, On 25 October the Santee was badly damaged by a kamikaze attack, and shortly afterwards by a torpedo hit from the submarine 7-56, but managed to survive. Then a kamikaze hit the Suwannee, having missed the Sangamon. In spite of these hits all three were operational by the spring of 1945. The Sangamon was badly damaged by a kamikaze hit off Okinawa on 4 May 1945, and lost 11 dead, 21 seriously wounded and 25 missing, but like her sisters, proved
The escort carrier Bogue (CVE.9) with Grumman Avenger TBFs on her wooden High t deck. 15,400 tons full load Dimensions: length 151.1m (495 ft 8 in) overall; beam 34,0 m (111 ft 6 in) over flight deck; draught 7,92 m (26 ft 0 in) Machinery: 1-shaft geared steam turbine delivering 6340 kW (8,500 shp) Speed: 18 knots Armour: none Armament: two 127-mm (5-in) AA, four twin 40-mm Bofors AA and 12 20-mm AA guns Aircraft: (1943) 12 Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters and 12 Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo-bombers Complement: 890 officers and enlisted men
rugged enough to be returned to service.
Specification
USS Sangamon (CVE.26) Displacement: 10,500 tons standard, 23,875 tons full load Dimensions: length 168,71m (553ft 6 in) overall; beam 34.82 m (114 ft 3 in) over flight deck; draught 9.32 m (30 ft 7 in) Machinery: 2-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 1 0 0 7 0 k W (13,500 shp) Speed: 18 knots Armour: none Armament: two 127-mm (5-in) AA, two quadruple 40-mm Bofors AA, seven twin 40-mm Bofors AA and 21 20-mm AA guns Aircraft: (1942) 12 Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters, nine Douglas SBD Dauntless dive-bombers and nine Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo-bombers Complement: 1,100 officers and enlisted men
USA
uss St LÒ The success of the converted CVEs led to a fresh design being prepared 'from the keel up', using a mercantile design as a basis but tailoring it to meet OVE needs, rather than adapting a hull on the slipway. These adaptations were more concerned with ease of construction than any radical improvement in operational capability. In all, 50 units of the 'Casablanca' class (CVE.55104) were authorized late in 1942. Although the flight deck was short (500 ft/152.4 m by 108 ft/32.9 m), two lifts and a catapult were provided, and as there were two propeller shafts there was greater manoeuvrability than with one shaft. To speed up manufacture, triple-expansion steam machinery was chosen, but in other respects the 'Casablanca' design took the best of the 'Sangamon', 'Bogue' and 'Prince William' classes, and was a considerable success, The USS St Lò (CVE.63) was laid down as the Chapm Bay (AVG.63) at Henry Kaiser's Vancouver shipyard in January 1943, but in April she was renamed Midway in honour of the recent battle, and entered service under that name in October 1943. The name was then allocated to a much bigger carrier, as it was considered too important for such a minor warship, and on 15 September 1944 CVE.63 became the USSStLô. The little carrier had already made two ferry trips out to the Pacific
and had supported the amphibious landings in Saipan, Eniwetok, Tinian and Morotai, In October1 1944 she formed part of 'Taffy Three , part of the vast armada which fought the Battle of Ley te Gulf, 'Taffy Three', the most northern group of escort carriers covering the amphibious landing, had already suffered a gruelling bombardmen from Japanese surface warships for the best part of 3 hours during the morning of 25 October 1944. After a lull of about 1 hour the kamikazes made a low-level attack, five Zeros coming in at low level before climbing rapidly to 1525m ( 5 , 0 0 0 f t ) and then diving straight onto the flight deck. One of a pair attacking the Fanshaw Bay suddenly switched to the St Lo, striking her flight deck aft. The two bombs slung underneath the Zero set off gasoline, bombs and ammunition in the hangar, and wrecked the ship. The kamikaze hit at 10.53, and five minutes later a huge explosion devastated the carrier. She sank about 1 hour later, with 100 dead and many injured, the first American ship sunk by kamikaze attack.
Specification USS St Lò (CVE.63) Displacement: 7,800 tons standard, 10,400 tons full load Dimensions: length 156.13m (512ft 3 in) overall; beam 39,92 m (108 ft 0 in) over flight deck; draught 6.86 m (22 ft 6in) Machinery: 2-shaft vertical triplee x p a n s i o n delivering 6715 kW (9,000 ihp) Speed: 19 knots Armour: none Below: The port profile of the 'Casablanca ' class; these ships were an improved version of the Bogue design, tailored for faster construction.
The new escort carrier Midway (CVE.63), which was subsequently renamed St Lò to release the name for a bigger carrier. Armament: one 127-mm (5-m) AA, eight twin 40-mm Bofors AA and 20 20-mm AA guns Aircraft: (October 1944) 17 Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters and 12 Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo-bombers Complement: 860 officers and enlisted
Bottom: The St Lò blows up after being set on fire by Japanese gunfire during the battle off Samar in October 1944.
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Allied and Axis Battleships Gunpower has dominated fighting at sea since the days of Sir Francis Drake. While the armoured colossi of 1939 bore no resemblance to Nelson's Victory, they served the same purpose: to destroy the enemy with their guns. World War II, however, was to see great changes in the role of the battleship.
HMS Howe a, Royal Navy battleship of the King George V class, on a visit to Auckland Harbour, New Zealand. hen World War II broke out in September 1939 it was widely assumed that the battleship was still the most powerful warship available to both the Allied and Axis powers. However, by 1945 the place of the battleship had been taken by the aircraft carrier. Air power had proved itself to be capable of overwhelming defensive
W
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gunpower, and the air attack on Pearl Harbor, coupled with the loss of the British Prince of Wales and the Repulse to air attack, signalled the end of the reign of the battleship. Nevertheless, the battleship continued to play a useful role right up to the end of World War II. Battleships were an integral part of the fast carrier task
forces, providing not only defensive anti-aircraft fire but also invaluable gunfire in support of amphibious landings. Thus it was not so much that battleships had become useless but rather that the bombs and torpedoes of carrier strike aircraft could do a great deal more damage at a much greater distance. The vulnerability of the carrier
was just as great, but its offensive potential made the aircraft carrier a weapon that was worth defending. In the early years of World War II, when shore-based aircraft were often unavailable, battleships' guns were generally the only way of stopping enemy heavy ships. In May 1941 Germany's Bismarck could only be stopped by other battleships, even if Allied carrier aircraft played a vital role in slowing her down. Similarly, in October 1944 it was the US Navy's old battleships at Surigao Strait that were the only sure way of stopping the Japanese battleships: destroyers and motor torpedo boats did their best but just did not have the necessary stopping power. As the full danger of air attack began to be taken more seriously, all battleships were to receive extra anti-aircraft batteries. However, the only way in which to guarantee immunity was to provide air cover. For example, in the course of World War II, six battleships were sunk by air attack (bombs and torpedoes), and only two by submarine torpedoes at sea. Another 12 ships were sunk in harbour, either by high-level bombing or by special assault units.
UK
HMS Renown The battle-cruiser HMS Renown was a veteran of World War I but, unlike her sister Repulse, underwent full modernization. She emerged from Portsmouth Dockyard on 2 September 1939, just in time for the outbreak of war. During her three-year refit she had been almost totally rebuilt, with new machinery and boilers (saving 2,800 tons of weight), new superstructure and bridgework, and additional armour. The three gun turrets were taken out and modified to give the 381mm (15-in) guns 30° elevation, and an entirely new anti-aircraft armament was provided: 10 twin 114-mm (4.5-in) gun mountings, three 8-barrelled pompoms and four quadruple 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns. The weight saved on machinery was used to strengthen deck armour, particularly by adding 102-mm (4-in) armour over the magazines and 51-mm (2-in) armour over the machinery. She was also given a cross-deck catapult and a large hangar capable of accommodating two Walrus amphibian aircraft. The new role for the ship was to act as a fast escort for aircraft-carriers, and
when the Renown joined the Home Fleet she was teamed with the new carrier HMS Ark Royal in a partnerhip which continued for a long time. After hunting for KMS GrafSpee in the South Atlantic in November 1939 she returned to the Home Fleet as flagship of Vice Admiral Whitworth, and took part in the Norwegian campaign. Early on the morning of 9 April 1940 the Renown was steaming about 130 km (80 miles) west of the Lofoten Islands in company with nine destroyers when she sighted the German battle-cruisers KMS Scharnhorst and KMS Gneisenau. The British ship had the advantage of the light and at 04.17 scored a hit on Gneisenau's main firecontrol position. The German ships turned away and escaped under cover of snow squalls, but not before the Renown had scored two more hits. She was hit by two or three 280-mm (11-in) shells but suffered only slight damage. In August the Renown went to Gibraltar as part of Force 'H' with the Ark Royal, but returned to home waters in October 1941. After covering the North African landings she took Winston
Churchill to Canada and was then sent to the Eastern Fleet, which was operating in the East Indies. On her return in March 1945 the Renown was laid up in reserve, and was sold for scrapping in 1948. Her career had spanned over 30 years, and she had served in every major theatre of the naval war.
Specification
HMS Renown Displacement: 30,750 tons standard, 36,080 tons full load
HMS Renown as she was in July 1942, prior to the removal of her Walrus aircraft and with extra AA armament. World War II saw a constant incremen t in then umbers ofAA weapons carried by capital ships.
The old battle cruiser HMS Renown was completely rebuilt for service in World War II as a fast carrier escort. She served in the Atlantic, Mediterranean and Far East. Dimensions: length 242.0 m (794 ft) overall; beam 27.4 m (90 ft); draught 14.4 m (30 ft 6 in) Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 108,000 shp (80536 kW) Speed: 29'/akts Armour: belt 229 mm (9 in); decks 51102 mm (2-4 in); turrets and barbettes 178-229 mm (7-9 in) Armament: ( 1944) six 381 -in ( 15-in), 20 114-mm (4.5-in) DP, 28 2-pdr pom-pom and 64 20-mm AA guns, and eight 533mm (21 -in) torpedo tubes Aircraft: two Supermarine Walrus amphibians Complement: 1,200 officers and men
UK
HMS lVelson At the outbreak of the war HMSlVelson and her sister HMS Rodney were the most modern British battleships in service. They had been completed in 1927, and were the only capital ships allowed to be built for the Royal Navy under the Washington Treaty. As such they were severely constrained by the need to keep within a standard displacement of 35,000 tons while at the same time carrying 406-mm (16-in) guns and heavy protection, The designers adopted many unusual expedients to meet the specifications, including an 'all-or-nothing' scheme of armouring and the concentration of all three 406-mm (16-in) turrets forward of the bridge, and all 152mm (6-in) guns aft. Another important innovation, not revealed until long after
World War II, was the provision of 'water protection' or liquid-loaded vertical bulkheads below the waterline. With an additional 2,800 tons of water held in these compartments, any torpedo explosion would dissipate its effect over a large area of the bulkhead. Although the standard displacement of the two ships averaged 1,300 tons below the treaty limit, this was achieved by not flooding the vertical compartments in peacetime. The Nelson was very badly damaged by a magnetic mine while entering Loch Ewe in December 1939, and was under repair until August 1940. In September 1941 she left the Home Fleet to join Force 'H' for a Malta convoy operation. On 27 September she was hit forward by an Italian aircraft torpedo but reached Gibraltar safely, The Nelson provided covering fire for the amphibious landings in North Africa, Sicily and Italy, and the armistice between Italy and the Allies was signed on board in Grand Harbour,
The awesome sight of a salvo from the 406-mm (16-in) guns of HMS Nelson, steaming at full speed.
Below: HMS Nelson, shown serving in the Indian ocean in June 1942. Although slow, Nelson and Rodney were the most powerful battleships in theRoyalNavy.
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Malta, on 29 September 1943. The ship sailed to the United States for an overhaul in September 1944, and five months later she sailed for the East Indies as flagship of the Eastern Fleet. On her return at the end of 1945 she replaced her sister Rodney as flagship of the Home Fleet at Scapa Flow. Having been recently modernized she remained in commission and in 1946 joined the Training Squadron at Portland for two years. With her sister she was laid up in the Firth of Forth in 1948 and used as a target for aerial bombing before being scrapped. She and her sister were greatly under-rated, and in 1939 they were certainly among the most powerful battleships afloat, with many more advanced features than contemporary designs in other navies.
Specification
HMSlVelson Displacement: 33,313 tons standard, 38,400 tons full load Dimensions: length 216.4 m (710 ft) overall; beam32.3 m(106 ft); draught 8,5 m (28 ft) Machinery: 2-shaft geared steam turbines of 45,000 shp (33556 kW) Speed: 23 kts Armour: belt 330-356 mm (13-14 in); decks 95-159 mm (3.75-6.25 in); turrets and barbettes 381-406 mm (15-16 in) Armament: nine 406-mm(16-in), 12 152-mm(6-in), six 120-mm(4.7-in) AA, 16 2-pdr pom-pom and eight 12.7-mm (0,5 in) AA guns, and two 622-mm (24.5-in) torpedo tubes Aircraft: none Complement: 1,314 officers and men
HMS Rodney and her sister ship Nelson were unusual in having all
three 406-mm (16-in) turrets grouped forward.
misses from bombs put five of the eight dynamos out of action, robbing the ship of pumping and power for the anti-aircraft guns. Out of control, she was unable to avoid another four torpedoes. She finally sank an hour and twenty minutes after the first attack, with the loss of Admiral Phillips and Captain Leach.
The doomed Prince of Wales arriving at Singapore on 2 December 1941. She would be sunk only eight days la ter by Japanese aircraft off the coast of Malaya.
UK
HMS Prince of Wales The second ship of the 'King George V class, HMS Prince of Wales was laid down in January 1937, launched in May 1939 and completed at the end of March 1941. She was still working up to operational efficiency on 23 May when she was ordered to leave Scapa Flow, with the flagship HMS Hood, to engage the German battleship KMS Bismarck. The Prince of Wales was still suffering from teething troubles: one of her 356-mm (14-in) turrets could only fire one shell, the turrets were all subject to minor breakdowns, and the new Type 284 gunnery radar was not working. To make matters worse the inexperienced crew of T quadruple 356-mm (14-in) turret made an error in loading drill which jammed the turret. When the flagship Hood blew up, the Prince of I/vales was thus badly placed to withstand the fire of two undamaged German ships. In spite of this she acquitted herself well, The Type 281 airwarning set was used to provide ranges to the guns, enabling her to get 'straddles' on the Bismarck resulting in two or three underwater hits. One of these hits caused serious contamination of the oil fuel and another reduced the Bismarcks speed by 2 kts, so it can be fairly said that the Prince of Wales initiated the chain of events which brought the Bismarck to her doom. Although hit seven times the Prince of Wales suffered comparatively little damage as only three of the shells detonated. The most serious damage was caused by a ricochet on the compass platform, which killed or wounded all but the captain, In August 1941 the 'PoW carried Winston Churchill across the Atlantic to the Atlantic Charter meeting with President Roosevelt in Newfoundland. She hoisted the flag of Sir Tom Phillips, C-in-C Eastern Fleet in October, and
The 'tf ing George V class reflected the impact of air power on British battleship design, with the first combined high angle/low angle secondary armament and the first integral aircraft and catapult.
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left for Singapore on 25 October, in company with HMS Repulse. Force 'Z', as the two ships were designated, arrived at Singapore on 2 December, but eight days later they were sunk by Japanese torpedo-bombers, The Prince of Wales was crippled by a single torpedo which struck the port side abreast of the aftermost 133-mm (5.25-in) gun turret. The port outer propeller shaft was badly distorted, and because it was not rapidly disconnected it continued to revolve, making an enormous hole in the after bulkheads. Then the shock-effect of near-
Specification HMS Prince of Wales Displacement: 38,000 tons standard, 43,350 tons full load
Dimensions: length 227.0 m (745 ft); beam 31,4 m (103 ft); draught 8.5 m (28 ft) mean Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 110,000 shp (82027 kW) Speed: 28 kts Armour: belt 356-281 mm (14-15 in); decks 127-152 mm (5-6 in); turrets and barbettes 305 mm (12 in) Armament: 10 356-mm (14-in), 16 133mm (5.25-in) DP, 32 2-pdr pom-pom, and 16 12.7-mm (0.5 in) AA guns Aircraft: two Supermarine Walrus amphibians Complement: 1,422 officers and men
GERMANY
KMS Scharnhorst KMS Scharnhorst was planned as the Ersatz Elsass, fourth of a class of six planned 'pocket battleships'. By 1933, however, the weaknesses of the 'pocket battleship' or Panzerschiffe were so obvious that Hitler gave the German navy permission to expand the design to 26,000 tons as a reply to the French Dunkerque. It was hoped to arm the ship with three twin 380-mm (15-in) turrets, but to save time three triple 280-mm ( 11-in) turrets were used. The design was nominally of 26,000 tons, but had reached 32,000 tons; to conceal the size of the new battle-cruiser the Kriegsmarine continued to quote the lower figure. For most of her active life the Scharnhorst operated with her sister KMS Cneisenau, and both ships made forays into the North Atlantic in 1940-1. The Scharnhorst was badly damaged by a torpedo fired by the destroyer HMS Acasta while attacking the carrier HMS Glorious in June 1940. Although the two ships posed a considerable threat to the British while lying at Brest in 1941 and the repeated raids by the Royal Air Force were far too inaccurate to do any serious damage, Hitler felt the two units were too exposed, and ordered them to return. Operation 'Cerberus', the daylight dash through the English Channel in February 1942, was probably the Kriegsmarine's greatest success, for it took the British completely by surprise, the two battle-cruisers and the heavy cruiser Prinze Eugen slipping past ineffectual air and sea attacks. Apart from slight damage to Scharnhorst from a magnetic mine during the final phase it had been a humiliation for the British and proof that audacity pays. After repairs lasting until August 1942 the ship was sent to Norway in March 1943. She took part in the raid on Spitzbergen in September but otherwise lay in a remote fjord until December 1943, when Admiral Donitz ordered her to sea for an attack on a British convoy.
Scharnhorst had a more eventful war career than most Kriegsmarine capital ships, yet this scene would have been a rare event for her crew, confined to harbour as she was for so long. It was a badly planned operation, and the Scharnhorst failed in her attempt to brush aside the destroyers and cruisers escorting the convoy. Incompetent reconnaissance by the Luftwaffe left her with no idea that the battleship HMSDulce of York was closing fast, and she was taken by surprise when 356-mm (14-in) shells started to hit her. She disengaged but the British and Norwegian destroyers slowed her down with torpedoes, allowing the Duke of York to pound her again. She was finally sunk by torpedoes from HMS Sheffield and HMS Jamaica and went down with the loss of all but 46 of 1,840 men on board.
Specification
KMS Scharnhorst Displacement: 32,000 tons standard, 38,900 tons full load Dimensions: length 234.9 m (770 ft 8 in) overall; b'eam 30.0 m (98 ft 5 in); draught 9. l m (29 ft 10 in) deep Machinery: 3-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 160,000 shp (119312kW) Speed: 32 kts Armour: belt 330 mm (13 in); decks 50110 min (2-4,25 in); turrets 355 mm (14 in) Armament: nine 280-mm (11-in), 12 150-mm(5.9-in), 14 105-mm(4.1-in)AA and 16 37-mm AA guns, and six 533mm (21 -in) torpedo tubes Aircraft: two Arado floatplanes Complement: 1,840 officers and men Although rated by the British as battle cruisers, the Scharnhorst and her sister Gneisenau were built as fast but lightly armed battleships. Below: Scharnhorst and her sister ship were designed to accept 380mm (15-in) guns, but wartime conditions prevented this.
GERMANY
KMS Bismarck The first full-scale battleships built for Germany's new Kriegsmarine after Hitler abrogated the Versailles Treaty were two 35,000-ton ships. As with the battle-cruisers, the design followed closely the final designs of the previous war, but with considerably higher installed power. The first of this pair was launched and christened KMS Bismarck on 14 February 1939, She was in fact 6,000 tons heavier than the international treaty limits allowed, but much of the extra tonnage went into additional fuel stowage. The Bismarck was commissioned in August 1940 but underwent a further eight months of training in the Baltic before she was considered ready for a breakout into the Atlantic. In May 1941 she and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen left the Baltic bound for Bergen, but their passage had been detected by pro-British Swedes and the Admiralty
had been alerted by analysis of radio traffic. As a result the heavy cruiser HMS Suffolk was already on station in the Denmark Strait on 23 May, and detected the two German ships on radar. On the next morning the British Battle-Cruiser Squadron tried to intercept the German ships, but the German ships got the range quickly. Prinz Eugen's shells started a fire aboard HMS Hood, and shortly afterwards she blew up, while the Bismarck hit HMS Prince of Wales in the bridge, The British ship was then ordered to break off the action and to retire, leaving the German ships to continue their foray into the Atlantic, Examination soon showed that a large quantity of fuel had been contaminated by underwater damage, and Admiral LĂźtjens decided to head for Brest. That night Fairey Swordfish torpedo-bombers from HMS Victo-
rious attacked with torpedoes, but the single hit inflicted only minor damage. For a while the Bismarck eluded her pursuers, but after unwisely transmitting a long radio signal she was detected on 26 May, and that night more Swordfish from HMS Ark Royal hit her with two torpedoes, wrecking her steering gear. Further attacks by destroyers followed, although without success, but the Bismarck was doomed, unable to manoeuvre and steaming at only 5 kts. On the next morning HMS King George V and HMS Rodney came over the northern horizon, opening fire at 08.47. The British fire was deadly, and by 09.20 the Bismarck was silenced. During that time she had scored only one 'straddle' on the Rodney and hit her with a few splinters. In the final stages the range came down to only 3660m (4,000 yards), and the Bismarck was battered into a water-
logged wreck, She was finally torpedoed by the cruiser HMS Dorsetshire and sank at 10.40,
Specification
KMSBismarclc Displacement: 41,676 tons standard, 50,153 tons full load Dimensions: length 251.0 m (823 ft 6 in) overall; beam 36.0 m (118 ft); draught 9,3 m (30 ft 7 in) mean Machinery: 3-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 138,000 shp (102907kW)
Speed: 29 kts Armour: belt 320 mm (12.6 in); decks 50-120 mm (2-4.7 in); turrets and barbettes 230-355 mm (9-14 in) Armament: eight 380-mm (15-in), 12 150-mm(5.9-in), 16 105-mm(4.1-in)AA, 16 37-mm AA and 12 20-mm AA guns Aircraft: two Arado floatplanes Complement: 2,192 officers and men 481
GERMANY
KMS Tirpitz KMS Tirpitz was laid down in October IQ3G as Schlachtschiffe, launched on 1 April 1939 and started sea trials in late February 1941. She was in most respects identical to her sister Bismarck but incorporated minor improvements, notably the addition of two sets of quadruple torpedo-tubes and improved aircraft-handling arrangements. After a lengthy work-up in the Baltic the Tirpitz was ready for operational service towards the end of September 1941, and her first operation was a cruise in the Gulf of Finland to prevent any breakout by the Soviet Baltic Fleet. She was then sent to Trondheim in Norway to disrupt Allied convoys to Murmansk, but on her first sortie she failed to find the convoy and narrowly escaped damage from Fairey Albacore torpedo-bombers from HMS Victorious on 9 March. Her next move was much more successful, but inadvertent, for shift of berth led the British to think that she was putting to sea. As a result the convoy PQ-17 was ordered to scatter, allowing U-boats and bombers to sink 24 merchant ships. Although the Tirpitz never made another sortie her presence could not be ignored, and the Royal Navy was forced to keep two capital ships and a fleet carrier in home waters in case the Tirpitz should break out, The first of a long series of attempts to neutralize her was an attack by 'Chariot' human torpedoes in October 1942, but this achieved nothing as the Chariots were lost by accident, In September 1943 the Tirpitz put to sea once more, but only to bombard Spitzbergen, Late that month two British X-craft or midget submarines penetrated the defences of Altenfjord and laid 2-ton charges under the Tirpitz keel, causing extensive shock damage to the 380-mm (15in) turrets and the main machinery. Repairs lasted until the spring of 1944 but just as the battleship was getting under way on 3 April she was attacked by 40 Fairey Barracuda divebombers from British carriers. This Fleet Air Arm attack inflicted serious damage, but two later attacks in July and August did very little damage, for the steep sides of the fjord made accurate bombing almost impossible. Finally, on 15 September, RAF Avrò Lancasters managed to hit the Tirpitz with 5443-kg (12,000-lb) bombs, causing severe damage. The Tirpitz then had to be moved south to Trondheim
Above: Seen sailing in coastal waters, Tirpitz for possibly a 'Hipper' class cruiser- the designs were in ten tionally very similar) was a constant threat to Allied convoys bound for Murmansk. Considerable Royal Navy resources had to be tied down on the chance that the powerful ba ttleship migh t make a strike.
Right: The Tirpitz in Kaafjord in March 1944, seen from an RAF aircraft 3,000 feet up.
for repairs, where two more attacks by Lancasters achieved her destruction. On 12 November she was hit by three 5443-kg (12,000-lb) Tallboy1 bombs and capsized with the loss of 1,000 crewmen. KMS Tirpitz Displacement: 42,900 tons standard,
52,600 tons full load Dimensions: length 250.5 m (821 ft 10 in) overall; beam 36.0 m (118 ft 1 in); draught 11.0 m (36 ft 1 in) maximum1 Machinery: 3-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 138,000 shp (102907kW) Speed: 29 kts Armour: belt 320 mm (12.6 in); decks 50-120 mm (2-4.7 in); turrets and
barbettes 230-355 mm (9-14 in) Armament: eight 380-mm (15-in), 12 150-mm(5.9-in), 16 105-mm(4.1-in) AA, 16 37-mm AA and 70 20-mm AA guns, and eight 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes Aircraft: four Arado floatplanes Complement: 2,530 officers and men
ernization, and on recommissiomng took President Hoover on a cruise to the West Indies before passing through the Panama Canal on her way back to the Pacific Fleet. There she remained for the rest of her life. The first wave of Japanese aircraft to reach Pearl Harbor on 7 December had no difficulty in identifying their targets, for 'Battleship Row' contained seven ships: USS Oklahoma, USS West Virginia and the repair ship USS Vestal in the outer line, and USS Maryland, USS Tennessee, the Arizona and USS Nevada in the inner line. A torpedo and an estimated eight bombs hit the Arizona, setting her on fire and starting a massive flooding. The bomb which did most damage was a 725-kg (1,600-
Ib) weapon which struck at 08,10, penetrated the armoured deck and detonated in the forward magazine. The ship blew up and sank at her
The USS Arizona in September 1939. During modernization her 'basket' masts had been replaced by massive tripods.
Specification
Below: When completed the Tirpitz differed only in minor details from her sister Bismarck, but more AA guns vvere added later.
USA
USS Arizona The USS Arizona (BB.39) was laid down in March 1914, launched in June 1915 and commissioned in October 1916. She crossed the Atlantic to serve with the 6th Sguadron as part of the British Grand Fleet in the last days of World War I, and then helped to repatriate American soldiers from France. In 1929-31 she was modernized, and on 7 December 1941 was part of the Pacific Fleet, lying in 'Battleship Row' in Pearl Harbor. Her peacetime service had been humdrum. After a short trip to the Mediterranean in April-July 1919 she returned to the East coast, and then transferred to the Pacific Fleet in 1921 for a period of eight years. In 1929 she returned to Norfolk to start her mod482
moorings, trapping and killing a total of 1,104 of her crew, including Rear Admiral Kidd and Captain van Valkenburgh. Salvage teams tried to raise the hull, but it was damaged beyond repair. Subsequently two of the Arizona's triple 356-mm (14-in) turrets were recovered and the guns were installed in coast defence positions on land, The hull of the Arizona was later declared a national shrine commemorating the men and ships lost in the attack. Today a concrete memorial has been built over the Arizona's remains, and an oil slick shows that oil is still leaking slowly from her fuel tanks. The sister of the Arizona, USS Pennsylvania (BB.38) was in dry dock at the time and suffered only superficial damage from a single bomb hit. After repairs and modernization she rejoined the Pacific Fleet and saw action across the Pacific, through to the Japanese surrender in August 1945.
Right at the end of the war she was damaged by an aircraft torpedo but survived and was used as a target in the Bikini nuclear tests in 1946. Specification USS Arizona (BB.39) Displacement: 32,600 tons standard, 36,500 tons full load Dimensions: length 185.32 m (608 ft); beam 29.56 m (97 ft); draught 8.76 m (28 ft 9 in)
Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 33,500 shp (24980 kW) Speed:21kts Armour: belt 356 mm (14 in); deck 203 mm (8 in); turrets 229-457 mm (918 in) Armament: 12 356-mm (14-in), 12 127rnm(5-in), 12 127-mm(5-in) AAand eight 12.7-mm(0.5-in)AAguns Aircraft: three floatplanes Complement: 2,290 officers and men The Arizona's tripod masts sags slowly to port after the detonation of the forward 356-mm (14-in) magazine had wrecked the ship. Below: The Arizona and Pennsylvania were among the world's most powerful battleships when new. Both were modernized in the la te 1920s.
USA
USS Washington When the 15-year 'holiday' in battleship construction came to an end in 1937, the US Navy had plans to lay down two modern capital ships as soon as possible. The 35,000-ton limit was still in force, but the 1936 London Naval Treaty had reduced gun calibre from 406 to 356 mm (16 to 14 in). The specification which emerged was very similar to the original design of HMS King George V, with three quadruple 356-mm (14-in) mountings and a speed of 28 kts. However, unlike the British the Americans could afford to wait, and when the Japanese refused to ratify the 1936 treaty the USN announced that it would exercise its right to go back to 406-mm (16-in) guns. On the dimensions it was only possible to have three triple mountings, and nothing could be
done to increase protection, which had been planned to withstand 356-mm (14-in) shellfire. USS Washington (BB.56) was the second of the two 'North Carolina' class; she was laid down in June 1938 and commissioned in May 1941. She went to the Home Fleet for a while in 1942, and on 1 May was damaged by the explosion of HMS Punjabi's depth charges after the destroyer had been rammed by HMS King George V just ahead of her. By September that year she was back in the Pacific, with Task Force 17 in the Solomons, On the night of 14/15 November the Washington and USS South Dakota were stalking a Japanese task force attempting to bombard Henderson Field, but just before the US ships
could open fire the blast of a 127-mm (5-in) gun knocked out the South Dakota's electrical system. Fortunately the Washington had not yet switched on her searchlights, and remained undetected while the Japanese concentrated their fire on the South Dakota. From a range of about 7315 m (8,000 yards) the Washington closed the range to 1830m (2,000 yards) before opening fire; in seven minutes she fired 75 406-in (16-in) and hundreds of 127-mm (5-in) shells, crippling the Kirishima with nine 406-mm (16-in) hits. Her intervention saved the South Dakota from serious damage and not only sank the Kirishima but badly damaged two heavy cruisers as well and saved Henderson Field from bombardment.
On 1 February 1944 the Washington was badly damaged in a collision with the Indiana, but she was repaired in time for the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944 and the final onslaught on Okinawa and the Japanese Home Islands. She was decommissioned in June 1947 and was stricken in 1960.
good as any contemporary built to the same nominal limitations. In fact, like the British 'King George V class, the 'South Dakota' class worked out at 38,000 tons, an 8.5 per cent difference, considerably lower than those of French, German or Italian designs. The lead-ship USS South Dakota (BB.57) was laid down in July 1939, launched in June 1941 and commissioned in March 1942. She went
straight to the Pacific after her shakedown cruise, but damaged herself by running aground. Repairs were completed in time for the Battle of Santa Cruz, and on 26 October 1942 she claimed to have shot down 26 Japanese aircraft, This phenomenal performance can be explained by the fact that she was the first ship to use the new proximity-fused 127-mm (5-in) shells. The next engagement was the Battle
The Washington and North Carolina were the first US ba ttleships built since the Washington Treaty in 1922, and were intended to have 356-mm (14-in) guns but were built with 406mm (16-in) triple turrets.
Specification USS Washington (BB.56) Displacement: 36,900 tons standard, 44,800 tons full load Dimensions: length 222.12 m (728 ft 9 in) overall; beam 33.0 m (108 ft 3 in); draught 10.82 m (35 ft 6 in) Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 121,000 shp (90230 kW) Speed: 27 kts Armour: belt 165-305 mm (6.5-12 in); decks38-140 mm(l.5-5.5 in); turrets 178-406 mm (7-16 in) Armament: nine 406-mm ( 16-in), 20 127-mm (5-in) DP, 1628-mm(l.l-in) AAand 12 12.7-mm(0.5-in) AAguns Aircraft: three Vought Kingfisher floatplanes Complement: 1,880 officers and men
USA
USS South Dakota The need for a class of battleships powerful enough to resist 406-mm (16in) shellfire without infringing the 35,000-ton treaty limit was clear in 1937. To achieve this, however, was another matter, and the US Navy's designers were forced to make several compromises. Shortening the waterline length saved weight, but to support the additional weight of armour there had to be an increase in beam.
This caused more drag, and to maintain a speed of 28 kts more power was needed, but in the shorter hull there was now less space for machinery, The problems were solved eventually by considerable attention paid to redesign of machinery, and as a result the 'South Dakota1 class proved to be costeffective. The short hull was manoeuvrable, and protection against shellfire, bombs and torpedoes was as
483
of Guadalcanal on the night of 14/15 November 1942, but this time the South Dakota was less successful. While approaching the Japanese battle line in company with USS Washington she inadvertently blew the ring main and put her entire electrical supply out of action. With no radar, fire control, lighting or navigation aids she blundered towards the Japanese and got within 4570m (5,000 yards), at which range she was soon hit by a number of shells. She was hit by one 356-mm (14in), 18 203-mm (8-in), six 152-mm (6-in) and one 127-mm (5-in) shells, plus one of unknown calibre, suffering extensive splinter damage which killed 38 men and wounded 60. In 1943 the South Dakota joined the Home Fleet with her sister USSAlahama, but she returned to the Pacific later in that year. With her three sisters she took part in all the major amphibious operations which culminated in the surrender of Japan in August 1945. She was decommissioned in 1947 and stricken in 1962.
Specification USS South Dakota (BB.57) Displacement: 38,000 tons standard, 44,374 tons full load Dimensions: length 207.3 m (680 ft) overall; beam 33.0 m (108 ft 3 in); draught 11.1 m (36 ft 3 in) maximum Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 130,000 shp (96940 kW) Speed: 28 kts Armour: belt 311 m (12.25 in); decks 38-127 mm (1.5-5 in); turrets 457 mm (18 in) Armament: nine 406-mm(16-in), 16 127-mm (5-in) DP, 4040-mmAAand40 20-mmAAguns Aircraft: three Vought Kingfisher floatplanes Complement: 2,354 The USS South Dakota with escorting destroyer, in the South Pacific in August 1943. Below: The South Dakota design was shorter than that of the Washington to permit heavier protection against a 406-mm (16-in) shellfire.
USS Iowa Early in 1937 the US Navy started work on the design of 45,000-ton battleships as a contingency against any Japanese refusal to continue the international treaty limits on displacement. In January 1938 emphasis switched from ships with heavy armament and protection but modest speed (12 406-mm/16-in guns, 27 knots) to fast designs, capable of 30 kts or more. The new 'Essex1 class carriers were taking shape on the drawing board at this time, and there was a need to provide them with battleship escorts of similar performance. The 'Iowa' class which resulted sacrificed gunpower (only nine 406-mm/ 16-in guns) and protection (310-mm/ 12.2-in belt armour) to permit the speed to be increased to 33 kts. Although intelligence sources suspected that the new Japanese battleships would have 457-mm (18-in) guns, it was hoped that the 'Iowa' class would not have to fight them as carrier aircraft would keep the Japanese giants outside gun-range. The 'Iowas' were primarily intended to keep heavy cruisers, rather than battleships, at bay, and as such they came close to the original concept of the battlecruiser, although never rated as such. The Iowa (BB.61) was laid down in June 1940, launched in August 1942 and commissioned in February 1943, In August of that year she escorted convoys from Newfoundland and then took President Roosevelt to North Africa, before being sent to the Pacific to join the 5th Fleet. She took part in the Marshall Islands landing, and suffered slight damage from Japanese artillery. At Leyte she was part of Vice Admiral William Halsey's Fast Carrier Force, and took part in the Okinawa landing; in July 1945 she bombarded targets on Hokkaido and Honshu, and was part of the enormous force anchored in Tokyo 484
Bay for the Japanese surrender. The lovva was mothballed in 1949 but reactivated in 1951 for service in the Korean War. She carried out a large number of shore bombardments but was decommissioned once more in 1953, It was widely thought that she would be scrapped, but in 1981 she was towed to New Orleans to begin rĂŠactivation. In her new configuration she will carry a large number of Harpoon anti-ship missiles and Tomahawk cruise missiles to enable her to function as the main unit of a Surface Action Group (SAG). Her 406-in (16-in) guns
are to be retained to provide gunfire support.
Specification USS Iowa (BB.61) Displacement: 48,500 tons standard, 57,450 tons full load Dimensions: length 270.43 m (887 ft 3 in) overall; beam 32,97 m (108 ft 2 in); draught 11.58 m (38 ft) Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 212,000 shp (158088kW) Speed: 33 kts Armour: belt 310 mm (12.2 in); decks
USS Iowa refuels from an oiler in the Pacific. Although comparatively lightly armoured, its high speed and endurance gave this class great /zghtingpower. 38-120 mm (1.5-4.7 in); turrets 457 mm (18 in) Armament: nine 406-mm (16 in), 20 127-mm (5-in) DP, 60 40-mm AA and 60 20-mm AA guns Aircraft: three Vought Kingfisher floatplanes Complement: 1,921 officers and men
JAPAN
IJN Kirishima IJN Kirishima was the third of four 'Kongo' class battlecruisers built for the Imperial Japanese Navy between 1912 and 1915, Launched m December 1913, the Kirishima was completed in April 1915. In common with her sisters Kirishima was modernized twice, in 1927-31 and 1934-40, The second modernization transformed her into a fast battleship for escorting carriers, with speed raised from 26 to 30 kts by doubling the horsepower, and with heavier anti-aircraft armament. The original three funnels had been reduced to two in the first reconstruction, and the second gave her a typical 'pagoda' foremast. When war broke out in December 1941 all four were serving with the 3rd Battle Division, and Kirishima and Hiei accompanied the force which attacked Pearl Harbor. In June 1942 the Kirishima suffered slight damage from air attacks during the Battle of Midway. With her sister Hiei she attacked US forces on Guadalcanal on the night of 12/13 November 1942, The two fast battleships engaged a force of American cruisers, sinking USS Atlanta, damaging USS San Francisco, Juneau, Helena and Portland and sinking the destroyers USS Barton and Laffey in a confused melee at short range, Two nights later the Japanese tried again to get a troop convoy through to Guadalcanal and to bombard Henderson Field but ran into an American force. This time the battleships USS South Dakota and USS Washington were in support, both modern ships
with radar, but superior night-fighting techniques enabled the Japanese to plan an ambush in which the American destroyers came off worse. When the light cruiser Nagara turned her searchlights on the South Dakota, the Kirishima immediately opened fire with her 356-mm (14-in) battery, but in the confusion the Japanese lookouts failed to spot the Washington, closing from 7300m (8,000 yards), Five minutes after midnight her deadly 406mm (16-in) salvoes began to burst around the Kirishima, which was quickly overwhelmed by an estimated total of nine 406-mm ( 16-in) and 40 127mm (5-in) hits. Seven minutes later she
was ablaze, unable to steer and taking on water fast from underwater damage. Admiral Kondo ordered the destroyers IJN Asagumo, IJN Teruzuki, and IJN Samidare to take off survivors but no attempt was made to save the ship. Kirishima's sea cocks were opened and she sank at 03.23, about 11 km (7 miles) north west of Savo Island.
Specification IJN Kirishima (after second reconstruction) Displacement: 31,980 tons standard, 36,600 tons full load
The Japanese Kirishima, built as a ba ttle cruiser in 1915, was rebuilt as a fast battleship in the 1930s. Dimensions: length 222,0 m (728 ft 6 in) overall; beam 31.0 m (102 ft 4 in); draught 9.7 m (31ft 9 in) Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 136,000 shp (101415kW) Speed: 30]/z kts Armour: belt 76-203 mm (3-8 in); deck 121 mm (4.75 in); turrets 280 mm ( 11 in) Armament: eight 356-mm (14-m), 14 152-mm(6-in), eight 127-mm(5-in)AA, and 20 25-mm ( 1 -in) AA guns Aircraft: three floatplanes Complement: 1,437 officers and men The horsepower of the Kirishima and her three sisters was doubled during reconstruction to add five knots to their speed.
JAPAN
IJN Y amato The Imperial Japanese Navy, pursuing a goal of quality to offset the numerical advantage of the US Navy, started work in 1934 on a design of battleship to outclass any possible opponent. The ships were to be f a s t e r , better armoured and have longer-range guns, but the only way in which these qualities could be achieved would be to breach the existing international treaty limits of 35,000 tons and 406-mm (16-in) guns, The design evolved to meet the requirement displaced 64,000 tons and was armed with nine 460-mm (18.1-in) guns capable of hitting the target at 48 km (30 miles). The protection was on an equally massive scale, with 410mm (16,14-in) belt armour and 650-mm (25,6-in) face plates on the turrets. To get the ships built without alarming the Americans and British required total
secrecy, the theory being that if Japan refused to ratify the next naval treaty in 1936 and had the ships ready by 1940 (when all tonnage limits expired) nobody could accuse the Japanese of cheating. It was also assumed that if the new ships were longer and wider than the locks of the Panama Canal the US Navy would be unable to build battleships of equivalent power, and would be unable to oppose the Japanese Fleet in the Pacific without the enormous expense (and delay) of widening the Panama Canal. Two ships, IJN ramato and IJN Musashi, were ordered under the 3rd Reinforcement Programme of 1937. yamato was laid down in November 1937, launched in August 1940 and completed in December 1941, just over a week after Pearl Harbor. She was Admiral Yamamoto's flagship at
the Battle of Midway, but turned back before getting within gun-range of the American carriers. Yamato was torpedoed by the USS Skate in February 1944 but repairs were completed in time for her to take part in the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, in Vanguard Force of the 1st Mobile Fleet, The Yamato, Musashi and Magato formed the mam strength of ViceAdmiral Kunta's Force A' in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, and Yamato fired her 460-mm (18.1-in) guns for the first and last time at surface targets when she engaged American light forces. However, poor visibility prevented her from using her monster guns to good effect, Her last sortie was a suicide mission from the Home Islands to Okinawa, but long before she could achieve anything she was sunk on 7 April 1945 by massive air strikes.
Specification UN ramato Displacement: 64,000 tons standard, 69,988 tons full load Dimensions: length 263,0 m (863 ft) overall; beam 38,9 m (127 ft 9 in); draught 10.45 m (34 ft 3 in) Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 150,000 shp (111895kW) Speed: 27 kts Armour: belt 100-410 mm (3.9416.14 in); bulkheads 300-350 mm (11.813.78 in); decks 200-230 mm (7.879.06 in); barbettes 380-560 mm (14.9622.05 in); turrets 190-650 mm (7.4825.6 in); conning tower 75-500 mm (2.95-19,7 in) Armament: nine 460-mm (18.1-in), 12 155-mm(6.1-in)DP, 12 127-mm(5-in) AA, 24 25-mm AA and four 13-mm (0.52-in)AAguns Aircraft: six floatplanes Complement: 2,500 officers and men The 64,000-ton Yamato had the heaviest armour and her 460-mm (IS.l-in)guns were themost powerful ever fitted to a battleship.
485
FRANCE
Richelieu To maintain its position relative to other major navies, the French navy authorized two 35,000-ton battleships in 1935, to be named Richelieu and Jean Bart. They were basically enlarged editions of the 26,000-ton battlecruisers Dunkerque and Strasbourg, also with high speed and two quadruple turrets forward, but much heavier armament and protection. The design which emerged was unique, with two large quadruple turrets well forward and widely spaced, and an ugly backward-angled funnel forming part of the after superstructure. They were, however, powerful and well-protected ships and their only drawback was low endurance, a result of being intended to operate primarily in the Mediterranean. The Richelieu bore a charmed life, for she was running her trials at Brest when France fell in June 1940, but managed to escape to North Africa. She went to Dakar, and escaped without damage when a British motor launch
tried to drop four depth charges under her stern. Early ori the morning of 8 July she was attacked by six Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers from HMS Hermes. One 457-mm (18-in) torpedo struck the Richelieu's stern, and flooding caused her to settle on the bottom of the harbour. However, her 380-mm (15-in) guns were still functioning, and accurate salvoes helped to defeat an attack by British and Free French forces in September despite the fact that the ship was unable to steam, and that three of her guns were unable to fire. As soon as her refit was completed the ship sailed to the UK via Toulon, and joined the Home Fleet at Scapa Flow, covering convoys to Murmansk and working up to full efficiency. In March 1944 she left the Home Fleet and was sent to Trincomalee to serve with the Eastern Fleet, She saw no great battles but took part in a number of bombardments and came under air attack on several occasions. Apart
The 'Richelieu'class, like the British 'Nelson ', grouped the main armament forward to concentrate the armour belt, but, being larger ships, could carry a heavier secondary armament.
from a short refit at Casablanca from October 1944 to January 1945 she remained in the East Indies until October 1945, when she sailed for Indo-China.
The incomplete Richelieu escaped from Brest to Dakar in June 1940, where she was damaged by a British attack.
Specification
turbines delivering 150,000 shp (111855 kw) Speed: 30 kts Armour: belt 343 mm (13.5 in); decks 50-170 mm (2-6,75 in); turrets 170445 mm (6.75-17.5 in) Armament: eight 380-mm ( 15-in), nine 152-mm(6-in)DP, 12 100-mm(3.9-m) AA, 1637-mmAA and eight 13.2-mm (0.52-in)AAguns Aircraft: three Loire-Nieuport floatplanes Complement: 1,550 officers and men
turned to Italy in 1946 they were not permitted to be incorporated into the post-war Italian Navy, being sold for scrap m 1951.
Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam turbines delivering 128,000 shp (95450 kW) Speed: 30 kts Armour: belt 60-345 mm (2.4-13.6 in); decks 165 mm (6.4 in); turrets and barbettes 200-280 mm (7.9-11 in) Armament: nine 381 -mm (15-in), 12 152-mm(6-in), 1290-mm(3.5-in)AA, 20 37-mm AA and 16 20-mm AA guns Aircraft: three floatplanes Complement: 1,872 officers and men
Richelieu Displacement: 41,000 tons standard, 47,500 tons full load Dimensions: length 247.9 m (813 ft 4 in) overall; beam33.0 m (108 ft 3 in); draught 9.7 m (31 ft 10 in) Machinery: 4-shaft geared steam
ITALY
Vittorio Veneto With her sister Littorio, the Vittorio Veneto formed the spearhead of the Italian navy at the outbreak of World War II, having been completed in April and May 1940 respectively. Both formed the 9th Division at Taranto, where it was hoped they would deter the British Mediterranean Fleet by virtue of their high speed and heavy armament. Both ships put to sea several times in response to British operations, but they missed the Battle of Calabria on 9 July 1940, The Vittorio Veneto was lucky not to be damaged during the Fleet air raid on Taranto in November 1940, but she was the direct cause of the next disaster which overtook the Italian navy, the Battle of Matapan, On 28 March 1941 while taking part in a sweep against the British convoys evacuating troops from Greece to Alexandria and Crete, the Vittorio Veneto was hit by a torpedo dropped by one of HMS Formidable's Fairey Albacores, The 457-mm (18-in) torpedo hit abaft T turret on the port side at 15.21. Serious flooding followed and power was lost on the port outer propeller shaft, but she could still steam, and limped away to the north west. More British attacks followed at dusk, missing the battleship but hitting one of her escorting cruisers, the Pola. The engineers and damage control parties worked hard to stem the flooding, and by 20.34 the Vittorio Veneto's speed had increased to 19 kts, and she
486
was able to make her way back to Taranto for repairs, leaving the Pola and two sisters to be destroyed by the British Mediterranean fleet during the night, In December 1941 the Vittorio Veneto was hit by a torpedo from the British submarine HMS Urge, and needed another three months in dock. She joined the Littorio for an operation against a British convoy in mid-June 1942, but the Italians were losing the initiative, and thereafter she spent most of her time in La Spezia as Taranto was under constant air attack. On 5 June 1943 she was damaged by Allied bombers, and the following September she joined the melancholy line which steamed to Malta to surrender to the British. The Vittorio Veneto was interned at Alexandria while the Allies debated the future of all Italian warships. There was talk of 'tropicalizing' the three 'Littorio' class battleships as fast carrier escorts for the Pacific but they lacked endurance, and although they re-
Specification
Vittorio Veneto Displacement: 41,700 tons standard, 45,460 tons full load Dimensions: 237.8 m (780 ft) overall; beam32.9 m (108 ft); draught 10.5 m (34 ft 5 in)
The Italian Littorio turning at speed on one of her rare trips to sea. Although well armed and fast, she and her sisters were short on endurance. The Vittorio Veneto saw more action than any other Italian battleship, being hit twice by torpedoes and once by bombs.
Allied and Axis Cruisers With duties that varied from commerce protection to convoy raiding, and from offensive operations to fleet reconnaissance, the World War II cruiser inherited the mantle of the frigate of Nelson's day. Fast, well-armed vessels ranged the oceans in the service of all the major combatants, and proved extremely effective.
T
hough World War II could not be won for the Allies at sea, nevetheless the war could certainly have been lost there. Fortunately, there were many maritime arenas in which to fight, and the cruiser proved its value in each. British trade, via merchant shipping, was as vulnerable as ever to attack from the Axis powers. Indeed, the Germans re-used a tactic that had proved successful a quarter-century earlier, when they had used cruisers to harry the merchant ships that the British had deployed cruisers to protect. Both the German and Japanese fleets employed cruisers effectively in small-scale, surprise assaults, and they often went to the extent of using them as transports. The Italians tried the same tactic, but it only suffered as the desperate measure that it was. To the British, as an islandnation, the protection of their country's supply routes was clearly of paramount importance. The Atlantic convoys were largely the concern of smaller escorts, which were fighting an anti-submarine war, but the Mediterranean and, to a lesser extent, the Arctic routes were dominated by enemy air power.
USS Biloxiol the Cleveland class firing her 152.4mm (Gin) guns, of which she had 12 in four triple turrets. Twenty-six Cleveland class entered service during the war. This threat to the Allies meant that close escort by cruisers was required - especially by cruisers that were equipped with adequate modern AA armament and direction. Cruisers were occasionally operated by the British in offensive squadrons. During these operations they often played vital roles, for instance, in
the sinking of tactically important ships, such as the Admiral Graf Spee, Bismarck and Scharnborst. For large-scale 'fleet' use, however, one needs to look at the Pacific War where the Americans were able to take on, and eventually to prevail over, an enemy on his chosen ground.This was quite a feat. The Japanese had probably the
best cruisers of that era. Their crews were superbly trained and the boats themselves superbly handled, and used very imaginatively as we 11. The Americans profited by their early reverses to improve both ship design and tactics; besides having excellent material, they developed the will to win, the most important weapon of all. 487
FRANCE
'La Galissonnière' class light cruiser Contemporary with the penultimate pair of Italian 'Condottieri', the French 'La Galissonnière' class design had a distinct edge. By adopting a triple 152mm (6-in) turret, the designers managed an excellent balance on the low standard displacement of 7,600 tons. Three mountings conferred a one-gun advantage over their rivals while economizing on overall weight, length of hull and area to be protected. Thus vertical protection of up to 120mm (4,62 in) could be worked in, together with a 50-mm ( 1.97-in) protective deck. Where the Italians could dispose of 120,000 shp (89485kW) the French had only 84,000 shp (62640kW), yet their effective speeds in a seaway were little different at 33 to 34 kts, Interestingly, the French hulls incorporated wide transom sterns; these are today virtually universal in warship design, reducing resistance through the suppression of the stern wave. Six ships of the type were built, but they fared badly with the changing fortunes of the French state, Following the 1940 capitulation, the loyalties of French Senegal were not known to the British, who mounted an operation against Dakar: the Gloire, together with the Montcalm and Georges Leygues, sailed from Toulon to assist. Suffering from machinery problems the Gloire went into Casablanca but the other two reached Dakar. This port, though effectively neutralized,
passed to Allied control only when the Axis finally occupied Vichy France, the three cruisers coming over to the Allied cause. With the occupation, the remaining French fleet, still inactive at Toulon, was scuttled, including the three remaining ships of the class. Of these, two were salvaged by the Italians only to be sunk finally by Allied bombing in 1943. The Gloire was present at Anzio, and the Montcalm at Normandy.
Specification
'La Galissonnière' class Ships in class (launched): La
Galissonnière (1933), Jean de Vienne (1935), Marseillaise (1935), Gloire (1935), Montcalm (1935) and Georges Leygues (1936) Displacement: 7,600 tons standard and 9,120 tons full load Dimensions: length 179.0 m (586 ft 3 in); beam 17.5 m (57 ft 4 in); draught 5.3 m (17 ft 5 in) Propulsion: Râteau-Bretagne or Parsons geared turbines delivering 84,000 shp (63640 kW) to two shafts Speed: 35.7 kts Armour: belt 75-120 mm (3-4,7 in); deck 50 mm (2 in); turrets 75-130 mm (3-5.1 in)
ITALY
'Zara' class heavy cruiser Latent Franco-Italian naval rivalry broke out anew after the Washington Treaty, the two French 'Duquesne1 class cruisers being immediately trumped by the Italian 'Trento' class with superior protection, The latter were not even completed before the French embarked on the four 'Suffren' class cruisers, whose survivability was improved a little at the cost of some speed. As it then took Italy three years to reply, predictably, with the four 'Zara' class cruisers, it would seem that the French design was acquired and thoroughly digested beforehand, In any case, the Italian units were excellent ships, with reduced power on only two shafts but with a high level of protection, whose weight took the ships beyond treaty limits. Three of the class formed the 1st Cruiser Division at the Battle of Calabria, only a month after the outbreak of the Mediterranean war. The action proved an anti-climax, the Italian fleet disengaging immediately the flagship had been hit, The next significant action was also their last when, near the end of March
ln contrast to the preceding 'Trento' class, the 'Zara ' class sacrificed high speed in the interests of much improved protection. Zara and two of her three sisters met their end at the hands of the British Mediterranean fleet off Cape Matapan in March 1941.
488
1941, a complex set of Italian fleet movements was undertaken with the object of intercepting a British convoy near Crete. The British, aware of what was afoot, cleared the area and set a trap for the Italians but the latter, as nervous and fleet as any antelope, smelled danger and made for home, Anxious to bring the Italian battleship to account, the British used carrier air strikes to slow it sufficiently to allow their heavy ships to close. Only the 1st Division's Pola was thus stopped, however, her two running mates Zara and Fiume with two destroyers then staying to assist. Admiral Cunningham's battleships fell on them and despatched them with close-range 381-mm (15-in) salvoes at what become known as the night Battle of Matapan. With the American Astoria' and British 'Cressy' classes the 'Zara1 class thus has the melancholy record of losing three of its type in one engagement.
Specification
'Zara' class Ships in class (launched): Zara (1930),
fiume (1930), Gori'zia (1930) andPola (1931) Displacement: 11,500-11,900 tons standard and 14,200-14,600 tons full load Dimensions: length 182.7 m (599 ft 5 in); beam 20.6 m (67 ft 7 in); draught 5.9 m (19 ft 4 in) Propulsion: Parsons geared turbines delivering 108,000 shp (80535 kW) to two shafts Speed: 32 kts Armour: belt 100-150 mm (3.9-5.9 in); deck 70 mm (2.75 in); turrets 120140 mm(4.7-5,5 in); barbettes 140150 mm (5.5-5.9 in) Armament: eight 203-mm (8-in), 16 100-mm (3.9-in) DP and eight 37-mm AAguns Aircraft: two floatplanes Complement: 830 Righ t: 'Zara ' class cruisers on pa trol in the Mediterranean. Built in the early 1930s in response to the new French vessels then entering service, the 'Zara ' class were fine, well-balanced ships, somewhat larger than the size set down in the Washington Treaty.
An example of the most successful of pre-war French cruiser designs, the bizarrely camouflaged Gloire is shown after her 1943 refit in the USA, with much increasedAA armament and equipped with radar. Two other sister ships received similar treatment. Armament: nine 152-mm (6-m), eight 90-mm (3.5-in) DP and eight 13.2-mm (0.52-in) AA guns, plus four 550-mm (21.7-in) torpedo tubes Aircraft: two floatplanes Complement: 540
ITALY
'Condottieri' class cruiser Though the Italians built many fine cruisers, lack of an offensive policy in war led to few of them being really tested in action. The 12 'Condottieri' class ships formed the backbone of their light cruiser strength, a quartet and four pairs constituting a logical development sequence over a five-year period. The Garibaldi and her sister were the ultimate pair and were very close to the 10,000-ton limit. As a yardstick for the 'Giussano' class, the four-strong first group of 'Condottieri', laid down in 1928, the French 'Duguay-Troums' class was completed less than two years previously. Both classes carried four twin turrets and, though the Italian ships were rather faster, neither type was more than minimally protected. An immediate response in the French 'La Galissonmere1 class was paralleled by the remaining 'Condottieri' over the same period. With the French ships incorporating a measure of protection, the Italians successively increased power and dimensions to maintain speed while improving survivability in the 'Bande Nere', 'Diaz', 'Montecuccoli' and 'Aosta' classes. The last pair comprised the 'Garibaldi' class whose beam, draught and displacement were increased significantly to allow two extra guns (in triple A and Y turrets) and a further upgrading of protection. A fundamental shift in policy was the acceptance of a lower speed but this was acceptable as still representing a margin over the equivalent French ships. The Garibaldi's war was involved mainly in the distant cover for the various convoys to North Africa. In July 1941 she was torpedoed and heavily damaged by the submarine HMS Upholder.
Both sisters surived to be incorporated into the post-war fleet, the Garibaldi lasting until the 1970s converted to a prototype guided-missile cruiser with Terrier surface-to-air missiles, Specification 'Condottieri' class (Group 5) Ships in class (launched): Group 1 Alberto di Giussano ( 1930), Giovanni delle Bande Nere ( 1930), Alberico da Barbiano (1930) andSartolomeo Cblleorji(1930); Group 2Armando Diaz (1930) andLuigi Cadorna ( 1930); Group 3 Raimondo Mon tecuccoli (1931) andMuzioAfterjdolo (1933);
Group 4EmanueleFiliberto Duca d'Aosta (1932) andEugenio di Savoia ( 1933); and Group 5 Luigi di Savoia Duca degli Abruzzi (1933) and Giuseppe Garibaldi (1933) Displacement: 9,195 tons standard and 11,260 tons full load Dimensions: length 187.0 m (612 ft 5 in); beam 18.9 m (61 ft 11 in); draught S.2m(17ft) Machinery: Parsons geared turbines delivering 102,000 shp (76060 kW) to two shafts Speed:33,5kts Armour: belts 130 mm (5.1 in); deck 40 mm (1.6 in); turrets 135 mm (5.3 in)
Backbone of the Italian light cruiser force, the five groups of 'Condottieri' class cruisers were built over a fiveyear period in the 1920s and early 1930s. Giuseppe Garibaldi was one of the last two to be built, surviving wartime damage to serve the Italian navy into the 1970s.
fitting out. Three were completed in 1942-3, and one other was eventually salvaged and fitted out, the four being the Attilio Regolo, Pompeo Maguo, Giulio Germanico and Scipione Africano. One pair served post-war with each of the French and Italian fleets. Of the Italians, the San Giorgio (ex-Giulio Germanico} served, albeit reengined, until very recently. None of the four mounted its original armament, supply considerations dicating American 127-mm (5-in) L/38s in the Italian ships and ex-German 105-mm (4.1-in) weapons in the French units.
Regolo (1940), PompeoMagno (1941), Giulio Germanico ( 1941 ) and Scipione Africano (1941) Displacement: 3,750 tons standard and 5,400 tons full load Dimensions: length 142,2 m (466 ft 6 in); beam 14.4 m (47 ft 3 in); draught 4.1m (13 ft 5 in) Propulsion: geared turbines delivering 110,000 shp (82025 kW) to two shafts Speed: 40+kts Armour: not known Armament: eight 135-mm(5.3-in), eight 37-mm AA and eight 20-mm AA guns, plus eight 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes Aircraft: none
Armament: 10 152-mm(6-m), eight 100-mm (3.9-in) AA, eight 37-mm AA and 10 20-mm AA guns, plus six 533mm (21 -in) torpedo tubes Aircraft: two floatplanes Complement: 900
The final 'Condottieri'class vessels were increased in size and accepted a reduced performance in the interests of protection. The Luigi di Savoia Duca degli Abruzzi, seen here in 1942pattern-dazzle camouflage, also survived the vvar, and served until 1961.
ITALY
'Capitani Romani' class light cruiser The British concept of the small cruiser as used in World War I was followed by the Japanese in the 1920s but, thereafter, development lapsed for a decade until the French embarked on the 'Mogador' class. These looked like, and were, super destroyers but which, on a deep displacement of barely 4,000 tons, could outgun a 'Dido' class cruiser. With about 92,000 shp (68605 KW) they could also make 40 kts. The Italians, stung to urgency, produced the 'Capitani Romani' class, laying down no less than 12 keels in the space of six months, As a result of Italy's varying fortunes of war, however, only four were completed. Less than 5 m (16 ft 5 in) longer than the 'Mogador' class ships, the 'Capitani Romani' class vessels looked like small
cruisers, their extra beam allowing space for machinery developing an astonishing maximum of 125,000 shp (93210kW), equivalent to that of a 'Salem' class heavy cruiser of four times the displacement. At this power the Italian ships were good for 43 kts and, while they were virtually unprotected, they also shipped a very respectable main battery. In addition, eight torpedo tubes were fitted and mines could be carried, though probably in lieu of other topweight. Their Roman names were splendidly euphoric, belying the headache that they could have caused any convoy escort commander not blessed with air support, As it was, four were demolished on the ways, five more being sunk through various agencies whilst
Specification 'Capitani Romani' class Ships in class (launched): Attilio
Complement: 425
489
GERMANY
'Deutschland' class 'pocket battleship' Until 1934 Germany was bound by the Treaty of Versailles, under whose terms no warship exceeding 10,000 tons could be built. To extract the maximum potency within this general limitation, the designers had to balance finely the conflicting requirements of speed, armament and protection. Long endurance was required to conduct an extensive guerre de course against France and the UK and the three 'Deutschland' class ships were given the quite novel machinery of eight diesels driving two shafts, allowing for flexible and highly economical propulsion. Electric welding saved 15 per cent on weight as compared with riveting, allowing for extra weight to be allocated to both armament and protection. Despite the overt weight-saving, however, the ships all exceeded their stated displacements. When constructed, they continued the concept of the armoured cruiser, being faster than any battleship and more powerful than any cruiser. Like armoured cruisers, they were vulnerable to battlecruisers, Until 1940, the ships were officially classified as Panzerschiffe (armoured ships), but were popularly known to the Allies as 'pocket battleships'. After the destruction of the Admiral Graf Spee, subsequent to the River Plate action, the surviving pair were recategorized as heavy cruisers. The Admiral Scheer had a brief but successful career as a raider, gaining particular notoriety with her sinking of the armed merchant cruiser Jervis Bay. The Deutschland herself was politically renamed Lützow after the Admiral Graf Spee affair and, until early 1942,
spent much time in dock after being torpedoed on two separate occasions. Her major action was the tactical defeat off North Cape on 30/31 December 1942. Both ships were finally sunk by British bombing in the closing days of the European war.
Specification
'Deutschland' class (Admiral Graf Spee) Ships in class (launched): Deutschland (1931), Admiral Scheer ( 1933) and Admiral Graf Spee (1934)
Lützow (formerly Deutschland) as she appeared in 1945. The curved bow was fitted in 1940, and the tall funnel cap in 1941. She was scuttled in May l 945 after being damaged beyon d repair by near misses from RAF 'Tallboy'5443-kg(12,000-lb) bombs.
GERMANY
'Hipper' class heavy cruiser When heavy cruisers were finally built by Germany in the late 1930s, they were of orthodox design, showing no influence from the 'Deutschland' class Panzerschiff. The nameship of the 'Hipper' class, the Admiral Hipper, was launched in February 1937 after the various treaties had lapsed and she was, as a result, comparable in displacement with the big Japanese cruisers. By shipping only an eight-gun main battery, however, the Germans had more scope for improved protection. The Admiral Hipper was the best known of the class, being active in the Norwegian campaign of 1940, during which she was rammed and damaged by an intended victim, the British destroyer HMS Glowworm. In late 1940 and early 1941, she had a successful period as a raider before moving again to Norway, where her presence was partly responsible for the PQ. 17 disaster in July 1942. On the last day of the 490
year, in company with the 'pocket battleship' Lützow and a destroyer force, she unsuccessfully attacked the JW.51B convoy off North Cape, The outclassed British destroyer escort kept the Germans at arm's length for three hours until relieved by a cruiser force, Hitler's reaction at this rather inept operation being an order to decommission all heavy units. The Hipper thus survived to be taken in 1945. Also captured was the Prinz Eugen, best known for her being in company with the Bismarck in May 1941, and later accompanying the battleContinued on page 806 After Prinz Eugen was ceded to the US Navy in 1945, it was found that the high pressure steam machinery was a constant source of trouble. She was expended as an atom bomb target two weeks after this photograph was taken.
Displacement: 12,100 tons standard and 16,200 tons full load Dimensions: length 186.0 m (610 ft 3 in); beam 21.3 m (69 ft 11 in); draught 5.8 m (19 ft) Propulsion: eight MAN diesels delivering 56,000 shp (41760 kW) to two shafts Speed:28.5kts Armour: belt 80 mm (3,1 in); deck 45 mm (1.8 in); turrets 85-140 mm (3.35.5 in); barbettes 100 mm (3.9 in) Armament: six 280-mm (11-in), eight 150-mm (5.9-m), six 105-mm (4,1-in)
Designed as very heavily armed commerce raiders, the German 'pocket battleships' utilized diesel propulsion and electric welded hulls (to save weight) in the quest for long endurance. Graf Spee, weatheringa storm, displays the flat funnel cap and vertical bow of pre-war days. AA, eight 37-mm AA and 10 20-mm AA guns, plus eight 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes Aircraft: two floatplanes Complement: 1,150
cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau in their celebrated dash up the English Channel. She was expended at the Pacific A-bomb trials after the war. The Blücher, a brand new ship, went down in April 1940 with a heavy loss of life when overwhelmed by Norwegian shore defences while heading up Oslofjord carrying an invasion force, Lützow (II) was sold to the Soviets in 1940 and the Seydlitz was never completed,
Specification
'Hipper' class (PrinzEugen) Ships in class (launched): Admiral Hipper (1937), Blücher (1937) and Prinz Eugen (1938)
Displacement: 14,475 tons standard and 18,400 tons full load Dimensions: length 210.4 m (690 ft 4 in); beam 21.9 m (71 ft 10 in); draught 7.9 m (25 ft 10 in) Propulsion: Brown Boveri geared turbines delivering 132,000 shp (98430 kW) to three shafts Speed:33.4kts Armour: belt 70-80 mm (2.75-3.1 in); deck 12-50 mm (0.5-2 in); turrets 70105 mm (2.75-4.1 in) Armament: eight 203-mm (8-in), 12 105-rnm(4.1-in)DP, 1237-mmAAand 24 20-mm AA guns, plus 12 533-mm (21 -in) torpedo tubes Aircraft: two float panes Complement: 1,450 Prinz Eugen a t Brest in May 1941. After accompanying the ba ttleship Bismarck into the Atlantic and participa ting in the sinking ofHMS Hood, Prinz Eugen made independently for safety, thereby avoiding the fate of her mighty partner.
Supposedly built to the Washington Treaty limit of 10,000 tons, the 'Hipper' class varied in standard tonnage from 14,000 to 17,000 tons and could approach 20,000 tons when deeply loaded. Prinz Eugen is seen here as she vvas a t Bergen in April 1941. The dazzle stripes were later painted over.
UK
'County' class heavy cruiser It was because of the new British 'Hawkins' class ships (nearly 10,000 tons displacement and armed with 190,5-mm (7.5-in guns) that the Washington Treaty limits on cruisers were set as they were. In keeping with the remainder of the signatories, who built up to these limits, the British produced the 'A' or 'County' class. Their designers eschewed, however, the current competitions for optimal armament or speed, producing instead a compromise well-suited to duties on imperial trade routes, Even so they were wellarmed, had an adequate turn of speed, and were reasonably protected. They were notable for their considerable freeboard and three funnels, instantly recognizable anywhere. Excellent endurance and good standards of habitability made them both effective and popular. The London Treaty came into force before the construction programme was complete and some five planned units were cancelled. Though built in three separate groups as the 'Kent' class (seven ships), 'London' class (four ships) and 'Norfolk' class (two ships), the 'County' class ships were originally very similar, but modernization during the 1930s produced variations. On four the after superstructure was greatly enlarged as an aircraft hangar, two of them being cut down a deck aft to compensate as the hull had a reputation for hard rolling. HMS London (only) emerged in 1941 from a rebuilding that left her looking like an enlarged 'Fiji'
class cruiser with improved AA armament, the war preventing further such exercises. In surface action, the ships proved generally effective but fell victim to air attack as readily as any other of their vintage. Their main contribution to the war at sea lay in the unspectacular but vital tasks of convoy protection and operations against raiders. Losses were HMAS Canberra, HMS Dorsetshire and HMS Cornwall.
38-102 mm (1.5-4 in); turrets 38-51 mm (1.5-2 in); barbettes 25 mm(l in) Armament: eight 203-mm (8-in), eight 102-mm (4-in) AA and eight or 16 2-pdr AA guns, plus eight 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes Aircraft: one or three flying-boats Complement: 660
The 'County'class cruiser HMS Devonshire draws alongside HMS Mauritius in the Indian Ocean. The two ships are about to effect a transfer of either stores or personnel, with a line being passed from one ship to the other by means of a small rocket.
Specification
'County' class ('London' sub-class) Ships in class (launched): Berwick (1926), Cornwall (1926), Cumberland (1926), Kent (1926), Suffolk (1926), Australia (1927), Canberra (1927), Devonshire (1927), London (1927), Shropshire (1928), Sussex (1928), Dorsetshire (1929) andlVor/olJc (1928) Displacement: 9,8250 tons standard and 14,000 tons full load Dimensions: length 193.3 m (633 ft) beam 20.2 m (66 ft); draught 6.6 m (21 ft 6 in) Propulsion: Parsons or Brown Curtis geared turbines delivering 80,000 shp (59655 kW) to four shafts Speed: 32 kts Armour: belt 76-127 mm (3-5 in); deck Below: HMS Norfolk as she appeared in 1943. The 'County'class heavy cruisers were a compromise designed to operate effectively in the protection of long trade routes. They had excellent endurance and were popular with their crews.
491
UK
'Arethusa' class light cruiser At the time of the London Treaty of 1930, the UK was building the first 152mm (6-in) cruisers designed since World War I. Ostensibly replacements for the little 'C' and 'D' class cruisers, these were the five e i g h t - g u n 'Leander' class ships designed around a twin-gun mounting tried experimentally on HMS Enterprise. A three-ship derivative, the 'Amphion' class, differed mainly in having widely spaced funnels through the improved layout of machinery spaces. Once ratified, the treaty imposed limits on the total replacement 152-mm (6-in) tonnage that the British were permitted to build, and the Admiralty experimented with a cut-down sixgunned v e r s i o n k n o w n as the 'Arethusa' class. In tonnage terms,1 four could be built for three 'Leander class ships, but they were considered too small and only four were built. Despite their lack of size, the Arethusa' class cruisers found their ideal slot in the Mediterranean war. Best known were HMS Aurora and HMS Penelope which, while forming the core of Force K working out of Malta in 1941, destroyed convoyed Italian shipping at a rate which caused the Axis armies in North Africa acute supply problems. Both were damaged on the night when Force K was very nearly destroyed in a minefield, The Penelope, repaired, went on to see the most hard-fought of the Malta convoys, including Admiral Vian's superb defence at 2nd Battle of Sirte in March 1942. Docked again in Malta, she was so riddled with splinters as to earn the soubriquet 'HMS Pepperpot'. Together again with the Aurora in Force Q the Penelope saw the end of Axis ambitions in North Africa, going on to the Sicilian and Salerno landings. Bombed and damaged in the Aegean, she saw her last action at Anzio, being sunk by a submarine's torpedo whilst returning to Naples in February 1944. Also sunk in the war was HMS Galatea.
Built within Washington Treaty limits, the six-gun 'Arethusa'class cruisers were considered too small, but gave fine service in the Mediterranean. Here an 'Arethusa ' class vessel is photographed from HMS King George V, possibly while hunting the Bismarck in May l 941.
Specification
'Arethusa' class Ships in class (launched): Areth usa (1934), Galatea (1934), Penelope (1935) andAurora(1936) Displacement: 5,250 tons standard Dimensions: length 154.2 m (506 ft); beam 15,5 m(51 ft); draught 4.2 m(13 ft 9 in) Propulsion: geared turbines delivering 64,000 shp (47725 kW) to four shafts Speed: 32.25 kts Armour: belt 51 mm (2 in); deck 51 mm (2 in); turrets 25 mm (1 in); conning tower 25 mm(l in) Armament: six 152-mm (6-in), eight 102-mm (4-in) AA, and eight 2-pdr AA guns, plus six 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes
Aircraft: one flying-boat (not in Aurora)
Complement: 470
Below: Three generations of light cruiser are seen heading to join the naval bombardment of Normandy in June 1944. Beyond HMS Arethusa can
be seen HMS Danae, da ting from 1918, and HMS Mauritius, completed in 1941.
UK
'Town' class heavy cruiser The eight 'Southampton' or 'Town' class cruisers represented the end of British involvement with treaty obligations. With their 'Brooklyn' class the Americans had matched the Japanese 'Mogami' class, and the Admiralty felt obliged to respond with a powerful 152-mm (6-in) cruiser aimed at fleet work rather than commerce protection, as was the case with the 'Leander' class and its successors. Launched during 1936-7 the class was completed for the outbreak of war. Though designed on a smaller scale than the clas-
HMS Southampton depicted just prior to her loss in January 1941. The triple 152-mm (6-in) gunned turrets represen ted a significan t increase in firepower over the immediately preceding 'Leander'and 'Arethusa' classes.
492
ses that had brought about their building, these ships carried 12 reliable guns in a new-pattern triple turret, and could maintain more than 32 kts in a seaway. They were used mainly in the European theatre, where they were more than adequate; though three were lost in the Mediterranean, none was sunk through conventional surface action, For the ship's size and scale of protection the main battery was a little ambitious, and the last three units of the 'Southampton' class proper (HMS Above: HMS Sheffield, a Type I 'Town' class 152-mm (6-in) cruiser, is seen on convoy escort duty. The 'Town' class was designed to match the Japanese 'Mogami'class, and represen ted Britain 's final aban donm en t of trea ty obliga tions.
Liverpool, HMS Manchester and HMS Gloucester) having an increased beam. Later modernizations saw the r e m o v a l of X t u r r e t and t h e enhancement of the AA armament. In 1938 two examples of an improved version were launched. While carrying the same armament as their predecessors HMS Belfast and HMS Edinburgh were larger, better protected and had more powerful machinery, All of the 'Town' class ships were well built, giving in some cases over 30 years of useful service, Indeed the Belfast is still afloat as the sole remaining example of a long line of British cruisers. Developed from the 'Town' class was the 'Fiji' or 'Crown Colony' class (11 ships) and its first derivative, the Swiftsure' class (six ships). Smaller but slightly faster, these were emergency programme ships and, while effective in service, their inferior construction was reflected in their shorter lifespans.
Specification
Town' class (Type III) Ships in class (launched): Type I or
Developed from the 'Town'class, the 'Crown Colony' class cruisers such as HMS Kenya toolc wartime lessons into account while being built. Shorter but slightly faster than their predecessors, theyhadmuch improved secon dary amm unition supply. 'Southampton' class iVevvcastle (1936), Southampton (1936), Birmingham (1936), Glasgow (1936) and Sheffield (1936); Type II or 'Liverpool' class Liverpool ( 1937), Manchester (1937) and Gloucester ( 1937); and Type III or 'Belfast' class Belfast (1938) and Edinburgh (1338) Displacement: 10,550 tons standard and 13,175 tons full load Dimensions: length 187.0 m (613 ft); beam 19,3 m (63 ft 3 in); draught 5,3 m (17 ft 6 in) Propulsion: Parsons geared turh mes delivering 82,500 shp (61520 kW) to four shafts Speed: 32 kts Armour: belt 114 mm (4.5 in); deck 51 mm (2 in); turrets 25-63.5 mm (12.5 in); conning tower 102 mm 94 in)
Armament: 12 152-mm(6-in), eight 102-mm (4-in) AA, and eight or 16 2pdr guns, plus six 533-mm (21 -in)
torpedo tubes Aircraft: three flying-boats
Speed: 32.25 kts Armour: belt 76 mm (3 in); deck 35 mm ( 1 in); turrets 25-38 mm ( 1 -1.5 in); barbettes 13-19 mm (0,5-0.75 in); conning tower 25 mm ( 1 in) Armament: eight 133-mm (5.25-in) DP, eight or 12 2-pdr AA, and 12 20-mm AA guns, plus six 533-mm (21 -in) torpedo tubes Complement: 535
HMS Dido on fire support duty off Caeta during the drive up the Italian peninsula. The dual purpose 113mm (5.25-in) turrets were originally designed as secondary armament for the 'King George V class battleships
Complement: 850
UK
'Dido' class light cruiser An increasing awareness of the threat from aerial attack was apparent in the warship design programmes just before World War II. Besides, for instance, rebuilding some of its older cruisers as AA ships, the Royal Navy acquired the 16-strong 'Dido' class in two groups for close defence work. Only a little larger than the Arethusa' class cruisers, the original 11 ships had a lean, elegant appearance, beautifully proportioned. They had no secondary armament, the main battery being 10 133-mm (5.25-in) guns in the twin mountings developed as a secondary weapon for the 'King George V class battleships, These were light enough to permit three superimposed mountings forward, though in later years the proliferation of tophamper resulted in the landing of the upper, or Q mounting. The last five ships, labelled 'Improved Dido' class ships, had eightgun fits from the start, with shorter vertical funnels and sturdier masts. These modifications did nothing for their looks but the ships certainly served much farther aüeld, even for Arctic convoy escort, whereas the earlier ships were used mainly in the Mediterranean. In the latter theatre they were superb and, though HMS Spartan of the later group was sunk by glider bomb attack off Anzio, none was destroyed by direct air attack,
It could not be claimed that the 133mm (5.25-in) weapon was the ideal dual-purpose gun, for it was rather on the light side for surface engagements against the protected ships of the day yet too heavy for effective use against aircraft, with too slow a rate of fire and reaction. In the post-war fleet the 'Dido' class ships proved of little more use to the Royal Navy than the equivalent Atlanta' class, did to the US Navy, and most of them had been scrapped by the end of the 1950s. Wartime losses were HMS Charybdis, YiMSHermione, HMS Bonaventure, HMS Naiad and HMS Spartan.
Specification
'Dido'class (Type II) Ships in class (launched): Type I Dido ( 1939), Euryalus ( 1939), Naiad ( 1939), Phoebe (1939), Sinus (1940), Bonaventure (1939), Hermione (1939), Œaryidis(1940), Cleopatra (1940), Scylla (1940) andArgonaut (1941); Type HBeVona (1942), Black Prince (1942), Disc am (1942), Royalist (1942) and Spartan (1942) Displacement: 5,770 tons standard and 6,970 tons full load Dimensions: length 156,3 m (512 ft); beam 15.4 m(50 ft 6 in); draught 5.3 m (17 ft 3 in) Propulsion: Parsons geared turbines delivering 64,000 shp (47725 kW) to four shafts
HMS Naiad is depicted in an unusual colour schem e da ting from June 1940. The guns at their maximum elevation of 70° give a clue as to the AA function of the 'Dido' class cruisers.
493
JAPAN
'Mogami' class heavy cruiser Unlike her earlier naval model, the UK, Japan took to the 203-mm (8-in) cruiser enthusiastically, her only light cruisers being her 140-mm (5.5-in) gunned scouts such as the 'Sendai' class. But because of the restrictions of the 1930 London Treaty, however, four large 155-mm (6.1-in) gunned ships were built as the 'Mogami' class, this in turn stimulating the Americans to build the 'Brooklyn' class, each class having a 15-tun main battery. To achieve the high designed speed of 37 kts, the Japanese ships were very slender and proved to be dangerously vulnerable. They were, therefore, bulged externally in 1937. Less than two years later, all treaties having lapsed, they were again modified, their triple 155-mm (6.1-in) turrets being exchanged for
twin 203-mm (8-in) turrets and the bulge being increased in size, Their speed was now barely 34 kts, the same as that of the 'Brooklyn' class but with 50 per cent extra power. During World War II the class formed the coherent 7th Cruiser Squadron under the redoubtable Rear Admiral Kurita, and was continuously active. The Mogami, in company with the Mikuma, was instrumental in the destruction of the USS Houston and HMAS Pertli after the Java Sea battle. Later, as part of the diversionary force involved in the Midway action, the two
cruisers collided heavily before being attacked by carrier aircraft; the Mikuma was sunk but Mogami, with 300 dead, survived to fight another day. In November 1943 the Mogami, together with a large force of the Japanese fleet, was caught unawares by air attack at Rabaul. Hit heavily, blazing and down by the bows from flooded magazines, she again just made it. She then survived the Battle of the Philippine Sea only to meet her end at the night action in the Surigao Strait. Battered by gunfire, she collided with the Nachi but, typically, went in again. Shattered but afloat, she was attacked next day by aircraft. Her surviving crew removed, she was then sunk by a Japanese torpedo. The other two units were also lost in the war.
Specification
da Strait and the action off Samar, She had survived Midway, Empress Augusta Bay and the 2nd Solomon Sea actions. It was, therefore, particularly gratifying for the renascent British Pacific Fleet to intercept her as she passed through* the Malacca Strait in May 1945 en route to evacuate the garrison of the Andamans. Five destroyers of the 26th Flotilla attacked in divisions so that, in avoiding the torpedoes of the first, the Haguro ran foul of those of the second.
Displacement: 13,380 tons standard Dimensions: length 201.7 m (661 ft 9 in) waterline; beam 20.7 m (68 ft); draught 6,3 m (20 ft 9 in) Propulsion: geared turbines delivering 130,000 shp (96940 kW) to
'Mogami' class cruiser Ships in class (launched): Mogami (1934), Mikuma (1934), Suzuya (1934) and Kumano( 1936) Displacement: 12,400 tons standard Dimensions: length 203.9 m (669 ft); beam 20,2 m (66 ft 3 in); draught 5.8m (19ft) Propulsion: geared turbines delivering 150,000 shp (111855 kW) to four shafts Armour: belt 100 mm (3.9 in); deck 35 mm ( 1.5 in); turrets 25 mm ( 1 in) Armament: 10 203-mm (8-in), eight 127-mm (5-in) DP and eight 25-mm AA guns, plus 12 610-mm(24-in) torpedo tubes Aircraft: three floatplanes Complement: 850
The lapse of the various naval treaties in the late 1930s saw Japan replace the triple 152-mm (6-in) turrets on the 'Mogami' class with twin 203-mm (8-in) mounts. Depicted just before the Battle of Midway, Mogami was to be severely damaged several times before finally , succumbing in October 1944.
JAPAN
'Myoko' class heavy cruiser While showing a distinct family relationship with the preceding 'Aoba' class, the four 'Myoko' class cruisers were some 10 per cent longer and introduced the fearsomely massive aspect characteristic of the next decade of Japanese cruiser construction. Proportionately more 'beamy' than earlier classes, the 'Myoko1 class ships mounted 10 203-mm (8-in) guns and still had improved protection worked in. Like most of their kind, they looked strange to Western eyes but were powerfully built and extraordinarily difficult to sink. Immediately before the outbreak of World War II, their torpedo armament was increased to 16 610-mm (24-in) tubes in keeping with the aggressive tactical doctrine that
was to pay such handsome dividends, Their topweight reserves must thereby have been pushed to the limit, however, for when AA armament was urgently enhanced later in the war, some had the torpedo armament reduced again. Like most of the hard worked Japanese cruiser classes, the 'Myoko' class ships were all lost (the Myoko being surrendered in a totally unserviceable state). Unusually, two of the four were sunk by the Royal Navy, the Ashigara being sunk by submarine torpedo in the Bangka Strait and the Haguro falling to a classicallyexecuted night destroyer attack. The Haguro had been a particularly doughty opponent at the Java Sea, Sun-
Specification 'Myoko' class Ships in class (launched): Myoko (1927), Nachi (1927), Haguro (1928) and Angara (1928)
Myoko (1944. after major refit) cutaway drawing key 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Balanced rudder Propeller Shaft Support Oil-fired boilers Boiler rooms Smoke-emitting installation room 8 Rice and wheat store 9 Crew's quarters 10 Officers'quarters 11 Lower flat 12 Refrigerator room
494
13 203-mm (8-in) 50-calibre guns 14 Turret 15 Sighting hood 16 Rangefinder 17 Barbette 18 Turntable 19 Switch room 20 Stores 21 Shell room 22 Ammunition hoist 23 Torpedo-handling room 24 Torpedo tubes
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
Catapult Keel Armour belt Aft boiler room Forward boiler room Aft control Aft lookout position Entrance to hangar Tripod mainmast Aft funnel Two funnels trunked into one 36 Funnel casing
four shafts
Speed: 33,5 kts Armament: belt 100 mm (3.9 in); deck 65-125 mm(2,5-5 in); turrets40 mm(l.5 in) Armament: 10 203-mm (8-in), eight 127-mm (5-in) DP and eight 25-mm AA guns, plus 16 610-mm (21 -in) torpedo tubes Aircraft: three floatplanes Complement: 780
LSA
'Northampton' class cruiser The USA's first two Washington Treaty cruisers were the two 'Pensacola' class heavy cruisers of 1929. Both had very active lives in World War II, but their design was not particularly successful, being cramped and having an extremely low freeboard. Their 10gun 203-mm (8-in) armament (set, unusually, in mixed twin and triple turrets) was overambitious to the point where the ships were extremely tender. Even before their completion an improved design, the ' N o r t h a m p t o n ' class, was well advanced, These not only regrouped the main battery into a homogeneous nine guns set in three triple turrets, but had a hull 4.4 m (14 ft 6 in) greater in length plus a raised forecastle to improve seaworthiness. Of the class of six ships, the USS
Houston was lost in March 1942 in the aftermath of the Java Sea debacle. The USS Chicago survived the shambles of the Savo Island battle in August 1942 with most of her bows removed by a Japanese torpedo. Guadalcanal still claimed her, however, for after repairs she returned shortly afterward to cover a replenishment trip to the island. Near Rennell Island she was sunk by air-dropped torpedoes. The USS Northampton also went down in the area, only a couple of miles from Savo, in the dreadful night action of Tassafaronga. An American force of five cruisers and six destroyers fell foul of the so-called 'Tokyo Express'. The latter were surprised, but acted with great resolution and speed, using their specialized night-fighting training to good advantage, Despite being encumbered with embarked troops and stores, they split into subdivisions and launched a devastating torpedo attack.
Four of the five American cruisers were hit, although only the Northampton was a total loss. The surviving trio of the class, known as the 'Chester' class, lasted until 1960. Specification 'Northampton' class Ships in class (launched): Northampton (1929), Chester (1929), Louisville (1930), Chicago (1930), Houston (1929) andAugusta (1930) Displacement: 9,050-9,300 tons standard and 12,350 tons full load Dimensions: length 183,0 m (600 ft
3 in); beam 20. l m (66 ft); draught 4.95 m (16 ft 3 in) Propulsion: Parsons geared turbines delivering 107,000 shp (79790 kW) to four shafts Speed:32.5kts Armour: belt 76 mm (3 in); deck 51 mm (2 in); turrets 38-64 mm (1.5-2,5 in); barbettes 38 mm (1.5 in); conning tower 203 mm (8 in) Armament: nine 203-mm (8-in), eight 127-mm (5-in) AA, two 3-pdr, and eight 12_. 7-mm (0.5-m) AA guns Aircraft: four floatplanes Complement: 1,200
An improvement on the preceding 'Pensacela ' class, theNorthamptons were found to be dangerously vulnerable to Japanese 203-mm (8in) shells even a t long ranges. USS Northampton is depicted as she was in mid-1942, before her final campaign around Guadalcanal.
Haguroin 1944. The four ships in the class were largely responsible for Allied losses in the Java Sea in 1942, but all had been lost or put out of action by overwhelming Allied power in 1944 and 1945.
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
Funnel uptakes Searchlight platform Searchlight Command post for AA guns Foremast Radar Rangefinder for 203-mm (8-in)guns Upper lookout position Admiral's bridge Navigation bridge
47 Chart room 48 Rangefinder for secondary armament 49 Main control centre 50 Ventilators to boiler rooms 51 Wireless direction-finding aerial 52 Wireless aerial 53 Freshwater feed 54 Waterline 55 Support to boilers 56 Propellerguard
57 Twin 127-mm (5-in) 40calibre dual-purpose gun turret 58 Bulkhead 59 Double bottom 60 Armoured deck 61 Magazine 62 Armoured bulkhead 63 Telegraph room 64 25-mmAAgun 65 Machine-gun 66 Oil fuel tanks 67 Anchor
68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79
Bow hawser Bow Watertight compartments Forefoot Capstan Capstan engine room Anchor chain room Upperdeck Middle deck Lowerdeck Store deck Crane for handling seaplanes 80 Catapult turntable
495
USA
'Cleveland' class cruiser Stimulated by the Japanese 152-mm (6m) 'Mogani' class, the Americans built the nine 15-gun 'Brooklyn' class cruisers during the 1930s, For the war programmes, however, a more practical 12-gun layout was adopted, with enhanced secondary and AA batteries. While obviously derivatives of the 'Brooklyn1 class, these new 'Cleveland' class cruisers were beamier on about the same length, and were better protected. The name ship was laid down in July 1940 and five years later the class stood at 26 units, with a further nine hulls converted to fast light carriers (CVL) of the 'Independence' class, Three more were cancelled and a fourth completed as a guided-missile cruiser, making a total of 39, the largest cruiser programme ever. As with the heavy cruisers, layout was improved by development of a single-funnelled version, the Targo' class. Only two of these were completed because of the war's end and the introduction of a fully automatic 6-in gun mounting. As a result of the extra bulk of its loading gear, this weapon was accommodated in a new twin mounting and, with its higher rate of fire fewer barrels per ship could have been expected. Even so, the US Navy still demanded 12 guns and the resultant six-turret ships, the 'Worcester' class needed to be 21.7 m (69 ft 3 in)
longer, with 20 per cent greater power. Like all guns of its generation, the automatic 152-mm (6-in) weapon arrived too late to avoid being overtaken by the guided missile. Only two 'Worcester' class ships were completed, being rebuilt aft as interim CLGs with the long-range Talos surface-to-air missile. These survived until recently, largely because their unfashionably spacious accommodation made them popular as peacetime flagships. No 'Cleveland' class ships were lost in World War II, Specification 'Cleveland' class Ships in class (launched): Cleveland (1941), Columbia (1941), Montpelier ( 1941), Denver ( 1942), Santa Fe ( 1942), Birmingham (1942), Mobile (1942), Vincennes (1943), Pasadena (1943), Springfield (1944), Topeka (1944), Biloxi ( 1943), Houston ( 1943), Providence ( 1944), Manchester ( 1946), Vicksburg (19431 Duluth (1944), Miami (1942), Astoria (1943), Oklahoma City (1944), LittleĂ&#x201E;ocfc (1944), Galveston (1945), Amsterdam (1944), Portsmouth (1944), Wilkes-Barre (1943), Atlanta (1944), Dayton (1944), Baltimore (1942), Boston (1942), Canberra (1943), Quincy (1943), Pittsburg (1944), StPaul (1944), Columbia (1944), Helena (1945),
Bremerton ( 1944), Fall River ( 1944), Macori (1944), Toledo (1945), Los Angeles ( 1944) and Chicago ( 1944) Displacement: 10,000 tons standard and 13,775 tons full load Dimensions: length 185.9 m (610 ft); beam 20.3 m (66 ft 6 in); draught 7.6 m (25 ft) Propulsion: General Electric geared turbines delivering 100,000 shp (74570kW) to four shafts Speed: 33 kts Armour: belt 38-127 mm (1.5-5 in); deck 76 mm (3 in); turrets 76-127 mm
Twenty-six 'Cleveland' class vessels entered service during World War II. USS Biloxi was commissioned in August 1943 and broken up in 1962. (3-5 in); barbettes 127 mm (5 in); conning tower 165 mm (6.5 in) Armament: 12 152-mm (6-in), 12 127mm (5-in) DP, eight (first two) or 24 (eight ships) or 28 (others) 40-mm AA, and between 10 and 2120-mm AA guns Aircraft: four floatplanes Complement: 1,425 Developed from the 'Brooklyn'class but with a wider hull, the 'Cleveland' class carried 12152-mm (6-in) guns in four triple turrets. The two-tone scheme depicted is typical of postwar colour schemes.
USA
'Salem' class heavy cruiser Though completed too late to take part in World War II, the 'Salem' class cruisers are very much ships of that war and proved to be the final word in conventional cruiser development. Their design stemmed directly from the preceding 'Oregon City' class which was itself a tidied-up 'Baltimore' class. Both latter classes shared a common 205,7m (675-ft) hull, the 'Oregon City' class adopting a single-funnelled layout and more compact superstructure to improve firing arcs, Though all shared the typically American fit of three triple 203-mm (8in) turrets with three twin 127-mm (5in) gunhouses disposed symmetrically at each end of the superstructure, these ships represented a transition
step in AA warfare, up to 52 40-mm guns in the 'Baltimore1 class ships giving way to 20 76-mm (3-in) guns in the later 'Oregon City' class. The 'Salem' class featured 24 76-mm (3-in) guns from the outset, weapons large enough to not only disable a suicide aircraft but disintegrate it. The great innovation of the 'Salem' class, however, was the adoption of a fully-automatic main battery, the ships' greater dimensions reflecting the extra bulk and magazine space required. Amply-proportioned hulls permitted adequate protection for all these classes, the 'Salem' class particularly so. I n t e r e s t i n g l y , these closeassociated groups, the complete American heavy cruiser war program-
me, all stemmed from a single prototype, the USS Wichita, a 20.3-mm (8in) version of the 'Brooklyn' class completed in 1939. Last used in Vietnam, all three 'Salem' class cruisers are still in the reserve fleet, their conventional armament a valuable asset. With enhanced munitions their potential is still very good, and they have a life expectancy limited only by their material condition. No ships from any of these classes was lost in World War II.
Specification
'Salem' class Ships in class (launched): Des Moines (1946), Newport News (1947) and
Salem (1947)
Displacement: 17,000 tons standard and 21,500 tons full load Dimensions: length 218.4 m (716 ft 6 in); beam 23.3 m (76 ft 6 in); draught 6,7 m (22 ft) Propulsion: General Electric geared turbines delivering 120,000 shp (89485kW) to four shafts Speed: 33 kts Armour: belt 152-203 mm (6-8 in); deck 76 mm (3 in); turrets 152-mm (6 in); barbettes 152 mm (6 in); conning tower 203 mm (8 in) Armament: nine 203-mm (8-in), 12 127mm (5-in) DP, 24 76-mm (3-in) DP, and 12 20-mm AA guns Aircraft: four floatplanes Complement: 1,860 The ultimate in World War II cruiser design, USS Salem, Des Moines and Newport News displaced more than 20,000 tons at full load, and were equipped with fully automatic main 203-mm (8-in) batteries. None saw action during the war, but were in use off the coast of Vietnam.
496
Axis Destroyers Destroyers were the most active surface units of the Axis fleets. The Japanese had the finest destroyers in the world; these won a series of dramatic victories across the Pacific. In European waters, German destroyers preyed on the Soviet convoys while in the Mediterranean the Italians revealed a talent for anti-submarine warfare. A 11 three of the major Axis ./Yfleets started World War II with considerable destroyer forces but found, just as the British did, that the attrition rate was high, particularly when the ships were used for duties other than those for which they had been designed. This occurred most of the time. German ships tended to be overambitious, as the result of the twin requirements of meeting (officially at least) treaty limitations on displacement, while not appearing inferior on paper to the French ships seen as the inevitable enemy. British equivalents may have appeared more modest, but they could always fight their armament in a seaway, something that none of the larger German ships could boast. Following their losses in Norway, the German destroyer forces made little further impact on the naval war. The Japanese used their many ships both in their designed fleet context and in other independent roles, largely in support of the army. Their supreme achievement was in the vicious six-month dispute for Guadalcanal. Not only did the destroyers make contention possible at all but, in doing so, made the island a catalyst, enabling them to take the
Italian torpedo boat, or light destroyer, Libra of the Alcione class of vessels, which were brought into service in 1938 and lasted until the 1960s. war to the American fleet. That the policy of attrition against so powerful and numerous an enemy was flawed from the outset was a top-level strategic blunder and in no way detracted from the toughness and resource of the Japanese destroyer skippers. Though never sacrificing their main weapon, the 610mm (24in) torpedo, the Japanese ships shed
much of their main battery firepower in order to accommodate extra AA armament and to give space for troops, equipment and supplies. A similar role fell to many Italian destroyers, which also could just make the return trip to their beleaguered comrades in North Africa within the hours of darkness. Their contribution was useful but, again, losses
were high because (as the British involved in the Tobruk siege discovered) ships were of necessity predictable in their timetable. Nevertheless it was preferable to sharing the big ships' usual routine of swinging around the buoy. Most successful of the Italians were the 'torpedo boats', which proved adept at anti-submarine warfare.
497
JAPAN
The 'Kamikaze' class destroyers, follow-ons to the 'Minekazes', represented something of a departure for the Japanese navy, which had hitherto followed Royal Navy designs, although the choice of 120-mm (4.72-in) guns as main armament reflected British policy.
'Minekaze' class
At the end of World War I the Japanese had the concept of; first- and secondclass destroyers, the one being a scaled-up version of the other. Before this the Japanese navy had either bought British ships or copied them closely, but with the 21 'Momi' class and 15 'Minekaze' class second- and first-class destroyers they produced something a little more original, following an earlier German lead in providing a well between the short forecastle and the bridge structure. Destroyers of the time were quite short overall and, still without the benefit of a superimposed gun on a deckhouse forward,
were prone to bury their noses m a short head sea. At best this made life difficult for the bridge personnel, and at worst there was danger of the structure being flattened or swept clean. The forward well acted as a natural break and, as it moved things aft, also provided space for one set of torpedo tubes. The 'Minekazes', all launched between 1919 and 1922, were theA/rikaze, Hakaze, Hokaze, Minekaze, Namikaze, Nokaze, Numakaze, Okikaze, Sawakaze, Shiokaze, Tachikaze, Yakaze and Yukaze. The classes introduced the 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tube to Japanese des-
troyers, twins in the 'Momis1 and triples in the 'Minekazes1 (and in the nine similar 'Kamikaze' class follow-ons), Both types carried their 120-mm (4.72-in) guns (the calibre itself reflecting earlier British influence) high on deckhouses and forecastle, enabling them to be fought in poor conditions when the weather deck was likely to be swept by loose water. By World War II standards the 'Minekazes' were both small and old and, with the shortage of escorts being quickly and dramatically exploited by American submarines, most of the class shed half their main-calibre guns,
mmesweeping gear and all but a pair of torpedo tubes to mount depthcharge throwers and ammunition, together with an ever-increasing number of light AA guns. Four units, after the fashion of some older British destroyers, had a very thorough conversion to convoy escorts with some boiler capacity sacrificed for extra bunker space. One, the Sawakaze, was reportedly fitted with an ahead-firing nine-barrelled AS rocketlauncher. Nine of the class themselves fell victim to submarine attack, the nameship being sunk by the USS Pogy in the East China Sea early in 1944 at a time when destroyers were made priority torpedo targets.
Specification
'Minekaze' class Displacement: 1,215 tons standard and 1,650 tons full load Dimensions: length 102.5 m (336.3 ft); beam 9.0 m (29.5 ft); draught 2.89 m (9.5 ft)
Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 28709 kW (38,500 shp) to two shafts Speed: 39 kts Endurance: 6670 km (4,145 miles) at 14 kts Armament: four single 120-mm(4.72m) guns, two machine-guns, two triple 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tube mountings and up to 20 mines Complement: 148 Above: The venerable 'Minekazes' were launched between 1919 and 1922 but served throughout the war. Many had their original weapon fit altered to include depth-charge throwers and Ugh t an ti-aircraft guns,j as the enemy was no longer likely to be another destroyer.
Below: This is a 'Minekaze'as she appeared in late 1944 after being converted to carry Kaiten suicide torpedo craft. This desperate expedient failed to achieve success on a scale to rival tha t of the kamikaze aircraft, which had begun to launch their attacks earlier in the year.
JAPAN
Tubuki' class At the time of their construction, the 20 'Fubuki' class destroyers (launched in 1927-31) were among the trend-setters of the destroyer world, They had been preceded by the 12 'Mutsuki' class destroyers, which had further refined the 'Kamikazes' with their strong Anglo-German influences. Only then did the Japanese designers go fully their own way and produce a type of destroyer so advanced that it was still formidable 15 years later at the end of World War II, besides influencing all the classes that followed it. Firstly a significant increase in size was accepted to accommodate more top498
weight. The awkward forward well was discontinued in favour of a more conventional continuous forecastle, the freeboard of which was increased, and the bridgework was both strengthened and raised to reduce water impact damage. In the preceding class The Tubuki' class revolutionized destroyer design by substantially increasing the size of the vessel. This reduced the vulnerability to heavy seas and enabled them to carry a formidable armament of six 127-mm (5-in) guns and nine 610-mm (24-in) torpedo tubes.
From l 943 the X turret was removed from surviving Tubuki' class destroyers in favour ofmore light AA guns. The original AA armament of tvvo 13-mm machine-guns was changed to four 13-mm and 14 25mm weapons as US aircraft were recognized as a major threat.
the 610-rnrn (24-in) torpedo had been introduced and the 'Fubukis' carried three triple mountings, with stowage for nine spare torpedoes. This early commitment to the torpedo was obvious, yet Allied forces were constantly surprised by the bold and ready manner in which the Japanese were prepared to use them in World War II. A further innovation was the uprating of the main calibre guns to 127 mm (5 in) and mounting these in fully enclosed twin gunhouses, one forward and two aft to lower their combined centre of gravity. In those units launched from 1929 the elevation of the main battery was increased to 70°, an angle unmatched in their day to give a dual-purpose capacity that was little short of visionary. This splendid class was also of high power, the 37285kW (50,000 shp) being good for 38 kts. Unfortunately,
this was bought at the expense of hull strength, and a degree of tenderness. Service during the 1930s highlighted these failings, and the ships were heavily strengthened and given extra ballast. This added another 400 tons to the displacement, slowing them by 4 kts. Further topweight was saved later by not carrying spare torpedoes and landing the superfiring after mountings in favour of a very necessary enhancement to the AA defences, The class served widely in all theatres,
only one unit surviving the war. The ships were the Akebono, Amagiri, Asagiri, Ayanami, Fubuki, Hatsuyuki, Isonami, Miyuki, Murakumo, Oboro, Sagiri, Sazanami, Shikinami, Shinonome, Shirakumo, Shirayuki, Uranami, Ushio, Usugumo and Yugiri Specification Tubuki' class (as built) Displacement: 2,090 tons standard Dimensions: length 118.35 m (388.3 ft); beam 10.36 m (34.0 ft); draught 3.2 m
(10,5ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 37285 kW (50,000 shp) to two shafts Speed: 37 kts Endurance: 8700 km (5,406 miles) at 15 kts Armament: three twin 127-mm (5-in) guns, two machine-guns, three triple 610-mm (24-in) torpedo tube mountings with nine reloads, and up to 18 mines Complement: 197
Ushio was the only one of the 20 Tubuki' class to survive the war. Seen here just after her 1936 refit, she was the last Tubuki' to be launched, and her 127-mm (5-in) guns had their elevation increased from 40 to 75 degrees: a remarkably innovative feature. JAPAN
Tomodzura' and 'Ootori' classes While it may demonstrate the ingenuity of the naval architect, warship design rarely profits from attempting an ambitious fit on a limited displacement, yet this is just what the interwar treaties brought about. The Japanese had operated a class of first-class torpedo boat (or coastal destroyer) up to the mid-1920s, but had not repeated the type until the four-ship 'Tomodzura' class, ordered in 1931 to top-up the Japanese tonnage entitled under the London Treaty. The value of such small craft is evident when it is remembered that Japanese interests looked not only eastward over the Pacific but also at the mainland Orient across the shallow and unrestricted Sea of Japan. At 650ton standard displacement, these ships carried a very ambitious armament of a single and a twin 127-mm (5-in) gunhouse and two pairs of 533mm (21-in) torpedo tubes, all on a fine hull able to achieve 30 kts on a modest 8203 kW(l 1,000 shp). The weakness of this maritime conjuring was made rudely evident when the nameship capsized in heavy weather in 1943. As the hulk did not founder it was recovered, heavily modified (as were the remainder of the class) and recommissioned. The lesson was timely as regards the whole fleet but particularly so in the case of the follow-on 'Ootori' class boats, then about to be ordered. Surprisingly, though the latter were en-
larged their slender proportions hardly changed, the length: beam ratio still being nearly 11:1. As a comparison, the 'Ootons' were longer than either a British Type II 'Hunt; (86.1 m/282.5 ft) or an American DE (88,1 m/289 ft), yet the beams of the latter were 9.6 m (31.5 ft) and 10.7 m (35 ft) respectively. At the same time the Japanese had eventually to accept a greatly reduced armament of two 120-mm (4.72-in) guns and only one pair of tubes. The price of a destroyer's speed was, indeed, high. Although eight of the 16 units projected were cancelled, those completed (thè/fato, Hayabusa, Hiyodori, Kari, Kasasagi, Kiji, Ootori and Sagi, all launched in 1935-7) were reported-
ly good AS ships, though both the Sagi and Hiyodori were sunk separately by the American submarine USS Gunnel on the same patrol. The nameship was sunk off Saipan in June 1944 with no less than 13 other ships when a convoy was totally overwhelmed by American carrierborne aircraft.
Specification
'Ootori' class (as built) Displacement: 840 tons standard and 1,050 tons full load Dimensions: length 88.35 m (289.9 ft); beam 8.2 m (26.9 ft); draught 2.84 m (9.3 ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 14168 k W
(l9,000 shp) to two shafts Speed: 30 kts Endurance: 7400 km (4,598 miles) at 14 kts Armament: three single 120-mm (4.72in) and one 40-mm AA guns, and one triple 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tube mounting Complement: 112 Chitori, second ship of the 'Tomodzura ' class, is seen here off Maizuruin 1934, theyearthe nameship capsized while on running trials due to the designers'attempt to cram an excessive armament on to a vessel of modest displacement.
499
'Akatsuki' and 'Kagero' classes It is worthy of note that in the 'Fubukis' the Japanese had destroyers of a specification superior to that of the British T class, yet a full decade earlier. This sudden leap in capability was bound to bring problems, as succeeding classes demonstrated. The four 'Akatsuki' class ships of 1931-3 kept the same arrangement on a slightly shorter hull but reduced the forward funnel to a thick pipe to save topweight, with lightweight masting and a reduction in depth charges. TheHibiki of this group was the first all-welded Japanese destroyer. In the six 'Hatsuhara' class ships that followed, length was again cut, along with one 127-mm(5-in)gunanda set of torpedo tubes with reloads; installed power and speed were also reduced as designers wrestled with London Treaty restrictions. They were largely repeated with the 10 'Shiratsuyu' class ships, which again experienced a reduction in length, yet succeeded in increasing the torpedo armament to eight 610-mm (24-in) torpedoes with the usual set of reload weapons. The 10 'Asashio' class ships of 1937 were late enough to bypass lip service to treaties and returned to a size and armament almost identical with the 'Fubukis' of nearly a decade before. That this basic design was still relevant was underscored by recognizing it as the basis of the necessary expansion in destroyers on the lead-up to war. Thus 18 more destroyers, nearly identical, but proportionately beamier and known as the 'Kagero' class, were put into the water between 1938 and 1941. Their main characteristics were little different from those of the 'Fubukis', with superimposed twin gunhouses aft and one forward, the latter separated from the blockhouse of a bridge by a distinctive gap, which allowed very wide arcs. Both sets of torpedo tubes could be reloaded rapidly from low stowages flanking the forward funnel and in the after deckhouse. A 20-ship repeat class, the 'Yugumo' class, followed in 1941-3. The 'Kageros' themselves were heavily involved, only one ship surviv-
Above: Shiranukileaves the Uraga shipyard in Tokyo after her commissioning ceremony in 1939. Very similar to the 'Asashio'class, the 'Kageros' were excellent fleet destroyers. One of their number, the Hamakaze, became the first Japanese destroyer to receive radar in 1943. Right: Shiranuki in less happier circumstances, berthed in Maizuru dock after narrowly surviving a torpedo hit from a US submarine off the Aleutians. The Japanese destroyer fleet was designed for surface action and had to be hastily modified for AA andASW operations. ing the war, The Natsushio was one of the very early losses when sunk by the veteran American submarine USS 537 during the operation to take Makassar. Two more, the Arashi and Hagikaze, were sunk by a total of five torpedo hits when the Tokyo Express' had the tables turned on it at Velia Lavella in August 1943. The other 'Kageros' were the Amatsukaze, Hamakaze, Hatsukaze, Hayashio, Isokaze, Kagero,
Kuroshio, Maikaze, Nowake, Oyashio, Shiranuki, Tanikaze, Tokitsukaze, Urakaze and Yukikaze.
Specification
'Kagero' class (as built) Displacement: 2,035 tons standard and 2,490 tons full load Dimensions: length 118.45 m (388.6 ft); beam 10.8 m (35.4 ft); draught 3.76 m (12.3ft)
Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 38776 kW (52,000 shp) to two shafts Speed: 35 kts Endurance: 9250 km (5,748 miles) at 15 kts Armament: three twin 127-mm (5-in) and two twin 25-mm AA guns, and two quadruple 610-mm (24-in) torpedo tube mountings Complement: 240
Above; Arashi crĂŠa tes an impressive wake at nearly 35 kts. Just after midnigh t on 7 August 1943, she and three other destroyers were in tercepted by six US destroyers while on a resupply mission, and in a furious action lasting just 30 minutes she and two of her companions were torpedoed and sunk. Below: Hibiki was Japan 's first welded warship, and was the only 'Akatsuki' class destroyer to survive the war. Her X turret was replaced with more ligh t AA weapons in 1942, and she ended the war carrying 28 25-mm cannon.
500
Above: Kiyoshimo cruises peacefully off Uraga in May 1944, seven months before meeting her end at the hands of US PT boats and aircraft. Similar to the 'Kageros', the 'Yugumo'class tea tured an improved bridge and ; increased main battery elevation.
JAPAN
'Akitsuki' class
By far the largest destroyers built in series by the Japanese, the 'Akitsuki' class ships were conceived originally as AA escorts comparable with the British 'Dido' and US Atlanta' cruiser classes and, by comparison, offered a cheaper solution to the problem. The choice of a 100-mm (3.94-in) gun was probably better than that of the 133.4mm (5.25-in) and 127-mm (5-in) weapons of the Western ships, whose rate of fire was considerably lower, though the lively hull of a destroyer must have made them less effective than cruisers when firing at aircraft. They were the only eight-gun destroyers in the Japanese fleet, and it would seem that the quadruple torpedo tube mounting was something of a late addition. Though they had the basis of an effective design, the Japanese too had underestimated the devastating effect of a determined air attack and only four light automatic guns of the standard 25-mm calibre were originally shipped. War experience encouraged the addition of more at virtually any opportunity, so that, by the end of the war, those still afloat (six were sunk) could dispose of up to 50 such weapons, Launched between 1941 and 1944, the ships of the class were the Akitsuki, Fuyutsuki, Hanatsuki, Harutsuki, Hatsutsuki, Natsusuki, Niitsuki, Shimotsuki, Suzutsuki, Terutsuki, Wakatsuki and Yoitsuki, The most distinctive feature of the class was the complex casing of the single stack; extensive trunking enabled the funnel to be sited far enough abaft the bridge both to cut the smoke problem and greatly improve visibility, while placing it sufficiently far forward to permit extra AA platforms to
be installed where the after stack would normally have been. A feature of preceding classes had been their extremely light masts, but the 'Akitsukis' were among the first to have their masts strengthened for the support of the considerable bulk of the Type 22 surveillance radar antenna. The size of the hull, combined with a comparatively light gun armament and few torpedoes, allowed more generous topweight margins than was customary with Japanese destroyers, one result being a large depth-charge capacity. Nearly 40 more hulls to two improved designs were planned but never completed.
Speed: 33 kts Endurance: 14825 km (9,212 miles) at 18 kts
Armament: four twin 100-mm (3,94-in) and two twin 25-mm AA guns, and one quadruple 610-mm (24-in) torpedo tube mounting Complement: 285
Above; 'Akitsuki' class destroyers were built as fast AA escorts to operate with the carrier groups, the choice of eight 100-mm (3.94-in) guns being more appropriate to the task than the bigger weapons fitted to US orRoyalNavyAA vessels.
Specification
'Akitsuki' class (as built) Displacement: 2,700 tons standard and 3,700 tons full load Dimensions: length 134.12 m (440.0 ft); beam 11,6m (38,1 ft); draught 4.11 m (13.5ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 38776 kW (52,000 shp) to two shafts
Carrying only a light gun armament and four torpedo tubes, the'Akitsukis' could accommodate a substantial depth-charge capacity. Their large hulls soon bristled with light AA weapons, 40 to 50 25-mm guns being fitted to the units that were still operational in 1945.
'Akitsuki' class destroyers could easily be distinguished by their single funnel. Sited well abaft the bridge, it allowed greater visibility and less smoke difficulty while allowing more AA weapons tobe shipped in the space where their contemporaries had a second stack. JAPAN
'Matsu' class Japan's commitment to a short war was nowhere more evident than in her lack of plans for rapid fleet expansion. Convoy escorts were virtually non-existent (as, indeed, were plans for the convoy system itself) and pre-war fleet destroyers, that were being lost and disabled at an alarming rate, were being replaced by ships of equal quality. Though the notion was laudable, there simply was neither the time nor the capacity to produce such ships, and a Japanese destroyer losses rapidly outpaced shipyard production, and in common with her enemies Japan resorted to the construction of a utility class of escort destroyer. Nevertheless, the 'Matsu'class were better armed and more comfortable vessels than their Allied equivalents. 501
utility design had rapidly to be developed. In profile this, the 'Matsu' class, looked large by virtue of the two spindly and widely spaced funnels, but it was the smallest both in terms of size and displacement to be built since World War I. The correct scale was given by the gun mountings, which appeared overlarge. These were simple in the extreme, a single handworked 127-mm (5-in) weapon in a shield ' forward and a twin in a open structure aft. Installed power was little more than one-third that of the fleet destroyers, but the 'Matsus' could still manage about 28 kts, more than adequate for convoy work. A respectable two dozen 25-mm automatic AA weaons were carried, though many of these were single-barrelled mountings, sited in very exposed positions along the edges of the hull. Right amidships was a quadruple 610-mm (24-in) torpedo tube bank; a newpattern sextuple unit had been planned but not completed. In a ship of this capacity and speed the tubes were mainly of defensive value but still had the splinter-proof houF° from which this important weapon could be worked in some comfort, This, and the enclosed bridge, contrasted with the spartan appointments on British ships where, at the time, it seemed little appreciated that a comfortable crew actually performed better, without the
tendency to 'go soft1,
Only 17 of the planned 28 'Matsus1 were so completed in 1944-5, by which time the design had been even further simplified into the Tachibana' class variant, of which 23 were laid down but many were not completed. Ninety further units never proceeded beyond the planning stage. By virtue of their being completed late in the war and engaged on second-line duties, an unusual number survived, losses amounting to 11.
Specification
Designed for rapid production, the 'Matsu' class 's turbines provided only about a third of the power of a fleet destroyer's machinery, but they were capable of a respectable 28 kts. The 'Matsu ' class had their two sets of machinery arranged in separate units for better damage con trol.
( 19,000 shp) to two shafts
127-mm (5-in) plus four triple and 12 single 25-mm AA guns, and one quadruple 610-rnm (24-in) torpedo tube mounting Complement: not known
'Matsu' class Displacement: 1,260 tons standard and 1,530 tons full load Dimensions: length 100.0 m (328.1 ft); beam 9.35 m (30,7 ft); draught 3.27 m (10.7ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 14168 k W Speed: 27,5 kts Endurance: 8350 km (5,188 miles) at 16 kts Armament: one twin and one single
ITALY
'Generale' class Like the Germans, the Italians operated a large force of light destroyers alongside their main fleet units. Both navies referred to these as torpedo boats, a term which sometimes confuses the British reader, who may think of them in terms of MTBs. The nearest thing to such ships in the Royal Navy were the 'Hunt' classes which were more robust but slower; equivalent to the older enemy boats were the few Admiralty 'S1 class units still serving, The six 'Generale' class ships were the last of four very similar 73-m (239.5ft) classes which commenced with the eight-strong 'Pilo' class of 1914-5. These were narrow-gutted threestackers, typical destroyers of their time, which were downgraded to torpedo boat status between the wars as larger ships commissioned. For their size they were quite ambitiously armed, with five single 102-mm (4-in) guns and two twin 440-mm ( 17.3-in) torpedo tube mountings. The gun layout was hardly satisfactory, with one mounting on the raised forecastle, two sided amidships and two on the quarterdeck, no more than three being effective on either beam. The four 'Sirtori' class ships squeezed in an extra gun on an already tight topweight reserve. These dated from 1916-7 and were followed by the eight 'La Masa' class ships of 1917-9, which had their armament reduced to only four guns. In 1919-20 came four 'Palestro' class ships, slightly larger at 82 m (269 ft) to accommodate a near 50 per cent increase in power. Though these were to have a follow-on in the 'Curtatone' class of 1922-3, these two groups were separated by one last 73-m (239,5-ft) class, the 'Generali1, all six of which were launched in 1921-2 by the single yard of Odero, at Sestri Ponente. The ships were the Generale Antonio 502
Cantore, Generale Antonio Cascino, Generale Antonio Chinotto, Generale Carlo Montanari, Generale Achille Papa and Generale Marcello Prestinari Of similar size to the earlier ships, they carried only three guns, a complement to which most were eventually reduced by wartime demands. None of these small and elderly ships was employed in front-line operations, but all nevertheless became war casualties, Three were mined, one of them the Chinotto, sinking in a field laid by the British submarine HMS Rorqual during a particularly fruitful pat-
rol. These mines, off western Sicily, also claimed two merchantmen, while the submarine also sank another and an Italian submarine by torpedo
Specification
'Generale' class (as built) Displacement: 635 tons standard and 890 tons full load Dimensions: length 73.5 m (241.1 ft); beam 7,33 m (24.0 ft); draught 2.5 m (8.2 ft) Propulsion: two sets of steam turbines delivering 11186 kW (15,000 shp) to two shafts
Speed: 30 kts Armament: three single 102-mm (4-in) and two 76-mm (3-in) AA guns, two twin 450-mm ( 17.72-in) torpedo tube mountings and up to 18 mines Complement: 105 The Italian navy, like the German navy, classified its light destroyers as 'torpedo boats'. Eight-hundred-ton vessels mounting three 102-mm (4in) guns, a pair of 450-mm (17.7-in) torpedoes and up to 18 mines, the versatile'Generale'class were built in the early 1920s.
ITALY
'Turbine' class Turbine, in the scheme she adopted at Piraeus in 1942, was taken over by the Germans after the Italian surrender and was destroyed by American aircraft off Salamis in 1944. Turbine herself topped 39 lets on trials, but the best sea speed of the class was nearer 33 lets.
Dating from 1927-8, the eight 'Turbine' class destroyers (Aquilone, Borea, Espero, Euro, Nembo, Ostro, Turbine andZe/nro) were nearly identical with the quartet of 'Sauro' class units that immediately preceded them, the major difference being an extra 3 m (9.84 ft) or so in length to accommodate an approximate 11 per cent increase in power, A feature of both types was the massive armoured 'pillbox1 of a conning tower that topped-off the enclosed bridge. They were the last Italian destroyers to have the low velocity 45-calibre 120-mm (4,72-in) guns, all those following having a 50-calibre weapon. They were, however, the first to mount a second director for the after guns; this was sited between the torpe-
do tube groups but was probably set too low to be of very much use, The four 'Sauro' class ships were destroyed as part of the hopelessly isolated Red Sea squadron, while no less than six of the 'Turbine' class were sunk in 1940. Each of the class, in common with most Italian destroyers, could carry over 50 mines, and four of them thoroughly mined the waters off Tobruk. The Axis garrison there was to prove as much a problem to support as later it did for the British, and the Espero became the first casualty as early as 28 June 1940 when caught by the Australian cruiser HMAS Sydney, the ship that went on to sink the cruiser Bartolomeo Colleoni off Cape Spada only three weeks later. 'Stnngbags'
from the earner HMS ÂŁagle disposed of the Zeffiro and a freighter, and heavily damaged the Euro in Tobruk harbour during early July, repeating the exercise barely a fortnight later when they sank the Ostro and Nembo together with a freighter in the adjacent Gulf of Bomba, It was these same aircraft, working from a shore base near Port Sudan, that were to sink two of the 'Sauros' in the Red Sea in the following April. Carrier-based air attack accounted for another pair on the night of 16/17 September when HMS Illustrious blitzed Benghazi, The l^iiro was sunk by German bombers after the Italian capitulation, while the Turbine herself, captured by the Germans, was finally sunk by American
aircraft in September 1944.
Specification
'Turbine' class Displacement: 1,090 tons standard and 1,700 tons full load Dimensions: length 92,65 m (304.0 ft); beam 9,2 m (30.2 ft); draught 2,9 m (9.5ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 29828 kW (40,000shp) Speed: 36 kts Armament: two twin 120-mm (4.72-in) and two single 40-mm AA guns, two triple 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tube mountings and up to 52 mines Complement: 180
ITALY
'Navigatore' class
Some four years after the completion of the 'Leone' class scouts, the Italians produced between 1928 and 1930 (launch dates) another oversized class in the 12 'Navigatore' class destroyers, namely the Alvise da Mosto, Antonio da Noli, Antonio Pigafetta, Antoniotto Usodimare, Emanuelle Pessagno, Giovanni da Verazzano, Lanzerotto Malocello, Leone Pancaldo, Luca Tarigo, Nicoloso da Recco, Nicolo Zeno and Ugolino Vivaldi. They were, in fact, of slightly smaller dimensions but of greater displacement. Much of this was accounted for by machinery producing a maximum of nearly 44742 kW (60,000 shp) and a third twin 120-mm (4.72-in) gun mounting between the two groups of torpedo tubes. Though large for their day, the gradually increasing scale of destroyers in general meant that the ships' size
The 'Navigatore'class were designed above all to achieve high speed, and sacrificed both armament andseakeepingfor this end. They were constructed to counter the threat posed by the French 'Jaguar'and 'GuĂŠpard'class destroyers, but found themselves figh ting a very differ en t war.
and displacement was equalled by those of the second group of 'Soldati' a decade later. The 'Navigatori were produced at a time when high speed was an obsession with the Italians. Parallel with their construction was that of the first group of 'Condottiere' class cruisers; often running without armament and stores, these were forced to the point where they produced trial speeds of better than 42 kts. Only the 'Navigatori' were large enough to have a hope of matching such performance in a seaway and to prove this possible, at least theoretically, their machinery was overrun briefly on trials to return better than 44 kts. They were extremely lightly built and their seakeeping left something to be desired, though it was improved later by increasing their freeboard. Another futile gesture toward weight-saving was the original
provision of torpedo tubes of only 440mm (17.3-in) calibre. Their fates were a reflection of the confusion of loyalties suffered by the Italians during the war. Eleven of the 12 were sunk: six of these losses were from direct action by the British and another by mine; two were sunk in action with the Germans; one was scuttled; and the last was sunk in error by an Italian submarine. The Pancaldo was an early loss, sunk by aircraft from HMS Eagle outside Augusta after returning from the Battle of Calabria. She was later salvaged and recommissioned, only to be sunk again (and finally) by aircraft off Cape Bon in April 1943 while running supplies to the remnants of the army in North Africa. Another, the Pigafetta, was also sunk twice, being scuttled at Fiume at the Italian surrender, but refloated and put
back into service by the Germans, only to be destroyed by British air attack on Trieste in February 1945.
in) guns were carried but, unlike the British disposition, these were sited in two twin mountings, one on the forecastle deck and one on the same level atop a house set well aft, saving both deckspace and topweight, Slightly smaller than their British counterparts,
the Italian ships were more highly powered, being deficient only in their torpedo complement, weapons that the Italians never valued very highly. Their distinctive profile became very much associated with the Italian fleet and was repeated in the largely similar
'Folgore' class quartet built in parallel. A feature was a separate director for each pair of guns, allowing two targets to be engaged effectively and simultaneously. It was to improve seaworthiness and fighting qualities that the four 'Maes-
Specification 'Navigatore' class Displacement: 1,945 tons standard and 2,580 tons full load Dimensions: length 107.75 m (353.5 ft); beam 10.2 m (33.5 ft); draught 3.5 m (11.5ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 37285 kW (50,000 shp) to two shafts Speed: 38 kts Armament: three twin 120-mm (4.72in) and three single 37-mm AA guns, two twin or triple 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tube mountings and up to 54 mines Complement: 225
ITALY
'Soldato' class The extensive 'Soldato' class was the ultimate development of a sequence that began with the four-ship 'Dardo' class of 1930-2. They used deck space very effectively by successfully trunking all boiler uptakes into one substantial funnel casing. Four 120-mm (4.72-
503
The most numerous class ever ordered by the Italian navy, the 'Soldato' class trunked all their boiler uptakes into a single large funnel casing, which created a very distinctive silhouette. Once again they were highly powered and capable of up to 39 kts.
Right: Like many Italian destroyers, the 'Soldato' class emphasized speed at the expense of armament and strength, and the Lanciere, seen here, foundered in the storm after the battle of Sirte, not beca use of British action but simply because her light design betrayed her. trale' class ships of 1934 were lengthened by nearly 10 rn (32.8 ft), with a proportionate increase in beam; in other respects they and the four 'Oriani' class ships of 1936 were essentially repeats, the latter having slightly increased power. With war in Europe looming the Italian navy expanded, a 12-ship repeat 'Oriani' order being shared between four yards. All were launched 1937-8 as the first group of 'Soldati', and were the Alpino, Artigliere, Ascari, Aviere, Bersagliere, Camicia Nera, Carabiniere, Corazziere, Fuciliere, Geniere, Granatiere and Lanciere. Four of these introduced the first major change by taking a fifth 120-mm gun in a single mounting between the torpedo tube groups. The arrangement was kept in all but one of a further series of seven, only five of which were completed. The Lanciere, of the first group, and the 'Maestrale' class Scirocco foundered in the gale through which the 2nd Battle of Sirte was fought; they had suffered no action damage and their loss was a reflection on the generally overlight scantlings used in Italian design, Four of the first group and three of the second survived the war. Of these the three were ceded to France and two of the others to the Soviet Union.
Specification
'Soldato' class (first series) Displacement: 1,830 tons standard anu 2,460 tons full load Dimensions: length 106.75 m (350.2 ft); beam 10.15 m (33.3 ft); draught 3.6 m (11.8ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 35794 kW (48,000 shp) to two shafts) Speed: 39 kts Armament: four or five 120-mm (4.72-
in) and one 37-mm AA guns, two triple 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tube mountings and up to 48 mines Complement: 219
Scirocco, fourth ship of the similar 'Maestrale' class, also went down in the storm that overwhelmed Lanciere. Despite this terrible vulnerability to heavy seas, the 'Maestrales' were judged an adequate design and were the basis for the 'Soldato'class.
latter, necessary because of extensive trunking from two separate boiler spaces. They also lacked the funnel cap of the torpedo boats. With the 'Spicas' the 100-mm (3.94-in) gun was introduced; only three were carried and they were essentially for use against ships, having an elevation of only 45° and a rate of fire of about eight rounds per minute. Surprisingly, considering
their category, they adhered to only four of the small 450-mm (17.72-in) tubes and these were largely wasted by initially siding them as singles, only two tubes thus bearing on either broadside. Centreline twin mountings were later substituted. The 'Ariete' class design was only that of an improved 'Spica', whose extra beam demanded about 15 per cent
ITALY
'Ariete' class With the 32 'Spica' class torpedo boats launched in 1936-8, the Italians were able to adopt a single-funnel arrangement, the more efficient hull being driven at the same speed as the preceding 'Curtatoni' for less power. Their profile was remarkably similar to that of the contemporary 'Oriani' class fleet destroyers, the major difference being the much bulkier funnel casing of the 504
more installed power but allowed greater topweight. This was used by two extra torpedo tubes (these were never uprated to the far more useful 533-mm/21-m), an increase in mine capacity from 20 to 28, or an equivalent increase in depth charge capacity. The Italians used their torpedo boats extensively and effectively for minelaying.
Ariete was the only vessel of the class to serve with the Italian navy, the others being seized by the Germans in September 1943. The 'Arietes' were improved 'Spica ' class boa ts in tended primarily to protect convoys from a surface threat. The 'Spicas' themselves became very active minelayers during the
Not until 1942-3 were the Arieti' laid down, the fleet having by then the benefit of combat experience. Over 40 units were planned in an extended programme but, though spread among three yards, only 16 (namely the Alabarda, Ariete, Arturo, Auriga, Balestra, Daga, Dragone, Eridano, Fionda, Gladio, Lancia, Pugnale, Rigel, Spa-
da, Spica and Stella Polare) were actually laid down. Of these only the nameship was actually delivered to the Italian fleet, a month before the armistice. The remainder, in various stages of completion, fell into German hands, only 13 of them actually seeing service at sea. Only two (Ariete and Balestra) survived to serve post-war,
both under the Yugoslav flag. Specification 'Ariete' class Displacement: 800 tons standard and 1,125 tons full load Dimensions: length 82.25 m (269.8 ft); beam 8,6 m (28.2 ft); draught 2.8 m (9.2 ft)
Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 16405 kW (22,000 shp) to two shafts Speed:31kts Armament: two single 100-mm (3.94in) and two single 37-mm AA guns, two triple 450-mm (17.72-in) torpedo tube mountings and up to 28 mines Complement: 155
GERMANY
'Type 34' or 'Maass' class When the keels of the first 'Type 34' class destroyers were laid in late 1934 for launch between 1937 and 1939, the Germans had had virtually no experience in the production of true destroyers since the end of World War I. This lack of continuity was to result in the incorporation of much that was untried, particularly with respect to boilers and machinery, and the ships thus gained a reputation for unreliability. Despite this, they were of conventional layout and more than a little influenced by contemporary British fleet destroyers. Advantage was conferred by extra length, though this was offset by a poorly-designed forward end which, lacking sufficient freeboard and flare, left them very wet ships in any sea, A new 127-mm (5-in) calibre was selected rather than the better-tried 105-mm (4,13-in) size in order to match the weight of standard French projectiles. The new gun proved a reliable weapon but was not dual purpose. Five were carried (three singles aft and two singles forward), each group being capable of separate control with its own rangefinder. Two quadruple banks of 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes were shipped, Like the Japanese, the Germans believed in the weapons, trained in them and used them to good effect when allowed. Four reloads could be carried. The ships were also tracked along both sides of the upper deck to give capacity for 60 mines. In all, there were 22 named destroyers of fairly homogeneous design but, of these, only the first four were 'Type 34s'. Officially, the next 16 were 'Type 34A' class ships and the remainder 'Type 36' class units. There were few differences externally and these went across type boundaries as did the several small changes in hull length, though it is noteworthy that the final group of four featured a hull some 6 m (19.7 ft) longer than that of the original quartet, This increase partly met the type's poor endurance figures, which were due to the fact that their stability range did not allow running at below
The 'Type 34 ' or 'Maass' class were the first German destroyers to be built since World W ari. Of conventional layout, their only major problem was lack of freeboard, which had disagreeable consequences in heavy seas. Below: The 'Type 34A ' class were again armed with new 127-mm (5-in) guns rather than the trusted 105-mm (4.1-in) weapons in order to match the broadside of contemporary French vessels. Some of the later units were lengthened to improve stability.
Leberecht Maass is seen in a disruptive camouflage pattern which included a false bow wave and wash Soon after completion she had her hull strengthened by additional pia ting and her bow extended slightly. The ship had the misfortune to run in to a minefield laid byHeinkel He 111 bombers in the North Sea.
505
30 per cent bunker capacity, It was the misfortune of the group to lose 10 of its number at Narvik, mainly through poor leadership. Another five were lost later in the war. During the first couple of months of the war, these ships had contributed greatly to the mining campaign off the east coast that cost the British dear. The ships in the class were the Leberecht Maass (Zl), Georg Thiele (Z2), Max Schultz (Z3), Richard Beitzen (Z4), Pauljacobi (ZS), Theodor Riedel (Z6), Hermann Schumann (Z7), Bruno Heinemann (Z8), Wolfgang Zenker (Z9), Hans Lody (ZIO), Bernd von Ärnim (ZU), Erich Giese (Z12), Erich Köllner (ZI 3), Friedrich Ihn (Z14), Erich Steinbrinck (ZI 5), Friedrich Eckoldt (ZI 6), Diether von Roder (ZI 7), Hans Lüdemann (Z18), Hermann Küne (Z19), Karl Galster (Z20), Wilhelm Heidkamp (Z21) and Anton Schmitt (Z22).
Karl Galster shows off her clipper bow, which was fitted to all subsequent German destroyers. Her machinery was theoretically capable of 40 kts, but wartime shortages of material made maintenance increasingly difficult.
Below: Karl Galster was the fourth of six units of the 'Type 36'destroyers, which were slightly modified 'Type 34s'. AH five of her sister ships were sunk at Narvik, butZ20 survived the war and ended her days in Soviet service in the Baltic, renamed the Protshnyi. She was broken up in the 1950s.
Specification
'Type 34' class (as built) Displacement: 2,230 tons standard and 3,160 tons full load Dimensions: length 119,0 m (390.4 ft); beam 11.3m (37,1 ft); draught 3,8 m (12.5 ft) Propulsion: two seats of geared steam turbines delivering 52199 kW (70,000 shp) to two shafts Speed: 38 kts Endurance: 8150 km (5,064 miles) at 19 kts Armament: five single 127-mm (5-in), two twin 37-mm AA and six single 20mm AAguns, two quadruple 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tube mountings, and up to 60 mines Complement: 315 GERMANY
'Type 36A' or 'Z23' classs The 'Type 36A' class destroyers were war-built and launched in 1940-2, and while the fleet would have preferred a ship enlarged from the 'Type 34' and capable of long-range operation, it received another slight stretch of the original design with the major difference of an increase in main battery calibre to 150mm (5.91 in), This had 60 per cent greater weight of shot and a better range, but was difficult and slow for handworking. The weight of the two forward superimposed guns was to be cut by substituting a twin turret, but this was long in development and troubleprone when it finally entered service, and most of the class started their lives with only one single mounting forward which, if it did nothing for their fighting potential, certainly improved their seakeeping. Those that were retrofitted with the twin turret experienced severe green water effects forward in heavy weather. A problem with the earlier class, poor manoeuvrability, was met by a redesign of the area of the cut-up and the provision of twin
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The Type 36A ' class were enlarged Type 36s, designed to carry 150-mm (5.9-in)guns, although the planned double turret was not always available and single turrets had to do. The larger guns failed to live up to expectation, the heavier shell proving slow to hand-load. rudders but, overall, the 'Type 36A did not appeal to a seaman. The initial order for the Type 36A comprized Z23 to Z30, seven more, Z31 to Z34 and Z37 to Z39 (to a slightly modified design) were later added. These ships, though unnamed, were popularly known as the 'Narvik' class, the name originating with the Germans themselves, their Norwegian-based units adopting something of the earlier ships that had been destroyed there in April 1940. Perhaps surprisingly, only six of the 15 'Type 36As' were lost during the war. Two of the survivors gave the French fleet over a decade of post-war use while another, the Z38, was actual-
Laid down between November 1938 and April 1940, the 'Type36A' vessels were essentially enlarged 'Type 36'ships, more manoeuvrable than their predecessors but still mediocre sea-boats. Those destroyers that eventually received the planned twin gun turret in the 'A' position found their performance further reduced.
This unusual camouflage scheme was adopted byZ37 while in the Baltic in 1943. Z37 had a very active war, finally being scuttled in Bordeaux in August 1944 to avoid capture by advancing Allied armies. Her sister Z38 was transferred to the Royal Navy in 1945 as HMS Nonsuch.
ly commissioned into the post-war Royal Navy as HMS Nonsuch for machinery evaluation and 'special trials'. The Z26 was lost in March 1942 during the destroyer attack on convoy PQ13; it was in launching a salvo of torpedoes to finish off this ship that the British cruiser HMS Trinidad hit her-
self with a 'rogue' runner: the three German ships involved had already launched about 20 torpedoes in a fruitless attempt to secure the same result!
Specification
'Type 36A' class Displacement: 2,600 tons standard and
Z25 cruises purposefully off the Norwegian coast before her conversion to 'Barbara ' standard, which gave her an impressive AA capacity of 12 37-mm (1.45-in) and 18 20-mm (0.78-in) automatic weapons. Transferred to the French navy, she served as the Hoche until l 956.
3,600 tons full load Dimensions: length 127.0 m (416,67 ft); beam 12,0 m (39.4 ft); draught 3.9 m (12.8ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 52199 kW (70,000 shp) to two shafts Speed: 36 kts
Endurance: 10935 km (6,795 miles) at 19 kts Armament: three single and one twin 150-mm (5.9-m), two twin 37-mmAA and five single 20-mm AA guns, two quadruple 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tube mountings and up to 60 mines Complement: 321
Z39 was taken over by the Royal Navy in 1945, but transferred to the USA. Whereas many of her contemporaries ended up scuttled in theSkagerrak loaded with poison gas shells, Z39 was finally handed to France and cannibalized for the ex-German destroyers in French service.
GERMANY
'Type 36B' or 'Z35' class Early experience with their 150-mm (5.91-in) gunned destroyers convinced the German naval planners of their mistake, and seven ships (Z35, Z36 and Z43 to Z4T) of the same basic hull and machinery were redesigned around the earlier 127-mm (5-in) single mountings. These ships were known as the 'Type 36B' class but, confusingly, the last two of the group were again relabelled the 'Type 36C' class when yet another proposed design would have introduced a new twin 127-mm turret and uprated machinery performance. The confusion of types and pennant number sequences about this time were symptomatic of ambitious naval plans running foul of day-to-day priorities in meeting an overextended range of construction and repair demands. In short, the system could not cope, and
the Z43 was the last destroyer actually completed for German service. This was in March 1944 but it was of only academic importance as, by this stage of the war, ocean operations had effectively ceased for the surface fleet, which existed largely in the relative safety of the Baltic. The three units actually completed (Z35, Z36 and Z43) had a main battery disposition identical with that of the earlier 'Type 34s', but were given a greatly enhanced AA outfit, By virtue of the lower topweight of the 127-mm armament it was possible to ship two twin 37-mm, and three quadruple and three single 20-mm guns, the generosity of which scale reflected the aerial threat at this stage in the war. As all German destroyers could lay mines, the possible increase in capacity to 76
was important. The minelaying capacity of all three was being utilized on the night of 11/12 December 1944 when, accompanied by a pair of torpedo boats, they were due to lay a field west of the Estonian port of Rêvai. A combination of faulty navigation and a desire to 'press on' despite darkness and very poor weather conditions found the group straying into an earlier field. Both the Z35 and Z36 were blown up with their full loads and their complete crews. The Z43 survived to support the northern flank of the retreating German armies in the last desperate weeks of early 1945. Finally, damaged by ground mines and bombing, she was scuttled in the Geltinger Bucht.
Specification
'Type 36B'class Displacement: 2,525 tons standard and 3,505 tons full load Dimensions: length 127.0 m (416.67 ft); beam 12.0 m (39.4 ft); draught 3.52 m (11.55ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 52199 k W (70,000 shp) to two shafts Speed: 36 kts Endurance: 11120 km (6,910 miles) at 19 kts Armament: five single 127-mm (5-in), two twin 37-mm AA, and three quadruple and three single 20-mm AA guns, two quadruple 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tube mountings and up to 76 mines Complement: 321
GERMANY
'SP1' or 'Z40' class The Germans seemed concerned at the potential firepower of the big French destroyers and, perceiving a requirement for ships of their own capable of a degree of independent action, initiated the Spähkreuzer (scout cruiser) or SP concept. At the beginning of World War II, however the planned number of destroyers was trimmed in view of other priorities. Of the five stricken from the 'Type 36A' programme three (Z40 to Z42) were
reinstated early in 1941 as an enlarged trio, which were to be followed by another with hull number unspecified. The design passed through several phases before losing favour and being recast into the so-called 'Zerstörer 1941', construction being suspended in 1942 and the incomplete hulls being scrapped in 1943. With range a problem in earlier destroyers, the SPs would have had better endurance conferred by a three-shaft
layout, with steam turbines on the wing shafts and cruising-diesel drive on a centreline shaft. They would have been nearly 10 m (32.8 ft) longer than the comparable 'Capitani Romani' of the Italian fleet and, while lacking the latters' speed, would have been still more truly destroyers in concept. Their extra size would have made for steadier gun platforms and justified the 150-mm (5.91-in) main battery. Final innovations were the uprated torpedo
tube battery and mine stowage, Beyond the SPs the Germans worked on a couple of ali-diesel designs. The multi-diesel layout was a popular concept with their designers since the proven reliability and economy of those in the Panzerschiffe. Lighter distillate fuels were more readily available in Germany by synthesis than heavy bunker oils, which had to be i m p o r t e d . The 'Type 42' class embraced initially only one prototype,
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Z51, a small (114-m/374-ft) ship of only 2,050 tons standard displacement and a four 127-mm (5-in) gun armament. Lack of supply caused the srx-diesel/ three-shaft layout to be truncated to a four-diesel/single-shaft arrangement. Her value was never known as she was wrecked by bombing while fitting out in 1945, Plans for larger diesel destroyers never reached the metalcutting stage.
Specification 'SPr class Displacement: 4,540 tons standard Dimensions: length 152.0 m (498.7 ft); beam 14.6 m (47.9 ft); draught 4.6 m (15,1ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 57792 kW (77,500 shp) to the two wing shafts and one diesel delivering 10813 kW (14,500 bhp) to one centreline shaft
Speed: 36 kts on steam power Endurance: 22250 km (13,826 miles) at 19 kts Armament: three twin 150-mm (5.91in), one twin 88-mm (3.46-in) DP, four twin 37-mm AA and three quadruple 20-mm AA guns, two quintuple 533mm (21-in) torpedo tube mountings, and up to 140 mines Complement: not known
Z40 according to the final plan: Z40 to Z42 were Type 36A class destroyers, cancelled but reinstated in 1941 as an enlarged threesome known as 'Zerstรถrer 1941'. Their larger hulls would have made a steady platform for the 150-mm (5.9-in) guns. Torpedo armament was also increased.
Endurance: 9300 km (5,789 miles) at 19 kts Armament: four single 105-mm (4.13in), two twin 37-mm AA and six single 20-mm AA guns, two triple 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tube mountings and up to 50 mines Complement: 198
Albatros was among the first units built for the navy by the Weimar Republic, and her design reflected German experience in the 1914-8 war. Armed with six 500-mm (19.6in) torpedoes and three 105-mm (4.1in) guns, the class served as 'maids of all work' andali six were casualties.
GERMANY
'T22' or 'Elbing' class In both world wars the German navy operated so-called 'torpedo boats' which were diminutive destroyer-type ships which, spared the need to operate as units of the main fleet, could be considerably smaller while being capable of carrying the same scale of torpedoes or mines. All wore flag superior T as opposed to the 'Z' of destroyers, Despite their stature they were capable of giving a good account of themselves. During the 1920s, among the new German fleet's first ships, were built the dozen 'Albatros' and 'Iltis' class units. These carried not only their torpedoes but three of the still-potent 105mm (4.13-in) guns, and proved most versatile in war. These were followed by 21 numbered ships of the 'Type 35' and 'Type 37' classes. Here the planners had got it wrong, shrinking the size of the craft and their armament until the ships exhibited all the weaknesses of the smaller 'S' boats while having few of their virtues. The nearcommon design was characterized by a single heavily-trunked funnel that served both boiler rooms. These unpopular ships were followed by a very different vessel in the 'Type 39' class, in which a 15-ship group (T22 to T36] was built by the experienced Schichau yard at Elbing, the town giving the ships their popular name, the 'Elbing' class. They readopted the two-funnelled layout and, despite their lack of raised forecastle, were imposing enough often to be mistaken for fleet destroyers. With an extra 17 m (55.8 ft) of length they could accommodate four single 105-mm guns along the centreline as well as the usual two triple banks of torpedo tubes. The ships were launched in 1942-4. Like most of the torpedo boats, the 'Elbings' were used widely in French waters. They tangled several times with Plymouth-based Tribals' off the Breton coast. The T27 and T29 were Smoke pours from the side ofT24 (foreground) as she reels from a rocket salvo fired from RAF Beaufighters at the mouth of the Cirond, August 1944. T24 sank;her companion, the destroyer Z24, managed to reach her berth but capsized shortly afterwards. 508
both thus sunk in April 1944, though the T24 levelled the score by torpedoing and sinking HMCS Athabaskan. Two more, the T25 and T26, had already been sunk in the extraordinary daylight action of December 1943 when a mix of 11 German ships, hampered by heavy seas, were savaged by two British cruisers in the Bay of Biscay. Specification T22' class Displacement: 1,295 tons standard and 1,755 tons full load Dimensions: length 102.0 m (334,6 ft); beam 10.0 m (32.8 ft); draught 2,6 m (8.5ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 23862 kW (32,000 shp) to two shafts Speed: 33.5 kts
Escort Vessels Of all the combatants in World War II, it was Britain and Japan who were most dependent upon a seaborne lifeline, and it was those nations to whom a threat to their merchant fleets was mortal. Obviously, means had to be established to protect the trade routes. efore World War I, theory had it that merchant shipping could run safely in defended maritime corridors. However, this proved a costly fallacy. Following countless attacks, all merchant shipping had to be accompanied by escorted convoys - but not before millions of tons of merchant shipping had been lost. With such a hard lesson learned, the British now had the basis of a useful escort fleet at the beginning of World War II. Initially, the numbers of these escort vessels were quite inadequate and the designs were limited in both capability and endurance. Nevertheless, the organization existed whereby these vessels could be expanded and improved rapidly. British convoys, in particular, had to face a variety of threats (high speed E-boat attacks on coastal routes, organized U-boat group assault in the Atlantic, and combined aircraft and surface attack on the Arctic and Mediterranean movements, to name but a few) and different escorts were required for each. With too few anti-submarine (AS) ships and with very little experience in a theatre of war, the escort forces were at first on the defensive. More and larger ships enabled the close escorts
B
The North Atlantic convoys were the lifeline for beleagured Britain. Here, Enchantress undertakes escort duty for merchantmen in 1942. to be strengthened and enhanced in capability. Science improved both equipment and techniques. The formation of roving support groups and the rapid development of aircraft support allowed, firstly, for threatened convoys to have their escort groups reinforced rapidly and decisively and, secondly, for the taking of the offensive against the U-boat by actually
operating close astride its main route to and from its bases. The aerial threat could never be met by direct attack and defeat of the aircraft themselves, only by land offensives which removed the aircraft bases or by satisfactory outcomes to campaigns that obviated the need to run the convoys themselves. Interestingly, the discredited early British arguments against
convoys and, therefore, the need for 'defensive' escort ships in an essentially 'offensive' fleet, were actually taken on board and carried on by both the Americans and Japanese fleets, neither of whom had had the benefit of bitter first-hand experience. Because both powers had neglected to learn from the lesson of the British they paid dearly for their unpreparedness. 509
'Wolf and 'Mรถwe' classes Inasmuch as the Germans recognized that their mercantile marine would cease to function normally at the outbreak of war, they had little need of escorts in the same sense as the British, Nevertheless, the blockade of the German coast by submarine and mine entailed the covering of warships while the quite considerable volume of coastal traffic, (e.g. the iron ore trade from Scandinavia) needed protection without the tying down of major fleet units. The six 'Mรถwe' class (officially 'Typ 23') ships were the first flotilla craft built by the 'new' German navy; they were strictly torpedo boats and, despite their modest size, carried two triple mountings. Though this class of ship was not designed to undertake fleet duties, the lack of any alternative at that time probably accounted for their comparatively high speed. Three boilers were required in the slim hull, necessitating two widely-spread funnels, which made them look larger than they actually were. They carried
three old, but effective 105-mm (4.13in) guns which, together with the ambitious torpedo fit, brought up the topweight allowance to the extent that (unusually for the German navy) mines could not be carried in addition. While the 'Mรถwes' were still building, a second group of six, the slightlyenlarged 'Wolf class (Typ 24) ships were ordered. Though of the same calibre, their main armament was of an improved pattern. The ships were heavily involved in near-coastal waters during the war, gradually acquiring more light automatic weapons, some at the expense of a set of torpedo tubes. Following these two classes, subsequent development went for larger torpedo boats and
smaller S-boats. Neither of these types was viewed as an ideal escort, leaving the way clear for introduction of the specialist Geleitboote. All 12 became war casualties, no less than eight being sunk in the English Channel. Of these the lltis and Seeadler were sunk in the Dover Strait during the night of 12/13 May 1942, torpedoed by British MTBs while covering the passage of the raider Stier.
Specification
'Wolf class (as completed) Displacement: 933 tons standard and 1,320 tons full load Dimensions: length 93,0 m (305.1 ft); beam 8.7 m (28.5 ft); draught 2,8 m (9.2 ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 17151 kW (23,000 shp) to two shafts Speed: 33 kts Endurance: 5750 km (3,575 miles) at 17 kts Armament: three single 105-mm (4.13m) or 127-mm (5-in) and four single 20-mm AA guns, and two triple 533mm (21 -in) torpedo tube mountings Complement: 129
Initially classified as destroyers, the 'Typ 23' torpedo boats saw considerable action in theNorth Sea and Channel. Armed primarily lor surface action, they were the first notilla craft built for the Weimar navy.
EU Geleitboote FI-FIO This group of 10 Geleitboote was completed by three yards in 1935-6 and, though officially termed 'escorts', they had a peacetime role in training in the Baltic and in general offshore duties. Again their wartime role was aimed at seeing larger warships through offshore barriers, for which they were given almost destroyer-like proportions and a high speed, with main parameters that had no equivalent in the Royal Navy, Handsome little ships, they looked rather more weatherly than larger German destroyers with plenty of freeboard forward and the angular bridge structure continued to the ship's sides by screens. Though the freeboard aft was low, the after 105mm (4.13-in) gun was set on a deckhouse at the same height as that on the forecastle. They carried a good outfit of boats for their peacetime duties, these being handled by booms rather than davits. As they spent much time at low speeds they were equipped with anti-rolling tanks, not the passive, tuned variety but fitted with transfer pumps. Their qualities must have left something to be desired for before the war, while still new ships, Fl to F4 and F6 were lengthened and given raked bows. F2 and F4 were disarmed for use as auxiliaries but Fl, F3 and F6 had the forecastle deck continued right aft to give a continuous high freeboard and much more accommodation. They were also named Jagd, Hai and Kรถnigin Luise respectively, the last name of which suggested an unlisted minelaying capacity, though they acted as command ships for minesweeper squadrons. As a result of their humble and largely non-involved status, the tide of war dealt kindly with them, only four being sunk. An interesting series of 24 enlarged Geleitboote (Cl to G24) was planned to follow on from both German and Dutch yards, but just Gl was laid down, 510
only to be destroyed on the stocks m an air attack in 1943. Like the 'F' series, they would have had a modest speed and no torpedo tubes, but had an enhanced surface armament, a capacity of 50 mines and, almost unbelievably for the date, a helicopter. Specification 'Geleitboote' class (as built) Displacement: 712 tons standard and 833 tons full load Dimensions: length 76.0 m (249.3 ft); beam 8.8 m (28.9 ft); draught 2,5 m (8.2 ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 10440 kW (14,000 shp) to two shafts Speed: 28 kts Endurance: 2780 km ( 1,725 miles) at 20 kts Armament: two single 105-mm (4.13in), two twin 37-mm AA and four single 20-mm AA guns Complement: 121
Above: ln spite of their pleasant lines, the 'F' class of fleet escort were never really sa tisfactory. 11 may be that the class was largely an experimentin the building and operation of the new high-pressure steam turbine machinery.
Below: F2 as she appeared in 1938. The advanced propulsion machinery gavemuch trouble, andinspiteof their destroyer-like lines the Geleitboote were poor sea boats. Most were lengthened forward and had a raked stem in consequence.
ITALY
'Spica' class Like its German counterpart the Italian navy favoured the construction of diminutive destroyer-type escorts, usually described as 'torpedo boats'. Though a long series of related classes had been completed by the mid- 1920s, the type had lapsed for a decade before being resumed with the 32-strong 'Spica' class, laid down between 1934 and 1937. The design was influenced by that of the 'Maestrale' class destroyers then completing but, though superficially similar in overall profile, their single funnel lacked the massive trunking of that of the larger ships, serving as it did only one boiler room. The main armament consisted of 100mm (3.94-in) guns of a new pattern with a respectable 16-km (10-mile) range. As these came only in single mountings, three were carried in the usual layout of one forward and two superimposed aft, Despite the fact that previous torpedo boats had been fitted with 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes, the
'Spicas' reverted to the earlier 450-mm ( 17.72-in) weapons of far inferior hitting power and range. For some odd reason these were initially single, sided mountings only, later exchanged for the more logical twin centreline type. As with most Italian ships they could lay mines but were also fitted for high-speed minesweeping, with conspicuous paravanes and associated gear right aft. Under the wartime construction programme a group of 42 improved 'Spicas' was also planned. Of these, known as the 'Ariete' class, only 16 were laid down, the majority of them being completed by the Germans after the Italian capitulation. Of the 32 'Spicas', 23 became war casualties and a pair were sold, perhaps oddly, to the Swedish navy
The Airone and Ariel were sunk together in October 1940 when, with others, they unwisely attacked a British cruiser force covering an early Malta convoy. Of the latter, HMS Ajax was instrumental in their sinking, damaging also the destroyers Artigliere and Aviere, the former of which was eventually lost while in tow. A year later another pair, the Aldebaran and Altair, were lost in a minefield laid by the British submarine HMS Rorqual in the Gulf of Athens.
Specification 'Spica' class Displacement: 795 tons standard and 1,020 tons full load Dimensions: length 83.5 m (273.95 ft); beam 8.1 m (26.57 ft); draught 2.55 m (8.37 ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 14168 kW ( 19,000 shp) to two shafts Speed: 34 kts Armament: three single 100-mm (3.94in), four twin and two single 20-mm AA, and two single 13,2-mm(0,52-in)AA guns, four single or two twin 450-mm ( 17.7-in) torpedo tubes, and up to 20 mines Complement: 116 Resembling reduced versions of the contemporary Treccia ' class fleet destroyers, the 'Spica'class was designed for the torpedo-boat role, but in fact became anti-submarine escorts.
ITALY
'Gabbiano' class With British submarines playing havoc on the vital supply route to North Africa, the Italians embarked in 1942 on an ambitious programme of 'Gabbiano' class corvette construction. This type of ship was new to the Italian fleet and, in British terms, may be said to equate to the 'Flowers' where the 'Spicas' equated to 'Hunts', There the resemblance ended, however, for where the British ships were stubby and robust, the Italian ships were slightly longer but very much narrower in the beam. Not having to face North Atlantic winters they were able to place speed higher in their priorities. Even so, their seakeeping qualities were adequate, with a long forecastle of high freeboard that early 'Flower' skippers would have envied. The great contrast was in propulsion. The British ships with their whaler origins had a pronounced trim by the stern to give adequate submergence for the single largediameter screw, driven by a steam reciprocating engine. On the other hand the Italians, with a good industrial base for small diesel and petrol engines, favoured the former of these. Twinshaft propulsion was adopted to take advantage of established marques of engine, at the same time achieving redundancy, improving manoeuvrability and, with smaller-diameter propellers, allowing a full l m (3.3 ft) less draught, an important factor in the shallow and increasingly mine-ridden Mediterranean, The price was more complex construction and extremely noisy ships with the diesels effectively secured to the hull framing and the
necessarily high-speed propellers a source of cavitation, This was recognized as a necessary drawback in the interests of volume production and, very interestingly for the date, each shaft could be turned by a low-power electric motor for stalking submarines. This permitted not only silent manoeuvring but also an improved performance from the ships' own indifferent sonar. The 60-ship class (of which The diesel-powered 'Gabbiano' class were unusual in being fitted with an electric motor for silen t stalking of submarines, for which they were armed with up to 10 depth-charge throwers.
only 42 were completed after launching in 1942-3) defeated the usual Italian lettered pendant system, the ships taking numbers. Few were completed in time to be used in earnest by the Italians; many were taken by the Germans, who did. War losses amounted to 20. Specification 'Gabbiano' class Displacement: 670 tons standard and 740 tons full load
Name-ship of a class intended to include some 60 vessels, Gabbiano displayed the typically fine lines of Italian marine design. Unlike their British counterparts, these corvettes did not have to be able to withstand winter in the North Atlantic. Dimensions: length 64.4 m (211.29 ft); beam 8.7m (28.54 ft); draught 2.53 m (8.3 ft)
Propulsion: two diesels and two electric motors delivering 3207 kW (4,300 bhp) and 112 kW (150 hp) to two shafts Speed: 18 kts Armament: one 100-mm (3.94-in) and seven single 20-mm AA guns, and (on some) two 450-mm ( 17.7-in) torpedo tubes Complement:
511
UK
'Isles' class The UK's large fishing fleet in 1939 provided the Royal Navy with a ready source of ships and trained crews, not only for the obvious purposes of the Auxiliary Patrol, minesweeping and harbour defence but also, in the case of the large distant water trawlers, of convoy escorts at a time when these were in short supply. The speed of such vessels was limited but both endurance and seakeeping were adequate, and they were commonly employed on the Arctic convoy route in the early days. From its experience in 1914-8 the Admiralty had forewarning of its needs and had already formulated plans for trawler construction at yards that were familiar with them and which were, in many cases, too small for the building of regular escorts. The 27 ships of the 'Hill', 'Military1 and 'Fish' classes were all produced by one yard and had the very pretty lines of the distant water trawler. Half a dozen 'Lakes' from Smith's Dock were still almost pure whale-catchers. Most, however, were of a design developed from the prototype HMS Basset, completed by Robb's in 1936. This ship, though having an obvious trawler-type hull, had in addition a high raised forecastle and the bridge and funnel sited well amidships, leaving a short well deck forward, a long superstructure and a usable quarterdeck. With minor modifications, particularly in the height of the bridge structure, the type went into volume production, first as the 'Tree', 'Shakespeare' and 'Dance' classes, then as the 'Isles' class, which became the best-known group. Altogether, these four groups comprised 218 trawlers. The 'Isles' class numbered 168 units built between 1940 and 1945 (130 in the UK, 22 in India and 16 in Canada). Though many were equipped for anti-submarine work, their sonars
were not generally very effective and few had radar, With only 11 or 12kts speed, dropping depth charges on a shallow target could be an advantage, while the pursuit of a submarine on the surface was clearly impossible, the submarine having a greatly superior speed in addition to out-gunning the average trawler's 12-pdr, The object was to force a submarine down, where it would lose touch with a convoy. Many of these 'rugged coal-burners' were sold out to commercial owners after the war to make good their
'Flower' class escort cutaway drawing key 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
Watcrline Ramp Rudder Single screw Depth charge racks Davit Lifeline cable reel Jack staff Steering gear compartment/minesweeping store Stores/lobby Solid bulwarks Aft galley Engine room skylight Stored depth charges along deck PO mess Aft pea k Engineer's stores Single shaft Engine room Triple expansion 1700-kW (2,880-hp) engine Reduction gear 2-pdr pom-pom Pom-pom platform Platform support Guncrewshelterandready ammunition Snowflako locker Handrail Ladder Wireless aerial Funnel casing Ventilator Boilercasing Carlyraft No. 1 boiler room No. 2 boiler room Admiralty drum boiler Oilfuel in wing tanks Double bottom Funnel uptake Bulkhead Fresh watertank Galley Foremast Lookout
512
45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Access ladder OfficeforType271 radar Searchlight Twin 20-mm machineguns Bridge Compass house Asdic hut Chart house Ready use Iockerfor4-in ammunition 4-inMk10gun Gun shield Breakwater Depression rail Semtex walkway on port side Wooden fore deck Anchorwindlass
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78
Handrail Side plating Stores/lobby/spirit store Wardroom Cabins/stokers' mess Oil fuel tank Reserve feed watertank Asdic compartment Freshwatertank Magazine RF wireless Crew sleeping area Crew area Stores/lamps etc Paint store Chain locker Anchor 16-ft dinghy
grievous losses, though their layout was unsatisfactory for trawling until modified. Twelve 'Isles' were lost in the war.
Specification 'Isles' class (as designed)
Displacement: 545 tons standard Dimensions: length 44.2 m (145,0 ft); beam 8.4 m (27,5 ft); draught 3,2 m (10.5ft)
Propulsion: one triple-expansion steam engine delivering 634 kW (850 ihp) to one shaft
HMS Shillay is seen in February 1945. Though the trawler hull gave the type good seakeeping and endurance, it could never be said tohavehada sparkling performance. They were easily built, however, and in quantity (a total of 168 in four r eia ted classes). Speed: 12kts Armament: one 12-pdr, and three single 20-mm AA guns, and depth charges Complement: 40
UK
'Flower' class Possibly because of their homely names or their rather unwarlike appearance, the units of the 'Flower' class (145 built in the UK and 113 in Canada for launch in 1940-2) came to be regarded by the British as the archetypal escort ship. Though they made their reputation in the early days of the Battle of the Atlantic, they were not really suited to the job, the type being developed primarily as a coastal escort fitted for minesweeping. This, however, would seem to be at variance with the fact that the design was based on that of a commercial whale-catcher, a hullform meant to survive the worst of the weather in the forbidding Southern Ocean. It was the rapid escalation of the North Atlantic convoy war and a general shortage of escorts that forced these little ships into ocean work. They were superb seaboats but, being so short, were horribly lively and wet in the deep ocean, exhausting the best of crews within days, though refuelling at sea kept them out for longer. It was the limitations that convinced the Admiralty that the larger frigate was the answer. The 'Flowers' were business-like ships whose ancestry could be seen in the hull, with its pronounced sheer, strong flare and cutaway forefoot. Early units had a short forecastle with the single mast stepped forward of a mercantile-style bridge structure, but most of these were subsequently modified to the layout of the later 'Modified Flower' class ships (included in the totals above). These had the forecastle
extended aft to the funnel, increasing accommodation and improving seaworthiness, particularly with respect to reducing wetness in the waist. Machinery was purposely kept simple for mass production and operation by rapidly-trained personnel, the fourcylinder triple expansion engine taking steam from two Admiralty cylindrical single-ended boilers. The ships were, at that time, rare in the Royal Navy in being single-screw types. All had an old pattern 101.6-mm (4in) gun on a 'band stand' forward, but the original inadequate AA outfit of machine-guns rapidly gave way to a 2-pdr pom-pom and as many 20-mm Oerlikons as could be 'come by'. Later ships, incorporating all modifications, certainly looked more 'pusser1 and many, surprisingly, went on to serve in a mercantile role after the war. Also built in Canada, they served under a variety of Allied flags, including that of the USA when its need was greatest in 1942. Total wartime losses were 31.
Specification
'Flower' class (original specification) Displacement: 940 tons standard and 1,160 tons full load Dimensions: length 62.5 m (205.1 ft); beam 10.1 m (33.1 ft); draught 3.5 m (11.5ft) Propulsion: 4-cylinder tripleexpansion steam engine delivering 2051 k W (2,750 ihp) to one shaft Speed: 16 kts Endurance: 6400 km (3,975 miles) at 12 kts Armament: one 101,6-mm (4-in) gun, one 2-pdr or one quadruple 12.7-mm (0.5-in) AA gun, and depth charges Complement: 85 maximum
HMS Myositis at sea displays the battered appearance that constant A tlan tic exposure made inevitable. Based upon a commercial whaler hull, the 'Flower'class filled the gap in British escort capacity early in the war, un til replaced by new friga tes. HMS Lotus is seen before her 1942 transfer to France as the Commandante d'Estienne d'Orves. She is fitted with minesweeping gear, which was to be a secondary task after the designed role as a coastal escort. Only the severe shortage of ocean escorts saw the class employed in the North A tlan tic.
513
UK
'Black Swan' class The powerful little ships of the 'Black Swan' class (13 built) had little in common with the remainder of the Royal Navy's sloops, most of which were later regarded as ocean minesweepers or simply patrol ships. Earlier units were certainly fitted with minesweeping gear, though under what circumstances such expensive and useful ships were expected to go looking for mines is not clear; at the same time the space and topweight margin consumed by this gear detracted considerably from the design's anti-submarine capacity. It was only with the 'Modified Black Swan' class (24 built) that this equipment was finally landed, enabling the ships to become extremely efficient dedicated submarine hunters. The origins of the 'Black Swans' went back to HMS Enchantress, which had been launched in 1934. Though capable of minesweeping, the ship had a gun armament comparable with that of a fleet destroyer. The third of the class, HMS Bittern, differed in being completed in 1938 with three of the new high angle 101.6-mm (4-in) mountings and a prototype fin stabilizer system. This arrangement was so promising that the three follow-on 'Egret1 class units, on very little increase in dimensions, were completed with four such
Fine submarine hunters, the modified 'BlackSwan'class were at their most effective in the Battle of the Atlantic. This is HMS Amethyst, seen in her wartime colours. Some years later she was to be at the heart of the 'Yangtse Incident', suffering damage during the Chinese civil war. mountings, which was definitely overambitious. The 'Black Swans', very similar .in appearance, were slightly larger with a useful quadruple 2-pdr in the Y position, from which it was later removed to improve quarterdeck layout, and as the close range armament elsewhere was beefed-up by the improving availability of 20-mm and 40mm weapons. The first impression of the apearance of the 'Black Swans' was the mass of superstructure, which was probably in accord with the desire to produce an easy roll to improve them as AA gun platforms. Oddly, they did not fare too well against aircraft, four being sunk by bombing out of a total of five lost. The reason was probably that, unlike the similarly-armed 'Hunts', they were slow and less nimble. They were, therefore, little used in the Mediterranean, making their name in ocean warfare with later units being able to ship
over 100 depth charges and a Hedgehog split to flank B mounting. Most, logically, were sent to the Far East in 1945. Best known ships of the class were Walker's HMS Starling and HMS Amethyst of the 1948 'Yangtse Incident'. Specification 'Black Swan' class Displacement: 1,300 tons standard Dimensions: length 91.3 m (299.5 ft); beam 11.43 m(37,5 ft); draught 2.59 m
(8.5ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 2685 kW (3,600 shp) to two shafts Speed:19.5kts Endurance: 14825 km (9,215 miles) at 12kts Armament: three twin 101.6 mm (4-in) DP, one quadruple 2-pdr AA and six twin 20-mm AA guns, and depth charges Complement: 180
UK
'Hunt' class Aware of the shortage of escorts even in 1938, the Admiralty designed what was termed a Fast Escort Vessel (FE V) to give convoys both AA and antisubmarine coverage without tying down the precious (and, as it turned out, inadequate) fleet destroyers. Rather shortsightedly, there was perceived the need for speed (in order to prosecute sonar contacts and rejoin smartly) but not endurance. This was seen to be the province of the true escort vessels (which had to refer to the few 'Black Swans' rather than the 'Flowers' or 'Bangors'). To improve them as gun platforms the 'Hunt' class ships, as they were known, were fitted initially with active stabilizers as standard, but the power demands of these and their poor control systems made them so unpopular that later ships had extra bunker space instead, which considerably improved their very poor endurance. Though their category was simplified to 'destroyer' before they entered service, the 'Hunts' really equated to the 'torpedo boats' of the German and Italian fleets, except that the majority carried no torpedo tubes. This was because the specification for six HA 101.6-mm (4-in) guns and two/ four torpedo tubes was too ambitious on the target displacement; combined with a basic error in the design calculations the first of the class, HMS Atherstone, was found deficient in stability. Those building, therefore, sacrificed their tubes and exchanged X mounting for a quadruple 2-pdr, together with a further large number of minor weight-saving measures. These became known as the 'Hunt Type I'
514
class and were 19 strong. Hulls at an earlier stage of construction were split longitudinally and an extra 0.76m (2.5ft) of beam incorporated. These were able to accommodate the specified third 101.6-mm mounting and became the 36 'Hunt Type II' class units but, because of their extra fullness, they were rather slower. On the same dimensions a third variant, the 28 'Hunt Type III' class units, was produced with only two gun mountings, but with the valuable addition of a twin torpedo tube mounting, War experience showed the guns to be more useful, the H u n t s being p r o m i n e n t in the Mediterranean and in the defence of the British east and south coasts. In all, 19 were lost. Significantly only three were to aircraft and of these one was stationary at the time and another was sunk by a glider bomb.
Specification
'Hunt Type III' class Displacement: 1,015 tons standard and 1,090 tons full load Dimensions: length 85.7 m (281.25 ft); beam 9.6 m (31.5 ft); draught 2,36 m (7,75ft)
Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 14168 kW (19,000 shp) to two shafts Speed: 25 kts Endurance: 4635 km (2,880 miles) at 20 kts
Armament: two twin 101.6-mm (4-in)
DP, one quadruple (and in some vessels one single) 2-pdr AA, and one twin and up to four single 20-mm AA guns, two 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes, and depth charges Complement: 170
The 'Hunt Type I'class destroyer HMS Southdown lies a t her mooring in an east coast port. These small but relatively powerfully armed vessels didnothave the range tooperatein the Atlantic, but their armament made them more suitable for use in the Mediterranean and theNorth Sea. 'Hunt Type Ills' differed from the 'Type II'mainly by the addition of twin torpedo tubes in place ofX turret, providing a more balanced weapon fit. The 'Type Ills' were the last of more than 80 'Hunts'built, 19 being lost before 1945. Many went to serve other navies in the years following the war.
IK
'Castle' class The last of the 'Flowers' were launched in early 1942 and, considering that their limitations for North Atlantic operations had already begat the true frigate, it may well be assumed that the corvette had reached the end of its development. There were, however, a number of smaller yards engaged in the 'Flower' programme which could not physically cope with the larger frigates. To keep them usefully occupied a large corvette, of length about midway between the 'Flower' and 'River', was designed, again by Smith's Dock, the home of the 'Flowers'. Named after British castles, the new 'Castle' class ships embodied all the lessons learned with their forebears, while contriving to look remarkably like them. The hull was, again, of sweet line, although designed for series production with a large proportion of welded seams. This showed itself as minor cranks in the sheerstrake, the bow and stern sections being of constant sheer angle rather than the earlier continuous curve, The broad flat transom made for ease of construction and plenty of room aft, Some 44 units were launched in 1943-4, and another 38 were cancelled. The 'Castles' boasted the same large and spacious bridge as the frigates, together with a substantial lattice mast to elevate the considerable mass of the early radars, made possible with the larger hull. Their great advance was in the inclusion of the Squid antisubmarine mortar, a weapon too heavy
for retrofitting into either the 'Flowers' or the 'Rivers'. This was sited at 01 level, forward of the bridge, with a new-pattern 101.6-mm (4-in) gun on a bandstand ahead of it. The squid's advantage was that it could lay a pattern of three heavy bombs around a submerged target up to 500m (550 yards) ahead while the contact was still in the ship's sonar beam. As the ships retained the single well-tried steam reciprocating engine, the performance of the 'Castle' class did not match that of the frigates and they found their main employment not as close convoy escorts, but in homogeneouslycomposed escort groups which were being formed in larger numbers toward the end of the war. All were based on the UK with the exception of a dozen transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy and one to the Norwegians.
Armament: one 101.6-mm (4-in) DP, and two twin and six single 20-mm AA guns, one Squid, and depth charges Complement: 120
Specification 'Castle' class Displacement: 1,060 tons standard Dimensions: length 76.8 m (252.0 ft); beam 11.2 m (36.75 ft); draught 3.05 m (10.0ft) Propulsion: one 4-cylinder tripleexpansion steam engine delivering 2200 kW (2,950 ihp) to one shaft Speed:16.5kts Endurance: 6,910 km (4,295 milesTat ISkts
HMS Hedingham Castle displays her family relationship to the 'Flower' class, but the extra 15 m (50 ft) made a great difference in habitability on the Atlantic run. The major offensive improvement came with the fitting of the heavy 'Squid'system of antisubmarine mortars. One consequence of fitting the triple Squid launcher between thegun and the bridge was a reduction in the numbers of conventional depth charges carried. Where a 'Flower' might be armed with 72 charges, the normal depth charge fit of a 'Castle' was only 15.
UK
'Bangor', 'Bathurst' and 'Algerine' classes 1
'Escort is an all-embracing word and mention should be made of the contribution of the 'minesweeping sloops' and 'fleet minesweepers', both types of which performed valuable service in either role, Somewhat confusmgly, there were still serving 26 coalburning 'Hunts; of 1917-9 vintage, twinscrew ships with limited sea-keeping ability due to their lack of forecastle. During the 1930s there were built the 'Grimsby' class (with sweep capacity but more truly sloops) and the extensive 'Halcyon' class (ocean minesweepers with a corvette's speed and firepower but viewed as expensive). For series production at the war's outbreak, therefore, the 'Halcyon' was scaled down to produce the 'Bangor' class. These doughty little 650-ton ships were extremely cramped, their size being governed primarily by the space necessary for the crew. Propulsion was by diesel, steam turbine or steam reciprocating machinery, and 113 ships were built in the UK, Canada, India and even Hong Kong. A further 60 were built in Australia to a modified design known as the 'Bathurst' class. It will be appreciated that the 'Bangors' were in reality a series of variants. HMIS Bengal, an Indian-flag unit of the 'Bathursts', was escorting the Royal Dutch/Shell tanker Ondina in the Indian Ocean in November 1942 when attacked by two Japanese surface raiders. The Allied ships had a 12-pdr and
a 101.6-mm (4-in) gun between them, yet not only succeeded in fighting off their adversaries with 152.4-mm (6-in) guns but actually sank one of them, the Hokoku Maru. With the need to add the massive generators and electrical sweep gear for magnetic mines to the 'Bangors', already quite cramped with conventional sweeps, an improved 'Halcyon' was produced in the 'Algerine' class. These smart little ships had adequate space, a good armament and all accommodation thoughtfully sited above the main deck. A total of 101 Algennes' was built (53 in Canada and
48 in the UK). A dozen were retained by the Royal Canadian Navy with no minesweeping gear but fitted as full anti-submarine escorts, for which they not only shipped a Hedgehog mortar but carried 90 depth charges as well. War losses amounted to seven.
Specification
'Algerine' class (as minesweeper) Displacement: 850 tons standard and 970 tons full load Dimensions: length 70, l m (230.0 ft); beam 10,8 m (35.5 ft); draught 2.9 m (9,5ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam
turbines or two sets of triple-expansion steam engines delivering 1491 kW (2,000 hp) to two shafts Speed:16.5kts Armament: one 101.6-mm (4-in) DP and between four and eight 20-mm AA guns, and more than 90 depth charges Complement: 105 HMS Rowena was one of the 'Algerine'class fitted with vertical triple expansion engines, only 29 out of 101 units had the planned turbines. Although used as an escort, the class was really for ocean minesweeping.
UK
'River' class With the limitations of the 'Flowers' readily apparent, the Admiralty rapidly produced a design for a larger 'twinscrew corvette' which became known1 as the 'River' class. (The term 'frigate was not officially reintroduced until 1942). Overall they were about 28.30 m (93 ft) longer than the later 'Flowers' and this made a very great difference in seakeeping, bunker capacity, installed power and armament, Between 1942 and 1944 some 57 were launched in the UK, 70 in Canada and 11 in Australia. The hull had the raised forecastle extended well aft, with a low quarterdeck for the depth-charge gear and the mmesweepmg equipment with which too many useful escorts were cluttered at that time, They were the first ships to be fitted as standard with the Hedgehog anti-submarine spigot mortar which, with new sonar gear, made for a more rapid and accurate attack. The Hedgehog was originally sited well forward and was thus extremely exposed, but later units had the weapon split into two 12-bomb throwers which were sited one deck higher, winged out abaft the forward 101.6-mm (4-in) gun. Longer endurance demanded a larger depthcharge capacity, and up to 200 could be carried, compared with a maximum of 70 on the 'Flowers'. Though not developed from a mercantile hull form the 'Rivers' were built to mercantile standards, which speeded construction. They featured a flat transom, which not only obviated much of the complex curvature of traditionally-shaped sterns but also actually improved the hull hydrodynamics. It is noteworthy that over half the 'Rivers' were Canadian-built (with more ships coming from Australia) and it is probably all too easily overlooked how magnificent a contribution the Canadian yards and the Royal Canadian Navy made to victory in the Atlantic. Most Canadian-built units had a
HMS Helmsdale was a 'River' class frigate, and as such was a great improvement on previous escort designs. Unlike most 'Rivers', she had her prominent Hedgehog ASW mortar system replaced by the much heavier and effective Squid triple barrelled ASW charge la uncher. twin 101.6-mm mounting forward and a single 12-pdr aft. They also had their full outfit of 14 20-mm weapons, which British-built ships rarely achieved. The machinery was simply that of the 'Flowers' doubled, though drawing steam from more efficient water-tube boilers. Four ships only were built with steam turbines, which were not generally adopted as a result of shortages of components, The 'Rivers' were highly successful, but most of the survivors (seven were sunk in the war) had been scrapped by the mid-1950s. Further 'Rivers', to a slightly modified design, were built by the Americans as the 'PF' type; of these 21 served in the Royal Navy as the 'Colony' class.
Specification
'River' class (original specification) Displacement: 1,370 tons standard Dimensions: length 91.9 m (301.5 ft); beam 11.12 m (36.5 ft); draught 3.91 m (12.83ft) Propulsion: two sets of 4-cylinder triple-expansion steam engines delivering 4101 kW (5,500 ihp) to two shafts Speed: 20 kts Endurance: 12970 km (8,060 miles) at 12 kts Armament: two single 101.6-mm (4-in) guns, two single 2-pdr and 20-mm AA guns (later replaced by 10 20-mm AA guns), one Hedgehog, and depth charges Complement: 107
UK
'Loch' and 'Bay' classes The 'Bay' class began to appear late in 1944 as a direct consequence of the course of the war, and in 1945 the last of 19 was launched. In the Atlantic the dour struggle against the U-boat had been successful (though was not yet done) and planning began to be directed more at building up the British Pacific Fleet in order to make a real contribution in the defeat of Japan, before reclaiming the UK's lost imperial possessions in the East. In the Atlantic war the Canadian yards had been concentrating on production of 'Modified Rivers', to which they were most suited, while in the UK production since the commencement of 1944 had been of the 'Loch' class, of which 31 were completed as escorts, This bore all the marks of its 'River' class ancestry in appearance and machinery, but had important differences. For the first time all corners had been cut to allow the introduction of modular construction, the shipbuilder assembling hull components from a 516
variety of sources. The structure had been greatly strengthened to allow the installation of a pair of triple-barrelled Squid anti-submarine mortars forward of the bridge. The spacious quarterdeck was now devoted not so much to depth charges and their caparison (whose functions the Squid had largely superseded) but to the trappings of a more scientific war, largely the towed Foxer gear, for defeating the menace of the acoustic torpedo with its affinity for frigate propellers. A major difference from the recognition point of view was the substantial lattice mast for the all-important radars. The 'Lochs' proved deadly against the U-boat but, HMS Loch Tarbert comes alongside after a voyage with a fo'c'sle party ready to pass a line ashore. Improved versions of the 'River' designs, the 'Loch ' class had a pair of triple-barrelled Squid ASW m or tar s as main anti-submarine weaponry.
A typically ba ttered A tlan tic escort, HMS Spey steams up the Un e of a con voy during February 1944, when this particular 'River'class frigate sank the Type V7lC[/-boatsU-406(bn l8February;andU-386Con 19February). Designed as ocean-going escorts with a range of 12970 km (8,060 miles), the 'Rivers'were at first fitted with almost totally superfluous minesweepinggear. Once this was eliminated from the design, oil storage rose from 440 tons to 646 tons, with a consequent improvement in endurance.
though they soldiered on after the war until the 1960s, their speed would have been totally inadequate to meet the threat of such as the 'Type XXI' Uboats. These fortunately arrived too late, but during the early 1950s stimulated the prototype fast frigate in the 'Type 15' destroyer conversions. In contrast, the Pacific war was predominantly AA in nature, and the 19 units of the 'Bay' class completed in 1944-5 were no more than 'Lochs' with their forward 101.6-mm (4-in) and after quadruple 2-pdr guns replaced by two twin HA 101.6-mm mountings, with a proper director atop the bridge. The heavy Squids, now non-essential, were replaced by the less effective Hedgehog, allowing also the substitution of
two twin 40-mm mountings ior some of the original 20-mm weapons.
Specification
'Bay' class Displacement: 1,580 tons standard Dimensions: length 93.6 m (307.25 ft); beam 11,73 m (38.5 ft); draught 2.9 m (9.5ft)
Propulsion: two sets of 4-cylinder triple expansion steam engines delivering 4101 kW (5,500 ihp) to two shafts Speed:19.5kts Endurance: 17605 km (10,940 miles) Armament: two twin 101.6-mm (4-in) DP, two twin 40-mm AA and two twin 20-mm AA guns, one Hedgehog, and depth charges Complement: 157
The 'Bay'class frigates were versions of the 'Loch'class optimized for Pacific operations, where escorts were more likely to be attacked from theair. The heavy Squid system was landed in favour of the lighter but less effective Hedgehog, andAA armament was improved.
USA
DE type The Americans, like the Japanese, had seen little need of defensive ships such as escorts before the war and, in its early days had little beyond their totally unsuitable and veteran flushdeckers, It was the Royal Navy, desperately seeking to meet the submarine threat, that produced a specification for an Atlantic escort, followed by orders for no less than 300 being placed in the USA between November 1941 and January 1942. Termed by the Americans destroyer escorts (DE type, a new category), they also met the sudden need at home, and the organization was put in hand to build over 1,000 of them, though the earliest still arrived too late to prevent the backyard holocaust known to the U-boat men as the 'Happy Time'. The DEs were built after the fashion of American fleet destroyers, having a long flush deck with a prominent sheer line in place of the more commodious long forecastle decks preferred by the British. Far more emphasis was placed on gun armament, with superimposed 76.2-mm (3-in) guns forward, a single aft and numerous guntubs with a mixture of close-range weaponry, mostly single 20-mm guns, Hedgehog was sited forward and, by RN standards, the after deck was cramped, though by the use of double-depth, sided stowage racks the British units (78 'Captain' class) managed to stow upwards of 200 depth charges. Although 'only' 565 DEs were eventually completed, their construction rate was phenomenal, no less than 425 being commissioned in the 12 months between April 1943 and April 1944 alone. Bethlehem actually completed the USS Underhill (DE 682) in under two months! The US Navy was very much a 'steam-turbine' navy, but production on this scale was impossible so the ships fell into several classes, depending on whether they were diesel (85 'Edsair class units) diesel-electric (97 'Evarts' and 76 'Bostwick' class units) or turbo-electrically (152 'Buckley', 74 'John C. Butler' and 81 'Rudderow' class units) driven. Most of those incorporating diesels were low powered as the bulk of existing diesel output was at
that time earmarked for landing craft. As anti-submarine ships the DEs were very effective, while many went on after the war to be converted into fast transports (APD) or radar-pickets (DER).
Specification
'Buckley' class Displacement: 1,400 tons standard and 1,720 tons full load Dimensions: length 93.27 m (306.0 ft): beam 11,27 m (37.0 ft); draught 2.89 m (9.5ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines and two propulsion motors delivering8948 kW(12,000 shp)totwo shafts Speed: 24 kts Armament: three single 76.2-mm (3-in) DP, six single 40-mm AA, and two twin and four single 20-mm AA guns, three 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes, one Hedgehog, and depth charges Complement: 220
USS Harmon, a turbine-powered destroyer escort launched in July 1943, was named after a Navy Cross winner killed in the sea battle off Guadalcanal. The Harmon established a record, being delivered to the navy only 92 days after the keel was laid. Later vessels were built in even shorter times.
Above: This is one of the earliest of more than 565 DEs built for the US Navy. The six classes delivered were variations on a theme, with differing propulsion systems. Below: Apart from the choice of main armament, most DEs carried similar weaponry. Depth charges were handled by eight DC throwers and two DC racks.
USA
PC and PCE types Given the immense length of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts together with further major transCarribbean routes, particularly to the Venezuelan oil terminals and the Panama Canal, the US Navy had a major problem in protecting its coastal traffic, the pattern and volume of which was very different to that of the UK. The vulnerability of the shipping on the eastern seaboard was ruthlessly exposed by the German Uboat campaign of 1942, but had been anticipated to the extent that three prototype 53.26 m (174 ft 9 in) Patrol Craft (PC type) had been completed before the USA's entry into the war. These were slim-gutted diesel craft which, though relatively well armed, were Unlike the smaller PC classes, the PCEs were adapted from a minesweeper design as an interim coastal escort until the construction of more PCs.
restricted by their size to inshore work. Needing to expand the escort fleet rapidly and with the PC design to hand, it is understandable that a massive construction programme was rapidly instituted. In fact, over 350 of these craft were built using resources that, in retrospect, would better have been diverted to the production of larger and more versatile anti-submarine ships. Not until mid-1943, therefore, was the PCE type introduced which, while only 3 m ( 10 ft) longer, was also a full 10 ft beamier. Unlike the PCs, with their characteristically American flush deck with pronounced sheer, the PCEs followed British frigate practice in their freeboard and long forecastle. Early units were funnelless, their diesels exhausting through the shell,
but later examples had a thin stovepipe and the last a diminutive stack with a curved cap. Construction amounted to 78 units. Their armament was better than that of many British frigates, a 76.2-mm (3in) gun and a full Hedgehog forward, two/three single 40-mm and up to five 20-mm AA guns, with depth charges
aft. Fifteen crossed the Atlantic for service with the Royal Navy, Known as the 'Kil' class they served primarily off Gibraltar and Sierra Leone. One, HMS Kilmarnock, participated in the only U-boat sinking credited to the class, that of the U-731 off Tangier in May 1944. Specification 'PCE'class Displacement: 795 tons standard and 850 tons full load Dimensions: length 56,24 m (184.5 ft); beam 10.05 m (33.0 ft); draught 2,89 m (9.5 ft) Propulsion: two diesel engines delivering 1417 kW ( 1,900 bhp) to two shafts Speed: 16kts Armament: one 76,2 mm (3-in) DP, two or three single 40-mm AA, and four single 20-mm AA guns, one Hedgehog, and depth charges Complement: 100
FRANCE
'Elan' class At the outbreak of war the French fleet was poorly served for escorts in the accepted sense of the word, those available being designed primarily for colonial service. For effective antisubmarine work during the war, therefore, the Free French navy relied on frigates, corvettes and DEs transferred from the Royal Navy or the US Navy. The 13-strong 'Elan' class had been completed in 1939-40 as corvette-type vessels with minesweeping capability. Their 78 by 8.48 m (255.9 by 27,8 ft) hull dimensions, compared with the 62.50 by 10.10 m (205 by 33.1 ft) of the Britishbuilt 'Flowers' that served under the same flag, characterize the greatly different approach, with strong emphasis on speed. Despite their fine lines, however, their low-power twin-shaft diesel machinery could drive them at only 20 kts, but their excellent official endurance figures emphasize the economy of diesel propulsion. The first group was decidedly odd in appearance, with a distinctively low foredeck. What was in the designer's mind is hard to say but acute wetness must well have been anticipated as the bridge was perched atop a solid house. No armament was mounted forward and the impact of green seas on the front of the house can only be imagined. An interesting detail was the rounded sheerstrake, extending the length of the hull, possibly better to accommodate the anticipated stresses generated in the hull when labouring in heavy seas. Two 100-mm (3.94-in)
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guns could be carried though only one was usually fitted, on the after house. Where ships are concerned it is often said that if it looks right, it is right'. The converse apparently holds good, for a follow-on series of nine 'Chamois' class ships, whose entry into service was disrupted by the war, virtually repeated the design but incorporated a raised f o r e c a s t l e and l o o k e d altogether more workmanlike. Their careers were typically complex with, for instance, 1'Impetueuse being scuttled by the French at Toulon, only to be salvaged by the Italians and then, at their capitulation, being taken in turn by the Germans who, finally, scuttled her again at Marseilles. Another three units were war losses. Specification 'Elan' class (as built) Displacement: 630 tons standard and 740 tons full load Dimensions: length 78.0 m (255.9 ft); beam8.5 m (27.9 ft); draught 2.4 m (7.9 ft) Propulsion: two diesels delivering 2982 kW (4,000 bhp) to two shafts Speed: 20 kts Endurance: 16675 km (10,360 miles) at 14 kts Armament: two 100-mm (3.94-in) guns, and two twin and four single 13.2-mm (0.52-in) machine-guns Complement: not known
The early 'Elan ' class vessels were notable for their unusual appearance; with no armament on their distinctive low foredeck and the rounded sheerstrake continuing the length of the hull, from some angles the Elans bore a resemblance to a top-heavy submarine. The twin 100-mm (3.94-in) guns originally fitted to the French vessels were replaced in British service by British 4-in (102-mm) weapons. The minesweeping capability was never used, but two DCTs and a DC rack were fitted. Typically, after the surrender of France the class found itself in use by both sides.
Coastal Craft Putting to sea in some of the fastest and most dashing warships of the time, the coastal naval forces saw much fierce fighting in locations as diverse as the North Sea and the 'Slot' in the Solomon Islands. Young, inexperienced crews took their fragile and inflammable craft into action, and often paid the highest price for their courage. t is in the nature of things that in times of peace 'blue water' fleets tend to devote their limited resources to meeting the problems of ocean warfare; coastal warfare may or may not be required in some unspecified emergency in the future and, lacking urgency, inevitably lacked funds.Therefore, it is hardly surprising to discover that between the wars, British expertise was kept alive mainly through the dedication of private firms who were prepared to risk casting both their efforts and funds into the bottomless well of official disinterest. This was doubly fortunate, for the USA had similarly underinvested and owed much to Scott-Paine's British Power Boat Company for the eventual success of the PT boat. Smaller fleets, however, with limited objectives and even more limited funds, tend to look harder at promisingly cost-effective solutions to countering possible hostile sea-powers.The submarine, the raider and mine warfare are three such solutions, and the high-speed coastal craft is a fourth, if geography permits. Germany, therefore, put much effort and ingenuity during the 1930s into producing the S-boat, one of her major successes of World War II.This success was
I
A US Navy PT boat intended for use in coastal waters, where its speed was put to good effect provided it had sufficient firepower - normally torpedoes and cannon. mainly because due to the fact that there had been sufficient time for its development.Taken out of context, the effect of the S-boat on World War II was not great in a material sense but, measured in psychological and disruptive terms, it was a major nuisance, requiring a large expenditure of scarce war effort to counter.
Likewise, the geography of the central Mediterranean favoured the Italian use of such craft.The Italians had seen major successes from these craft in World War I and had every intention of keeping abreast of any new developments. Like the Germans they evolved reliable, high-speed machinery which stood them in good stead.
Finally, it was radar-controlled gunfire from would-be targets by night and air power by day that constrained the torpedo-boat's potential. With the comparatively recent introduction of the surfaceto-surface missile the wheel has once again turned, putting a large measure of advantage back with the cheap, high-speed minor warship, the midget with the big clout. 519
USSIĂ&#x152;
Soviet coastal craft There were strong influences working on the post-revolutionary Soviet navy to develop a powerful and effective force of coastal craft. The fleet itself had been relegated to the status of a means of guaranteeing the seaward flanks of the primary service, the army. These seaward flanks were all of shallow and sheltered water, and distances involved were small. Further, the successful attacks by British CMBs in 1919 had shown the potential of even a few such boats in the right hands, and a couple of unserviceable and damaged Thornycroft 55-footers were available as exemplars, From these beginnings the Soviets had produced by 1928 a reasonably successful 18-m (59.06-ft) craft known as an S4. The indifferent Soviet technology of the time
required the incorporation of American petrol engines, but the reliability of these and the sound hull shape made for a very high trials speed, approaching 50 kts, though considerably diminished by a load of two 457mm (18-in) torpedoes or anything but calm conditions. About 60 S4s were built, giving the Soviets considerable experience, The Tsarist navy had been known for its innovation and readiness to adopt ideas, and this policy continued with the purchase of technology in hull design and machinery from France, Germany and Italy as available. With this as a baseline the Soviets produced a 19-m (62.3-ft) G5 type, which was still heavily influenced by the British CMB in having a stepped hull and two
troughs aft for the stern launching of torpedoes that had been increased in size to 533 mm (21 in), For this craft the Soviets built a successful petrol engine that was tolerably reliable and capable of being upgraded. The fault with the G5 was its early use of aluminium alloy for both shell and frames, so that it was plagued with corrosion problems. For this reason, the follow-on 21.6-m (70.9-ft) D3 craft were wooden-built, differing further in having sidelaunching gear for their torpedoes. Numerous G5 and D3 types served during the war, supplemented by over 200 boats from the USA and UK. Also produced in large numbers were armoured craft of many types, comparatively slow but armed with guns and cannon in tank turrets. They proved
formidable craft both offshore and up rivers.
length, gave them a poor performance in anything but sheltered waters. Designs were in both wood and steel and were such as to permit construction by undertakings unskilled in boatbuilding. And though aero engines were tried as prime movers, they proved unsatisfactory m a marine environment. Most n u m e r o u s of the many Japanese varieties were the 15-m (49.2-ft), single-screwed 49-strong Type 14 and the 18-m (59.06-ft) twinscrewed Type 38. Although the smaller boat could make 33 kts in good conditions, the larger was good for only
27,5 kts and, like others, could be armed as an MGB rather than with two 457-mm (18-in) torpedoes, A 32.4-m (106.3-ft) LĂźrssen type was also copied as the Type 51, but these proved a disappointment and the 18-boat programme was never completed.
Specification G5 type (late production) Displacement: 16 tons Dimensions:length 19. l m (62.66 ft); beam3.4 m ( l l . 15 ft); draught 1,0 m (3.28 ft)
Propulsion: two petrol engines delivering 1491 kW (2,000 bhp)totwo shafts Speed: 48 kts
Endurance: about 370 km (230 miles) at 48 kts Armament: two 533-mm (21-in) torpedoes, and two 12.7-mm(0.5-in) machine-guns Complement: 7
The extremely fast G5 torpedo boat was ultimately derived from a series of designs by a team under the leadership of the noted aircraft designerA.lv. Tupolev. Nearly 300 were built, with 73 being lost during the war, and dozens remained in commission after 1945.
JAPAN
Japanese coastal craft Like the majority of major fleets, the Japanese navy had largely ignored coastal craft between the world wars. As a type it did not fit into ocean warfare and, though the acquisition of a many-islanded empire was accepted strategy, prolonged supply problems in the face of an actively hostile fleet were not. Even as a redeployment of their submarine forces to assault the US Navy's fleet train would have seriously affected that navy's ability to operate, so would a powerful force of Japanese coastal craft have been able both to assist in the garrison supply task and to dispute the American's aim to disrupt it. With their overrunning of China and Far East imperial possessions, the Japanese acquired a variety of foreign costal craft in various states of repair (Dutch, British, German and Italian), all
of which influenced subsequent designs. All were driven by petrol engines, but the Japanese had no capacity to build either these or small highspeed marine diesels in any quantity. Though engines were copied, they were low-powered and always in desperately short supply; as multiengined layouts were thus out of the question, boats themselves had to be small to attain any speed. The largest Japanese MTBs were, therefore, of only about 18m ( 5 9 , 0 6 f t ) overall length. All were of hard-chine design to get over the low power problem and this, combined with their lack of
Specification Type 14 Displacement: 15 tons Dimensions: length 15.0 m (49.2 ft); beam 3.66 m (12.0 ft); beam 0.85 m (2.8ft)
Propulsion: one petrol engine delivering 686 kW (920 bhp) to one shaft Speed: 33 kts
Endurance: not known Armament: two 457-mm ( 18-in) torpedoes, and one 25-mm cannon Complement: 7
Apart from their small torpedo craft, the Imperial Japanese Na vy operated a limited number of Type 51 boats. These, based on the German S-boat concept, were m uch larger than was usual in a Japanese design, and were intended as division boats for their smaller sisters. Armament could include eigh t depth charges as well as the usual 457-mm (18-in) torpedoes.
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GERMANY
LS and KM Paralleling the carriage of small torpedo craft by major units in the Victorian era, the pre-war German navy investigated two possibilities of stowage for a small Schnellboot. Two 12.5-m (41 -ft) LS type prototypes were built in the late 1930s, light enough to be handled by heavy deck gear yet able to carry two 457-mm (18-in) torpedoes. Only one of these, built of light alloy, met the weight limit and was put into service as LS2 (LS for Leicht Schnellboot}. The torpedo gear was not standard in the German navy and was not available in time, so the boat was modified to lay three mines through apertures in the broad transom. Though this reduced the direct usefulness of the craft, she was shipped as an auxiliary aboard the raider Komet. The boat was a failure as the aero engines fitted in place of the planned diesels (also not available) failed with vibration and transmission problems. LS3 and LS4 both received their designed pair of Daimler-Benz diesels, an interesting feature being that a gearbox was added to increase engine speed by 50 per cent to drive the propellers at a supercavitating 3,300rpm. Of these two craft the former was a minelayer attached to the raider Kormoran, and the latter (the first torpedo-fitted boat) was attached to the raider Michel. Official policy regarding the use of these interesting little craft, which were armed also with a 15-mm or 20mm gun in an aircraft turret, seemed to be lacking. Of the remaining eight that were completed, most went overland to the Aegean to be used, ineffectually, for AS duties, carrying 11 depth
charges but no sonar. In practice, they acted as high-speed inter-island vedettes, Another innovative little craft was the 16-m (52.5-ft) KM type coastal minelayer (KM for KĂźstenminenleger). Equipped with twin 410-kW (550hp) aero engine drive, these 36 craft had sufficient speed to reach the British coat with four mines and return during dark hours, having placed them far more accurately than aircraft, They
proved too small for the job and were expended in theatres with sheltered waters.
Specification
LS type (as designed) Displacement: 11.5 tons Dimensions: length 12.5 m (41.0 ft); beam 3.3 m (10.83 ft); draught 0,76 m (2.5 ft)
Speed:42.5kts Endurance: 555 km (345 miles) at 30 kts
LS4 vvas fitted with an aircraft gun turret and two 533-mm torpedoes. Named 'Esau', it was carried by the German commerce raider Michel, which sailed from Flushing in March 1942 and met its end at the hands of the American submarine USS Tarpon off Yokohama in 1943. Armament: two 450-mm ( 17.7-in) torpedoes, and one 20-mm cannon Complement: 9
GERMANY
R-Boot
Räumen is the German verb 'to clear or 'to remove', hence the Raumboot oi R-boat type of coastal minesweeper. These craft were of such a useful size, however, that they also did duty as minelayers and, suitably rearmed, as escorts to convoys, in which guise they were involved in frequent brushes with British craft. The original group, Rl-16, was constructed in the early 1930s. Like the S-boats, they were built of wood on metal framing with round bilges. They were, however, of only 60-ton displacement and 26-m (85.3-ft) length. Propulsion was by twin-screw diesels for a modest 17 kts although one unit, R8, was fitted with Voith-Schnider cycloidal propellers, which made for great manoeuvrability at the cost of some speed, This experiment was deemed successful, and over 100 Rboats were eventually so fitted. From Rl7 onwards dimensions were very similar to those of the Sboats, though with extra beam, and increased draught by virtue of their greater displacement. Even with progressively improved diesels, the average R-boat never much exceeded 20 kts and, when not actually involved
Above: The German R-boats were pressed in to service as minelayers and convoy escorts. Although they received increasingly powerful diesels they could rarely manage much more than half the maximum speed of an S-boat. in the rninesweeping for which the type had been designed, was employed defensively. The exceptions were the dozen so-called GR-Boote (G for Geleit, or escort), R301-312, built to a stretched 41-m (134.5-ft) design displacing 175 tons. They had triplescrew propulsion for 24 kts and were fitted with a pair of torpedoes. Though used in something like the role for which the British employed MGBs, their firepower was little enhanced, and 88 more projected craft were cancelled. Their construction did suggest the need for a true multi-purpose escort for the many coastal convoys that the Germans ran around North European waters, The result was the hybrid, steel-built MZ-Boot design (Mz for Mehrzweck, or multi-purpose) which, while having a heavy surface armament including two 88-mm (3.46-in)
An R-boat is shown off the Norwegian coast, where the Germans ran so many convoys that they constructed a purpose-built convoy escort based on the R-boat design. By 1944 R-boats bristled with guns, carrying a 37-mm (1.45-in) cannon and up to six 20-mm mounts. Many were fitted with Voith Schneider propellers, which increased manoeuvrability at the expense of some speed. 521
guns and two torpedo tubes, were of only single-shaft propulsion. Only Mzl was ever completed, not proving sufficiently satisfactory to warrant further priority being given for completion of the remaining 11.
Specification
R-boat 140-ton type Displacement: 140 tons standard Dimensions: length 40.0 m (131.23 ft); beam 5,6 m (18,37 ft); draught 1,45 m (4,75ft) Propulsion: two diesels delivering 1901 kW (2,550 bhp) to two shafts Speed:20.5kts Endurance: 2040 km (1,268 miles) at ISkts Armament: one 37-mm cannon and up to six 20-mm cannon Complement: 38 TheR-boats were originally 60-ton craft armed with a couple of 20-mm cannon plus depth charges or mines, as appropria te. From R17 on they grew to S-boat size, andmountedan increased armament- necessary on the vital Norwegian iron ore route. GERMANY
S-Boot Known to the British for some illdefined reason as an E-boat, the German Schnellboot, or S-Boot, differed greatly from its Royal Navy counterparts, From its origins in a Lurssen civil design of the early 1930s, the S-boat was built of wood on alloy frames and had a round-bilged hull form which, while possessing a lower maximum speed than the hard-chined British equivalents, was very much more seakindly. In the event, the S-boat was able to sustain its maximum speed in sea states that forced the British to throttle back to avoid excessive pounding. Diesel drive was specified from the outset, though the prototype Sl of 1930 and the follow-on S2-S5 of 1931-2 had to take petrol engines while DaimlerBenz and MAN developed a suitable unit. Only with the 56-73 of 1934-5 did the three-shaft diesel layout become established. These craft were 32.4 m (106.3ft) in length and powered for 35 kts. This speed was considered insufficient, so in the next group the seven-cylinder diesels were exchanged for 11-cylinder units, improving speed but necessitating an increase in length to 34,7m (113.8ft), which remained remarkably constant
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until 1945, in stark contrast to the variety of boats under the British flag. Because of their greater length the S-boats carried their two torpedo tubes forward of the wheelhouse, giving space for two skid-mounted reloads abaft them. It was then a small design step from S26 onwards to raise the forecastle by l m (3.28 ft), so enclosing the tubes and leaving a forward gun-pit between them and, importantly, raising the freeboard to give the craft an enviable dryness. Always quieter than British equivalents, the S-boats also had a profile that was hard to spot without radar, Gun armament had continually to be increased to match that of their opponents, the extra weight being offset to a great extent by improved weightsaving techniques in hull construction and engines of higher power. Protection was improved by the adoption of the armoured 'Kalotte' type bridge. By 1945 speeds had been pushed (by extremely unreliable engines) to a maximum 42 kts and, while no longer, the S700 type introduced two extra, aftfacing torpedo tubes. Over 200 S-boats were built, of which about half survived the war.
Specification 'S 26' class Displacement: 93 tons standard and 115 tons full load Dimensions: length 34.95 m (114.67 ft); beam 5.1 m (16.73 ft); draught 1.4 m (4.6ft) Propulsion: three diesels delivering 4474 kW (6,000 bhp) to three shafts Speed: 39,5 kts Endurance: 1390 km (864 miles) at 35 kts Armament: two 533-m (21 -in) torpedo tubes with four torpedoes, and two 20mm cannon Complement: up to 21
S1, the prototype S-boa t, here seen in the Kiel canal, had to make do with a petrol engine while a diesel unit was perfected. The round-bilged hull enabled the S-boats to maintain high speeds even in a rough sea. The l 00- ton S81 works up to her full speed of39 kts. Note the difference made by raising the forecastle l m (3.28 ft), enclosing the torpedo tubes and leaving space for a forward 20mm (0.78-in) gun-pit. The low profile oftheS-boats was a considerable advantage in the nocturnal melees along the Channel coast.
UK
British Power Boats 60-ft types As a result mainly of lack of funds, the British did not develop the CMB concept further until 1935, when British Power Boats interested the Admiralty in an 18.3-m (60-ft) boat developed as a private venture. It was wooden-hulled with, initially, aluminium decking and, in contrast to the CMB, was hardchined without a step. Two 457-mm (18-in) torpedoes were carried; though launched over the stern as in earlier boats, the arrangement was different. The torpedoes protruded through ports in the transom and had their outboard halves supported on lattice outriggers that could be hinged back on deck when not required. The engine room crew had to work with the business ends of the torpedoes supported on overhead runways over the wing shafts. Launching involved running the torpedoes up, removing their restraints and suddenly accelerating the boat. With the torpedoes having to adjust in the disturbed water of the boat's wake, aiming was somewhat haphazard. A strong paper defence was afforded by no less than eight Lewis guns but these, being arranged in two quadruple mountings set in pits at the extreme ends of the boat, proved unsatisfactory. The hull design, though slower than that of the CMB, proved more seakindly if, like all of its kind, lt was discovered very soon that the BPB armament of quad Lewis guns at bow and stern was inadequate, and that a larger design would be necessary to handle the increased weaponry.
prone to pounding in a head sea. The BPB 60-footer proved seaworthy and capable of staging as far as Malta; the first type to be termed a motor torpedo boat, it rekindled interest on the part of the Admiralty. Eighteen were built in the initial batches between 1936 and 1939 (MTB1-12 and MTB14-19), BPB then producing a two-engined version whose torpedoes were exchanged for depth charges, Known as MA/SB ('Masby') craft, they found little employment in their initial form and most were later refitted as early MGB types to support MTBs in their operations. For this they carried, usually, a single 2-pdr and four 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns, but many armament variations existed. Interestingly, depth charges were still often carried: set shallow, these could be used to deter pursuit or, hair-raisingly lm to iT drop alongside a target,
UK
Vosper 70-ft type The successful Vosper 70-ft type originated in the single 20.7-m (68-ft) boat built by Vosper as a private venture in 1935-6 and eventually commissioned by the navy as MTB 102. Built completely in wood, she was driven by three Isotta-Fraschini petrol engines with a maximum output of 2573 kW (3,450 bhp). These drove the boat at a maximum speed of nearly 44 kts in calm water, and were chosen as no British-built equivalent existed. Like all such engines they were extremely noisy, so a low-power Ford engine was also available to clutch into the wing shafts for a low-speed, but silent, approach, Centreline torpedo tubes were originally included, one forward and one aft. But the navy did not like t h e m and developed the sided arrangement adopted thereafter, MTB 102 was notable also for being the first MTB 376, a US-built Vosper design, supplied underLend-Lease, leaves harbour at Livorno. BothRoyaland US Navies were involved in operations between Genoa and La Spezia from May 1944, and achieved considerable success harrying German supply convoys.
Specification
BPB 60-ft type Displacement: 22 tons Dimensions: length 18,36 m (60.25 ft); beam 4.1 m (13,4 ft); draught 0.86 m (2.83 ft)
Propulsion: three petrol engines delivering 1342 kW (1,800 hp) to three shafts Speed: 33 kts Endurance: 652 km (405 miles) at 33 kts
British power boa ts were instrumental in the revival of Royal Navy interest in coastal craft in the 1930s. Their designs sold abroad, these 70-ftMGBs originally being built as stretchedMA/SBs for the French until taken over and completed for theRoyalNavy. Armament: two 457-mm (18-in) torpedoes, and eight 7.7-mm (0,303-in) machine-guns Complement: 9
Royal Navy vessel fitted with the later universal 20-mm Oerlikon cannon. Despite a further strong challenge by BPB with an alternative 21.34-m (70ft) private-venture boat, the Admiralty chose the Vosper design as being the stronger in heavy seas. (Actually keeping these fast wooden hulls together in poor conditions was a problem that was never satisfactorily solved.) Four Vosper and two similar Thornycroft boats were ordered in 1938 and provided the basis for the war programme, with little design change except a nominal increase in length to improve seakeeping and cater for the growing load of topweight. Alternative engines were a problem; a few converted Merlins were coaxed from the Air Ministry but many boats had to take low-powered Hall-Scotts until the powerful American Packard became available. Oerlikons were virtually unobtainable, and the alternative 7,7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns proved of little use against E-boats running as MGBs, Eventually 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns and 6-pdr guns were fitted which, with radar, made for an efficient night-fighting boat. Stronger but lighter hulls, together with uprated engines, meant that boats were carrying a 70-per cent increased equipment load by 1944 with little speed penalty. Orders for 193 boats were met between 1939 and 1945 with the exception of a few late boats which were cancelled.
Specification Vosper 72.5-ft type Displacement: 36 to 49 tons Dimensions: length 22, l m (72,5 ft); beam 5.94 m (19.5 ft); draught 1.68 m (5.5 ft) Propulsion: three petrol engines delivering 2983 kW (4,000 bhp) to three shafts
Speed: 40 kts Endurance: 463 km (288 miles) at 40 kts Armament: two 533-mm (21-in) torpedoes, and various combinations of 6-pdr gun, 20-mm cannon, and 12.7mm (0.5-in) and 7,7-mm (0,303-in) machine-guns Complement: 12 or 13
MTB 80 was one of the first of Vesper's 72.2-footers. The class was to give excellen t service when fitted with 6pdrs and 20-mm cannon, but the original armament of two 12.7mm (0.5-in) and four 7.7-mm (0.303in) MCs was not adequa te (as was unfortunately proven when MTB 80 was lost in 1941).
Because of their size (and endurance when fitted with auxiliary tanks) Shetland-based 'D' types were able to work the Norwegian coast and, operating out of Malta and Bone, to add to the
misery heaped on the Afrika Korps' supply convoys. Against the lowprofile E-boats, they possessed the great advantage of radar.
UK
Fairmile 'D' type Practical pre-war experience demonstrated that MTBs would probably find difficulty in penetrating a determined escort to reach a target, particularly if that escort was of 'E-boats'. What was required was a more heavily armed, but still fast craft to occupy the latter's attentions, to defend the MTBs and allow them to concentrate on the main objectives. A further requirement was the need to defend convoys against E-boats in the absence of a destroyer escort. As already related, a few of the available BPB 'Masby' boats were rearmed to serve temporarily but, for the long term, the Fairmile 'D' type and the steam gunboat were developed. Half as long again as the average MTB, the 'D' type was of unique form in having flatfish vee sections aft merging into a round-bilge form forward, the transition taking the form of a pronounced hard knuckle that acted usefully as a spray deflector. This compromise hull and the extra length allowed them to operate in more severe sea states without the usual heavy pounding. The wide transom permitted quadruple shaft propulsion but,
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where this decreased the draught as a result of smaller-diameter propellers, it was due more to the power of available engines than design requirements. Early craft had direct drive but gearboxes were later introduced, improving both efficiency and speed. Hard driving exposed the weaknesses of mass-producing an all-wood craft of this size, and repairs and strengthening were frequent. Some 200 'D' Type craft were produced between 1942 and 1944, Armaments, official and otherwise, varied considerably, the boats serving as MGBs (90-ton displacement), MTBs (95-ton displacement) or combination MGM/MTBs (105-ton displacement). In the last role the armament was formidable, with four 457-mm (18-in) torpedo tubes, two 6-pdr guns, and four 12.7-mm (0.5-in) and four 7.7-mm (0.303-in) machine-guns. The speed, inevitably, was reduced to about 29 kts. A short-barrelled 114.3-m (4.5in) gun was fitted forward on some.
Fairmile 'D' MTB 1944 cutaway drawing key 1 Chemical smoke dispenser 2 S moke float 3 Steering gear compartment 4 Towing eye 5 Rudder 6 Screw 7 Shaft 8 Emergency steering gear 9 Folding cot 10 10-ft dinghy 11 Six-pdrMkVII 12 Gunhouse 13 Access hatch 14 Access ladder
15 Seaman's washroom 16 Aft magazine 17 Fuel tanks (forward tanks hold 3,240 gal; aft tanks hold 1,820 gal) 3 Torpedo blast screen 19 18-in torpedo tube 20 Oerlikon twin 20-mm Mk IX 21 Splinter screen to gun platform 22 20-mm ready-use ammunition 23 Mast crutch 24 Flag locker 25 Hand grenade locker 26 Ventilatorshaft
UK
Fairmile 'A' and 'C' types So well associated with the construction of coastal craft did the name of Fairmile become that it is, perhaps, suprising to discover that it began operations as late as 1939. It convinced the Admiralty of the need for a motor launch (ML) along the lines of those that served during World War I. These had been built in the USA and, mainly through lack of length, were not totally satisfactory in service. Fairmile proposed to increase length substantially "-r- 22.85-24.37 m (75-80 ft) to 33.53 m ,- iO ft) and to gear up to an extended programme by prĂŠfabrication. Thus, in place of a yard framing up a boat, planking it and fitting it out in the traditional (and slow) manner a variety of wood-working companies, not necessarily connected with boat building, would be involved in the series construction of component parts. These, made from standard jigs, would then be assembled rapidly in the actual waterside yard, even the planking being supplied in ready-to-assemble numbered sets. To test the system, the Admiralty ordered 12 Fairmile 'A' type craft, numbered ML100-111. They were, indeed, produced rapidly in 1940, but the design itself was found to be less than ideal. It had been developed for general inshore patrol and auxiliary duties, an asdic (sonar) set and 12 depth charges being carried as standard. In practice, the design's hardchine form tended to pound in a seaSpecification Fairmile 'D' type Displacement: 90 tons Dimensions: length 33.53 m (110.0 ft); beam 6.4 m (21,0 ft); draught 1.58 m (5.17ft) Propulsion: four petrol engines delivering 3728 kW (5,000 bhp) to four shafts Speed: 29 kts
27 Engine room 28 Packard petrol 12-cylinder 1,250-hp engine (four) 29 Torpedo tube support frame 30 Workbenches 31 Platform 32 Compass platform 33 Mast 34 RadarType291 or242
35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
way and throw spray. More seriously, the bunker capacity for the three Hall Scott petrol engines was far too small. For the long wartime production runs, therefore, a new design known as the Fairmile 'B' type was produced. The initial 12 A' type boats were later converted into inshore minelayers, with a capacity of up to nine mines each. During the invasion scare of 1940, motor gun boats (MGBs) were needed urgently and the A' type jigs were used to construct 24, known as the Fairmile 'C' type. These had superEndurance: not known Armament: two single 6-pdr guns, one twin 20-mm cannon, two twin 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns, and (optional) four 457-mm ( 18-in) torpedoes Complement: up to 30
Loud hailer TW12 aerial TCS aerial Bridge Wheel house Radaroffice Pattern 23 liferaft Fresh water tank (five Windscreen Wind deflector
45 Machine-gun ammunition locker 46 TwinVickers0.303-in machine-guns (each side of bridge) 47 Power mounting 48 2-in rocket flares 49 Catwalk 50 Oilskin locker 51 Mast aerial 52 Opensix-pdrMkVII 53 Wardroom 54 Outer hull frames to hard chine hull 55 Lobby 56 CO's cabin 57 Forward magazine/shell room 58 Recessed scoop in hull 59 Type 715A hydrophone 60 Pitometerlog 61 Stem eye 62 Crew1 s WC 63 Forepeak 64 Waterline 65 Electric heater 66 Aft machine stores 67 Anchorwindlass 68 Explosionchamberto torpedo tube
charged engines and better laid out topsides, MTB-style, with an enhanced armament of two 2-pdr guns and two twin 12,7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns. Specification Fairmile 'A' type Displacement: 58 tons Dimensions: length 33.53 m ( 110.0 ft); beam 5.31 m (17.42 ft); draught 1.83 m (6.0 ft) Propulsion: three petrol engines delivering 1342 kW (1,800 bhp) to three shafts Below: Considerably larger than preceding MTB types, the Fairmile 'D'was of similar dimensions to its main opponent, theS-boat.
A Fairmile 'C'MGB with the original armament of two 2-pdrs and two pairs of 12.7-mm (0.5-in) MGs makes herwayatclose toher maximum speed of 25 kts. Slower but larger than standard MGBs, theFairmiles were also up-gunned, with up to six 20-mm cannon being shipped. Speed: 22 kts Endurance: not known Armament: one 3-pdr gun, and two 7.7mm (0.303-in) machine-guns Complement: 16 Bottom:A Fairmile 'D'enters harbour at Algiers during theNorth African campaign, when the big boats weremuch used in harassing Rommel's supply routes to Tunis. Beingsuch capable boats they were used where the n'gh ting was thickest, which explains the loss of nearly 40 of the class in action.
UK
Fairmile 'B' type One of the most versatile types oi warship ever to see service, the Fairmile 'B" type motor launch (ML) was also one of the most numerous, some 670 being built in all between 1940 and 1944. The lines, in contrast with those of the 'A' type, were of a seakindly roundbilge form and were of Admiralty design, being turned over to Fairmile for the preparation of constructional drawings to suit a mass production programme, A large number of yards were involved in the construction, ranging in the UK from Sheerness Royal Naval Dockyard to Southampton Steam Joinery, and all over the Commonwealth from Vancouver Shipyard to the Anglo-American Nile Tourist Company at Cairo. The initial requirement was for a triple-screwed craft, but the Hall Scott petrol engines specified were in short supply and only two were ever fitted, incurring a speed penalty of 4 to 5 kts. Their legend armament was a 3-pdr gun, two 7.7-mm (0.303-in) Lewis guns and a dozen depth charges (supported by an asdic set) but in practice they took a bewildering variety of fits. Torpedo tubes were removed from the Lease-Lend flush-deck destroyers and fitted to some, making them the world's only 20-kt MTBs, a measure of the desperate stop gaps adopted in 1940, They served as gunboats, air-sea rescue boats, AS patrol boats, inshore magnetic and acoustic minesweepers, smokelayers, hospital boats and convoy escorts, for which duty they sailed
on their own bottoms to the West Indies, West Africa and the Mediterranean. Hulls were supplied with standard fittings to allow rapid change of armament or the shipping of auxiliary fuel tanks. Probably the best-known involvement of MLs in an operation was that of 16 in the raid on St Nazaire in March 1942, the situation of the port inside a well-defended estuary demanding shoal-draught vessels. In fighting their way both in and out, landing and recovering the commandos they carried, 12 were destroyed, some needing to be scuttled during the retirement for damage received. Specification Fairmile 'B' type Displacement: 67 to 85 tons Dimensions: length 34.14 m ( 112.0 ft); beam 5.56 m (18.25 ft); draught 1.52 m (5,0ft) Propulsion: two petrol engines delivering 895 kW ( 1,200 bhp) to two shafts Speed: 20 kts Endurance: 1112 km (691 miles) at 20 kts Armament: (as designed) one 3-pdr gun, two 7,7-mm (0.303-in) machineguns, and depth charges Complement: 16
Above: ML 136 is seen on patrol off the Scottish coast early in her career. Armed with a Hotchkiss 3-pdr forward and two twin Lewis guns abaft the funnel, the class had room for more weaponry, and indeed six of the usual fit of 12 depth charges can be seen at the stern.
11 was perhaps inevitable that such a versatile class built in some numbers would see considerable variation in weapon fit.
UK
Harbour Defence Motor Launch Far removed from the 'mile-a-minute navy' image of the coastal forces, so beloved of the popular press, was the Harbour Defence Motor Launch (HDML), really a smaller 12-kt version of the Fairmile 'B' type. It was a general-purpose utility craft whose defined employment demanded only modest performance and endurance; should such craft be required for foreign service they were to be shipped as deck cargo, War, as ever, changed all that. It was widely assumed before World War II that the immediate approaches to ports would, somehow, be infested with submarines and it was in ASW that the craft was generally planned to be used. They were equipped with a small asdic (sonar) set and eight depth charges, though the combination of little or no live practice allied to immense enthusiasm, shallow water and low speed suggests that the HDML would have been at greater hazard than a U-boat! For the low propulsive powers required, small diesels did exist from British manufacturers, and a boat's maximum speed varied according to which type she had fitted, The HDMLs were double-planked on bent frames, 526
which required a higher level of craftsmanship in construction than did the Fairmiles. Some had to make do with inferior timber as a result of shortages, and were consequently short-lived, Despite their greater complexity they were built widely, not only in the UK but also in the USA and all over the Commonwealth. Pendants ran from 1001 to 1600 but it is by no means certain that all of these were actually issued, They were lovely craft to handle, seakindly and responsive with their double rudders. Employed in large numbers in every theatre, they travelled on their own bottoms as far afield as Iceland. One flotilla, required for use in the West Indies, was fitted with temporary sailing rig to assist fuel economy on the long transatlantic leg; though sailing was demonstrably feasible, the craft were re-allocated to the North African landing forces. They worked also as inshore minesweepers, despatch boats and (radar-fitted) as navigation markers for major amphibious operations.
Specification
Harbour Defence Motor Launch Displacement: 54 tons
Dimensions: length 21,95 m (72,0 ft); beam4.82 m (15.83 ft); draught 1,68 m (5.5ft) Propulsion: two diesels delivering 239 kW (320 bhp) to two shafts
Speed: 12 kts Endurance: not known Armament: one 3-pdr gun, one 20-mm cannon, and two 7.7-mm(0.303-in)
HDML 1383 leaves Harwich harbour pastHMS Curzon (formerly the US destroyer escort DE-84). This example is armed with a 20-mm Oerlikon fore and aft and twin Lewis guns on each side of the bridge. machine-guns Complement: 10
UK
Steam Gun Boat Developed in parallel with the Fairmile 'D's type was the Steam Gun Boat (SGB), a type which at over 44-m (144.4-ft) length was viewed as virtual 'Queen Marys' by the coastal forces, The first of class commenced trials in November 1941, some three months ahead of the first 'D' type, The concept existed at all only as a typically British solution to a problem that should not have existed in the first place, i.e. the lack of a suitable indigenous small diesel engine, Steam plant had the advantage of quietness but, even with the most compact twin-screw plant drawing steam from a single boiler, it demanded a large hull which while having the disadvantage of being a larger target was a positive factor for seakeeping, in which the E-boat was acknowledged to be excellent. Wooden hulls of this size were not feasible for mass production and steel was used. Unfortunately this meant that both hulls and machinery were now beyond the scope of the small yards engaged in the rapid expansion of the
coastal forces, and the SGB thus competed for berths in yards hard put to produce urgently required convoy escorts, Of the 60 planned, therefore, it is not surprising that only nine were ordered, and of these but seven completed, in 1941-2, In practice the steam plant proved complex and vulnerable, with initial troubles concentrated on insufficient energy being delivered by the boiler and heavily-cavitating propellers, Even when these problems were cured, fuel consumption remained heavy, with the added disadvantage that where a petrol-engined boat could start from cold and get away im-
mediately, an SGB had to remain in steam, using a considerable amount of fuel and man hours in the process. In action, however, the E-boat commanders respected the SGBs only a little less than destroyers, as they could pounce unexpectedly and hold their speed in a seaway. They proved excessively vulnerable to action damage in the machinery spaces, and the necessary addition of 18-mm (0.7-in) protective plate added much weight. More armament and crew increased displacement further and service speed was eventually reduced to only 30 kts.
war and Eleo had already constructed four squadrons of 77-footers which still carried the non-preferred 457-mm (18in) torpedoes. All told, 358 Eleo 80footers were constructed, the three Packard engines giving them an edge in speed over their similarly-powered Higgins running mates. Of the two, the Eleo was the preferred design but suffered as a result of its extra reserve displacement, resulting from its
length, being bought up by additional equipment. This was partially offset by the Packard engine being progressively uprated in power,
Eleo PT Boats were expanded versions of the original Hall-Scott design, with room for four torpedoes and a wide variety of guns.
Specification Eleo 80-ft type Displacement: 38 tons Dimensions: length 24.38 m (80.0 ft); beam 6.32 m (20.75 ft); draught 1,52 m (5.0ft)
Propulsion: three petrol engines delivering 3020 kW (4,050 bhp) to three shafts Speed: 40 kts Endurance: not known Armament: (typical) four 533-mm (21in) torpedoes, one 40-mm gun, one 20mm cannon, and four 12.7-mm(0.5-in) machine-guns Complement: 14
Specification
Steam Gun Boat Displacement: 165 tons Dimensions: length 44.42 m (145,75 ft); beam 6.1 m (20.0 ft); draught 1.68 m (5.5ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 5965 kW (8,000 shp) to two shafts Speed: 35 kts Endurance: not known Armament: (final arrangement) one 76.2-mm (3-in) gun, two single 6-pdr guns, and two twin 20-mm cannon Complement: 27 Veritable battleships of the coastal forces, the S team Gun Boats were fast and heavily-armed vessels, although vulnerable to damage in the machinery rooms. Nonetheless, they were warily respected by their opponents across the North Sea.
USA
Eleo 80-ft type During World War I the Electric Boat Company (Eleo) had built a large number of small craft for the US Navy, but had lost design continuity with the navy's post-war lack of interest, When an official competition was announced in the late 1930s, therefore, Eleo acquired from the British Power Boat Company a state-of-the-art European boat in a 21.34-m (70-ft) private venture, armed with four 457-mm (18-in) torpedoes, Eleo succeeded in getting the US Navy not only to purchase the boat but also to order 23 more based on the design, 12 of them fitted with depth charges rather than torpedoes. The PT versions began to enter service in November 1940. They were viewed as experimental and, though satisfactory, it was recommended that further boats incorporate standard Packard petrol engines and 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes. This necessitated an increase in length to 23.47 m (77 ft). Five were thus constructed for the competition in 1941, and the 70footers were transferred to the UK under Lend-Lease terms. In the play-off the Eleo boats did well, returning high speeds with good manoeuvrability. On the other hand, they slammed worse than the others and suffered minor structural failures that required design modification. Extra length was also recommended for improved seaworthiness and habitability; as the specification put the maximum at 25 m (82 ft), Eleo went to 24.38 m (80-ft), By then the USA was at
A 1944 experiment saw an Eleo boat pain ted in this startling dazzle scheme.
527
USA
Higgins 78-ft type
The Higgins 78-ft type had its origins in a series of trials held by the US Navy in 1941 to determine the boat best suited to its purposes from a series of contenders. Higgins entered a 25,15-m (82.5ft) private-venture boat derived from an earlier Sparkman and Stevens design, Six boats of various types were exhaustively evaluated in a range of conditions. From this experience a short list of three was selected for mass production against a light specification. One of these was the Higgins, which was to be 'suitably reduced in size to carry such ordnance loads as are required by our Navy'. Those boats chosen were of hardchine wooden construction and propelled by three Packard petrol engines, which had emerged as the most reliable and economical for the job. Each would carry four 533-mm (21-in) torpedoes and four 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns, Fully laden they would be capable of 40 kts for one hour. From virtually nothing the Americans created, in a space of three years, the nucleus of a powerful force of PT boats. Two dozen (two squadrons) of Higgins' boats, now 23.77m (78ft) in length, were initially ordered, but these did not start to enter service until the second half of 1942 and, of these, six were transferred to the British and four to the Soviets. Eventually over 200 were constructed which, with the Eleo 24.38-m (80-ft) type, were to be the US Navy's standard choices, The third type successful in the pre-war play-off, the Huckins 23.77-m (78-ft) type, was used in the training role, Service speed, always heavily dependent upon weather conditions, de-
528
teriorated further as more and more armament and equipment were added. To assist matters a new lightweight torpedo was developed. This had a heavier warhead and a higher speed, but only a short range. It could be launched by dropping gear, obviating the need for torpedo tubes, Gun armament varied considerably and unofficially. Most later craft had a 40mm weapon aft, a 20-mm cannon forward and up to five 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-guns. Some landed their torpedoes in favour of more guns for use in an MOB role against the Japanese.
Initially the secondary armament on PTBs was limited to 12.7-mm (0.5-in) MGs, but before long heavier weapons, such as stern-mounted 20mm cannon, began to be fitted.
Specification
Higgins 78-ft type Displacement: 35 tons Dimensions: length 23,77 m (78,0 ft); beam 6,32 m (20.75 ft); draught 1.52 m (5.0 ft)
Propulsion: three petrol engines delivering 3356 kW (4,500 bhp) to three shafts
Speed: 41 kts Endurance: 555 km (345 miles) at 41 kts Armament: four 533-mm (21 -in) torpedoes, one 40-mmgun, and two 20-mm cannon Complement: 17
The Higgins boats (along with the Eleo design) bore the brunt of the US PTboat war. At 78 ft (23.77 m), it was also large enough to carry four torpedoes although some were landed later in the war in favour of more guns. While the activities of the PT boats in theSolomons and the Philippines are well known, it should be remembered that they contributed to campaigns as far apart as those of the Adriatic or (as seen here) around the Aleutians in theNorthern Pacific.
Assault Ships The ability of the Allies to wage successful amphibious warfare contributed in no small measure to the eventual downfall of the Axis powers. Development was fast, when it became clear that Allied success would require a cross-Channel assault, and the very nature of the Pacific war demanded mastery of the new form of battle. A Ithough in the late 1930s war jLjLin Europe was viewed by the services as only a matter of time, its likely form was difficult to predict, so available rearmament resources were expanded in generally conventional directions. The total subjugation by the Axis powers of Europe, and later the Far East, changed the situation completely. Both areas would need to be reconquered through the carriage by Allies of vast forces over very considerable distances. Established ports, even if they were available, would be either heavily defended or destroyed. Obviously it became increasingly desirable to put everything 'over the beach' in order to retain the initiative. Only the most basic consideration had been paid officially to landing craft before the war but from the time of Dunkirk onwards the British developed ideas rapidly, passing them to the Americans for implementation under the Lend-Lease agreement. By the time that the USA became embroiled in the war, in December 1941, it had already accumulated much experience upon which to build. The vast armada of amphibious warfare vessels that was ultimately produced was, for the most part, built to standards that
A Landing Craft Tank (LCT) putting vehicles ashore in Normandy. The Allies developed a vast armada of these amphibious warfare vessels. were totally unacceptable before the war, but which held together and displayed a high degree of innovation. The vessels fell into several major groups: (a) ships for carrying the infantry themselves, the Landing Ships, Infantry or LSIs, which differed from ordinary troop ships in also carrying their own assault landing craft;
(b) ships, mainly Landing Ships, Dock or LSDs, for carrying smaller craft in numbers, these craft being of insufficient size in which to make protracted sea crossings; (c) landing craft, which were smaller than landing ships, for putting vehicles, equipment and personnel directly on the beach, where categories (a) and
(b) needed to anchor offshore; and (d) miscellaneous vessels, which covered a range as diverse as the vital Headquarters Ships to the humble, but equally vital, Landing Barge, Kitchen. This motley armada of'floating bootboxes' did not, of itself, win the war, but the war could not have been won without it. 529
UK/USA
Landing Ship, Headquarters (LSH) and Amphibious Force Flagship (AGC) Amphibious operations are exceedingly complex and, despite meticulous planning and allowance for apparently adequate contingencies, everything that can go wrong will try to go wrong. Headquarters ships were devised to lie off the beach and control operations until a proper HQ could be set up ashore, after which they could probably stay on as long as there was any requirement for naval support. Early practice was to employ a major warship in the role, but suitably equipped ships were rare, never had sufficient accommodation and were liable to be called out to do some fighting, Not until 1942 were dedicated ships introduced: medium-sized merchantmen (with plenty of space for conversion) were selected, and these were instantly recognizable by the variety of communications antennas t h a t were added ( a n d , it was rumoured, by the wine bottles floating around them). These ships handled a tremendous volume of signal traffic, the embarked staff being able to make rapid decisions on the spot to counter any problem as it arose. On occasion the Landing Ship, Headquarters (LSH) even acted as an aircraft-direction ship, a complex-enough task in itself and usually undertaken by a specialist Landing Ship, Fighter Direction (LSF), with which it worked closely. For major landings, more than one LSH might be required and, in any case, a replacement was a wise precaution, particularly when the enemy recognized their importance and singled them out for attention, HMS Bulolo was a typical British
J
conversion, starting as an armed merchant cruiser before doing a spell as an LSI. As an LSH she saw service at Algiers, in the Levant, at Anzio and, finally, at Normandy, where she was damaged by bombing, Other large British conversions were HMS Hilary, Largs and Lothian. The American equivalent was the Amphibious Force Flagship (AGC), converted C2 and C3 hulls, the former going to 17 units. For smaller operations the British modified eight assorted frigates and gunboats, the Americans preferring the more suitable long-endurance coastguard cutters which are available for regular naval use in time of war.
Dimensions: length 125.7 m (412.5 ft); beam 17.8 m (58.25 ft); draught 6.6 m (21.7ft) Propulsion: two diesels delivering 4698 kW (6,300 bhp) to two shafts Performance: maximum speed 15 kts Armament: two twin 102-mm (4-in) AA, five single 40-mm AA and 14 single 20-mm AA guns Capacity: as an LSI(L) six LCP(L)s and 258 troops Complement: 264
HMS Hilary, built in l 93l as a cargoliner, spent the first part of the war as an ocean boarding vessel. She was converted into a headquarters ship in 1943, being fitted with the complex communication systems required to con trol an amphibious landing. Formerly a liner, the USS Ancon was talcen over in l 942 as a transport, but soon became an amphibious force flagship with the US Navy. She was used as an HQ ship at the Sicily landings, Salerno, Normandy and Okinawa, and was present at the i Japanese surrender at TokyoBay.
Specification
HMSBulolo Displacement: 9,110 tons standard
UK/USA
Landing Ship, Infantry (Large) (LSI(L))/Transport (AP) The Landing Ship, Infantry (Large) or LSI(L) was used for the delivery of troops over distances too great for their embarkation and support in landing craft, Many were little more than basic conversions of passenger or cargo/passenger liners, but others were rebuilt for more specific purposes. Such were the trio of Glen Line ships (Glenearn, Glengyle and Glenroy) converted in 1941 following initial service as stores carriers and commando ships, These were new and powerful ships built for the Blue Funnel/Glen/ Shire services in the Far East, and the conversion involved much subdivision of the cargo spaces into accommodation for upwards of 1,300 personnel. Sleeping was in the traditional hammock, but mess spaces, latrines, wash places, and general stowage had to be created, together with space for such heavy eguipment as had also to be put ashore. Extra sets of davits were installed for the stowage of 12 LCAs, and two 530
heavier LCMs were also carried on deck, handled by the ship's derricks. The ships were well armed, commensurate with their high value, originally with eight 2-pdr pompoms but later with six 102-mm (4-in) AA guns, four 2-pdr guns and up to eight 20-mm Oerhkons. Despite heavy involvement, for instance in Crete, Syria, Malta and Dieppe, none of the three was lost. There were three further sisters; of these Breconshire of the Shire Line became briefly famous in her runs to Malta at the height of the siege until she was finally sunk. Glengarry was a fourth Glen ship, building in Denmark The Empire Arquebus, built in the USA under the massive US maritime commission programme and supplied under Lend-lease. It was similar in many respects to the US Navy's 'General'and 'Admiral' classes, and like them was used as an infantry transport.
when the Germans invaded. She was converted to the auxiliary cruiser Meersburg and also survived the war. Last was the Blue Funneler Telemachus, converted to the escort carrier HMS Activity. AP was the general category for American troop transports, modified to APA for the more specialist Attack Transport category. Most were basic conversions but notable classes designed to purpose were the 11,500-ton 'Generals' and 12,700-ton Admirals' with steam turbine or turbo-electric propulsion for about 20 kts. They went on to give very useful service after World War II.
Specification 'Glen' class Displacement: 9,800 tons gross Dimensions: length 155.7 m (511 ft); beam 20.3 m (66.7 ft); draught 8.5m (27.75ft) Propulsion: two diesels delivering 8948 kW (12,000 bhp) to two shafts Performance: maximum speed 18 kts; range 22250 km (13,825 miles) at 14 kts Armament: three twin 102-mm (4-in) AA four single or twin 2-pdr AA, and eight to 12 single 20-mm AA guns Capacity: two LCMs, 12 LCAs, 232 landing craft crew and 1,087 troops Complement: 291 Below: Llangibby Castle was typical of the many mercantile vessels fitted as in fan try Ian ding ships for th e major European landing operations from 1942 to 1944. Most only took part in one such landing, and were then returned to trade.
Above:Requisitioned and commissioned in 1939, HMS Glenearn and her sisters could each carry over 1,000 troops. Their heavy armament made them amongst the most battleworthy of all British LSIs.
UK/USA
Landing Ship, Infantry (Medium) (LSI(M))/High-Speed Transport (APD) Cross-channel packets, though shortlegged, were fast and showed great potential for conversion in World War I. So it was in World War II, with the bonus that the German invasion of the Low Countries provided many fine Belgian and Dutch ships in addition to British and French vessels. Queen Emma (Konmgen Emma) and Princess Beatrix (Pnnses Beatrix) had been completed by Dutch yards only months before hostilities and, being motorships, had the advantage of small machinery spaces and great economy. They were converted for small-scale assault as Landing Ship, Infantry (Medium) or LSI(M), their large accommodation areas being ideal for some 600 complement: crew, landing craft crews and army personnel. The troops were put ashore by six LCAs, stowed under davits. Two LCMs were also davit-carried but the machinery's 39-ton capacity limited their use, the craft having to be pre-loaded with vehicles by crane. Both ships, together with several smaller ex-Belgian vessels, carried the bulk of the force on the Dieppe raid, all returning safely. Not strictly similar in designed function but often used as such were the American APD, or High-Speed Transport ships. The first group comprised 32 very-similar flushdecked destroyers (the venerable Tour-pipers'). By stripping out the forward machinery spaces, accommodation was created for about 150 troops, though 200 could be carried over short hauls,
Even with only half power remaining, they were still good for 23 kts. Topside, the two forward funnels and all torpedo tubes were landed and four LCP(R) added m davits. These 11-m (36-ft) craft could each land up to 36 troops. Each weighed about 6 tonnes in davits, and must have posed a stability problem to such narrow-gutted ships, These destroyer conversions were followed by nearly 10 rebmldings of destroyer escorts (DE) with very similar size and speed. These carried four LCVPs, nested in pairs under two distinctive gantry davits. Up to 150 troops, four carts, four 75-mm (2.95-in) pack howitzers and up to 255 m3 (9,000 cu ft) of stores, ammunition and fuel could be carried, the ships being equipped with a pair of cargo booms (derricks) for their handling. The APD proved extremely useful in the island war of the western Pacific and, having retained her surface armament, was comparatively independent. Specification 'Queen Emma' class Displacement: 4,140 tons gross Dimensions: length 115,8 m (380 ft); beam 14.4 m (47.25 ft); draught 4.6 m (15ft)
Propulsion: two diesels delivering 9694 kW (13,000 bhp) to two shafts Performance: maximum speed 22 kts; range 12979 km (8,065 miles) at 13 kts Armament: two single 76-mm (3-in) AA, two single 2-pdr AA and six single 20-mm AA guns Capacity: two LCMs, six LCAs, 60 landing craft crew and 372 troops Complement: 167
HMS Princess Beatrix, in common with most other Channel packets, was relatively fast but short-ranged. This was no real handicap on operations to the coast of Europe, and with her sister and several smaller ex-Belgian ferries she took part in the Dieppe raid. The long and varied careers of the US Navy's flush-decked four-stackers saw a n umber con verted to fast transports for use in the islandhopping campaigns ofthePacific War. Eight were lost, butonlyoneof the 94 succeeding converted destroyer-escorts went down.
531
UK
Landing Ship, Tank Mk 1 (LST(l)), 'Maracaibo' type As early as 1940 Winston Churchill's energetic mind was turned to matters offensive and he perceived the need for a vessel able to put armour and vehicles ashore 'over beaches' and 'anywhere in the world1. Ultimately ships could be designed and built for this revolutionary purpose but, at the time, only conversions were feasible to prove the concept. The problem was a nice one, for a beach of a gradient kind enough for the operation would have shallow approaches. This required a ship large enough both for ocean passage and to accommodate the designed load, yet of shallow enough draught to put her bows ashore. Even then it was likely that a considerable width of water would still exist between herself and the beach, so a bow door together with ramps of considerable length were needed. The ships identified for conversion were the Bachaquero, Misoa and Tasajera, launched in 1937-8 and used in British operations to shuttle oil from Venezuela's shallow Lake Maracaibo and, therefore, designed with a mean draught of only 3 m (9.8 ft), Their original design was that of a turretdecker, the weather decks at the side flanking a deep centreline trunk. As the ships' length: beam ratio was only about 6:1, they had plenty of deck space once the side decks were plated over. The drawback was that
the resultant tank deck was well above the waterline, making even more acute the design of the bow ramp. In the event, the already bluff bows were modified with a flat rectangular door which hinged from its lower edge. This allowed a two-stage ramp to be run down an internal slope, under the control of several winches. The first 21.6-m (71-ft) long stage supported a 16.5-m (54-ft) extension. While these permitted the dry landing of a 30-ton tank, they were very greedy of internal space. The Maracaibos' can claim to be the first LSTs and though far from ideal, particularly in terms of speed, these Landing Ship, Tank Mk 1 or LST(l) vessels demonstrated the practicality of working on and off a beach in a controlled manner, the value of good subdivision and the need for welldistributed ballast space. Interestingly, even the eventual 'last word1 in LSTs never claimed to be able to work more than 17 per cent of the world's beaches, with the American LCAC air cushion landing craft of 1985 not extending this beyond a reported 70 per cent. Specification LST( 1), 'Maracaibo' type Displacement: 4,890 tons gross Dimensions: length 116.5 m(382.5 ft); beam 19.5 m (64 ft); draught 4.6 m (15 ft); beaching draught 1.3 m (4.25 ft)
forward Propulsion: two sets of reciprocating steam engines delivering 2237 kW (3,000 ihp) to two shafts Performance: maximum speed 11 kts; range 12045 km (7,845 miles) at 10 kts Armament: two 102-mm (4-in) smoke mortars, and four single 2-pdr AA and six single 20-mm AA guns
UK
Landing Ship, Tank Mk 1 (LST(l)), 'Boxer' type The 'Maracaibo' LST conversions were never viewed as more than useful prototype exercises and their 10-kt speed was widely criticized as insufficient for possible sea passages to a distant assault area. Although a higher speed directly conflicted as a design requirement with the needs for shallow draught, bow doors and large capacity, the first purpose-built LSTs, the trio of Landing Ship, Tank Mk 1 'Boxer' type for the Royal Navy, were capable of 17 kts. As it turned out, this speed was unrealistically high but the specification, it should be remembered, had been formulated without the benefit of any previous experience, the whole concept being novel. A bow door and ramp were regarded as essential and, as a ship-type bow was necessary, a pair of verticallyhinged doors was adopted (a 'first' for Harland & Wolff and later used on many post-war vehicular ferries) behind which a set of transverse watertight doors was placed instead of a conventional bulkhead. Thirteen 40ton or 20 25-ton tanks could be stowed on the tank deck, which also formed the freeboard deck, close above the waterline and avoiding any hoisting or negotiation of steep ramps, Much space on this deck was lost, firstly because of the large inboard-stowing ramp that was required to span a distance of about 30 m (100 ft) to the shore and, secondly, through a deliberate reduction in area to reduce freesurface effects in the event of flooding. The resulting side subdivision allowed steam plant to be fitted, thus providing the relatively high power required, This machinery was placed amidships, with the uptakes and funnel offset to starboard to allow clear passage below. On the weather deck up to 27 loaded 3-ton lorries could be stowed 532
HMS Boxer, seen soon after her completion in early 1943, was the first vessel designed from the outset as an LST. A complex design, the three completed ships were beaten in to service by theLST(2). via a vehicle lift from the tank deck. A hatch was provided abaft the superstructure, serviced by a 40-ton crane, to offload vehicles in the event of damage to the bow door. The complexity of the 'Boxers' (Boxer, Bruizer and Thruster) meant that the first was not ready until early in 1943, by which time the better features had been incorporated in the far superior LST(2s). The speed and endurance of the 'Boxers' thus saw them suitable for conversion to LSFs, with four tall masts covered in antennae for the purpose of aircraft direction, Specification LST(l),'Boxer'type Displacement: 3,615 tons standard and 5,410 tons full load Dimensions: length 121.9m (400 ft); beam 14.9 m (49 ft); draught 1.7/4.4 m (5.5/14.5 ft) Propulsion: two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 5220 kW (7,000 shp) to two shafts Performance: maximum speed 17 kts; range 14830 km (9,215 miles) at 14 kts Armament: two 102-mm (4-in) smoke mortars, and four single 2-pdr AA and eight single 20-mm AA guns Capacity: 20 medium or 13 heavy tanks, 27 loaded lorries and 193 troops Complement: 169 By the time of the invasion of Normandy, the three 'Boxers'had been converted toLSF (LandingShip Fighter-direction).
The very first tank landing ship was HMS Bachaquero, a converted 'Maracaibo' type tanker. She is seen in Alexandria in March 1943. Capacity: two LCMs, 20 25-ton tanks and 207 supernumeries Complement: 98 (NB: the Tasajera was slightly smaller)
UK/USA
Landing Ship, Tank Mk 2 (LST(2)) Even while the three LST(l)s were still in the early stages of construction, before Pearl Harbor and the USA's entry into the war, it was realized that a great number of large landing craft would ultimately be required for the assault that would have to precede the reconquest of Europe. Only construction in the USA under Lend-Lease terms could produce these numbers, but the resulting ships would need to be capable of crossing the Atlantic. The conception of the Landing Ship, Tank Mk 2 or LST(2), despite frequent US claims to the contrary, was British and was worked out in detail by a British mission in Washington in the winter of 1941-2, the first order being placed in February 1942, The major differences from the LST(l) were the adoption of an engines-aft layout, a smaller length: beam ratio and an acceptance of a 10-kt maximum speed. A suitable locomotivetype diesel was available in the USA. Two of these developed sufficient power while having only a limited height, enabling the tank deck to be continued over the machinery space, and thus run the full useful length of the ship, By adopting a bluff, beamy form, the loaded draught was considerably reduced; for sea passages the ship could be ballasted down and, for beaching, trimmed by the stern to give a very small forward draught, This, in turn, enabled the vessel to ground much closer to the tideline and only a short ramp was fitted inside the vertically-hinged bow doors. On beaches with the minimum declivity of 1 in 50 this still meant a lot of water for vehicles to traverse, and research was started into their waterproofing, Only with the adoption in 1943 of sectioned pontoons for the rapid construction of ship-to-shore causeways was the problem really solved. A spacious upper deck, encumbered only with the exhaust vents from the tank deck, was served both by hatch and elevator (or ramp in later versions). It could be used for stowage of lighter vehicles or, if required, an LCT(5) or LCT(6). Heavy gravity davits could accommodate up to six LCVPs for use as lifeboats or general utility craft, The double-skin hull flanking the tank deck gave accommodation to up to 163 army personnel, The LST(2) became the standard assault ship and played an indispens-
able role in all theatres, 1,077 of these ships being built between 1942 and 1945. Specification LST(2) Displacement: 1,490 tons standard and 2,160 tons full load Dimensions: length 100 m (328 ft); beam 15.2 m (50 ft); draught 0.9/2,9 m (3,1/9,5 ft) Propulsion: two diesels delivering 1341 kW (1,800 bhp) to two shafts Performance: maximum speed 10.5 kts; range 11120 km (6,910 miles) at9kts Armament: one 127-mm (5-in) or 76mm (3-in) DP guns, which was usually omitted when the full secondary battery of two twin and four single 40mm AA and six to 12 single 20-mm AA guns was carried Capacity: two LCVPs, 18 heavy tanks, 27 lorries or one LCT(5), and 163 troops Complement: 211
Above: 1ST 216 after conversion to fighter-director. Offices built into the tank deck included those for comm unica tions, fighter con trol and radar plotting, as well as workshops and stores.
Below: Unloading equipment from LST(2)sat the Allied beach-head at Anzio. Such scenes were to become common in every maritime theatre of the war, with the ubiquitous LST con tin ually coming and going.
UK/CANADA
Landing Ship, Tank Mk 3 (LST(3)) So well did the LST(2) suit the needs of the Americans that the UK had difficulty in being allocated suitable numbers from the construction programme that it had itself initiated. Eighty were needed, and it was decided to improvise on the LST(2) design, with 45 to be built in the UK and the remainder in Canada. There were two major problems, Firstly, the locomotive diesels used by the Americans were fully committed and, as no alternative existed to the British, they had to specify the simple steam reciprocating engines used in the frigate programme. As amphibious warfare ships were now commanding a priority as high (or even higher) than frigates, this caused little headache, but the machinery and its boilers were bulky and heavy, both intruding into
the tank deck space and causing the ship to ground by the stern rather than the bows on beaches of minimum declivity. The second problem lay in construction techniques for as British and Canadian yards had, as yet, no experience in large-scale welding, riveting was necessary. Even though a hard chine was adopted to simplify construction, the Landing Ship, Tank Mk 3 or LST(3) took longer to build, and the resulting low-efficiency hull was disappointingly slow. Though significantly longer to accommodate the steam machinery and disposing of over three times the power, the LCT(3) was only 3 kts faster than the diesel-driven American LST(2)s. No camber was included on the weather deck; this was a counter-productive shortcut as loose
water was very loathe to disperse. With their deeper draught, the LST(3)s tended to ground farther from the dry beach and a double-section bow ramp was incorporated as partcompensation, although floating causeway sections were again a successful answer. The LST(3)s were very well built, having LCAs under their gravity davits and the capacity to stow up to seven LCM(7)s on the upper deck, These were offloaded via a 30ton SWL derrick set on a portside kingpost forward of the bridge. A 15-ton derrick was stepped on the other post. Though a few of the programme were eventually cancelled, the 44 British and 28 Canadian ships completed gave 20 years and more of post-war service.
Specification LST(3) Displacement: 2,255 tons standard and 3,065 tons full load Dimensions: length 105.4 m (345.75 ft); beam 16.5 m (54 ft); draught 1.4/3.5 m (4.5/11,5 ft) Propulsion: two sets of reciprocating steam engines delivering 4101 k W (5,500 ihp) to two shafts Performance: maximum speed 13.5 kts; range 14822 km (9,210 miles) at 11 kts Armament: two twin 40-mm AA and six single 20-mm AA guns Capacity: five LCAs, 15 heavy or 27 medium tanks, 14 lorries and 168 troops
Complement: 104
533
UK/USA
Landing Ship, Dock (LSD) So many examples of the Landing Ship, Dock (LSD) and its derivatives have been constructed by the Americans during the last 40 years that one could be forgiven for assuming that the concept stemmed from the US Navy. In fact the draft was prepared in the UK as a carrier for the largest LCTs then envisaged, This was September 1941, when the sea-going LST had not yet been developed. The LCT was not regarded as sea-going yet, loaded, was far too heavy to be handled by the likes of the LSS or LSG, hence the idea of floating them in and out of a selfpropelled floating dock. The draft was put to the Americans for completion and execution under the terms of Lend-Lease. Seven were requested but, in the event, the Americans completed another 20 to their own account. The 27 ships were launched between 1942 and 1946. They were designed around a pontoon deck (or dockfloor) large enough to stow two LCTs, This was enclosed by the dock walls and a full-width stern gate pivoted at the lower edge. From the forward end of the dock well the craft was an orthodox ship. All were steam-propelled, the first eight having Uniflow reciprocating engines and the last seven conventional steam turbines. The latter were preferred as all machinery and boilers were sited below the pontoon deck and height was limited. Uptakes and funnels were sided to avoid impeding the clear dock space. A later addition was temporary decking spanning the dock for the stowage of motor vehicles and
stores, which could be trans-shipped by crane. In the event, the LSDs proved excessively stable and the sides below the deep waterlme were flared-in, reducing also the amount of ballast necessary to trim the ship down. Though an apparently enormous volume was available for ballast space, it was scarcely adeguate in practice, Flooding down usually took 1 Vz hours and pumping dry took 2 Va hours, even at a pumping rate of 69650 litres (18,400 US gal) per minute. Initially dividing gates were provided on the pontoon deck, but the expected surge (or 'bath water effect') did not materialize. The LSD concept also provided the basis for today's RoRo cargo vessel. Specification LSD Displacement: 4,270 tons standard and 7,950 tons full load Dimensions: length 139.5 m (457.75 ft); beam 22.0 m (72.25 ft); draught 5.3 m (17,5ft) Propulsion: (LSD 1 -8) two sets of reciprocating steam engines delivering 8203 kW ( 11,000 ihp) to two shafts, or (others) two sets of geared steam turbines delivering 5593 kW (7,500 shp) to two shafts Performance: maximum speed (LSD 1 8) 17 ktsor (others) 15.5 kts; range 14830 km (9,215 miles) at 15 kts Armament: one 127-mm (5-in) or
(British ships) 76-mm (3-in) DP, and six twin 40-mm AA or 16 single 20-mm AA guns Capacity: two LCT(3)s or LCT(4)s, or three LCT(5)s, or 36 LCMs, landing craft crew (varying with landing craft carried) and 263 troops Complement: 254
The Landing Ship, Dock was planned as a carrier for the largest LCTs, which in 1941 were still not seagoing. They had a pontoon deck big enough for two LCTs; here trucks are transferred from the LSD deck to a waitingLCT. USS Belle Grove was the second vessel of the first class of US LSDs, and had Skinner Uniflow reciprocating engines which were replaced by steam turbines in subsequent classes. The wartime LSDs provided the basis for the RoRo ships of today.
u\
Landing Craft, Tank Mks 1 to 3 (LCT (1-3)) Landing craft, as opposed to landing ships, were not designed for extensive sea passages, their more limited performance being deliberately aimed at different operations. Little work had been done before World War II with respect to putting wheeled and tracked vehicles over a beach, simply because no application was then seen for it: Dunkirk and Churchill changed all that. With no previous experience as a basis, it was decided that a suitablydimensioned craft could be built around the carriage of three 40-ton tanks, the largest then contemplated, being able to offload them in under l m (3.3 ft) of water on a 1 in 35 beach. Landing Craft, Tank Mk 1 or LCT(l) that resulted was the first of its type anywhere and, despite its wayward course-keeping, proved remarkably sound. The reinforced tank deck was over and between heavily compartmented double skins which accommodated ballast and trim tanks, together with bunkers and stowage. Cargo was screened by high coamings on the inboard edges of the side decks; it was normally open to the sky, obviating the exhaust ventilation problems experienced by the larger ships, but could be covered with light tarpaulins spread over hatch beams. The singleelement bow ramp was not particular534
ly watertight and was backed by a pair of low watertight doors. Propulsion had to be by two of the readily available Hall-Scott petrol engines used on coastal craft but, nevertheless, achieved the required 10 kts. Most LCT(l)s were built (during 1940-1) in four sections, which could be broken down for
shipment to distant parts. Thirty LCT(l)s were built before the type was superseded by the Landing Craft, Tank Mk 2 or LCT(2). With only small increases in dimensions, these could accommodate two rows of smaller tanks and increase endurance from 1665 to 5000km (1,035 to 3,110 miles).
After Dunkirk a requirement was issued for a craft able to land three 40-ton tanks in a metre of water on a beach with up to 2.8 per cent slope. TheLCT(2)s seen above displaced 460 tons loaded and could carry up to seven 20-ton tanks.
Three engines were fitted, petrol or diesel as available, For the first time the design lent itself to construction by general steel fabricators, relieving the load on shipyards, To increase capacity yet further, a fifth midbody section was then inserted to create the Landing Craft, Tank Mk 3 or LCT(3) with a length of 58,52 m (192 ft), These could carry five heavy or 11 medium tanks for very little extra draught and, despite reversion to twin-screw propulsion, were only marginally slower,
LCT(3)s were essentially LCT(2)s with a 9.75-m (32-ft) section added amidships, enabling them to accommodate up to five 40-ton or 11 30-ton tanks. Later units were fitted with petrol engines giving a maximum speed of 10 kts. Dimensions: length 46,3 m (152 ft); beam 8.8 m (29 ft); draught 0.9/1.75 m (3/5.75 ft)
Propulsion: two petrol engines delivering 746 k W ( 1,000 hp) to two shafts
Specification LCT(l)
Displacement: 226 tons light and 372 tons loaded
Performance: maximum speed 10 kts; range 1666 km ( 1,035 miles) at 10 kts Armament: two single 2-pdr pompoms Capacity: three heavy or six medium tanks Complement: 12 Ă&#x;elovv: Only 30 LCT(l)s were constructed before the three-shaft LCT(2)s were introduced. Beside and underneath the tank deck, the double skin of the vessel was heavily compartmented into ballast and trim tanks plus bunkers and stowage.
UK
Landing Craft, Tank Mk 4 (LCT(4)) While the LCT(l), (2) and (3) were admirable in concept, they were too deep-draughted to use on French beaches, which were found to have far shallower gradients than had been suspected. At the same time, larger numbers of craft were seen as necessary, each having greater capacity, In October 1941, therefore, a new version, the Landing Craft, Tank Mk 4 or LCT(4) was put into production. Again, no shipyard was involved and, to achieve the lightest possible draught, scantlings were extremely flimsy and would never have met peacetime standards. Compared with the LCT(3), the new design was a little shorter but considerably beamier; propelled by the same diesel machinery it was, therefore, considerably slower. The tank deck was sized fo accommodate six heavy tanks in two rows of three, or nine medium tanks m three rows. Deadweight tonnage was about 300 and, in the loaded condition, the craft could beach successfully on a 1 in 150 slope, putting wading vehicles down in the specified depth of only 76 cm (30 in) of water. To simplify production, the 865 planned craft were initially specified without armament, but this was very soon added once they were completed. The side coamings were comparatively shallow so that the stowage space could not be covered, as in the earlier types and, more importantly, it lacked sufficient longitudinal stiffness. With the first craft entering service in the autumn of 1942, it was already realized that they would eventually be required to operate in the Far East, where sea passages would be expected of them. Extra stiffening was, therefore, incorporated by bringing the shell plating up to the height of the coaming, effectively creating a box section of maximum depth, using heavier plate where appropriate. These measures did nothing for their draught figures
but did enable them to proceed to the Indian Ocean on their own bottoms. Some were converted to Landing Craft, Flak Mk 4 or LCF(4) by the addition of four 2-pdr pompoms and eight 20-mm Oerlikons, or Landing Craft, Gun Mk 4 or LCG(4) with two 119-mm (4.7-in) guns from old destroyers and up to a dozen 20-mm weapons.
Specification
LCT(4) Displacement: 200 tons light and 586 tons loaded (or 611 tons when stiffened) Dimensions: length 57. l m (187.25 ft); beam 11.8 m(38.7 ft); draught 1.1/1.4 m (3,5/4.7 ft) Propulsion: two diesels delivering 686 kW (920 bhp) to two shafts Performance: maximum speed 9 kts; range 2035 km (1,265 miles) at 8 kts Armament: up to two single 20-mm AA guns
Capacity: six heavy or nine medium tanks Complement: 12
Above: LCT(4)s were developed because the earlier LCTs were of too deep a draught for the French beaches on which the Allies intended to land.
Below: Compared to theLCT(3)s the LCT(4)s were beamier anda little shorter. Their shallow draught enabled them to beach on al in 150 slope, putting vehicles ashore in less than a metre of water.
UK/USA
Landing Craft, Tank Mks 5 to 8 (LCT 5-8)) As World War II proceeded, it became apparent that the draught problem would inhibit the use of LSTs in some instances and the British proposed a short, beamy, drive-through craft (another new concept) that could either ferry the LSTs' vehicles ashore (a slow process for a landing) or act as a temporary bridge to link the large vessel to the beach. The result was the
Landing Craft, Tank Mk 5 or LCT(5), which could either be transported in sections to a desired theatre and assembled afloat, or actually transported complete on an LST's upper deck and launched by simply sliding all 134 tons of it over the side. She was a slow short-haul craft and nearly 500 were built in the USA with a conventional layout before the Landing Craft, Tank Mk 6 or LCT(6) was introduced on much the same dimensions but finally with the bridge on the starboard side to permit the earlier-proposed drive-through operation. Triple-screw propulsion suited the diesels available and improved the craft's handling somewhat. Some LCT(5) and (6) vessels supplied to the British were subsequently lengthened by about 12 m (39,4 ft). At about this same time in 1943 the Americans designed their first large craft
from scratch, designated the Landing Craft, Tank Mk 7 or LCT(7) for a time but then, as a blend of LCT and LST, known as an LSM (Landing Ship, Medium). Though larger than an LCT(3), it had finer lines and a shiptype bow with vertically-hinged doors to be capable of ocean passages at 12 kts. As a result, its capacity was a reduced three heavy or five medium tanks and its draught increased. The LSM had a characteristically high tower of a bridge, set amidships on the starboard side, and enclosed accommodation for over 50 troops. The LSM was not suitable for use by the British who, nevertheless, used the basic idea for their final Landing Craft, Tank Mk 8 or LCT Mk 8. At 68.6 m (225 ft) this was limited to eight medium tanks. The production of LCT(8)s with their four-diesel, twoshaft drive and improved facilities could be undertaken only because of the relaxing of supply problems near the war's end.
Specification LCT(7)orLSM Displacement: 513 tons light and 900 tons full load Dimensions: length 62,0 m (203.5 ft); beam 10.4 m (34 ft); draught 1,0/2. l m (3,4/6.9 ft) Propulsion: two diesels delivering 2088 kW (2,800 bhp) to two shafts
Performance: maximum speed 13 kts; range 6486 km (4,030 miles) at 11 kts Armament: two single 40-mm AA and six single 20-mm AA guns Capacity: three heavy or five medium tanks, and 54 troops Complement: 52 A short, beamy, drive-through craft, theLCT(6) series was designed to ferry vehicles ashore from an LST if her dra ugh t was too grĂŠa t for the beach or to make an improvised bridge for the same purpose.
UK/USA
Landing Craft, Infantry Large and Small (LCI(L) and (S)) First described as a Giant Raiding Craft, the Landing Craft, Infantry (Large) or LCI(L) was a relatively fast craft designed around the carriage of 210 troops on sea crossings of up to 48-hour duration, The type was first mooted m 1942 for general raiding around the coast of occupied Europe and, as the troops needed to get ashore rapidly, a gangway (or 'brow') was included on either bow. Once lowered, these were required to put the troops down in water shallow enough to wade ashore. In turn, this demanded such a shallow beaching draught forward as to necessitate steel, rather than wood construction. For this reason, the LCI(L) was American-built to British requirements. From LCI(L) 351 onwards, a centreline bow ramp operating through bow doors was adopted (though not universally), more protective for the troops but more vulnerable mechanically. As it did not carry vehicular cargo, the LCI(L) was
Above: A US LCI Mk 3. Fas t by landing craft standards, these vessels stemmed from a 1942 requiremen t for a raiding craft able to land 200 infantrymen. Built in the USA to British requirements, the shallow beaching dra ugh t forward necessitated steel, not wood, construction.
comparatively finely built, with a shiptype bow. The propulsion system was typically a product of war ingenuity, with eight General Motor diesel truck engines driving the twin shafts through rubber friction rollers. Numbers up to LCI(L) 1139 were allocated, though few over 900 were completed as designed. Over 300 further hulls were completed
for special roles, notably over 160 armed as inshore fire support craft. Though known as Landing Craft, Infantry (Gun) or LCI(G), i.e. gunboat, many of these had 127-mm (5-in) rocketlaunchers or mortars. Complementing the LCI(L) in its raiding role was the Landing Craft, Infantry (Small) or LCI(S) though neither type is believed ever to have been used as intended. As only half the number of troops was carried, the originally-planned wood construction was adopted, the design being the responsibility of Fairmile, which massproduced them after the manner in which they built so many coastal forces craft. The double-diagonally laid plywood of much of the craft's external surfaces was overhung with 6,4-mm (0.25-in) HT steel plate for added protection, but troops below still incurred many casualties on approach to land-
ings where they were finally used, No less than four brows were arranged forward, together with a (typically British) stowage for 12 bicycles. Propulsion was by a pair of the well-tried Hall-Scott petrol engines, and the craft were capable of 15 kts when these were turbocharged.
Specification LCI(L)
Displacement: 246 tons light and 384 tons full load Dimensions: length48,9 m (160.3 ft); beam 7.2 m(23.5 ft); draught 0.9/1.6 m (2.9/5.25 ft) Propulsion: two diesels delivering 1730 kW (2,320 bhp) to two shafts Performance: maximum speed 14 kts; range 14822 km (9,210 miles) at 12 kts Armament: five single 20-mm AA guns Capacity: 210 troops Complement: 29
Below: The Landing Craft, Infantry (Large) orLCI(L) could accommodate up to 210 troops, and from LCI(L) 351 onwards they tea tured a cen treline bow ramp operating through bow doors.
UK/USA
Landing Craft, Mechanized Mks 1 to 7 (LCM (1-7)) Motor Landing Craft (MLC) had been the subject of experiments in various guises by the British as far back as 1926, but the true progenitor of the species was MLC10, completed in 1929. She was a 12.8-m (42-ft) craft capable of beaching with a 12-ton tank. An interesting feature contributing to her low draught was water-jet propulsion, although the low efficiency of units at this time resulted in a speed of barely 5 kts. Developed from this modest prototype, Thornycroft completed in early 1940 the first Landing Craft, Mechanized Mk 1 or LCM(l), slightly longer and able to carry a single 14-ton tank. Screw propulsion was used, and this increased speed by 50 per cent. Well described by its designer as a 'powered pontoon with bulwarks', this little craft could be hoisted under heavy davits even when loaded. Trials were not even complete when Dunkirk
stimulated an order for two dozen more. Eventually about 500 LCM(l)s were constructed, largely by railway workshops. While these activities were in progress, the US Marine Corps had its own specification prepared for a similar type of craft. This was based on the hull of an up-river, shallow-draught tug and became known as the LCM(2). The craft were very close to the British craft in both layout and performance, even to the unloved petrol engine propulsion. About 150 were built before an improved 15.24-m (50-ft) version was produced at the suggestion of the Brit-
ish, increasing its capacity from a single 16-ton tank to one of 30 tons. An immediate success, the LCM(3) ran to over 8,600 craft, built from 1942 to 1945. Two distinct types, the 'Bureau' and the 'Higgins', were built by the Americans to the same specification. The LCM(4) and LCM(6) were essentially the same craft, an LCM(3) with an extra 1.83-m (6-ft) section added amidships for extra capacity, and some 2,700 were built. The LCM(5) was stillborn, but the British-built LCM(7), which first appeared late in 1944, was really a. further-enlarged LCM(3) aimed primarily at operations
Thornycroft completed the first LCM in 1940, describing it as a 'powered pontoon with bulwarks'. Able to carry a 14-ton light tank, it could be hoisted under davits even when loaded.
The USLCM(2)s were based on the design of shallow-draught up-river tugs. This LCM(2) is being used by men of the 30th Infantry Division during the Rhine crossings in March 1945.
in the Far East. Its length was over 18.3m (60ft), but it had the size for versatility, being used also in a wide variety of (chiefly unofficial) gunboat guises for fire-support purposes.
Specification
LCM(3) Displacement: 23 tons light and 52 tons full load Dimensions: length 15.2 m (50 ft); beam 4,3 m (14.1 ft); draught 1.0/1.3 m (3,25/4.25 ft)
Propulsion: two diesels delivering 164/ 336 kW (220/450 bhp) to two shafts Performance: average speed about 8.5 kts; range 1577 km (980 miles) at 6 kts
Armament: one twin 12.7-mm (0.5-in) machine-gun Capacity: one medium tank or 60 troops Complement: 4
UK/USA
Landing Craft, Flak (LCF) and Landing Craft, Support (LCS) Not all landing craft were used for the carriage of men or machinery: a goodly number were converted to auxiliary, if unorthodox, warships. Some, the Landing Craft, Flak or LCF type, were produced to give AA protection where sufficient regular navy back-up was likely to be lacking, while the Landing Craft, Support or LCS was able to go right inshore to render direct support to personnel actually on the beach, particularly in the awkward gap between the main 'softening-up' barrage lifting or rolling forward and the assault troops actually touching down and getting off the beach.
Two prototype LCFs were produced from LCT(2) hulls in late 1941. The first was a 'Rolls-Royce' with two twin 102-mm (4-in) HA mountings and three 20-mm guns. Besides the work involved, which was considerable, these mountings were already in great demand for a wide range of escort ships, the LCT structure was inherently flimsy and, last but not least, the low-sited director in combination with ship motion made for poor accuracy. More realistically, the LCT(2) took eight single 2-pdr pompoms and four 20-mm guns. Such mountings were more easily come by and could not only hose out a reassuringly large volume of fire against aircraft, but could also work devastatingly against any enemy personnel foolish enough to break cover ashore. Thus the final LCF forms were based on the LCF(2), with the LCF(3) and LCF(4) being built on LCT(3) and LCT(4) hulls respectively, with the bow ramp permanently secured and a false deck added over the cargo well.
Above: TheLCSs were designed for the close support of troops on the beach. This is an LCS(L)2 fitted with the turret of the obsolete Valentine tank, two 20-mm cannon anda 4-in smoke mortar.
Below: LCF Mk 3s wereLCT(3)s converted to anti-aircraft gun platforms carrying up to eight single pom-poms and four 20-mm cannon (firstbatch), or four pom-poms and eigh 120-mm guns (second ba tch).
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A further refinement was the LCS which carried, either singly or in combination, a medium-calibre weapon for tackling enemy armoured vehicles, or mortars to engage enemy infantry who, all too frequently, were dug-in behind the rise that backed the beach, virtually safe from close range lowtrajectory fire. LCS(S)s were actually converted from the fairly fast but wooden-hulled LCI(S) which, rather
TheLCS(M)2s were built to provide close support for the 1C As during the approach to the beach. They carried a pair of4-in (100-mm) machine-guns anda smoke mortar. quirkily, were equipped with British armoured tank turrets containing a 6pdr gun or, in the American case, with heavy and light machine-guns, and racks for light rockets.
Specification
LCF(3) Displacement: 420 tons light and 515 tons full load Dimensions: length 58. l m (190.75 ft); beam 9.4 m (31 ft); draught 1.1/2, l m (1.75/7 ft) Propulsion: two diesels delivering 746 kW (1,000 bhp) to two shafts Performance: maximum speed 9.5 kts; range 2688 km ( 1,670 miles) at 8.5 kts
A Landing Craft, Flak displays an impressive selection of automatic weapons: visible are 2-pdr pom-pom singlemounts, and much smaller 20mm (0.78-in) cannon. Armament: eight single 2-pdr pompoms and four single 20-mm AA guns Complement: 68
UK
Landing Craft, Assault (LCA) 'Like floating bootboxes pretending to be motorboats, mere square shells for carrying troops' is a description of a Landing Craft, Assault (LCA) by one who spent the war in landing craft. The LCA was one of the smallest of the practical, mass-produced craft arising from a specification written by the British Landing Craft Committee in 1938, calling for a craft which, with a loaded weight of under 10 tons, should be capable of being slung under a liner's davits, It should be able to carry an army platoon fully equipped and land the men in less than 0,5 m (19,7 in) of water. Two prototypes were built, one of aluminium alloy and one of wood with protective plating. These (originally called Assault Landing Craft) gave experience for the final design, whose wooden construction allowed them to be built by a wide variety of concerns. Troops along both sides sat covered from the worst of the elements, but a centreline row had to tolerate both wetness and the inevitable sea sickness, In any sea, the LCA could make little way and passage times could be protracted when a friendly tow was not available. The low, protected steering position was sited forward and on the starboard side, immediately abaft twoelement armoured doors which kept out the water from the leaky bow ramp, while protecting the troops within from end-on fire during the approach to the beach. An interesting variant was the LCA(HR), the suffix standing, for Hedgerow, four rows of six mortars which laid their bombs in lanes across the beach to explode any buried mines. The craft were little modified for the function and life could be quite exciting for their crews. Equivalent American designs were the 11.05-m LCAs assemble for an inspection by HM The King. In any sea the LCA could make little progress, anda tow was always preferred. In ideal conditions they could make 7 kts. 538
(36.25-ft) LCV and LCVP (Landing Craft, Vehicle and Landing Craft, Vehicle/Personnel).
Specification
LCA Displacement: 10 tons light and 13 tons full load Dimensions: length 12.6 m (41.5 ft); beam 3.0 m (10 ft); draught 0.5/0.7 m (1.75/2.25 ft) Propulsion: two petrol engines delivering 97 kW ( 130 bhp) to two shafts Performance: maximum speed 7 kts; range 95-150 km (59-93 miles) depending on sea conditions Armament: two or three machine-guns Capacity: 35 troops with 363 kg (800 lb) of equipment Crew: 4
A Royal Marine LCA disgorges its troops during the crossing of the river Maas. Specifications for these 10-ton mass-produced craft dated from the deliberations of the 1938 Landing Craft Committee.
UK
Landing Craft, Gun (LCG) and Landing Craft, Tank (Rocket) (LCT(R)) Support firepower during landings was anticipated as being in short supply so, profiting from the successful LCF conversions, 23 LCT(3)s were fitted with two single 119-mm (4.7-in) guns and recategonzed Landing Craft, Gun (Large) or LCG(L). They had exdestroyer mountings, the latter ships having been rearmed for antisubmarine work. The guns were sited at the same level on a new upper deck with deep bulwarks, and the after weapon had only limited arcs on the beam. Range-finding was rudimentary but the craft needed to operate at some distance from the beach, firstly to gain some falling trajectory for their guns and secondly to stay out of range of enemy weapons (particularly mortars) as their ammunition stowage was considered vulnerable. They served well in Europe, so 10 LCT(4)s were also converted. These craft were flimsier but had extra beam, making for a steadier platform. They had a simple director, with their larger guns mounted superimposed and with full blast shielding. Light armouring was also added. Unfortunately only one was completed in time for the Far Eastern war. The Landing Craft, Gun (Medium) or LCG(M) was designed to go right in and was protected for the purpose, while carrying two army 25- or 17-pdr guns in single armoured turrets. They were considered proof against medium-calibre return fire (in fact, they were not) and were meant to engage targets on the run in, and then to flood down to reduce freeboard as far as possible and, by sitting on the bottom, shoot accurately while gaining extra protection from their submergence. Their hulls were one-offs, with a ship bow and a low initial freeboard. Their metacentric heights gave them legendary roll angles and they manoeuvred poorly. A most spectacular modification to LCTs was to the Landing Craft, Tank (Rocket) or LCT(R). Both LCT(2)s and LCT(3)s were used, the whole forward end looking like a vast milk crate for the launch of 792 or 1,064 127-mm (5-m) rockets, Fixed in elevation and bearing, the weapons were launched from precisely 2-mile (3.2-km) range in 24 salvoes. Ideally the bombs came down at 10-yard intervals, laying a carpet of about 17 tons of explosive over an area of 685 by 145 m (750 by 160 yards) of
Con verted from LCT(3)s orLCT(4)s, the Landing Craft, Gun (Large) or LCG(L) was designed to provide close-in fire support to an amphibious landing, and was armed with two single 4.7-in (119-mm) guns. the enemy defences. One set of reloads was carried and, this fired, the craft disposed of her launchers and did duty as a ferry.
Specification
LCG(L)Mk3 Displacement: 495 tons full load Dimensions: length 58.5 m (192 ft); beam 9.4 m (31 ft); draught 1.1/1,8 m (3.5/6 ft)
Propulsion: two diesels delivering 746 k W (1,000 bhp) to two shafts Performance: maximum speed 10 kts; range 2688 km ( 1,670 miles) at 8.5 kts Armament: two single 119-mm (4.7-in) and one or two twin 20-mm AA guns Complement: 47 Right: The LCG(M) was specially designed to engage enemy pillboxes, so it carried two turrets with either 17-pdr anti-tank or (as here) 25-pdrguns. Below: Themost spectacular of all the landing era ft conversions, the LCT(R) was able to launch 5-in (127mm) rockets over a two-mile range.
Above: The LCT(R) Mk 3 could carry over a thousand rockets, which were released in 24 salvoes. Anyone in the target area (measuringsome 685 m by 145 m/750 by 160 yards) would be unlikely to feel happy as 17 tons of explosive burst around him !
Below: TheLCG(L)Mk4 usually had its turrets manned by Royal Marines, and proved most successful. It was more elaborate than itsMkS predecessor, with more 20-mm mountings, a modified bow form and the after 4.7-in (119-mm) gun made superfiring.
539
Glossary of Weapons Tanks American Light Tank Ml Light Tank M2 Light Tank M3 Light Tank M 5 General Stuart Light Tank M22 Locust Light Tank M24 Chaffee Medium Tank M 2 Medium Tank M3 General Grant Medium Tank M4 General Sherman Medium/Heavy Tank M26 Pershing
British Black Prince Infantry Tank (A43) Cavalier Cruiser Tank (A24) Centaur Cruiser Tank (A27L) Centurion Cruiser Tank (A4l) Churchill Infantry Tank (A22) Comet Cruiser Tank (A34) Covenanter Cruiser Tank (Al 3) Cromwell Cruiser Tank (A27M) Crusader Cruiser Tank (A 15) General Grant Medium Tank (US M3) General Lee Medium Tank (US M3) General Stuart (Honey) Light Tank (USM2) General Stuart Light Tank (US M5) Harry Hopkins (Light Tank Mk VHI) Light Tank Mk VI Matilda I Infantry Tank (All) Matilda II Infantry Tank (Al 2) Sherman Firefly Medium Tank (US M4, modified) Tetrarch (Light Tank MkVII) Tortoise Heavy Tank (A39) Valentine Infantry Tank Valiant Infantry Tank (A38)
French CharB-l Medium Tank Hotchkiss H-35 Char Léger Light Tank Renault R-35 Char Léger Light Tank Renault AMC-35 Automitrailleuse de Combat Light Tank Renault AMR-35 Automitrailleuse de Reconnaissance Light Tank Somua S-35 Medium Tank
German PzKpfw I (SdKfz 101) Light Tank PzKpfw II (SdKfz 121) Light Tank PzKpfw III (SdKfz 141) Medium Tank PzKpfw IV (SdKfz 161) Medium Tank PzKpfw V Panther (SdKfz 171) Heavy Medium Tank PzKpfw VI Tiger (SdKfz 181) Heavy Tank PzKpfw VI Tiger II (SdKfz 182) Heavy Tank PzKpfw 38(t) (TNHP) Light Tank PzKpfw NbFzA/B Heavy- Tank
Italian L. 3/3 3 Light Tank L 3/35 Light Tank L.6/40 Light Tank M.I 1/39 Medium Tank M.I 3/40 Medium Tank M.I 4/41 Medium Tank M.I 5/42 Medium Tank R 26/40 Heavy Medium Tank
540
Japanese Type 95 (Ha-Go) Light Tank Type 98 (Ke-Ni) Light Tank Type 5 (Ke-Ho) Light Tank Type 89 (Otsu) Medium Tank Type 97 (Chi-Ha) Medium Tank Type 1 (Chi-He) Medium Tank Type 3 (Chi-Nu) Medium Tank Type 4 (Chi-To) Medium Tank Type 5 (Chi-Ri) Medium Tank Type 94 Tankette Type 97 (Te-Ke) Tankette
M3 Grant/M4 Sherman MineClearing Flails (Crab) M3 Grant/M4 Sherman MineClearing Ploughs M3 Grant/M4 Sherman MineClearing Rollers M3 Grant/M4 Sherman Searchlight Tanks M4 Sherman Tanktlozer M6 (rim Tractor M30 Cargo Carrier M33/M34/M35 Prime Movers
Russian
British
BT-5 Fast Medium Tank BT-7 Fast Medium Tank T-26 Light Tank T-28 Heavy Tank T-32 Heavy Tank T-3 5 Heavy Tank T-34/76 Medium Tank T-34/85 Medium Tank T-60 Light Tank T-70 Light Tank T-100/SMK Heavy Tank KV (Klimenti Voroshilov) series Heavy Tanks IS (losef Stalin) series Heavy Tanks
Churchill ARK Bridging Tank Churchill Armoured Recovery Vehicle Churchill Armoured VehicleLaunched Bridge (AVI.B) Churchill Armoured Vehicle, Royal Engineers (AVRE) Churchill Mine-Clearing Rollers Grant Canal Defence Light Tanks tirant Mine-Clearing Flail (Scorpion) Matilda Canal Defence Light Tanks Matilda Mine-Clearing Flail (Baron/Scorpion) Ram KangerooAPC Sherman Kangeroo APC Sherman Mine-Clearing Flail (Crab) Valentine ARK ('Burmark') Valentine Mine-Clearing Flail (Scorpion)
Others AC-l Sentinel (Aus) Cruiser Tank Grizzly (Can) Medium Tank Ram Mk I (Can) Medium Tank Ram Mk II (Can) Medium Tank LT-3 5 (Cz) Light Tank TNHP (Cz) Light Tank TK.3 (Pol) Light Tank 7TP (Pol) Light Tank IOTP (Pol) Medium Tank
Tank Destroyers American 3in Gun Motor Carriage M IO, -M 18 Hellcat 9()mm Gun Motor Carriage M36
British Achilles (MIO) Archer
German Jagdpanzer IV (SdKfz 162) Jagdtiger (Panzerjäger Tiger Ausf. B) Marder II (SdKfz 131) Nashorn/Hornisse (SdKfz 164) Panzerjäger I Panzerjäger 38(t) (Marder III) Panzerjäger 38(0 (Hetzer) Panzerjäger Panther (SdKfz 173) (Jagdpanther) Panzerjäger Tiger (SdKfz 184) (Elefant/Ferdinand) Sturmgeschjätz III (SdKfz 172)
Italy Semovente L. 40, -M. 41
Special-Purpose Tanks (see also Flame Weapons) American M3 Grant/M4 Sherman (Beach) Armored Recovery Vehicle (M31/M32)
German Bergepanther (SdKfz 179) Munitionspanzer IV Panzerbefehlswagen (PzBefWg) I (SdKfz265) Panzerhefchlswagen III (SdKfz266) Panzerbefehlswagen Panther (SdKfz267) Panzerbefchlswagen Tiger (SdKfz268) Panzerbeobachtungswagen III (SdKfz 143)
Amphibious Vehicles American DUKW LVT2 LVT3 LVT4 M29C Weasel Medium Tank M4 Sherman w/M19 Device
Halftrack Vehicles American M3 M9 M14
Passenger Cars & Light Vehicles
French Citröen-Kegresse series
German Klienes Kettenrad (SdKfz 2) Leichter Zugkraftwagen It (SdKfz 10) Maultier Leichter Zugkraftwagen 3t (SdKfz 11) Mittlerer Zugkraftwagen 5t (SdKfz 6) Mittlerer Zugkraftwagen 8t (SdKfz 7) Schwerer Zugkraftwagen 12t (SdKfz 8) Schwerer Zugkraftwagen 18t (SdKfz 9) Schwerer Wehrmachtsschlepper Leichter Schützenpanzerwagen (SdKfz 250) Mittlerer Schützenpanzerwagen (SdKfz 251)
Self-Propelled Guns American 75mm Gun Motor Carriage M3 105mm Howitzer Motor Carriage M7 ('Priest'), -M37 155mm (inn Motor Carrige Ml 2 155mm Gun Motor Carriage M40 155mm Howitzer Motor Carriage M41 8in Howitzer Motor Carriage M43 240mm Gun Motor Carriage T92
Russian
British Alecto Bishop (Carrier, Valentine, 25-pdr Gun, Mk I)
Armoured Cars American Armoured Car M6 Staghound Armoured CarT18 Boarhound Armoured CarT19 Armoured Car M 38 Light Armoured Car M8 Greyhound Marmon-Herrington Armoured Car Scout Car M3/M3A1 (White)
British AEC Armoured Car Coventry Armoured Car Crossley Armoured Car (obs) Daimler Armoured Car Daimler Scout Car (Dingo) H umber Armoured Car
French PanhardType 178
Japan
German Auto Union/Horch Typ 830 (Kfz 1 1) Daimler-Benz G5 Kübelwagen (Volkswagen Typ 62) Mercedes-Benz 320/340 (Kfz 15) Slower 40 (Kfz 2)
Vezdekhods Model B Vezdekhods Model BM Vezdekhods Model VZ Ya-SP Zis-33 Zis-42
British
Land- Wasser Schlepper Schwimmwagen (Schwimmfahiger Gelandeng Typ 168)
American Willys 'Jeep'
Sherman Duplex Drive (DD) Medium Tank Terrapin Valentine DD Infantry Tank
German
GM Fox (Can) GMC15TA(Can) CAPLAD (Can)
German Bison (SdKfz 138) (sIG 33 15cm) Brummbär Geschützenwagen I (sIG 33 auf PzKpfw 1, 15cm) Geschützenwagen II (SdKfz 121) (sIG 33 auf PzKpfw II, 15cm) Grille (sIG 33 auf PzKpfw 38(t), 1 5cm) Heuschrecke IVB Hummel (SdKfz 165) (sFH 18 auf PzKpfw IV, 15cm) Karl (Mörser Gerät 040, 60cm) Karl (Mörser Gerät 04l, 54cm) Sturmgeschätz IV (7.5cm) Sturmgeschätz 40 (7.5cm) Sturmmörser (Sturmtiger) (38cm) Wespe (SdKfz 124) (leFH 18 auf PzKpfw II, 10.5cm)
Italian Semovente 90 Semovente 149
Japanese
German
Type 38 (Ho-Ro), 150mm
Leichter Panzerspähwagen (SdKfz 222) Schwerer Panzerspähwagen (6-Rad) (SdKfz 231) Schwerer Panzerspähwagen (8-Rad) (SdKfz 231)
ISU-122 ISU-152 SU-76 SU-85
Italian
Amphibious Tank Type 2 (Ka-Mi)
Autoblindo 40 Autoblindo 41
Russia
Russian
T-37 Amphibious Light Tank T-38 Amphibious Light Tank T-40 Amphibious Light Tank
BA-10
Others Ford Lynx (Can)
Russian
Heavy Artillery American 4.7inGunM1917 4.5inGunMl 155mm Gun Ml 8in Gun M 1 Sin Howitzer Ml 240mm Howitzer M 1918
24ümm Howitzer Ml 'Little David' (Bomb Testing Device Tl)
British 4.5in Gun Mk2 5in (60pdr) Gun Mkl/Mk2 5.5in Gun Mk 3 7.2in Howitzer Mkl 7.2in Howitzer Mk 6
French 155mm Gun Modele 1917 CGPF 15 5mm Gun Mie 3 2 155mm Howitzer Mie 1917 155mm Howitzer Mie 29
German 10.5cm Kanone 18 10.5cm schwere K 18/40 15cm K 18 15cm K 39 15cm schwere Feld Haubitze 13 15cm sFH 18 15cm sFH 36 17cm K 18 2 1cm K 38 21cm K 39 21cm Mörser 18 24cm K 3/K 4 24cm Haubitze 39 35. 5cm H Ml
Italian Canone da 149/40 Modello 35 (Gun) Obice de 210/22 M35 (Howitzer)
Japanese 150mm Gun, Model 89 1 5()mm Howitzer, Model 96
Russian 122mm Gun, M3 1/37 152mm Gun, M09/30 152mm Gun, M 10/30 152mm Gun, M 10/34 152mm Gun, BR-2, M 193 5 152mm Howitzer, M-10, M1938 152mm Howitzer, D-l, M1943 152mm Gun/Howitzer, ML-20, M 1937 203mm Howitzer, L-25 (B-4), M 1931 210mm Gun, M39/40, M1940 305mm Howitzer, BR-18,M1940
Others 15cm FH, M38 (Austria) 150mm Howitzer vz37 (Cz) 220mm Howitzer M.28 (Cz)
Field Artillery American 75mm Gun M2A2 105mm Howitzer Ml 105mm Howitzer M2A1 105mm Howitzer M3A1
British 25pdr Mk 2 (Ordnance, QF, 25-pdr Mk II) 25pdr Short, Mk 1
French 75mm Gun Modèle 1897 75mm Mie 32 (Mountain Gun) 105mm Gun Mie 13TR (L 13S) 105mm Gun Mie 36 105mm Canon Court Mie 35 (Howitzer)
German 7.5cm FeldKanone 15nA 7.5cm Leicht FK18 7.5cm FK38 7.5cm FK7M85 7.5cm GebergsKanonel5
(Mountain Gun) 7.5cm Geb.G36 (Mountain Gun) 7.5cm Infanteriegeschätz L/13 7.5cm IG 18 7.5cm IG37 7.5cm IG42 1 0. 5cm LeichtFeldhauhitz 1 8 10.5cm leFHISM 10.5cm leFH18/4() 10.5cm leFH42 10.5cm leFH43 10.5cm Geb.H40 (Mountain Gun) 1 5cm Schwere IG33
German 7.5cm FliegerabwehrKanone38 8.8cmFlaK18,-36,-37 8.8cm FlaK41 10.5cmFlaK38,-39 12.8cm FlaK40
Italian Cannone da 75/46 Contraerea Modello 34/35 Cannone da 75/50 CA M38 Cannone da 90/53 CA M38 Cannone da 102/35 CA M38
3in Rocket, Projector No 2, No 4, No 6 Lilo Mattress/Land Mattress
95mm (3.7in) Infantry Howitzer Mk2 4.2in Mortar
German
Mortier Brandt de 81mm Modèle 27/31
1 5cm Wurfgranatc4 1 21cmWgr.42 28- & 32cmWurfkorper4l
Japanese 200mm Rocket, Launcher Type 4 447mm Rocket
French
German 5cm Leicht Granatwerfer 36 8cm Schwere GrW 34 7.5cm Leicht Infanteriegeschätz 18 15cm Schwere IG 33
Italian
Japanese
Russian
Italy
Cannone da 75/27 Modello 06/1 1 Cannone da 75/32 M37 Cannone da 105/40 M42 Obice da 75/18 M34 (Mountain Gun) Obice da 75/18 M35 Obice da 105/28
Type Type Type Type
82mm M8 (Launchers BM-8-24 & BM-8-48) (Katyusha) 132mm M 13 (Launcher BM-13-16) 300mm M30/M31 (Launcher BM-30-12 & BM-31-12) (Rama)
Cannone da 45/5 Modello 1935 'Brixa' Cannone da 81 mm M 1935
Japanese 75mm Field Gun Type 38 (Improved) 75mm Field Gun Type 90 75mm Field Gun Type 95 105mm Gun Type 14 105mm Gun Type 92 105mm Howitzer Type 91
Russian 76.2mm Field Gun, MOO, M02, M02/30 76.2mm Regimental Gun, M27 76.2mm Divisional Gun, M33 76.2mm Divisional Gun, F-22, M 1936 76.2mm Divisional Gun, LISy M 1939 76.2mm Gun, M41 76.2mm Gun, ZIS-3, M1942 85mm Divisional Gun, D-44, M1944 85mm Divisional Gun, D-48, M 1945 107mm Gun, M 10/30 122mm Howitzer, M 10/30 122mm Howitzer, M38
Others 75mm Field Gun, vz35 (Cz) 76.5mm Field Gun,vz30 (Cz) 76.5mm Field Gun, vz39 (Cz) 80mm Field Gun, vz30 (Cz) 100mm Field Gun, vz 35 (Cz) 100mm Field Howitzer, VZ30/34 (Cz) 100mm Field Howitzer, H3 (Cz)
Heavy Anti-Aircraft Artillery American 3in M1917A 3in M3 3in M4 90mm Ml 105mm M3 120mm Ml
British 3in 20cwt Mk 1 (Ordnance, QF, 3in, 20cwt) 3.7in Mk 1 (Ordnance, QF, 3.7in, Mkl) 3.7in Mk 6 (Ordnance, QF, 3.7in, MkVI) 4.5in Mk 2 (Ordnance, QF, 4.5in, Mkll) 5.25in Mk 2 (Ordnance, QF, 5.25in, Mk II)
88 75mm 4 75mm 99 80mm 3 120mm
Russian 76.2mm M31 76.2mm M38 85mm M39, -M44
Others 75mm Kan. PP Let vz32 (Cz) 76mm Kan. PP Let vz28 (Cz) 83mm Kan. PL vz22 (Cz) 75mm L/52 Bofors (Swe) 80mm L/50 Bofors (Swe)
Light Anti-Aircraft Artillery American Multiple Gun Motor Quriage M16 (SP) 37mm Antiaircraft Gun M 1 40mm Antiaircraft Gun Ml
Anti-Tank Guns
French 25mm Hotchkiss Modèle 38, -39, -40 37mm Schneider Mie 1930
German 2cm FliegerabwehrKanone30 2cm FlaK38/FlaKvierling 38 3.7cmFIaK18,-36,-37 3.7cm FlaK43/FlaKzwilling 43 5cm FlaK4l
Russian
37mm Antitank Gun M3 57mm Antitank Gun Ml 3in Antitank Gun M5 90mm Antitank GunT8/M3
50mm PM 38/39/40 107mm PHSM 38 120mm HM 38
British 2pdr (ordnance, QF, 2pdr) 6pdr (Ordnance, QF, 6pdr) 17pdr (Ordnance, QF, 17pdr)
French Canon Léger de 25 Antichar Modèle 1934 (Hotchkiss) Canon Léger de 25 Antichar M1937 Canon de 47 Antichar M 1937 (Puteaux)
German 3.7cm PanzerabwehrKanone36 4.2cm Leicht PaK4l (Taper-Bore) 5cm PaK38 7.5cm PaK40 7.5cm PaK41 (Taper-Bore) 7.5cm PaK97/38 8cm PanzerabwehrWerfer 600 (PanzerwerfKanone 8H63) 8.8cm PaK43 12.8cmPaK44
Italian Canone Anticarro da 47/32 Modello 1935/37 (Böhler)
Italian
Japanese
Cannone-Mitragliera da 20/77 (Scotti) Cannone-Mitragliera da 20/65 Modello 1935 (Breda) Cannone Contraerea da 37/54 M 192 5 (Breda)
Type 1 47mm
Japanese Type 98 Machine Cannon 20mm Type 91 40mm
Russian
Type 89 50mm Mortar Type 92 70mm Battalion Gun
American
British 20mm Polsten Mk 1 2-pdr Mk 8 6-pdr 6cwt Mk 1 Crusader AA Tank
Japan
Russian 45mm M1932 45mm M 1937 45mm M 1942 57mm ZIS-2 (M1943 100mmBS-3(M1944)
Infantry Support Weapons
Infantry Anti-Tank Weapons American 2.36in Rocket Launcher MI/MIAI ('Bazooka') Grenade M9
British Boys Rifle (Rifle, Anti-tank, 0.55in) Grenade, Rifle, No 68 Cirenade, No 74 ('Sticky Bomb') PIAT (Projectile, Infantry, Anti-Tank)
German 7.92mm Panzerbüchse 38/39 (Anti-Tank Rifle) 2cm PzB S18-1000/785(s) (Anti-Tank Rifle) 8.8cm Raketenpanzerbüchse 43/54 ('Ofenrohr' or 'Panzerschreck') 8.8cm Raketenwerfer 43
('Püppchen') Gewehr Panzergranaten (RifleGrenades) Klein Panzerfaust 30 Panzerfaust 30/60/100 Panzerwurfkörper (Pistol Grenade) Panzerwurfmine
Japanese Type 97 20mm Anti-Tank Rifle
Russian l4.5mmPTRDM194l 14. 5mm PTRS M1941
Others 20mm Lahti Modell 39 (Fin) 7.92mm Karabin WZ/35 'Marosczek' (Pol)
Rifles
37mm Gun M39
Others Skink (SP) (Can) 40mm Bofors (Swe)
Rocket Artillery American 4.5in Rocket, High Explosive, M8 4.5in Rocket, High Explosive, M16 7.2in Rocket, High Explosive, M17
French
British
75mm Modele 17/34 75mm Mie 32, -33, -36
2in Rocket, Mounting Mk 2 ('Pillar Box')
American 37mm Gun M3A1 57mm Recoilless Rifle M18 60mm Mortar M2 6()mm Mortar M 1 9 75mm Pack Howitzer MIAI 75mm Recoilless Rifle M20 81mm Mortar Ml
American Carbine, .30 M1/M2/M3 Rifle, Calibre .30 M1903 ('Springfield') Rifle, Calibre .30 M1917 OEnfield') Rifle, Calibre .30 Ml 'Garand' Rifle, Calibre .30 M1941 (Johnson)
British
British
2in Mortar (Ordnance, Smooth Bore, Muzzle Loading, 2in Mortar, Mkl-MkVIII ) 6pdr 7cwt Gun Mk 1 3in Mortar (Mkl & Mkll)
Rifle, .303in, Short, Magazine, Lee-Enfield (SMLE) Mk III Rifle, .303in, Lee-Enfield No 4 Mk I Rifle, ,303in, Lee-Enfield, No 5 ('Jungle Carbine')
541
De Lisle Carbine (.45SAA) (silenced)
French Berthier Fusil d'Infanterie Modèle 1907/1 5, M34 (8mm) Lebel Mie 1886/93 (8mm) MAS36 (7.5mm)
9mm Revolver Type 26 Pistol Type 04 (Nambu) (8mm) Pistol Type 14 (Nambu) (8mm) Pistol Type 94 (8mm)
Russian Nagant Revolver, M1895 (7.62mm) Tokarev TT,M1933 (7.62mm)
German Gewehr 98 (7.92mm) Karabiner 98k (7.92mm) Gewehr 41 (W) (Gew4l(W)) (7.92mm) Fallschirmjägergewehr 42 (FG42) (7.92mm) Maschinenkarabiner 42(H) (MKb42(H)) (7.92mm pist.) MKb42(W) (7.92mm pist.) Gew/Kar 43 (7.92mm) Maschinenpistole 43/44 (MP43/44) (Sturmgewehr 44) (7.92mm pist.) Veruchs-Gerat/Volkssturm-Gewehr 1-5 (7.92mm pist.)
Italian 6.5mm Fucile Modello 91 (Mannlicher-Carcano) 7.35mm Fucile Modello 38 (Mannlicher-Carcano)
Japanese 6.5inm Arisaka Meiji 38 7.7mm Rifle Type 99 7.7mm Parachutist's Rifle Type 2
Russian 7.62mm Mosin-Nagant M1891/30 7.62mm Model 1938 7.62mm AVS/AVS36 (Simonov) 7.62mm SVT38 (Tokarev) 7.62mm AVT40 (Tokarev)
Others ZH29 (7.92mm) (Cz) ZK420 (7.92mm) (Cz)
Pistols American Pistol, Automatic, Caliber .45in, M1911 Revolver, Caliber .45in, M1917 (Smith & Wesson) Revolver, Caliber .45in, M1917 (Colt 'N ew Service') Pistol, Caliber .45in, M 1942 'Liberator'
British Revolver, Enfield, No 2 Mk I (.38in) Revolver, Smith & Wesson .38in Revolver, Webley, Mk 4 (.38in)
French Lebel Revolver, Modele 1892 (8mm) MAH P-1 5 (9mm Parabellum) SFAC M 1928 (Le Français) (9mm Browning) MAC M1935A/M1935S (7.65mm Long)
German P08 (Luger) (9mm Parabellum) P38 (Walther) 9mm Parabellum) (9mm Parabellum) PP/PPK (Walther) (7.65mm) Sauer-Selbstladepistole Modell 38H (Sauer) (7.65mm) Selbstladepistole Modell HSc (Mauser) (7.65mm)
Italy Bodeo Revolver, Modello 1889 (10.35mm) Glisenti M1910 (9mm Glisenti) Berreta M 1934 (9mm Short)
542
Japanese
Others Browning Modele 1910 (.32in ACP or 9mm Short) (Bel) Browning GP35/HP (9mm Parabellum) (Bel) Radom/Pistole Model 35/VIS-35 (9mm Parabellum) (Poi) Steyr Modell 1912 (9mm Parabellum) (Austria)
Machine-Guns America Automatic Rifle, Caliber .30 M1918/M1922 (BAR) Machine Gun, Caliber .30 M1919 Machine Gun, Caliber .50 M1921/M2
Britain Gun, Machine, Besa, 7.92mm, Marks 1-3 Gun, Machine, Besa, 15mm, Mark 1 Gun, Machine, Besal/Faulkener, .303 Gun, Machine, Bren, .303, Marks 1-4 Gun, Machine, Hotchkiss, .303, Mark 1 Gun, Machine, Lewis, .303, Marks
1-3
ZB30 (7.92mm) (Cz) ZB53 (vz37) (7.92mm) (Cz)
Sub-Machine Guns American
Italian
Sub-machine-gun Caliber .45 M1928/M1/M1A1 (Thompson) Reising Model 50/Model 55 (.45 ACP) UD M42 (9mm Farabellum/.45 ACP) US Sub-machine-gun Caliber .45 M3/M3A1
Lanciafiamme Modello 35 Lanciafiamme M4() Lanciafiamme L3 (L3 Light Tankmounted)
Carbine, 9mm, Lanchester Carbine, 9mm, Sten, 1-6 Carbine, 9mm, V42 Carbine, 9mm,Welgun
French Pistole Mitrailleur MAS Modèle 38 (7.65mm Long)
German Maschinenpistole 28/I1 (9mm Parabellum) MP34 (9mm Parabellum) MP38 (9mm Parabellum) MP40 (9mm Parabellum) MP3008 (9mm Parabellum) (Sten copy) MPE (9mm Parabellum) MPE44 (9mm Parabellum) Solothurn Sl-100 (9mm Parabellum)
Italian Pistola Mitragliatrice Berreta Modello 38 (9mm Parabellum) Berreta M 38/42FNAB M 43 (9mm Parabellum)
Type 100 8mm
French
Russian
Fusil Mitrailleur Modèle 1924/1929/1931 (7.5mm)
PPD M 1934/38 (7.62mm) PPD40 M 1940 (7.62mm) PPSh4l M1941 (7.62mm) PPS43 M 1943 (7.62mm)
German
Italian Mitragliatrice Sistema Revelli, Modello 14 (6. 5mm) Breda M30 (6.5mm) Breda RM M31 (13.2mm) Breda M37 (8mm) FIAT/Revelli M35 (8mm) Scotti M28 (7.7mm/.303in British)
Japanese Type Type Type Type
11 96 97 99
6.5mm 6.5mm 7.7mm 7.7mm
Japanese Portable Flamethrower Type 93/Type 100
British Machine Machine Marks Machine Machine
Gun, Machine, Vickers, .303, Marks 1-7 (Type C) Gun, Machine, Vickers, .303, (Type K/'VGO') Gun, Machine, Vickers-Berthier, .303, Marks 1-3
Maschinengewehr 08 (Maxim) (7.92mm) MG34 (7.92mm) MG42 (7.92mm)
Flammpanzer III (PzKpfw III) Flammpanzer 38(t) (PzKpfw 38(t)) Mittlerer Flampanzerwagen (SdKfx 251)
Japanese
Russian ROKS-2 ROKS-3 ATO-41/42 (tank-mounted)
Fighter Aircraft American Bell P-39Airacobra Bell P-63 Kingcobra Curtiss P-36 Curtiss P-40 Warhawk Lockheed P-38 Lightning North American P-5 1 Mustang Republic P-43 Lancer Republic P-47 Thunderbolt Seversky P-35
British Blackburn Roc Blackburn Skua Bolton-Paul Defiant Gloster Gauntlet Gloster Gladiator Hawker Fury Hawker Hurricane Hawker Tempest Hawker Typhoon Supermarine Spitfire
Flame Weapons American Portable Flame-Thrower MI/MIAI Portable Flame-Thrower M2-2 M3-4-3 (M4 tank-mounted) M5-4 (M4 tank-mounted) Sherman Crocodile
Russian
British
Maxim M1910 (7.62mm) DP/DT M1928 (7.62mm) ShKAS KM33/KM35/KM36/KM41 (7.62mm) ShVAK/KPV (12.7mm/20mm) DShKM1938(12.7mm) SG43 (7.62mm) DPM (7.62mm)
Adder (tank-mounted) Crocodile (tank-towed) Harvey Flame-Thrower, Portable, No 2, Mark I and II (Lifebuoy) Salamander (tank-mounted) Wasp (Universal Carrier-mounted) Wasp II (APC-mounted)
Others
German
Let Maskingevaer Madsen (8mm) (Den) Schwarzlose Modell 07/12 (8mm) (Austria) ZB26 (7.92mm) (Cz)
Flammenwerfer 35 Flammenwerfer 4l Abwehrflammenwerfer 42 Flammpanzer I (PzKpfw I) Flammpanzer II (PzKpfw II)
Others Avia B.534 (Cz) Commonwealth CA- 12 Boomerang (Aus) Fokker D XXI (Hol) lAR 80 (Rom) Ikarus IK-2 (Yug) PZL P 24 (Pol) VL Myrsky II (Fin)
Heavy Bombers American Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress Boeing B-29 Superfortress Consolidated B-24 Liberator
British Armstrong- Whitworth AW 38 Whitley Avrò 679 Manchester Avrò 683 Lancaster Avrò 694 Lincoln Handley-Page HP 57 Halifax Short S 29 Stirling Vickers Type 271 Wellington
French Bloch 162 FarmanF-221/F-222
French
German
Arsenal VG 33 BlochB 152 Caudron C 714 Dewoitine D 371 Dewoitine 520 Morane-Saulnier MS 406
Heinkel He. 177 Greif
Others Machine Orbine, 9mm, Austen (Aus) Machine Carbine, 9mm, Owen (Aus) ZK383 (9mm Parabellum) (C/) M39M (9mm Parabellum) (Hun) M/26 & M/31 'Suomi' (7.63mm Mauser/9mm Parabellum) (Fin) M/44 (9mm Parabellum) (Fin)
Lavochkin La-5/La-7 Lavochkin La-9/La- 11 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-l/MiG-3 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-5 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-7 Polikarpov 1-15 Polikarpov 1-16 Polikarpov 1-153 Rogozarski IK-3 YakovlevYak-1 Yakovlev Yak-3 YakovlevYak-7 Yakovlev Yak-9
Italian Piaggio R 108
Japanese Mitsubishi G4M ('Betty') Nakajima G8N Renzan ('Rita')
Germany Focke-Wulf Fw.190 Messerschmitt Bf. 109 Messerschmitt Bf. 1 1 0
Italian Ambrosini SAI 207 Caproni-Reggiane Re 2000 Caproni-Reggiane Re 2001 Ariete Caproni-Reggiane Re 2005 Saggitario FIAT CR 42 Falco FIAT G 50 Freccia FIAT G 55 Centaure Macchi MC 200 Saetta Macchi MC 202 Folgore Macchi MC 205 Veltro Meridionali Ro 57
Japanese Kawanishi N1K.1-J Shiden ('George') Kawasaki Ki-6l Hien ('Tony') Kawasaki Ki-100 Kawasaki Ki-102 ('Randy') Mitsubishi A6M Zero-Sen ('Zeke') Mitsubishi J2M Raiden ('Jack') Nakajima Ki-27 ('Abdul'/'Nate') Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusa OJim'/'Oscar') Nakajima Ki-44 Shoki ('Tojo') Nakajima Ki-84 Hayate ('Frank')
Russian Lavochkin LaGG-3
Russian Petlyakov Pe-8 TupolevANT-6(TB-3)
Light- & Medium Bombers American Douglas B-18 Bolo Martin B-26 Marauder North American B-25 Mitchell
British Bristol Type 142 Blenheim de Havilland DH 98 Mosquito Fairey Battle Handley-Page HP 52 Hampclen Handley-Page HP 53 Hereford Vickers Type 287Wellesley
French Amiot 143 Amiot 354 Bloch 174 Lioré et Olivier LeO 45 1
German Dornier Do. 17 DornierDo. 217 Heinkel He. 1 1 1 Junkers Ju. 86 Junkers Ju. 88
Junkers Ju. 188 'Mistel' composite aircraft
Italian CRDA CANT Z. 1007 Airone FIAT BR. 20 Cicogna Savoia-Marchetti S.M. 79 Sparviero Savoia-Marchetti S.M. 81 Pipistrello Savoia-Marchetti S.M. 82 Cangimi Savoia-Marchetti S.M. 84
HenschelHs. 129 Junkers Ju. 87 Stuka Junkers Ju. 88P Messerschmitt Me. 210/410 Zerstörer
Italian Breda Ba. 65 Breda Ba. 88 Caproni Bergamaschi Ca. 300series
Japanese Kawasaki Ki-32 ('Mary') Kawasaki Ki-48 ('Lily') Mitsubishi G3M ('Nell') Mitsubishi Ki-21 ('Sally') Mitsubishi Ki-67 Hiryu ('Peggy') Nakajima Ki-49 Donryu ('Helen') Yokosuka P1Y Ginga ('Francis')
Russian llyushin DB-3 Ilyushin 11-4 Petlyakov Pe-2 Tupolev SB-2 Tupolev Tu-2 Yakovlev Yak-2/Yak-4
Jet/Rocket Aircraft American Bell P-59 Airacomet Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star Ryan FR-1 (composite radial/ turbojet)
Floatplanes/ Seaplanes American Curtiss SOC Seagull Curtiss SC-1 Seahawk Grumman J2F Duck Northrop N-3PB Nomad Vought OS2U Kingfisher
de Havilland Vampire F. Mk 1 Gloster Meteor F. Mk I/Mk III
German Arado Ar. 234 Bachern Ba. 349 Natter Feisler Fi. 103R Gotha Go. 229 Heinkel He. 162 Salamander Heinkel He. 178 Heinkel He. 280 HenschelHs. 132 Junkers Ju. 287 Messerschmitt Me. 163 Komet Messerschmitt Me. 262
Japanese Nakajima Kikka Yokosuka MXY7 Ohka
Aichi D3A1 ('Val') Mitsubishi Ki-30 ('Ann') Mitsubishi Ki-51 ('Sonia') Kawasaki Ki-45 Toryu ('Nick')
French Latécoère 298
German Russian Ilyushin 11-2 Shturmovik Sukhoi Su-2
Night-Fighters American Douglas P-70 Havoc Northrop P-61 Black Widow
British Bristol Type 142 Blenheim Mk IF Bristol Type 1 56 Beaufighter Mk IF/MkVIF de Havilland Mosquito NF Mk II-Mk XV, Mk 30
Arado Ar. 196 Arado Ar. 231 Heinkel He. 59 Heinkel He. 115
Italian CRDA CANT 2.506 Airone
Japanese Aichi El 3A ('Jake') Aichi E16A Zuiun ('Paul') Kawanishi N I K I Kyofu ('Rex') Mistuhishi F1M ('Pete') Nakajima A6M2-N ('Rufe')
Russian Beriev KOR-1
Potez631
Others FokkerT.VIII-W (Hol)
German Dornier Do. 17/Do. 215/Do. 217 Heinkel He. 219 Messerschmitt Bf. 110 Messerschmitt Me. 262B
Japanese Kawasaki Ki-45 Toryu ('Nick') Nakajima J1N1 Gekko ('Irving')
Flying-Boats American Boeing C-98 Consolidated PBY Catalina Consolidated PB2Y Coronado Grumman G-21 Goose Martin PBM Mariner
Anti-Shipping Aircraft American Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress Consolidated li-25 Liberator Lockheed A-28 Hudson
British Armstrong-Whitworth Whitley Avrò Anson Bristol Type 142 Blenheim BristolType 152 Beaufort Bristol Type 156 Beaufighter Mk IC/MkVIC de Havilland DH 68 Mosquito FB MkVI/MkVIII Vickers Wellington/Warwick
Russian
British
German
Saunders-Roe (Sarò) A. 27 London Sarò S. 36 Lerwick Short Sunderland Supermarine Sea Otter Supermarine Stranraer Supermarine Walrus
Dornier Do. 217 Focke-Wulf Fw. 200 Condor Heinkel He. 1 1 1 Junkers Ju. 88/Ju. 188 Junkers Ju. 290
American Douglas A-20 Boston/Havoc Douglas A-26 Invader Lockheed A-28 Hudson Martin A-30 Baltimore Vultee A-3 1 /A-3 5 (V-72 ) Vengeance
British Bristol Type 156 BeauflghterTF Bristol Type 164 Brigand Hawker Hurricane ('Hurribomber') Hawker Tempest FB Hawker Typhoon Supermarine Spitfire Mk XIV, -XVI Westland Whirlwind Mk 1 A
French
Savoia-Marchetti SM 79
German Blohmu.Voss Bv. 138 Blohm u.Voss Bv. 222 Wiking Dornier Do. 18 Dornier Do. 24
Italian CRDA CANT Z.501 Gabbiano
Japanese Kawanishi H6K ('Mavis') Kawanishi H8K ('Emily')
Breguet Bre. 690-series
German Focke-Wulf Fw. 190B-5/UB HenschelHs. 123
Italian
French Breguet Bre. 521 Bizerte Latécoère Late. 523
Russian Beriev MBR-2 Beriev KOR-2 Chetverikov MDR-6
Shipping
Fairey Seafox
Berez-Isa BI
Ground Attack Aircraft
Japanese Aichi D3N ('Val') Mitsubishi A5M ('C laude') Mitsubishi A6M ('Zeke') Mitsubishi J2M ('Jack') Nakajima B5N ('Kate') Nakajima B6N ('Jill') Yokosuka D4Y ('Judy')
British Japanese
French British
Hawker Sea Hurricane Supermarine Seafire
Japanese Mitsubishi G3M ('Nell') Mitsubishi Ki-67 ('Peggy')
Carrier Aircraft American Curtiss SB2C Helldiver Douglas SBD Dauntless Grumman F4F Wildcat Grumman F6F Hellcat Grumman TBF Avenger Vought F4U Corsair
British Fairey Albacore Fairey Barracuda Fairey Firefly Fairey Fulmar Fairey Swordfish
(All headings refer to classes of ship, though of course, a class may have consisted of only one example. 'British' includes Royal Australian Navy and Royal Canadian Navy.)
Submarines American Argonaut Balao Barracuda Cachalot Dolphin Gato Mackerel/Martin Narwhal O-class Perch Porpoise R-class S-class Salmon Sargo/Sea Dragon Shark T-class Tambor Tench
British A-class Grampus Oberem Odin Oxley
Type VIID Type VIIF Type IXA Type IXB Type IXC Type IXC/40 Type IXD-1 Type IXD-2 & IXD/42 Type XB Type XIV Type XVIIB Type XVIIG Type XXI Type XXIII TypeWa201 TypeWk202
Italian Acciaio Adua Archimede Argo Argonauta Ballila Bandiera Bragadin Brin CA Type 1,-Type 2 Cagni Calvi CB
ce
Ettore Fieramosca Flutto Type 1 Flutto Type 2 Foca Glauco Liuzzi Mameli Marcello Marconi Perla Pietro Micca Pisani Romolo Settembrini Sirena Squalo
Poll -class
Japanese
Parthian Porpoise Rainbow S-class Shark Swordfish T-class Thames Triton U-class Undine X craft
Al A2
AM BI
B2 B3 CI C2 C3 DI 1)2 Jl J1M
French Ariane Argonaute Aurore Circe Diane Minerve Orion Requin Redoutable Saphir Surcouf
German TypelA Type ILA Type IIB Type lie; Type IID Type VIIA Type VIIB Type VIIC TypeVIIC/41 Type VIIC/42
J2 J3 KS
K.6 Kl)l
KD2
KD3a KD3b KD4 KD5 KD6a KD6b KD7 KKS KS l.i SII SS
ST S'I'II STO
STS Yul YulOOl
543
midget submarines: A Type B/CType DType(KoryuType) Kairyu Type Kaiten Type (human torpedoes)
Russian
Audacity Avenger Campania Colossus Courageous Furious Illustrious Implacable Indomitable Pretoria Castle Vindex
Kalev Ronis Series I Series II Series III Series IV Series V Series VI Series X Series XI Series XII Series XIII Series XIV Series XV Series XVI
Beam Commandant Teste (seaplane tender) Dixmunde (ex-HMS Biter) Joffre (not completed)
Others
Aquila (Conversion not completed) Sparviero (Conversion not completed)
Capitati O'Brien (Chile) Daphne (Den) Havmanden (Den) Kalev (Estonia) Saukko (Fin) Vetehinen (Fin) Vesikko (Fin) Katsonis (Gr) Proteus (Gr) KXI-class (Hoi) KXrV-class (Hoi) O9-class O12-elass (Hoi) 016-class (Hoi) O19-class (Hoi) O21-class (Hoi) R-class (Peru) Orzel (Pol) Wilk (Pol) Delfinul (Rom) Marsitinul (Rom) Requinul (Rom) C-class (Sp) D-class (Sp) Del/men (Swe) Draken (Swe) Neptun (Swe) Sjöljonet (Swe) Ul-class (Swe) Valen (Swe) Sinsamudar (Thai) AY-class (Tr) Batiray (Tr) Birindci Inönü (Tr) Dumlupynar (Tr) Gur (Tr) Oruc Reis (Tr) Sakarya (Tr)
Aircraft Carriers American Bogue Casablanca Commencement Bay Essex Independence Langley Lexington Long Island Midway Ranger Sangamon Wasp Yorktown
British Activity Ameer Archer Ark Royal Attacker
544
French
German Graf Zepplin (not completed)
Italian
Japanese Akagi Cbitose Hiryu Hosbo Ibuki
Junyo Kaga Kaiyo Ryubo Ryujo Sbinano Shinyo Sbokaku Soryu Taiho Taiyo Unryu Zuiho
Battleships American California Iowa Maryland Nevada New Mexico North Carolina Pennsylvania South Dakota Texas Wyoming
British Nelson Lion King George V Queen Elizabeth Royal Sovereign Vanguard
French Bretagne Dunkerque Richelieu
German Bismarck Scharnhorst
Nagato Yamato
Cruisers
American Alaska Atlanta Baltimore Brooklyn Cleveland New Orleans Northampton Pensacola Portland Wichita
British Abdiel (Cruiser/minelayer) Adventure (Cruiser/minelayer) Arethusa Bellona Dido Edinburgh Exeter Fiji Gloucester Kent Leander London Norfolk Perth Southampton Surrey Swiftsure York
French Algérie Duguay Trouin Duquesnes Emile Bertin La Galissonnière Jeanne d'Arc Pluton Suffren
American Allen M Sumner Bagley Benham Benson/Cleaves Clemson (many transferred to Britain, 1940) Farragut Fletcher Gearing Gridley Mahan Porter Sims Somers Wickes (many transferred to Britain, 1940)
French
Italian
German
Abruzzi Bolzano Cadorna Capitani Romani Costanza Ciano Duca d'Aosta Giussano Montecu ccoliTren to Zara
1934 Type 1936 Type 1940/41 Type 1942 Type
German
Japanese Agano Aoba Furutaka Katori Magami Nachi Oyodo Sendai Takao Tone Yubari
Russian Pro/intern Kirov Krasnyi Kavkaz Maxim Gorkiy
Fuso
Others
1st'
De Ruyter (Hol) Tromp (Hoi)
Ognevoi Opytnyi Storozhevoi Tashkent (Flotilla Leaders)
Others Vasilefs Georgios (Gr) Ydra (Gr) Tjerk Hiddes (Hoi) Van Galen (Hoi) Van Ghent (Hoi) Aalesund (Nor) Grom (Pol) Wicher (Pol) Douro (Port) Alava (Sp) Churruca (Sp) Ehrensköld (Swe) Göteborg (Swe) Mode (Swe) Oland (Swe) Psilander (Swe) Klas Horn (Swe) Romulus (Swe) Visby (Swe)
Escorte
British A-class/B-class Amazon Ambuscade Battle C-class/D-class E-class/F-class G-class/H-class/I-class J-class/K-class/N-class L-class/M-class O-class/P-class Q-class/R-class Tribal S-class/T-class/U-class/V-class/W-class Z-class/Ca-class Ch-class/Co-class/Cr-class
Deutschland Emden Hipper K-class Leipzig Nürnberg
Italian
Kaga
Destroyers
Aigle Bourrasque Chacal L'Adroit Le Fantasque Le Hardi Mogador Guépard Vauquelin
Andrea Doria Cavour Littorio
Japanese
Provincien (Hoi) Alfonso (Sp) Canarias (Sp) Gotland (Swe) Tre Kronor (Swe)
Italian Folgore Freccia Maestrale Navigatori Oriani Sauro Sella Soldati Turbine
Japanese Akatsuki Akitsuki Asahio Fubuki Hatsuharu Kagero Mitsuki Shimakaze Shiratsuyu Yugumo
Russian Gnevnyi Kiev (Flotilla Leaders) Leningrad (Flotilla Leaders)
American DET-class/FMR-class GMT-class TE-class TEV-class/WGT-class patrol frigates: Ashei >ille/Tacom a
British Hunt (Types 1-4) frigates:
Bay Captain (ex-US GMT &TE class) Loch River/Modified River sloops: Bittern/Modified Bittern Black Swan/Modified Black Swan Bridgewater Egret Grimsby Hastings Hindustan Indus Shorebam corvettes: Castle Flower/Modified Flower patrol vessels: Kil-class Kingfisher Shearwater
German F-class
Italian Ariete Ciclone Pegaso Spica
Japanese Etorofu Matsu Mikura Shimushu Tachibana Type D
Ukuru
Russian ETl-class
This edition published by Barnes & Noble, Inc., by arrangement with Brown Packaging Books Ltd 1998 Barnes £ Noble Books M 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN: 0-7607-1022-8 Copyright © 1998 Orbis Publishing Ltd Copyright © 1998 Aerospace Publishing This material was previously published in 1984 as part of the reference set War Machine. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder. Editorial and design by Brown Packaging Books Ltd Bradley's Close 74-77 White Lion Street London NI 9PF Picture credits TRH Pictures: 7,9, 20, 31,42, 52,63,73, 83,93, 101, 111, 123, 136,148,159,169,179,191,203,215,225, 236, 249,264,275, 283,293,305, 318, 330,340, 350, 361, 372,383, 393,404,414, 424,434,443, 452,462, 470,478,487, 497, 509, 519, 529, 540. Printed in Singapore