to iOS 10.2.1, many iPhone 6 users found their devices started to run much slower. John Poole, creator
ANATOMY OF THE iPHONE
POST-USE LIFE
THE APPLE MODEL
After upgrading
of Geekbench, software designed to measure system performance, ran tests which
geekbench.com
seemed to confirm that the new software update was
glued parts Parts are often glued to allow for a thinner, lighter device, but this impacts their repairability.
throttling the phone’s CPUs. Users later discovered that replacing the battery would fix the problem. Apple claimed the software behaviour was to prevent random
part-pairing This system involves manufacturesrs putting a serial number on a spare parts. If a spare part is not first registered using manufacturer-created software, the device will reject the part and not function. Inofrmal repair is thus forced to become hacking.
iPhone 6 - Raw Materials Sulfur Tantalum 0.44 g 0.02 g Tin Lead 0.66 g 0.04 g Phosphorus 0.03 g
Titanium Tungsten 0.02 g 0.30 g
Vanadium 0.04 g Zinc 0.69 g
Silicon 8.14 g Aluminum 31.14 g
Oxygen 18.71 g
Molybdenum 0.02 g
Arsenic 0.01 g
Nickel 2.72 g
Manganese 0.29 g Hydrogen 5.52 g
Magnesium 0.65 g Lithium 0.87 g
Bismuth 0.02 g
Carbon 19.85 g
Gallium 0.01 g
Potassium 0.33 g
Gold 0.01 g
Iron 18.63 g Cobalt 6.59 g
Copper 7.84 g Chrome 4.94 g
Calcium 0.44 g
total weight 129g
Chlorine 0.01 g
"While some brands salvage components such as chips that can be used to repair faulty phones, Apple has a fulldestruction policy," “No reuse. No parts harvesting. No resale.” Apple shreds its devices to prevent fake Apple products from making their way to the secondary market
shutdowns due to old batteries, but many believe the lack of disclosure indicates that Apple were trying to force users to buy new devices. Apple’s CEO, Tim Cook, later blamed users for “not paying attention” to their update
front camera copper tin gold steel
policy. He claimed that they had disclosed the effects of the software update to users, however Apple later
rear camera
copper tin gold rare earth materials
admitted in a letter to the US senate that the feature had been rolling out to customer iPhones for a month before
main logic board tin gold copper silver tungsten tantalum silicon phosphorus
antenna
steel copper rare earth materials
it was added to the update’s release notes or disclosed to the press. The only reference to it in the release notes was: “Improves power management during peak
workloads to avoid unexpected shutdowns.” Attorney in the consumer’s interests, they would have informed
Apple have threatened individuals who shared repair schematics online with prosecution and trademarked spare parts to maintain their monopoly
them that the problems caused by the update could be solved by a battery replacement. The fact that they did not inform the consumer of this solution confirms the company were hoping for user’s to discard their old
PROGRAMMED OBSOLESCENCE
phones and buy new ones. Several lawsuits were filed, with Apple recently fined $27 million in France.
pentalobe security screw Apple introduced this tamper-proof screw of its own invention in 2009. Genius bar workers would replace all of the Phillips screws on a device brought in for repair with pentalobe screws. Official apple repairers are not allowed to sell the screwdriver, although they are relatively easy for unofficial repairers to replicate.
BARRIERS TO REPAIR
the genius bar Apple’s official repair shop has been known to overcharge customers for simple repairs; users often find that repairing thier device is similar in price to buying a new one. An undercover investigation by CBS news found that to fix a macbook’s darkened screen, the genius bar quoted around $1200 - the staff member pointed out this was close to the cost of a new laptop. A local repair shop fixed the screen in under two minutes and that he wouldn’t even have charged for that service.
apple policies are geared towards encouring buying new devices; trade-in credit is much lower than retail value
screen
TRADE-IN
Rising amounts of e-waste is a rapidly growing problem, both in terms of emissions and the impact of extractive processes. Strategies to recycle used devices help, but the materials in a device can never be recovered completely and a lot of emissions are created in both the manufacturing and recycling processes. Strategies to increase the lifespan of devices therefore have a greater impact on their sustainability. Business models of companies like Apple, however, try to limit the repairability of the devices as encouraging users to buy new devices is ultimately more profitable.
SUSTAINABILITY 53.6 million tonnes of e-waste was produced globally in 2019. By 2050, the volume of e-waste could top 120 million tonnes annually.
The average lifespan of smartphones in the UK 2020 was 33.6 months.
FORMS OF RESISTANCE
REPAIR / REPLACE
Shana Scarlett further argues that if Apple been working
restriction of information and parts
DAISY, disassembly bot
aluminium silicon/oxygen potassium tin rare earth materials
battery
colbalt carbon lithium aluminium
vibrator assembly tungsten rare earth materials neodymium nickel iron boron
dock flex tin gold copper
speaker
neodymium nickel iron boron rare earth materials
enclosure aluminium steel
right to repair movement The right to repair movement proposes legislation that would provide the practical means for equipment owners to repair their devices. The movement is mostly centred in the US, the UK and the EU. Advocates observe that while repair is legal under copyright law and patent law, owners are often prohibited from making their own repairs or hiring technicians they trust to help by manufacturer limitations on access to repair materials such as parts, tools, diagnostics, documentation and firmware. The movement calls for repairability in the design of devices and in access to spare parts and tools (includding software), without hinderance through software programming or witheld information from the manufacturer.
various small victories in europe and america
gaffar market, west delhi framework laptop; fariphone; teracube technologies centered around the idea of easy repair, upgrade and customization. Features include use of standardised screws, freely available schematics and modular technology.
ALTERNATIVE TECH
In Austria and certain regions of Germany, local authorities are offering financial incentives to users who take their devices to be repaired. In july, Biden issued an executive order to address competition problems in the US economy. Though mostly focused on agriculture and other industries, the order calls out a range of anti-competitive practices affecting the technology sector, including repair restrictions put in place by mobile phone manufacturers and others. In the EU, a new “Circular Economy Action Plan” draft introduced in 2020 includes the electronics right to repair for EU citizens as this would allow device owners to replace only malfunctioning parts rather than replace the entire device, reducing electronics waste. The Action Plan includes additional standardization that would aid toward rights to repair, such as common power ports on mobile devices. France have introduced has a requirement that manufacturers contribute to a repairabiity scoring system. The goal is to allow consumers to consider repair as a buying criteria before making a purchase. This has already resulted in the disclosure of repair documentation that had previously not been widely available.
“A lack of repairability is now being understood for what it is: another expression of corporate power.” - Dave Lee, Financial Times
huaqiangbei electronics market, shenzhen
guiyu, guangdong
tottenham court road, london Gadget repair shops around the world provide sites of resistance to the corporate powers which act against repairability.
most materials and embodied carbon in the phone is lost during the recycling process
global e-waste trade hub; pollution serverely effected the water and the ability to grow crops in the area; much of the work is highly toxic; 80% of the children in the city have dangerous levels of lead in their blood (The Guardian, 2009), whcih can lead to irreversible damage in developing brains; studies done in 2009 have revealed that Guiyu has some of the highest levels of dioxin contamination in the world.
REPAIR SHOPSS iFixit - teardowns and repair guides
Sites like iFixit provide freely available teardowns and repair guides to counter the lack of repair information provided by manufacturers like Apple.
INFORMATION SHARING LEGISLATIVE ACTION
The Basel Convention, 1898 international treaty forbids developed nations from carrying out unauthorized dumping of e-waste in less developed countries.
REPAIR > RECYCLE
agbogbloshie, ghana high levels of respiratory illnesses present; the waste arrives via the Port of Tema, 20 miles to the east; waste is mainly from Western Europe and the United States, often labeled as secondhand consumer products so they are not strictly considered waste; pollutants have also entered the foodchain via livestock
repair of devices is discouraged
apple trade-in
recycling partners are fobidden from salvaging usable parts from the devices
The Basel Convention, 1898 domestic (majority)
international
“electronic graveyard of the world”
components
In 2005, there were 60,000 e-waste workers in Guiyu who processed the more than 100 truckloads that were transported to the 52-square-kilometre area every day. They extracted the precious metals and useable components from the devices for profit.
(assumed)
used/broken devices for refurbishment
used/broken devices for refurbishment
other e-waste dumps
raw materials for re-use
agbogbloshie, ghana
smelting plant
guiyu, guangdong
there is evidence that in the past, much of the hardware in Huaqiangbei was imported from developed countries such as the United States, disassembled in infamously unsafe workshops elsewhere in South China, and then funneled into HQB
eg
Despite the treaty forbids developed nations from carrying out unauthorized dumping of e-waste in less developed countries, it is believed that much of the waste is imported from developed countries. Many waste goods are classed as “charitable donations” before they’re dumped on scrap heaps. The economic incentives created by strict domestic regulation, non-existent or unenforced regulations in developing countries, and the ease of free trade brought about by globalization, have led recyclers to exporting e-waste. One California recycler stated that exporting e-waste was up to ten times more profitable than recycling it domestically.
A banner announces the deadline for recyclers to close their workshops, or face power cut off
social impact Both the importing/exporting and the processing of the e-waste resulted in extremely high pollution levels. A number of environmental studies have found toxic pollutants int he soil, water and food chain, as well as within the residents themselves. This has lead to repiratory illnesses, developmental problems and birth defects, among other health problems.
electronics market, shenzhen apple manufacturing
apple’s trade-in service
consumer
short product-life, huge waste of embodied carbon within devices; low direct social impact (no use of e-waste dumps)
consumer
The influx of e-waste is adding to Hong Kong’s growing waste problems
the cleanup effort
competing
After a great increase in media attention, as well as numerious environmental studies, the government took steps to improve living conditions and crack down on waste import. In 2013, a scheme was introduced to build and relocate all informal workshops into an industrial park on the outskirts of town. While the living coniditions have improved drastically, many families have lost their livelihoods and are unable to put to use their specialist skills.
The Huaqiangbei district of Shenzhen is home to many electronics markets which span several floors and several buildings. These markets are places for locals to buy their electronics as well as wholesalers and resellers to buy components in bulk.
In his book, The One Device, The Secret History of the iPhone, Brian Merchant describes how he approached one repairer in HQB to build him an iPhone 4 from scratch. The repairer was able to quickly source all the components and build the phone for 350 renminbi, about 50 USD.
counterfeit HUAQIANGBEI
The number one destination for illegal e-waste exports from the USA is Hong Kong. The precise processing sites are less visible than in Guiyu, as they tend to e hidden from the local authrorites and constantly move around in an attempt to evade them. They tend to be in the newly industrialised areas of Hong Kong, such as the New Territories. Hong Kong itself generates the most e-waste per person in the world.
SHENZHEN
HONG KONG
consumer
devices are very undervalued at trade-in
other recycling partner
GUIYU
apple
HUAQUIANGBEI
consumer
INFORMAL RECYCLING
OFFICIAL RECYCLING
apple
e-waste destinations now
second life Large parts of the markets in HQB specialise in the repair and refurbishment of used devices. Due to the great scale of the markets, repairers are highly specialised. Easy access to parts also makes device refurbishment hgihly profitable. Above, excerpts from a repair guide show the repair of an iPhone 6 which would have been written off by electronics recyclers. The images show a shattered logic board being repaired using parts from another logic board. The phone is eventually refurbished into a fully working phone.
In 2012 a Senate Armed Services Committee report found at least 1,800 cases of used parts from China reappearing in US Navy cargo planes, spy planes, and special operations helicopters. It is common knowledge that many devices sold as new in HBQ are almost definitely at least partly secondhand, but at the low price points the devices are sold at, the industry continues to thrive. However, practices such as peeling off old labels on batteries and replacing them with new ones means that it is hard to ensure the quality of refurbished devices.
Guiyu
SHENZHEN
Huaqiangbei
New Territories, HK
Guiyu -> HQB 300km 4hrs by road
Shenzhen is one of the most important centres in the world for electronics manufacturing. It aims to be a “hub of innovation” and is at the centre of China’s plans to become technologically self sufficient. Due to its numerous factories and easy access to components, startups all over the world go to Shenzhen to prototype their new tech. The recent influx of investment in Shenzhen from China is seen by some as a move to intimidate protest-torn Hong Kong, a rival tech hub only 15 minutes away by train, and challenge its status as the international trade and business hub in Asia. Shenzhen is also seen as the face of the trade wars between China and the US.