Toward a Architecture of Sensitivity

TOWARD AN ARCHITECTURE OF SENSITIVITY IMPLEMENTING ARCHETYPES FOR ENERGY EXCHANGE ROBERT DOUGLAS MCKAYE

ADVISOR: VICENTE GUALLART | INSTITUTE FOR ADVANCED ARCHITECTURE OF CATALONIA | MAA THESIS 2013-2015

TOWARD AN ARCHITECTURE OF SENSITIVITY IMPLEMENTING ARCHETYPES FOR ENERGY EXCHANGE

ROBERT DOUGLAS MCKAYE

ADVISOR: VICENTE GUALLART

INSTITUTE FOR ADVANCED ARCHITECTURE OF CATALONIA | MAA 2013-2015

Thesis presented to obtain the qualification of Master Degree from the Institut d’Arquitectura Avançada de Catalunya | Barcelona, September 2015

Energy, Energy Harvesting, Architectural Prototyping, Quotidian Activity, Feedback, Sensor Networks, Distributed Intelligence, Internet of Things, Technology, Digital Design, Interaction Design

The physicality of our built environment is connected heavily to our view of material which we acquire through scientific research, and to the demand of citizens for certain levels of performance. In the 21st century, an increase in the capacity for technological integration has introduced new parameters for this physicality, enabling architecture to self-evaluate, transmit information, and offer responsiveness accordingly. What remains unaccounted for is the supply of electrical energy to power the networks of sensors and information systems required for this highlevel functionality. Through a re-conceptualization of architecture and structural design, Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity outlines the potential in linking systems of mechanical and electrical energy by deploying emergent technologies that engage in kinetic generation. Such technologies use energy-exchanging materials like piezoelectrics and conductive polymers to generate discrete electrical energy from otherwise dissipated environmental or ambient stresses. These materials, which can also be called ‘First Law’ materials, change an input energy into another form, producing an output energy in accordance with the First Law of Thermodynamics. Although the efficiency of conversion for these smart materials is typically much less than for more conventional technologies, the potential utility of the energy is much greater due to the direct relationship between input energy and output energy. This class of materials are in a perfect position to transform how our cities are constructed, in particular through energy-neutral infrastructure and hybridization within already familiar products. Consequently, the fluid forces such as wind, rain and traffic seen traditionally as everyday stresses in the city, can be re-introduced as everyday inputs for this exchange. This paper identifies devices for piezoelectric energy generation, in the context of structural performance and environmental mediation, and attempts to support their implementation through contemporary case studies and relevant architectural theory. Furthermore, it explores the tools and techniques by which these devices can be analyzed, designed, fabricated, and eventually experienced, through processes of prototyping and computation.

The impacts of these emergent energy ecologies on territorial, formal, and social protocols are discussed, and the potential application in wireless sensor networks is examined.

ABSTRACT

Keywords

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity: Implementing Archetypes for Energy Exchange sets out to provide a holistic view of the contemporary landscape for kinetic energy harvesting in connection with design practices. The breadth of the topics included in this dossier reflect the pervasive nature of this connection through various scales and disciplines, from the physical properties to the behavioural. As such, the thesis has been a process of dissemination of a vast collection of source material, and combines a theoretical research with architectural prototyping. Although the journey was engaging throughout, the tracing of common threads and denominators for the purposes of this report proved to be quite a nuanced challenge.

Over a year ago, my initial thesis proposal claimed that despite the multitude of ‘smart’ devices we implement in our daily lives for the purposes of optimizing our energy consumption, energy is in fact, dumb. The intention was to somehow highlight the irony that even with all of our gadgets, there is a fundamental misunderstanding about what energy is and what it can mean for the built environment, and by consequence, those who inhabit it. My state of mind has remained more or less the same, albeit with more comprehension of what I initially interpreted as ‘dumbness’.

Energy is a concept which mankind uses to quantify the work which is put into the activation of material, and this quantification is given parameters depending on the context of the work, leading to definitions of energys various forms such as thermal, electrical, nuclear, etc. Electrical energy, (electricity) is a particular type of energy which we presently derive from these other forms through conversion. In the 21st century, industrial development and population growth has caused what is considered a global energy crisis, characterized by the inability for our current consumption to be met with adequate, affordable power. However, if we change our perspective, we can consider that the world is not suffering from energy problems, but rather from electricity problems. Energy is everywhere. Instead, what we lack is a wealth of mechanisms that can either (a) activate material to cause energy to flow, or (b) engage energy which is already flowing.

Energy generation systems are those of a technological, and physical order. A composition of new elements that are known or unknown is not a change of energy, its a change of technology.

What is recognized by industries, academics and world leaders today is the immediate demand to reduce our dependency on the conventional systems that generate and transmit electrical energy - which have remained relative unchanged since introduced a century ago - and to seek alternative solutions. This will not only resolve electricity problems, but help to curb the evident environmental repercussions of mankind’s burning of coal and fossil fuels. What has also been widely recognized is that we, as a society, are currently not doing enough to make this happen.

Since the 1990s there has been a spike in interest in renewables, including wind, solar, biomass, and biofuel energies, to name a few. Although demonstrating success, these strategies are still characteristically centralized systems of energy generation, which do not tackle the issues related with the transmission of electrical power. Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetism

FORETHOUGHTS

Robert Douglas McKaye

in the mid 1800s but it was not until decades later that it was harnessed by Tesla and Edison through alternating and direct currents, respectively. His formulation of the principles behind electromagnetism would later inform the widespread use of electricity in technology, and was discovered though what was considered, at that time, to be experimental physics and chemistry.

Today, experimental research in these and related fields continue to innovate through new understandings of material behaviour and physical properties. It is the degree to which this new information is able to permeate society that will determine the outcome of our present day crisis. Everyday people, not just the experimental physicists and electrochemists, must embrace an ‘outside-the-box’ mentality, through a willingness to see things differently and make real behavioural change. This condition is one which I believe to be fundamentally architectural.

The canon of architecture is its ability to empower and influence through the design of systems. It is true that contemporary practice, now more than ever, is embracing bottom-up processes and self-organization, but inevitably the state of the overall system remains hugely influential on those agents who constitute it. By introducing new ideas and new tools to the system we are heightening the state of the art of system design. Suppose that Tesla had not advocated for alternating current, and the traditionally accepted distribution of electricity had been instead based on DC transmission. Would things be any different today? Would we still be sacrificing huge amounts of energy just to transmit it from one point to another? Would we still be encountering incoherencies when pairing our devices to municipal grids? Even after digging into the particulars of this discourse I can not say for sure. What I have discovered, or perhaps, embraced, is the fact that the ways in which we interact with energy are intrinsically linked to the development of architectural form and human behaviour.

If there is energy everywhere, can there be generation everywhere? This question has been the obsession of the thesis. Starting from a theoretical and historical understanding of energy, I have attempted to position kinetic energy harvesting technologies in their best light: as integrated within architecture. Furthermore, I have identified them as playing a critical role in the emerging sensor era. Sure, the green revolution has produced wonderful add-ons and trophies with which to decorate architecture, but the future of high-performance architecture will result from the hybridization of renewable energy sources with the design and conception of structures, as well as with everyday life.

Local conditions -> generating local energy -> powering local conditions: a new era of sensitivity is coming. With it will come changes to the relationship between people and architecture, between spaces and technology.

I would additionally like to thank the community at IAAC and FabLab Barcelona for their continued interest in our prototyping efforts. In particular I would like to thank Vicente Guallart for advising the synthesis of this thesis, and faculty Gonzalo DelacĂĄmara, Ricardo Devesa, Areti Markopolou, Guillem Camprodon, Jonathan Minchon, Rodrigo Aguirre, and Manuel Gausa for their support, with special mention to Maite Bravo for her support towards my research, and her dedication to the 2013-15 thesis program at IAAC. Lastly I would like to thank my friends and family for their patience, and for putting up with countless hours of my talking about energy and piezoelectric transducers.

For Shirley and Hunter

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report represents, in the synthesis of theoretical research and practical architectural prototyping, a step towards identifying the future of kinetic energy harvesting within the architectural discourse. It would not have been possible without the guidance of my advisors and many colleagues who collaborated on the referenced work. The 2013 Wind Energy Machines studio at IAAC, lead by Javier PeĂąa, Rodrigo Rubio, and Oriol Carrasco, produced the AmpLeaf micro-generation prototype that catalysed much of this research. I would like to thank these inspiring instructors, as well as my friends from the IC3 team who collaborated on this project, Sahil Sharma and Kateryna Rogynska, with a special acknowledgement to Ramin Shambayati who joined me in taking the research further with Ambient Energy Machines, and the INFOstructures workshop. The latter, developed at the 35th European Architecture Student Assembly (EASA Links), in Valletta, Malta would not have been possible without the support of the EASA Malta Foundation, Architecture Project (AP), and FabLab Valletta.

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2 | Research Energy and Material

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Productive Quotidianity

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Micro-Electrical-Mechanical Systems

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Architecture as Operating System

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Joint Functions

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3 | Experiments Archetypes for Energy Exchange

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Generator Typology: Surficial

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Generator Typology: Fulcrum

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Generator Typology: Node

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Spacial Contouring

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4 | Discussions + Conclusions SpaceMaker: New Energy Consciousness

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Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

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5 | References

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Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

1 | Introduction

3 5 7

CONTENTS

Abstract Forethoughts Acknowledgements

2 Gausa, Manuel. 2003. The Metapolis dictionary of advanced architecture: City, technology and society in the information age. Barcelona: Actar. pg. 430

The physicality of human environments is largely shaped by the objective approach of the scientific method and by how we interpret the limitations and potentials of materials used for construction.

It is additionally shaped by the more subjective demand for performance from its users, related to the services provided through design and the quality of spaces. Architecture has become attached to a multitude of different disciplines due to the advent of technologies and tools with which to do so, leading to a diversification of the field as well as emergent specialties within the practice.

This is particularly true when we consider what kinds of technologies are used to provide power to architecture, and what tools have been introduced to the many networked connections in architecture.

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

1 Leach, Neil. 2014 “There is No Such Thing as Digital Design.“ in Paradigms in computing: Making, machines, and models for design agency in architecture, hrsg. von David Jason Gerber und Mariana Ibañez. First edition. 149-158

1 | INTRODUCTION

State of the Art

We have developed a dependency on the electrification of our buildings and devices, which is of critical consideration for the coordination of inhabitable space in the information age. Crossovers into areas of physics, biology and computer science have allowed for some of this dependency to be addressed by architecture. However, the huge range of tools being deployed as environmental controls has drawn into question both the role of architects and of design itself. The architect is no longer observed as the “demiurgic form-maker” (Leach, 154), but as a curator of processes and a liaison between teams of multi-disciplinary experts.1 In practice this is seen as the designing of parallel systems of environmental, infrastructural, electrical and social organization, to name a few. If we consider potential functionality rather than the potential aesthetic quality, it can be identified that the use of techniques to enable this lateral approach will yield a stronger synthesis of these parallel systems.

Evidently, the tools we employ to achieve this are not creating a new global architectural style, but rather a new global consciousness about the importance of relational systems within architecture.2 It is the conscious selection of parameters yielding a certain range of possibilities, as well as the methods for their dissemination and analysis, which dictate the course of action. The use of a digital design space allows for working across scales, observing the overarching behaviour of interconnected systems. The use of tools for real-time data collection allows for continuous feedback and optimization.

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What we are seeing today is the shift towards smart materials, self-sufficient technologies, and social networking that engage both with real-time data and a digital design space, for the increased resolution of design synthesis. As the information age progresses, the use of distributed intelligence enforces the architect-as-curator role, and has led to new processes of working with sensors, nodes, and networks. Today, we are faced with the limitation of being unable to sufficiently power or compute the distributed intelligence model, and as a result its deployment outside of prototyping and product trials has been slow to catch on.

Introduction | 1

[left] “City Protocol.” 2014 | taken from Guallart, Vicente 2014, The Self-Sufficient City: Internet has changed our lives but it hasn’t changed our cities, yet, ActarD Inc., New York.

Urban scale: “City Protocol” attempts to index certain functions and aspects of the city, in order to crossreference with other global municipalities. Its purpose is to generate information about how a city can (or should) operate, based on the local conditions of a place. It employs a number of contemporary control and observation methods to generate data and real-time information. The goal is to understand in a holistic way, all the different layers (organizational structures) of the city, in order to create the highest quality of urban experience for citizens (Guallart, 2014).

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http://cityprotocol.org/

Accordingly, the work of some experimental practitioners reflects the utilization of otherwise unobservable information present in large data sets. This has been made possible through increased processing power in design. At the other end of the spectrum, mechanism intelligence is leading to new forms of interactive architecture, enhancing human comfort through sensorial effects. Such experimentation introduces a new pragmatism for interaction design within the architectural discourse: the implementation of new technologies to not simply perform high-level functions, but reform architecture with new embedded functionality.

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

There are, however, many cases which demonstrate the increased potential for architects to innovate through their new superposition as designer and inter-disciplinarian. This is seen in experimentation with disruptive technologies that are characterized by their tendency to interrupt or enhance existing design protocols, or re-direct protocols along new trajectories. Sensors, supercomputers, and device interconnectivity are examples of disruptive technologies that have emerged to manage both electrical energy and information, contributing to the model of distributed intelligence. Their implementation is establishing new directions for the design process, impacting both the macro and micro scales.

[left] Andresek, Alisa. 2010. “Phosphorescence: Pop Music Centre” Kaohsiung, Taiwan.

Big data: Biothing employs large data sets and the adaptive mathematics of electro-magnetic fields, pedestrian fluid dynamics, and natural ecologies, to synthesis cross-disciplinary master planning in Taiwan. http://www.biothing.org/

[right] Beesley, Phillip. 2011. “Hylozoic Ground Collaboration”. Canadian Pavilion, Venice Biennale Venice, Italy Interaction: lightweight digitally-fabricated components are fitted with microprocessors and proximity sensors to react to users. http://www.hylozoicground.com/

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Introduction | 1

[left] Rahm, Philippe. 2012-2016. Jade Eco Park. Philippe Rahm architects, Mosbach paysagistes, Ricky Liu & Associates. Taichung, Taiwan Interaction: Using CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) data and various sensors for environmental augmentation, Rahm engineers to micro-climates in order to increase the comfortability of spaces for the visitors.

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http://www.philipperahm.com

Interestingly, the visionary ideas related to automation, customization and temporality once presented as theory by the post-modernists, are today seeing practical implementation through new tools involved in the design process. In 1960, Reyner Banham said that so called ‘monumental’ spaces, characterized by particular archetypal elements, only served to carry forward the spatial concepts of the pre-technological era, and were no longer functional.3 He identified that the architecturalizing of mechanical systems was a post-rationalization based on the need to spread services to different inhabited zones. His radical projects inverted this relationship, using technological systems as the structure for the new forms of architecture, ones which reflected mobility, impermanence, and more efficient use of electrical power. This sensitivity to the basics of habitation was achieved through an understanding of the technological capabilities of his time.

Around the same time, avant-garde architecture groups such as Archigram, Superstudio and Ant Farm emerged with similarly speculative work that exhibited the liberation from traditional thinking through technology. British architect Cedric Price’s Fun Palace is a significant contribution,

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

3 Banham, Reyner. 1965. “A Home is Not a House”, Art in America. 1965, volume 2, New York: 70-79

[right] comparative analysis of home | taken Banham, Reyner. 1965. “A Home is Not a House”, Art in America.

1965, volume 2, New York: 70-79 Technology: A comparison of Banham’s ‘American Woman’s House’ and its counterpart (far right) illustrated

by François Dallegret, reveals a reconfiguration at the technological level, rather than the spatial. He argues that the contemporary ‘home’ is a combination of services and technologies which provide a certain level of comfort, or capability of habitation. Thus, liveable spaces in the technological ‘house’ emerge through the configuration of devices, applications, and their networking, rather than through preconcieved and traditional definitions passed down from previous generations.

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Introduction | 1

[left] “Fun Palace” Price, Cedric. 1960.

Automation and Customization: the Fun Palace was effectively a variable machine for living and cultural activities. Its many drawings depict flexible space and programmable experiences based on technological interventions within architecture. It contained a combination of lifts, tunnels, escalators, and platforms able to be reconfigured to suit enclosed or open spaces, and by consequence, enclosed or open programming. Additional to these technologies was a tendency toward the transparency of different functions within the Fun Palace, as evidenced by the multiple observation decks proposed and the minimally clad interiors. http://www.cca.qc.ca/en/collection/283-cedric-pricefun-palace

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due to the high-resolution of the systems which he proposed, embracing sensors, kinetics, and other forms of embedded intelligence. Although focused more on people and building organization than on technology, the project represented an unprecedented synthesis of cybernetics, game theory and interactive architectures based on information (Mathews, 2005).4 Today, this scenario sounds ever more like near-future, because of the relationship that humans and devices have with computers. Everything and everyone has a digital profile which is constantly being updated with information about condition and position.

This digital connection has been manifested into the tech lexicon of today, known as Internet of Things. It represents the interconnectivity of objects over the internet, and is creating a paradigm

4 Mathews, Stanley. 2005. “The Fun Palace: Cedric Price’s experiment in architecture and technology.” Technoetic Arts 3 (2): 73–92.

6 Fowler, Nicholas. 2011. lecturer for “ VLAB Presents: Energy Harvesting - Power Everywhere,” VLAB, San Franscico, CA.

7 Miller, Lindsay. 2012. lecturer for “Vibration Energy Harvesting for Wireless Sensor Networks.” CITRIS, i4Energy Center, UC Berkley, CA.

8 Lefeuvre, Elie, Adrien Badel, Claude Richard, Lionel Petit, and Daniel Guyomar. 2006. “A comparison between several vibration-powered piezoelectric generators for standalone systems.” Sensors and Actuators A: Physical 126 (2): 405–16.

9 Wang, Zhong L. 2011. “Nanogenerators for Selfpowered Devices and Systems.” Accessed January 24th, 2015. 10-15.

10 Fowler, Nicholas. 2011.

shift in designing for human habitation.5 Enabling customization, interaction, and experienceoriented design, the development of building standards under the Internet of Things is more nuanced, obscuring the preconceived ‘limits’ of architectural design (Guallart, 2004). As a result, the contemporary challenge is to understand how informational networks and structural networks operate, in order to facilitate both effectively. The newness of this methodology means that there are very few projects which demonstrate it, but the benefits and limitations of distributed intelligence in the built environment are well understood.

The clear limitation of distributed sensors and automated systems is the lack of sufficient power to supply their demand. Intelligent nodes require intelligent power supply. The power available for wireless networks today is considered insufficient because it is based either on off-site generation, or the charging of batteries. Most of the nodes actually have very low consumption, resulting in disproportionate losses of electricity in transmission, and losses of time due to continued maintenance. In searching for alternative ways to supply this need, researchers have turned to the emerging field of energy harvesting (another disruptive technology). Also called energy scavengers, these mechanical systems generate electricity by harnessing small amounts of kinetic and ambient energy that is present in almost all areas of our built environment, from mechanical systems to large scale infrastructure.

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

5 Guallart, Vicente. 2014. The Self-Sufficient City: Internet has changed our lives but it hasn’t changed our cities, yet, ActarD Inc., New York: 190-221.

Many of these energy harvesting systems have been proven to, even in their current state of research and development, generate enough electrical energy for many low-level information systems.6, 7, 8 Despite this evidence, there is little-to-no crossover from the respective industries in this emergent field. This can be attributed to the complexity and multi-scalarity at either end of the issue. Researchers who develop nano and micro generators have come a long way in maximizing the output of power, by creating composites with energy-exchanging materials. The results are small machines which are lighter, more responsive, and more stable.9 On the other hand, each successive generation of wireless sensor networks (WSN) increases communication efficiency while reducing energy consumption.10 While there is development being done at both end of the problem, designers can engage to bridge the gap between them, by developing systems which highlight the benefits for users. A combination of proven science and public demand has historically driven industry to invest in new directions, and the same can be true for these selfpowered systems.

The manifesto of this research is that the designer-architect-curator has the faculty to deploy these innovations for the benefit of users. It speculates that the result of this deployment is a highlysensitive built environment, composed of elements that are doubly responsive to their consumers and their contexts. The succeeding chapters reflect this manifesto, connecting theoretical research to 1:1 architectural prototyping. Thus, Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity intends to explore the particulars of where energy can be harvested, how it can be output to peripheral devices, and which tools can be used by designers engaged in this process.

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2 | RESEARCH

2 | RESEARCH

12 The conservation of energy is a fundamental concept of physics along with the conservation of mass and the conservation of momentum. Within some problem domain, the amount of energy remains constant and energy is neither created nor destroyed. Energy can be converted from one form to another (potential energy can be converted to kinetic energy) but the total energy within the domain remains fixed.

13 Addington, D. Michelle und Daniel L. Schodek. 2005.

Smart materials and new technologies: For the architecture and design professions. Amsterdam, Boston: Architectural Press. 46.

Energy can only be quantified as it moves from one form to another, or by its capacity to do so. Without a differential in a system, there is no transfer of energy. This places the concept of energy in two basic classes. The first is kinetic energy; energy that is flowing. It is characterized by a flow from high potentiality to low potentiality, such as the movement of water, vibration of surfaces, and combustion of material. The second is potential energy; stored energy that can flow. It is stored by virtue of bending, stretching, compression, chemical combination, and relative position against gravity (Addington and Schodek, 2005). Electrical energy is that of the first class, as it is constantly flowing through conductive material. As it is given meaning only through calculation, the concept of energy itself is far more perverse, leading to a high level of abstraction when considering what it means for the human experience:

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

11 Soddy, Frederick. 1920. Science and Life. London

2 | RESEARCH

Energy and Material

“Energy, some may say, is a mere abstraction, a mere term, not a real thing.

As you will. In this, as in many other respects, it is like an abstraction no one would deny reality to, and that abstraction is wealth. Wealth is the power of purchasing, as energy is the power of working. I cannot show you energy, only its effects. Abstraction or not, energy is as real as wealth - I am not sure that they are not two aspects of the same thing.� 11 - Chemist Frederick Soddy, 1920 Soddy draws energy into an instance where it is at the same time abstract and fundamentally real, as it can be observed wherever there is work. Once we understand that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only converted, we can look at our built environment as a stockpile of embodied energy, in either potential or kinetic form. Like the concept of wealth, we can view energy in terms of its concentration, and examine how it changes from one form to another as it moves through material and space.12 What is critical for architects to understand is that material only becomes meaningful for space once activated by the interaction with some or another energy stimulus.13 This leads to the somewhat primitive but innately true notion that if we want to create energy, we must create material activation.

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Material allows energy to have a spatial dimension due to the fact that it is through material that energy is generated, transmitted, and inevitably consumed (through conversion). Therefore, it is important for an understanding of energy/material relationships to pervade into the realm of architecture. This relationship is also historically significant, as the mass distribution of electrical energy has depended on particular types of infrastructure to transmit it great distances to where it would be consumed. As a result we can identify that our understanding of how to transmit and consume has been historically limited by what we observe from the systems currently in place.

Energy and Material | 2

This means that everything (our devices, buildings, and infrastructure), has been developed in order to fit within existing electrical standards. This characteristically created problems and incoherences throughout the standards war of the early 20th century.14 Canonically, these effects can still be seen today, through the massive losses experienced by the transmission and conversion of electrical energy.15 AC (alternating current) distribution has long been recognized as the more efficient way to transport energy, while since the 1940s, most personal appliances and electronics have use the more stable DC (direct current). This incoherence creates losses whenever an ACDC conversion occurs, or whenever AC must be stepped up to a higher voltage for long range transmission.

In today’s market, there is much more room for DC networks and products, but the infrastructure for transmission remains largely the same. The trend to be observed here is towards direct current as the preferred method for energy management, and the slow switch from the alternating current model which was once preferred due to its relative efficiency.16 Products with increased efficiency and the introduction of energy management systems within inhabited spaces are creating a consciousness for the consumers of energy, through active feedback. This trend, paired with renewable energy sources, is lessening our dependency on traditional power structures.17 The pervasive nature of energy in the environment is becoming more prevalent in the management of personal consumption, and through devices which allow for users to actively participate in the generation and management of their own energy.

14 McNichol, Tom. 2006. AC/DC: The savage tale of the first standards war, 1st edn, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. 15.

15 Heinrich, Mary K. 2014. “Interacting with Energy: Using Interactive Sub-Structures to Soften the Grid�. IAAC. Barcelona.

16 Hayes, Brian. Infrastructure: A guide to the industrial landscape. Revised and updated. 242-3

17 McNichol, Tom. 2006.

[left] Hayes, Brian.

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Artefacts: images of various electrical energy transmission infrastructures, including long distance towers and transformer facilities

[right] Devices: Diagram depicting the transition from routed electrical systems to a new configuration of direct electrical systems, which are characterized by devices and appliances as intermediaries between the generator and the municipal grid. The diagram on the far left depicts the contemporary model of routed generation (as illustrated

by Guallart, Vicente. 2014), wherein all generated electricity from personal generators is fed into the municipal grids before being routed back to the home for use by devices. The two models on the right illustrate a new role for devices as energy management systems.

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

Increasingly, we are seeing energy as information. Information about material, about behaviour, and about the spaces to which we provide power. The production and consumption of energy is no longer an ecology which is separate from our daily lives; it is not only something you plug into. Interacting with energy offers users an understanding of how it exists in many forms, and what sort of work is required to convert it into something usable. Thus, it is the increased capacity of architecture to be generative which will take us from a culture of energy consumption, to an ecology of energy conversion and exchange.

Productive Quotidianity

18 Hannoush, Anthony, Anthony Mikelonis, and Julie Waddell. 2015. “Power Generation by Rowing on an Ergometer A WPI Major Qualifying Project.�. 11-15

In recent years, there has been much speculation on how technology will enable consumers to not only plug in to draw power from the grid, but contribute back to it through the harnessing of human activity. Again, we look to physics and biology seeking inspiration.

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The human body is the most complex and productive biological organism known to man, and it holds enormous potential energy. In fact, it is estimated that the average adult body contains more energy in fat than a one-ton battery (Hannoush, 2015). With short bursts of energy like sprinting or lifting, some can even output up to 2,000 watts of power.18 Even though a lot of that energy is used by the body to pump blood and flex muscles, the number is intriguing enough to illicit significant time and money from investors interested in curbing the energy needs of today.

When the human body manoeuvres the built environment, a huge range of potential power can be

Productive Quotidianity | 2

witnessed. These quotidian activities can include everyday tasks like climbing a staircase, opening a door, or driving a car. In fact, there is an energy exchange occurring in everything single thing that happens, ever. The scale and form of the energy which is exchanged depends on the material, action and context. Following the law of conservation of energy, these sources add up to a significant amount when observed over time. If wasted energy could be harvested and turned into electricity, we could reduce our dependence on wasteful chemical batteries.

19 Starner, Thad, and Joseph A. Paradiso. 2004. “Human generated power for mobile electronics.” Low power electronics design 45: 1–35.

20 Gibson, Tom. 2011 “ReRev, Human Dynamo, and Green Revolution: Generating Electricity from Exercise Machines,” Progressive Engineer Company Profile

What we can call the global ‘trend’ for green energy, which emerged at the turn of the 21st century, played a major role in the development of consumer products oriented towards selfsufficiency. Early on, these have included products for individual generation such treadmills and cycling machines which generate electrical power from embedded dynamos, and crowd generation using smart flooring and tiling.19, 20 The power made available in these examples has been re-purposed for lighting and interaction, as well as to curb operating costs. Though today we see these inventions as slightly kitsch and borderline mundane, they were the first generation of machines designed with a new conception of participatory generation. Now, we are entering an era of generative devices, energy-neutral devices, and energy-positive devices. Exercise machines were just the beginning.

[left] Kinetic Energy: harvesting technologies currently deployed in various functions and devices: [1] “Team Dynamo”. Introduces a new type of group exercise, where works together to drive a generator to help power the gym. http://www.humandynamo.com/ [1] [2] “The Sustainable Energy Floor”. 2005. Energy Floors (previously Sustainable Dance Club). The Netherlands http://www.energy-floors.com

[3]

[2]

[3] “Pavegen”. 2014. Pavegen Systems Ltd. Pavegen is a pioneering technology company founded in 2009 that creates flooring that harnesses the energy of footsteps.

The technology has been installed in over 100 projects in more than 30 countries, in train stations, shopping centres, airports and public spaces. - See more at:

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http://www.pavegen.com/

[2]

[3]

22 Darby, Sarah. 2006. “Effectiveness of Feedback on Energy.” 15-16.

23 Dobbyn, J, and Thomas, G. 2005. Seeing the light: the impact of microgeneration on the way we use energy.

Qualitative research findings, Hub Research Consultants, Sustainable Consumption Roundtable. London

24 “PowerMotion”. 2009. New Energy Technologies.

25 Bergman, Noam. 2009. “Can microgeneration catalyze behavior change in the domestic energy sector in the UK?” 28-29

While the movement of humans and human induced stresses on the built environment have been explored through empirical testing, other studies have attempted to understand forms of motion in our built world, including object motion: the movement of objects against one another. This is assumed to be much more rich in energy. One such study states that in fact, the purposeful shaking of a simple object generates over 20 times more than the power generated from walking.21 The condition of object motion generation depends on the duration, frequency and regularity of the movement, and could theoretically be engaged across scales from vibration (high Hz) within material, to resonance in elastic structures (mid Hz), and hinged connections (low Hz). A promise of generating large amounts of electricity through periodic movements that exist in the built environment (such as vibration), is very exciting. It introduces the idea that previously passive infrastructures which are intended to dissipate such movement can be retrofitted to become generative, or that new structures can be developed with the intention to move within some margin for generative purposes.

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

21 The study showed that a kinetic energy sensor placed in the trouser pocket of a 42 study subjects, walking at a periodic rate of 2.0 Hz, to generate an average of 155.2 µW, compared to an observed power generation of 3,500 µW through the periodic shaking of a small object (in this case, a hand-held flashlight) against gravity, an increase of 12-29 percent. Taken from: Gorlatova, Maria, John Sarik, Guy Grebla, Mina Cong, Ioannis Kymissis, and Gil Zussman. “Movers and shakers: Kinetic energy harvesting for the internet of things.” In The 2014 ACM international conference on Measurement and modeling of computer systems, pp. 407-419. ACM, 2014.

In terms of energy feedback, the output energy of integrated generation systems is observed in a number of studies. The effectiveness of this feedback can be attributed to the visibility of information which is being displayed.22 In instances where the data of generation is compared against consumption within the same dwelling, an increased awareness has lead to conserving behavioural effect, reducing total electricity consumption. Furthermore, the introduction of microgeneration into an existing energy system has been observed to reduce the power demands by 20% (Darby, 2006). In addition to the obvious advantages which come from less reliance on the grid, there is evidence that a heightened level of energy consciousness can be achieved due to the presence of feedback from devices. Even more interesting than the reduction in consumption is the development of a sense of which behaviours are free and can be self-provided, and which behaviours cost money and must be provided by an energy supplier.23 We can extrapolate this to a larger scale through, for example, the integration of microgeneration within roads and sidewalks,24 only the beneficiaries of this ‘free’ energy has changed. What still must be determined is if there can be the same observed behavioural effect for the user of such infrastructure, and whether or not they feel the same level of feedback on their efforts. This introduces a number of questions related to the ownership of publicly generated energy, or that which is generated by devices which are instantiated through the spending of municipal funds from taxes, or through monetary funds such as crowd-funding or charities.

31

Other key impacts of this behavioural/technological shift include the presence of energy cultures within industries, households, and institutions, associated with a renewal of infrastructure and increased education through visibility. Furthermore, it highlights the transition from consumer to prosumer,25 where the collective embodied energy of citizens begins to play a role in the generated power capital. The extent of these impacts on the energy system is yet to be fully understood, but it is clear that we are entering a new paradigm in user-device relationships. When we connect this back to kinetic energy generation, there is a huge potential for feedback not only in terms of visualized data, but in the physicality of user actions.

Productive Quotidianity | 2

[left] Urban Art Projects (UAP) collaboration with American artist Ned Kahn, on an 8-storey car park facade featuring individual metal panels which a receptive to the fluid dynamic flows of prevailing winds. Hassell Architecture (Sydney, Australia)

32

It should be noted that aside from activities like walking and running, human motion effects the environment in non-periodic ways, (i.e. the opening of a door or the ascending or descending of a staircase). Due to this non-periodic movement, energy sources from quotidian activities become more random. Environmental and structural motions resulting from weather or large scale fluid dynamics are similarly unpredictable, although often occurring frequently or even constantly.

Through the deploying of mechanical systems, it is possible to enhance the periodic movement which results from such inputs, implicating a ‘softer’ or more flexible built environment that is more susceptible to resonance. A common mechanism used for this in empirical studies, resembles that of a car or train’s dampening system (pictured, right). The conventional dampener is designed to dissipate the resounding mechanical energy from vehicular movement through the use of suspension on springs, whereas its generating counterpart can employ energy-exchanging materials to convert this reverberation into electrical energy.

[1]

[2]

[1] graph depicts regular periodic movement using a sin curve.

[2] diagram of multiple springs metallic damper, typically used in the suspension of a car or train to absorb the mechanical movement between moving masses. www.eganasl.com [3] McKaye, Robert D and Shambayati, Ramin.

2014, IAAC. Diagram of how the traditional vibration absorbing dampener system is converted into a framespring-mass formation, to introduce energy harvesting materials, responding to environmental stress

26 Tesla, Nikola. 1932. The Eternal Source of Energy of the Universe, Origin and Intensity of Cosmic Rays, New York

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

[right] Periodic Movement: illustrations of the nature of periodic movement and how it can be engaged through mechanical processes.

[3]

33

Movement occurs in nature, human biology, our daily activities, and in the built environment, reminding us that the physical world is composed of an elastic collection of elements, constantly exchanging energy as they move from one state to another. We have the capacity to understand this relationship in profound ways. We understand that by enabling movement, we enable the transaction of energy. As was famously stated by Tesla in his 1932 publishing, “if you want to find the secrets of the universe, think in terms of energy, frequency and vibration.�26 It is widely understood that an increased sensitivity of devices to these phenomenon is where we are heading. What will be interesting to see is if it can impact our understanding of the universe as much as it impacts our pocketbooks.

Micro-Electrical Mechanical Systems | 2

Micro-Electrical Mechanical Systems

Since the advent of the computer, electrical engineering has demonstrated an exponential growth in its capacity to yield integrated circuits with improved performance, while decreasing their size; things are getting smaller and faster.27 Despite the fact that many experts believe this exponentiality will reach a limit, as of the turn of the 21st century, Moore’s Law still remains true. The law observes that, over the history of computing hardware, the number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit has doubled approximately every year (later revised to every two years).28 The observation was made in 1965, and revised in 1975 to include the additional observed effect that the price of such integrated circuits would be cut in half at the same exponential rate over time.29 This has facilitated the evolution of sensors, processors, and controllers throughout recent decades, and an overlap into architecture and product design in the information age. It also reflects the trend toward electronics of the future being extremely small and well integrated. The full effects of the convergence of nano- and micro-technologies with architecture have yet to be realized, but their use in hybrid and self powered systems has been widely studied. The factors which primarily drive studies (as well as investment in research) are the efficiency of the energy, and the cost of the energy. However, industry leaders are beginning to ask questions about another factor related to the availability of energy sources. Efficiency is of course good, but it is critical to look at under which conditions of availability and for which application this efficiency is being considered (Wang, 2013). Consequently, in the context of certain infrastructural, environmental, and biological applications, the availability of the energy source becomes a more important factor than efficiency.30

27 Moore, Gordon E., ed. 1995. Lithography and the future of Moore’s law: International Society for Optics and Photonics. pg. 10-16

28 Brock, David C., and Gordon E. Moore. 2006.

Understanding Moore’s law: Four decades of innovation.

Philadelphia, Pa. Chemical Heritage Foundation. pg 70-75

29 Burrus, Daniel. 2015. “Moore’s Law Continues to Drive Change”. Business 2 Community. September 23, 2015. http://www.burrus.com/2015/09/moores-law-continuesto-drive-change/

30 Wang, Zhong L. 2013. lecture for “Dean’s Lecture Series: Nanogenerators as New Energy Technology and Piezotronics for Functional Systems.” Drexel University College of Engineering, University in Philadelphia.

Pennsylvania

34

Micro-electro-mechanical systems, or MEMS, have been observed in many instances to be sufficient in powering devices for wearable technology, environmental sensing, and biosensing, due to the miniaturization of mechanical systems which generate energy from different physical phenomenon

1 per Country

10 per university

Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer the first electronic general-purpose computer ENIAC was announced in 1946

Center for Ergonomics University of Michigan 1970

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1000 per person

Steve Jobs introducing Macin- Arduino open source micro-controller board tosh at the Apple's Annual 2005 Shareholders Meeting January 24, 1984

GENERATION

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Infinite material integration

Thin-film solar cell (TFSC).

2013

[left] Miniaturization: Depiction of the various scales of miniaturization experienced in the past half-century, from the first computers, to infinite integration of computing within everyday life. Adapted from Wang, Zhong L. 2013.

Lecture

Solar Ivy and its parent company, SMIT, utilize recycled and reclaimed materials and life–cycle analysis to ensure that the system and its component parts can be recycled and reclaimed.

Solar Ivy, Brooklyn, NY http://solarivy.com/

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

[right] New Technology: Solar Ivy has evolved to meet the energy needs of individuals, businesses, and communities while adhering to the values of sustainable design and environmental stewardship. Combining photovoltaic technology and piezoelectrics, Solar Ivy’s unique, patent– pending system continues to grow and to challenge our notions of what solar power can and can’t do.

35

Micro-Electrical Mechanical Systems | 2

such as electromagnetic force, electrostatic (triboelectric) force, or piezoelectric force (Alvarez, 2010). In the case of wearable technologies and biosensing it is more common to make use of electrostatic force (friction), because they can be thinner or have less contact area for the device.31, 32 Electromagnetic and piezoelectric forces, on the other hand, have proven in many cases to be the more effective way to generate electrical energy from low-frequency movements, such as those found in the built environment.

Since mechanical vibrations exist in most systems, the majority of case studies in this research focus around movement-driven piezoelectric generating systems. Basic piezoelectric materials consist of ZnO (Zinc Oxide) nanowire composites between two electron plates (pictured, below).

Under mechanical stress, the nanowire structure within the composite is compressed, creating a dipole moment which builds an electron charge on one side. When connected in an integrated circuit, this electron build up can flow freely through the circuit to reach equilibrium once again.

When the mechanical stress is released, the process reverses. The result is an alternating electrical current, created through the periodic mechanical stress on the material.33

31 Alvarez, Mar, and Laura M. Lechuga. 2010.

“Microcantilever-based platforms as biosensing tools.”

Analyst 135 (5): 827–36.

32 Mitcheson, P. D., P. Miao, B. H. Stark, E. M. Yeatman, A. S. Holmes, and T. C. Green. 2004. “MEMS electrostatic micropower generator for low frequency operation.” The 17th European Conference on Solid-State Transducers 115 (2–3): 523–29. doi:10.1016/j.sna.2004.04.026.

33 Wang, Zhong L. 2013.

36

[left] Images depicting the creation of a dipole moment within ZnO (Zinc Oxide) composite materials, as presented

by Wang, Zhong L. 2012 in “From nanogenerators to piezotronics—A decade-long study of ZnO nanostructures.”

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

[right] Piezoelectric Materials, and Applications. Taken from McKaye, Robert and Shambayati, Ramin. Ambient Energy Machines, 2014, IAAC Diagrams depict the basic composition of a piezoelectric material from over-layer (polymer) to nanowire inner layer to base plate or layer (polymer). When under shear force from applied stresses, the creating of a dipole moment forces the electron flow in the (+) or (-) direction.

[right] Wang, Zhong L. 2012. Graph (b) depicts the flow of (-) and (+) voltage from a piezoelectic material under periodic stress, in its original [a], stretched [b], and compressed [c] states

34 Wang, Zhong L. 2012. 814–27

37

Significant contributions in understanding this phenomenon have been made by Dr. Zhong Lin Wang, Director of the Center for Nanostructure Characterization at Georgia Tech. In his book From Nanogenerators to Piezotronics—A Decade-Long study of ZnO Nanostructures, he outlines more than ten years worth of material optimization, improving the efficiency of voltage by mechanical stress from 9mV in 2006, to up to 50mV in 2013 (more than a 500% increase). In terms of power, his efforts have contributed to an improved efficiency from 0.11µW in 2008 to 500µW in 2013.34 Wang and his contemporaries believe that the future of powering distributed intelligence systems lies in understanding how these technologies can be integrated into our everyday products and activities. This integration represents the mechanization of kinetic energy sources for ambient electricity, and the development of macro-level results based on the deployment of micro-systems. A presence of local networks and local electrification based on local conditions creates the awareness and applicability of ambient energy at both ends.

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Micro-Electrical Mechanical Systems | 2

Output Voltage and Power of Prototypes (Single layers, Resistance=1M ohm, Error≈3%)

[left] Li, Shuguang, and Hod Lipson. “Vertical-stalk flapping-leaf generator for wind energy harvesting.”

ASME 2009 Conference on Smart Materials, Adaptive Structures and Intelligent Systems. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2009.

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DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

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experiments, we compared and analyzed all data, and the main conclusions are as follows.

First, we observed the maximum output power (~300μW,

35 McKaye, Robert, and Shambayati, Ramin. 2014.

“Ambient Energy Machines”. IAAC: Open Thesis Fabrication. Barcelona, Spain 2014-2015

36 Lefeuvre, E, Badel, A, Richard, C, Petit, L & Guyomar, D 2006, ‘A comparison between several vibrationpowered piezoelectric generators for standalone systems’, Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, vol. 126, no. 2, pp.

405–16.

37 Roundy, Shad 2005, ‘On the effectiveness of vibration-based energy harvesting’, Journal of intelligent material systems and structures, vol. 16, no. 10, pp.

809–23.

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

[right] Looping Exchanges: Diagram describing the doubly looped system created through a piezoelectric transducer bridge between mechanical and electrical energy cycles.

MEMS harvest energy from pre-existing mechanical energy cycles, such as those in the movement of nature or infrastructure. Piezoelectric transducers, for instance, convert energy from these mechanical cycles into ones of electrical energy, where the flow of electricity can then be harvested to a capacitor or larger battery. This creates a doubly looped system where the piezoelectric element acts as a bridge between the cycles of mechanical and electrical energy.

The input sources, output peripheral devices, and optimization of the respective circuit components, determine the overall conversion potential (pictured, above). The conversion generates fluctuating values based on non-linear sources, which fits well with implementation within dynamic and unpredictable conditions that can emerge from both urban and rural contexts. Furthermore, they work independently of weather and seasons. At the same time, they reflect the understanding that wherever there is material activation, there can be energy.

39

The detailing of MEMS depends heavily on the context and application in which they are being placed, with common methods being the aforementioned dampening system, cantilevered systems, and systems which embed the material within hybrid composites.35 Despite laboratory optimization, the best results come from when the specific site and context is considered in the conceptualization of the system.35, 36 Meaning that when a MEMS device is considered to be deployed, it is important to understand the range of frequencies which will be present in the context. In order to calibrate devices to the frequency range, the mass density of the piezoelectric material is increased or decreased, and additional tip-mass can be applied. This tuning process through mass and weight enables the piezoelectric material to be more or less responsive, depending on the method of deployment.37 This is very important to ensure that the material is maximizing power output, yet not being overstressed to the point of fracturing or breaking. Thus, output is dependant not only on efficiency of the electrical load transmission within the circuit, but also on the composition of the device, including the mass of the piezoelectric materials, the quality of connections, and the enhancing of forces by weight. This knowledge has led MEMS engineering into the realm of product design, experimenting with geometry, material, and application, instead of solely electrical load optimization.

Micro-Electrical Mechanical Systems | 2

Returning to the question of the efficiency of MEMS vs. the efficiency of other renewable energies such as photovoltaic panels and wind turbines, it is also important to note that despite years of speculation in the scientific community that it could be possible to generate electricity from kinetic energy, the recent advents in micro-energy harvesting have only been made in the last decade and a half. In the last 2 years alone we have seen the release of market-ready products designed specifically for generating electrical energy from piezoelectrics,38 inviting independent research, students, and other DIY professionals to begin experimenting with this newly applicable technology.

38 The Volture vibration energy harvester device harvests otherwise wasted energy from mechanical vibrations. The Volture accomplishes this by using piezoelectric materials to convert mechanical strain into useable electrical energy. https://youtu.be/wLGjFoD1LKs

The first silicon-solar cell was created in 1954 and yielded 6% efficiency.39 More than a half-century later, in 2007, that number increased to 42%, and evidence indicates that it has plateaued more-or-less in that zone. However, around the same time, the conventional PV-panel underwent a rebirth with the introduction of Solar Roadways, a radical product intended to replace massive amounts of dilapidated road ways with intelligent components to generate clean energy, and power internal LEDs for communication and information infrastructures.40, 41 Despite the long list of technological and environmental problems, both obvious and nuanced, this product represents a huge leap forward not in terms of efficiency, but in terms of application. It is the first example of photovoltaics which hybridizes self-powered information systems and infrastructure through the innovative use of technology, and is an exemplary case at that.

40 Solar Roadways. 2010. Idaho, US http://www.solarroadways.com/intro.shtml

39 “April 25, 1954: Bell Labs Demonstrates the First Practical Silicon Solar Cell”. APS News (American Physical Society). April 2009.

41 George, Patrick E. 2009. “How Solar Panel Highways Work” 18 November 2009. HowStuffWorks.com.

As an emerging field, it is expected that the continued research and development of movementbased MEMS will yield equally inventive products in the near future. The inevitability is that these systems will become cheaper in investment than other system, when applied to particular contexts.

It is fundamental that designers get involved in the conversation, in order to architecturalize these innovations and locate them within the market.

[left] Solar Roadways. 2010.

40

Component-Based Design: Images show the interaction possible though the integration of sensors and LED lighting systems in the component-based infrastructure.

42 Bratton, BH n.d., ‘What Do We Mean by “Program”?

The Convergence of Architecture and Interface Design’, viewed 18 March 2015

43 Lecture with Alisa Andresek, December 2014, IAAC. Andresek referred to “superpower of architecture” to be its capacity for synthesis of multi-agent systems through complex computational processes. At UCL Bartlett, she is engaged with the collection, dissemination and utilization of large data sets for design agency.

44 Ndubisi, F 2002, Ecological planning: A historical and comparative synthesis, Center books in contemporary landscape design, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. 124-127

45 Urbiotica was established in Barcelona in 2008 with a clear vision: technology based on wireless sensors transforming how we manage our cities. www.urbiotica.com

46 Libelium Smart World is a full-suite provider of hardware and software oriented to powering and connecting the Internet of Things. They offer a powerful, modular, easy to program open source sensor platform enabling system integrators to implement reliable Smart Cities and M2M solutions with minimum time. http://www.libelium.com/

These days, designers share a resemblance with software developers. They too run programs within mainframes of hardware, taking into consideration specific contexts and data related to the kinds of activity they anticipate, resulting in products that again allow for the user to engage without the need to fully understand the macro-level operations of the system.42 Tools for distributed intelligence (sensors) have begun to facilitate street-level operations, while the interconnectivity of devices enables buildings and their users to be more self-reliant.

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

Architecture as Operating System

Therefore, designing in the 21st century means not only the design of things themselves, but, perhaps more importantly, how the things we design work together. This is the contemporary reality of architectural programming: an imagination of how things will play out, and the staging of their interrelations accordingly (Bratton, 2008). Here we see the architect taking on new roles which involve the coordination of a variety of different disciplines, managing the relationships between them. The observed emergence of patterns and trends, enable architects to see predictions of the future through multi-agent simulations, and the collection of big data.43 The permeation of intelligence through architectural devices allows for this to be possible, including systems which can provide operational feedback to both its users and designers. Furthermore, it provides the ability to zoom in on particular agents, and their interrelations to others. In these particularities architecture can begin to synthesize the aforementioned topics of energy, behaviour, and generation to find form.

Typically, the data obtained is that concerning particular conditions that have an influence on the development and survival of a population in a given environment, such as climate or resources.44 Receiving and managing this information is the task of new species all together, taking the form of nodes, sensors, transmitters, and the like. Proponents of this new operating system also include wireless hubs and various interfaces for the display of information and user control. Because of the relationship that this network has both with its users, and with the conditions that effect them, its physical manifestation helps to shape desired inhabitable spaces and conditions.

41

At the urban scale, the idea is to make every day life (and consequently, the process of designing), easier and more efficient. Smart cities are characterized by intelligent sensing, and the management of city information over The Wireless Sensor Network (WSN). It transmits realtime data to the cloud through deployed sensors in the environment using available interfaces such as Wi-Fi, GPRS or Ethernet. Commonly the products can include smart traffic and lighting systems, environmental and air quality monitoring, pedestrian activity information, and more. The holistic approach to real-time data monitoring has led many companies to create entire families of products, connecting sensors, nodes and transmitters, so as to be a one-stop-shop for all the wireless sensor needs of a municipality.45, 46 The architecturalizing of these products has become

Architecture as Operating System | 2

a new challenge for the designers of smart cities in the sensor era, and introduces both limitations and opportunities in terms of electricity.

47 van Ommeren, Erik, Sander Duivestein, Jaap Bloem, and Menno van Doorn. 2014. “The Fourth Industrial Revolution - Things to Tighten the Link Between IT and OT.”.

32-3.

At the building scale, high performance relates to the monitoring and control of various functions which, in today’s world, are too mundane or time consuming to be done by human action. This includes such infrastructural functions as mechanical system and structural health monitoring, as well as domestic functions such as temperature and humidity controls, automated ventilation, shading and lighting, and fire and safety monitors. These devices increase the resolution of network of systems within architecture, and allow for the users and designers of buildings to understand conditions over time. While customization was signature to the 3rd industrial revolution, the 4th industrial revolution is characterized by automation, the ability for computers to communicate with each other without us.47 Intrinsic to this is the marriage between informational technology and operational technology; the intelligence of objects.

When Kevin Ashton coined the term ‘Internet of Things’ in 1999, he introduced the concept that disparate objects could be connected to a central database via the internet, providing the link from one physical location to another through devices. A decade and a half later, the

42

[left] Urbiotica, Urban Operating System. Image depicts the connectivity of such services as parking, lighting, and waste management over the Internet of Things.

[2]

interconnectivity between device and internet is commonplace. Today there are internets of energy, internets of social interaction, internets of everything. We rely on the immediate transfer of data and communication for our everyday lives. As far as technology is concerned, we are entering the sensor era,48 wherein it is no longer a requirement for users to inform computers, because they can generate their own intelligence through collected data. Despite what we think are the merits or demerits of this form of automation, the reality is that their provided services require energy.

43

[1]

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

[right] Libelium Smart World infographics.

[1] Depicts the basic structure of the Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), as characterized by the dispersal of nodes, communicating wirelessly to a information router unit (in this case the Libelium Meshlium Xtreme, 802.15.4/ ZigBee Sensor Network Gateway), which communicates of the channels of Wi-Fi, Ethernet and GPRS to the internet. http://www.libelium.com/110730734925/ [2] Depicts the wide range of applications and locations in which to deploy the WSN for practical purposes. Notably, many of these conditions are observed to be expensive or difficult to reach for maintenance or management. http://www.libelium.com/company/#show_infographic

48 Wang, Zhong L. “Dean’s Lecture Series: Nanogenerators as New Energy Technology and Piezotronics for Functional Systems.�

Architecture as Operating System | 2

The typical environmental sensor is intended to last approximately 12-15 years. Batteries for the typical sensor node are intended to have a life of approximately 3 years. However, when the system you are operating is demanding a high-performance, (i.e. the registering of data on intervals in the range of 10 second to a minute, like in that of a carbon monoxide sensor or highway proximity sensor), the conditions change drastically. The system engineer is left with two options: either gather data once a day, and allow the sensor to last for 3 years, or gather data at the rate at which it is actually needed, and last between 2-3 months.49 This is where energy harvesting is finally finding a niche. It is finding a commercial value for implementation into architecture, because we can finally power all of these sensors that are being deployed.

The problem of MEMS, as identified in the previous section, is that the irregularity of the input and the small scale of energy, has failed to find a market value. People want to hear that they can power their phone, and care less about the powering of sensors, despite the huge role that they already play in our lives. It is true that small amounts of electricity cannot power your car or your home, but indeed studies have proven the small amounts of electricity can power sensors in your car or your home. Small amounts of energy can provide adequate power to a device which is inaccessible, or too expensive to reach.50, 51 What becomes interesting for architects is the ability to add the layer of complexity and sensitivity afforded by sensors, in symbiotic ways that respect the form and function of a building. There is a huge potential for using the WSN to improve efficiency and quality of processes, enabling high performance buildings and smart city infrastructural networks. In order for these networks to be effective, they need to be lowmaintenance, low cost, and have a long life span. Currently, the system of batteries alone is not sufficient.

49 Fowler, Nicolas. 2011.

50 Miller, Lindsay. 2012. “Vibration Energy Harvesting for Wireless Sensor Networks.� December 20. https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=2mslteVEujU. Scavenging: Millers experiments use flow harvesting, or fluid flows to oscillate piezoelectric materials in typical mechanical systems which are considered to be out-ofreach to everyday maintenance. At their best, they have yielded as much as a continuous milliwatt of power from such ambient sources as 3m/s airflow (standard ducts airflow)

51 Dondi, D., A. Di Pompeo, C. Tenti und T. S. Rosing, Hrsg., Shimmer: A wireless harvesting embedded system for active ultrasonic Structural Health Monitoring. 2010; Sensors, 2010 IEEE.

52 Miller, Lindsay. 2012.

[left] Energrid, IAAC. 2012.

Management: the Energrid project aims to develop a distributed infrastructure for buildings energy management. The project is funded by Endesa and developed by IAAC in partnership with i2Cat Foundation.

Energrid integrates an ecosystem of wireless intelligent plugs, sensors and energy generation systems on a single platform allowing to create logics that manage buildings energy consumption, generation and storage.

44

http://iaac.net/research-projects/intelligent-cities/ energrid/

54 Addington, D. Michelle und Daniel L. Schodek. 2005. page 80.

55 Yang, Guang-Zhong, 2008. “Body Sensor Networks,” Institute of Biomedical Engineering. Imperial College London. 23-6. http://www.bsn-web.org

56 Lai, Xiaochen, et al. 2013. “A survey of body sensor networks.” Sensors 13.5. 5406-5447.

By hybridizing architectural elements with MEMS, we can power the Wireless Sensor Network of the Internet of Things. The smart cities and buildings of the 21st century have the capacity not only to receive the load of internal or external stresses through their physical reality, but also manage the load of communication in the informational, digital network.53 The role of the architect in the design of ‘metastructures’ (Muller, 2005) is to establish the protocols by which the structural and informational systems are working together, and in which ways they can help each other. There is inherent energy within material just as there is in structures. And the embedded intelligence systems which form the informational layer of architecture can be powered by this energy, as it is exemplary in its locality and small scale. As distributed intelligence continues to permeate an interconnected society, so can distributed power generation permeate our current power supplies.

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

53 Muller, Willy. 2005. “Metastructures.” In Media house project the house is the computer, the structure is the network, edited by Vicente Guallart. United States: Actar.

Joint Functions

57 Lo, Benny PL, Surapa Thiemjarus, Rachel King, and Guang-Zhong Yang. 2005. Body sensor network–a wireless sensor platform for pervasive healthcare monitoring.

58 De Pasquale, Giorgio, Aurelio Somà, and Federico Fraccarollo. “Comparison between piezoelectric and magnetic strategies for wearable energy harvesting.” In Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 476, no. 1, p.

012097. IOP Publishing, 2013.

59 Feenstra, Joel, Jon Granstrom, and Henry Sodano.

“Energy harvesting through a backpack employing a mechanically amplified piezoelectric stack.” Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 22, no. 3 (2008): 721-734.

60 Andosca, Robert. 2011. lecturer for “ VLAB Presents: Energy Harvesting - Power Everywhere,” VLAB, San Franscico, CA.

Many steps have been made in order to pair distributed intelligence (sensors) with distributed generation (MEMS) for the production of autonomous systems. To push this further, we must look to the applications for which this distributed intelligence will be used (output), and where there are opportunities for deploying kinetic energy generators (input). The energy exchanging class of materials converts energy from one form to another, as previously illustrated with piezoelectric materials by their ability to convert mechanical to electrical energy through stress. Such materials, are often referred to as ‘First Law’ materials, and while their efficiency is less than conventional sources, they produce a direct relationship between input energy and output energy.54 This means that their potential utility can be impacted by their location and particular context, and the amount of electrical energy can increase if the amount of input energy in another form (kinetic) is also increased. For this reason, there has been a lot of research conducted on the viability for piezoelectric MEMS in conjunction with mechanical or biological activities.

45

In biological applications, the use of human-mounted generators have shown to produce enough power to contribute to the operational requirements of body sensor networks.55 For example, low frequency movement in the range of 2-10Hz (input), are converted using piezoelectric generators (MEMS), to power a distributed blood pressure monitor (sensor) for monitoring of internal biological conditions of a patient (output).56, 57 Similar functionality has been explored at the scale of wearable technology.58, 59 By harnessing the energy which is dissipated in the flexing of tendons and joints of the human body, connections have been made between the power produced and the electrical requirements for what they need for their jobs. The market where this has seen the most action is in uniform manufacturing for soldiers, fire-fighters, and other emergency responders, which must house the intelligence required for communication, location services and environmental sensing.60 In the near future this will lead to the liberation of ground forces from the need to carry large battery packs.

Joint Functions | 2

Infrastructural and architectural applications are still in their infancy, but due to the vast deployment of sensors in the built environment, there are a few case studies to be observed.

In terms of structural health monitoring of bridges, piezoelectric transducers have been used effectively to power regular ultrasonic sensing.61 Such systems are useful for structural monitoring because they employ in-situ microcontrolling. This means that the data travels from the sensor to the computer through a direct local connection, rather than over long distances and back over the internet.

61 Dondi, D., A. Di Pompeo, C. Tenti und T. S. Rosing. 2010

Other sensors are used to monitor the façades and structural cores of high-rise buildings, responding to inputs such as wind pressure, GPS location, temperature and humidity, and active loads.62, 63 This has introduced interactive prototyping of smart technologies into to the field of architecture, and the simulation of complex macro systems based on functional micro components.64 The potential self-powering of information systems through component design can enable early warnings for structures, significantly reduce the maintenance and operational cost of buildings, and promote public health and safely.

http://cseweb.ucsd.edu/~trosing/shm/

In the conceptualization of projects with embedded sensing and information systems, the emphasis is on the designing of nodes in both spatial and structural contexts. Multi-functional nodes are instrumental in the pairing of information with space. To push this further into the realm of architecture, the multi-functional node becomes a joint. This is exemplified by prototyping projects like the Media House, which demonstrated the hybridization of information and structure through innovative node design.65 Working on multiple levels, the project enforces that the home is a computer and its structure the network, both literally in the physical sense, and informationally through the node-to-node transfer of data. (Guallart, 2004). The logical next step for further resolution of the Media House is to relieve this intelligent joint of its dependency on electrical wiring. The distribution of informational and structural performance can be triply joined with a generational system provided by micro-electrical mechanical systems like those previously mentioned.

63 Inaudi, Daniele. 1997. “Fiber optic sensor network for the monitoring of civil engineering structures.” PhD diss., École Polytechnique

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Structures are inherently susceptible to movement and interaction with the environment, and the strength of joinery is what determines their ability to rebuff this movement. Affording joints a calculated receptiveness to this movement for the purposes of discrete electrical energy generation is the aim of an Architecture of Sensitivity. Sensitivity in this context has multiple definitions: (1) the capacity for structural design to be sensitive to ambient energy sources, (2) the electrification of the architectural and urban sensor networks, and (3) the heightened sensitivity of we, the users, to the reciprocal relationship between our material and immaterial worlds.

Structure monitoring: SHiMmer is a wireless platform that combines active sensing and localized processing with energy harvesting to provide long-lived structural health monitoring. SHiMmer uses piezoelectric transducers (PZTs) to evaluate a portion of a structure to determine if damage exists. Unlike other sensor networks that periodically monitor a structure and route information to a base station, the device acquires data and processes it locally before communicating with an external device.

62 Su, Jia-Zhan, Yong Xia, Lu Chen, Xin Zhao, Qi-Lin Zhang, You-Lin Xu, Jie-Min Ding et al. 2013 “Long-term structural performance monitoring system for the Shanghai Tower.” Journal of civil structural health monitoring 3, no.

1: 49-61.

64 Engel, Jonathan M., Lianhan Zhao, Zhifang Fan, Jack Chen, and Chang Liu. 2004. “

Images taken from Guallart, Vicente. 2005. “Media House Project.�

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

[right] SIDWIS (Structural Infrastructural Data-Way Integrated System) was developed for the Media House, and combined the capacity for structural continuity and informational continuity within the same, hybridized joint system. This joint highlights how informational systems can take on a spatial dimension through the embedding of technology within architectural features. Furthermore, it demonstrates the multi-scalarity of hybrid systems, achieving large (macro) scale results of network and structural connections, with extremely detailed, small scale (micro) systems.

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3 | EXPERIMENTS

67 Roundy, S 2005, ‘On the effectiveness of vibrationbased energy harvesting’, Journal of intelligent material systems and structures, vol. 16, no. 10, pp. 809–23.

68 McNichol, Tom. 2006. AC/DC: The savage tale of the first standards war. 1st ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 177

The previous chapters have revealed the architectural-theoretical landscape connected to energy harvesting technologies, as they relate to contemporary practice. Moving forward, this report attempts to outline the relevant tools and methods for their implementation.

Designing systems to transmit surrounding vibratory energy to piezoelectric materials is a critical point. It contributes in particular to determining of the amount and the shape of the active material. Also determined to have critical importance is the analysis of 3-dimesnional space for dynamic zoning based on temporal and environmental conditions. This reflects the aforementioned reality of MEMS deployment: that device optimization depends not only on the efficiency of the electrical load transmission, but also on the mass density of the source, the composition of the generator, and the quality of its context (Roundy, 2005).66. 67

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

66 In this case, the source referred to is the total mass load applied to the MEMS device in the mechanism. It is quantified as a combination of ambient inputs such as wind, rain, and other systems of fluid dynamics, in addition to the weight of any component attachments on the device.

3 | EXPERIMENTS

Archetypes for Energy Exchange

The examples in this section utilize piezoelectric composite and hybrid materials in conjunction with other materials to create mechanical systems, as well as devices for programming and energy management. The list was compiled from 2013-15 and ranges from prototyping examples and computation to conceptual projects and exercises in 1:1 fabrication and construction.

Topics discussed in these sections will include the implications for the future of this technology within architecture, reference projects, and tools and techniques for (1) analysis, (2) design, (3) fabrication, and lastly, (4) habitation. The push by industry towards sensor and wireless network automation reflects the recent increase in available technologies without which, these experiments could not take place. It should also be noted that despite the contemporary nature of the work exhibited in these chapters, the fact is that the industry of energy harvesting and sensor integration is growing exponentially with the advent of new products, and within a short time, these projects will likely become out of date. Nonetheless it is the motivation of this paper to express the important role of the architect within this emerging discipline, and the potential paradigm shift toward an architecture of sensitivity which coincides.

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These projects rely on the use of rechargeable batteries, capacitors, and direct input-to-output relationships. By pairing the format of output energy to the format input energy from devices, they reduce the number of electrical conversions, and in some cases circumvent the problem of transmission all together.68 Devices are designed to enable or enhance resonance in material and structure, increasing the potential for electricity generation. Electrical energy has been used in recreational, informational, and generational contexts, accordingly. Furthermore, the research explores the permeation of energy feedback in architecture, resulting not only in reduced losses, but also a stronger understanding of the relationship between the amount of energy required for site-specific functions, and the sources through which it is acquired. This suggests a new ‘ecological resonance’ which applies both in physical and behavioural ways.

Generator Typology: Surface | 3

Generator Typology: Surface

Research has demonstrated that the most effective forms of energy scavenging rely on the phenomenon of resonance, due to the fact that most MEMS support or connect between moving parts. Thus, the kinetic energy generated is from bending and twisting movements as a response to stresses, as opposed to sliding or rolling movements which are used in conventional dynamos and turbines. 69 This behaviour, which has been widely studied, is critical in the designing of devices which use piezoelectric transducers.

69 Yeatman, E & Mitcheson, P 2006, ‘Energy Scavenging’ (English), in G Yang (ed.), Body Sensor Networks, Springer London, pp. 183–217

We see in nature that structures such as trees and their branches, which receive active loads from pervasive fluid dynamics, also demonstrate elasticity and flexibility in connections. This has led to the development of many projects which mimic biological structures for both their aesthetic qualities and functionality. Energy from these impacts is dissipated/absorbed through this material property, converting it to observable vibrations, audible sounds, and other forms of energy until the system reaches equilibrium once again. Glass and tensile façades and roof structures demonstrate similarly elastic properties as a means to absorb and dissipate environmental loads.

The composition and density of this material is considered in context with the distance it will span, the live loads, and interior/exterior conditions. Though the traditional function of these surface elements is to resist environmental stresses while remaining lightweight and thin, the idea of catching this discrete energy for other productive purposes offers a re-invention of this archetypal element.

[left] Otto, Frei. Dance Pavilion at the Federal Garden Exhibition, 1957, Cologne, Germany Otto’s dancing pavilion for Cologne’s federal garden show was one of his first projects to gain public acclaim.

Designed to last a year, the pavilion still stands today.

This is due in part to the lightweight design and easy dismantling of the structure.

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Atelier Frei Otto Warmbronn freiotto.com/

71 Kapoor, Anish. 2009. Dismemberment, Site 1, Gibbs Farm, New Zealand

72 EmTech (M. Hensel, A. Menges, M. Weinstock) 2007.

AA Component Membrane, AA London. http://www.achimmenges.net/?p=4445

Experimentation into surficial generation began at the Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia (IAAC), conducted by the IC3 research group of the Wind Energy Machines Studio in 2013. It involved a series of interconnected investigations into material, the enhancing of mechanical vibration, programming, and field testing.70 Citing references of Anish Kapoor, EmTech, and Frei Otto, IC3 investigated minimal surfaces and the combined phenomena of Venturi Effect and vortex shedding, with the goal of creating turbulence through the deployment of surfaces in the natural environment.71, 72, 73, 74 Observing the surface as a formal boundary condition intended to disrupt environmental flow, it has the potential to partition space and create a change in conditions.

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

70 the 2013 Wind Energy Machines studio at IAAC was lead by Javier Peña, Rodrigo Rubio, and Oriol Carrasco, and the IC3 team consisted of 4 members: Robert Douglas McKaye, Kateryna Rogynska, Sahil Sharma, and Ramin Shambayati

73 Bauer, Ingrid C., Fabrizio Catanese, and Roberto Pignatelli. 2006. “Complex surfaces of general type: some recent progress.” In Global aspects of complex geometry, pp. 1-58. Springer Berlin Heidelberg,

74 Weinstein, Lee A., Martin R. Cacan, P. M. So, and P. K. Wright. 2012. “Vortex shedding induced energy harvesting from piezoelectric materials in heating, ventilation and air conditioning flows.” Smart Materials and Structures 21 (4): 045003.

[right] [1], [2] depict vortex shedding, and the results of increased velocity of fluid flows around obstructions (venturi effect) using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), and the subsequent creation of turbulence behind objects based on wind-speeds and characteristics.

[1]

[2]

http://www.cfd-online.com/ http://www.azimuthproject.org/

[3] AA Compoment Membrane, EmTech 2007. Permanent canopy for the terrace of the Architectural Association in London. The parametric model acted as the interface for a design evolution, based on environmental stress, leading to a high level of performative integration while at the same time providing all relevant data for the manufacturing and assembly of the steel structure consisting of 600 geometrically different parts and 150 different membrane elements. The resulting membrane articulation protects the terrace from rain while at the same time remaining porous enough to avoid excessive wind pressure or blocking the view across London’s roofscape.

[3]

53

http://www.achimmenges.net/?p=4445

Generator Typology: Surface | 3

[left] McKaye, Robert, Rogynska, Kateryna, Sharma, Sahil, and Shambayati, Ramin. 2013. Process images from AmpLeaf fabrication, including field testing of electronics and mechanical/textile system, manufacturing, and CFD simulation to determine the optimal orientation and placement of the final components.

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The use of digital fabrication tools - such as large scale soldering irons, laser cutters, and industrial sewing machines - facilitated the rapid prototyping necessary for this research. Multiple iterations of the energy management system were made possible by the access to electronics manufacturing tools. Most critical was the use of microcontrollers for energy and information management.75 The team used a FLORA microcontroller to enable the bridge between the generative system and the output peripherals. 3D modelling software was instrumental for the management of design and fabrication, and CFD plug-ins were used to provide feedback from site-specific conditions related to wind flow and resultant turbulence. Pairing the data from simulation with empirical testing of the physical device, the form and installation method could undergo a process of optimization.

Parametric manipulation of the 3D model using computational design software, therefore, enabled the team to ‘tune’ the mechanism for placement in particular contexts.76 A number of prototypes were produced attempting to combine piezoelectric components into a membrane or re-enforced composite textile, and were tested using both laboratory conditions with artificial wind tunnels and in the field, through installation in trees and on existing infrastructure.

The result was an integrated ‘smart’ surface from PVC and latex, with embedded piezoelectric

75 FLORA is Adafruit’s fully-featured wearable electronics platform. It’s a round, sew-able, Arduinocompatable microcontroller designed to empower amazing wearables projects. https://www.adafruit.com/products/659

76 Rhino 3D with Grasshopper algorithmic design software and Kangaroo Physics plug-in were used for this process

[right] McKaye, Robert et. al. 2013 AmpLeaf, IAAC. Catalog entries for surficial generator typology, including grasshopper scripting for material relaxation, technical drawings, circuit design and programming images.

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

sensors, energy harvesting and management circuits, microcontroller processing, and output devices (audio amplifier, LED lighting) (pictured, below). It was given the name AmpLeaf, due to the corresponding form and its deployment in natural settings, as well as its intention to amplify the ambient energy through mechanical motion. Using a LDR light sensor, the microcontroller would determine whether the generated energy would be routed to power bird calls for ornithochory (daytime), or LEDS lighting for ambient forest illumination (night-time).

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Generator Typology: Surface | 3

[1]

[right] Diagrams of the piezoelectic materials which were used, and the energy management circuit.

[1] photos and exploded diagram of the MEAS LDT1028K piezoelectric sensor http://www.mouser.com/ds/2/418/LDT1_028K-710018. pdf [2] Circuit used in the original AmpLeaf, including MEMS devices, energy harvester, NI-MH rechargeable battery, FLORA microcontroller, and output peripherals.

[3] Technical drawings of the AmpLeaf and its accessories AmpLeaf is designed to fit the needs of on-site customization and adaptability. All components are included in a minimally packaged format. Each ‘control’ sheet is embedded with the electronics required for energy harvesting, conversion, and light and sound emission. One additional sheet without electronics is provided and can be installed with the control sheet to enhance material reverberation and increased production.

[3]

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[2]

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

77 LDT1-028K is a multipurpose, piezoelectric sensor for detecting physical phenomena such as vibration or impact.

The piezo film element is laminated to a sheet of polyester (Mylar), and produces a useable electrical signal output when forces are applied to the sensing area. The dual wire lead attached to the sensor allows a circuit or monitoring device to process the signal. http://www.meas-spec.com/downloads/LDT1_028K.pdf

The piezoelectric element used for these tests was the MEAS multi-purpose piezoelectric sensor with a range of between 10mV-100mV depending on the force, and a power output dependant on the circuit impedance (resistance).77 The piezo sensors were connected in series to an energy management circuit consisting of a supercapacitor, LTC-3588 energy harvester and Ni-MH rechargeable batteries (see technical drawings, left). Irregular inputs are regulated by the energy harvesting unit using an internal capacitor, resulting in a build up of between 10100mW (milliwatts) of electrical power in a window of approximately 30 minutes of exposure to laboratory stresses. This level is sufficient to power low-level function such as the LDR light sensor, and the cueing of the FLORA to play pre-recorded audio tracks using an MP3 breakout board, and light LEDS with battery assistance.

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However, for the AmpLeaf, the effective powering of these peripheral devices over long term operation was only completed with a battery assist, and future iterations would need to develop the method of transmission between the harvester and the battery or capacitor. This can include the addition of switches to regulate when the circuit is charging or discharging electricity, and potential back-up battery systems which will be described in the following typology. Despite the limitations of the circuit, the output power values from the harvester in milliwatts, in comparison to the consumption required for the various sensors, microcontrollers and peripheral functions in milliwatt-hours is the value of the AmpLeaf prototype. The provision of sufficient power is an effective proof of concept for the use of MEMS in such low-level functionalities. The next iteration of this circuit development would be to establish a higher resolution transmission of this harvester output to the peripherals need.

Generator Typology: Surface | 3

As a surficial typology, the AmpLeaf has joint functionality as an environmental sensor and as a creator of physical boundary conditions in space. Deployed in a forest, park, or rural setting, it generates small amounts of energy through its material resonance against forces such as wind and animal interaction. The program for the operation was to power, or assist in powering, the light sensor, LED lighting, and the periodic playing of particular bird and animal calls. Through this program, the prototype performs ‘ecological resonance’ as a new piece of eco-infrastructure.

Encouraging birds and animals to interact with targeted flora and fauna, the aim was to enhance biotic pollination and ornithochory (the transfer of seeds and pollen by birds), thereby enriching environments which have been affected negatively by deforestation and man-made intervention.79 These effects connect to increased soil fertility and long-term forest migration, under the practice of eco-architecture and engineering.

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Furthermore to its functions as an environmental sensor, the translucency of the composite textile was highly effective in diffusing light, which was explored in its application as an ambient lighting source for humans navigating the forest at night (pictured, below). The heightened sensitivity of this device towards species of animal and plants reflects the heightened capability to today’s technology. Speaking not only in terms of the physical limits of architecture,79 the 15-year plan of AmpLeaf posits passive bio-regeneration of the forest, introducing new symbiosis between man, machine, and nature.

78 Site occupies an optimal spot for the exploration of biosphere rejuvenation through passive systems. Located in the Collserola National Park, it is one of many sites that have experienced a notable decrease in diversity of plant and animal life due to nearby development.

Many studies by CERFA and the Park Consortium have correlated the subdivision and transformation of land with the marginalization of specific species, their resulting relocation and, in some cases, disappearance from the area.

79 Guallart, Vicente. 2005. “Intelligent Environments.”

In Media house project the house is the computer, the structure is the network, edited by Vicente Guallart. United States: Actar. pg 57

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

[right] The project aims to catalyse the slow process of bio-regeneration. Conceptually, it follows four basic pillars of environmental design: Environmental Infrastructure: targeting native species of flora and fauna with the purpose of enhancing biological phenomena such as pollination, zoochory (dispersal by seeds), and biotic fertilization Passive Energy Systems: applying energy directly back into the environment from which it is derived without the need for external sources. This will lead to the development of a framework for future growth Multi-functionality: use of adaptable and flexible tools which can perform different functions depending on input from the immediate context Symbiotic Relationships: identifying mutually beneficially ecological advancements for human and bio-life such as increased soil fertility, strengthened phosphorus, carbon and nitrogen cycles, and insect management

80 Rain Power: Harvesting Energy from the Sky January 22, 2008 By Lisa Zyga http://phys.org/ news/2008-01-power-harvesting-energy-sky.html#jCp

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Scientists from CEA/Leti-Minatec, an R&D institute in Grenoble, France have developed a system that recovers the vibration energy from a piezoelectric structure impacted by a falling raindrop. The system works with raindrops ranging in diameter from 1 to 5 mm, and simulations show that it’s possible to recover up to 12 milliwatts from one of the larger “downpour” drops.

Moving forward with surficial MEMS design, it is critical to identify the program and context for which new self-sufficient sensors can be deployed. The potential input of rainfall and other impact-related sources has been explored in some contemporary experiments, suggesting that the small-scale boundary conditions introduced by the AmpLeaf project can be extended to building envelopes, urban canopies, and other larger scale applications.80 Used in conjunction with facade systems, a surficial generator could be used to harness stress from wind load on high-rise buildings, or along highway barricades and bridges.

Generator Typology: Surface | 3

Customization and potential application to different contexts can be achieved through complex computational processes, like the one seen below. The script uses the visual coding interface Grasshopper to subdivide any input surface into components, for application in structural design.

Built in two parts, the first allows for the control of the U and V values in established surface subdivisions, and allows for the orientation of the subdivided panels according to the directionality of input stresses on the surfaces or the desired boundary condition. The second part applies physics to the surficial generator components, by visualizing the elasticity of the input surface material, which will then be embedded with piezoelectric MEMS. The process outputs surface membranes and the structure which will support it, in the form of meshes and lines. The project Energetic Spaces, demonstrates this outcome (pictured, right). The goal of this scripting exercise was to demonstrate the potentialities of micro-to-macro in a digital design space, using an established prototype as the basis for a multi-component algorithmic design process.

[1] [left] Grasshopper surface subdivision script developed in the Energetic Spaces project.

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The first step of the process [1] converts any input surface or surfaces in to component-based, algorithmically driven overall geometries, with control over the number of subdivisions in the U and V, as well as the orientation of the component panel, relative to the normal of the input surface. This outputs meshes and lines which inform a structural and membrane system.

[2]

The second process [2] imports the meshes and lines to another algorithm which simulates and represents the elasticity of the membrane which will fill thee subdivided panels, with control over the size of the opening between the membrane (mesh) and the panel edges (lines).

[3]

[3] Examples of the result of the combined results of these processes.

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

[right] McKaye, Robert. 2015. Energetic Spaces for Towards an Architecture of Sensitivity. IAAC. 2015

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Based on these experiments, the use of MEMS as surficial archetypes for energy exchange seems promising. The multi-functionality of ‘programmable’ architecture introduces many possibilities for interaction with ecological, informational and social cycles which already occur in the built environment. Being able to engage in these cycles using self-sufficient energy is very relevant for the architectural discourse. The challenges with energy management are significant, but as previously highlighted, the rate of development for stable kinetic energy harvesting products is increasing exponentially. Further challenges encountered were the limitations in computing power when dealing with complex surfaces or a large number of surface subdivisions in the algorithmic design process. The presence of big data in the design space is a challenge facing many of these projects, and must be addressed moving forward.

Generator Typology: Fulcrum | 3

Generator Typology: Fulcrum

Piezoelectric materials that are used in MEMS generate electrical energy based on the amount of mechanical stress applied, and the periodic (regular) or random (irregular) occurrence of such stress.81 This means that devices which experience more deflection, at more regular intervals, are more productive. Although productivity is important, it is observed that the value of these systems is shown in their ability to generate from non-linear inputs, charging capacitors and batteries for the delayed output to peripheral applications. In the last decade of microgeneration technology development, there has been a demonstrated improvement in the amount of power able to be generated.82 Consequently a number of high-performance piezoelectric harvesters have been released to market, which can generate as much as 4.0-5.0mW of power at voltages as high as 48V, 83 when used in cantilevered systems. Not only are these values significantly higher than the alternative piezoelectric sensors, they offer a greater output of electrical energy with less deformation and they exhibit high rigidity. Essentially, these heavy-duty generators are engineered specifically to maximize the energy output, and are typically proposed to be paired with low-consumption sensors.

81 Wang, Zhong L. 2013.

82 2006, to up to 50mV in 2013 (more than a 500% increase). In terms of power, his efforts have contributed to an improved efficiency from 0.11µW in 2008 to 500µW

83 Volture™ vibration energy harvesters convert otherwisewasted energy from mechanical vibrations into usable electrical energy. The Volture™ accomplishes this by utilizing normally brittle piezoelectric materials. The Midé Volture™ energy harvester is unique amongst other piezo based energy harvesters because it incorporates Midé’s patented piezoelectric transducer packaging technology http://www.mide.com/pdfs/Volture_Datasheet_001.pdf

[left] images extracted from the Volture datasheet http://www.mide.com/pdfs/Volture_Datasheet_001.pdf

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Graphs show the increase in potential voltage through the use of these high-performance piezoelectric materials, at various frequencies.

AMBIENT ENERGY MACHINE TYPICAL ANTI-VIBRATION DAMPENING SPRING

shear force (voltage production)

[1] The basics of anti-vibrational dampening systems like those used in cars or trains, characterized by mass 1 (vibrating mass) moving relative to mass 2 (rigid base mass) due to agitation against the force of gravity, and mediated by a spring.

[2] Sectional concept diagram for the original the prototype, employing a drum-like covering to catch rain fall and wind. (b) represents the weighted attachment which creates/enhances the differential in the system.

[3] Variables explored in the analysis of the hinged, fulcral system, including the mass and weight of applied attachments, lengths and heights of dampening component (i.e.. composite piezoelectric material), and angle of dampener. This model was used not only for the fabrication of parts, but also when working backwards from fabrication of small parts to the design of overall prototype dimensions.

F

MASS 2

MASS 1

MASS 1 (VIBRATING MASS)

Fg

g

MASS 1

MASS 2

F

g

MASS 2 (RIGID BASE MASS)

[1]

http://www.directindustry.com/

[2]

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

[right] McKaye and Shambayati, 2014. Diagrams of the areas of interest for Ambient Energy Machines

F

Ambient Energy Machine | Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia | Open Thesis Fabrication 2014 | Robert Douglas McKaye + Ramin Shambayati

[3]

84 The AirBoard project is the brainchild of French electrical engineer Olivier MĂŠnard, is open-source and fully compatible with Arduino. In 2014, Ambient Energy Machines experimented with the board to test for wireless control. Power requirements for the AirBoard are significantly lower than that of other wireless microcontrollers, making it an ideal choice for MEMS integration.

The investigative research project Ambient Energy Machines developed at IAAC in 2014, explored these high-performance piezoelectrics for use in MEMS, in an attempt to greatly increase performance and find architectural applications. Different from the surficial typology, a fulcral generator places the piezoelectric material into a position where it is deflecting or being strained as a means to transfer the load though a device or structure. As such, the project zoomed into attachments and anchors which would connect to the individual components, allowing them to act as hinges between moving parts, as opposed to elements embedded within composite textile.

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For the design of testing modules, this project drew heavily on references from vibration dampening systems, extrapolating the mechanics of them into frame-spring-mass compositions (see diagram). The intention was to devise an optimal solution for the use of piezoelectric vibration generators for use as a fulcrum, enabling periodic differentials between moving parts (McKaye and Shambayati, 2014). This solution was viable for use in a product with a single generator or with multiples working in tandem. The capability of using low-consumption wireless microcontrollers for remote program changes was also explored.84 This would further enable the off-grid capabilities of a potentially MEMS powered device.

Generator Typology: Fulcrum | 3 64

A family of products were produced, to act as visual information and off-grid lighting devices.

The detail-oriented approach lead to the synthesis of a wide range of materials for their physical properties. The piezoelectric element acts as a spring between a stationary frame and a mass which is actively responding to external stresses. This typology relies on existing context (trees, street infrastructure, walls, etc.), or the integration within a structural system (flexible joint, facade system, etc.), rather than acting as a stand alone object. The optimized circuit that resulted from this process introduced many additional components for energy management, including a battery back-up to allow for simultaneous charging and discharging of energy to and from lithium-polymer batteries (McKaye and Shambayati, 2014). [left] Images depict the design process of the original Ambient Energy Machine prototype, using physical testing of cantilevered piezoelectrics, parametric modelling in Grasshopper plug-in for Rhino 3D, CFD analysis using Autodesk Flow, and LED and circuit testing in practise.

AMBIENT ENERGY MACHINE AMBIENT ENERGY MACHINE

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

[right] Schematic drawings for the triangular prototype illustrate the frame-spring-mass scenario, as referenced by the traditional anti-vibration dampening system.

DC-regulating energy harvesting boards are connected to the hinging piezoelectric materials in the corners of the prototype. The differential between the frame and central mass of the prototype that is created through stress from wind and rain is focused to the corner hinges, which operate as fulcrums in the relative low-frequency motion.

The diagrams illustrate the rigid centre, hinging joint, and outer casing material used for the prototype.

highly elastic ‘drum’ covering to react to rain impact

wooden corners create outer carriage, and add weight to piezo generator

highly elastic ‘drum’ covering to react to rain impact

wooden corners create outer carriage, and add weight to piezo generator

AMBIENT ENERGY MACHINE

AMBIENT ENERGY MACHINE waterproofing membrane (low elasticity) highly elastic and transmissive plastic to create outer frame and splay light

Ambient Energy Machine | Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia | Open Thesis Fabrication 2014 | Robert Douglas McKaye + Ramin Shambayati

Volture piezo generator acts as the dampener between rigid components

waterproofing membrane electronics are held(low withinelasticity) the rigid carriage for protection

highly elastic and transmissive plastic to create outer frame and splay light

Ambient Energy Machine | Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia | Open Thesis Fabrication 2014 | Robert Douglas McKaye + Ramin Shambayati

piezo is clamped between 3d printed pieces to create hinge moment

Ambient Energy Machine | Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia | Open Thesis Fabrication 2014 | Robert Douglas McKaye + Ramin Shambayati

wooden carriage acts as a rigid core, allowing for the required force to act on the piezos

Ambient Energy Machine | Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia | Open Thesis Fabrication 2014 | Robert Douglas McKaye + Ramin Shambayati

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Generator Typology: Fulcrum | 3

[left] Digital Fabrication: Images depict the computational design and fabrication processes involved in determining the geometries for various wind-and-rain-catching ‘fins’, applied as weighted attachments on the various editions of the Ambient Energy Machine.

[1] The use of algorithmic design platform, Grasshopper for Rhino 3D, allowed for the immediate adjustment of parameters such as length, width, curvature, orientation, and thickness of the fins, in a digital space, to expedite the fabrication process.

[1]

[2] GH visualizations of three fins, with primary concerns to create a rain shield over the 3d-printed pieces , and create large surfaces for light diffusion [3] Cataloguing of fins for recording the parameters and translating selected options to the CNC routing machine [4] Fabrication photos, including the milling of foam form-work and vacuum forming to produce fins from polypropylene, acrylic and glass fibre, vacuum forming

CURVED

C-01 arc at front no arc at back

C-05 no shift at back shift right at front

C-02 arc at back no arc at front

C-06 shift right both

[2] CURVED

C-01 arc at front no arc at back

FLAT C-05 no shift at back shift right at front

F-01 long front short back

F-05 C-03 largest fan out arc at both ends (low) short front (b/c fan) short back (b/c fan)

C-07 shift left at front no shift at back

C-02 arc at back no arc at front

C-06 shift right both

F-02 long front long back

C-04 arc at both ends (high)

C-08 shift left both

C-03 arc at both ends (low)

C-07 shift left at front no shift at back

F-03 fan out front long front long back

C-04 arc at both ends (high)

C-08 shift left both

F-04 large fan out front shorter front (b/c fan) shorter back (b/c fan)

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[3]

[4]

AMBIENT ENERGY MACHINE

[right] Prototypes: family of mechanisms developed to optimize power performance, material economy and cost, lighting effects, and installation method. The images represent 4 significant evolutions of the machine:

elastic counterspring weighted piezo attachment rigid plastic fins thermoplastic composite pocket electronics compartment mounting mechanism

// MATERIAL

/ PLASTICS

RESPONSIVE FINS

PLA 3D PRINT CLIP

- laser cut 5mm wood frame with PVC sheet - lightweight - fabrics connected with glue - connection with bolts

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

The challenge of creating custom details for material and mechanism testing was met by 3D printing. Digital models were developed to parametrize the various angles, distances, and densities which made up the custom parts. These models allowed for customization and precision.

The prints were designed so as to universally accept different materials and geometries for testing. Fabrication of the attached mass (typically lightweight and translucent materials) involved a combination of laser cutting, CNC routing, and vacuum forming, and produced a catalogue which compared material properties with energy production and cost. These attachments were primarily polycarbonate and fibreglass fins designed and fabricated with the assist of advanced tooling processes. As a result of the focused nature of the research, an iterative process emerged

RESPONSIVE FINS

- attachment to piezo - upper fin support - side fin supports - elastic clamp

- translucent medium opacity - medium light transmission - high light refraction

PLA 3D PRITNT PIEZO CLIPS - attachment to piezo - angle of incidence of 10 degrees

Prototype [1] introduces the elastic tie-back to the system, enhancing the reverberation of the device and restraining the maximum deflection, protecting the energy-exchanging material in the hinge.

Prototype [2] demonstrates the use of integrated 3D printed casings in to create weatherproofing, and the attachment of more robust materials like the acrylic fins, weighting more that a 1/2 kilo.

SIDE FIN SIDE FIN

- additional light refraction - increased surface area for rain catch

AMBIENT ENERGY MACHINE

[1]

- additional light refraction THERMOPRESSED COMPOSITE POCKET (ascamm technologies)

// MATERIAL

/ PLASTICS - for re-enforcement of piezo

- highly rigid, but bendable

ELASTIC COUNTERSPRING - tensioning in elastic should equal applied weight of fins

AMBIENT ENERGY MACHINE

NEO-PIXEL LED

// MATERIAL

/ PLASTICS

- installation location TBD

Ambient Energy Machine | Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia | Open Thesis Fabrication 2014 | Robert Douglas McKaye + Ramin Shambayati

elastic counterspring weighted piezo attachment rigid plastic fins thermoplastic composite pocket electronics compartment mounting mechanism

elastic counterspring weighted piezo attachment rigid plastic fins thermoplastic composite pocket electronics compartment mounting mechanism

Prototype [3] uses glass-fibre composite fins, which are more responsive and lightweight, while costing much less than acrylic.

Prototype [4] orients the fins based on a particular relationship between the embedded LED lighting within the 3D printed casing, the distance to the fins, and opacity of the glass-fibre.

AMBIENT ENERGY MACHINE

// MATERIAL

/ PLASTICS

AMBIENT ENERGY MACHINE

// MATERIAL

/ PLASTICS

[2] elastic counterspring weighted piezo attachment rigid plastic fins thermoplasticAmbient composite Energypocket Machine | Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia | Open Thesis Fabrication 2014 | Robert Douglas McKaye + Ramin Shambayati electronics compartment mounting mechanism

AMBIENT ENERGY MACHINE

[3]

// MATERIAL

/ PLASTICS

Ambient Energy Machine | Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia | Open Thesis Fabrication 2014 | Robert Douglas McKaye + Ramin Shambayati

elastic counterspring weighted piezo attachment rigid plastic fins thermoplastic composite pocket electronics compartment mounting mechanism

elastic counterspring weighted piezo attachment rigid plastic fins thermoplastic composite pocket | Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia | Open Thesis Fabrication 2014 | Robert Douglas McKaye + Ramin Shambayati Ambient Energy Machine electronics compartment mounting mechanism

AMBIENT ENERGY MACHINE

// MATERIAL

/ PLASTICS

Ambient Energy Machine | Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia | Open Thesis Fabrication 2014 | Robert Douglas McKaye + Ramin Shambayati

elastic counterspring weighted piezo attachment rigid plastic fins thermoplastic composite pocket electronics compartment mounting mechanism

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[4] Ambient Energy Machine | Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia | Open Thesis Fabrication 2014 | Robert Douglas McKaye + Ramin Shambayati

Ambient Energy Machine | Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia | Open Thesis Fabrication 2014 | Robert Douglas McKaye + Ramin Shambayati

Generator Typology: Fulcrum | 3

between design and fabrication, with a goal of trying to establish the differences in electrical load as well as environmental conditions between laboratory experiments and field testing. In addition, the particular approach of the research, which was focused more closely on the detail of a single piezo fulcrum, meant that it was possible to buy more expensive and more recently released technologies.

The high-performance of the piezoelectric was reflected in the overall generated power, but the circuit required many additional components for effective transmission when compared to that of the AmpLeaf. First, the use of LTC3588-1 demo board allowed for more simple experimentation due to the bigger surface area compared to the LTC3588 from AmpLeaf (pictured, below).

Second, a switch from Ni-MH to LiPo (Lithium Polymer) batteries provided higher capacitance (longer life) in a smaller size. A LiPo charger was thereby employed to carry the electrical current from the supercapacitor to the battery. The last generation of the circuit replaced this component with an additional harvester board, the LTC-4701 which was used particularily for the receiving of weak or infrequent inputs and the charging of LiPo batteries. Although the inputs from the fulcral movement of the device was infrequent, the demo board and LiPo charger both charge the current internally and output a constant 3.6V when the current is flowing, at a range of between 10-100mA, meaning that any time at which the harvester is outputting energy, it is charging the battery between .036 and .36W. As expected, the Ambient Energy Machine produced significantly higher values than the AmpLeaf, due to the sophistication of the piezoelectric AMBIENT AMBIENTENERGY ENERGY MACHINE components, andMACHINE the particular care in connections and mass which were applied.

CONCEPT MOCK-UP

INDIVIDUAL TESTING Li-Po CHARGING

OPTIMIZED CIRCUIT LOW-CURRENT MANAGEMENT

ENERGY CATCH

VoltureTM piezo generator weighted attachements LTC-3588 harvester switch transducer

new wind/rain catch fin LTC-3588 harvester (must be used for each piezo) supercapacitor (to store harvester output)

MANAGEMENT

LiPo rechargeable battery

lithium-polymer charger (regulate charging to battery)

OUTPUT

4x Neopixel LEDs Arduino UNO Microcontroller TS2012 Stereo 2.8W Amplifier + VS 1053 Codec + MicroSD Speaker

wireless microcontroller (testing for remote programmability and bluetooth)

[left] Circuit: the final circuit developed for Ambient Energy Machines uses a double-harvester system including a battery back-up, which allows for the system to both charge and discharge electrical energy from the same circuit.

BACK-UP BACK-UP BATTERY BATTERY SYSTEM SYSTEM WITH WITH LCT4701 LCT4701

custom custom photo-emulsion photo-emulsion board board with with combined combined LTC3588/LTC4701 LTC3588/LTC4701

LTC-4701 Li-Po charger for weak and irregular currents

Li-Po batteries Li-Po batteries dual LTC4701 lowlow current dual LTC4701 current harvester boards forfor back-up harvester boards back-up

AirBoardTM BLElink

[1] Photos of the LTC3588-1 Energy harvester, used in the original prototypes

[2] Circuit diagram for the LTC4701 from Linear Technologies

Ambient Ambient Energy Energy Machine Machine | |Institute Institute forfor Advanced Advanced Architecture Architecture of of Catalonia Catalonia| |Open Open Thesis Thesis Fabrication Fabrication 2014 2014| |Robert Robert Douglas Douglas McKaye McKaye + Ramin + Ramin Shambayati Shambayati

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http://www.linear.com/products/energy_harvesting

[1]

[2]

AMBIENT ENERGY MACHINE

// MATERIAL

MATERIAL SYSTEM

/ PLASTICS

AMBIENT ENERGY MACHINE

// MATERIAL

RESPONSIVE FINS

/ PLASTICS

PROPERTIES and PERFORMANCE

activation from environmental stresses such as wind, rain, and ambient flows of energy

elastic counterspring weighted piezo attachment rigid plastic fins thermoplastic composite pocket electronics compartment mounting mechanism

high rigidity (young’s modulus = ~10 GPa) ability for thermoforming on molds resistance to water and snow translucency lightweight

lightweight fins are optimized primarily for wind responsiveness, and must be able to repell the loads of rain and snow.

elastic counterspring weighted piezo attachment rigid plastic fins thermoplastic composite pocket electronics compartment mounting mechanism

connection to the piezo is via a 3D printed PLA clip

bending moment is transferred into the ceramic piezoelectric panel to create electron jump

INSTALLATION

material must be able to spread the light from a point source, through the use of translucent plastic

TESTING and FABRICATION

Site specific functions allow for the sensitive installation of the product. Our goal is to create a catalog of performative functions which directly connect the existing ambient energy of a site with a social or informative output

Our testing plan is to create a variety of molds and cast plastics in different shapes, looking for clues to optimize energy generation custom 3D printed PLA electronics casing with detachable mounter PMMA thermoformed plastic CNC foam molds

Ambient Energy Machine | Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia | Open Thesis Fabrication 2014 | Robert Douglas McKaye + Ramin Shambayati

AMBIENT ENERGY MACHINE

// MATERIAL

ELASTIC COUNTER-SPRING

/ PLASTICS

elastic counterspring weighted piezo attachment rigid plastic fins thermoplastic composite pocket electronics compartment mounting mechanism

Ambient Energy Machine | Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia | Open Thesis Fabrication 2014 | Robert Douglas McKaye + Ramin Shambayati

AMBIENT ENERGY MACHINE

// MATERIAL

/ PLASTICS

THERMO-PRESSED COMPOSITE POCKET

PROPERTIES and PERFORMANCE

PROPERTIES and PERFORMANCE

high elasticicity (young’s modulus = ~0.1 GPa) rough texture for friction fitting attachement resistance to permanent deformation resistance to water and snow reflectivity (when possible)

reinforced layering high rigidity (young’s modulus > 10 GPa) embedded textile for electronics absolute waterproofing

Step 1. attach to piezo clip before

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

[right] Materiality: diagrams describing the phenomena being harnessed in the family of products, and the particular materiality of different components which make up the MEMS device, including: responsive fins, elastic counter spring, and thermo-pressed composite pocket for the housing the piezoelectric material.

elastic counterspring weighted piezo attachment rigid plastic fins thermoplastic composite pocket electronics compartment mounting mechanism

piezo is placed inside pocket connection to the piezo is via a 3D printed PLA clip

L

casing increases the strength of connection to attached components

L

connection to elecronics casing via friction fitting

Step 2. secure elastic to the electronics casing

TESTING and FABRICATION

TESTING and FABRICATION

Our testing strategy is to find the porportions of weight-to-tension in the A elastic counter-spring to find optimal tension (below [x]) X

Elastic counter-spring is used to maintain the equilibrium between the weight of the fins (including the gravitational force) and the deflection of the piezo

We will test different lengths (below [A]) of the A plastic composite, as well as the material layers X

M

ZZ

BB

M

ZZ

gg

A

Ambient Energy Machine | Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia | Open Thesis Fabrication 2014 | Robert Douglas McKaye + Ramin Shambayati

BB

gg

plastic casing protects piezo from elements while maintaining flexibility which is greater than that of the piezo itself

A

Ambient Energy Machine | Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia | Open Thesis Fabrication 2014 | Robert Douglas McKaye + Ramin Shambayati

[right] Prototype: exploded axonometric drawing, describing the process of assembly and the various parts

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Generator Typology: Fulcrum | 3

[left] Urban Sense: the urban sensing prototype is a multi-purpose MEMS-based sensor, which uses the MIDE high performance piezoelectric transducer, encased in a thermo-pressed polymer composite casing, acting as a hinge between glass-fibre responsive fins, and a 3D printed electronics casing.

In the prototype, the electrical energy collected is used to recharge the housed LiPo batteries, which, for demonstration purposes are used to power LED lighting.

However, the vision for this device is to power even lowerconsumption sensors such as lighting, and monitors for CO2, CO, and sound levels, as well as small speakers which communicate non-verbal messages.

These examples show the effectiveness of the frame-spring-mass scenario, where the combination of rigid and flexible components in a dampening system interact with the exchange of energy in material vibration. The development of working strategies at the scale of the device signify the potential multi-scalarity of the concept of an Ambient Energy Machine, and the multi-functionality of the fulcrum generator typology. Not only can a high-performance MEMS device act on its own, but also in conjunction with larger aggregations of form.

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The potential of deploying this system within a composite structural node is the next logical step for this typology. If reinforced to ensure durability, such a node could generate huge amounts of electricity by the transferring of forces throughout a networked structure or truss system. This could represent a paradigmatic shift from engineering of static structures to flexible structures, embracing the opportunities that have become available through technological advances. By affording marginal flexibility - while monitoring and controlling the extent of deformations we can create productive, energy-positive structural systems.

The prototyping proposal follows the lines of design and fabrication inspired and directly influenced by the aforementioned studies, using lightweight glass-fibre fins, 3D printed plastic parts and joinery, LED lighting, and can be deployed in the environment through the use of a tripod or cables.

It features three of the same cantilevered fulcrum systems, radially distributed so as to centrally locate the electronics management systems, batteries, and micro-controller processing including wireless control.

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

[right] Extrapolation: the lighting demonstration from the Ambient Energy Machine project is extended to an offgrid lighting system in the images to the right.

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Generator Typology: Node | 3

Generator Typology: Node

The previous examples highlight MEMS for use in composite tensile surfaces, and as connectors between moving parts in a system. A third method explored for the purposes of this research is that which deploys piezoelectric materials in a nodal distribution within structures that rely on tension. This means that rather than playing a role in either the load distribution (fulcral), or as a composite material (surficial), the MEMS device responds to the overall movement of the greater structure. As a result, this typology of generator can be placed in different areas of a structure to provide distributed power generation to a local area, based on the local conditions (movement) which are occurring there. To demonstrate this, the INFOstructures project follows the structural logic of tensegrity (tensile-integrity), a special class of structure that suspends compressive members in space, delineating their form by a network of pre-stressed cables. What makes this type of structure unique is the fact that none of the compressive members, commonly referred to as ‘struts’, touch directly to one another, yet it exhibits a high level of mechanical stability.

Such a structure which is in complete tension, has huge potential for a range of motion within a reasonable limit. This is shown in the ability of the structures to move, and shake without collapsing. Furthermore, despite the fact that the members in compression do not touch one another, they demonstrate distinctly periodic movement relative to one another when the entire structure undergoes stress. This resonates strongly with the activation of piezoelectric materials, which benefit from periodic movement from object motion. Because of this discrete behaviour, [left] Simple -> Complex: the illustrations demonstrate how a simple component of tensegrity can be extended to form a highly complex relational structure.

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http://marine.bagneris.free.fr/wiki/data/pedago/ IAAC/01_links/01_Tensegrity.pdf

[1] Buckminster Fuller, was one of the pioneers of tensegrity structures, after discovering the work of Kenneth Snelson in 1940. In 1962, he patented the structural technique, and constructed the dome in the photo. http://cdn.makezine.com/make/makercamp/assets/ BuildingTensegrityModels_MAKEv6.pdf [1]

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

[right] Tensegrity spaces: images refecte the capacity to create unique spaces both in structual complexity and material economy.

[2] Gernot Riether, Gernot and Wit, Andrew J. 2014. The Underwood Pavilion. Ball State University Design Build Workshop.

The BSU pavilion demonstrates the capacity for tensegrity to be used to create component based relational structures, through the use of digital tools, and as such, was a significant reference fro the INFOstructures workshop.

The project used Rhino plug in Rhino–Membrane and the Grasshopper plug-in Kangaroo to provide the necessary real time feedback the complex pavilion. http://andrewjohnwit.com/the-underwood-pavilion/

[2]

85 Officially titled INFOstructures: combining structural performance with programming and interaction, the workshop took place July 29-August 16, 2015 in Valletta Malta, as part of EASA Links, the 35th European Architecture Student Assembly. McKaye, Robert and Shambayati, Ramin (Tutors). EASA Malta Foundation and FabLab Valletta (facilities, site and materials)

86 Fuller, R. Buckminster; Marks, Robert. The Dymaxion World of Buckminster Fuller, Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1973 (originally published in 1960 by So. Ill. Univ. Press), Figs. 261-280.

87 Snelson, Kenneth. “The art of tensegrity.” International Journal of Space Structures 27, no. 2-3 (2012): 71-80.

88 Robbin, Tony. 1996. Engineering a new architecture.

New Haven: Yale University Press.

tensegrity logic offers an opportunity for large scale demonstration of the piezoelectric effect.

Furthermore, this type of structure exemplifies a sort of environmental-architectural sensitivity, as it relies on tension and is highly elastic, responding to even the most timid impacts through moving and shaking. Although the cable lengths are non-elastic, the geometries which make up the internal structure of tensegrity twist and rotate, creating periodic, compressive moments in the spaces between compressive members. The radical suggestion of this structural technique is that architecture need not be static in order to be stable. To push this idea even further, one can imagine the integration of MEMS-based electrical generation to turn structural variability into a productive feature. In the summer of 2015, the INFOstructures workshop was held in Valletta, Malta to explore this idea through 1:1 construction.85

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Naturally, this project drew its inspiration from the experimental work done my Buckminster Fuller, Kenneth Snelson, and Tony Robbin, whose work brought the concept of ‘floating compression’ from theory into more mainstream practice.86, 87, 88 The premise of the workshop was to continually monitor the electrical energy which was being generated throughout the entire structure by deploying nodal MEMS. This effectively would turn the entire structure into one large generative system. For the demonstration, however, the workshop used the same multi-purpose sensors which were used in the AmpLeaf microgeneration project, in order to produce as many nodes as possible

Generator Typology: Node | 3

[right] Snelson, Kenneth. Tensegrity Cube Metamorphosis.

An American contemporary sculptor and photographer, Snelson’s works are composed of flexible and rigid parts arranged according to the idea of ‘tensegrity’, though he prefers the descriptive term ‘floating compression’.

Snelson is considered to the father of tensile integrity, and asserts that his former professor Buckminster Fuller took credit for his discovery http://kennethsnelson.net/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Snelson

[right] Hashim, Yulia E. M. N. 2014. “Tensegrity”.

Tensegrity Tessellation: study shows the geometric remodelling of the basic tensegrity model using digital softwares, to understand the deploy-ability of the system.

The form of tensegrity is explored through addition of struts in the cell modules. The basic cell module is then combined according to geometry tessellation.

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https://wewanttolearn.wordpress.com/author/eshahashim/

for the dispersing in a large structure. Empirical data, as well as experiments in the Ambient Energy Machine, have shown that piezoelectric MEMS are sufficient in powering low-level functions, and it was the ambition of this workshop to not simply generate electricity, but to monitor the presence of ambient energy within a structure. Therefore, it was not deemed necessary to use highperformance piezoelectrics, and instead scale the produced values against empirical data for an estimation.

In terms of construction, the workshop followed the basic principles of tensegrity, using 45mm square profile wood dowels cut to various lengths, and pre-tensioned steel cables to hold them in continuous tension.89 In addition the structure was clad with tarpaulin fabric (that which is used for sails and kites) to enhance the effects of ambient weather conditions on the structure, and to catch the light from peripheral LEDs. Despite the scale of the final structure, there was no need for foundations because of the fact that tensegrity holds itself together in a perfect geometrical relationship, independent of gravitational forces. The use of a simple component allowed for the small scale testing of the electronic, structural and peripheral systems before commencing with

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

89 Gurstelle, William. “Building Tensegrity Models” http://cdn.makezine.com/make/makercamp/assets/ BuildingTensegrityModels_MAKEv6.pdf

[left] McKaye, Robert D. and Shambayati, Ramin. 2015.

Sponsor documents for INFOstructures workshop.

[1] The diagram depicts the proposed “3-member mock-up” basic component for the workshop, using the principals outlined by Gurstelle and Snelson. In addition to the module, an detachable electronics node serves as the hub for energy generation and interpretation, information management, and the powering of peripheral the peripheral functions of lights and sounds for the demonstration.

[1] [2] A study was conducted into the”formal permutations” using Rhino 3D and the Kangaroo plug-in to apply relaxation to various aggregations of the basic component, including 3, 4, and 5-strut towers, iso-cahedrons, and bridges.

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[2]

Generator Typology: Node | 3

a larger structure. Although the structural, electrical and peripheral systems were determined ahead of time, the design (including dimension and site deployment) was included as part of the design process for the workshop. The workshop was an overwhelming success, and introduced many new ideas to the discourse of energy generation through structural performance. Over 10 days, 2 tutors and 16 participants collaborated to construct and program the first ever large scale piezoelectric energy harvesting structure (pictured, right).

An in-depth design and simulation process involved 3D modelling and plug-ins for the application of physics, and structural relaxation. The output of precise dimensions for all tensile and compression members from the simulation streamlined the fabrication. This led to the very quick development of a diverse catalogue of forms and different scales (see image). The final structure measured 8x4x3 meters, and each node continually generated approximately 10100mW (milliwatts) of electrical power per 30 minutes. Although the goal of the structure was not to charge a battery, but to read the electrical energy which was present as a result of the structural performance, the capacity for such nodes to do so is highly probable in the near future, as demonstrated by the previous essays and projects. This would be true even for extremely low-power MEMS such as these. The noticeable difference between the INFOstructure and the previously referenced works is that the structural technique, in combination with the inputs of wind and ambient airflow, enabled the structure to be almost continuously in motion. This we evidenced by the constantly changing outputs from the LEDs on the dispersed nodes.

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[left] Rendering of the final structure, depicting the cladding strategy using tarpaulin fabric.

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

[right] McKaye, Robert and Shambayati, Ramin.

2015. photos of the prototyping, design, simulation and fabrication processes of the workshop.

Tutors: Ramin Shambayati, Robert Douglas McKaye Participants: Öykü Acıcan, Denisa Anda, Vilius Balčiunas, Hugo Cifre, Artem Dodonov, Jean Ebejer, Emre Günel, Eoghan Mckendry, Suzi Mifsud, Gedaile Nausedaite, Sara Nuñez, Nils Pyk, Matthew Scerri, Romain Thijsen, Fekete Tünde, Linas Usas.

Facilities and site provided by: EASA Malta Foundation, AP | Architecture Project, FabLab Valletta http://www.easalinks.com/

[1] Scripting for the workshop used Grasshopper for Rhino 3D and the Kangaroo plug-in for the application of physics to relax and simulate wind forces. The algorithms inputs were those lines in the digital model which were to act as rigid (compressive) struts, and which were to act as flexible (tensile) steel cables, in addition to anchor points, to identify the presence of a ground plane. Variables in the equation were the amount of pre-tensioning afforded to the tensile components, defining how much relaxation the structure would exhibit in simulation.

In addition to determining if the arrangement of parts would in fact be structurally sound, the script was instrumental in providing precise dimensions for the various lengths of cable and wooden struts for fabrication, in addition to the precise number of metal fixtures required for assembly, greatly increasing the efficiency of the workflow in assembly process, and reducing time and costs.

[1]

[2] Demonstrates the relaxation in digital space, to determine if the complex structure would be stable.

Diagram on the left illustrates the initial profile and the final, resting profile. In the resting position, the compression from gravity is in equilibrium and the entire structure is in active tension, resulting in a high level of stability.

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[2]

Generator Typology: Node | 3

[left] Camprodon, Guillem. 2013. “Introduction to Physical Computing.� IAAC. Physical Computing: basic construction of microcontrolling systems using environmental inputs (sensors), information computing (microcontroller), and output (visualizations).

The particular condition of physical computing which was demonstrated in INFOstructures is that the sensors take in some form of physical data (movement), translate it to digital information (Ardiuno and FLORA microcontroller), and then back to physical outputs (light, sounds, etc.)

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[left] Photographs of the final electronics node, programmed to exhibit the spectrum of colour between blue (value 0.00) and red (value 1.00).

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

The nodes placed on the structure were programmed to read the amount of deflection passing through the mechanism in volts(V), remapping the values between 0.00 and 1.00, effectively demonstrating the amount of current produced from structural deformation within a controlled domain. So for example, if the maximum potential voltage from the piezoelectrics used was 100mV of current, and a portion of the structure deflected enough to produce that maximum, the microcontroller would understand it as a value of 1.00 (~0.99), and anything less than that maximum voltage would be mapped accordingly. For the final installation, all 20 nodes were programmed with the same function. If the value was 1.00, the colour emitted from the LEDs would be red, and if it was 0.00, then the colour would be blue. Through this technique of remapping, not only were we able to read where there was energy flowing though the structure, but also its concentration. Furthermore, the ability for the FLORA microcontroller to reprogrammed to either change the input range, or the output command, meant that any number of combinations could be explored.

The nodal typology highlights the capacity for energy to be harvested through particular structural techniques which allow for controlled movement. This example demonstrates the use of electrical energy both as a generated capital, and as a source of information.

[right] Interactive Architecture: the final form represents the first large scale installation using piezoelectric sensors as an information source for demonstrating stress within a structure. Though it exists more as a sculptural demonstration, it highlights the integration of structural performance with technology, energy and information.

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Spacial Contouring | 3

Spatial Contouring

The deploying of technology into architecture is highly scrutinized by users and designers alike, with main concerns related to efficiency of device functionality or the impact that various devices have on our built environment. The passing of time, or changing environmental conditions often render certain technologies out of date or fashion. As noted in the preceding essays, MEMS functionality offers both pros and cons in regards to this condition. On the one hand, the increased responsiveness to everyday stresses, the independence from sunlight or seasons, and the lightness of MEMS devices offer new availability of energy, while sacrificing efficiency. On the other hand, it has been identified that their deployment requires a procedural ‘tuning’ associated with their placement (positioning within a construction), and design (method of integrated force transfer through the device or component). While the generator typologies presented in the previous chapters (surficial, fulcral, nodal) outline particular methods for catching and converting ambient energy through integrated components, the question of large scale deployment and device positioning remains.

Tools for real-time data mapping and computational analysis have emerged to meet some of the challenges presented by fluctuating environmental conditions. Not only do these tools allow designers a more holistic view of context, but they also the enable the observation of architectural interventions in a simulated digital design space. In the context of component-based design, such an analysis becomes the critical delineator of architectural form.

[left] Lynn, Greg. 2008. Trimaran Finding Form: the use of CFD modelling software allowed for the iterative design process of Lynn’s latest sailing vessel

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http://www.glyacht.com/

Informatics: founded in 2004 as an interdisciplinary research unit in the Columbia University Graduate School of Architecture, the Spacial Information Design Lab maps dynamic data such as the pedestrian activity around in urban centres. http://spatialinformationdesignlab.org/

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

[right] Williams, Sarah. Spatial Information Design Lab

[right] Andresek, Alisa (Biothing). 2014. Cloud Osaka Dynamic Mapping: Andresek’s projects use computational physics to drive form, often based on fluid dynamics and pedestrian flows. In this particular example, she also employs piezoelectric tiling in her proposal creating energetic space in the new public space. https://vimeo.com/119785255

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Spacial Contouring | 3

[left] Dynamic Data: the project makes use of algorithmic and dynamic scripting to extract volumes from large sets of information, recorded from environmental data. The visual coding platform Grasshopper and its plug-ins Geco, Heliotrope, and Kangaroo enabled the processing of information from prevailing wind flows, solar incidence, and applied physics, respectively. The following definitions were developed.

[1]

The first definition [1] communicates between Rhino and Autodesk Ecotect, through the use of the Geco plug-in, performing environmental assessments on meshes exported from the 3D model. Variables in the export procedure allow to dictate the number of subdivisions in the analysis grid, creating 3-dimensional study zones.

When activated, the second definition [2] initiates and monitors an analysis of CFD data from the environmental assessment, importing the data into the digital design space of Rhino 3D and Grasshopper. For Turbulentopolis, this function analysed the CFD data considering the exported meshes from the model of particular sites and dictated prevailing wind direction and speed.

Depending on the number of subdivision in the 3D analysis grid, the function records lists of information for each study zone. Through this, prevailing wind-flow in each zone can be characterized and cross-referenced by data from 4 different lists: point (location), direction (vector), value (magnitude of wind-speed), and colour (visualized colour, according to the value).

[2]

The third definition [3] offers a controlled dissection of the data from the aforementioned lists [2]. It diverts the data from one list, or a combination of lists, into separate lists, using a threshold value. This process eliminates, for example, any points (locations in the 3D analysis grid), with magnitudes (wind-speed values) of greater than a value controlled by the equation.

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The results are formed into a series of isocurve volumes and planar curves, using the Somium and Weaverbird Meshing components, respectively.

[3]

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

The Turbulentopolis project was initiated to explore the deployment of MEMS-based generators into the urban environment. It used a series of algorithms to organize site information related to prevailing winds, shading, and pedestrian and vehicular flows. The objective was to investigate dynamic zoning of the 3D space based on the fluid dynamics and ambient energy flows which emerge in the city. The resulting forms delineated areas of prevailing, directional flow from areas of increased turbulence, thus identifying potential energy thresholds and locations for generation.

The cross-referencing of this dynamic zoning with the additional parameters of shading and multi-modal transit would later provide the basis for device deployment. The project supports an Architecture of Sensitivity by providing the tools and methods by which the different formal categories can be deployed using site analysis, digital design and simulation, and the resolving of architectural details. As such, a transversal working methodology between 3D modelling, environmental analysis, computational design, and project visualization was followed.

[right] Site Application: Images (a-d) show the extraction a cloud (list) of points from environmental analysis, using the first two parts of the function. Images (e, f) illustrate how this cloud of points is cross-referenced with other lists of wind-speed, to output volumes and surfaces using the third part of the algorithm.

These forms are directly related to the input control variables of the equation. (b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

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JUNE 21 WINDS SSW 205 degrees winds @ 5.4 m/s

PEDESTRIAN FLOW + PREVAILING WIND

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JUNE 21 - SSW 191.25 - 213.75 degrees

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DECEMBER 21 WINDS NNW 325 degrees winds @ 5.4 m/s NNW

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SEPTEMBER 21 WINDS E 90 degrees winds @ 5.4 m/s NNW

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[1]

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0<3m/s threshold 3<5m/s theshold >5m/s threshold

[2]

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[left] Study areas: Villa Olympica and Parc du Ciutadella

JUNE 21 WINDS SSW 205 degrees winds @ 5.4 m/s

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GLOBAL WINDS JUNE 21 - SSW 191.25 - 213.75 degrees

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[3]

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[4] Images show the transition from in-discriminatory outputs from the analysis, to a more critical delineation of form based on local context, pedestrian trends, and the presence of shaded areas.

ISOCURVES (volumes)

135 SE

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Parc du Ciutadella [2] was selected because of its position as a green space, and due to the fact that it is a heavily used public space with many trees. This trait renders generation systems such as photovoltaic panels less efficient than the proposed kinetic energy systems.

Barcelonaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Gran Via [3], [4] was selected as a buildingscale study site, because of its typical street section, multipurpose program, and its hosting of vehicular, pedestrian, and multi-modal transport along its avenues. It reflects the street section also seen on the Avinguda Diagonal, Passeig de Gracia, and the cities various Ramblas (walking streets).

CONTOURS (planes)

N0 315 NW

Villa Olympica [1] was selected due to its uniquely massive architecture, exposure to wind trends from the Mediterranean, and existing large scale infrastructure like the beach promenade and multi-lane highway.

[right] Gran Via study area

PEDESTRIAN FLOW + PREVAILING WIND

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

Zoning: images taken from the site analyses and formal genesis from the selected sites in Barcelona: Villa Olympica, Parc du Ciutadella, and Gran Via. Formal results were generated in the prevailing wind conditions at their height during the summer and winter solstices (June 21st and December 21st), and at the autumnal and spring equinoxes (September and March 21st). 3-dimensional contours are created at the wind-speed thresholds of 5, 8 and +10m/s, and are represented in lines and isocurves. Additionally, the study cross-reference these resulting geometries with emergent patterns of pedestrian flow and shading, to further specific target areas for the deployment of kinetic generators.

WNW

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WSW 225 SW

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GLOBAL WINDS DECEMBER 21 - NNW 326.25 - 328.75 degrees

[4] 0<3m/s threshold

theshold tasks, there was one objective for the project: Although made up of many different and3<5m/s complex >5m/s threshold to materialize form for the deployment MEMS-based architecture, based on prevailing sets of data from a site. Based in Barcelona, Turbulentopolis focused on 3 distinct areas of the city, chosen for their scale, existing infrastructural and environmental conditions, and program (habitation). As expected, the analyses output dramatically different formal results, based on the presence of thresholds between high- and low-velocity winds, and areas of turbulent wind flow. In the park context, thresholds were highly dispersed, small and localized around groups of trees, while the much larger scale infrastructure present in the beach-front/highway present large volumes spanning huge distances (pictured left). Between these two extremes, analysis of the Barcelona block (pictured above) output a mix of volumetric forms, localized around groups of trees that canopy the boulevard and sidewalks, and creating shell forms over the sidewalks, where vortex shedding and Venturi Effect occurs around the mid-rise architectural features.

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Moving forward, these output volumes were compiled in matrices of formal genesis where they could be articulated in design through the use of the generator typologies discussed in the previous chapters. As the output information from Turbulentopolis is 3D volumes and surfaces, they can be directly used in the resolution of architectural form. This holistic approach was demonstrated using the surficial and nodal typologies for the resolution of a lightweight surficial sensor system, and generative tensegrity volume, respectively (illustrated on the following pages).

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Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

Formal Genesis: images demonstrate the migration of information from a data-driven analysis to formallydriven design stages, resulting in architectural form which is doubly sensitive to the large-scale environmental and contextual conditions as well to the a component based deployment. [right] Turbulence Thresholds: various techniques were used to illustrate the thresholds between zones of prevailing wind-speeds and zones of turbulence. Isocurves output from the algorithm are shown above, and an interpolated ‘blanket’ surface is shown below, indicating the threshold between wind-speeds above and below 7m/s [left] Extraction: interpolated ‘blanket’ surface is shown for one study location, in the Barcelona city block.

Cross-referencing the form with the street infrastructure, pedestrian and vehicular activity, solar shading and other variables, key areas are extracted.

[1] Areas where pedestrians are interacting, or where infrastructure exists (or is required), the surficial typology is deployed to create interactive boundary conditions.

[2] Areas which are removed from human activity but overlap with areas of vehicular traffic, ambient vibrations, and weather inputs are selected for volumetric tensegrity volumes for the nodal typology.

[1]

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[2]

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[1]

[2]

[left] Examples of the analysis and design, producing MEMS-based surficial and volumetric nodal generators.

Top images demonstrate the process, while lower diagrams demonstrate the detailing and resolution of the constructions: [1] Gran Via, [2] Parc du Ciutadella

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[left] Conceptual Massing: image depicts a mega-structure based on the surficial MEMS typology, in the preliminary resolution of components

Images (a-d) illustrate the data mining from large wind data sets. Work-flow was between rhino, grasshopper (and its Geco component), communicating with Autodesk Ecotect.

This process generated a cloud of points with particular characteristics related to directionality, velocity

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(j)

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Images (e-h) illustrate isocurves (volumes) produced from the establishing of thresholds between areas of highvelocity, directional winds and lower-velocity turbulence.

Images (i-l) show the blanket surface which is extracted from this threshold, and the removal of material through cross-referencing with external data such as multi-modal transit and existing infrastructure.

Image (m) shows the final step of the algorithmic process, prior to design resolution, architectural detailing, and structural design. Illustrates the basic panelling system used in the surficial typology, creating new forms of infrastructure specifically positioned to optimize performance of the MEMS device embedded in architectural feature.

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

[right] Sequential generation process images from the beach-front/highway site, using the multi-step algorithm: [3] Villa Olympica in Barcelona

(m)

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The following sequencing was used, each with its own algorithms, tools and procedures: (1) Input of information (data collection) Typically done with intelligent environmental sensors and software, this process produces an field or cloud of points, recording information indiscriminately based on the commands of the program. In the case of Turbulentopolis this mining registered a 3D cloud of points, characterising each point with a location, direction of wind-speed (vector), magnitude of wind velocity, and a colour coding according to a gradient of low-to-high wind velocity (blueto-yellow); (2) Organizing and culling (data management); Creates lists based on the indiscriminate data, and references their properties to eliminate redundancies and inconsistencies (for example, points which are below the ground plane, or irregular values that are too large or too small. The result is a manageable set of points that can easily controlled through few control parameters;

The migrating of information from an analysis phase to a design phase is the significant contribution of the Turbulentopolis project, as it provides highly specific, controlled and temporally-based formal outputs to the large data sets used. The notable limitation of this approach was the required computing capacity of the multi-step algorithmic definitions, and high demand of performance for the computers that were used in the experiments. Consequently it was impossible with the tools available to compute the entire process within the same algorithm. To prevent computer crashing, it was necessary to manage the project information in a number of steps by compartmentalization or sequencing.90 Each step produces a set of data as an output, which is input into the following one.

Although laborious, this procedural management of information was necessary due to the lack of access to supercomputer processing and other techniques of computation which would allow simultaneous algorithms, and external storage of data. The reliance on a single machine, and limited time for these experiments greatly affected the quality of the information management.

Nonetheless, the project was successful in developing a new tool for formal generation based not only on the aggregation of component parts or on the dissemination of large data, but on a hybrid between both.

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

90 Sequencing of Processes: due to the massive amount of computing required for the multi-scalar design and analysis of Turbulentopolis, it was necessary to create connected processes which fed into one another. A single computational process involving all of these steps would be achievable with such tools as supercomputer processing, capable of running and interconnecting multiple tasks simultaneously.

Despite the lengths still to go in the resolution of particular MEMS devices and the computational process to determine their deployment, this experiment has demonstrated that is possible to connect the two together through the sequencing of multi-scalar data management.

(3) Generation of volume (formal generation); Using particular tools to extract abstract forms from the set of controlled data. An example from Turbulentopolis is the use of vector and magnitude of wind-speed to establish volumes; (4) Site deployment (component-based aggregation) The articulation of specific devices within the output dynamic zoning. This process depends on the component algorithms capable of reading the input geometries and of outputting structural systems (i.e. nodal, fulcral, surficial).

Volumes are also cross-referenced with external factors such as infrastructure, shading and multi-modal transit; (5) Resolution of MEMS (design phase) Requiring less computation and more building-systems integration practices, this step involves the technical resolution of newly distributed components. In the case of MEMS deployment, it involves materiality, energy management systems, output peripherals, etc.

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4 | CONCLUSIONS

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

Designing systems to transmit surrounding vibratory energy to piezoelectric materials is a critical point. It contributes in particular to determining the amount and the shape of the active material.

Also determined to have critical importance is an analysis of 3-dimesnional space for dynamic zoning, based on temporal and environmental conditions. This reflects the aforementioned reality of MEMS deployment: that device optimization depends not only on the efficiency of the electrical load transmission, but also on the mass density of the source, the composition of the generator, and the quality of its context

4 | DISCUSSIONS

Spacemaker: New Energy Consciousness

These projects rely on the use of rechargeable batteries, capacitors, and direct input-to-output relationships. By pairing the format of output energy to the format input energy from devices, they reduce the number of electrical conversions, and in some cases circumvent the problem of transmission all together. Devices are designed to enable or enhance resonance in material and structure, increasing the potential for electricity generation. Electrical energy has been used in recreational, informational, and generational contexts, accordingly. Furthermore, the research explores the permeation of energy feedback in architecture, resulting not only in reduced losses, but also a stronger understanding of the relationship between the amount of energy required for site-specific functions, and the sources through which it is acquired. This suggests a new ‘ecological resonance’ which applies both in physical and behavioural ways.

The experiments in this report are of a technical natural, while the basis for the thesis is highly theoretical. In addition, they deal with the notion of ‘sensitivity’ in different ways. As observed in the depiction of the three typologies for kinetic energy generation, the formal results of the prototype differ based on their method of generation as either (1) a boundary condition, (2) a connection, or (3) dispersed node. The method used is a reflection the two factors of input (energy source) and output (peripheral device). In each case, the effectiveness in the deployment of MEMS using piezoelectric transducers was examined.

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As expected, the most productive method of generation is the fulcral typology (2), due to direct transfer of loads from the weighted part of the mechanism, through the transducer. This reflects many contemporary theoretical design proposals which use piezoelectric cantilevers in façades and landscape interventions. The nature of this typology as a single-hinge system (to be used in future deployments in conjunction with other independent hinges), lead to experiments with a variety of high-performance piezoelectric harvesters, therefore obtaining a greater range of results, and a higher output. As the more comprehensive mechanical investigation of the three typologies, many of the parameters for cantilevered systems were explored. These included the dimensions, curvature and weight of the tip-mass, the thickness of the composite casing within which the harvester was embedded, and the elasticity factor of spring system. Evidently, the

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Conclusions | 4

(1) Empirical testing demonstrated that surficial generator exhibited the greatest resonance (continuous periodic movements), meaning that it was rarely stationary. This can be attributed to the mechanism being connected to or composed within large spans of lightweight material, and their role as mediator of environmental conditions.

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

results obtained for this typology are that of a laboratory nature only, meaning that the stresses induced on the testing mechanisms emulated real-world conditions, not obtained in field testing.

Differently, both the surficial (1) and nodal (3) typologies were tested in the field. Because of the more architectonic nature of these typologies, lower cost piezoelectric harvesters were used. As a result, the power outputs were significantly lower than those obtained in laboratory tests with more engineered conditions. Despite this discrepancy, laboratory results for the lowerperformance harvesters were also collected, enabling the speculative inflation of the field results from typologies (1) and (3) for estimated comparisons. The most important observations to be made from all tests was how effective the mechanical systems were in impacting the piezoelectric transducer:

(2) Impact (greatest deflection) was demonstrated by the fulcral typology, also producing the highest values in power generation. This is a result of the mechanism acting as the sole transmitter of forces between moving parts. However, the periodic movement was much less due to the autonomy of the hinged weights, which meant that when there was little-to-no source input the transducer was stationary.

(3) Field testing for the nodal typology wad the most difficult to analyse, due to the number and dispersal of transducers within the test structure. However, the technique of using light to illustrate fluctuations in the energy field throughout the structure aided in the observation that there was constant, minute energy generation. This would indicate that the nodal typology is the most sensitive of the group, which can be explained by the fact that it is not weighted by any additional movement, only by the ‘shaking’ or ‘vibrating’ of the structure in which it is placed.

As identified in contemporary architecture theory, design is not only the design of things, but the coordination of how things relate to one another. This thesis identifies how new forms of energy conversion can relate to the conceptualization of architectural projects. Across scales, the presence of users takes this relationship between material and energy to that of a spatial relationship.

Thus, the basic structure for energetic spaces is the analysis of movement frequencies (inputs), used to determine a particular mechanism (MEMS), in order to power particular contexts (sensor) to enhance the physical space (output).

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Conclusions | 4 98

INTERVENTION PHYLOGENISIS

The interconnected topics of energy, behaviour, mechanics, and networking presented in this thesis illustrate that as technological advancements change the ways in which we can generate power for our cities, they also change the ways in which we interact with architecture. The exponential growth curve which is exhibited by these advancements means that despite an attempt to remain as current as possible, it cannot be helped that at the time this book will be printed, the contents will already be becoming outdated. Still, the intention of this research is not to present the future.

It is to introduce concepts into architecture which have been known for some time, and can be benefited from through synthesis. While it is not explicitly the job of architects to add new information about particular topics, it is the job of architects to synthesize knowledge from different areas, and convey their importance or necessity to users through their image or physicality. It is for this reason that this research is continually circling back to the physical realm, and the prototyping of potential future typologies of kinetic energy harvesting devices.

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

Technology transforming architecture. The anecdotal notion repeats itself with every breakthrough of technology. But what if architecture transformed technology, instead? Can we imagine a world in which design innovation leads to the development of new products, rather then the other way around? With the rise of micro- and nano-technologies, an incredible paradigm shift in the built environment is underway. This thesis has revealed the role that architects can play as matchmaker between industry and engineer, in the context of productive cities and environments. More specifically, it reveals the particular tools which are relevant for the development of an advanced architecture that is self-powered through distributed generation, including the emergent digital design space, new methods to attain and organize data, and advanced fabrication methods. And while these tools may apply to many aspects of todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s architectural discourse, it is the multiscalar approach of this work that validates their inter-utilization: the traversing from the macroscale of big data, down to the micro-scale of the component.

Many energy harvesting systems have been proven to generate enough electrical energy for many low-level information systems. Despite this evidence, there is little-to-no crossover from the respective industries in this emergent field, nor is there sufficient cross-over into the realm of design. Just as machines are becoming lighter, more responsive, and more stable, so should the devices which use them. Similarly, as the built environment evolves through the integration of information systems, we must engage in evolving its physicality. A combination of proven science and public demand has historically driven industry to invest in new directions, and the same can be true in this case. For that reason, this thesis has focused on the doubly important tasks of device prototyping and architectural deployment, to achieve a holistic sensitivity of architecture.

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There is no denying that our world is becoming increasingly digital, and that the digital world is evolving much faster than the physical one. Without designating it a negative phenomenon, what an Architecture of Sensitivity reveals is the potential benefit of linking these two worlds though architecture, and through energy. In a way, the architecture becomes the embodied energy of both the surrounds and the inhabitants, acting as the conduit through which energy and information are being carried. Many of the archetypes which have formed our present day understanding of architecture have become obsolete due to the advances in technology. Perhaps with innovative design practices we can reinvent old typologies and invent new ones, in coherence with the capabilities of present day technology, enhancing our digital world through more sensitive relationships with the phenomena of our physical one.

Toward an Architecture of Sensitivity

Although seemingly vague, the notion of sensitivity has been chosen very deliberately to encompass the following: (1) the capacity for structural design to be sensitive to ambient energy sources, (2) the electrification of the architectural and urban sensor networks, and (3) the heightened sensitivity of we, the users, to the reciprocal relationship between our material and immaterial worlds. Not only do these definitions have architectural implications, but more precisely they have roots in interactions, and information.

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