{react} Issue 11

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Science by Newcastle Students Latest science news ▪ Chemicals in toys ▪ Siphonophores Cross-education in strength training ▪ Clinical trials

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ynergy, from the Greek word synergía, meaning “working together”, is the cooperative action of two or more individual elements or contributors. From chemicals in toys and early dementia diagnosis to symbiosis and ecological balance, the concept of synergy underlies myriad complex mechanisms in nature and remains the ideal approach to solving a host of problems facing the world today.

Nowadays, research collaborations drive innovation. The benefits of close integration between the arts and sciences are clearer than ever. Through the inter-disciplinary sharing of wisdom and resources, we are much better positioned to find the answers to questions asked of complex systems, such as how exactly the brain controls movement, or how gut microbiota may influence the brain. And in many cases, researchers all over the world are only part of this mechanism; our knowledge is constantly increasing with the aid of rigorous, ethically conducted clinical trials, working with participants whose vital contribution ultimately benefits all of us.

Here, in our 11th issue of {react}, we bring together a number of different scientific topics exhibiting synergy – and we hope you will agree that, as in the essential properties of the systems described by our writers, the combined result is greater than the sum of its parts.

MEET THE TEAM EDITORS: Ryan Calmus and Emma Kampouraki LAYOUT AND DESIGN: Adam Azzi and Alethea Mountford NEWS EDITOR: Michelle James SUB-EDITORS : Cassie Bakshani, Ryan Calmus, Julia Concetti, Michelle James, Christina Julius,

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Emma Kampouraki, Jess Leighton, Alethea Mountford, Lauren Sabater BLOG MANAGER: Joanna Ciafone BLOG TEAM: Cassie Bakshani, Justin Byrne, Chris Cole, Georgia Collins, Annie Derry, Emma Kampouraki, Alethea Mountford, Elizaveta

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Contents News 4 What’s new in science?

The CANDO Project 8 Treating epileptic seizures through genetics

Chemicals in toys 11 Toxic metals could harm children

Symbiosis 14

News What’s new in science?

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Mutually beneficial relationship

Gut bacteria 17

The link between the stomach and brain

Portuguese man o’ war 20 Is it a jellyfish?

Scientific synergy 23 Ram Prasad Sengupta and the I-NK

Arts and STEM

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Integrating the arts into STEM

Cross-education

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Understanding how the brain controls movement

Gut bacteria Should you go probiotic?

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Environmental synergy 32 Linking landscapes

Clinical trials 35 Who benefits?

Blockchain 37 Synergy between science and society?

Early dementia 40

How do we identify dementia earlier?

A day in the life 43

With Dr Alan Jamieson, Newcastle University

Arts & STEM Could art improve science?

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Book review 46 “Why We Sleep “ by Prof. Matthew Walker

Fun and games 48

Take a break and enjoy a puzzle

NEWS

News

The latest science scoops from Newcastle Michelle James

Better together: Research at Newcastle University is connected with North East Businesses in a £3.9m scheme.

export opportunities, and support the UK Government’s Industrial Strategy to help businesses create better prospects for higher salaried jobs through skills, industries and infrastructure investment - particularly in the areas of science and engineering. Sectors involved in the project will specifically include, healthcare and health innovation; energy, manufacturing and logistics; and creative, digital, software and technology-based services.

In a bid to encourage growth and employment in the region, creation of the three-year long Intensive Industrial Innovation Programme (IIIP) will see Newcastle University alongside, Durham, Northumbria and Teeside to work with the region’s small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) to develop new services and products for market.

In a statement supporting the announcement of the IIIP and the bringing together of creative talent between business and research, Professor Chris Day the ViceChancellor of Newcastle University said “It is a crucial time for our region with many opportunities to forge a great future. The IIIP will bring universities and SMEs closer together to work on the economic priorities of the North East Local Enterprise Partnership and the Tees Valley Combined Authority. We’re delighted to be part of the Programme.”

The collaboration, funded by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), will involve 48 SMEs paired with the support, knowledge and expertise of PhD students, academics and university research facilities. It hoped that the IIIP will encourage greater innovation and

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New PAX-BD study to explore treatment for bipolar disorder.

be accompanied by periods of depression that can have a profound effect on quality of life.

Current treatment options are limited, with just three medications listed by NICE, and side effects can be significant or even patient nonresponsive.

A team of Newcastle researchers have secured almost £2 million of funding from the National Insitute for Health Research’s (NIHR) Health Technology to trial new treatment for bipolar disorder patients in a major clinical trial study.

With patients recruited across the country the study will look at the drug pramipexole, a treatment currently used in Parkinson’s Disease, and will assess for effectiveness and safety in patients suffering from the disorder; specifically, those concurrently depressed and nonresponsive to the current list of treatments recommended by the National Institute of Clinical Excellence (NICE).

Characterised as a serious mental health condition, bipolar individuals can suffer from episodes of elevated mood or mania. This can

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Pramipexole will be tested as a treatment for individuals suffering with bipolar depression PHOTO: NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY

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NEWS The team is led by Professor Hamish McAllisterWilliams, Professor of Affective Disorders at Newcastle University, and an honorary consultant psychiatrist at Northumberland Tyne and Wear NHS Foundation Trust (NTW) . Of the new PAX-BD study Professor McAllisterWilliams said “We are incredibly excited to have secured funding to run this important study… any new treatment option for this serious condition is to be welcomed and should provide definitive evidence one way or another whether pramipexole is a safe and effective medication for patients with bipolar depression. The study will be run from the NTW Trust with close collaboration with Newcastle University”. The researchers hope to recruit patients from around 40 NHS Trusts across the country.

This research provides a glimmer of hope for the 10 million people worldwide that require corneal surgery to prevent blindness as a result of eye diseases such as trachoma, as well as hope for the additional 5 million people who risk total blindness due to trauma and disease.

The team has also shown that corneas could be printed to match a patient’s unique specifications of size and shape.

Newcastle Scientists Create First 3D Printed Human Corneas Researchers at Newcastle University are the first to 3D print human corneas, using a technique that could be used to address the significant shortage available for transplant.

The team, led by Professor of Tissue Engineering Che Connon, explains the research involves a unique gel that ‘keeps stem cells alive whilst producing a material which is stiff enough to hold its shape but soft enough to be squeezed out of the nozzle of a 3D printer’. The gel is printed in concentric circles to form the shape of the cornea, and can completed in less than 10 minutes, making the process both cheap and fast.

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3D printed corneas offer hope for millions of people facing blindness caused by disease It is important to note that the research is still some way away from becoming available to patients. However, Dr Neil Ebenezer, director of research, policy and innovation at Fight for Sight highlights the progress in the field, stating “this study is important in bringing us one step close to reducing the need for donor corneas, which would positively impact some patients living with sight loss.”

Research by Professor Che Connon and his team can be found published in the journal of

Experimental Eye Research.

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Government Invests in Training Places for Medical Schools With growing stress on the NHS frontline and increases in the ageing population, the government has announced the expansion of medical school training places including the creation of five new courses in a bid to reduce pressures. Sunderland, Canterbury, Chelmsford, Lancashire and Lincoln are a five areas set to benefit from new schools, opening up 1500 more student places each year over the next three years. In addition, Newcastle Universities’ Medical School will also be expanded, with 24 extra student places created.

Sunderland still remaining subject to approval from the General Medical Council. Of the 1500 new places, 630 will start this September 2018, including the opening of Anglia Ruskin University’s Medicine course in Chelmsford.

Remaining places such as Sunderland will follow in 2019 and in 2020 universities such as Edge Hill in Lancashire. The move is certainly welcomed by the medical profession, but as announced by The British Medical Association, such effects of extra doctors will not be felt by the NHS for another five to seven years.

Find out more about these stories and more on the Newcastle University website at www.ncl.ac.uk/press/news

It is still unclear as to how the government will implement new places with courses such as

CC by SA 3.0 © Mohammed Tawsif Salam

The medical school at Anglia Ruskin will receive additional places under the government scheme

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RESEARCH

Preventing and Controlling Abnormal Brain Network Synchronisation in Epilepsy:

The CANDO Project Hope Erin Moore

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he brain is an amazingly important and complex organ. It is composed of millions of interconnecting neurons and forms the centre of our nervous system. It’s the communication between these neurons that fundamentally determines how we feel, remember and consciously perceive the world around us. When a person has epilepsy, abnormal messages are sometimes sent between groups of neurons within brain tissue, which if untreated, can synchronously spread across regions of the brain, heralding the sudden onset of a seizure. The triggers for the seizure vary between individuals, and symptoms can range from a vacant loss of awareness to full loss of consciousness and body convulsions. It can be devastating for a person when these seizures cannot be controlled – and this is where the CANDO project steps in!

The CANDO project started in 2014, and is a collaborative venture between researchers at Newcastle University, The Newcastle Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, University College London and Imperial College London. The aim of the endeavour is to develop an implant that will prevent focal epileptic seizures, culminating in a first in-human trial of the device by 2021.

The project is funded by the Wellcome Trust and the Engineering and Physical Sciences

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Research Council, and involves a team of neuroscientists, engineers and clinical doctors.

Currently, anti-epileptic drugs are used to effectively treat approximately two thirds of epilepsy patients. However, this still leaves one third of patients needing an alternative treatment. One such alternative option is the surgical removal of the part of the brain deemed to contain the neurons at the epicentre of the abnormal brain activity, termed the focal region. However, this surgery, like all surgical procedures, carries a risk of complications, including the risk of an individual suffering further neurological impairment as a result of the procedure. The CANDO project aims instead to combat epilepsy using a method capable of controlling brain communication internally, via

The CANDO Project offers hope to those who suffer from epilepsy blogs.ncl.ac.uk/react

retinal, the opsin changes shape. Depending on its type, this causes the opsin to close or open in response to the light stimulus, and therefore alter the flow of ions across the cell surface membrane. In algae and other single-celled microorganisms, opsins are encoded for by a small sequence of DNA; because of this, scientists were subsequently able to remove the specific DNA sequences responsible and begin to explore how the proteins they encode could be used elsewhere in research.

For those with epilepsy, abnormal messages are sometimes sent between groups of neurons a closed loop system, in real time, without resorting to the permanent destruction or removal of brain tissue.

To do this, the project is pioneering the use of optogenetics, an exciting cutting-edge technique, within a neuroprosthetic implant. In the CANDO project the aim is for brain activity to be controlled by an implant incorporating a light source that can turn on and off different neurons within the focal region to prevent seizures. This is an extremely ambitious, complex and fascinating multidisciplinary project that, if successful, could provide a less invasive, lower-risk alternative to surgery for epilepsy patients where drugs are ineffective.

At this point, you may have a lot of questions: How exactly does optogenetics work?

The basis of optogenetic technology was the discovery, in the early noughties, of the precise structure of specific types of pigment within algae and other microbes, part of a family of chemicals known as opsins. These form a fundamental component of light-sensitive ion channels – tiny gates within the surface of the cell allowing the selective passage of charged particles – and afford many organisms, including humans, their light-sensing capabilities. Opsins form part of a complex with a molecule called retinal, a form of Vitamin A, such that when a particle of light hits the

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Neurons communicate through electrical activity, the transmission of which is possible through the rapid, selective transport of ions across the cell membrane. By placing opsins

Researchers were now able to control the firing of specific brain cells within the walls of certain neurons, researchers were now able to control, with precision, the firing of specific brain cells through the use of a light source.

But how was it possible to target these cells and deliver this mechanism?

The answer is gene therapy. In optogenetics this involves using an attenuated (harmless) virus to deliver the opsin’s genetic code to specific cells. In the CANDO project, this genetic material is delivered to specific neurons within the focal region of the brain, where this DNA is incorporated into cellular DNA, causing the neuron to manufacture opsin. This technology allows for opsins to be precisely placed within certain types of neurons, and therefore enables the control of specific opsin-containing neurons with a given wavelength of light.

But there is more to CANDO than the optogenetics alone. How does optogenetics form part of the technology behind the implant

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RESEARCH that is being developed?

In addition to the presence of an internal light source within brain tissue, and the genetic engineering of neurons in the focal region such that they respond to light, the device being developed will also require implanted electrodes and a pacemaker. The electrodes will sit in brain tissue and monitor brain activity, while the pacemaker will sit under the skin in the chest, connected to the electrodes and the internal light source in the brain, acting as a small computer, continuously recording signals. The pacemaker is programmed to detect when neural activity is abnormal, and initiates the response whereby–light is presented to neurons in the focal region. This interaction of electrical and optical signals will serve to bring neural activity back within the normal range, and therefore prevent the development of a seizure.

size of the device. To date, the project has recently passed its halfway point and has started clinical trials of an optogenetically controlled retinal prosthesis in blind patients in the United States. These trials aim to control select retinal neurons optogenetically within a living human patient, to try to restore some of the patients lost vision, whilst piloting this aspect of the CANDO methodology. The technology will have to continually prove itself in each phase of the project in order to get

One thing we can be certain of is that this project is challenging and ambitious approval for the ultimate project goal of a first in-human trial of the device by 2021.

Gene therapy could be the answer to control of opsin-containing neurons

the

Now, if that all sounds really simple, consider some of the challenges the project has had to overcome.

Through rigorous testing trials, it has been necessary to ensure: the safety of the viral vector used to deliver the opsin DNA; light absorption within brain tissue; the durability and safety of materials and the efficiency of the device’s power usage (optimising recharging times and minimising the heat generated within brain tissue); and to minimise the overall

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The CANDO project is dynamic, interdisciplinary and pioneering in its use of optogenetics to aid precise control of a neurological disorder through a neuroprosthetic implant. The idea follows a history of failures and successes in prosthetics research, successes including the use of pacemakers in cardiology, and hearing implants for the deaf. One thing we can be certain of is that this project is challenging and ambitious, and will bring us a step closer towards improved treatments for neurological disorders in the future.

More information on the project can be found at: www.cando.ac.uk

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IN FOCUS

Chemical materials in toys and its effect on children health Behnaz Akbari

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n today’s modern world, attention has been paid to drug discoveries, diagnostic kits and the latest treatments but not to the growing human errors which could be prevented. In this article, we intent to present the serious health problems posed to children by plastic toys, and suggest ways to reduce the risk.

Potentially toxic metals (PTMs), such as cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb) and nickel (Ni) could pose a risk to children’s health, affecting their physical and intellectual development. Being exposed to high concentrations of these metals could have detrimental health effects, such as increased blood cholesterol, decreased blood sugar, kidney function, bone softening, gastrointestinal complications and cancer. One of the main sources of PTM exposure for children is through their toys, which are made from a variety of materials including metals, wood, fabrics, paints and plastics. Those made from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are the most common. PVC is utilized in soft children’s products, such as bath toys, squeeze toys and teething rings. Toys made from PVC require the addition of metal stabilizers, as chlorine could degrade, forming hydrochloric acid with the free hydrogen present in the toys. Lead, for

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example, effectively stabilizes bound chlorine and binds any free chlorine that might be formed during processing or degradation. Since the use of lead has been restricted, cadmium is used instead. However, research showed its negative effects on serious contamination in children’s products. Zinc is often easily associated with cadmium, and the other PTMs could be used as various pigments that colour plastics. However, the chewing, licking and swallowing behaviour of children who are in the oral stage (which spans from birth until the age of six) is a common source of PTM exposure. This is because metals in materials and paints are loosely bound to the surface and can leach readily. On the other hand, hazardous chemicals used in toy dyes and pigments such

Potentially toxic metals may cause serious health problems in children

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IN FOCUS

Fruit and vegetable dyes are earth-friendly, renewable alternatives to chemical dyes as cadmium (which creates the red, orange, and yellow pigments) and chromium and lead (which create green, orange, and yellow pigments) are potentially carcinogenic, toxic by inhalation, impair fertility, and disrupt the development of children’s brains. From a medical perspective, these potentially toxic metals are able to reach the blood stream or be absorbed by the body from the gastrointestinal tract. Up to 50% of lead ingested by children’s digestive system is bioavailable; therefore, the concentration of PTM which children are exposed to is highly important. Another problem with toys is that they can contain synthetic hazardous substances including softeners used in plastic toys (which disrupt the hormone system), formaldehyde used in glued wooden puzzles (which can lead to cancer), or flame retardants used in teddy bears (which can affect a child’s development). It is time for safer alternatives to substitute these health-harming substances.

In spite of the dangers associated with playing with toys, their production has increased incredibly over the past few years. Many toys sold at retail stores have been recalled in

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different parts of the world due to design and manufacturing errors. The United States consumer product safety commission (CPSC) recalled 79 toy/toy jewellery products in 2007 and another 48 in 2008. 20% of 131 commonly used products made from PVC, such as toys, clothing and household items, were found to contain lead exceeding 200 ppm compared to the allowed maximum amount. Additionally, researchers reported a high number of inexpensive jewellery items containing Pb at levels exceeding the U.S regulatory limit.

Likewise, phthalates are chemical compounds used primarily to enhance the flexibility and durability of plastics like plasticized PVC. With regards to consumer health concerns, phthalates have been phasing out of toys in the United States CPSIA, Canada, and the European Union REACH. The toxicological properties, at high level of exposure, show a risk of cancer and adult infertility.

Thankfully, on October 18th 2017, after a decade-long process and a lawsuit brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council, the Environmental Justice Health Alliance and Breast Cancer Prevention Partners, the blogs.ncl.ac.uk/react

Consumer Product Safety Commission voted to forbid five more harmful phthalate chemicals from plastic used in children toys. Thus, risk assessments of PTM and appropriate alternative should be considered.

Therefore, although unsafe toys should not be found on sale, consumers should shop with care and take some safety advice, based on the above scientific observations and tests. They should look for the mandatory European Community (CE) symbol while purchasing. This forces the manufacturer to meet the requirements of the EC Toy Safety Directive and will allow them to remain competitive compared to other factories. Additionally, looking for a special trade mark can be useful, because this means that the manufacturers satisfied the necessary safety needs approved

by British safety organization.

As far as parents are concerned, awareness is the first step in comprehending how hazardous these chemicals are to their kids. Social media can have a big part to inform parents about raising awareness of the harmful effects of chemical materials used in toys. Another

brilliant idea is to advertise the natural toys by scientists through social media. Since scientists think about using green substitutes or natural dyes to reduce such deleterious health effects, they are the best people who can broaden the parents’ horizon. For example, recently, researchers reported that a set of multi-faceted wooden building blocks were coloured with fruit and vegetables dyes. During these processes, BPA, phthalates, and toxic glues are not used and are replaced by vegetables dyes such as Hevea tree sap and harvest bamboo known as earth-friendly renewable resources.

20% of common PVC products contained lead exceeding the allowed maximum amount In addition to this, a reliable budget should be allocated by the government to the factories to produce natural dyes in kids’ toys with a reliable price. This may encourage parents to purchase healthy and safe products and enable manufacturers to produce competitive natural products. Also, it is proposed that the manufacturing company could receive secondhand toys containing synthetic dyes, for example, from the parents and give them new toys with natural dyes instead.

We can hope to arrive to the point where no synthetic dye is present in the world, and in the meantime scientists should be encouraged to research diseases caused by these chemicals in order to find treatments for them. Hopefully, companies will be increasingly willing to enhance the quality and safety of their toys, which should be prioritized over cheap manufacturing and product price.

Chemicals used in toy dyes can cause health problems for children blogs.ncl.ac.uk/react

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FEATURE

Symbiosis: An ideal model of adaptation Louis Hudson The complexity of life is intensified by the interactions living creatures have with one another. Life is almost always dependent on other forms of life for survival. The grass grows from fertile soil produced by manure, bacteria and earthworms, the deer eats the grass, the wolf eats the deer, and the human… well, they’ll eat just about anything and everything.

This dependence goes beyond just eating one another. These relationships can be multifaceted, sometimes unexpected, and even mutually beneficial. This is “symbiosis”.

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here are three main types of symbiotic relationships: Mutualism, Commensalism, and Parasitism. Mutualism is when both parties in the relationship benefit from their interaction with the other. Commensalism is where one party benefits but the other is neither harmed nor benefits. And parasitism is where one organism benefits whilst harming the other.

Symbiosis is a long-term interaction of two individuals, typically of different species, which results in a benefit to at least one of the parties.

This does not encompass the whole range of interactions between species including predator -prey or competition. Often, these symbiotic relationships are necessary for the survival of at least one of the parties. This is referred to as ‘obligate symbiosis’. Alternatively, one party may survive without the other, which is known as ‘facultative symbiosis’.

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The ecosystem is a complex, interwoven fabric of interactions, abound with examples of mutualism. One of the most recognisable examples of this relationship is between bees and flowers. Bees benefit by taking the nectar provided by the flower and using it to make honey. Visiting multiple flowers whilst doing so, they spread the flowers’ pollen. This enables flower sexual reproduction through fertilisation.

This was not a conscious collaborative effort; it is simply a mutually beneficial relationship from which both parties flourish.

Commensalism and Parasitism may appear to be more selfish approaches to life. It is worth noting that nature is selfish: Each creature, plant or animal, is only interested in working within a system that will allow the survival and propagation of its own species, even if this is not a conscious decision. Commensal organisms blogs.ncl.ac.uk/react

are rife. One example is the rich and diverse microbiota (population of microorganisms) on human skin which on the whole offers little to no direct benefit to the human.

Then there are parasites. So grotesque to our civil sensibilities that the thought and sight of them makes our guts churn. This is no accident.

Parasites are often biologically simple creatures with complex life cycles that are, by definition, exploitive. They use the hard work of a host to their benefit and, by definition, harm the host.

This is the type of creature you want to stay far away from!

There are examples of almost every species being taken advantage of and humans are no exception. Especially a problem in less developed countries, malaria is an example of a deadly human parasite. Many types of worms can colonise the human gut, skin or even eyes.

Parasites often find interesting and quirky ways to survive, such as eating and replacing the tongue of a fish. A particularly interesting case is that of the parasitoid wasps. These wasps lay their eggs into different arthropods where they incubate and eventually kill the host. That is not the surprising part though. Parasitoid wasps are also victims of parasitism themselves: various fungi use their bodies as breeding incubators.

Spores from the fungi attach themselves to the outside of the wasp. When they germinate,

They use the hard work of a host to their benefit and, by definition, harm the host they drill their way into the wasp body where the fungus will grow and proliferate and kill the host. It then sprouts from the body growing outwards where new spores are released.

What about an organism who benefits from being killed in a symbiotic relationship? This can also be a form of mutualism. A prominent and interesting example is that of the leafcutter ant.

These ants form massive colonies, with populations that rival London, and they venture out en masse to cut large chunks of leaves to bring back to the colony, defoliating trees and swathes of greenery. They then use the leaves they have cut to cultivate fungus. As expert agriculturalists, they can even detect subtle chemical changes, like seeing if a leaf is harmful to the fungus. In this case, the ant will remove it and learn not to use it again. The fungus is so crucial to the survival of the colony that a new

Parasitoid wasps are parasites that are also parasitised themselves blogs.ncl.ac.uk/react

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FEATURE queen ant founding a colony will take a small amount of fungus with her in a specialised ‘pocket’. Thus, despite the individual fungus being fated to death as part of this relationship, the species as a whole benefits from being spread by the ants, and has thus found a safe niche under the watchful care of these ants.

Perhaps the most interesting and layered demonstration of symbiosis lies in the tale of Mixotricha paradoxa. This single-celled eukaryotic organism, or ‘protozoa’, resides in the digestive system of termites. In the mutualism with the termite, Mixotricha gains safe residency whilst aiding the termite in digesting cellulose, an indigestible sugar and the main constituent of wood, present in vast quantities in the termite’s diet.

Mixotricha paradoxa means ‘unexpected combination of hairs’. This is because protozoa typically have either cilia (small hair-like projections) or flagellae (longer hair-like projections), but never both. Mixotricha appears to have both. This was initially bothersome for scientists and despite some structural similarities these cilia looked unusual.

When examined under the electron microscope, the apparent cilia were found to be hundreds of thousands of tiny hair-like bacteria (Spirochaetes) on its surface. An astounding and beautiful demonstration of symbiosis

facilitating convergent evolution.

In addition to this symbiotic relationship Mixotricha also has symbiotic relationships with other bacteria, some of which actually live inside it. These bacteria, classed as ‘endosymbionts’, work as Mixotricha’s mitochondria. Despite there being evidence that Mixotricha used to house typical mitochondria, the symbiotic relationship with these endosymbionts must have been beneficial enough for it to downregulate production of mitochondria and now rely solely on the bacteria.

Mixotricha’s endosymbionts acts as a proof of concept for another famous endosymbiont story. In fact, endosymbiosis is the prevailing theory of how mitochondria came to exist. It says that an ancestral eukaryote internalised a bacterium which became an endosymbiont and allowed a tremendous energy boost to the primitive single-celled organisms, giving it an advantage over all competitors. Today, all eukaryotic organisms contain mitochondria in every single cell. Thus, this is the greatest story of synergy ever told.

Leafcutter ants exhibit ant-fungus mutualism

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FEATURE

Brain-changing bacteria Zoe Kirkham

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he human gastrointestinal (GI) tract harbours a complex and dynamic population of microorganisms, commonly known as the gut microbiota. This population consists of approximately 1 trillion microorganisms which, together with its respective genetic material, is termed the microbiome. These microorganisms have coevolved with the human host over thousands of years to form an intricate and synergistic relationship, which is mutually beneficial to both. The vast majority of microorganisms in the gut are bacteria, such as lactobacilli.

Symbiotic bacteria such as these, are thought to play a key role in digestion and the regulation of the immune system. The composition of microorganisms within the GI tract varies between individuals and is largely determined by genetics. However, external factors also play a role. Poor diet, disease, infection, antibiotics and can lead to a reduction in the diversity of bacterial species, which is associated with worse gut health.

In recent years, there has been a growing body of research into the influence of gut microorganisms on the nervous system.

Disruption in the composition of the gut microbiota has been suggested to contribute to disease, including neurological and mental health disorders. So how can microorganisms in the gut affect diseases in the brain?

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Gut microbiota development The development of the gut microbiota begins just after birth, during the post-natal period. At this time, the neonate is exposed to huge quantities of microorganisms from the maternal vagina, anus and skin, as well as the surrounding environment.

Other factors, including early nutrition, also appear to play a role in shaping microbiota development. Research has shown that breastfed infants have a lower risk of developing gastroenteritis compared to those who were bottle-fed. In addition, infants who were fed formula milk during the first 4 weeks of life, showed a decrease in the total number of bacterial species in the gut, and higher levels of inflammatory markers.

Studies have also suggested that delivery method may have an impact on gut microbiota.

Babies born via caesarean section are exposed to fewer microorganisms, lacking bacterial transmission from the mother. This can lead to delayed colonisation of the gut with microorganisms, and differences in gut microbiota composition.

The gut-brain axis Following evidence linking the gut microbiota and brain, scientists have been trying to find pathways facilitating this communication.

Immunological, hormonal and neurological

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FEATURE routes have been identified and together these pathways are known as ‘the gut-brain axis’.

Neuroactive compounds produced by gut microbiota are believed to have a direct effect on hormonal signals via the HypothalamicPituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis. This axis carries out the hormonal response to stress within our bodies. Studies have shown that stress in early life can upregulate the activity of the HPA axis, which can in turn lead to changes in the composition of microorganisms in the gut. The release of these metabolites from gut microorganisms is influenced by leakiness of the intestinal barrier. Certain external factors, including chronic stress, are thought to increase gut leakiness by disrupting this barrier.

The interaction of these mechanisms is still being explored, however the potential to modulate this axis in order to treat disease appears to be an exciting area of research.

Microorganisms and mood Psychiatric disorders are a leading cause of disability and their incidence is increasing worldwide. The biology of these conditions remains poorly defined, however evidence now suggests the gut microbiota may have a role in controlling our perception of pain, and behaviour. Administration of specific bacterial strains in mice appears to have similar effects to morphine, a strong painkiller, by increasing expression of opioid receptors in intestinal epithelial cells. Ingestion of lactobacilli bacterial strains has also been shown to improve the ability of gut microbiota to regulate the immune system. As both anxiety and depression have been associated with raised inflammatory markers, some have suggested that ingestion of lactobacilli may improve symptoms.

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Should you be pro-probiotics?

In the current media climate, where clean eating is all the rage it is difficult to discern between trends that may be beneficial and those based on inflated opinions. A plethora of health gurus including Liz Earle, a beauty and wellbeing mogul, have been promoting the health benefits of probiotics, such as kefir.

Probiotics are live microorganisms which improve health when ingested in adequate quantities. Kefir, a fermented milk drink originating from Caucasus Mountains, is a traditional probiotic that has been consumed in this region for thousands of years. The word kefir is said to originate from the Turkish word ‘keyif’, translated in English as ‘good feeling’. Kefir is thought contain bacteria that is beneficial for the gut.

Unlike some health crazes, there is increasing evidence to support the benefits of probiotics. There is ongoing research into the use of probiotics as adjuncts to current therapy for a number of conditions. So far, probiotics have been shown to reduce the stress response and also improve mood in patients with chronic fatigue and inflammatory bowel syndrome. Despite these advances, more evidence is needed about the mechanisms underpinning probiotics before they can be fully incorporated into the management of these conditions.

Even though we cannot yet draw any key conclusions about the influence of the gut microbiota on the brain or vice versa, the role of this population of microorganisms in health and disease is proving to be a promising area of exploration. In future, it may broaden our perception of diseases traditionally localised to the brain and lead us to nurture the synergistic relationship between our gut and gut microbiota.

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FEATURE

The Portuguese Man O’ War Molly Howarth-Maddison

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s it a boat? Is it a jellyfish? Is it António Salazar sitting on a raft?

Trick question, it’s not even an “it”, but a “they”. This venomous marine creature is actually a colony of zooids, or polyps, and belongs to an order of carnivorous marine organisms called Siphonophores, a class of hydrozoa. These organised, independent polyps attach to each other and essentially fashion tentacles of clones via asexual budding. The Portuguese man o’ war, Physalia physalis, consists of 4 types of polyps; the first a floating, gas-filled bladder called a pneumatophore. The density of gas within the bladder can be adjusted to allow it to alter its depth in the water and the other 3 polyps form stinging tentacles trailing up to 50m behind the pneumatophore. This is an impressive length; far bigger than an average adult blue whale and the equivalent of 28 Einsteins lined up top to toe - though on average they tend to extend to a more humble 9m. Finally, rising from the bladder is a thin, muscular, sail-like membrane which enables the organism to voyage the seas, paying homage to the old battle ships originating from 15th century Portugal, endowing the man o’ war with its common name.

The polyps within siphonophores are not genetically identical, but rather serve specialised functions, as if budding “thousands

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of conjoined twins…some with only legs to move everybody, others with only mouths to ingest food”, as evolutionary biologist Casey Dunn describes. The man o’ war’s tentacles are made up of hundreds of branches, each containing the polyps in three-party groups.

Stinging tentacles trail 50m behind the bladder; longer than a blue whale Firstly, the predacious polyp is called a dactylzooid; it is covered in highly complex cells called nematocysts and acts similarly to a fishing rod. The nematocysts are explosive and fire miniature harpoons at a rate of 700ns to inject their paralysing venom and anchor the victim in place. This is one of the fastest movements in the animal kingdom, generating acceleration up to 5,410,000 g and a force similar to that of technical bullets at the point of impact. The tentacle’s muscles then contract to reel in the catch for the awaiting feeding polyp, known as a gastrozooid. Hundreds of these gastrozooids release digestive enzymes from mouth-like structures and supply nutrients to the other polyps. It is common to observe a deep orange-red coloured digestive blogs.ncl.ac.uk/react

system through the man o’ war’s pellucid tissues, due to the accumulation of haemoglobin derived from its devoured kill.

Unlike its tentacular brother polyps, the globular structure of the gonodendron is further subdivided into additional specialised gonozooids, to produce sperm, lay eggs and facilitate reproduction.

Each of the polyp types are highly specialised and adapted to their specific physiological functions. When working synchronously, they can cope well when one of their team becomes disrupted. However, independently they are incapable of survival. For example, the dactylzooid could, hypothetically, catch an infinite number of fish, but with no means to then digest the prey, the prey-catching ability is rendered entirely superfluous. Together however, the synergistic existence of this siphonophore allows it to not only survive, but thrive.

The Portuguese man o’ war is responsible for hundreds of thousands of human stinging injuries per year, fortunately few are fatal.

Nevertheless, although fierce in name and nature, not all are susceptible to a sting from this siphonophore. In fact, there are a select number of marine organisms which are immune to the man o’ war’s venom; Nomeus gronovii, aptly named the man-of-war fish, uses the tentacles of the man o’ war as shelter and to access food. Another example is Tremoctopus violaceus, the blanket octopus, which will drag the tentacles of a man o’ war around, potentially as a defence mechanism.

Finally, some animals actively predate upon the Portuguese man o’ war. These include Caretta caretta, the loggerhead turtle, Glaucus atlanticus, the blue sea slug and Janthina janthina, the violet snail.

But the Portuguese man o’ war is not the only siphonophore in existence. In fact, there are almost 200 species described, and likely many more yet to be discovered. Praya dubia, blogs.ncl.ac.uk/react

Marrus orthocana is another siphonophore affectionately termed ‘the giant siphonophore’, rivals some of the longest animals in the world, reaching up to 160 ft. Unlike the pleustonic Portuguese man o’ war, it is generally found at 3000ft below the surface. These organisms have a hydrostatic skeleton, which means they rely upon the intense pressure found at these depths to maintain the structural integrity of their bodies. Therefore, if you were to catch one in your fishing net, you would likely find a pile of gelatinous gloop. These depths are known as the ‘twilight’ and ‘midnight’ zones and many siphonophores here, like the Praya dubia, use bioluminescence to attract prey towards their tentacles, as they can inhabit an environment where the sun does not penetrate. Conventionally, marine organisms adopting this technique will emit a blue or green light, however a siphonophore of the genus Erenna, has recently been discovered by Steve Haddock’s research team as the first marine invertebrate observed to produce red light. The red light helps Erenna to mimic the appearance of a copepod, thus providing a remarkable resemblance to a key component of

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FEATURE most marine food chains. It keeps its tentacles close and employs this ingenious tactic to entice prey near enough to become dinner.

Older members of the colony provide powerful propulsion In comparison to the Portuguese man o’ war, Nanomia bijuga, amongst other siphonophores, is not reliant on the wind or current to get around. Its tentacles are grouped into specialized clusters called nectophores, which are divided into ‘steerers’ and ‘thrusters’, arranged in a nectosome based on their maturity. In other words, the older members of the colony are generally larger and are positioned at the back to provide powerful propulsion, whereas the younger members take the role of turning and steering, using their smaller jets at the front of the colony. Working

together in synchrony, the result is an abundance of jet propellers which can be isolated and manipulated to allow the entire colony to efficiently travel laterally and vertically (potentially even loop-the-loop), and at much greater speeds than its jellyfish cousins. American marine biologist Jack Costello has likened the power of the nectosome of N. bijuga to a human running a marathon daily, whilst lugging the equivalent to his own body mass in tow. He also suggests that we could learn a thing or two from its “natural solution to multi-engine organisation” - Perhaps we can take biomechanical inspiration from this marine organism for the future of ocean exploration?

The siphonophore: what might appear to be a cross between the ‘spaghetti monster’ and a jellyfish but in reality, is a highly specialized band of brothers, working in unison to storm the seas.

The colourful body of a Man of war washed up on a beach

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PROFILE

A synergy in scientific research: the I-NK collaboration Ed Hodkin

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n 2005, the foundation stone for the Institute of Neurosciences, Kolkata (I-NK) was laid.

This was the culmination of years of work and fund-raising: a specialist not-for-profit hospital for the treatment of neurological disorders in adults and children. The goal was to make care affordable for all of the community.

I-NK was the dream of Newcastle-based neurosurgeon Ram Prasad Sengupta, known to his friends as Robin. His vision was for I-NK not only to serve as a hospital, but also as a research centre to advance treatments for neurological disorders. By hosting basic scientists and clinical researchers under one roof, it delivers bench to bedside research.

Robin has a longstanding relationship with Newcastle University, and in 2012 leaders from Newcastle University’s Institute of Neuroscience (IoN) visited I-NK. Impressed, a second party returned in 2013 to develop the relationship and to deliver research equipment donated by leading UK neuroscience companies Cambridge Electronic Design and The Magstim.

The two institutes swiftly moved to sign a memorandum of understanding. Professor David Burn, the Pro-Vice-Chancellor for Newcastle University’s Faculty of Medical Sciences, described it as “a significant milestone in the relationship”, aiming to “stimulate further joint research activities, and

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interchange of staff and graduate students for research and teaching purposes.”

Indeed, a range of collaborations have blossomed, with academics and students travelling in both directions to learn, share resources and develop their scientific knowledge. Newcastle’s Professor of Movement Science, Stuart Baker, is currently collaborating on a trial with I-NK to assess a novel wearable electronic device designed to help stroke survivors recover movement and control of their hands. India has been described as suffering a ‘stroke epidemic’, with a higher rate of stroke than Western countries.

Professor Baker described I-NK as “a fantastic environment for collaborative research. The facilities are first-rate, but most importantly the hospital staff are highly-skilled, research active clinicians who are a joy to work with". This view is echoed by Dr Mark Baker, Clinical Senior Lecturer at the IoN and Consultant Neurologist and Clinical Neurophysiologist at Newcastle’s RVI. Dr Baker is collaborating on a number of projects at I-NK that are currently trialling novel devices known as electroceuticals or electrodiagnostics, which use small electrical impulses for therapy or diagnosis of neurological disease.

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PROFILE This collaborative research is being acknowledged by the wider scientific community, with publications in peer-reviewed journals. This includes work led by Newcastle’s Dr John-Paul Taylor on the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation in Parkinson's disease dementia, a technique that involves non-invasively applying small, painless electrical currents across the head. It also includes a collaboration, funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) and the Wellcome Trust, between Newcastle’s Ed Hodkin and Professor Andrew Jackson, and I-NK’s Dr Hrishikesh Kumar and Dr Supriyo Choudhury, on a novel device for rehabilitation following stroke.

Professor Richard Davies and Robin Sengupta I-NK has moved to strengthen its status as an academic institute, becoming first an affiliated institute of the University of Calcutta and being recognised since 2017 as one of its sister institutes. This has allowed it to launch its own PhD programme encompassing the fields of physiology, neuroscience and psychology, with Newcastle University academics providing joint supervision for some of these students.

Additionally, a new prestigious summer scholarship programme is being launched in 2018, giving Indian students the opportunity to travel to the UK to work with researchers in Newcastle, learning transferable skills that can then be taken back to Kolkata to enhance the

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expanding research capabilities at I-NK. I-NK has already made significant strides forward, but its founder is not resting on his laurels just yet. Speaking of his latest venture, Professor Baker describes Robin Sengupta as a “powerhouse”.

“His latest project is to establish a new medical school, with associated district general hospital in a poor suburb of Kolkata. We can only admire his drive and enthusiasm."

Research in India already has much to be proud of. Doctors Without Borders (Médecins Sans Frontières) describes India as the “pharmacy of the developing world” for its work creating affordable generic drugs. I-NK is helping India to advance in scientific and medical research, and alongside exciting plans for expansion, its mutually beneficial partnership with IoN can only help the global scientific community to transform healthcare.

Despite growing scientific success and plaudits from around the world, Dr Hrishikesh Kumar, Director of research at I-NK, is keen that researchers stay grounded. His message is clear: “[a] higher number of publications is not our aim – contributing to science with work that makes real impact and difference would please us most”. This reiterates the founding principle of I-NK: to make healthcare affordable and available to all. With this in mind, it is perhaps fitting that Newcastle academics visiting Kolkata are typically hosted by the monks at Kolkata’s Ramakrishna Mission, whose aim is to promote peace and equality for all humanity.

If you’d like to learn more about I-NK, please visit the following websites: www.neurokolkata.org www.research.ncl.ac.uk/jacksonlab

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OPINION

Are the arts the future of STEM? Chris Cole

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t the turn of the 21st century, several groups had begun to reflect on human progress across the previous 100 years. In that time, we had seen humanity make monumental innovations in various aspects of life such as: medicine, space exploration, communication, transportation, and agriculture. Many identified that these improvements were largely due to 4 broad fields of research: science, technology, engineering and mathematics - collectively now known as the STEM fields. For this reason, several governments began pushing for proSTEM policies centred on prioritising STEM based research as well as education of these subjects in schools.

STEAM initiative aims to address this issue. Led by the Rhode Island School of Design (RISD), STEAM has been gaining increasing attention, with both the New York Times and The Independent publishing articles on the topic.

At first glance it is very easy (particularly for those belonging to STEM fields) to think the notion of integrating the arts into STEM as an alien concept. But, given the increasing attention paid to the STEAM movement by the media, along with the success reported in the USA by the RISD, it is arguably a good idea to examine the merits of the initiative.

The results? It appears we may have some way to go, with some articles describing a possible undersupply of STEM graduates and other reports of the disparity between the genders in STEM. However, we are seeing improvements in societal interest in STEM, with most universities now pushing the importance of science communication and figures suggesting a rise of 18% in the number of STEM undergraduate degree students in the UK between the years 2002-2014.

Despite these positives, not all appear to be satisfied with the increase in pro-STEM policies worldwide. Some argue these policies would achieve much more by being more inclusive. Of which field of study, you may ask? The arts. The blogs.ncl.ac.uk/react

Arts could transform our economy

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OPINION Theory underpinning STEAM The RISD summarises the need for STEAM by explaining that “Innovation remains tightly coupled with the STEM subjects. Art + Design are poised to transform our economy in the 21st century just as science and technology did in the last century”. While an interesting statement, the ability to predict future innovations/advancements is difficult even in STEM, which makes one wonder how the organisation can be so certain of such a bold claim of the future of the arts.

Their answer largely seems to focus on the principle that arts training results in scientists, engineers and mathematicians developing essential creative thinking skills to overcome complex problems with novel solutions in their field (a skill central to science and innovation).

Whilst demonstrating a causal relationship between arts education and success in STEM in an experimental setting would likely be incredibly complex and time consuming (not to mention unethical) there are several articles published showing arguments in favour of this point. In 2013, Michigan State University reported on a correlation between musical training and the number of patents produced and/or businesses started. Another article by

Creative thinking can lead to novel solutions to complex problems

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Steven Ross Pomeroy in Scientific American puts forwards several examples of historical scientists/innovators with heavy arts backgrounds and reports figures stating that Nobel Prize winners in STEM are 17 times more likely to be painters, 12 times more likely to be a poet and 4 times as likely to have musical training.

Assuming the benefit of arts training in STEM is true, a question that arises is how the STEAM movement proposes to support this integration between the arts and STEM?

The ability to predict future innovations/ advancements is difficult even in STEM Aims of STEAM The RISD summarises the goals of the STEAM initiative as threefold:

“Encourage integration of Art + Design in education” “Transform research policy to place Art + Design at the centre of STEM” “Influence employers to hire artists and designers to drive innovation” Many involved in the education system in the UK argue that through taking a STEM-centric view, the arts are largely being ignored and even removed from school curriculums.

Therefore, the first aim of STEAM I believe most of us can support. Regardless of your opinions on the link between the arts and success in STEM it is fair to argue that providing a broad education that does not ignore or discourage pursuing certain areas of study should be supported. Everyone should have an opportunity to study what is of interest to blogs.ncl.ac.uk/react

them, after all that is hopefully the same reason many of us got into STEM. The second aim of STEAM seems directed at promoting universities to increase their support of the arts in research. Currently a large proportion of the money going into research is distributed to the STEM fields. Therefore RISD are pushing for research funders to place greater priority on funding STEM projects which have actively collaborated with an artistic input, with the selling point being the notion that the arts will bring a creative input that will greatly benefit STEM related research. Although, given the tendency of STEM to prioritise collaborations with others in similar STEM fields and the apprehension present by some with regards to reaching out to non-STEM academia I suspect this may be an uphill battle at this point in time.

Their final aim involves encouraging the employment of art graduates to provide creativity and drive innovation. The only real criticism of this goal is that strictly speaking this isn’t relevant to STEM but rather perceptions of the arts by business/society. That being said,

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any attempt to get more graduates degree relevant jobs and benefit the economy can only be welcomed.

Conclusion STEM has seen several boosts in funding and support across the last two decades; however we may as a society now be neglecting those outside the STEM umbrella in education and research. There are several points within the STEAM movement that could be debated including the benefit of having some backgrounds in the art for STEM and how they plan to challenge established research policies.

Ultimately the STEAM movement is fighting to preserve a place for the arts in education and research whilst also encouraging new collaborations and ideas that may currently be unfairly disregarded. Therefore all I can say is perhaps it would be better to approach such a collaboration with an open mind and see where the synergistic relationship between the currently disparate arts and STEM fields could take humanity in the future.

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RESEARCH

The Balance of Power:

Cross-education in strength training Isabel Glover From Popeye to Arnold Schwarzenegger, rippling muscles are associated with strength. It is well established that lifting weights causes trauma to the muscles fibres which, through the biological processes of recovery and repair, increase in thickness and number and thereby increase the power output of the trained muscle.

It is less obvious that strength is also determined by the neural input to the muscles, that is, the electrical signals that travel from the brain to control our movements.

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stark example of this is ‘cross-education’, the phenomenon whereby strength training a muscle on one side of the body results in an increase in strength in the same, untrained, muscle on the other side of the body. For example, if you performed biceps curls with only your right arm, your left biceps muscle would also get stronger, even though you haven’t directly exercised it. This increase in strength is not trivial - a recent meta-analysis reported the untrained limb gains approximately half the strength increase of the trained limb. However, despite this increase in strength, the untrained muscle does not increase in size, as would be expected. Instead, changes are occurring at the neural level to increase the drive to the muscle.

Exciting as this finding may be to both bodybuilders and scientists, why does it matter? From a clinical perspective, there is a whole host of neurological disorders which either exclusively or predominantly affect only one side of the body. For example, stroke survivors frequently experience weakness on

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one side due to cell death in the opposite side of the brain. Although physiotherapy plays a key role in their rehabilitation, many patients do not achieve a full recovery of movement.

Cross-education could play a vital role here in enabling patients to use their unaffected limb to strengthen their affected limb, which may be too weak to directly perform the necessary exercises. Accordingly, studies have shown strength transfer in stroke patients from the healthy to the weak limb on the other side of the body and importantly, that this increase in strength is associated with functional task improvements and recovery of movement.

Cross-education can also be clinically relevant in preventing loss of strength after periods of inactivity. As anyone who has even fractured or broken a bone will testify, a long period of inactivity in a muscle, as experienced when wearing a plaster cast, typically results in muscle wasting and weakness. Evidence now suggests that the immobilised muscle can be spared by strength training its healthy opposite, as demonstrated by preservation of muscle blogs.ncl.ac.uk/react

size, as well as strength across a range of tasks.

The idea of cross-education is not new. The phenomenon was first reported by American physician Edward Wheeler Scripture in 1984.

Since that time, numerous reports have been published in an attempt to determine the underlying neural mechanisms responsible for this effect. In addition to enhancing our understanding of motor control, understanding the mechanisms behind cross-education may enable scientists to maximise its clinical potential. Current hypotheses are based around two main concepts: strengthened pathways and motor learning. In primates, the primary pathway for movement control is the corticospinal tract. This pathway originates from the primary motor cortex of the brain and descends down the opposite side of the spinal cord to connect (‘synapse’) with motor neurons that then innervate muscles. Based on this structure, and the assumption that changes do not occur at the level of the muscle, crosseducation is likely to result from changes in either the motor cortex or the corticospinal tract. The first hypothesis is therefore that highforce voluntary movements result in an increase in the excitability of the corticospinal tract on both sides of the body – this pathway becomes more responsive to inputs from the brain and so can generate bigger outputs in the muscles. The second hypothesis is that strength training results in motor learning in the motor cortex of the brain, and this learning is available to both sides of the body, thereby transferring the added ability to untrained side.

Researchers at Newcastle University’s Institute of Neuroscience are now proposing an alternative hypothesis. There is a second pathway that controls movement, known as the reticulospinal tract. Until recently this pathway had typically been neglected by scientists, who dismissed it as being of little importance in humans. However, recent work from our lab, as well as others, has

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demonstrated that this pathway can contribute to a whole host of movements and may play a vital role in recovery following neurological injury such as stroke. Since this pathway naturally targets both sides of the body, it is possible that it is a key player in crosseducation.

To date, investigations into the neural basis of cross-education have focussed on non-invasive measures of neural activity available in humans.

This includes techniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of the brain to activate the descending pathways for movement, and electromyography (EMG) to measure the responses in muscles. Although extremely valuable, these techniques provide indirect measures and it is not currently possible to conclusively determine the exact pathways involved. To this end, the Baker group at Newcastle University trained two monkeys to perform a strength training task in which they were required to pull a lever towards themselves in exchange for a food reward. Over the course of several weeks, the weight attached to the lever was increased up to 6kg, equivalent to the bodyweight of each animal and thus representing a significant physical challenge. Before, during and after this strength training period, we directly stimulated the motor cortex, corticospinal tract and reticulospinal tract such that the changes in each of these pathways could be assessed over time.

The world-class and unique facilities at Newcastle University allow these experiments to be undertaken, providing insights that aim to influence medicine and healthcare. So while cross-education might not allow you to halve your gym routine, it could deepen our understanding of how the brain controls movement as well as offering treatment opportunities for patients suffering from unilateral neurological disorders.

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IN FOCUS

Environmental Synergy: A Hidden Link?

Liam Butler

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atural landscapes are amongst the prettiest sites in the world, be it icy planes, snow-covered mountains, rivers, forests, beaches or the open ocean. Such landscapes are able to maintain natural equilibrium through extensive biogeochemical processes, with very limited or no anthropogenic assistance. Most countries with high environmental priority regard such landscapes by law as ‘Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty’ (AONB), ‘Green flag’ or ‘Blue flag’. AONB can range from mountains to lowlying grasslands and coastlines, often within National Parks. ‘Green flag’ refers to generally isolated areas, or urbanised to a certain extent, that contain an abundance of plants and treesgenerally, those that are sown and not naturally occurring, but that are still naturallymaintained. ‘Blue flag’ refers to rocky or sandy beaches that are self-sustaining, with small animals and plants (terrestrial, aquatic and marine) working synchronously to create a rich and diverse ecosystem. To reduce the likelihood of damage being caused to these areas, laws, legislations and recommendations have been implemented by environmental policy makers. For example, agricultural herbivore grazing in AONB is limited and wellmanaged, ‘Green flag’ areas tend to have no smoking policies and at ‘Blue flag’ beaches the

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use of barbeques or setting of fires is often restricted. Unfortunately, however, such policies are rarely supported with an explanation as to their necessity in keeping natural landscapes in ecological synchrony.

All landscapes form part of the Earth system.

This system is composed of four main smaller systems, or ‘reservoirs’: the atmosphere, the lithosphere (the solid part), the hydrosphere (water, including seas and oceans) and the biosphere (the living things). All of these systems are intrinsically interlinked and work in unison to keep the Earth in a stable, habitable state for all living organisms. However, each of these can be disrupted, causing a subsequent domino effect that forces each system to change.

Despite this, we know that such landscapes, or some variation of them, were here long before

What is going on to allow these environments to sustain themselves and maintain equilibrium? blogs.ncl.ac.uk/react

human civilisation and will likely persist until long after. We know too that the Earth has gone through different environmentallydevastating periods, so what is really going on to allow these environments to sustain themselves and maintain equilibrium? Natural environments do not remain static forever and frequently change or shift. This normal change, however, is slow and allows the landscapes to retain their overall ecology. Each natural component, be it living, meteorological or structural, work together in a complex hidden biological conformity that creates, protects and cultivates, not just its existence, but natural beauty. Every landscape, including barren deserts and icy tundra, has a multitude of environmental factors working together to uphold equilibrium. Different biological concepts try to understand and explain this using two major philosophies: top-down or bottom-up environmental relationships.

Earth’s systems are intrinsically interlinked All the factors, be it biological, physical or chemical, at each level of either top-down or bottom-up pathways promote environmental sustainability. Each natural landscape can have different environmental factors acting upon them at each level, depending on the type of landscape. If we were to build our own world, we would start off with the essential lifesustaining components - the atmosphere with the correct types of gases, most importantly oxygen, in the correct ratio. The first layer would constitute a solid surface to hold everything else upon. Depending on the blogs.ncl.ac.uk/react

temperature and humidity in a bottom-up system, different types of microorganisms and plants are able to colonise. This in turn determines what herbivores can be supported, which then determines what carnivores can be supported and thus a complex food web system develops. With each layer, resources decrease in abundance and availability, allowing the primary source of resources, i.e. the basal layer, to replenish. In addition, every organism at every level provides resources, even in the form of waste products, to maintain the base layer.

In the event that the base layer is subject to a prolonged or irreversible disturbance, its ability to supply all subsequent layers can be compromised. Therefore a cascade is initiated that affects all layers and continues to do so until the base layer is able to regenerate enough to, again, support all upper layers.

However, if the magnitude of this cascading effect is large and regeneration occurs slowly, the system can transform to a different type of landscape with a different biogeochemical composition.

Similarly, a disturbance or change in environmental pressures can occur at the top levels of the chain. Rapid changes in external environmental factors can substantially reduce the ability of the top levels of the chain to withstand additional pressure, thus the delicate ecological balance can be jeopardised. This creates a downward domino effect in which the bottom layers become susceptible to increased environmental pressure, which causes the landscape and its state of resources to shift temporarily, until it regenerates. However, analogous to the bottom-up effect, if the disturbance is of high magnitude and protracted, the overall landscape may undergo a considerable change. Therefore, it is evident that each layer, and on a larger scale each of the four Earth systems, play an important role in keeping the environment stable, working synergistically to ensure the natural preservation of any landscape.

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IN FOCUS In instances where one (or more) of the Earth’s reservoirs is substantially disturbed, it can tip the balance between them, causing global systems to shift or change. This shift has been best explained through the concept of ‘Daisyworld’, a simple computer model that uses abiotic variants (non-living environmental systems), e.g. temperature and reflected solar energy, to control the growth of black and white daisies. The main aim of the model is to correlate abiotic and biotic (organisms) feedback systems with the regulation of planetary climate; a phenomenon referred to as the Gaia Hypothesis. The model illustrates that when temperature is high the abundance of white daisies increases, therefore more sunlight is reflected and the planet cools. When temperatures decrease, white daisies decrease in abundance, whilst black daisies increase in abundance and the amount of sunlight absorbed increases, thus the planet warms.

Therefore if all the white daisies were to die, the planet would become too hot, while, if all the black daisies were to die, the planet would become too cold, creating an imbalance in planetary reservoirs. In a more complex world, such an imbalance can originate from different sources, with climate change proposed to be the main initiator of an irreversible global cascading effect, where system (or layer) interactions are reset. Climate change is a natural phenomenon and can occur through a variety of means, e.g. substantial volcanic eruptions or meteor impact and evidence suggests that it is periodic. For example, this natural climate change is what brings about the ice ages and their associated shifts in atmospheric and environmental conditions. The ice ages, of which five have been recorded thus far, are the major driving force for resetting of biogeochemical systems, during which ~70-90% of living organisms become extinct, due to extinction events. Perhaps the most notable of these event being the extinction of dinosaurs with no ‘re-evolution’ of these organisms in

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today’s world. This drastic change of ecological composition has been observed following each of the five previous ice ages.

Environmental synergy allows the planet to regenerate It is now believed that the effects experienced by the planet during these past events will continue to be experienced in the modern world at more rapid and devastating rates, due to anthropogenic disturbance considerably augmenting the natural imbalance. Current research shows that this anthropogenic influence has the potential to lead to the sixth mass extinction event.

Although these events are major tipping points that force the planet into an abrupt shift of ecosystem services, it is likely that ‘new’ ecological interactions will develop and work synergistically to stabilise the global system.

This may occur through the regeneration of similar environments or the creation of new ones, depending on the external environment conditions at the time of development.

However, scientists are unified in the ideology that, whether a system remains stable through top-down or bottom-up interactions, both follow one main structure – environmental synergy. It is this hidden synergy that allowed the planet to regenerate after each past ice age and it will be this synergy that continues to keep it stable for generations to come. blogs.ncl.ac.uk/react

OPINION

Clinical Trials: who benefits?

Jess Leighton

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or most people, hospitals are there for times of illness, and doctors are like mechanics, fixing things and making bodies run smoothly. But doctors (not to mention nurses, pharmacists, occupational therapists and many more) are also scientists, and spend a significant amount of time carrying out research in addition to providing medical care for the unwell. Medical research spans from modelling chemicals on computers, through to testing on petri dishes of cells before eventually testing on animals, and finally humans. For one successful drug to reach the market, hundreds are tested, involving thousands of patients and healthy volunteers, and costing up to $1.4 billion.

While the main goal of medical research is to find new, better interventions, the process is complex and has a ripple effect, stimulating patient support, scientific career development and industry progress. Understanding the interplay between each parties’ motivations and rewards for taking part can help clinical trials run in the best way possible.

The patient The benefits for patients are, of course, the primary outcome of clinical research- the aim is to find treatments, medical devices and therapies which have good outcomes for patients in terms of length and quality of life. In many clinical trials, discussions with patients are vital to ensure patients understand that they will probably never directly benefit from the product or

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regime being trialled. Particularly in early trials of cancer therapies, patients who participate in the trial and who are recruited because they have no remaining treatment options may not survive until the product is licensed. Generally, the major benefit for patients is for the whole patient group- the greater good.

Doctors are also

scientists and spend time carrying out research in addition to providing medical care The National Institute for Health Research reports that 665,000 people took part in clinical trials in 2016/17, giving up their time and energy (which is especially precious as health deteriorates) for the pursuit of science. However, research suggests that patients are very keen to be involved with research, involving both experimental treatments and invasive procedures. The benefits are not limited to advancements in science (although this is a large part), but patients also value “personal fulfilment� and the social nature of clinical trials, as well as the additional contact with medical professionals and free examinations/check-ups. While

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OPINION many clinical trials will have financial reimbursement which may be useful compensation which contributes to patients’ decisions to take part, these are supposed to be limited to time/ inconvenience payments rather than a ‘wage’ per se. The ethical implications of financial compensation are an important factor when planning patient recruitment.

While these attracting factors should be considered when assessing if patient volunteers represent the whole patient group, they certainly are powerful tools and what is important to patients should be taken into consideration when planning trials, alongside legal and international agreements such as the Nuremberg Code (adopted after unethical practices by doctors in Nazi Germany) or the Declaration of Helsinki.

The healthcare staff For the healthcare staff involved in medical research, taking on an additional research role is an asset to their CV, while at the same time it means additional workload. There’s the pressure of securing research funding and the balancing act between clinical and research responsibilities. However, academic medicine can open up the possibility of more flexible work patterns- heavily dependent on the roles in question, but clinical and research duties can be combined in a huge number of ways to make the ideal schedule. Similarly, opportunities to work abroad and as part of unique international teams may be open to research staff alone, as well as unique career opportunities such as trials managers. While the burden of an atypical career can be difficult, support now through formal training and career progression

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(such as the academic foundation programme) has helped its popularity as a field. Although surely the greatest reward for most research staff is surely the knowledge they are part of the force advancing medicine.

Industry Pharmaceutical companies - often seen as a negative presence in medicine, particularly in light of Ben Goldacre’s insightful ‘Bad Pharma’ are actually completely vital to the development of new medical treatments and technologies. With a billion dollar price tag, a new drug simply won’t come to market without teams of researchers, chemists, technicians, microbiologists, engineers… The business mindset of so called ‘big pharma’ may seem to be contradicting to the principles of medicine, but the two can actually work well together, ensuring that pursued ideas are feasible.

Conclusion For real success in medical research, trials need to be run drawing on the expertise of all of the parties involved - patients, medical and staff, universities and industry. When this collaboration comes together successfully, research is effective and efficient, making the best strides forward in medical knowledge.

Translational research - studies which are aimed to provide real world benefit rather than abstract scientific discovery - is the main focus of funding now, and research teams aiming to address real patients and doctors’ concerns with new solutions is the ultimate example of clinical trial collaborations. As researchers, industry and patients work together to improve medical research, it is important that we all benefit.

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IN FOCUS

Blockchain: An enabler of scientific and social synergy?

Sam Charlton

U

nless you’ve been camping on a desert island with no internet connection for the past 12 months you’ll probably recognise the word “bitcoin”, the source of a crazed hysteria which helped fuel one the largest market bubble since Tulip Mania in 1637! What remains relatively underexposed, however, is the tech powering bitcoin; blockchain, a decentralised ledger system which offers immutability (meaning it cannot be tampered with after it has been written), programmability and autonomy. What does this mean for scientific research and how is it being leveraged?

Blockchain technology provides a paradigm shift in ease and accessibility of developing secure peer-to-peer transaction networks – that is, removing dependence on centralised nodes (for example, the servers of Facebook or Google) from data transaction processes and distributing the responsibility for communications entirely across users’ own machines, in many scenarios returning the power of choice as to who accesses personal data to the individual. Being provided with the choice as to who accesses your data is a powerful concept; after all, “data” can be anything and everything.

The conceptual framework of what is now known as blockchain was formulated and described by Dr Stuart Haber in a 1991 paper “How to Time stamp a digital document” which poses the theoretical application of hash functions and digital signatures to build a decentralised data structure. However the development of the first blockchain database, bitcoin is a rather mysterious affair. Bitcoin’s inception is accredited to a person or group under the pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto, after he/she/they published the bitcoin white paper in 2008. Nakamoto remains anonymous despite multiple journalistic investigations and fraudulent self-proclamations, but their legacy remains.

Scientific research is fundamentally the empirical study of natural and physical structures in order to develop models and form novel hypotheses, and for this, data is required.

Blockchain enables the formation of data sequences which are incorruptible, continuous, linear and chronological. These four features are opening the doors to next generation thinking that is streamlining the scientific method. How? Let’s start with healthcare – and an unexpected pioneer.

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In 2012 a small Baltic nation, Estonia, established the world’s first blockchain-based e -medical system. As a result of this ambitious project, around 1.5 million Estonians had their health records digitised and linked to a

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IN FOCUS nationwide health information system. Within the digital ledger, everything from lab results and prescriptions to medical appointments are recorded, accounting for 95% of the nation’s medical data. Not only does this enable a more efficient administrative environment, but it also increases the probability of an accurate diagnosis and statistical identification of medical trends. This constantly growing ledger of quantitative and qualitative information can then, with the permission of the patient, be used by medical researchers; projects are underway to develop secure, smart data sharing between blockchain connected national health services.

The ability to freely process a trove of incorruptible patient data opens a plethora of multidisciplinary opportunities – for instance, you could choose to use a blockchain to combine genomic sequencing data from patient samples with existing genomic knowledge, assisting in deciphering the human genetic code (something the Human Genome Project has been attempting since 1985). Such a project, utilising genomic sequences and machine learning, was recently established by Harvard geneticist George Church, in which a participant submits a swab containing genetic material that is then sequenced and added to the digital ledger, affording the individual the opportunity to discover any inherited disease traits and giving them the choice of effectively allowing their data to be “rented out” by research organisations.

But it’s not just keen individuals who stand to benefit; the open availability of medical data could ultimately have wide-reaching implications for society as a whole. By 2050, it was suggested in the 2014 “Review on Antimicrobial Resistance”, commissioned by the UK Government, 10 million people a year could perish as a result of antibiotic resistance.

Irrespective of the accuracy of such a figure, which remains controversial, with intelligent

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diagnosis, based upon comprehensive coaggregation of medical and genomic records, the structure and dosage of antibiotics could be specifically tailored to patients, furthering the development of novel, personalised medications and minimising unnecessary prescription of existing drugs – extending the lifetime of a given medication by reducing the speed at which resistance evolves within bacterial species, which benefits everybody.

Having a medical database to further the discovery of new medication is one thing, but what about preventing unnecessary deaths from medication already in circulation? It’s estimated by the World Health Organisation that up to 50% of drugs sold within developing nations are counterfeit, resulting in at least 100,000 needless deaths every year. Not only is this statistic humbling, but the economic cost is staggering – perhaps as much as $200 billion annually. The major reason counterfeiters are able to cause such human destruction is that medications are not easily traced from their point of origin.

However, a number of organisations are now developing drug protection software using blockchains, enabling the precise provenance of a pack of drugs to be documented right back

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to the source. Not only does this reduce the possibility of counterfeit drugs entering healthcare systems but it also provides geographical information as to where particular types of drug end up. A system such as this could be used to tackle the present opioid abuse crisis by moving the responsibility of tracking excessive use from the doctor to an autonomous system able to spot overuse – a strategy the USA’s Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CNC) is presently pursuing.

The ability to track shipments in this way is also being applied to the food chain. The World Health Organisation has suggested that 420,000 people die a year from contaminated food. Blockchain technology has the potential to simplify the location of sources of contamination. A consortium of global food giants and IBM recently conducted a study into the time it took a standard tracing system to locate the origin of a batch of mangos: 6 days, 18 hours and 26 minutes. For the corporation’s proposed blockchain ledger system? 2.2 seconds – rather a reduction.

It’s not just logistics that can be optimised through the use of a blockchain. Most research conducted requires computing power, whether it be in automated drug discovery algorithms or modelling protein folding. Such is the intensity of computational requirements, models can blogs.ncl.ac.uk/react

take days to run – but access to supercomputers, which vastly reduce computational time, although growing, is still relatively sparse. The development of so-called “cloud computing” systems (pools of publicly shared computing resources), including derivatives built on blockchain systems, however, could be starting to break down barriers to supercomputing, thereby democratising computing power. Researchers at University of California, Berkley have started to use blockchain cloud computing to process and decode radio telescope signals, contributing to the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI) project.

Debating the extent to which western governments donate aid is a political quagmire, but one of the main arguments detractors state is that the aid provided rarely ends up in hands of the people who need it most, when they need it. Inroads are being made however, a project coordinated by the United Nations World food program (WFP) provides aid in the form of convertible tokens which can then be exchanged for food; to date over 100,000 Syrian refugees have benefited from this scheme. Not only does this program provide casualties of conflict with sustenance and relief, the biometric data used to authorise transactions could have potential to be used by researchers to study nutrition and design more effective relief programs.

Emerging technologies have a perpetual habit of stoking enthusiasm for false dawns, a note from history which should be considered when reviewing the applicability behind the blockchain derived technologies and applications. The concept itself is still developing as bottlenecks and limitations regarding privacy, security and scalability require thought, but the potential this platform provides to researchers and scientists is obvious, all it requires is a little imagination…

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OPINION

Early dementia testing: the challenges and ethics Joanna Ciafone Whether it’s cerebrospinal fluid extracted in the GP’s office, a novel scan administered in a research hospital, or even blood samples taken in the privacy of your own home, early diagnosis of dementia may be just around the corner. Dementia was once believed to represent advanced brain disease, but recent evidence suggests that the critical dysfunction in neurons occurs much earlier. Current diagnostics may only identify dementia years into the underlying disease process - after the window for potential therapeutic intervention has closed. As such, a major priority in research is earlier identification of the people likely to develop dementia, generally before any substantial symptoms have arisen.

The race for early diagnosis.

Dementia awareness has exploded in the past two decades. The development of drugs targeting neurotransmitters in the 1990s has improved management options for Alzheimer’s disease and also encouraged earlier screening.

Concurrently, the baby boomer generation, those born between 1946 and 1955, began to enter caretaking roles for their ageing parents and in turn, began worrying about the future of their own memory; the desire for earlier risk assessment grew. Government met public concern with increased funding in dementia research. Today in the UK, a variety of testing techniques are under development including genetic screens, neuropsychological assessment, and neuro- and cardiac-imaging.

Testing kits that include E4 ApoE gene status, a variant of a gene identified to confer a greater risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease, are even

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easily available for purchase online without any counselling or medical guidance.

Certainly, earlier dementia diagnosis has benefits: the earliest stages, when a neurodegenerative disorder is suspected but unconfirmed, can be an anxious time. Patients could better understand their symptoms, anticipate future needs, and intervene with regards to concurrent exacerbating diseases like cardiovascular disease if they were aware of their risk of dementia much earlier. However, with these fantastic opportunities come a number of important challenges.

Synergy in early screening and treatment development?

Dementia syndrome is rarely a fully reversible condition and there is currently no drug that slows or stops the onset of any neurodegenerative dementia; however,

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pharmaceutical research in dementia has greatly decreased in recent years. In 2011, three major healthcare companies ceased neuroscience research and three others have significantly downsized their departments.

Industry development is not matching the growing academic focus on early diagnosis.

Without any successful treatments to offer post -diagnosis, is an earlier diagnosis always in a patient’s best interest? Research shows that it does not necessarily translate into better care.

Fewer than half of people given early screens choose to follow up with a full assessment.

Possible barriers to seeking follow up care include fear of confirming their diagnosis and the potential loss of rights like driving privileges.

Are policies in place to protect patients’ rights?

After a diagnosis, family members may be eager to take on responsibilities to support and protect their loved ones. However, this can feel very intrusive for the person with dementia. Family members may inject their own values and preferences in planning: caregivers will report that their family member with dementia to have a lower quality of life than the patient themselves.

Policies, such as the UK’s Mental Capacity Act of 2005, are in place to protect patients’ rights and privacy, including in cases of domestic conflict. But with earlier diagnoses, such policies may need to be re-evaluated. Advance directives, such as instructions for future medical care and participation in research, are particularly controversial in the context of dementia. Many argue that pre-dementia decisions cannot apply months or years later when dementia is advanced and the person’s identity may be fundamentally different.

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Diagnosis and stigmatism: is fear a major force in the desire for earlier diagnoses?

From Coronation Street and Still Alice to the tragic passing of Robin Williams, public awareness around dementia is higher than ever. This greater inclusion of dementia-related issues in the popular domain comes in the face of considerable stigma - and may actually serve to promote it. The fear of developing dementia, particularly Alzheimer’s disease, is profound. It is commonly associated with humiliating loss of dignity, independence and even one’s own personality. Patients often feel alienated and embarrassed to share their diagnosis with friends and family. Acceptance of the disabilities to come, and the limited availability of effective treatments requires an incredible emotional adjustment. Suicidal thoughts and actions, while rare, may ensue.

In locations where it is legal, physician-assisted suicide due to dementia is on the rise.

Public misperception that a medical test will determine one’s “destiny” to develop dementia may therefore only increase older adults’ fear and push them to avoid medical attention altogether.

Patient-physician collaboration in clinical care and research While patients fear receiving a diagnosis, many physicians have also serious concerns about delivering diagnoses. Clinicians need updated guidance regarding when it is in the best interest of a patient to screen for mental decline. Evidence from psychological research suggests that we are poor self-assessors of changes in our memory and cognitive function.

Conversely, over 50% of patients with diagnosable Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) are unaware of their declining abilities. Such findings risk undervaluing patient experience and can threaten an elder’s autonomy. Further

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OPINION work is needed on ways clinicians can encourage patients to discuss their concerns while also recognising the potential limitations of self-report.

Clinicians must also better educate their patients on often complicated test results. Less than half of adults diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease or their carers fully understand the diagnosis they have received. Improved clinical communication translates into better health outcomes: when caregivers receive dementia education or counselling, their loved ones have lower rates of hospitalisation and A&E visits.

This finding is an example of team science, which brings social and biomedical researchers together. Such initiatives can offer clarity on the risks and rewards of early diagnosis and help to prepare the NHS for the growing burden of dementia. It is worth noting that at present funding is also currently awarded disproportionately to research in identifying early dementia biomarkers or to translational science looking for a cure. While such work is critical, the prevalence of dementia will inevitably rise in the coming decades. Even a miracle cure will likely have to be administered earlier in life, yet be of no help to those already living with dementia.

Finally, a diagnosis of dementia is not just another medical problem. It induces a critical shift in a person’s life, their rights and independence. It affects their relationships with family members and dependence on service providers, often in undesirable ways. Greater scientific understanding of dementia may be widespread, but this seems to have done little to remove the stigma of being a person with dementia. For patients, a dementia diagnosis may feel like a life sentence, and one that is only lived longer when the diagnosis arrives earlier. Researchers, clinicians and regulatory bodies must continue to follow patient-centred goals if encouraging early diagnoses.

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PROFILE

A day in the life of

Alan Jamieson Francesca Carr Dr Alan Jamieson studied Industrial Design at Gray’s School of Art before designing deep-sea camera vehicles at Oceanlab in Aberdeen. Now he is a Senior Lecturer in Marine Ecology at Newcastle University, whose research interests are the biological exploration of the deep sea and its associated technological challenges.

Do you have a ‘typical’ day?

There is no such thing as a typical day in this job. Some days are spent speaking to students of all levels, some are spent devising, setting or marking assignments, or preparing and giving lectures. Other days are spent keeping on top of admin, while others are writing grant proposals, papers and articles, and planning what I am trying to next science-wise. To complicate matters still, I was originally an engineer, and still am, and therefore some days are spent doing engineering drawings of the new parts I need for the deep-sea landers. And, of course, I spend a lot of days in a scientific research vessel sitting over some deep water somewhere strange in the world.

What has your career path looked like up until now?

Very, very unconventional. I did a 4 year honours degree in Industrial Design at Gray’s School of Art in Aberdeen, so I used to spend my days hanging out with oil painters and sculptors – still do! For my honours project I devised a deep-sea camera vehicle that could be mass-manufactured. About a year after I graduated, I got a job at Oceanlab in Aberdeen designing these for real and taking them to sea. blogs.ncl.ac.uk/react

I was offered a part time PhD after a year in the hope it would eventually increase my salary, which it did. I then did two postdocs, one in astrophysics and the other in sediment dynamics, and then began pursuing technologies to explore the deepest parts of the world. Somewhere down that route I become more of a biologist than an engineer, or at best a nice mix of the two. It was all very much an accident, I never envisaged working in biology, or anything marine, or in academia for that matter, but it appears to have worked well for me.

What are you working on at the moment?

As a group we are working on all sorts of things, but personally I am planning an epic round-the-world expedition to visit all the deepest places in each ocean in a manned submersible with a bunch of very rich people.

As well as this, I am trying to set up a subsea technology company to make ocean science more affordable. Today I am working on a paper to unequivocally establish where the deepest places in the world are and correct a multitude of erroneous records in the literature. I feel this is an exercise on a par with establishing the highest mountains on

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PROFILE each continent, or the top ten highest summits on Earth. As soon as we look at the same geographical significance underwater it becomes a quagmire of dodgy data and misinformation. I want to resolve that once and for all.

Do you feel under pressure, working on such topical and impactful research?

Yes and no. I like the fact we are often the first people to explore underwater features that are often the size of countries. I like that we discover new species on a regular basis, and I like that we take on research that most people wouldn’t touch – it is what makes this research and those in my group interesting. The only ‘pressure’, for want of a better word, is keeping ahead of the game. I was the first in the last two decades to be doing the really deep stuff and now there are groups in the US, NZ, Japan, China and Chile doing similar things, so there is a little pressure to keep going bigger, weirder, deeper, longer, to maintain that scientific edge.

Having said that, it is great to see so many people emerging in the field of ‘crazy-deep stuff’.

What is the most enjoyable and most frustrating aspect of your job?

The most enjoyable is the journey from devising a proposal, designing the deep submergence gear, building it, taking it to sea, deploying it, recovering it and seeing new species and unknown habitats for the first time, and seeing it all published knowing the whole thing only happened because of myself and few other likeminded individuals with very little support from anyone else. It is the personal element at every step that makes it so rewarding. Often just being at sea, somewhere strange like the Mariana Trench, off the Congo, Antarctica or somewhere, and finding something crazy and taking a step back and thinking: ‘We did that’.

The most frustrating things are probably by the nature of what we do, having to spend so much

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Credit: Heather Stewart (BGS)

Dr Alan Jamieson, Marine Ecology lecturer time away from home (~3 months per year), mixed with trying balance a full-time job at the University with what often feel like an equally full-time job doing deep-sea expeditions. But for me, and certainly my colleagues, the most frustrating thing is dealing with international couriers. Without a doubt.

What piece of advice would you give postgraduates?

Whatever the big current theme is in your research area, don’t do it. Do something else, go against the grain – don’t be like the other boys and girls, as we say. If everyone else is talking about climate change, do something else. If everyone is talking about deep-sea mining, do something else. The ocean is a big place and there is room for everyone. If you are at a conference or down the pub and you hear someone write-off an idea because it ‘probably can’t be done’, stay silent and make a mental note that says “totally going to do that”.

Also, it has been massively advantageous to me to have come into this area from a different discipline, likewise a lot of people I have worked with, and still do, have actually merged or crossed disciplines. I think it brings new eyes to a problem. Even over the past few years I have worked with geologists, astrophysicists, brain surgeons, biochemists, mathematicians, and so on. Science is all about problem-solving and other disciplines solve problems too and can therefore bring a lot of perspective to what you are trying to achieve. blogs.ncl.ac.uk/react

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Credit: Dr Alan Jamieson Issue 11 2018 {react} 43

REVIEW

Book review

Why We Sleep: The New Science of Sleep and Dreams Cassie Bakshani Professor Matthew Walker, Neuroscientist and Director of UC Berkeley’s Sleep and Neuroimaging Laboratory explores the recent breakthroughs in sleep research and how it impacts our life, longevity and general wellbeing.

New York Times bestseller Why We Sleep answers interesting questions about the nature of sleep and dreaming, such as: What is the effect of caffeine and alcohol on sleep? How should we be sleeping and does this change across our lifespan? And, do dreams have a function? In doing so, Walker highlights the intrinsic importance of sleep and dreaming to every aspect of our physiology, underlining its

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fundamental role in our growth and development from infants to adults and how it provides an unparalleled biological tool for fortifying our immune system, recalibrating our emotions and restoring the brain’s capacity for learning. Intriguingly, evidence now indicates that dreaming is not merely an epiphenomena of REM sleep, but is actually an essential component of good sleep. Not only does

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Bursting with science, enlightening and utterly compelling, Why We

Sleep is a lifeline – you’d be silly not to take it. dreaming act as an “overnight therapy”, but also enhances creativity and aids logical thinking, by stimulating connectivity between different areas of our brains and memories.

Along with discussing the miracles of sleep and dreaming, Walker also illustrates the alarming consequences of not getting enough sleep. In particular, the irrefutable link between routinely obtaining sub-optimal amounts of sleep and the increased risks of developing Alzheimer's disease, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and obesity, whilst also detrimentally affecting your mental health- to name just a few of the devastating health effects. Whilst disquieting to acknowledge, Walker softens the blow by peppering the

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chapters with recommendations to help readers attain more, better quality sleep.

Walker discusses how urbanisation is robbing modern society of sleep, creating, as he describes, a "sleep-loss epidemic", but also how this is slowly beginning to be addressed. Praise is afforded to companies like Nike and Google, which have taken steps to accommodate the natural circadian rhythm of their employees; including implementation of flexible start times, so that both "morning larks" and "night owls" can work to their genetically predisposed schedule of sleepiness and wakefulness and, in doing so, be more productive.

There are a few instances where Walker, in his dedication to clearly explaining complex phenomena for the lay reader, gets caught up in analogies, from which it is difficult to decipher the scientific meaning. In general, however, Walker provides excellent explanations of sophisticated neurological theories, in a way that is accessible and engaging for the general readership.

Bursting with science, enlightening and utterly compelling, Why We Sleep is a lifeline – you’d be silly not to take it.

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PUZZLES

Fun and games Word search

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Christina Julius

ADDITIVE

ADVERSITY

ALTRUISM

ANTHROPOGENIC

ANTIBIOTICS

BITCOIN

BUDDING

CADMIUM

CHEMISTRY

CLIMATOLOGY

COMMENSAL

CONTRIBUTION

COOPERATION

CROSSEDUCATION

DEMENTIA

DYNAMICS

ENVIRONMENT

EPILEPSY

HAZARD

HEALTH

IMAGING

INTERFERENCE

MANOFWAR

METACOGNITION

MICROBIOTA

MITOCHONDRIUM

MIXOTRICHA

MUTUALISM

NEUROSURGERY

OMEGA

OPTOGENETIC

PARADIGM

POTENTIAL

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