Does Nudity in Fashion Publications Promote the Sexualisation of Women?
Rebecca Quinn Project Research DE0929 w13024045 BA (Hons) Fashion Communication Northumbria University
Contents
1.1.
Page 2. Introduction
2.1.
Page 3. Methodology- Primary Research
2.2.
Page 4. Methodology- Secondary research
3.1.
Page 4-5. Results- Figure 1, Figure 2.
3.2.
Page 8. Results
4.1.
Page 9. Chapter 1- What is Sex in the Media?
4.2.
Page 10. Chapter 2- Sex and Consumerism.
4.3.
Page 11-12. Chapter 3- How the Media Portrays Sex, and the Effect on Young People.
4.4.
Page 13-14. Chapter 4- Celebrity Culture.
4.5.
Page 15-16. Chapter 5- The Argument with Page 3.
5.1.
Page 17. Conclusion
6.1
Page 19-21. References
6.2
Page 22-23 Image References
1.1 Introduction
Nudity within the fashion industry has become an ever present topic. It appears in current times a magazine can’t be opened without being confronted by the naked human form. As consumers, the public have become desensitised to nudity within fashion publications; it is clearly evident that sex sells and is deeply embedded within the culture of this industry. Despite, nudity in the media being so widely used and looked upon, many groups outside of the
“Women are presented as decoration without personality− often with sexual symbolism”
fashion industry seek to remove all forms of nudity from the media. Individuals who support the removal of nudity and sex in the media believe it is wrong to use sex and nudity to sell a product or a display and expose a human in a vulnerable state. The ‘lads mag’ culture is vilified by feminist groups and media moguls alike; this is typified by the recent campaign for the removal of the page 3 feature within ‘The Sun.’ These juxtaposing ideas beg the question ‘When (If ever) is nudity within the media acceptable?’ How can the ‘lads mags’ and red tops be vilified for exposing the female form while across the newsstand the likes of LOVE magazine and Vogue are praised for displaying
(Courtney & Whipple, 1983)
nudes - as an outlet of feminine creativity? This study will aim to deconstruct attitudes towards nudity across different media platforms and will quantify the extent to which nudity with the fashion industry is truly an acceptable creative device.
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2.2. Methodology- Secondary Research Advertisements from 2 publications were examined. The magazines used were Zoo 13-19 November 2015 and LOVE Issue 14 Autumn/ Winter. The magazines were selected due to the popularity and circulation rates throughout the United Kingdom. Zoo was recently up 9.9% on the second half of last year to post a combined circulation of 32,449, including 1,985 subscribers to its digital edition (Plunkett, 2015). LOVE’s circulation currently stands at an estimation of 100,000 (Weinstock, 2010). The issues selected were subject to their availability; all were of recent distribution to Winter 2015. A total of 557 pages of advertisements were examined, correlated and appraised. Pages that featured a representation of a woman in cartoon or suggested form were counted. This was done to give a fair representation of the findings of this research. Images that were particularly expressive or explicit were counted, to come to a conclusion ultimately to find out which magazine featured the most nudity and sexual imagery. A woman whose body was objectified in the advertisement of a product was counted as being sex object, considerations such as; erotic facial expression, body position, posture, a woman caressed by another person in a suggestive manner, camera angle, the amount of skin shown (eg. Breast, excessive leg, hip, etc.) Any erotica that was deemed unnecessary to be considered a sex object. Oxford Dictionary defines objectification as ‘Degrade to the status of a mere object: a deeply sexist attitude that objectifies women.’
3.1 Results
2.1. Methodology- Primary Research Primary research was carried out through an interview with a female feminist ‘Mary Irwin.’ Questions were specifically created by the author of this paper, and posed to the interviewee. The entire interview was recorded and utilised in a transcript. A focus group made up of 5 participants (mixed gender and age), were asked questions and shown images under
Figure 1. A Table comparing results of nudity in 2 opposing magazines.
the direct supervision of the author of this paper. The focus group element of this study encouraged participants to share opinions, emotions and experiences. The entirety of this part of the study was also recorded.
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Figure 3 (A). The cover of both opposing publications Figure 2. A graph displaying nudity in 2 opposing magazines.
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3.2 Results The results gained from this study showed that the mainstream ‘lads mag- ZOO’ contained the most sexualised features, containing 10% of the publication however closely followed by LOVE magazine at 8.8%. ZOO however being well known for containing nudity and objectifying women only closely beating LOVE by 1.2%. The idea of distracted eroticism falling into fashion photography, with 47% of the features in LOVE being sexualised, conversely compared to 139% of ZOO. The question of whether such images are liberating and empowering women, or trapping then forever in the public real, has continuing resonance (Arnold, 2001, p75). No two results are that shockingly different, both publications showed naked breasts. One advertisement in LOVE shows a nude model gracefully draped over a set of stairs wearing Vionnet Paris revealing her bottom (Fig. F), however in ZOO the naked form is shown in a very erotic manner, the model lying down with only a sheet covering with the title on the page reading “I’m like a cartoon porn star!”(Fig. G) However both publications contained nude imagery the styling and the expressive tones somewhat stereotypical for each target audience. Fashion photography is primarily for the consumption of women, the fantasy of
“Some nudity in definition can be artistic, and like Michaelangelo’s David, form can be beautiful. It’s about the context and it’s about the intent, its what response they’re trying to evoke from who is watching or observing.”
sexual role-playing to an audience usually excluded from its consumption for the male voyeur (Arnold, 2001, p78). The content in both the magazines, are very different. Zoo features stereotypical male fantasies such as cars, jokes, blood and gore (scars), and football (Fig. H.). Humour in the magazine found to be adolescent and immature, due to the 66 short nature of the publication, this suggests that the mental capacity of the reader to be low. The quantity of words in the magazine is also minimum; bright colours are used throughout to suggestively keep the reader interested. The nature of the 491 page fashion document proposes a very different reader. The features and celebrities featured are of a different class and social status to Zoo. Such as Florence Welch, Kate Moss, Gisele and Alicia Vikander. Sex sells and whether it is selling to women or to men, consumers are buying into the culture of a desirable object. Fashion photography and design play an important role in displaying desires, constructing complex images that encourage sensual visual consumption (Arnold, 2001). Fashion offers a world that women can fantasise and be absorbed in therefore being every woman’s weakness. The difference between erotic and pornography is as the distinction between complexity and simplicity. The pornographic point of view is voyeuristic; it is the perspective of a keyhole. The erotic work, on the other hand, is one that invites the viewer to recreate in their imagination. (Scurton in William, 1996) The focus group outcome was all of the same beliefs, as stated, “Some nudity in definition can be artistic, and like Michaelangelo’s David, form can be beautiful. It’s about the context and it’s about the intent, its what response they’re trying to evoke from who is watching or observing.” To conclude findings, most people believed that due to the recent changes regarding the removal of page 3 that this is therefore a step forward for society. Additionally, encouraging the objectification and the sexualisation of women. Reinforcing that that women should be valued for their sexuality and their physicality and not for their intellect and not for their abilities.
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4.2. Chapter 2- Sex and Consumerism. Many could argue that sex and consumerism are intrinsically linked. Sex will never ‘go out of fashion’ and so there will always be a level of supply and demand in terms of if ‘sex sells’. For this reason, brands and magazines use sex as means to entice the consumer. It builds on the premise that people are curious about sexuality and that experience in marketing has shown that sexuality sells products (Baack, 2010). On opposing terms, the way that sex is presented and advertised is constantly evolving through chronological time periods. For example during 1920’s women became liberated, in the wake of the Great War the role of women changed dramatically, and in the absence of men, it was
4.1. Chapter 1- What is Sex in the Media?
women who kept the British war machine moving and proved themselves to be skilled and able workers. With wages for women increasing and the dawning of the jazz age, conversely we see hem-lines get ever-higher and the prevalence
Sex has been at the centre of many forms of public entertainment for many centuries. Sexual themes
of sexuality in fashion. As exemplified in the ground breaking fashion periodical Vogue. The dawning of the ‘vogue
have been featured prominently in fiction, whether played out on the screen, stage or page (Gunter,
age’ captures the minds of these new female consumers and presents aspirations and values to a whole new generation.
2002, p1). Sex themes can be found within music, art, literature and in social and moral walks of life.
This is juxtaposed with how culture effects sexuality in the modern day, whereby there appears to be next to no
The definition of sex in the media can prove highly ambiguous. What one considers sexual, another
regulation on how a woman dresses and presents herself. There is little restriction on how much flesh is to be shown,
might not. The purpose of this study is to investigate the sexual content in opposing magazines; a
body parts to be exposed, materials to be used, and cosmetic surgery to be had. Thesander (1997) stated that women
typical ‘lads mag’ published piece, as well as a high end fashion magazine; and to analyse the difference
are indebted to generations before them, for their greater freedom, equality and self-confidence. This posits to be an
between within methods of sexual exploitation.
ever changing concept, and one which poses the question; where will the boundaries be in 20 years time? Sexuality, on both the individual and societal levels, is sometimes used to manipulate others. The nature of advertising is to constantly push the limits of what is acceptable and so, regardless of the medium, the media is saturated with sexual imagery. Media power is generally symbolic and persuasive, in the sense that the media primarily have the potential to control, to some extent, the minds of readers or viewers, but not directly their actions. Except in cases of physical, coercive force, the control of action, which is usually the ultimate aim of the exercise of power, is generally indirect, whereas the control of intentions, plans, knowledge, beliefs, or opinions that is, mental representations that monitor overt activities is presupposed (Dijk, 1992, p10).
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4.3. Chapter 3- How the Media Portrays Sex, and the Effect on Young People.
The media portrayal of sex is very unrealistic, it is
Firstly, in the 21st century, children and teenagers get the
glamorised and can lead one to believe that sex is
majority of their sex education from the Internet. Although
always casual and consequence-free (Tucker, 2009,
sexual content in the media can affect any age group,
p2). This then poses the question; to what extent does
adolescents may be particularly vulnerable. Adolescents
this effect the younger population? Sexual content
may be exposed to sexual content in the media during a
can vary from visual representation of nudity to
developmental period when gender roles, sexual attitudes,
suggestive language and euphemisms. (See appendix
and sexual behaviours are being shaped (Pediatrics,
A) An advertisement for ‘Aston Martin Preowned cars’
1995, 298-300). It informs the imagination, as well as the
epitomises the focus of this point. The image includes
mechanics (Moran, 2012, p27). A study by the Department
an attractive woman in a sexualised position and reads
of Communication found that adolescents’ imitation of
the words “You know you’re not the first, but do you
that they see, particularly in the media (Eyal & Finnerty,
really care?” This connotes an offensive sexualisation
2009, p147), is an example of Bandura’s Social Cognitive
of the female being, suggesting that the female is
Theory, this theory states that there is an increase in the
primarily a sexual object- whilst targeting a strictly
modelling of the behaviour we see if there are positive
male audience.
results and an increase in modelling if there are no negative
In conjunction with this, (See appendix B) Miley
consequences to those who perform the behaviour (Tucker,
Cyrus, a well known singer, celebrity, and socialite
2009, p3). The theory also states that viewers interpret
appeals to a range of audiences, especially the
media messages based on their predispositions, previous
younger catchment. The former ‘Disney’ star has
experiences and the societal norms with which they are
recently transformed into a sexualised character
familiar. They pay attention to and learn from portrayals
through her music career. Exposing this character to
based on these background factors; their past experiences;
younger audiences could lead to body dismorphia,
and personal factors such as aspirations, desires and goals
and accepting outrageous behaviour as the norm.
(Eyal and Finnerty, 2009, p147).
Although this might not influence the more mature
‘What do women do with the media’, suggested that women actively and consciously seek particular types of gratification from mass media use, readers of women’s magazines derive a feeling of friendship from reading, they are entertained and advised by this output (Wassenaar, 1975), meaning that in order for a women to fill the void of emptiness and aloneness they turn to printed publications in order to fulfil a particular void. The media treat women as objects, primarily as sex objects, who are to be admired, manipulated, and used by men (Gunter, 2002, p111). Over the past few years, gender stereotyping has meant that women have built up an emotional, dramatic and responsive in comparison to men. Further, it is clear that despite several decades of advocacy, persistent problems plague women. Women’s salaries still lag behind men’s, and fiscal inequality directly relates to dyadic power inequality among couples (Kalbflesch & Cody, 1995,p5). Modern day, women still comprise only one in five parliamentarian’s worldwide, accounting for just 19.7% of the world’s legislators in 2012 (OECD, 2015). Making up just 27% of judges worldwide and primarily serve in lower courts where the stakes are thought to be lower (UN Women, 2011). In 2004 Janet Jacksons Super Bowl XXXVIII “nip slip” performance (Fig. 4 D) resulted in a polluted image, 540,000 complaints to the FCC and a $550,00 fine. The video of the event went viral online, and helped inspire the creation of YouTube, which launched a year later. Janet Jacksons career was effectively ruined, though her duet star that featured in the performance Justin Timberlake walked away from the incident untainted (Gray, 2014). Learning from
and self-secure reader it could target vulnerable
this example in 2015, equality in the sexes seems more prevalent than ever, with campaigns such as #freethenipple
women with complex issues such as a poor self
actively seeking to reclaim women’s bodies, sexuality, and safety at a time when all are under attack in various ways
body image. Arguably it effects the younger reader,
(Brussel, 2014). The study claims that women should have the same amount of rights that men do with relation to
predominantly teenagers and young adults who are still on the road to self-discovery.
Fig. 4. B,C,D
simply taking their top off. By normalising toplessness, the cultural power that dictates women’s breasts can only be a Page 11
sex symbol (Brussel, 2014), somewhat neutralising gender equality.
4.4. Chapter 4- Celebrity Culture. Primary research of this investigation found that Feminist Mary Irwin believes sexualisation of women to be about social class, “Class, if you are rich and empowered and intelligent and it’s not about your lively hood but making a statement then that’s different. I think that if you’re a lady of leisure and your taking your clothes off and you’re in some arty magazine it doesn’t matter because that’s not defining who you are.” This suggests that the outcome of how a woman is presented then forms the judgement that society makes. This is then supported further in the opinion of Mary Irwin “I think its about money and class and power. Its all about money, it makes me angry when people say well page 3 is wrong because think about why those young women are doing it. If you had all this money would you be doing it? I think also lack of opportunity and false promises.
The new celebrity culture depicts an unachievable body type for young females. However, regardless of the near
Helen Mirren for example is someone who has done a lot of nudity she is
impossibility it is to achieve, seeing the apparent benefits and outcomes of maintaining this ‘ideal body’ reflects some
a proper actress involved in the Shakespeare Company, not from a money
elements of positive reinforcement. The sexualisation of women in the media can be related to the development
background but I guess because of that she is shown in a completely different
of eating disorders, low self-esteem, depression and negative feelings regarding sexuality. An article by McGill,
light. I suppose the stereotype for young men being football and pop music and
2004 showed that how viewing as little as 30 minutes of programming and advertising with depictions of the ideal-
for young women it’s getting your top off.”
thin type female body causes women to feel insecure and dissatisfied with their own bodies. Sexual imagery can
On the other hand young people can convey a perception of current celebrities.
draw increased attention to advertising, and may make the advertising message more memorable, and may even
Gendered norms are produced through the socio-economic and consumer-
influence attitudes towards the product (Gunter, 2002, p213). For example the Victoria Secret fashion show, the
oriented conditions of their time; and through reiterations and developments
yearly showcase of lingerie products paraded by visually flawless supermodels. Studies claim that women at the
of these gendered norms celebrity culture can reinforce and change gendered
age of 14 already feel the pressure to be beautiful. By the time that they are 29, that number increases to 90%. The
practices and expectations (Evans and Riley, 2013, p1). The evident celebrity
VS supermodels are visually viewed as “sex objects” which strives to create a unhealthy image for 14 year old girls
fixation of recent times shows how the idolisation of such ‘role models’ can
and the wider public alike. As viewers the realisation is that these supermodels are living out a career and selling
have on the younger population. A study conducted by Brunel University
products by wearing them, not creating an ideal society to which young venerable women should aspire to idolise
London showed how 148 teenagers ages 14-17 from different ethnic and social
(Sierra, 2013).
backgrounds perceived their impression of celebrity prosperity. Participants
However a poll published on the Independent showed that when 1,970 people were asked ‘Do you think the
showed that celebrities such as Kim Kardashian’s success was underserving
Victoria’s Secret Fashion Show is damaging to women?’ 35% of people said ‘Yes. There’s more to women than their
however Usain Bolt reflected talent and was extremely disciplined. Beyonce
bodies in lingerie. And 65% of people said ‘No. It’s just some fun and they look great’ (Independent, 2015). Miranda
was praised as an ‘ideal’ celebrity however the likes of the rapper Nicki Minaj
Kerr, a long standing VS model once stated that she liked working for them because “they’re about promoting a
attracted particular disgust due to her artificial and excessive look and body
healthy body image and a curvaceous image so its good for us.” Despite the negative attention that the brand does get
(Mendick, Allen, Harvey, 2015, pp161-178).
it states that the models want girls to remember that everybody is beautiful (Kay, 2011). Page 13
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Representation of sexual imagery and the effect on modern day society: To ‘break the internet’ is the power of one single image to get the whole world talking in a matter of hours. The level of influence that is encompassed in one image is revolutionary in the current world we live in. With nearly 1.4 billion active Facebook users worldwide (Bullas, 2015) and with the Internet speed in the United Kingdom Fig 5 (E). Showing reference regarding the power one image can have on society.
11.6mbits per second just 3.6mbits slower than the likes of Japan (Smith, 2015) the circulation that an image can travel the Internet modern day is frightening. The levels of public interest in sensationalism, often overcomes current affairs and groundbreaking news in the
4.5. Chapter 5- The Argument with Page 3.
world around us. A study by U.S Politics and Policy (2007) claimed that 87% of the public say celebrity scandals
According to Gender stereotyping perceptions women are supposed to be dependent, weak, incompetent, emotional,
receive too much news coverage.
fearful, flexible, passive, modest, soft spoken, gentle, care takers while men are powerful, competent, important,
“If women realise that advertisements do not reflect reality, they may not be as offended by them. They may
logical, decision-makers, aggressive, focused, strong and assertive (Sharda, 2014, p44).
represent more sophisticated consumers and may understand that advertisements are simply creative art
In a study by Sanjay Putrevu, biological makeup is considered to be responsible for women being more dependent
attempting to make a sale, not depictions of real life” (Zimmerman, 2008). Outputs such as Kim Kardashian’s
and emotional than men. Contrary to stereotypical conceptions, women were not found to be more dependant than
bottom ‘breaking the internet’ by balancing a champagne glass on it in November 12th 2014, saw traffic on
men. And it should be noted that the cultural expectations that ‘boys do not cry’ and ‘real men are not afraid’ might
Paper Magazine website alone hit 6.6million page views and 5 million of those being unique visitors (Hilton,
make men less willing to report anxieties and fears. In relation to current social explanation, researchers have found
2014). The attention that society devotes, gives 100% control to the image, solidifying the cultural norm of
that women and men whose talents and interests do not closely match the cultural stereotypes are likely to experience
such an outrageous concept. The term ‘Social norms’ can be defined as; behaviour that is deemed as normal, to
a high degree of frustration and low self-esteem. In a culture with highly articulated prescriptions for appropriate
which society consciously follow (Dictionary, 2015). The sexualisation and exploitation that remains a regular
gender-role behaviour, the most well-adjusted individuals are likely to be those with a high degree of identification
feature in the daily lives of society, promotes the consistent extension of social and moral boundaries to which
with the appropriate gender role with a strong aptitude in the areas of endeavour considered suitable for their gender
normalise this behaviour. The progress of the extension of social boundaries have resulted in shocking concepts
(Putrevu, 2001, p2-5). Examples of stereotyping in the media, ‘lads mags’ and how they portray women can be found
for example; an image of a naked woman, no longer having the shocking effect it once had. This posits the
in publications such as Zoo, and Nuts. Often shown without personality and with a degree of sexual symbolism.
question of how far this growing trend will take us in 20 years from now.
The removal of page 3 influenced a petition that started after a feminist debate over the exploitation and objectification of women. The group thought that this was a massive step forward for society, Stating “it was very degrading to women, and highly inappropriate on the front of a newspaper where children can see it.” The petition now has 84,000 signatures from MPs and celebrities alike (Cochrane, 2013).
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5.1. Conclusion In conclusion, it is evident that the female form will forever be used as a sexual commodity. Drawn from the extensive research in this paper, it is apparent that images of woman shown in indecent exposure appeals to audiences of both men and woman, furthermore, this feeds the global appetite for sex in the media. The equality shift towards women over the last hundred years has both influenced and been influenced by the development of sex in the media. The prior conception that a woman should ‘be seen and not heard’ is now very much a historical one. Accessibility to sexual form through the media is now more far reaching and powerful than ever before, creating a relative blur between what is actually real and what we are led to believe is real. Meanwhile, the publishers of such magazines as ‘ZOO’ cash in on the vulnerability and impressionability of the male, and in some cases female, population, through sexual exploitation. The medias control and usage of money, power and manipulation, as well as the ability to pigeonhole class, gives it a relative monopoly over the population and so long as this is present, the statement ‘sex sells’ will remain true.
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6.2 Image References Fig. 3 (A). Online print screen of the publication, which has been examined for this study. Azzurrodue.com, (2016). [online] Available at: http://azzurrodue.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/cher.jpg [Accessed 1 Jan. 2016]. (A) ZOO Magazine, examined publication. Pdf-magazine-download.com, (2016). ZOO UK – Issue 604, 13-19 November 2015 - Download. [online] Available at: http://pdf-magazine-download.com/26212-zoo-uk-issue-604-13-19-november-2015.html [Accessed 1 Jan. 2016]. Fig. 4 (B)- Aston Martin advertisement, showing reference to women being used as a sexual objects to sell. Peter Bonuleuang, (2015), Aston Martin Pre Owned Advert [ONLINE]. Available at: https://s-media-cache-ak0. pinimg.com/736x/58/fb/47/58fb47de231f71bb2271b9ce7b9cf1ff.jpg [Accessed 22 December 15]. Fig 4 (C). Miley Cyrus Transformation from young Disney actress to adult. ATRL, (2015), Miley Cyrus Transformation [ONLINE]. Available at: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-fcad5JMsl8g/ UkLFnq_iAzI/AAAAAAAADHM/wB0Z5V9tGsQ/s1600/Miley+Cyrus+transformation+GossipBoyz.com+. JPG[Accessed 15 December 15]. Fig. 4 (D) Janet Jackson. This image gives reference to how the media is channelled by nudity and sex. Cdn.modernghana.com, (2016). [online] Available at: http://cdn.modernghana.com/images/content/ jof6iuthgc_4361599641852_7582134924984.jpg [Accessed 1 Jan. 2016]. Fig. 5 (E) Kim Kardashian ‘Breaking the Internet.’ This image is used to back up the point stated in text regarding the influence that one single image can have on society. Cdn.thedailybeast.com, (2016). [online] Available at: http://cdn.thedailybeast.com/content/dailybeast/ articles/2014/11/11/kim-kardashian-bares-her-shiny-bounteous-butt-breaks-the-internet/jcr:content/image. crop.800.500.jpg/47192150.cached.jpg [Accessed 1 Jan. 2016].
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Fig. F. Representation of Nudity in LOVE Magazine.
Fig H. Humor used in ZOO Magazine.
Fig G. Representation of Nudity in ZOO Magazine.