From the Dark

FROM THE DARK light and space

FROM THE DARK

FROM THE DARK light and space

KEITH LEMLEY DAN FLAVIN FRANÇOIS MORELLET JAMES TURRELL IVÁN NAVARRO LEO VILLAREAL LACMA

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

008—017

Section one: Essays From Symbol to Substance: Technologies of Lighting

020—029

The Light and Space Movement

030—041

Section two: Image Plate Keith Lemley

044—057

Dan Flavin

058—069

François Morellet Inter view

070—085

James Turrell Inter view

086—103

Iván Navarro

10 4—115

Leo Villareal

116 —129

Section three: List of Works Exhibition History From the Darkness Timeline

132—133 134—149 150—151

FROM

THE

DARK

A BRIEF HISTORY OF LIGHTING D AV I D D I L A U R A

In the beginning, there was light. Everyone knows that part. But how did we learn to control and use it for ourselves? This history highlights several technologies that have been used to produce light: flame from wood, oil and gas; arc or glow from electricity; and the fluorescence of minerals. Light is the physical stimulus that enables vision, a process of nearly unimaginable complexity that allows us to comprehend and respond to the world around us. But relying on natural light would leave us—literally and figuratively—in the dark much of the time. Thus, the history of lighting is a history of our learning the technical art of producing and delivering light.

A W O R L D L I T O N LY B Y F I R E For many millennia, lighting relied on managing the combustion of fuels. The first records of fire-making appear in the Neolithic period, about 10,000 years ago. In 1991, scientists discovered a Neolithic man, dubbed “Otzi,” who was preserved in an Alpine glacier.

Otzi carried on his belt a fire-making kit: flints, pyrite for striking sparks, a dry powdery fungus for tinder, and embers of cedar that had been wrapped in leaves.

Wood was the first fuel used for lighting. Homer’s poems from nearly 3,000 years ago recount his use of resinous pine torches. Resinous pitch is very flammable and luminous when burned. It was probably used in its naturally occurring state as it oozed from coniferous trees.

In Roman times, pitch was melted and smeared on bundled sticks to make more controllable torches. Later, wood treated with pitch was burned in bowls or openwork metal buckets called cressets that made

010

FROM

THE

DARK

the light portable. By medieval times, processing pitch from coniferous trees was a trade governed by guilds.

Evidence of oil being burned in lamps emerged more than 4,500 years ago in Ur, an ancient city in southern Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq). The earliest lighting oils were made from olives and seeds.

Olive cultivation had spread throughout the Mediterranean by 3,000 years ago, and olive oil became widely used for lighting. About 3,500 years ago, sesame plants were being cultivated in Babylon and Assyria, and oil from the seed was being burned. Olive and sesame oils were burned in small lamps, sometimes with a wick formed from a rush or twisted strand of linen. Lamps of stone, terra cotta, metal, shell and other materials have been found throughout the ancient world.

Animal oils were more common in Northern Europe, where oil was obtained from fish and whales. Early in the 18th century, sperm whale oil was found to be an excellent illuminant, and whaling grew tremendously as a result. Whale oil and the lamps that burn it were common in colonial America.

Eventually, Antoine Lavoisier’s science of oxygen and combustion touched the ancient craft of burning oil. In 1780, Ami Argand invented a hollow, circular wick and burner—more luminous and efficient than previous oil lamps. Argand’s lamp was modified in the century following its introduction, and was later adapted for use with coal gas when an efficient burner was needed.

Animal grease was likely among the earliest of fuels used for lighting, with an antiquity second only to wood. Evidence for controlled fire in hearths appears about 250,000 years ago, and it is not hard to imagine early humans noticing that fat burned while their meat roasted. The Lascaux cave paintings produced in France 15,000 years ago were likely created using illumination from burning animal grease in lamps; more than 100 such lamps were found in the cave.

Tallow, which is rendered and purified animal fat, has been used for lighting since early Egyptian civilization. Though initially burned in lamps, it was used for candle-making for nearly 2,000 years.

A protocandle was made in Egypt using the pithy stalk of the plentiful rush soaked in animal fat. When dried, it burned brightly. These “rushlights” were used throughout Europe, in some places until the 19th century.

Evidence of modern candles emerged from Rome in the 1st century A.D. These candles were made with a small wick and a thick, handformed layer of tallow. In early medieval times, candles were made

011

FROM

THE

DARK

by pouring and later by dipping, a method that changed little in the centuries that followed. Though wax was also used, candles were used almost exclusively for liturgical purposes, being too expensive for ordinary lighting.

In the 19th century, Michel Chevruel made chemical advances that enabled the production of stearine, a tallow derivative that made far superior candles. Using a soap-making process, chemists separated stearine from the liquid oleic acid in tallow. In 1830, Karl Reichenbach isolated a solid crystalline substance from coal that was stable and burned readily. He named it paraffin. After 1860, paraffin was distilled from petroleum and vast quantities were produced, enabling high-quality candles to be made cheaply.

GAS LIGHTIN G—WITHOUT THE WIC K A complex hydrocarbon produced by distilling coal, “coal gas” revolutionized lighting in urban areas. The candle or oil lamp was replaced with the luminous flame of burning gas issuing from the end of a winding labyrinth of pipe that led from the gas factory and its storage tanks, through the streets, and into home, church, theater, store and office.

Coal is rock that burns. During the 17th century, it was widely known that heating coal produced a flammable gas. But it was not until 1792 that William Murdoch experimented with a practical system to distill and distribute coal gas for illumination. He developed early practical coal gas lighting systems between 1805 and 1813.

The entrepreneur Frederick Winsor drew on the work of the early French experimentalist Philippe Lebon. In competition with Murdoch, Winsor established in 1812 the London and Westminster Chartered Gaslight and Coke Company, the world’s first gas company. Soon, many companies arose that manufactured and distributed coal gas for major cities.

The first U.S. municipal gas plant was established in Baltimore, Md., in 1816. That same year, German mineralogist W.A. Lampadius established one of the first gasworks in Germany at Freiburg. By 1860, there would be more than 400 gas companies in the United States, 266 in Germany, and more than 900 in Great Britain.

As of 1825, gas light was a quarter of the cost of lighting by oil or candles and so it grew rapidly. Over the next 50 years, coal gas lighting became a mature industry with a highly developed technology in Europe, England and the United States.

012

FROM

THE

DARK

Illuminating gas was produced by subjecting coal to considerable heat for several hours in a closed container. The heat and near absence of oxygen separated the coal into solid, liquid and gas hydrocarbons. The gas was led off and, after cooling and condensing, it was washed and scrubbed. It was then pumped to storage tanks.

Gas traveled from these tanks by underground pipes, usually following main streets, and was delivered to homes and businesses, where it was metered and finally piped to individual metal burners. By 1858, the great British gas industrialist William Sugg had patented burners made from the mineral steatite or soapstone. Soft enough to shape, soapstone was sufficiently refractory to the effects of heat and corrosion.

In 1882, Carl Auer von Welsbach of the University of Vienna found that “rare earth” elements incandesced with a brilliant light.

He soaked fiber webbing in a salt solution of these elements and produced a mantle to be used over a gas burner. The webbing burned and left a skeleton of oxide ash, which, when heated, incandesced brightly. In 1891, he opened a company to sell these mantles. In the final commercial version, they were made with an impregnating solution that contained 0.991 parts thoria to 0.009 parts ceria. Improvement in gas mantle burners eventually achieved luminous efficiencies that were 10 times that of the old open flame burners. The Welsbach mantle revolutionized gas lighting and the coal gas industry.

The 19th century saw the rise and fall of gas lighting, which spread rapidly and remained unchallenged as a light source until the introduction of electric arc and incandescent lighting. Even with the great improvement provided by van Welsbach’s incandescent mantel, by 1910 gas lighting could no longer compete with electric lighting for economy, convenience and safety.

K E R O S E N E L I G H T S I N T H E 19 T H C E N T U R Y What gas lighting was to urban areas in the 19th century, kerosene was to rural communities. A liquid hydrocarbon discovered and named in 1854 by Abraham Gesner, kerosene was initially distilled from coal and so-called “coal oil.” It had ideal illuminating characteristics: It was not explosive but burned with a luminous, smokeless flame.

Early U.S. research and development was driven by the continuing need for an inexpensive replacement for illuminating oils in rural areas. In 1846, the Canadian chemist Abraham Gesner found that, from distilled coal came kerosene, which had an obvious practical value as

013

FROM

THE

DARK

an illuminant. In 1857, Joshua Merrill was chief engineer of the U.S. Chemical Manufacturing Company. He studied Gesner’s distillation and purification process and made it more effective and appropriate for commercialization. By 1858, the company was producing 650,000 gallons of kerosene annually.

What proved to be just as important was Merrill’s introduction of “cracking”—repeatedly subjecting heavy oils to elevated temperatures that broke up the large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller ones, suitable for burning in lamps. This would become crucial to the use of petroleum.

The idea of using petroleum—Latin for “rock oil”—rather than coal as a source of illuminating oil was common by the mid-19th century. In 1854, the Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company was formed and its founders purchased property at Titusville, Pa. Benjamin Silliman Jr. of Yale University performed a photometric analysis of the petroleum from Titusville; he clearly showed the great potential of petroleum and estimated that at least 50 percent of the crude oil could be distilled into an illuminant.

Edwin Drake was hired to begin drilling. In August 1859, he reached a depth of 69 feet and found oil. His success in pumping oil from that well at Titusville marked the beginning of the oil industry and the availability of large supplies of petroleum and illuminating oils.

ARC LIGHTING—ELECTRICIT Y MADE VISIBLE That light could be produced by an electric arc between rods of carbon had been known since 1800. But an arc was not practical since the source of electricity at that time was the voltaic pile. In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction and successfully produced electricity directly from magnetism. News of Faraday’s discoveries spread quickly and, by 1844, commercial electric generators were being used for electroplating. By 1860, lighthouses in England and France used arc lights powered by electric dynamo machines.

In 1867, William Siemens pointed the way to the most important of the early electric generating machines—that of Theophile Gramme.

His dynamos were significantly more efficient than previous machines and had a simple construction that made them reliable and easy to maintain. They generated large amounts of electrical power and renewed efforts to improve arc lights.

All arc lights had been operated on unidirectional current and

014

FROM

THE

DARK

the positive and negative carbons were unequally consumed. Elaborate mechanisms had been devised to maintain a constant arc gap, but they limited the practicality of arc lighting. In 1876, Paul Jablochkoff devised a startlingly simple solution: use alternating current so that both carbons would be consumed at the same rate.

He placed the carbons parallel to each other, separated by a thin layer of plaster, so that the arc was perpendicular to the axis of the carbons. As burning continued, the plaster and the carbons were consumed, and the arc moved downward, similar to the burning of a candle. This came to be called the “Jablochkoff candle.” It was widely used in Europe, especially in France.

In 1873, Charles Brush began work on an electric generating and arc lighting system. His advances were a simple way to continuously adjust the carbon rod spacing in his arc lights and the efficiency of his dynamos. He installed his first system in 1878. In April 1879, he gave a demonstration of the potential of his system for outdoor lighting by lighting Cleveland’s Public Square. Within two years, there were Brush arc lighting systems in the streets of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Montreal, Buffalo and San Francisco.

In each case, there was a central station from which power was distributed to several arc lights.

Like gas lighting, arc lighting rose and fell in the 19th century. It found applications in streets and roadways, halls and stadiums, and large factories, but it was too bright for homes and offices. Its success made clear how large the reward would be for a practical, smaller light source—for the “subdivision of the electric light,” as it was put.

ELECTRIC INCANDESCENT LIGHTING Early work on incandescent lamps dates from about 1840. For the next 30 years, these lamps used the same general technology: an illuminant of platinum or carbon in a vessel to control the atmosphere. The first lamp based on incandescent platinum appeared in 1840, and incandescent carbon was used in 1845. To make a practical lamp, scientists had to learn how to manage the properties of carbon and platinum at temperatures of incandescence.

The British inventor Joseph Swan worked on incandescent lamp technology for 20 years, beginning in 1860, when he brought a carbonized piece of cardboard to incandescence electrically in the vacuum of a bell jar. By October 1880, he perfected a method for making very

015

FROM

THE

DARK

thin, high-resistance, uniform carbonized illuminants from cellulose.

Lamps based on his work were made in 1881.

Meanwhile, Thomas Edison was also at work on an incandescent lamp. The key advance made in 1879-1880 was the recognition that a successful incandescent lamp would need to have a high-resistance illuminant and must operate in a vacuum deeper than that which was routinely attained at the time. In October 1879, Edison built and tested such a lamp. This first lamp had a “filament”—a word Edison first used—cut from pasteboard and carbonized to white-heat. After much experimentation, Edison settled on filaments made from bamboo for the commercial version of his lamp.

By 1881, Edison’s company was manufacturing complete systems consisting of a dynamo, wiring, switches, sockets and lamps. Such a system could be used to light factories, large department stores and the homes of the wealthy. By the following year, more than 150 of these plants had been sold, powering more than 30,000 incandescent lamps.

Between 1880 and 1920, incandescent lamps were significantly improved by new technologies that made them more efficacious. The earliest lamps had efficacies of 1.7 lumens/watt. In 1920, incandescent lamps had efficacies near 15 lumens/watt. The metallurgical advances that produced tungsten wire, glass and ceramic technology, and developments in mechanical and chemical vacuum pumping, are among the most important.

D I S C H A RG E L A M P S — L I G H T F RO M ATO M S The luminous electric discharge of low-pressure mercury had been known about since early in the 18th century. The first application to lighting was the introduction of mercury into the chamber of an arc light. This lamp, and others like it, produced the characteristic blue-green light of the low pressure mercury discharge. By 1890, mercury lamps were available that had efficacies of between 15 and 20 lumens/watt. Though unsuitable for normal interior illumination, they were used in industrial and photographic applications.

General Electric Company in England developed a new hard, aluminosilicate glass for use with high pressure, high temperature mercury discharges that produced a much whiter light. In 1932, GEC announced its new high pressure mercury discharge lamp, which exhibited an efficacy of 36 lumens/watt. At about the same time, General Electric in America perfected the fused quartz production

016

FROM

THE

DARK

process. Quartz arc tubes for high pressure mercury discharge lamps permitted pressures to reach 10 atmospheres, which significantly increased efficacy and broadened the spectrum of the emitted light.

Phosphorescence was first recorded in the West in 1603. However, the first extensive study of this phenomenon was not conducted until Edmond Becquerel researched it in the mid—19th century. He investigated the fluorescence and phosphorescence of many minerals, observing their behavior under various types of excitatory radiation. He showed that the ultraviolet component of sunlight excited many phosphorescing minerals. Knowing that a vacuum electric discharge was faintly blue led him to assume that the discharge produced UV radiation and would excite fluorescence and phosphorescence, which he later verified. On this basis he built proto-fluorescent lamps.

Edmund Germer and his German coworkers produced working versions of fluorescent lamps in the late 1920s. Germer’s initial objective was to devise a source of UV light that could be operated without elaborate electrical control. By coating the interior of the bulb with UV-excited fluorescent material, Germer understood that such a lamp could also be a light source. He patented these applications in 1927.

By 1934, GEC England had produced a proof-of-concept fluorescent lamp: It produced a green light with a remarkable efficacy of 35 lumens/watt. This prompted a fluorescent lamp development project at General Electric in Cleveland. In April 1938, General Electric announced the availability of the fluorescent lamp. Early lamps were available with phosphors that produced “warm” and “cool” light, known as “white” and “daylight” lamps. New with these lamps was the need for an electrical ballast for starting and operating.

High efficacies and low cost produced a demand for the lamp that grew at an unprecedented rate, confounding early notions that that the lamp would see limited demand because of its relative complexity.

But in the first 10 years, U.S. fluorescent lamp sales grew tremendously, in spite of World War II, and fluorescent lighting began to displace incandescent lighting.

M E TA L — H A L I D E L I G H T I N G In 1894 Charles P. Steinmetz began working at General Electric in Schenectady, N.Y. One of his research projects was to develop a lamp that used a mercury discharge augmented to make its light color more acceptable. Steinmetz experimented with the halogen elements and metals. He found that metallic salts in a mercury arc gave a wide

017

FROM

THE

DARK

range of colors and did not chemically attack the glass arc tube as the isolated elements would. Though patented in 1900, Steinmetz’s lamp could never be made in a practical, commercial form.

In 1959, Gilbert Reiling of the General Electric Research Laboratories picked up where Steinmetz left off. He verified that metallic salts would be stable and radiate in the long wavelengths. By 1960, Reiling had produced experimental lamps using sodium and thallium iodide with high efficacies and good light color properties. Many practical problems were solved and General Electric announced the metal-halide lamp in 1962, using it at the 1964 World’s Fair in New York.

SODIUM DISCHARGE LIGHTING Experiments in the 1920s showed that a discharge of low pressure sodium could be used as a high efficacy light source. Unlike mercury, sodium at high temperatures and pressures attacks glass and quartz, and so early sodium lamps were limited to low temperatures and pressures. Although very efficacious—even early lamps provided 80 lumens/ watt—their yellow, monochromatic light limited their use to area and roadway lighting.

Robert Coble, a ceramic engineer from General Electric, developed polycrystalline almina in 1957. It had a diffuse transmittance of nearly 95 percent and a very high melting point; thus, it could be used to contain sodium plasma at high pressures. Using this new material as an arc tube, General Electric began selling high-pressure sodium lamps in 1965. The technical advances that have taken place since the introduction of the fluorescent lamp have been every bit as great as the step from incandescent to fluorescent technologies. The task of making a fluorescent lamp small and stable proved to be formidable, but ultimately lighting engineers succeeded in bringing us the compact fluorescent lamp, a replacement for the incandescent lamp.

Solid state lighting may represent the next great paradigm shift in lighting technology.

Lighting once stood out prominently against the general backdrop of technical development. Indeed, the incandescent lamp remains the symbol for the good idea. But ubiquity and reliability eventually made lighting just another part of everyday life. Yet its importance remains undiminished. It is economic, convenient and plentiful—available, in fact, at the flip of a switch.

018

FROM

THE

019

DARK

SECTION ONE From Symbol to Substance: Technologies of Lighting The Light and Space Movement

FROM

THE

DARK

FROM SYMBOL TO SUBSTANCE: THE TECHNOLOGIES OF LIGHT PHILIP BALL

There has never been a time when th nature of light has not been at the leading edge of science, technology and art. We ‘play’ with it for so many reasons—to encode information, to bedazzle the senses, to probe the universe, to evoke the presence of the divine. These are scientific study and use of the light comes laden with cultural and symbolic signification. At the same time, that same science—both fundamental and applied—has prescribed the boundaries of light as an artistic medium.

As our ability to produce and manipulate light has evolved, among other things, always a conversation with technology.

SAC R E D L I G H T The technological virtue of light pervaded its early scientific study. Early Christianity was imbued with a metaphysics of light stemming from the tradition of Neoplatonism, according to which radiance was a symbol of God’s presence. When men spoke truth, they were ‘lucid’; when they understood it, they were ‘illumi-

1 Quoted in Geores Duby, The Age of the Cathedrals: Art and Society 980-1420. University of Chicago Press Chicago,1981.

022

FROM

THE

DARK

nated’. The reverence for light motivated the

at this ‘mixture of strangeness, beauty and

thirteenth century proto—scientists Robert

frightfulness’.2 His colleague John Beale

Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln, and his disci-

worried that studying it would ‘raise stories

ple Roger Bacon to study optics at the Univer-

of Ghosts in my house’.

3

sity of Oxford. ‘Physical light is the best, the most delectable, the most beautiful of all the bodies that exist,’ wrote Grosseteste.1

Boyle’s assistant, Robert Hooke, a less pious

That was not mere genuflection; Grosseteste

man, was more interested in the technologies

was the first to propose that the rainbow’s

of light and optics. Hooke wanted to know

arc—an eternal source of wonder, a symbol of

what light is, and his answer clashed with

the Virgin and the post—diluvian renewal of

Newton’s. For Newton, light was ‘corpuscular’—

life—results from the refraction of light by clouds. His hypothesis wasn’t quite right, but it helped to locate the answer to this age-old question in optical science.

off microscopic stacked layers of reflective

Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke, began to study

material) and of oil slicks on water.

it. In popular culture, light was as much

demonic as it was divine, to be feared as

How light makes colour was Newton’s

forte. In Opticks (1704) he gave the first

well as revered. Things that glitter and

complete account of how the rainbow is made,

glow in the dark are the stuff of folklore.

explaining not only its arc shape—a slice

Boyle’s servants summoned him in terror to

of a cone of light reflected form raindrops

investigate a side of meat hanging in his

onto the observer, as René Descartes had

pantry, gleaming with luminescent bacteria.

already adduced—but also its chromatic bands.

Phosphorus, discovered around 1669, was

As light enters and exits a raindrop, it is

attributed miraculous healing powers because

refracted: the ray’s path is altered. When

of its spontaneous glow, the result of

light is refracted through different angles,

When phosphorus

was demonstrated to Boyle at his house in 1677

liquid element, you can sense Boyle’s awe

all-pervading substance called ‘the ether’. As

of peacock feathers (in which light bounces

seventeenth century, such as Isaac Newton,

on the carpet with a finger dipped in the

that it must be a wave, a vibration of some

of wavy light may explain the iridescence

connotations when the great scientists of the

by tracing, in the dark, the word ‘DOMINI’

a stream of little particles. Hooke insisted

Hooke very nearly understood, the interference

Light had not shaken off its religious

chemical reactions with air.

LIGHT AND COLOUR

the rainbow spectrum that sunlight contains is teased out into its component colours.

That same distillation of light, albeit from an artificial source, is effected in Olafur Eliasson’s 1993 work, Beauty in which a bright

2 Quoted in Micahel Cooper Robert Hooke: Tercenrennial Studies, Ashgate Publishing, Aldershot, 2006.

3 In J.V. Golinski, 'A Notable Spectacle: Phosphorous and the Public Culture of Science in the Early Royal Society', 1981.

023

FROM

THE

DARK

light shone on a fine mist falling elicits

when he demonstrated that sunlight separated

a fugitive rainbow. Newton asserted that the

by a prism into a multi-coloured spectrum can

arc has seven fundamental colours: red,

be recombined by a second prism and lens to

orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet.

create pure white illumination. But didn’t

This tenent, still recited by schoolchildren,

this contradict everything artists knew about

is sheer numerology: Newton believed that

colour from mixing paints? The reason for the

the rainbow was seven-hues by spurious analogy

discrepancy is that mixing coloured light adds

with the seven notes of the musical scale.

colours (and brightness) to the rays—it is

Scientists today usually recognize just six

called additive mixing. But mixing pigments

colours, indigo and violet being merged as

subtracts colours, because each pigment

purple.

absorbs parts of the light reflected from the mixture. This subtractive mixing J.M.W. Turner, Light and colour (Goethe’ theory)The Morning After The Dulgue - Moses writing the book of Genesis, 1843

inevitably diminishes the brightness of the reflected rays.

Before any of this was

understood, Newton’s theory of light and colour seemed strange, even absurd. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe rejected it, proposing instead a muddled theory of colour, whichmade yellow and blue the ‘primaries’ from which all other colours are composed.

Goethe’s ideas have always exerted a peculiar attraction for artists -J.M.W. Turner, a ‘light mystic’ of almost Neoplatonic proportions, produced a startling vision of the post-diluvian world based on these ideas in 1843. But there is little in Goethe’s theory for the scientist.

Here, then, was something new about

The ambiguities and effects produced

light: its ‘whiteness’ is a condensation of

by additive mixing of light are apparent in

all the colours of the rainbow. Newton proved

several works by Dan Flavin in which differ-

that fact in a celebrated experiment in 1665,

ently coloured fluorescent tubes are placed

024

FROM

THE

DARK

side by side, modulating one another’s appear-

visible extremes. Ultraviolet light—known

ance. The effect is striking in his Untitled

in Young’s time as ‘blackening rays’ (we still

(to Don Judd, Colorist) (1987), where vertical

speak today of ‘black light’)—has wavelengths

quartets of white, red, yellow, blue and green

shorter than violet; and infrared light,

light are topped with horizontal white tubes:

which we cannot see but can feel as heat,

the white seems to bleach the blue and green

has wavelengths longer than red.

tubes in particular, except where the light

bounces off the dark floor and regains its

‘visible’ when it stimulates fluorescence,

chromatic intensity. Flavin also combines yel-

whereby it is absorbed by a material and

low and pink additively to make a delicately

re-emitted at a slightly longer wavelength,

graded salmon/peach hue in untitled (to the

typically in the violet part of the spectrum.

“innovator”of Wheeling Peachblow) (1966—8).

The result is that only the fluorescent

Ultraviolet light may be rendered

medium is rendered visible, and, moreover,

DECONSTRUCTING LIGHT

often with a flat, ghostly appearance that disturbs perceptions of distance and contour.

After Newton, the common belief was that

Doug Wheeler makes use of ultraviolet neon

light is a substance. At the start of the

tubes to ‘dissolve’ the edges of a wall

nineteenth century the English polymath

mounted acrylic panel, transforming it into

Thomas Young begged to differ, showing that

a light installation.

a wave theory was needed to explain light’s

interference effects. Waves are excited whenever a body becomes luminous: for example, when the tungsten filament of a light bulb is heated by electrical current passing through.

As James Clerk Maxwell showed several decades later

the waves are vibrations of electrical

and magnetic fields: they are electromagnetic waves. The wavelength of light—the number of waves per millimetre, say-determines its colour. As Young correctly estimated, the wavelength of violet light is around

400

nanometres (i.e. 400 thousand-millionths of a metre), and that of

red light is around

700. Young pointed out that there was no reason for the waves to cease at these

There was no obvious upper or lower

limit to the wavelengths of Young’s light: that which we see is merely an arbitrary slice of a continuous spectrum, to which our eyes happen to be sensitive. At wavelengths shorter than ultraviolet, there are X-rays and then gamma rays; the long-wavelength end of the spectrum extends to microwaves and radio waves, with wavelengths measuring perhaps several kilometres. Scientific instruments such as astronomical telescopes can reveal this otherwise invisible universe.

In 1905, Albert Einstein asserted that

light is quantized: it comes in little packets (quanta) of energy, called photons. When

025

FROM

THE

DARK

an object glows, it emits a stream of these

light-sensitive cone cells in our retina,

‘pieces of light’. Photons (unlike New-

of which there are three types, each with

ton’s corpuscles) have no mass but they have

a strongest sensitivity to red, green or

energy, which is proportional to their frequency: blue photons are more energetic than red ones. The quantum view of light doesn’t

blue—violet light. The neural signals from these three types of receptors are combined

replace Yong’s waves with particles. Instead,

before being interpreted by the brain as a

it says that light can display both wave-like

particular colour. That’s why red and green

and particle-like behaviour, depending on how

mix additively to make yellow: they generate

you observe it. This ‘wave-particle duality’,

the same sum.

which also applies to fundamental particles

such as electrons, is easily misconstrued. It

colours can be grouped into complementary

doesn’t mean that light is sometimes a wave

pairs—red/green, yellow/purple, blue/orange—

and sometimes a particle: it’s always just

and that strong colours can stimulate the

light, but we can sometimes better understand

appearance of a surrounding aura of the

what light does by considering it as a parti-

complementary, noting that after staring

cle (photon), and other times by considering

at a bright colour for a long time, one

it as a wave.

may see an after—image in the complementary

Goethe also recognised that spectral

colour when one looks away. This effect is

SEEING LIGHT Goethe’s notion of what light is might have been incorrect, but a more fruitful aspect of his work was the recognition that colour is a phenomenon not simply of light but of

elicited in Ann Veronica Janssens’ work Donut (2003), in which concentric rings of strongly coloured light are projected onto a wall and rapidly alternated with moments of darkness, stimulating coloured ‘phantom’ images of the shapes in the viewer’s perceptual field when

perception too: light has an effect on the

no light is projected. The eye also adjusts

visual sense, which is capable of conjuring

our perception of colour to accommodate

results that could not be guessed by focusing

changes in overall light intensity—an effect

on Newton’s ‘light corpuscles’ alone. The

called colour constancy, which has the

quirks of our visual system can, for example, make us see light that isn’t really there, evoking yellow from red and green light, say. In daylight, colour is decoded by the

evolutionary rationale of ensuring that hues don’t seem to alter in confusing ways as the sun slips behind cloud. James Turrell’s Space Division Constructions series exploit this feature of vision to produce ‘screens’ of

026

FROM

THE

DARK

coloured light intersecting a space apparently

hallucinations—or alternatively, by creating

enclosed by white walls, whose ‘whiteness’

a sensation of ‘blackness’ or blindness.

is sustained by colour constancy.

Both consequences have been reported by Arctic

explorers in dazzling white snowscapes.

In very dim light, the cone cells

don’t register the illumination very strongly,

Turrell’s ‘ganzfeld’ works saturate a space

and instead our visual sense switches over

with coloured light that reflects off pure

to using rod cells, which are more light-

white surfaces, causing a disorientation of

sensitive but don’t convey any sense of

perceptions of space and scale. This optical

colour, which is why objects seem to lose

effect is also manipulated by Carlos Cruz-

their colour in darkened environments. Also,

Diez in his Chromosaturation installations,

rod cells are rather more sensitive to

in which visitors walk through three

blue than to red light, making greenish and

adjoining chambers, each flooded with red,

bluish objects, such as foliage, relatively

green or blue light. Coloured light merges

more visible at night. This shift in colour

at the boundaries of the chambers, summoning

sensitivity happens at dusk as rods take

a range of hues through additive mixing.

over from cones, and is known (after its

Alternatively, Cruz-Diez presents the viewer

discoverer) as the Purkinje shift. Turrell’s

with simultaneous, sharply contrasting colours

Dark Spaces, made in the 1980s, exploit this

at different points in the environment, so

adaptation of colour vision. Installed in

that complementary colours may enhance one

very dim environments, they require viewers

another’s vibrancy—an effect that painters

to sit for several minutes while adaptation

have exploited, instinctively at least, since

to the dark takes place, so that if they are

the Renaissance.

patient and attentive they can begin to make

MAKING LIGHT

out the faint projected light. The intensity is sometimes so low that one can’t be sure if what is seen is real or just a trick of the retina: the light acquires what has been called a ‘questionable existence’.4

Turrell, who has studied perceptual

psychology, has also exploited a visuosensory variant of the ganzfeld effect, in which the brain responds to the lack of stimulus from a highly uniform visual field by amplifying random ‘neural noise’, producing

It’s sobering to realise that the scientists of Newton’s generation had a sophisticated understanding of optics—they knew the laws governing the reflection and refraction of light, and could use lenses and prisms to manipulate it—but still had to work in the evenings by candlelight and oil lamp. Not until the advent of gas lighting in the early nineteenth century was there more than the feeblest relief from night’s gloom, and only

4 Quoted in Craig Adcock, James Turrell: The Art of Light and Space, University of California Press, Berkly, CA, 1990.

027

FROM

THE

DARK

after electrification in the latter part of

applying a special coating to the glass, engi-

that century was there an alternative to the

neers at OSRAM were able to reproduce the light

glow of the naked flame.

spectrum of moonlight for Katie Paterson’s

Light bulb to Simulate Moonlight (2008). And

Science was more the beneficiary than

the begetter of these new light technologies.

the wasteful heat of their glowing filaments—

Thomas Edison’s carbon-filament incandescent

one reason for their disappearance in this age

bulbs, filed for patent in 1879, were the

of energy efficiency - is an intrinsic aspect

result not of theory but merely trial-and-er-

of the viwing experience for Cerith Wyn Evans’

ror testing of different materials. There were

S=U=P=E=R=S=T=R=U=C=T=U=R=E (‘Trace me back to

plenty of electrically-powered incandescent

some loud, shallow, chill. underlying motive’s

lamps before then, some also using carbon fil-

oversipill....’) (2010): dazzling columns made

aments, but the key to commercial success lay

of long glass tubes threaded from end to end

with finding the optimal design and making the

with a hot filament.

device affordable and convenient. Incandescent

tungsten-filament lamps were improved in the

tion of the gas-discharge tube ‘the fore-

early twentieth century by adding a halogen

runner of the neon light. When an electrical

element, usually bromine or

discharge is passed through a gas (such as

iodine, to the

Science also benefited from the inven-

chamber, which allows tungsten evaporated from

mercury or sodium vapour), electrons in the

the hot filament to be re-deposited back

current may collide with gas molecules and

onto it, enabling it to last longer. Most

excite them into emitting light of a colour

bright film, stage and projection light-

characteristic of the elements in the gas.

ing uses tungsten halogen bulbs. The greater

In the 1850s the German scientific-instru-

robustness of these filaments allows halo-

ment maker Heinrich Geissler invented tubes

gen bulbs to withstand the strong forces of

that exploited this effect, producing richly

acceleration that they experience in Conrad

coloured light sources that were sold for

Shawcross’s dynamic lightworks, such as Loop

demonstrations in universities and schools.

System Quintet (2005). Here, single bulbs are

In some cases—for example, with argon gas and

attached to articulated arms, which rotate

mercury vapour—the emitted light lies outside

at high speed, tracing out apparently solid

the visible range in the ultraviolet zone.

trails of light.

Filling the tube with a liquid that fluoresces

under ultraviolet irradiation,

Incandescent bulbs have been stripped of

their banal familiarity when reconfigured for

or coating the walls with a phosphor material

artistic purposes. By modifying the filament

that does the same, allows this ‘black light’

to tune the colour spectrum of the light, and

to be converted to a form visible to the human

028

FROM

THE

DARK

eye: this is a fluorescent tube. The latter

sonalization of the artistic gesture. Fla-

approach was developed by the French physicist

vin worked primarily with fluorescent tubes

Edmond Becquerel in studying fluorescence.

because he wanted a choice of colours—but he

The colour of the light can then be selected

simply took these ‘off the shelf’ from what

by choosing an appropriate phosphor.

was available. That ready-made philosophy

means that most of Flavin’s works are composed

At the end of the nineteenth cen-

tury, the advantages of using so-called inert

of linear tubes, whereas the neon tubes used

gases—helium and argon, but especially neon—

for commercial signage are typically custom-

in gas­ discharge tubes become apparent. Neon

ized: bent to form letters or images. Several

was discovered in 1898 by William Ramsay and

artists who wok with neon tubes—Joseph Kosuth,

Morris Travers in London. Using gas-discharge

Bruce Nauman, Glenn Ligon, Tracey Emin, Cerith

tubes to study its properties, Travers wrote

Wyn Evans—adopt the message along with the

that ‘the blaze of crimson light’ from a neon

medium, spelling out glowing slogans that sub-

tube ‘was a sight to dwell upon and never

vert, echo or even exploit the intimate asso-

forget’.5 That was precisely what recommended

ciation with advertising.

this gorgeous orange-red glow for advertising

QUANTUM LIGHT

signs and displays. The trouble was that neon was rare. Only when the liquefaction of air became an industrial affair, first by French inventor Georges Claude’s company Air Liquide in 1902, did neon become readily available as a by-product. Claude (the ‘French Edison’) unveiled his large neon tubes in 1910. Three years later they were being used in advertising and signage, and in 1919 they lit up the entrance to the Paris Opera. When Dan Flavin began to use fluorescent tubes in the 1960s. their commercial, ready-made aesthetic was part of the appeal, just as painters such as Frank Stella took to using industrial paints: the choice was a political statement, a challenge to authority and, given the standardization of commercial products and the ‘cool’ quality of the fluorescent light, a deper-

The advent of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in the 1950s, and then the laser in the 6os, marked the capacity of advanced science at last to contribute substantially to the art of illumination. These devices can be understood, and thus designed, only using quantum physics, but the principles are not so different from the gas-discharge tube: electrical current stimulates the emission of light, with a wavelength (colour) determined by the chemical nature of the emitting fabric. In the late 1950s scientists discovered that the semiconductor gallium phosphide, laced with other elements, can be used in red-light LEDs— initially called ‘crystal lamps’ because the glowing component was crystalline. Tinkering with the chemical composition yielded green

5 M.W. Travers, A Life of Sir William Ramsay, quoted in John Emsley, Nature's Building Blocks, Oxford University, 2011.

029

FROM

THE

DARK

and yellow lights in the 1970s, while strong

technology, which introduces new methods

blue-light LEDs, made from gallium nitride,

of controlling and manipulating light. For

did not appear until the 1990s. LEDs not only

example, photonic crystals—’mirrors’ made

last longer than incandescent bulbs but use

from tiny arrays of reflective objects, such

much less power—a valuable asset in just about

as stacked microscopic beads, honeycombs of

any application.

holes, or alternating layers of two materials—

can contain light almost perfectly, leading

The direct conversion of electricity

to light in LEDs and lasers, without the

to tightly-curved light channels and leak­

intervention of heat, allows light technology

proof optical fibres. Many of these tricks

to be miniaturized. Because they are small,

for controlling light are already used by

robust, can be switched on and off almost

nature: in, for instance, the brilliantly

instantly, and can be tailored to specific

reflective wings of the Blue Morpho butterfly,

colours, LEDs have transformed display

or indeed the peacock feathers that fascinated

technology. The crystalline semiconductors in

Robert Hooke. The uses of highly reflective

these devices can be expensive and brittle,

and iridescent pigments with such layered

and require high-tech processing methods. But,

microstructures have so far been confined to

over the past two decades, LEDs have also

applications such as car paints; artists are

been made from electric-conducting plastics

just beginning to understand how to use these

that will emit light, which are flexible,

materials to guide light and blend colours.

cheap and easy to manufacture using printing

technology. Plastic LED screens are now being

further. It is now possible to subvert the

commercialised for laptops and televisions,

laws of optics themselves: for example,

and their low cost, low power consumption

artificial materials that can refract light

and bendiness are sure to stimulate new uses:

‘the wrong way’, or that can guide light

light-emitting textiles, paper—like screens

rays along artfully curved paths that skirt

with moving images, expansion into art, design

an object—like river water running round

and architecture.

a protruding rock—in effect rendering the

object invisible. These ‘invisibility cloaks’

The rapid electronic switching of

The new technologies of light go much

LEDs and lasers also means that binary

were first made for operating at microwave

information—the currency of information

frequencies; now they work for visible

technology -can be encoded in pulses of

light too. Even light itself is not immune

light, rather than the electrical pulses of

to reinvention: quantum engineering that

silicon micro-electronics. This is a major

reconfigures the way light is absorbed and

motivation for the recent growth of photonic

re-emitted as it travels through a transparent

030

FROM

THE

DARK

substance can effectively slow down light

gent. Moreover, light is not just about elec-

to a crawl, and even bring it to an apparent

tromagnetism and photons, but about perception

standstill—and even more extraordinary, can

and illusion. There are many tricks of light,

make it seem to exit a material before it

and they force us to question the relationship

even enters. Whether these tricks will find

between the world that impinges on the senses

practical uses—storing information in arrested

and the world that the senses reconstruct from

light pulses, for example—remains to be seen.

that stimulus. There is a science of effect that light mediates. And this is a part of

TRICK OF THE LIGHT

what makes it, and has always made it, such a powerful medium for the artist.

Art has always been beholden to technology to a greater extent than

is commonly acknowl-

edged, whether it be the glassmaking expertise that contributed to the manufacture of Egyptian faience, the pigment­ making alchemy of the Middle Ages, or the invention of photography or of acrylic resins. In most such instances, the technologies themselves had other motivations; artists see opportunities that scientists and inventors rarely imagine, happily appropriating technical innovation, but also subverting and redirecting it. The technologies of light are no exception, and that is why advanced photonic engineering will surely enter the gallery.

But there are additional dimensions to

this relationship. For one, light has a symbolic cultural resonance that science has not eroded, that it even enhances as it offers new possibilities for luminal play and new insights into the nature of light itself.

Through relativity, light becomes the determinant of time. Quantum engineering imbues light with information and meaning and makes old certainties -the path of a light ray—contin-

031

FROM

THE

DARK

Lucio Fontana, Luce Spaziale, 1951

THE LIGHT AND SPACE MOVEMENT CLIFF LAUSON

For centuries, light has been a subject of fascination for artist, from medieval altarpieces to Impressionist painting to photography, literally ‘writing with light’. The use of electric light in art is however, a more recent phenomenon, emerging in the twentieth century. Artists using artificial light employ it as a material in and of itself, compelled by its luminous an intangible qualities.1 Early episodes of light-based (and technological advances in) electric light: László Moholy-Nagy’s Light Prop for an Electric Stage (1928—30), a motorized metal and glass machine for studying the interplay of light and shadow, and Lucio Fontana’s series Ambiente spaziale (started in 1949), which incorporated large-scale curving neons or ultraviolet light, are two important examples of early precursors that made use of this unconventional medium.

It was however the widespread broaden-

ing of the category of sculpture around the 1960s—‘the transition from “objecthood” to

1 For a comprehensive history of light-based artworks see Peter Weibel, ‘The Development of Light Art’ 2006.

032

FROM

THE

environment’—that saw artists fully maximizing light’s potential both as a sculptural medium and for altering the viewer’s perception of space.2 This shift was certainly related to the emphasis of much 1960s artwork on vision ‘as embedded within the body and inextricably bound up with a broader situating of the body within the physical environment’, an encounter that art historian Alex Potts has since coined ‘the phenomenological turn’.3 Artists using light as a medium emerged internationally, often as a part of avant-garde movements; examples include Otto Piene’s involvement with ZERO in Düsseldorf, François Morellet’s with GRAV in Paris or Gianni Colombo’s with Gruppo T in Milan. Contemporaneous artist such as Dan Flavin, Carlos Cruz-Diez, Joseph Kosuth, David Lamelas, Chryssa, Nam June Paik and Liliane Lijn also started to explore light’s perceptual potential within their independent practices. In recognition of this mid-century zeitgeist, the first major retrospective exhibition to examine light in art, KunstLichtKunst, was held in 1966, at the Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven.

SHAPING LIGHT Unlike any other sculptural medium light is constantly in motion, traveling in straight lines. ‘Sculpting’ with light therefore has much to do with directing and controlling its emanation. In response, artists have used different light sources and supports, each with distinctive aesthetic properties and spatial possibilities. The effect that light

2 Michael Auping, ‘Stealth Architecture: The Rooms of Light and Space’;Robin Clark, Phenomenal: California Light, Space, Surface.

DARK

has on the surrounding gallery architecture becomes important, often forming a part of the artwork; some artworks actually take on the guise of built architecture. Overall, that the following artworks possess sculptural form is important -as ‘objects’ they still demand a sculptural encounter with the views, as something to be looked at, even if their forms exhibit varying degrees of solidity and ephemerality.

No artists was more pioneering or influential in his use of light, in particular the kind emitted from fluorescent tubes, than Dan Flavin. Over the course of three decades beginning in the 1960s, Flavin produced a myriad of works using only standard off-theshelf-fluorescent tubes in their ten available coulours.4 Despite these constraints, the results are remarkable: a seemingly infinite number of intensities and gradations of light achieved by mixing colours and configurations across three-dimensional space and in relation to architecture. By positioning his early artworks in relation to the gallery wall but in locations far from ideal for picturehanging-at the corners and edges, occasionally touching the floor- the artist gave light a ‘canvas’ to engage with. His early work the nominal three (to William of Ockham, 1963) was the first he modified to respond explicitly to architecture. After its original, pictorial display, the artist moved the work down to abut the floor, and made it adaptable to the space of display-spanning the whole wall from corner to corner.

From the outset, Flavin was aware that as a sculptural medium light ‘somewhat betrayed its physical presence into approximate invisibility’.5 By this he meant that the fittings, fixtures and tubes seemed to almost

4 These included four different whites, as well as ultraviolet.

3 Potts’ term is indebted to French phenomenologist Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s research into embodied vision.

033

FROM

THE

DARK

dissolve as supports for the medium of light, perhaps due to their ubiquity as fixtures and to their whiteness (so taking on colour in the same way as the gallery walls). Yet these supports, which are screwed or welded together into three-dimensional configurations, are crucial to how Flavin shaped light precisely.

His first coloured corner square, untitled (to the “innovator” of Wheeling Peachblow,1966-8), projects a delicate balance of yellow and pink light into an area of the gallery usually abandoned to shadows. The square, which includes two outward-facing daylight-white tubes, doubles here as a frame for the corner, which in turn provides an area of sculptural depth for subtle effects of gradation to occur. Like most of Flavin’s works, untitled involves a two-fold use of light: hard-edged linear forms that produce nuanced and diffuse effects.

Around the same time that Flavin was making his first fluorescent light works, French artist François Morellet began working with illuminated neon. Compared to fluorescent tubes, neon affords more flexibility and customisation, in fact more than any other kind of light source. This is perhaps why, after GRAV disbanded in 1968, Morellet continued using the material to explore his long-standing interest in geometric and elemental shapes.6 A recent work called Lamentable 2006, is typical of this sculptural abstraction. Designed as a large circle of arcing neon segments, the entire arrangement is suspended from the gallery ceiling, its connected pieces slumping under gravity. The resulting deconstructed figure becomes a large three-dimensional drawing, a translation of pictorial concerns into sculptural installation.

5 Reprinted in Dan Flavin, “...In Daylight or Cool white.” An Autobiographical Sketch (1965)’.

perceptual phenomena induced in the spectator by their artworks, situations and environments.

6 The artists who formed Groupe de Recherche d’Art Visuel (GRAV), active from 1961 to 1968, were interested in investigating the

7 Kowanz soon found that ‘mirrors are instruments that allow him to work with light’ and included them in most of her later works.

Since Flavin’s and Morellet’s pioneering artworks, artists have continued to deploy light in explicitly architectural ways, in some cases assuming the forms of recognizable structural elements. By using light in perhaps its most unnatural for—as a load-bearing feature—works by Brigitte Kowanz and by Cerith Wyn Evans each take on a surreal quality. Kowanz’s Light Steps (1990/2013), is a series of ascending bars comprised of fluorescent tubes and their fittings. They appear to reach up from the gallery space toward the heavens (from where, in painting, light traditionally descends), yet retain such a minimalist aesthetic that they refuse a fully transcendent meaning. Light Steps was a key early work that set the tone for much of Kowanz’s subsequent use of (primarily white) light to create sculptural forms that engage, shape and intervene in architecture.7

British artist Cerith Wyn Evans’ recent installation S=U=P=E=R=S=T=R=U=C=T=U=R=E (‘Trace me back to some loud, shallow, chill, underlying motive’s overspill ... ‘,2010), takes the shape of columns of light as intangible and impossible architectural supports.

The towering pillars are comprised of filament-strip light bulbs arranged in cylinders, using only the bare minimum amount of structural support and wiring. The tungsten elements both emit light and radiate substantial heat, a reminder that visible light is merely a narrow section of the wider electromagnetic spectrum. Like many of Wyn Evans’ other light-based artworks—including lamps, chandeliers, shutters and even a WWII searchlight that emits poems or passages of text via computer-controlled Morse code—the columns of S=U=P=E=R=S=T=R=U=C=T=U=R=E also pulse on and off. However, their cycles do not involve

034

FROM

THE

tactile experience of McCall’s earlier work, You and I, Horizontal (2005) is part of a series of digitally animated projectedlight works. The film features the interaction of three shifting mathematical forms: line, ellipse and traveling wave. The transition from one shape to the next is achieved by using a wipe, a cinematic convention usually used to indicate the passage of time or a change of location.8 In McCall’s film, however, the wipe plays out over minutes instead of seconds, creating a slow unfolding dance that allows viewers to examine the morphing sculptural form from all angles, whether by moving around it or by standing within the projection. From the latter vantage point, the viewer experiences an illuminated phenomenon entirely unique to McCall’s work— enclosure within a hollow tunnel made of marbled white light.

As mentioned above, McCall uses the medium of film, whether celluloid or digital, to create constantly changing sculptural forms.

Another way of shaping light dynamically is to exercise control over a multitude of lights, as American artist Leo Villareal has been doing since the late 1990s. Having studied computer graphics and programming in addition to art, Villareal designs and creates his own LED circuits, controllers and software. This allows him to create a scalable custom dynamic programmes in real time. A case in point is Cylinder II (2012) a large sculpture, over 3.5 meters in height , and made up of concentric rings of LED strips, each containing hundreds of lights. The third in series of what the artist calls ‘volumetric explorations’, the Cerith Wyn Evans, S=U=P=E=R= S=T=U=R=U= C=T=R=E, 2010

frenetic and abrupt flashes, but rather slow fades, a cadence that the artist has described as breathing. When off, the columns dissolve, leaving only transparent glass, mounts, wires and the relative emptiness of the darker (and cooler) gallery. Utilizing near­obsolete lighting technology, Wyn Evans is able to create an architecture with a dynamic character that oscillates between oppressive physicality and near invisibility.

In an attempt to address the more immaterial aspects of light, artists Anthony McCall use haze to make beams of light visible. The resulting ‘sculpture’ is visible but truly ephemeral, hovering in mid-air and allowing spectators to interact with and even interrupt it with their bodies. Reflecting and refracting off the countless microscopic particulates in the air, light seems to take on a tactile quality, an effect that McCall describes as ‘solid light’.

It was in New York in the 1970s that McCall pioneered the technique in his groundbreaking film Line Describing a Cone (1973) a work that sits at the intersection of sculptural, pictorial and cinematic illumination. Advancing the dynamic and near-

DARK

8 The choreography of the two forms, their slow dance in space, could be read as something of an erotic interaction—as two figures, horizontally intertwined.

035

FROM

THE

DARK

Leo Villareal, Cylinder II, 2012

traditional barricades set up between perceiver and perceived, between the object and the eye’.9 Light art, in particular the kind that foregrounds perceptual phenomena, had a crucial role to play here.

Many of these artworks are immersive and environmental installations that investigate how we perceive and negotiate the world around us.

Many also depend upon established physiological principles in order to generate their effects. These

19,600 lights together perform sequences of complex choreography across three dimensions.

In a darkened gallery, the armatures seem to disappear, leaving only the clouds of light as they materialize, move, change shape and then dematerialize. Waves of light travel in different directions along the cylindric form, while other bundles of light transform into a vortex of fireflies. With such a high degree of real-time control, light becomes a pliable medium in Villareal’s work, in this way demonstrating an unparalleled ambition for the precision, speed and sheer quantity of illuminated sources.

the spectator as a perceiving subject, but assume the mutability of their

vision.

Working in and out of Los Angeles during

the 1960s a number of artists comprising the Light and Space movement examined the relationship between materials and perception.

Unlike the aforementioned European avant-garde groups, this was not a coherent movement, but instead a loose circle of contemporaries whose work demonstrated shared themes addressed through sculptural abstraction, and often involved experimentation with the reflections and refractions of light and new industrial

PERCEIVING LIGHT If much of the sculptural and installation art of the 1960s depended upon the presence of the spectator in order to complete the work, this

materials.10 Of these artists however,Doug Wheeler and James Turrell are the only two to have consistently used light itself as the primary means through which to create sensory

shifted the meaning of the artwork away from the object and toward the order of experience.

As artist and writer Brian O’Doherty observed, the 1960s were ‘concerned with eroding the

9 Brian O’Doherty, Inside the White Cube: The Ideology of the Gallery Space, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.

artworks not only anticipate the presence of

environments.11 They achieve this by carefully placing or concealing light fixtures in highly constructed spaces so that the phenomenal

11 It is worth nothing that Maria Nordman continues to use the lack of light as a sensory environment, but resists association with the Light and Space movement.

10 Light and Space artists are identified by critics and art historians rather than by the artists themselves.

036

FROM

THE

DARK

effects of light itself are emphasized.

spatial—so that the viewer would ‘look into

[the work] rather than just at it’, as the

Wheeler’s transition from a canvas

painter to an installation artist is apparent

artist put it.13 The Wedgework series (begun in

in his light encasement works of the late

1969) is among the earliest to have this depth

1960s, made from neon installed behind a

divided into that the artist calls the viewing

wall-mounted, vacuum-formed acrylic sheet.

space and the sensing space. In the former,

The light has a dissolving effect on the

the spectator is seated in a dark chamber,

semi-opaque surface, causing it to blend

while the latter space beyond is filled with

into the supporting wall and even—via coved

subtle light sliced through by intervening

corners and vertices—into the surrounding

planes of angled light, forming wedges. This

room. Wheeler’s frequent use of rare daylight

series of works critically incorporates the

ultraviolet neon heightens this effect by

temporal dimension that is central to much of

giving the white environment a further

Turrell’s practice—the full interplay of these

luminous glow. The artist has referred to

multiple light elements slowly unfolds over

the ‘sensate experience’ of his works in

the ten, fifteen, twenty minutes of immersion

replacing the viewer’s attention to the

that the viewer’s eye require to adjust

object with an awareness of the effects of

after entering. It is the dependency of the

light. So extraordinary was this sensation

perception of light on duration that Turrell

that John Coplans, curator of Wheeler’s first

has refined over the years, particularly in

solo exhibition, claimed, ‘[His] medium is

his Skyspaces (1975-present) large chambers

not light or new materials or technology, but

or stand-alone buildings that frame the sky

perception‘12 Wheeler’s larger installations

through apertures, balancing the shifting

such as DW 68 VEN MCASD 11 (1968/2011) or

natural light (to best effect at sunset) with

SAMI 75 DZNY 12 (1975/2012) exemplify this

computer-controlled interior lighting.

interest: they extend beyond the individual

viewer’s peripheral vision, their physical

and Turrell, a single colour of evenly -dif-

size immerses multiple viewers and their

fused light can produce startling perceptual

subtle lighting effects create the feeling

effects. Prolonged exposure to these environ-

of infinite space.

ments not only causes the brain to recalibrate

its ‘white balance’ (causing vision afterwards

While Turrell’s earlier works such

In some of the installations by Wheeler

as Shanta, Red (1968) are shaped and/or

to be skewed toward the opposite colour), but

coloured projections that explore the discrete

also makes light seem atmospheric and colour

sculptural aspects of light, he soon moved to

almost tangible. The latter effect is an opti-

a larger scale to make these effects wholly

cal form of ‘the ganzfeld’, a state of disori-

12 John Coplans, Doug Wheeler, Pasadena Art Museum, CA, 1968.

14 Turrell’s is in fact a chamber that can enter at

Bindu Shards (2010) spherical light only a single viewer a time.

13 James Turrell and Richard Andrews, ‘1982 Interview with James Turrell’ in James Turrell: Works 1967-1992, Henry Art Gallery.

037

FROM

THE

DARK

entation caused by a confusion of the senses

immersive ways of exploring the ‘situation’

in response to continuous, uniform simulation.

or ‘event’ of colour.16 While the layout

In removing visual anchors (by concealing

for each Chromosaturation installation is

doorways, corners, lighting fixtures, etc.),

configured to suit each venue, the artist

distance and spatial awareness are confounded,

considers the physical space merely as an

as if in a sensory deprivation chamber.

apparatus through which to produce perceptual

14

These

monochromatic installations distill light,

phenomena.

narrowing it to a single point of perception

and amplifying the extreme nature of its effect.

of altering perception is to control the

spectator’s vision. American artist Nancy

Around the same time as Wheeler

A far more direct and immediate way

and Turrell were experimenting with fight

Holt’s outdoor installations, including her

phenomena in California, Venezuelan artist

famous Sun Tunnels (1973—6) use holes and

Carlos Cruz-Diez was in Paris also exploring

cylinders, some of which she calls ‘locators’,

the properties of colour, only in a much

to narrow the spectator’s field of vision and

broader way, across the full spectrum.

frame a particular view. One of only a few

Cruz-Diez’s series of installations since

indoor installations by Holt, Holes of Light

1965 called Chromosaturations (there have

(1973) brings these concerns into the gallery,

been 84 to date) immerse the spectator

drawing out the reciprocal relationship

in rooms of coloured light. While each of

between sight and light. Holes of Light

the installations is unique, designed for

consists of a floor-to-ceiling partition that

a specific exhibition space, all share a

divides a large room, with a bright lamp on

basic format: a larger space is subdivided

either side of it. What the artist describes

into three adjoining spaces, each of which

as ‘shapes of contained light’ are created

is flooded by an intense red, green or blue

when one of the lamps shines through a series

light.15 As the viewer spends time in each

of holes in the partition, creating bright

room and moves between them, his or her eyes

circles on the far wall.17 Every minute or

are continuously adjusting: to the dominant

so the lamps alternate, causing the room to

colour, to the additional colours created in

reverse light and dark sides; the spectator

the areas of overlapping light and to the

barely becomes accustomed to one spatial

unpredictable new colours produced as a result

configuration before being subjected to

of the shifting optical experience. For Cruz-

the other. With a number of circles at eye­

Diez, ‘light, and its colours, create unstable

level, the relationship between sight and

situations that are constantly evolving

light becomes an equivalent and symmetrical

and changing’ and his environments provide

one, articulated by the partition. And when

15 Some earlier installations had a more labyrinthine design and greater separation between the coloured zones, with clear walls.

17 The circles’ penumbrae are an interest to Holt as she inscribes them on the wall in pencil, creating a afterimage when they are not illuminated.

16 Gloria Carnevali and Carlos Cruz-Diez, “My Aesthetic [Is] the Effectiveness of the Evidence” 2009.

18 Many of Olafur Eliasson’s titles feature the world ‘Your’, emphasizing the ownership of the viewing experience.

038

FROM

THE

Olafur Eliasson, Exploded View (Commuters), 2011

DARK

‘it’s something that we produce, phenomenologically speaking, as we constitute the objects that we look at by looking at

them’. By depending

upon the presence of a perceiving spectator, Eliasson’s works perhaps most clearly demonstrate the legacy of the 1960s concern with the ‘situating of the body within the physical environment,’ to return to Alex Potts’ description.

multiple spectators populate the room, the corresponding relationship between perceiving and being perceived becomes strongly apparent.

The study of perception as both

an individual and social phenomena is at centre of Danish-Icelandic artist Olafur Eliasson’s practice. His immersive installations probe the interactions between the viewer and sensory phenomena, and often have the feel of laboratory experiments incorporating the natural elements—fire, water, light, earth and air.

His works, however, are intended to be catalysts for the moment and duration of experience, involving ‘the combination of physically moving around them and looking at them at the same

time, looking at the

way they instrumentalise, or activate, the space’.18 That this experience is contingent upon embodied vision is not only

key to

understanding how his works function, but is also essential to

their completion:

A large proportion of Eliasson’s work involves light in varying forms.19 Of these, his series (since 1996) involving strobe lights and water demonstrate a unique optical effect through the use of specialist lamps and water in motion, generally falling. Earlier installations involve curtains of droplets or spray from a hose appearing to form solid walls or arcing coils of water respectively.

In more recent works, such as Model for a timeless garden (2011) water is given a more sculptural form through no less than 27 decorative fountains. When the rapid flicker of strobe light illuminates the fountains, the water droplets appear frozen in space, suspending our reference for duration (motion) and creating the paradoxical feeling of equally stilled and infinite time. The baroque water sculptures of Model for a timeless garden create something like a temporal bubble, extending the moment of perception, our time to revel in the garden.

19 See the over 140 artworks involving light in Olafur Eliasson: Your Lighthouse. Works with Light 1991-2004.

039

Addressing an altogether different

FROM

THE

DARK

physiological reflex related to vision,

Modernist) qualities of light, the following

American artist Jim Campbell explores the

artworks are anchored in the social, the

subtleties of image recognition. From most

scientific and the literary. Some are also

angles his LED work Exploded View (Commuters)

more self-consciously playful and witty-

(2011) appears to be a block of shimmering,

recalling that it was only six years after

decorative lights. But, when viewed straight

Flavin made his first diagonal fluorescent

on, the three-dimesional matrix aligns into

work that Bruce Nauman responded

two-dimensional perspectival order and can be

in his video Manipulating a Fluorescent Tube

read as a screen on which moving shadows are

(1969), in which he poses with a tube, at one

recognized as walking human figures. Though

point literalising it as the artist’s phallus

high-tech, Campbell’s work is actually low-

between his legs. In this same spirit of

resolution to single because he renders the

awareness, Bill Culbert’s Bulb Box Reflection

film down until individual pixels correspond

II (1975) condenses much of the zeitgeist

to single LEDs.

and fascination with light art (including the

20

In fact, he is interested

corporeally

in achieving the lowest in these works, the

artist’s own) into a singular and enigmatic

minimum threshold at which the viewer can

point of illumination-or non-illumination,

discern moving shadows as figurative elements.

depending on how the viewer perceives it.22

This perceptual reflex is hardwired into our

The following artworks may be no less sensory

eyes and brains, which have evolved to see

or sculptural than those in the preceding

objects in motion more easily than when they

sections, but it is their foregrounding of

are at rest. As a kind of sculptural film,

a specific subject matter that shapes our

Campbell’s work draws upon an instinctual

encounter with them.

trait, but it does so using advanced light

technology.

outdoor light, Paris—based artist Philippe

Similarly quoting a specific form of

Parreno’s light marquees preside over gallery

LIGHT REFERENCES

doorways, importing a theatrical glitz and

As much as the artworks included in From the

Las Vegas-style kitsch into otherwise serious

Dark use light as a sculptural medium, light

locations. These flashing marquees can lead

is also a medium in the sense that it carries

on to more modest artworks, by Parreno or

information.

by other artists, drawing attention to the

21

It is a medium to which specific

cultural meanings and connotations attach,

threshold itself as theatrical passageway.

through direct or metaphorical references

The entertainment industry aesthetic of

to specific kinds of light. Rather than

Parreno’s marquee is shared by Chilean—born

explore the aesthetic (one is tempted to say

artist Ivan Navarro’s Reality Show (Silver)

20 Like Villareal, Campbell engineers and programmes his own LED circuits.

21 This quality is most obvious in lit signage and the artworks that take on these forms, particularly since Jsoeph Kosuth’s early neon works.

22 Although the visual pun in only one aspect of Culbert’s broader practice involving light as a medium and thematic.

040

FROM

THE

DARK

(2010), a ‘phone box’ cabinet that the viewer

refer to celestial light and its associat-

is meant to enter. From the inside, one-way

ed sciences. Many of Shawcross’ light works,

mirrors and lights induce a feeling of vertigo

which take the shape of large spinning, twist-

through illusions of height and depth; from

ing and rotating machines, refer to cosmolo-

the outside, spectators gain a voyeuristic

gy, quantum mechanics and harmonic ratios. For

view of the person experiencing the dizzying

him, a moving light point expanding out from

effects within.

an origin is a metaphor for the Big Bang or a

moving star; its movement ‘can be a very obvi-

For Navarro, the combination of light

and one-way mirrors in Reality Show became the

ous structural and visual metaphor to describe

basis for a series of lightboxes that create

time’.24 In the Slow Arc Inside a Cube series

the illusion of space using light. These

the speed at which the light moves is also

wall-mounted works quote the architectural

critical: it has a ‘sinusoidal profile’—ac-

footprints of skyscrapers such as the Empire

celerating toward the centre and decelerating

State Building and the Jumeirah Emirates

as it moves outward—giving it the appearance

Towers. Burden (Lotte World Tower) (2011)

of being subject to gravity, like an orbiting

appears to retreat infinitely, recasting

planetary body.

the building’s towering height as receding

distance. Unlike Parreno’s thresholds or

cage surrounds a smaller, moving light source,

the environmental installations discussed

casting a perspectival shadow on the gallery

above, Navarro’s tunnels of light are

walls that tilts and veers in proportion to

virtual spaces that can be perceived but not

the movements of the mechanical arm. This se-

entered. Further, onto the rear mirror of the

ries was developed during the artist’s res-

lightboxes, Navarro inscribes words such as

idency at the Science Museum, London, during

‘BURDEN’, ‘ABANDON’ or ‘DECAY’, eroding the

which time he became inspired by Dorothy Hod-

seemingly utopian aspects of these works and

gkin’s use of crystal radiography to indirect-

‘dirtying the purity of industrial forms’,

ly reveal the molecular structure of insulin.

to borrow the artist’s description.23 Though

The shadows cast by the light source represent

not readymades, Navarro’s works sit alongside

the methods of inference and indirect obser-

Batchelor’s in their examination of objects

vation increasingly used in science to work

produced by a culture of late capitalism.

beyond visibility, at both submicroscopic and

cosmic extremes.25 Slow Arc is a poetic and vi-

Far from the manufactured urban light

In Slow Arc inside a Cube IV (2009) a

referenced by Parreno and Navarro, the prac-

sually elegant form for representing aspects of

tices of British artist Conrad Shawcross and

complex scientific discoveries and theories.

Scottish artist Katie Paterson frequently

23 Justo Pastor Mellado and Ivån Navarro, ‘Politics of Provision’ in Ivån Navarro: Threshold, 53rd Venice Biennale, Chilean Pavilion.

24 The gearing ratios of these machines define the paths that their lights trace out as harmonic tori, which can be seen in long-exposure photography of the works.

25 The works in the Slow Arc series also refer to Plato, through the use of simplified geometric structures and the shaping of perception using shadows.

26 The number of bulbs is based on the average life of an incandescent bulb as 2,000 hours and The bulbs were specially manufactured with OSRAM.

041

Similarly research-based and equally

FROM

THE

DARK

poignant, Katie Paterson’s work Light bulb to

forms a visible part of the artwork. The me-

Simulate Moonlight (2008) involves specially

dium of light proves to be slightly deceptive

engineered incandescent bulbs that emit light

in Flayer’s work, disrupting expectations and

of the same colour, temperature and intensity

performing a kind of logical short-circuit that

as moonlight. A single, lit bulb is suspended

seems rather appropriate to its electrical source.

in a dark room, appearing to glow bluer and

almost clearer than a normal bulb. It is

et Lumieré (Le rayon vert) (1990) by Fischli

indeed rare in effect, since almost all com-

and Weiss is a small sculpture layered in

mercial bulbs are designed to mimic some form

illuminated meaning. The work’s title refers

of daylight. Paterson’s minimalistic display

to the popular outdoor light and music or

is given further resonance by the fact that

sound shows that take place at night at

each edition of the work contains 289 bulbs-

historical or monumental locations;

an average lifetime’s worth of moonlight.26

extravaganzas are a far cry from the artists’

The work literally and metaphorically measures

rather modest display of a vintage comping

out life in moonlight. Like many of Paterson’s

light shining through a tumbling plastic

works that engage with geology, meteorology

cup on a turntable. This sculpture’s special

and astronomy, Light bulb to Simulate Moon-

effects show is the small patterns cast on

light humanists global or cosmic scientific

the wall and the repetitious ‘clunk’ of the

concepts.

plastic cup at it rounds each rotation. The

work’s secondary title refits to an even

Taking a lighter attitude, British art-

Equally literal in presentation, Son

such

ist Ceal Floyer plays with the conventions of

grander light phenomenon: the green ray, a

light as a medium, upending our expectations

very rare flash of colored light obsessed

of how light inhabits our daily lives. Light

through an extremely clear atmosphere when the

has been the subject of frequent address in

sun dips below the horizon. Ciphered through

Flayer’s conceptual practice, which turns on a

both Jules Verne’s book The Green Ray (1882)

series of self­reflexive conceits and linguis-

and Eric Rohmer’s 1986 film of the same name,

tic puns. An early work, Throw (1997) consists

the work takes the concept as a romantic

of a theatre spotlight projecting an image

metaphor for longing and aspiration. Son et

of a splat onto the floor; the title refers

Lumieré parodically miniaturizes the hope that

both to the casting down of an image and also

its viewer might just catch a glimmer of green

the violent action required to make such a

on the gallery wall.

splodge. Though based upon a light effect, her work is not illusionistic, embodying instead a matter­ -of-factness, since the apparatus

042

FROM

THE

ON AND OFF ART

the fact that artists are able to bend light in different directions, not only aesthetic

As a relatively new medium, and one inter-

and perceptual, but also thematic and topical.

twined with the continuing history of in-

Perhaps less explicitly, artists have also

vention, artificial light brings with it

turned to light for its potential to have a

transient and material­based concerns. While

bearing on mood and emotion, to create wonder

some artists like Campbell and Villareal

and a sense of awe.

utilise cutting-edge materials, others like Wyn Evans, Culbert and Paterson look back to outmoded and increasingly obsolescent forms of illumination. In late 2012, the European Union directive banning the sale of incandescent bulbs came into force, forever changing how we regard these objects, both culturally and artistically. Like analogue photographs or 16mm films, the historical resonances evoked by artworks that use ‘old-fashioned’ light bulbs are significantly amplified. While the replacement technologies exemplify the cultural tendency to work increasingly quickly, toward the speed of light, artworks exploring this immaterial material most often resist this pace, giving us time to slow down and consider its nature and effects.

DARK

As we have seen, since the 1960s art-

work using light as a sculptural medium has generally emphasized the experiential nature of viewing and drawn particular attention to the nature of perception. These works have and continue to contribute significantly to the field of sculpture, not only facilitating the transition from object to environment, but also expanding upon its spatial and visual potentiality. The vast amount of ground covered by the artworks using light is a testament to

043

SECTION TWO Keith Lemley Dan Flavin Franรงois Morellet James Turrell Ivรกn Navarro Leo Villareal

KEITH LEMLEY Always interested in scientific research connecting disparate parts of the universe through underlying geometry, Lemley has become known for large-scale, angular neon installations that unify spaces through light, color, and line. More captivating than the actual geometric theories is the process of experimentation and discovery shared by scientists and artists alike. Lemley is intrigued by the next set of questions each installation poses and the challenge of uniting materials, light, and architecture within each exhibition. Approximately six years ago, a large Chestnut Oak tree fell on a ridge near Lemley’s studio in rural Appalachia. The trees in that area can be traced back to the early 19th century in spite of scarce nutrients and strong winds on the cliff. Lemley walked past this fallen tree nearly every day. Eventually, he began to carve the wood, exposing nearly two centuries of history. The shapes of the sculptures come from the knots, limbs, defects, and idiosyncrasies in the tree’s growth. Lemley works to reveal the underlying geometry in this natural material; he sees the cuts as a collaboration with the tree, uncovering an order and a narrative that was already there. Neon tubes act as extensions of the wooden, gem-like forms. The lines of light become drawings in three-dimensional space, exaggerating shapes, drawing attention to characteristics of the wood, and imagining what could have been if the tree continued to grow and expand. The neon is a counterpoint to the wood formally, materially, and conceptually. Although the neon is light itself, it becomes a ghost of the carved wood.

Together, the heavy wooden forms and the delicate, yet powerful, neon create an immersive installation for viewers, recreating the wonder Lemley feels when reading about a new scientific discovery or taking a walk through the woods.

048

Keith Lemley, Arboreal, 2015

049

050

Keith Lemley, The Wood, 2011

051

Keith Lemley, Something and Nothing, 2007

052

Keith Lemley, Super Blue, 2011

054

Keith Lemley, Golden Glow, 2012

055

056

Keith Lemley, Luma, 2010

057

Keith Lemley, Dreams of an Ideal, 2012

058

Keith Lemley, Supra Force, 2015

DAN FLAVIN Dan Flavin was an American artist and pioneer of Minimalism, best known for his seminal installations of light fixtures. His illuminated sculptures offer a rigorous formal and conceptual investigation of space and light, wherein the artist arranged commercial fluorescent bulbs into differing geometric compositions. Born on April 1, 1933 in Jamaica, NY, Flavin showed an interest in art during his early adulthood, and went on to study at the Hans Hofmann School of Fine Arts before attending Columbia University. Working exclusively with florescence by 1961, he embraced the temporary nature of his art—which often shattered or blew out—and was happy to replace parts of his works as needed. His dedication to simple forms, use of industrial materials, and symbolic meaning had a profound impact on the Minimalist generation of artists, notably including Donald Judd and Sol LeWitt. Flavin was the subject of a major retrospective at the Guggenheim Museum in New York in 1992, and a prominent collection of his work is preserved at the Dia Art Foundation in upstate New York. Flavin died in Riverhead, NY on November 29, 1996. Using inexpensive, standard-sized fluorescent lamps, fixtures and wiring, Dan Flavin fills large rooms with tremendous energy. Some of the 50 objects and installations on view at the Museum of Contemporary Art’s current retrospective are unbearably intense, some are seductive, and some are antagonistic. Radical in conception and execution, the light pieces hover between sculpture and drawing. Indeed, in many cases Flavin thinks like a draftsman -- its just that his lines are not marks, but three-dimensional shapes in space that radiate light and color; they exist only so long as his characteristic fluorescent lamps function and receive electric power. These lines are most effective when they have an entire space to command and can stake their claim to it by their reflections on the floor, walls and ceiling.

060

061

062

Dan Flavin, Untitled (In Honor of Harold Joachim), 1977

063

Dan Flavin, Untitled (to Janie Lee), 1971

064

Dan Flavin, (in memory of Sandy Calder)V, 1977

066

Dan Flavin, untitled (to Barnett Newman) two, 1971

067

Dan Flavin, untitled (to Piet Mondrain), 1985

Dan Flavin, untitled (To Barry, Mike, Chuck and Leonard), 1975

070

Dan Flavin, untitled (to dear, durable Sol from Stephen, Sonja and Dan), 1969

071

Dan Flavin, "monument" 7 for V. Tatlin, 1964

FRAÇOIS MORELLET François Morellet, is widely recognised as a key representative of the Concrete Art movement. Morellet began making art in the mid 1940s; self-taught, his early paintings depicted realist still-life subjects. However, in the 1950s Morellet became heavily influenced by the Neo-Plasticism and Concrete-Constructivist group, in particular the works of Piet Mondrian and Max Bill, whose abstract and geometric principles influenced the way in which Morellet saw the picture field as an infinite structure reaching beyond the confines of the picture itself. In the 1960’s Morellet co-founded the Groupe de Recherche d’Art Visuelle (GRAV) with Le Parc, Sobrino, Yvaral and others; an experimental group, focusing on the creation of installations using non-traditional art materials. Working in an anonymous way, Morellet reduced the role of the artist’s sensibility to a minimum—a distinct shift away from the egoism associated with Art Informel and Abstract Expressionist painters of this time. It was around this time that Morellet began working with neon.

Morellet said of this time, ‘We were passionate about modern materials that hadn’t yet been ‘polluted’ by traditional art.’ As well as optics and movement, Morellet was interested in using systems which combine logic and chance, juxtaposition, overlapping, interferences and fragmentation. It was this exploration into the kinetic perception which brought Morellet’s work critical acclaim, using systematic patterns, lattices and grids, his work created vibrant optical effects. Works such as SphèreTrame (1962), created using intersecting steel rods created a dynamic multi-perspective work which challenged the relationship between perception and environment. Morellet worked with mathematics, rules and constraints to establish guides for the creation of these works, but allowed chance to play in his compositions, as with the colour dissemination of his Random Distribution screenprints of 1960.

074

François Morellet, 4 à 4 n°7, 2007 Enfilade n°2, 2013

075

François Morellet, 2+4 angles droits n°3, 2012 Diagonales hors cadre n° 1, 2011

076

Franรงois Morellet, Grandes Ondes, 2013

077

François Morellet, Pi Weeping Neonly n°3, 2003

078

François Morellet, NÉONS 3D: 20°-90°-45°, 2014

079

Franรงois Morellet, Lamentable, 2015

080

Franรงois Morellet, Triple X Neonly, 2012

081

François Morellet, 2 frames dashes 0° -90°, 1971

082

Franรงois Morellet, L'Avalanche, 1996

083

FRANÇOIS MORELLET: ‘ART IS FRIVOLOUS EVEN WHEN IT TAKES ITSELF SERIOUSLY’ ANGERIA RIGAMONTI DI CUTÒ

Angeria Rigamonti di Cutò:

François Morellet:

Rigamonti di Cutò:

Morellet:

Rigamonti di Cutò:

Morellet:

Your father was an industrialist, but yours was a household that was very receptive to different kinds of artistic forms. Many artists encounter opposition from their parents but this doesn’t seem to have been the case with you?

My father, Charles Morellet, despite his career as a high-ranking civil servant (he was a prefect) and, later, an industrialist, felt a great affinity with artists, writers, musicians and painters and liked being permanently surrounded by them. A self-published author and a virtuoso of language and humour, my father overestimated the status of artists and the prestige of celebrity, something that certainly influenced me and led me to take this path.

You yourself were an industrialist for around 30 years. How did you experience this double identity of artist (if you accept the term) and industrialist?

In an orthodox vision, the two roles might seem oppositional, though I suspect this might not be the case for you?

I would say that this double life was a piece of luck that allowed me to develop with complete freedom, away from art schools and professors whom I always detested. It also gave me financial independence that allowed me to produce and keep a large number of works until I was 50 when I was finally able to begin living on my art alone.

Your largely autodidactic formation saw you educate yourself not at the institutions of high art, of which France was a centre par excellence, but rather at the Musée de l’Homme. This roused your interest in Oceanic tapa paintings, and you also were affected by the abstract forms of Islamic art you saw in Granada. What did these other art forms give you–was it their all-over geometric abstraction?

Yes, my aversion for school and teachers put me off everything that was traditionally taught, including a visit to the Louvre with my class at the Lycée Charlemagne. The Musée de l’Homme was deserted, exhibiting what at the time was considered “minor” or folk art. In 1950, the Alhambra too was underestimated and little-frequented. The repetitive patterns of Oceanic tapas 084

and the positive/negative forms and all-over, geometric, linear interlacing of Islamic art were truly an emotional shock, a kind of “revelation”.

Rigamonti di Cutò:

Morellet:

Rigamonti di Cutò:

Morellet:

Rigamonti di Cutò:

Morellet:

Rigamonti di Cutò:

You went to Brazil for an extended period at the outbreak of the Korean war.

There you had an important encounter with Almir Mavignier, who introduced you, via reproductions, to Max Bill. It’s interesting that you were introduced to aspects of European modernism through a South American filter – though presumably you were already aware of van Doesburg and Mondrian. What was the impact of Brazil on your development?

In actual fact, my stays in Brazil only amounted to a month and a half in 1950 and two months in 1951. Although I adored the country, particularly the joie de vivre and nonchalance of Brazilian men and women, it was above all my friendship with Almir Mavignier that was decisive, thanks to the friendly network of European artists he rapidly developed after emigrating to France and later to Germany. Amongst these were Ellsworth Kelly in Paris, Max Bill, director of the celebrated Ulm School of Design, as well as Josef Albers who taught there.

Since I was stuck in Cholet because of my profession, the encounters and friendships I was lucky enough to experience in the 50s thanks to Mavignier encouraged me in my choices and in the direction of my work. I remember my amazement on suddenly being awarded the Will Grohmann Prize in Berlin, something that had been secretly orchestrated by Bill. I can still hear the great voice of [Richard] Lohse, saying to me with rolled Rs: “Morellet, stay hard!”

It’s a commonplace that many artists of the New Tendenciesrejected the “expressive” lyrical abstraction of the 50s. You recount an amusing recurring nightmare you had in the 50s, at the height of Action Painting and Art Informel, in which, to your horror, you would produce picture after picture “swimming in the syrup of Informel”. What repulsed you so much about that kind of art?

Apart from the (in)formal aspect of lyrical abstraction, the star artists of this hegemonic movement of postwar Paris represented, as far as I was concerned, the acme of the mystification of the status of the artist: inspired, a genius who was a medium for a great beyond, a creator of “lived” works. In other words, everything that made me break out in hives at that time.

Even as a small boy, I was allergic to school and teachers, so in those postwar years you can imagine the repulsive effect of this “Ecole de Paris” on a young, 20-year-old artist who was as ambitious and impatient as I was.

Part of your activity as a founder of GRAV was the organisation of the Journées dans la rue [Street days], designed to engage the active participation of the spectator, one of the central tenets of the group. You’ve said that this audience engagement was pushed very far. A charming programme of one of these happenings gives a flavour of their playful quality, but can you elaborate on how passersby responded, as the nature of these ephemeral events is much harder to preserve than a concrete artwork? Who exactly were these spectators?

The spectators of these Journées dans la rue reacted like anyone else who happened to be passing by. Those in a hurry would rush by with indifference, others would stop for a few moments, taken aback by this circus, while a minority would take the time to play with our ridiculous bricolages. In any case, it was an opportunity for a good laugh.

GRAV put an end to these happenings in May 1968 when you met with the 085

competition of the May Events. Did the kind of neo-Dada works you were staging seem frivolous in comparison with general strikes, factory and university occupations, and rioting? Or were there connections?

Morellet:

Rigamonti di Cutò:

Morellet:

Rigamonti di Cutò:

Morellet:

Rigamonti di Cutò:

My personal point of view is that art is frivolous even when it takes itself seriously and that May 68 was more like a great celebratory happening than the October 1917 revolution in Russia.

You insist on humour as an important, perhaps even didactic, value—you’ve been called a “rigorous joker” [rigoureux rigolard] and were interested in figures such as Duchamp and Picabia, for whom an almost schoolboyish irreverence was crucial. But it seems hard to accommodate genuine humour in the false high seriousness of the art world. If anything, the provocative gestures of figures such as Duchamp and Manzoni seemed to have generated ever more pretentious criticism. Why do you think this is?

My parents were quite sociable, their company and their dinner table much appreciated. One day, a Swiss-German guest slowly declaimed: “Monsieur Morellet, how I admire you! The effort you put into being humorous for your guests.”

As was the case for my father, being serious requires a lot of effort for me, even if, as my longstanding German gallery reminded me: “With the prices your works fetch, you should be more arrogant.” I’m obviously aware of the fact that my taste for the absurd is detrimental to my being taken seriously in the art world, or the world in general, but my doctors advise me to avoid any strain.

You also seem very interested in language, having incorporated homophonic puns, palindromes and other wordplay in the works themselves or their titles. Some of these, such as Free Vol, are even translinguistic, like Charles Aznavour’s song For me Formidable. But you have also produced many texts on your work, collected in your wonderfully titled anthology, Mais comment taire mes commentaires, and you covered an early work, Sculpture à lire, in text. What appeals to you about language? Is it the fact that it’s system based—I think the self-imposed constraints of Oulipo interested you—or do you simply like the fact that you can use it to make jokes?

I was a keen reader of Raymond Queneau and Georges Perec, I still have the first edition ofQueneau’s Hundred Thousand Billion Poems in which each verse is printed on a strip of paper that is interchangeable in as many combinations as the title states. Perec’s 300-page novel without the letter ‘e’, A Void, together with Les Revenentes, written with no other vowel but ‘e’, and his palindrome, a world record of 1,247 words, are feats of staggering literary prowess as far as I’m concerned.

My demanding work as a provincial industrialist unfortunately ruled out interesting encounters, bearing in mind that one of the characters of Perec’s last book, Life: A User’s Manual, is called Morellet. If I were a dictator, I would pass a law banning all uses of language other than for the purpose of making jokes.

You often engage with old master painting and its institutions, for example in your d’Après and Défigurationsseries, in which you respond to works by artists such as Delacroix, de la Tour, Poussin and Watteau. You even produced a response to Monet’s Cathedrals using neon and designed stained-glass windows in your L’esprit d’escalier permanent installation in one of the “holiest” of artistic institutions, the Louvre. In these cases you’re both spectator and producer: what do these works or settings give you and how does their “aura” fit in with your systematic, rational way of producing art?

086

Morellet:

Rigamonti di Cutò:

Morellet:

Rigamonti di Cutò:

Morellet:

In my fight against subjective decisions, I’ve often used an effective technique, which is to create works with other artists such as the members of GRAV and, amongst others, Spoerri, Lavier, Verjux, Dietman, Armleder, de Vries, Yoko Ono … But also dialogues that are either disrespectful or complicit with masterpieces chosen from the museum collection where I’m invited to exhibit. My 140 Architectural Disintegrations follows the same principle, a confrontation between my systems and architecture. My lines break the architecture, the architecture breaks my lines—it’s a fair fight. Otherwise, I’ve always tried to combat the overestimation, sacralisation, pretention, esotericism, transcendence and high seriousness of certain artists and sites.

So it’s with a celebratory detachment that I watch my systems connect, often foolishly, with a space, an architecture, or a masterpiece.

You’ve always sought to reduce subjectivity, gesture and choice in your work, preferring to use systems that minimise these, for example juxtaposition, interference, randomisation and destabilisation. One work reproduced odd and even numbers “randomly” selected from your local telephone directory. But these systems are conceived by you, and involve a series of choices, whether it’s which phone directory to use or how many numbers to include. Ultimately, your intervention and even your personality can’t be eradicated from your works, particularly in view of the fact that you’ve managed to renew similar series of elements over such a long period of time? Even geometry can have a magical, enigmatic quality, for all its apparent rationality.

Only Duchamp pushed to an extreme the separation between the artist and his work, with his final work reduced to a sole subjective decision, which was not to produce anything any more. For the past 60 years I’ve produced useless objects, characterised by the absence of any interest in composition or execution, using simple systems and often appealing to chance. If, despite that, you see an enigmatic or magical aspect, it is probably the case that my discourse is not sufficiently clear or, more likely, that you are part of that category of brilliant spectators who, in order to unpack their poetic-philosophical picnic, need empty place settings prepared for that purpose.

Your essay Du spectateur au spectateur ou l’art de déballer son pique-nique [From spectator to spectator or the art of unpacking a picnic] humorously but accurately identifies some of the necessary prerequisites for art, at least according to official accounts: seriousness, repetition, deathand age, factors that can transform the slightest thing into art. At the same time, you scorn the attitude adopted by certain artists that normal activities from other spheres of life, when adopted by artists, become, in their view “special”, or art. Do you reject the idea that there is some special category of object, activity or space that doesn’t belong to any other category and that therefore can only be defined as art?

Yes, I reject this idea and I note, year after year, with the offerings of new generations of artists, that the expansion of the domain set aside for art pushes its own limits further and further away.

087

JAMES TURRELL In the 1960s, by manipulating light rather than paint or sculptural material, James Turrell introduced an art that was not an object but an experience in perception. It examined the very nature of seeing. Over the next half century, Turrell has become known not only for his light projections and installations but especially for his continued work for more than three decades on his Roden Crater project—the conversion of a natural volcanic crater on the edge of the Painted Desert in northern Arizona into one of the most ambitious artworks ever envisioned by a single artist. Part of what makes Turrell’s work so salient is that, on a basic level, he’s playing with the science of how we perceive the world, using his knowledge of our retinal structure and visual system to upend what we think “seeing” really means. Since his days as an undergraduate psychology major, he’s been carefully exploring and manipulating the ways people’s eyes and brains process light and space, reminding us that at a fundamental level, everything we see is illusion. His work draws on a background of psychology and mathematics that’s somewhat unusual in the art world. “[M]ore than most artists he considers the boundaries between science and art,” as Guggenheim co-curator Nat Trotman writes in his exhibit’s catalog. Turrell studied perceptual psychology at Pomona College in the 1960s, and later, in pursuit of a master’s degree in art, started experimenting with how beams of light can transform depth perception, appearing to occupy three-dimensional space in a room. He fascinated with what he calls the “thingness” of light, the idea that light isn’t just a way to illuminate objects, but an object itself. Early in his career, he also began to play with what’s known as the Ganzfeld effect, (“whole field” in German), a disorienting perceptual experiment that consists of filling the entire field of vision with a solid, undifferentiated color.

090

James Turrell, Light Inside, 1996

091

092

James Turrell, Skyspace Twilight Epiphany, 2012

093

James Turrell, Raemar pink white, from the series Shallow Spaces, 1969 Rondo (Blue), 1969

094

James Turrell, Aurora B: Tall Glass, 2010

095

James Turrell, Spinther, 2007

096

James Turrell, End Around: Ganzfeld, 2006

097

098

James Turrell, Ondo (Pink), 1968

099

James Turrell, Juke Green, 1968

INTO THE LIGHT, A CONVERSATION WITH JAMES TURRELL ELAINE A. KING

Elaine A. King:

I read that you are a Quaker. Has religion played a role in shaping your work?

James Turrell:

I was raised a Quaker, and now I have come back to being active. I’m not sure whether that has impacted my art-making, because my work is not about specific issues—perhaps being a Quaker influences how I live my life and what I value. People tend to relate any work in light to the spiritual. I don’t think this is actually correct, yet, in terms of our lives, we greet light in three major ways that aren’t necessarily partitioned. There is a psychological aspect, a physical aspect, and a spiritual aspect. In terms of the physical, we drink light as Vitamin D, so it’s literally a food that has a major effect on our well-being. The strong psychological effects of light can readily be felt in particular spaces. One can feel this in Gasworks—it expresses the powerful quality of light. In terms of the spiritual, there are very few religious or spiritual experiences that people don’t use the vocabulary of light to describe.

King:

Your work also focuses on an architectural relationship between perception and space

Turrell:

I’m interested in delving into and exploring the architecture of space created by light. Mostly we have dealt with space by displacement or massing of form. While there is an architectural vocabulary referring to the space between, this has rarely been enlivened—it’s more rhetorical than actual. The art that I make covers this ground between form and actually forming space using light. For example, when the sun is shining, we see atmosphere—we can’t see through the atmosphere to see the stars that are there. The same applies if you are on a stage with footlights and stage lighting—you can’t see the audience. However, if you step in front of the footlights, the audience is revealed. The space is architecturally the same, but the location of the light actually changes the penetration of vision such that some people see each other and others cannot. It is a structured space without a massing of form. This quality of working the space in between so that it limits or expands the penetration of vision is something that intensely fascinates me.

It means that the containing form has to be made somewhat neutral. What you’re looking at is that in-between zone, not formed or made by the massing of material. This has a lot of ties to architecture, but not the sort 100

of architecture that we use to build everyday structures. It certainly isn’t how we light our buildings. Architects make a form and then they stick the lights in.

King:

What criteria determine the structural configuration in relation to the selected hue or tone?

Turrell:

That actually has changed over the years. I make this work for an idealized viewer. You might say that’s me. The idealized viewer has changed and matured. He has become more circumspect. Color has to do with the kind of work I’m doing—whether I want opacity or translucency or transparency.

How I want it to penetrate or to be stopped. The milky colors of a Japanese kimono are very subtle; in contrast, Korean culture evinces a brilliance of color with very deep saturation. I work between those two approaches—each has enlightened me. It’s very different in light than with physical material; the first and most important thing one needs to do is to throw away the color wheel, because it provides misinformation. If you’re going to work with light, you need to learn the spectrum. We’re making an immense mistake by moving the color wheel into the computer. If you mix blue and yellow with the earth, which makes pigment and reflects color, you’re going to get something near green. But if you mix blue and yellow with light you’ll get white, which surprises most people. We really need to look at the spectrum and have a different way of thinking about light. In general, we’re a surface culture and tend to look at and speak about reflected light because of our tradition of painting.

King: How did you begin to use light as a medium?

Turrell:

The history of art is a history of looking at light. Perhaps being American, I was interested in a less vicarious form that actually used light itself. I started out by dealing with a picture plane and the traditional presentation of light in painting. I can remember Malevich talking about how the paint was on the surface like the thinnest of membranes. If you put light on the surface, it’s even thinner. But plastically, it’s very effective in terms of the space it creates in front of it or beyond it. That was really a way to look at a more direct perception: rather than being something that’s about light, it is light. The light is actually turned and directed right to your eyes. The light inside that space is invasive and penetrating. This direct experience of light is the difference between watching football and playing it. I think that we’re an active culture in that respect, and so it was an easy step for me.

King: Have your experiences as a pilot inspired your general fascination with light?

Turrell:

Yes, absolutely. The flight experiences were memorable and influential. When you actually get down to the practical, how to do it, you have to see how light works in space. When you are flying you get acute insights into how light functions.

King: Do you think that the infinite horizons of sky contribute to your need to work on a larger scale?

Turrell:

A lot has to do with where light is and where it isn’t. The way I work with light requires space. This was the biggest difference in approach between East Coast and West Coast artists’ attitudes in the 1970s. I make work that luxuriates in space, and it takes up a lot of space.

I need room because of how light works in a space. Close-up inspection with light is very difficult—it becomes more of an object light. My work has more to do with “thingness” than most things do. That is, my work 101

questions what it takes to make a thing, whereas others don’t attempt to raise the issue. That’s the most sculptural way it is. Basically, I don’t think I work with sculpture because it feels to me to be coming out of a painter’s eye in three dimensions. So, in terms of questioning what is something that is, what makes this object quality, I deal with that issue, whereas most artists just assume it. They have a thing, and they make a thing. They are making a thing out of something. I’m making something out of a thing we don’t normally attribute thingness to.

King: Turrell:

King:

Turrell:

King:

Turrell:

You make something from nothing—an illusion?

Yes; however, I don’t think it’s all that illusory. Although light exhibits wave phenomena, nevertheless it is a thing—it is optical material. But we don’t treat it as such. Instead we use it very casually to illuminate other things. I’m interested in the revelation of light itself and that it has thingness. It alludes to what it is, which is not exactly illusion.

I’ll give you an example. We tend to think the sun rises. In fact, the earth is actually sinking or spinning down the other way. You probably have been in a train when the train next to you moves, and you feel like you’re moving, but you’re not. It just appears that way. At Roden Crater, I have one space where I remove all reference to level, so your only frame of reference is the stars in a circular opening. Actually it’s elliptical but you see it as circular. That’s your frame of reference, so the strange thing is that you feel yourself tilting in reference to the stars. You can say this is an illusion, but that’s actually what’s happening. To get that sensation you have to have a different quality of light in there. In that way, they’re not illusions, because that’s actually reality.

In 1966 you leased the Mendota Hotel in Ocean Park. For two years you sealed up its rooms, painted out the windows, closed off its doors. This pivotal work became known as the Mendota Stoppages.

That is where I made the first series of projection works. When you seal up a space, it can get a little stuffy, and if you open anything, light will come into this perfectly bare room in a very strong and amazing way. I then began to open up the space, particularly at night, to different areas of light.

All forms of light were available—the path of the moon, cars, street lights, and shop lights. I made a series of spaces where I could change the space by virtue of how I let in light. I literally made a whole new space out of the same physical space, which remained the same, although that’s not what you encountered perceptually. The example I like to give is the experience of sound when you are wearing good earphones or have a good stereo system. You find yourself in a music space that’s larger than the physical space you’re in. It’s the same when you’re reading: you become so engrossed in the book that you’re more in the space generated by the author than you are in the physical space where you are sitting. This extension to so-called “real” space is the space that we operate in all the time. Just look next to you at the stoplight and see that kid rocking back and forth with the music on. Is he in the same space you are? I don’t think so. This extension to the physical, awake state, a kind of daydream space that we superimpose on it, is the space that we should really discuss, because it’s actually the space of our reality. The arts, without a doubt, extend these spaces, whether it’s in literature or in music or visual art.

Were the experiments at the Mendota Hotel the beginning of your journey into researching light?

The beginning of my lifetime investigation of light began in those Mendota spaces, but more specifically with the Projection Series. It was the ability 102

to change the space itself by how light enters from the outside that began to extend my ideas and art practice. It also spread into its space-making abilities in terms of seeing the physical confines as having little to do with the space that you could involve and activate. The more architecture begins to do this—and there are a lot of ways to activate that, not just with light—the more it will extend our being. Right now, architecture is caught up in fashionable signature structures.

King: Several site artists from the time you began working, including Robert Irwin, Michael Heizer, and Robert Smithson, felt that science and technology propelled them to look beyond the earth.

Turrell:

In the late ’60s, I became interested in James J. Gibson’s idea of ecological psychology. Learning to work with this material, light, to affect the medium of perception was something that I had to get used to. My technology is extremely simple. My work might inform a scientist about art, but it doesn’t in any way raise notions of science or technology.

Light is something that I had to learn how to mold and form, because it isn’t formed with the hand like clay or hot wax. It’s more like sound. You make instruments to create what you want. I learned to do that by trial and error. I used a big projector and at first, it was really hard to form and control light. Gradually, I began to understand light as a substance that I could shape. I could see the evolution in the work. However, neither science nor technology actually influenced how I learned to work this material. The late ’60s and early ’70s were a contradictory time. On one hand, we were going to the moon, and anything was possible. On the other hand, despite technological advancements and euphoric attitudes, we were conducting a war in Vietnam and my generation was up in protest.

Also, artists were zealously idealistic in thinking that people were going to buy and collect ephemeral work. There were a lot of losses along the way for artists who had amazing and wonderful talent but nowhere to actualize their ideas.

King: What expectations do you have of the viewer?

Turrell:

I don’t have great hopes for the viewer. As I said before, I’m dealing with an idealized viewer. If you come up to that, fine. If you don’t, that’s your business not mine. Many people seek to like what they’re going to see—this is a terrible misunderstanding between artists and viewers. In no way do most artists I know seek to affirm the public’s taste. If anything, we try to push the envelope—change it, mold it, and hopefully destroy it. I don’t think you should have any other expectations than you do when you go to a movie—you go because you are interested. Think about this: we go to the doctor’s office and an hour or so later we’re still reading two-year-old magazines. Despite the wasted time and the fact that it’s going to cost you, you still patiently wait and at the appropriate time remove your clothes, lean back, and completely submit. We submit in a lot of places in our lives. If you can’t submit to art, to hell with you. You don’t have to do this, and if you don’t want to do it, don’t even ask me or bother me—I’m really not concerned. I feel that my art is genuinely benign; however, I have had problems and lawsuits. Placing work in public is risky, but artists have to do it.

King: Why were you sued?

Turrell:

Someone fell to the ground in a piece at the Whitney Museum—because of the perceptual effects. It’s written up in Art Law, and it is a very interesting case. The woman who fell happened to be the wife of the Oregon Supreme Court Chief Justice. Her testimony is literally this: “There was this wall, actually it was a receding wall, I leaned against it, and it wasn’t there.” I 103

have to say that these things do have a feeling of materiality and solidity, but it still looks like light to me. They possess a quality that accords materiality to light, but I don’t think it substitutes for some opaque solid surface. I can come up with this different viewpoint partly because I don’t function in the same situation as the general public—I am the maker not the observer. This is essentially a problem shared by all people in art. There are other situations in which the actual physicality of art, whether it’s a work by Richard Serra or monumental construction by Mark di Suvero that moves, can actually injure someone. However, my work is just light and space. I think that people really ought to stand up to contemporary art. If they can’t stand up to contemporary art, what can they stand up to?

King: What convinced you to purchase Roden Crater?

Turrell: I saw it as an occasion to embark on the kind of work that I always wanted to do; its expansive site posed numberless opportunities to experiment with light and perception. I decided on it in 1976 but couldn’t buy it until 1979, when I bought an option to buy and then sought the funding. The Dia Foundation purchased it. When Dia failed for awhile, they returned the crater to me. I had to get financing for the surrounding ranch land. However, one can’t get a loan in Arizona on vacant land. So I got a loan as a cattle rancher. Curiously, I used agriculture to fund art. The Skyspace Foundation was founded so I could accept the crater portion from Dia. Now Skyspace owns the crater.

King: The crater is an extraordinary place. Its extinct cinder cone appears to be dead, yet you’ve brought new life and meaning to this barren and quiet spot.

How long do you think a viewer will need to spend at Roden Crater in order to experience it beyond a superficial spectacle level?

Turrell: The main thing is to make a journey, so that you actually go to something purposely and have time to settle down and empty out the noise and distractions of daily life. Often we can shift gears more quickly in places such as a church or a library—perhaps because they are designated places of silence and reflection. Most people by the time they arrive at the crater are pretty well set up for it. It would be wonderful if visitors could spend at least 24 hours, but it would be better to stay longer.

King: When I was sitting in Skyspace I wondered why the very intense yellow light was chosen to illuminate the interior in contrast to the open sky.

Turrell: It is normal tungsten light that we’ve used in our houses for years. It was chosen in relation to the quality of blueness in the sky. There are different interior light choices in each of the pieces, but mainly we have the light on all the time, and you don’t notice it much during the day. But then as the light changes outside, the light inside affects the scene through this opening.

King: Will this be operative in the various chambers at Roden Crater?

Turrell: Only a few are like that. There are different combinations of light from inside to outside. There are places where you are changing as you come into the light, as in the dark spaces. There are places where the light is changing.

There are also other places where the light inside is not changing, but the light outside is, as in Skyspace. And then there is space where everything is changing, as in Rise. I mixed it up in terms of the time-making quality.

Sometimes we make the time, but other times things are slowed down, and something else makes the time. Time plays a crucial role in this work. I like 104

things that take place over time, but then it’s interesting to know which things are stable or staying the same and what is changing. They all have that sort of a time sense.

King: Have you ever considered yourself as a type of a shaman? People have to slow down and step into a different mind-frame if they really want to experience your work. Perhaps you are trying to show people that there’s another side of life. Is light symbolic for something other?

Turrell: I don’t traffic in symbolism. I’m no more a shaman than any other artist. Part of the role of the artist is to direct attention and to precipitate change. It can also just be to make a nice piece. That is enough, definitely enough. In terms of spiritual context, I think you’ll find quite a bit of that across all the arts. Think of the work of artists and architects in constructing grand cathedrals or monuments, places such as Chartres, Notre Dame, or St. Peters. In some way, art has suffered for it a bit. Architects today get to make their cathedrals not as religious centers but as signature art museums. That’s one of the problems with religions— they’ve had this sort of brand name attached to them. Artists are dealing with different presences and powers, and this has always been true. It’s no more or less true now than at any other time.

King: Your work runs counter to our society’s attention span and to the art world’s need for trends.

Turrell: Someone has to do that. Maybe I just can’t keep up with constant change.

I’m a slow guy. I like slow planes, so you can land in many places. There’s also a measure of safety if you land where you would crash. In a way, that’s true with art, too. Things that require more time give more back. I think it’s okay to take time. It seems more direct, actually. Because of the absence of specific subject matter and your use of pure space, light, and color, some people have compared your work with that of Joseph Albers, Agnes Martin, and Mark Rothko.

When you make the subject matter light and essentially use it as a pure entity, then you are showing its primal power. That is what the artists you’ve mentioned do. In Gasworks, light is the content and the form. However, if you then take light and try to use it to tell a story as film does, you lose all the power of the light.

King: It seems as if some of your earlier works were prototypes for the concept that architects are beginning to investigate regarding the consequence of light vis-à-vis space and form.

Turrell: There are some places that my work may inform architecture and is informed by architecture. I like places that you can enter and feel the presence of light permeating throughout. That bespeaks architecture, as does Plato’s cave.

These things for me are analogies for perception. We are housed in the structures we create. In that way we’re like hermit crabs. We adopt one space, and then we go out and get into a movable one, a car, and we get out of that and move again into another one. It’s something humankind is very good at doing: we make shells. We are probably as aware of the shells we make in forming cities as the coral is aware of making the Great Barrier Reef.

Recognizing what we are and that we have these modes of perception and protection, I’m interested in how we open those things out to perception and where we locate certain spaces within our dwellings. For instance, we tend to put the kitchen on the eastern side of the house in a single-family dwelling.

I certainly am interested in what architects do. Still, I’m an artist, and I play a very different role when it comes to space, light, and structure.

105

IVÁN NAVARRO Iván Navarro belongs to the generation of Latin American artists who, as of the 1990s, have reelaborated the relationships between modernism and contemporaneity, using as their point of departure the experiences of the most purist avant-garde movements within Modern art, ranging from geometric abstraction through constructivism and concrete art, finally to reach minimalism, Op Art and their more contemporary derivatives.

His work originates in a singular inquiry into the potentialities of energy; it includes the elaboration of light constructions and resorts to conversion principles. They are functional sculptures, objects with a strong visual impact and structural complexity.

Among his best-known works are the Electric Chairs, made of fluorescent tubes; objects of impressive design whose fragility and high voltage undermine the seductive qualities of ergonomic perfection: the electric chair, still used in some places in the United States as an instrument of death, or as a torture machine during the military dictatorship in Chile, a period that Navarro had to live through during his formative years.

Navarro’s art reflects and revolves around critical appropriations from US minimalism, transcending its pure formalism by addressing political and social issues with an underlying criticism of power and authority. He plays with immediate references to modern formalism, transforming−as the alchemist he actually is—simple materials into radiant forms, extracting them from conventionalism. On the one hand, he uses the energy possibilities necessary to construct his countless industrial and domestic machines, and on the other, he reminds us of the notion of power that characterizes them, linking them to the use assigned to them in contemporary society and as political metaphor for the circulation of knowledge.

108

Ivรกn Navarro, This is Your Land, 2014

109

Ivรกn Navarro, Pink Electric Chair, 2006

110

Ivรกn Navarro, Burden (Lotte World Tower), 2011

111

Ivรกn Navarro, Man Hole, 2011

112

Ivรกn Navarro, This is Your Land, 2014

Ivรกn Navarro, Ladder, 2014 BED, 2014 ME/WE, 2014 (This is Your Land)

Ivรกn Navarro, The Armory Fence, 2011

116

Ivรกn Navarro, Untitled (Empire State), 2011

117

Ivรกn Navarro, Untitled (Twin Towers), 2011

LEO VILLARREAL Leo Villareal is an installation artist who was born in Albuquerque, NM, in 1967. He is best known for his use of LEDs and computer-driven technology in creating light sculptures.

He attended Yale University and received a BA in Sculpture in 1990. He went on to New York University and attended the Tisch School of the Arts, earning a graduate degree from the Interactive Telecommunications Program. In 2008, his largest installation, Multiverse, was completed at the National Gallery of Art. It features around 41,000 LED nodes that run through the Concourse walkway between the East and West Buildings.

At the end of 2012, The Bay Lights will be completed. It is a light sculpture that will honor the 75th anniversary of the Bay Bridge in San Francisco, CA, and will stay up for two years. He has had solo exhibitions at the Finesilver Gallery in San Antonio, TX, in 2003, the Galeria Javier Lopez in Madrid, Spain, in 2005, the Gering and Lopez Gallery in New York in 2007, the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., in 2008, and the San Jose Museum of Art in San Jose, CA, in 2010. Group exhibitions he has participated in include Exposure: The Future of Film Festival for USA Network and Scifi Channel in New York in 2000, Optical Optimism at the Galerie Simone Stern in New Orleans, LA, in 2002, Fiction Love-Ultra New Visions in Contemporary Art at the Museum of Contemporary Art in Taipei, Taiwan, in 2004, Backdrop at Bloomberg SPACE in London, England, in 2006, That Was Then...This is Now at PS1 Contemporary Art Center in Long Island City, NY, in 2008, and Contemplating the Void at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York in 2010. Villareal’s work can be found in collections at the Borusan Music House in Istanbul, Turkey, the Time Warner Center in New York, the Naoshima Contemporary Art Museum in Kagawa, Japan, and the Museum of Modern Art in New York.

120

Leo Villareal, Sky (Tampa), 2010

121

Leo Villareal, Multiverse, 2008

Leo Villareal, Microcosm, 2007

124

Leo Villareal, Hive (Bleecker Street), 2012

125

Leo Villareal, Volume (Renwick), 2015

126

Leo Villareal, Cosmos, 2012

127

Leo Villareal, Chasing Rainbows, 2004

128

Leo Villareal, Buckyball, 2012

129

130

Leo Villareal, Diagonal Grid, 2009

131

Leo Villareal, Metatron, 2002

SECTION THREE Exhibition Works Exhibition History From the Dark Timeline

E X H I B I T I ON WO R KS

1 Keith Lemley Arboreal, 2015 chestnut, oak, and white neon dimensions variable Mixed Greens 2 Keith Lemley The Wood, 2011 white neon, wood Variable size Exhibit A Contemporary Art 3 Keith Lemley Something and Nothing, 2007 white neon, wood Variable size 4 Keith Lemley Super Blue, 2011 neon dimensions variable The Soap Factory 5 Keith Lemley Golden Glow, 2012 neon, metalized polyester, galvanized steel Mixed Greens 6 Keith Lemley Luma, 2010 neon variable size 7 Keith Lemley Dreams of an Ideal, 2012 neon, metalized polyester dimensions variable 8 Keith Lemley Supra Force, 2014 neon dimensions variable Mixed Greens 9 Dan Flavin Untitled (In Honor of Harold Joachim), 1977 pink, yellow, blue and green flourescent light 244 cm Collection of the Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth

10 Dan Flavin Untitled (to Janie Lee), 1971 blue, pink, yellow and green flourescent light 244 cm National Gallery of Canada

20 François Morellet Diagonales hors cadre n° 1, 2011 acrylic on canvas and white neon 141 × 141 cm A arte Invernizzi

11 Dan Flavin Untitled (in memory of Sandy Calder)V, 1977 red, yellow, and blue fluorescent light 10 ft. (305 cm) wide Judd Foundation, New York

21 François Morellet Pi rococo n°22, 1=10, 1997-2008 semicircular argon tubes 290 × 480 cm Galerie m Bochum

12 Dan Flavin Untitled (to Barnett Newman) two, 1971 red, yellow, and blue fluorescent lights 96 in. (243.84 cm) high, 48 in. (121.92 cm) wide across a corner The Doris and Donald Fisher Collection at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art

22 François Morellet Pi Weeping Neonly n°3, 2003 24 white neon tubes, high voltage white 300 × 1000 cm Galerie m Bochum

13 Dan Flavin Untitled (to Piet Mondrain), 1985 red, yellow and blue flourescent light 244 cm Austrian Ludwig Foundation 14 Dan Flavin Untitled (To Barry, Mike, Chuck and Leonard), 1975 yellow and pink fluorescent light 96 × 96 in. (244 × 244 cm.)

Paula Cooper, Inc., New York 15 Dan Flavin Untitled (to dear, durable Sol from Stephen, Sonja and Dan) 1969 daylight and cool white floursecent light 244 cm Helena Rubinstein Fund 16 Dan Flavin "monument" 7 for V. Tatlin, 1964 cool white fluorescent light 305 cm Paula Cooper, Inc., New York 17 François Morellet 4 à 4 n°7, 2007 acrylic on canvas and white neon 145 × 180 cm Galerie m Bochum 18 François Morellet Enfilade n°2, 2013 acrylic on canvas and white neon 170 × 265 cm A arte Invernizzi 19 François Morellet 2+4 angles droits n°3, 2012 acrylic on canvas and white neon 134 × 152 cm Galerie Jean Brolly

134

23 François Morellet Neons 3D: 20°-90°-45°, 2014 acrylic on canvas on wood, 3 white neon tubes, high voltage cable and transformer 207 × 187 cm A arte Invernizzi, Milan 24 François Morellet Lamentable, 2015 neon 252 × 157 1/2 × 78 in .

Zane Bennett Contemporary Art, Santa Fe 25 François Morellet Triple X neonly, 2012 blue argon neon tubes. 6 tubes 323 cm × 2 (330) × 238 cm Max Bill in Switzerland.

26 François Morellet 2 frames dashes 0° -90°, 1971 white neon tubes 108 7/10 × 78 7/10 in Centre Pompidou 27 François Morellet L'Avalanche, 1996 36 blue neon tubes, white high voltage wires 400 × 400 cm Galerie Am Lindernplatz AG 28 James Turrell Light Inside, 1999 neon and ambient light dimensions variable the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston 29 James Turrell Skyspace Twilight Epiphany, 2012 LED light sequence 72 ft.

Suzanne Deal Booth Centennial Pavilion 30 James Turrell Raemar pink white, from the series Shallow Spaces, 1969 LED light into space

dimensions variable Collection of Art & Research, Las Vegas 31 James Turrell Aurora B: Tall Glass, 2010 LED light dimensions 2 hour, 30 minute light cycle Museum purchase funded by the estate of Isabel B. Wilson in memory of Peter C. Marzio 32 James Turrell Spinther, 2007 LED light dimensions variable Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, New York 33 James Turrell, End Around: Ganzfeld, 2006 neon light, fluorescent light & space dimensions variable GRIFFIN, Santa Monica

40 Iván Navarro This is Your Land, 2014 wood, neon, mirror 2 meters Madison Square Park Conservancy

50 Leo Villareal Hive (Bleecker Street), 2012 LED tubes, custom software, electrical hardware, aluminum, stainless steel Bleecker and Lafayette Street, New York

41 Iván Navarro Ladder, 2014 wood, neon, mirror 480.1 × 267 × 267 cm Madison Square Park Conservancy

51 Leo Villareal Volume (Renwick), 2015 LEDs embedded in 320 mirrored stainless steel rods Renwick Gallery of the Smithsonian American Art Museum

42 Iván Navarro BED 2014 wood, neon, mirror 480.1 × 267 × 267 cm Madison Square Park Conservancy 43 Iván Navarro ME/WE, 2014 wood, neon, mirror 480.1 × 267 × 267 cm Madison Square Park Conservancy

34 James Turrell Ondo (Pink), 2004 LED projection dimensions variable Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, New York

44 Iván Navarro The Armory Fence, 2011 Neon light, aluminum and electricity 213.4 × 61 × 30.5 cm Paul Kasmin Gallery

35 James Turrell Juke Green, 1968 LED projection dimensions variable Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, New York

45 Iván Navarro Untitled (Empire State), 2011 neon lights, mirror, tinted glass, wood, paint and electricity 137.5 × 162.6 × 18.4 cm DESORDEM: Baró + Emma Thomas

36 Iván Navarro Death Row, 2006 Neon light, aluminum doors, mirror, one-way mirror, and electricity doors 218.4 × 91.4 × 11.4 cm each 53rd Venice Biennale

46 Iván Navarro Untitled (Twin Towers), 2011 Neon, wood, paint, mirror, one-way mirror 20.3 × 146.7 × 146.7 cm each Paul Kasmin Gallery

37 Iván Navarro Pink Electric Chair, 2006 fluorescent light, color sleeves, metal fixtures and electric energy 45 × 31 1/2 × 44 1/2 in.

Acquisition of Modern Latin American Art 38 Iván Navarro Burden (Lotte World Tower), 2011 neon, wood, paint, Plexiglass, mirror, one-way mirror and electric energy 98 × 40.5 × 7 in.

Paul Kasmin Gallery, New York 39 Iván Navarro Man Hole, 2011 92 × 92 cm (36.2 × 36.2 in.)

Sculpture, wooden box, neon lights, mirror, one-way mirror, electric energy Baró Galeria Inventory

47 Leo Villareal Sky (Tampa), 2010 LEDs, aluminum panels, custom software and electric hardware 45 × 300 ft.

Conner Contemporary Art, Washington, DC 48 Leo Villareal Multiverse, 2008 41,000 computer-programmed LED 200 ft.

National Gallery of Art, Washington 49 Leo Villareal Microcosm, 2007 white LEDs, stainless steel, custom software and electrical hardware 25 × 55 ft.

Nerman Museum of Contemporary Art, Johnson County Community College, Overland Park, Kansas

135

52 Leo Villareal Cosmos, 2012 12,000 LEDs 45 × 68 ft.

Johnson Museum of Art's Mallin Sculpture Court 53 Leo Villareal Chasing Rainbows, 2004 acrylic tubing, LED Lights, metal truss frame 24 × 18 in.

Sandra Gering Gallery, New York 54 Leo Villareal Buckyball, 2012 180 LED tubes 30 ft.

Madison Square Park Conservancy 55 Leo Villareal Diagonal Grid, 2009 LED tubes, custom software and electrical hardware dimensions variable Borusan Kültür Sanat 56 Leo Villareal Metatron, 2002 plexiglas, incandescent light bulbs, custom software, and electrical hardware 60 × 60 × 6 in.

San Jose Museum of Art

EXHIBITION HISTORIES

2011 Dubuque Biennial, Dubuque Museum of Art, Dubuque, IA. Chain Letter, Shoshana Wayne Gallery, Santa Monica, CA. Lion vs. Gorilla, Fulton Street Collective, Chicago, IL. 2012 IT'S A SMALL, SMALL WORLD, Family Business, New York, NY. Cheap Coffee and Beef Jerky, Detroit, MI. Gilding the Collapse, Collar Works Gallery, Troy, NY. 2013 Abstract Currents, PopRally video projection event, Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY. Unconventional Narratives: The Triumph of the Witch, SUNY Potsdam Art Museum, Potsdam, NY. Gesturing into Consciousness, Zoller Gallery, University Park, PA.

KEITH LEMLEY SOLO EXHIBITIONS

2014 Mark(ing) Time: Expanded Notions of Drawing, Dishman Art Museaum, Beaumont, TX. Love U More Than Fireworks, Parlor Gallery, Asbury Park, NJ 2015 Natural States, Dowd Gallery, State University of New York at Cortland, Cortland, NY.

2009 Luma, 1414 Warehouse, Madison, WIExhibit A Contemporary Art. 2010 Something and Nothing, Urban Institute for Contemporary Art, Grand Rapids, MI. Veep Green Continuity, 407 Gallery, University of Wisconsin - Green Bay, Green Bay, WI.

2015 Invitational, Exhibit A, Corning, NY. Dallas Art Fair, with Mixed Greens, Fashion Industry Gallery, Dallas, TX.

2011 1708 Gallery, Richmond, VA. The Woods, 210 N Wells St, Chicago PopUp Art Loop, Chicago, IL.

2016 Whereabouts, Glazenhuis National Museum, Lommel, Belgium.

Trestle Gallery, Brooklyn, NY.

2012 Ecstasy of Knowing, Redux Contemporary Art Center, Charleston, SC. 2013 Dreams of an Ideal, Smith Center for the Arts, Providence College, Providence, RI. Lueur Dorée, Complexe Guy Favreau, Montreal, Canada.

D A N F L AV I N SOLO EXHIBITIONS 1961 Constructions and watercolors.”Judson Gallery, New York. May 8–June 5.

2014 Past Presence, Pittsburgh Center for the Arts, Pittsburgh, PA. 2015 Mixed Greens, New York, NY. Summerhall, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.

Penumbral, ROY G BIV Gallery, Columbus, OH.

1964 Some light. Kaymar Gallery, New York. March 5–29.

2016 Union Art Gallery, University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI. 2017 Sculpture Center, Cleveland, OH. GROUP EXHIBITIONS 2009 Satisfaction Town, Columbia College Conaway Center, Chicago, IL. Dubuque Biennial, Dubuque Museum of Art, Dubuque, IA. Snap to Grid, Los Angeles Center for Digital Art, Los Angeles, CA. SOFA Chicago, AAW Special Exhibition, Navy Pier, Chicago, IL. 2010 Glow, Annmarie Garden in Association with the Smithsonian Institution, Dowell, MD. Globalism, Overture Center for the Arts, Madison, WI. Forward, Co-Prosperity Sphere, Chicago, IL.

Fluorescent light. Green Gallery, New York. November 18–December 12.

1965 Fine Arts Building, Ohio State University, Columbus. April–May. 1966 Galerie Rudolf Zwirner, Cologne. Opened September 16. Brochure.

Nicholas Wilder Gallery, Los Angeles. December.

1967 Kornblee Gallery, New York. January 7–February 2.

Galleria Sperone, Milan. February 14–March 15. This exhibition was not recognized by the artist.

Kornblee Gallery, New York. October 7–November 8.

“Dan Flavin: alternating pink and ‘gold.’” Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago. December 9, 1967–January 14, 1968. Catalogue.

136

1968 “Dan Flavin: lampade fluorescente gialle.” Galleria Sperone, Turin.

March 14–April 10. Brochure.

Galerie Heiner Friedrich, Munich. May 9–June 5.

“Dan Flavin: an exposition of fluorescent light.”

Hetzel Union Building Gallery, Pennsylvania State University, University Park. October 20–November 30. Brochure. “cool white, etc. from Dan Flavin.” Dwan Gallery, New York. November 2–27.

1969 “Dan Flavin: fluorescent light.” Galerie Konrad Fischer, Düsseldorf. January 24–February 14.

Irving Blum Gallery, Los Angeles. April 1–May 3.

“Dan Flavin: fluorescent light.” Galerie Bruno Bischofberger, Zurich. May 19–June 4.

Fine Arts Center, University of Rhode Island, Kingston. July 21–September 22. “fluorescent light, etc. from Dan Flavin.” National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa. September 13–October 19.

Traveled to: Vancouver Art Gallery, November 12–December 7, 1969; Jewish Museum, New York, January 21–March 1, 1970. Catalogue.

1970 “Four ‘monuments’ for V. Tatlin 1964–1969 from Dan Flavin.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. February 7–28. “cornered installations 1963–1970 from Dan Flavin.” Dwan Gallery, New York. February 7–March 4.

Galerie Ileana Sonnabend, Paris. Opened October 29. This exhibition was not recognized by the artist.2 Catalogue. “three near-square cornered installations from Dan Flavin.” Galerie Heiner Friedrich, Cologne. November 3–21. “untitled (to Barnett Newman) 1970 from Dan Flavin.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. November 21–December 12.

1971 Galerie Heiner Friedrich, Cologne. March 3–April 30. “untitleds (to Barnett Newman) 1971 from Dan Flavin.” Dwan Gallery, New York. March 6–31.

Janie C. Lee Gallery, Dallas. Opened April 10. “two cornered installations in colored fluorescent light from Dan Flavin.”

Ace Gallery, Los Angeles. July 20–August 21. Also presented at Ace Gallery, Vancouver, March 11–April 25, 1972.

Galerie Heiner Friedrich, Cologne. October–November.

“Dan Flavin: two new near-square cornered installations with their diagrams.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. October 23–November 13. “fluorescent light with diagrams from Dan Flavin.” John Weber Gallery, New York. October 23–November 17.

1972 “Some cornered installations in fluorescent light from Dan Flavin set to celebrate ten years of the Albright-Knox Art Gallery.” Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York. May 13–June 25.

“Cornered fluorescent light from Dan Flavin.” Institute for the Arts, Rice University, Houston. October 5–November 26.

“An exposition of cool white and warm white circular fluorescent light from Dan Flavin.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. November 4–25.

1973 “Drawing and diagrams from Dan Flavin 1963–1972; corners, barriers and corridors in fluorescent light from Dan Flavin.” St. Louis Art Museum, Missouri. January 26–March 11. Catalogue published in two volumes: drawings and diagrams from Dan Flavin 1963–1972 and corners, barriers and corridors in fluorescent light from Dan Flavin. “more circular fluorescent light, etc. from Dan Flavin.” John Weber Galle

1990 “Dan Flavin: untitled (for Lucie Rie, master potter) 1990 themes and variations.” Waddington Galleries, London. February 28–March 24.

Catalogue.

“Dan Flavin: untitled (for Conor Cruise O’Brien) 1990 themes and variations.” Thomas Segal Gallery, Boston. March 10–April 7.

“Dan Flavin: Untitled (for Ad Reinhardt) 1990 Themes & Variations.”

Texas Gallery, Houston. April 3–May 19.

“Dan Flavin: untitled (for Otto Freundlich) 1990 themes and variations.”

Annemarie Verna Galerie, Zurich. May 31–July 14. Catalogue.

“Dan Flavin: untitled (for John Heartfield) 1990.” Donald Young Gallery, Chicago. September 27–October 27. “untitled (to Laurie and Morgan, congratulations and best wishes) 1990 themes and variations from Dan Flavin.” Rubin Spangle Gallery, New York. October 13–November 10.

Fred Hoffman Gallery, Santa Monica, California. November 30, 1990– January 5, 1991.

“Dan Flavin: (for the master potters, Lucie Rie and Hans Coper) themes and variations 1990.” Galerie Grässlin-Ehrhardt, Frankfurt am Main.

December 12, 1990–January 19, 1991.

1991 “Dan Flavin: untitled (to my friend DeWain Valentine) 1990 themes and variations.” Galerie nächst St. Stephan, Vienna. January 14–March 2.

“Dan Flavin: Tatlin Monuments.” Mary Boone Gallery, New York. March 2–30.

Galerie Karsten Greve, Paris. April 25–May 21.

“Dan Flavin: untitled (to Hans Coper, master potter) 1991.” Rubin Spangle Gallery, New York, November 23–December 21.

1992 “Dan Flavin: Colored Fluorescent Light, 1964 and 1992.” Pace Gallery, New York. February 15–March 14. Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York. June 28–August 27.

1993 “Dan Flavin: Lichträume.” Städtische Galerie im Städel, Frankfurt am Main. February 25–August 22. Catalogue titled Dan Flavin: Installationen in fluoreszierendem Licht 1989–93. “untitled (for Charlotte and Jim Brooks) 1964 & untitled (to Ken Price) 1992.” Texas Gallery, Houston. March 23–May 8.

Annemarie Verna Galerie, Zurich. November 20, 1993–January 22, 1994.

“Dan Flavin: tall cornered fluorescent light.” Pace Gallery, New York.

December 3, 1993–January 15, 1994. Catalogue.

1994 Kunstbau Lenbachhaus, Munich. April 30–June 26. Site-specific installation with subsequent showings in 1998, 2000, and 2004. Catalogue.

De Zonnehof, Amersfoort, Netherlands. December 4, 1994–January 22, 1995. Catalogue published in 1995.

1995 “Dan Flavin: neue Arbeiten.” Galerie Bärbel Grässlin, Frankfurt am Main. April 25–June 24.

Guggenheim Museum SoHo, New York. September 13, 1995–January 28, 1996.

“Dan Flavin: European Couples, and Others.” Dia Center for the Arts, New York. September 14, 1995–June 23, 1996. Brochure.

1996 PaceWildenstein, New York. March 29–April 27.

“Dan Flavin: Arbeit aus den 70er Jahren.” Galerie Philomene Magers, Cologne. April 26–June 31.

Galerie Bärbel Grässlin, Frankfurt am Main. July 16–August 31.

137

“Dan Flavin: Fluorescent Light (produced for Munich publishers).” Edition Schellmann, Munich. September 14–November 29. “untitleds (to Don Judd, colorist).” Gallery Yamaguchi, Osaka, Japan. October 22–November 22.

“Dan Flavin: drawing water light.” The Frick Art Museum, Pittsburgh.

April 27–July 9.

“Dan Flavin.” Paula Cooper Gallery, New York. October 21–December 22.

1997 “Dan Flavin: ‘monuments’ for V. Tatlin.” Danese, New York. January 10– February 8. Catalogue.

“Dan Flavin: 1962/63, 1970, 1996.” Dia Center for the Arts, New York. May 22, 1997–June 28, 1998. Brochure.

“Dan Flavin: Drawings.” Chinati Foundation, Marfa, Texas. October 4, 1997–May, 1998. Traveled to: Dan Flavin Art Institute, Bridgehampton, New York, May–September 1998.

“Dan Flavin: Opere 1964–1981.” Fondazione Prada, Milan. November 29, 1997–January 31, 1998. Catalogue titled Cattedrali d’Arte: Dan Flavin per Santa Maria in Chiesa Rossa.

2007 “Dan Flavin: An Intimate View.” Guild Hall, East Hampton, NY. June 16–July 29.

“Dan Flavin.” Björn Ressle Fine Art, New York. June 30–September 15.

“Dan Flavin.” Margo Leavin Gallery, Los Angeles, California. September 15–October 27.

1998 “Dan Flavin: Fluorescent Light, 1963–96.” Sabine Knust/Maximilian Verlag, Munich. February 5–March 31.

Centro Cultural Light, Rio de Janeiro. May 14–July 5. Catalogue.

Fundación Proa, Buenos Aires. October 5–November 30. Catalogue.

Oldenburger Kunstverein, Oldenburg, Germany. November 8, 1998– January 3, 1999. Brochure.

2009 “Dan Flavin: Series and Progressions.” David Zwirner, New York. November 5–December 19. Catalogue.

2011 “untitled (to Helga and Carlo, with respect and affection), 1974.” Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington, D.C. September 25, 2011–May 13, 2012.

1999 “Dan Flavin: icons, 1961–1963.” Dan Flavin Art Institute, Bridgehampton, New York. May 20–September 12. Exhibition also presented May–September 2000; May–September 2001; May–September 2002; May–September 2003.

“Dan Flavin: The Architecture of Light.” Deutsche Guggenheim, Berlin.

November 6, 1999–February 13, 2000. Catalogue.

“Dan Flavin: Untitled, 1969.” Annemarie Verna Galerie, Zurich. November 27, 1999–February 5, 2000.

2001 Serpentine Gallery, London. August 24–September 23. Catalogue.

2012 “Dan Flavin: Drawing.” The Morgan Library and Museum, New York.

February 17–July 1, 2012. Traveled to: Kunsthalle Bielefeld, Germany.

December 16, 2012–March 3, 2013. Catalogue.

“Dan Flavin: Lights.” MUMOK/Museum Moderner Kunst Stiftung Ludwig Wien, Vienna. October 13, 2012–February 3, 2013. Traveled to: Kunstmuseum St. Gallen, Switzerland, March 16–August 18, 2013.

Catalogue.

2013 “Artist Rooms: Dan Flavin.” Tate Modern, London. April 1, 2013–April 14, 2014. Traveled to: Gracefield Arts Centre, Dumfries, Scotland.

August 16–November 22, 2014; Tate St. Ives, May 23–September 27, 2015.

2003 Paula Cooper Gallery, New York. May 3–June 30. “Dan Flavin: Monuments for V. Tatlin.” Richmond Hall, Menil Collection, Houston. September 2003–present. Long-term installation.

2014 “Dan Flavin: Red and green alternatives (to Sonja).” Paula Cooper Gallery, New York. December 16, 2014–January 31, 2015.

2004 “Dan Flavin: Stanze di luce tra Varese e New York; Opere della Collezione Panza dal Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York.” Villa Panza, Varese, Italy. September 30–December 12. Catalogue.

“Dan Flavin: A Retrospective.” National Gallery of Art, Washington.

October 3, 2004–January 9, 2005. Traveled to: Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, February 25–June 5, 2005; Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, July 1–October 30, 2005; Hayward Gallery, London, January 19–April 2, 2006; Musée d'art moderne de la Ville de Paris, June 9–October 8, 2006; Pinakothek der Moderne, Munich, November 23–April 9, 2007; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, May 13–August 12, 2007. Catalogue.

2015 “Dan Flavin: icons.” Dan Flavin Art Institute, Bridgehampton, New York.

April 30, 2015–April 30, 2017.

“Dan Flavin, 2 works.” 101 Spring Street, Judd Foundation, New York.

June 15–September 19.

“Dan Flavin: Corners, Barriers and Corridors.” David Zwirner, New York.

September 10–October 24.

2016 “Dan Flavin: It is what it is and it ain't nothing else.” Ikon Gallery, Birmingham, United Kingdom. April 13–June 26; forthcoming.

2005 “Dan Flavin: Works from the 1960s.” Haunch of Venison, London. February 12–March 16.

"Dan Flavin: Untitled (to Don Judd, colorist), 1987 and other editions.”

Senior & Shopmaker, New York. December 8, 2005–February 4, 2006 2006 “Dan Flavin.” Gagosian Gallery, London. February 9–March 29. Catalogue.

2008 “Dan Flavin: Constructed Light.” The Pulitzer Foundation for the Arts, St. Louis. February 1–October 4. Brochure. “Dan Flavin: the 1964 Green Gallery exhibition.” Zwirner & Wirth, New York. March 6–May 3.

Catalogue.

GROUP EXHIBITIONS 1957 “Art Exhibit by Men of Roslyn Air Force Station.” North Shore Community Center, Roslyn, New York. January.

1959 “Invitation Exhibition.” Fleischman Gallery, New York. May.

138

1960 “New Forms–New Media I.” Martha Jackson Gallery, New York. June 6–24. Catalogue.

“New Media–New Forms in Painting and Sculpture, Version II.” Martha Jackson Gallery, New York. September 28–October 22.

to: Frankfurter Kunstverein, Frankfurt am Main. December 30, 1967–February 11, 1968. Catalogue.

“Opening Exhibition: Normal Art.” Lannis Museum of Normal Art, New York. November 12–December 3.

“Art in Series.” Finch College Museum of Art, New York. November 23, 1967–January 6, 1968.

“Paintings and Sculpture from the Gallery Collection.” Irving Blum Gallery, Los Angeles. December.

1963 “New Work: Part I.” Green Gallery, New York. January 8–February 2.

"Contemporary American Group Show (New Work Part III)."Green Gallery, New York. May–June 15.

1964 “Black, White, and Grey.” Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut.

January 9–February 9.

“Eleven Artists.” Kaymar Gallery, New York. March 31–April 14.

“New Work: Part III.” Green Gallery, New York. April 8–May 2.

“New Work (Contemporary American Group Show).” Green Gallery, New York. October 24–November 14.

“Opening Exhibition.” John Daniels Gallery, New York. December 22, 1964–January 23, 1965.

1965 “Current Art.” Institute of Contemporary Art, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. March 18–May 10. Catalogue.

“Flavin, Judd, Morris, Williams.” Green Gallery, New York. May 26– June 12.

“Art Turned On.” Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston. December 10, 1965–January 30, 1966. Catalogue.

1966 “Diagrams: Dan Flavin/Don Judd.” Center Gallery, Washington, D.C. January 30–February 18.

“Evans, Flavin, Frazier, Levinson.” Kornblee Gallery, New York. February 5–24.

“Primary Structures: Younger American and British Sculptors.” Jewish Museum, New York. April 27–June 12. Catalogue.

“Electric Art.” Galerie Ileana Sonnabend, Paris. May–June.

“Art in Process: The Visual Development of a Structure.” Finch College Museum of Art, New York. May 11–June 30. Traveled to: Eleanor Rigelhaupt Gallery, Boston, September 20–October 12, 1966. Catalogue.

“Dan Flavin/Larry Zox.” Kornblee Gallery, New York. June 7–17.

“First Annual: Arp to Artschwager.” Noah Goldowsky Gallery, New York. June–September.

“Kunst Licht Kunst.” Stedelijk Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, Netherlands.

September 25–December 4. Catalogue. “10.” Dwan Gallery, New York.

October 4–29. Catalogue.

“Working drawings and other visible things on paper not necessarily meant to be viewed as art.” School of Visual Art, New York. December 2–23.

1967 “American Sculpture of the Sixties.” Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles. April 28–June 25. Traveled to: Philadelphia Museum of Art, September 15–October 29, 1967. Catalogue.

“10.” Dwan Gallery, Los Angeles. May 2–27.

“A New Aesthetic.” Washington Gallery of Modern Art, Washington, D.C. May 6–June 25. Catalogue.

“Focus on Light.” New Jersey State Museum Cultural Center, Trenton, New Jersey. May 20–September 10, 1967. Catalogue.

“Serielle Formationen.” Stiftung Studentenhaus, Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universität, Frankfurt am Main. May 22–June 30. Catalogue.

“Language to be looked at and/or things to be read.” Dwan Gallery, New York. June 3–28.

“Kompass III: Schilderkunst na 1945 uit New York.” Stedelijk Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, Netherlands. November 9–December 17. Traveled

1968 “Plus by Minus: Today’s Half-Century.” Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York. March 3–April 14. Catalogue.

“Minimal Art.” Haags Gemeentemuseum, The Hague. March 23–May 26. Traveled to: Städtische Kunsthalle, Düsseldorf, January 17–February 23, 1969; Akademie der Künste, Berlin, March 16–April 13, 1969.

Catalogues published in 1968 by Haags Gemeentemuseum and in 1969

by Städtische Kunsthalle.

“Three Blind Mice: de collecties Visser, Peeters, Becht.” Stedelijk Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, Netherlands. April 6–May 19. Traveled to: Sint Pietersabdij, Ghent, Belgium, June 15–August 15, 1968. Catalogue.

“Language II.” Dwan Gallery, New York. May 25–June 22.

“Sammlung 1968: Karl Ströher.” Galerie-Verein München, Neue Pinakothek, and Haus der Kunst, Munich. June 14–August 9. Traveled to: Kunstverein Hamburg, August 24–October 6, 1968; Neue Nationalgalerie, Berlin, March 1–April 14, 1969; Städtische Kunsthalle Düsseldorf, April 25–June 17, 1969; Kunsthalle Bern, July 12–September 28, 1969. Catalogues published in 1968 by Galerie-Verein München, Neue Pinakothek, and Haus der Kunst, and by Kunstverein Hamburg; and in 1969 by Neue Nationalgalerie, Städtische Kunsthalle Düsseldorf, and Kunsthalle Bern.

“Documenta 4.” Museum Fridericianum, Neue Galerie, and Orangerie, Kassel, Germany. June 27–October 6. Catalogue.

“Benefit for the Student Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam.” Paula Cooper Gallery, New York. October 23–31.

“In Honor of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. ” Museum of Modern Art, New York. October 31–November 3.

1969 “Electric Art.” University of California Art Galleries, Los Angeles, January 19–March 23. Traveled to: Phoenix Art Museum, April 15–June 15, 1969. Catalogue.

“Carl Andre, Dan Flavin, Don Judd, Sol LeWitt, Robert Morris.” Hetzel Union Building Gallery, Pennsylvania State University, University Park.

April 6–May 20. Brochure.

“Highlights of the 1968–1969 Art Season.” Aldrich Museum of Contemporary Art, Ridgefield, Connecticut. June 22–September 14. Brochure.

“New York Painting and Sculpture, 1940–1970.” Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. October 18, 1969–February 8, 1970. Catalogue.

“Benefit Exhibition: Art for the Moratorium.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. December 11–13.

“Spaces.” Museum of Modern Art, New York. December 30, 1969– March 1, 1970. Catalogue.

1970 “Conceptual Art, Arte Povera, Land Art.” Galleria Civica d’Arte Moderna, Turin. June 12–July 12. Catalogue.

“Benefit Exhibition for Referendum ’70.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York.

September 19–26.

“Group Exhibition.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. October 3–18.

“Early Works by Gallery Artists.” Dwan Gallery, New York. November 28–December 23.

“1970 Annual Exhibition: Contemporary American Sculpture.” Whitney Museum of American Art, New York. December 12, 1970–February 7, 1971. Catalogue.

139

1971 “Sixth Guggenheim International Exhibition.” Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York. February 12–April 11. Catalogue.

“An Exhibition for the War Resisters League.” Heiner Friedrich, Inc., New York. December 4–20.

“Seventy-second American Exhibition.” Art Institute of Chicago. March 13–May 9. Catalogue.

1972 “Flavin, Judd, Lichtenstein, Morris, Serra, Sonnier, and Stella.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. February 19–March 25.

“The Green Gallery Revisited.” Hofstra Museum of Fine Arts, Hofstra University, Hempstead, New York. February 22– March 29.

“Art Without Limit.” Memorial Art Gallery of the University of Rochester, Rochester, New York. April 7–May 7. “The Modern Image.” High Museum of Art, Atlanta, Georgia. April 15–June 11. Catalogue.

“Group Exhibition.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. June 17–September 23.

“Seventieth American Exhibition.” Art Institute of Chicago. June 24–August 20. Catalogue.

“Diagrams and Drawings.” Rijksmuseum Kröller-Müller, Otterlo, Netherlands. September 8–October, 24. Traveled to: Kunstmuseum Basel, January 20–March 4, 1973. Catalogues published in 1972 by Rijksmuseum Kröller-Müller and in 1973 by Kunstmuseum Basel.

1977 “artists and friends: Dan Flavin and Michael Venezia.” Contemporary Arts Center, Cincinnati. February 12–April 3.

“Recent Work.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. May 28–September 17. “documenta 6.” Museum Fridericianum, Orangerie, Neue Galerie, and Rathaus, Kassel, Germany. June 24–October 2. Catalogue.

1978 “Group Exhibition.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. July 5–September 23.

1979 “The Reductive Object: A Survey of the Minimalist Aesthetic in the 1960s.” Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston. March 7–April 29.

Catalogue.

“Summer Group Show.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. June 23–September 15.

“Skulptur: Matisse, Giacometti, Judd, Flavin, Andre, Long.” Kunsthalle Bern. August 17–September 23. Catalogue.

1973 “Bilder-Objekte-Filme-Konzepte.” Städtische Galerie im Lenbachhaus, Munich. April 3–May 13. Catalogue.

“Art in Space: Some Turning Points.” Detroit Institute of Arts, Michigan.

May 15–June 24. Catalogue.

“Group Exhibition.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. June 3–September 15.

“Group Exhibition.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. September 22– October 16.

“Contemporanea.” Parcheggio di Villa Borghese, Rome. November 1973–February 1974. Catalogue.

1981 “Westkunst.” Museen der Stadt Köln, Cologne. May 30–August 16.

Catalogue.

1974 “Some Recent American Art.” Organized by the Museum of Modern Art, New York. Opened at National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, February 12–March 10. Traveled to: West Australian Art Gallery, Perth, April 5– May 5, 1974; Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney, May 31–June 30, 1974; Art Gallery of South Australia, Adelaide, July 26–August 21, 1974; City of Auckland Art Gallery, New Zealand, October 14–November 17, 1974. Catalogue.

“Drawings.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. February 16–March 2.

“Group Exhibition.” John Weber Gallery, New York. June 1–July.

“Group Exhibition.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. June 21–September 14.

“In Three Dimensions.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. September 21– October 12.

1975 “Benefit Exhibition for the Allen Memorial Art Museum, Oberlin College.”

Leo Castelli Gallery and Sonnabend Gallery, New York. April 2–5.

“Dan Flavin, Donald Judd, Ellsworth Kelly, Robert Morris.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. November 22–December 13.

1976 “Drawing Now.” Museum of Modern Art, New York. January 21–March 9. Catalogue.

“Line.” Visual Arts Museum, New York. January 26–February 18. Traveled to: Philadelphia College of Art, March 5–April 9, 1976. Catalogue.

“Two Hundred Years of American Sculpture.” Whitney Museum of American Art, New York. March 16–September 26. Catalogue.

“Group Exhibition.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. June 19–September 10.

“Group Drawing Exhibition.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. June 26– September 10.

1982 “Flavin/Judd/Serra.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. February 20– March 27.

“Castelli and His Artists: Twenty-five Years.” La Jolla Museum of Contemporary Art, California. April 23–June 6. Traveled to: Aspen Center for the Visual Arts, Colorado, June 17–August 7, 1982; Castelli Gallery, New York, September 11–October 9, 1982; Portland Center for the Visual Arts, Oregon, October 22–December 3, 1982; Laguna Gloria Art Museum, Austin, Texas, December 17, 1982–February 13, 1983.

Catalogue.

1983 “The First Show: Painting and Sculpture from Eight Collections, 1940– 1980.” Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles. Opened November 18. Catalogue.

1984 Hallen für neue Kunst, Schaffhausen, Switzerland. May 1984–May 1991. Long-term installations.

“Blam! The Explosion of Pop, Minimalism, and Performance, 1958– 1964.” Whitney Museum of American Art, New York. September 20– December 9. Catalogue.

1985 “Group Exhibition.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. March 30–April 13.

“Transformations in Sculpture: Four Decades of American and European Art.” Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York. November 22, 1985–February 16, 1986. Catalogue.

“Group Exhibition.” Annemarie Verna Galerie, Zurich.

1986 “In Honor of John Chamberlain.” Xavier Fourcade, Inc., New York. June 27–September 12. Catalogue.

“Individuals: A Selected History of Contemporary Art, 1945–1986.”

Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles. December 10, 1986–January 10, 1988. Catalogue.

140

1987 “Group Exhibition.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. January 31–March 7.

“Thirtieth Anniversary: The First Fifteen Years, Part Two.” Leo Castelli Gallery, New York. March 14–April 4. Brochure.

British Columbia. May 13–July 11, 2004. Catalogue.

2004 “A Minimal Future? Art as Object, 1958–1968.” Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles. March 14–August 2. Catalogue.

“Beyond Geometry: Experiments in Form 1940s-70s.” Los Angles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles. June 13–October 3, 2004. Traveled to: Miami Art Museum, Miami, Florida. November 19–April 24, 2005.

Catalogue.

“Recent Acquisitions: Framing the Collection. Parrish Art Museum,” Southampton, New York. November 20, 2004–January 2, 2005.

“Dan Flavin: Sculpture.” Rhona Hoffman Gallery, Chicago. December 10–January 29, 2005.

1988 “Arte Minimal de la Colección Panza.” Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, Madrid. March 24–December 31. This exhibition was not recognized by the artist.3 Catalogue.

“Zeitlos.” Hamburger Bahnhof, Berlin. June 22–September 25. Catalogue.

1989 “Bilderstreit: Widerspruch, Einheit und Fragment in der Kunst seit 1960.”

Rheinhallen, Cologne. April 8–June 28. Catalogue.

“Einleuchten: Will, Vorstell und Simul in HH.” Deichtorhallen, Hamburg.

November 11, 1989–February 18, 1990. Catalogue.

“L’Art conceptuel, une perspective.” Musée d’art moderne de la Ville de Paris. November 22, 1989–February 18, 1990. Catalogue.

1990 “Quotations: Annemarie Verna Gallery 1969–1989, Part I.” Annemarie Verna Galerie, Zurich. March–April.

“Un Choix d’art minimal dans la collection Panza.” Musée d'art moderne de la Ville de Paris. July 12–November 4. Catalogue.

1991 Hallen für neue Kunst, Schaffhausen, Switzerland. May 1991–present.

Long-term installations.

“Summer Group Exhibition.” Rubin Spangle Gallery, New York. June 1– July 31.

2005 “Color.” Paul Kasmin Gallery, New York. February 24–March 26. “'Logical Conclusions': 40 Years of Rule-Based Art'.” PaceWildenstein, New York. February 18–March 26, 2005. Catalog.

“Minimalism and Beyond.” The Pulitzer Foundation for the Arts, St. Louis.

October 14–April 26, 2007.

2007 “FASTER!BIGGER!BETTER! Signet works of the collections.” ZKM/ Museum of Contemporary Art, Karlsruhe, Germany. September 24–January 7, 2007. Catalogue.

“Passage du Temps, Collection François Pinault Foundation. Lille 3000, Tri Postal, Lille, France. October 16–January 1, 2008. Catalogue.

“The Panza Collection: An Experience of Color and Light.” Albright-Knox Art Gallery. November 16, 2007–February 24, 2008. Catalogue.

2008 “Dan Flavin / Josef Albers.” Gering & Lopez, New York, NY. May 4– June 14.

“Color Chart: Reinventing Color, 1950 to Today.” Museum of Modern Art, New York. March 2–May 12. Traveled to: Tate Liverpool, Liverpool.

May 29–September 13, 2009. Catalogue.

1993 “American Art in the Twentieth Century: Painting and Sculpture, 1913–1993.” Martin-Gropius-Bau, Berlin. May 8–July 25. Traveled to: Royal Academy of Arts, Saatchi Gallery, London. September 16–December 12, 1993. Catalogue published by Prestel Verlag, Munich; brochure published by Royal Academy of Arts.

2009 “A Certain State of the World? A Selection of Works from the François Pinault Foundation.” Garage Center for Contemporary Culture, Moscow.

March 19–June 14. Catalogue.

“If we could imagine,” Glenstone Foundation, Potomac, Maryland.

March 2009–October 2010. Catalogue.

“Qui a peur des artistes? Une selection d’oeuvres de la François Pinault Foundation.” Dinard, Palais des Arts. June 14–September 13.

“Beg Borrow and Steal.” Rubell Family Collection, Miami. December 3, 2009–May 29, 2010. Catalogue.

1995 “Defining Space.” Menil Collection, Houston. May 24–September 24, 1995.

1996 “Abstraction in the Twentieth Century: Total Risk, Freedom, Discipline.”

Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York. February 9–May 12.

Catalogue.

1998 “Dan Flavin/Donald Judd: Aspects of Color.” Menil Collection, Houston.

November 20, 1998–January 24, 1999. Brochure.

1999 “The American Century. Art and Culture 1900–2000, Part II: 1950– 2000.” Whitney Museum of American Art, New York. September 26, 1999–February 13, 2000. Catalogue.

2003 “3 x 3: Flavin, Andre, Judd.” Organized by the National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa. Opened at St Mary's University Art Gallery, Halifax, Nova Scotia. June 13–July 27. Traveled to: Morris and Helen Belkin Art Gallery, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. October 3–November 30, 2003; Illingworth Kerr Gallery, Alberta College of Art and Design, Calgary. February 5–April 3, 2004; Two Rivers Gallery, Prince George,

2010 “Drawing American Light: Dan Flavin and the Hudson River School.” Dan Flavin Institute, Bridgehampton, New York. April 22–October 17.

“Artists at Max’s Kansas City, 1965-1974: Hetero-Holics and Some Women Too.” Loretta Howard Gallery, New York. September 10–October 30.

“Illuminations (After Arthur Rimbaud): Sculpting the Light from the East.”

Leila Taghinia-Milani Heller Gallery, New York. September 15–November 12. Catalogue.

“50 Years at Pace: Highlights from 50 Years of Thematic and Historical Exhibitions.” Pace Gallery, New York. September 17–October 23.

“Behind the Light.” Nathan A. Bernestein & Co. Ltd., New York. November 4–October 23.

2011 “The Parallax View.” Lehmann Maupin Gallery, New York. February 10–March 19.

141

“Sculpture.” Margo Leavin Gallery, Los Angeles. February 12–March 19.

“Contemporary Collecting: The Judith Neisser Collection.” Art Institute of Chicago, Illinois. February 13–May 22.

“Malevich and the American Legacy.” Gagosian Gallery, New York.

March 3–April 30. Catalogue.

“Blink! Light, Sound and the Moving Image.” Denver Art Museum, Colorado. March 13–May 1.

“Making Histories: Changing Views from the Collection.” Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam. May 11–September 9.

“If You Lived Here, You’d Be Home By Now.” Center for Curatorial Studies, Hessel Museum of Art, Bard College, Annandale-on-Hudson, New York. June 25–December 16.

“Line and Space: American Drawings and Sculpture Since 1960 from a Private Collection.” Pinakothek Der Moderne, Munich. July 27–September 25.

“Art=Text=Art: Works by Contemporary Artists.” Joel & Lila Harnett Museum of Art, University of Richmond Museum, Virginia, August 17–October 16. Traveled to the Zimmerli Art Musuem, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey. September 5, 2012–January 6, 2013; Hafnarborg Centre for Culture and Fine Art, Hafnarfjörður, Iceland. May 18–June 23, 2013; University at Buffalo Anderson Gallery, Buffalo, New York.

September 20, 2014–January 11, 2015. Online catalogue.

“The Language of Less (Then and Now).” Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago. October 8, 2011–April 15, 2012. Catalogue.

2012 “Unlikely Friends: James Brooks and Dan Flavin.” Greenberg Van Doren Gallery, New York. January 5–February 18. Catalogue.

“Il Guggenheim: L'Avanguardia Americana, 1945-1980.” Palazzo delle Esposizione, Rome. February 7–May 6. Catalogue.

“Neon: Who's afraid of red, yellow and blue.” La Maison Rouge, Paris.

February 17–May 20. Catalogue.

“Light Works: Dan Flavin and Robert Irwin, Art from the 1960s.” Cantor Arts Center, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California. March 21–July 8.

“Everyday Things: Contemporary Works from the Collection.” Museum of Art, Rhode Island School of Design, Providence, Rhode Island. April 13, 2012–February 24, 2013.

“Color Ignited: Glass, 1962-2012.” Toledo Museum of Art, Toledo, Ohio. June 14–September 9. Catalogue.

“Neon: La Materia Luminosa dell’Arte.” Museo D’Arte Contemporanea Roma, Rome. June 20–November 11.

“Sculpted Matter.” Paul Kasmin Gallery, New York. June 21–August 17.

“The Unseen.” Fourth Guangzhou Triennial, Guandong Museum of Art, Guandong, China. September 28, 2012–December 16, 2013.

Catalogue.

“Carte Blanche to Paula Cooper Gallery, New York.” Galerie Patrick Seguin, Paris. October 19–November 24.

“The Substance of Light: James Turrell / Robert Irwin / Larry Bell / Dan Flavin.” Cuadro Fine Art Gallery, Dubai. November 5, 2012–January 6, 2013.

2013 “Répétition: 1960-1975.” Paula Cooper Gallery, New York. January 19–February 9.

“Light Show.” Hayward Gallery, Southbank Centre, London. January 30–May 6. Traveling to Auckland Art Museum, Auckland, New Zealand.

October 11, 2014–February 8, 2015; Museum of Contemporary Art, Sydney, Australia. April 16–July 5, 2015; Sharjah Art Foundation, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. September 19–December 5, 2015; and CorpArtes, Santiago, Chile. Opening May 2016.

“Dan Flavin / Donald Judd: Sets / Series.” Senior & Shopmaker, New York, NY, February 8–March 30.

“Luminousflux: Lightworks.” Lawrence Wilson Art Gallery, the University of Western Australia, Perth, February 8–April 20.

“Once Upon A Time… The Collection Now.” Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, The Netherlands. February 13–ongoing.

“Dan Flavin and Donald Judd.” David Zwirner, New York. February 15– March 21.

“Répétition II.” Paula Cooper Gallery, New York. February 23–March 23.

“Love Story: The Anne and Wolfgang Titze Collection.” Winter Palace and 21er Haus, Belvedere, Vienna. June 15–October 5. Catalogue.

“Gorgeous.” Asian Art Museum, San Francisco. June 20–September 14.

Catalogue.

“Schenkungen Neuerwerbungen.” Kunsthalle Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Germany, August 29–November 23.

“Burning Down the House.” 10th Gwangju Biennale, Republic of Korea.

September 5–November 9. Catalogue.

“Experiments with Truth: Gandhi and Images of Nonviolence.” Menil Collection, Houston. October 3, 2014–February 1, 2015.

“Still Life: Dan Flavin | Alex Isreal.” Nahmad Contemporary, New York.

October 3–November 1.

"Sufficient Force: Minimal art, conceptual art and land art. The adventurous spirit of the American avant-garde art of the nineteen sixties." KröllerMüller Museum, Otterlo, The Netherlands. October 11, 2014–March 22, 2015. “ghost outfit.” Team Gallery, New York. October 19–November 16.

“Seeing Through Light: Selections from the Guggenheim Abu Dhabi Collection.” Guggenheim Abu Dhabi, Manarat Al Saadiyat, Saadiyat Cultural District, Abu Dhabi. November 5, 2014–January 19, 2015.

2015 “Carl Andre, Dan Flavin, Sol LeWitt.” Paula Cooper Gallery, New York.

January 10–March 7.

“The New York School, 1969: Henry Gedzahler at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.” Paul Kasmin Gallery, New York. January 13–March 14.

“Adventures of the Black Square: Abstract Art and Society 1915-2015.”

Whitechapel Gallery, London. January 15–April 6. Catalogue.

“Geometries On and Off the Grid: Art from 1950 to the Present.” The Warehouse, Dallas, Texas. February 2–November 30.

“Lumination.” Patricia Low Contemporary, Gstaad, Switzerland. February 12–March 6.

“Andy Warhol in the Closet: Works from the Collection Rosetta Barabino.” Museo di Arte Contemporanea di Villa Croce, Genova, Italy. April 1–July 5. Catalogue.

“American Icons: Masterworks from SFMOMA and the Fisher Collection.” Grand Palais, Paris. April 8–June 22. Traveled to Musée Granet, Aix-en-Provence, France. July 11–October 18. Catalogue.

“What’s New is New Again: Dan Flavin, Louise Lawler, and Sherrie Levine.” Marc Jancou, New York. April 9–July 11.

“Notations: Minimalism in Motion,” Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia. April–November 1.

"Double Eye Poke: Lynda Benglis, Dan Flavin, Sol LeWitt, Bruce Nauman." Galerie Kamel Mennour, Paris. May 27–July 25.

“Take an Object.” Museum of Modern Art, New York, August 22, 2015– February 28, 2016.

“Objects and Bodies at Rest and in Motion.” Moderna Museet, Malmö.

September 26, 2015–February 7, 2016. Brochure.

“Bienal Internacional de Curitiba 2015: Luz Do Mundo.” Curitiba, Brazil. October 3, 2015–February 14, 2016.

“Black Sun.” Fondation Beyeler, Riehen, Switzerland. October 4, 2015– January 10, 2016.

“Blue Moon. The Feeling of Light.” Kunsthalle HGN, Duderstadt, Germany. October 17, 2015–February 14, 2016.

“Opening the Box: Unpacking Minimalism.” The George Economou Collection, Athens, Greece. October 22, 2015–April 2016.

“Collected by Thea Westreich Wagner and Ethan Wagner.” The Whitney Museum of American Art, New York. November 20, 2015–March 6, 2016. Travels to: Centre Georges Pompidou,

142

2016 “Drawing Then: Innovation and Influence in American Drawings of the Sixties.” Dominique Lévy, New York. January 27–March 19.

“Between the Eyes.” Sotheby's S|2, London (curated exhibition). February 4–March 26.

"Drôles de trames!" LeFresnoy-Studio national des arts contemporains, Tourcoing, France. March 4–May 8.

1977 Musée d'Art moderne de la Ville de Paris, France.

FRAÇOIS MORELLET

1979 François Morellet, Herman de Vris Galerie Swart, Amsterdam.

Galerie Mörner, Stockholm.

SOLO EXHIBITIONS 1950 Morellet, peintures et sculptures Galerie Creuset, Paris.

1958 Peintures de Morellet - A la recherche d'une base Galerie Colette Allendy, Paris.

1960 Morellet, Adrian Galerie studio F, Ulm, Belgique.

Morellet Galerie Aujourd'hui.

Palais des Beaux-Arts, Bruxelles, Belgique.

1961 Vasarely, François Morellet Galerie Argos, Nantes Galerie Nota Munich.

1962 Studio G, Zagreb, Croatie.

1966 Bilder and die folge Trames Galerie des Spiegel, Cologne, Allemagne.

1978 A propos de la grille et des murs de la galerie », Galerie Piero Cavellini, Brescia, Italie.

Dessins et objets 1954/78 Galerie Gilles Cheerbrant, Montréal, Canada.

1980 Musée des Beaux-Arts, Toulon, France.

Neue Arbeiten » Galerie D+C Mueller-Roth, Stuttgart.

Galerie la Bottega del Quatro, Bergame, Italie.

1981 Métal et néons des années 60 , Centre J. Vilars, Angers.

1982 Centre culturel, Cherbourg, France.

1983 Désintégrations architecturales Ecole d'architecture Saint-Luc, Gand, Belgique.

1984 Werke/Worke 1976/1983”, Musée Wilhelm Hack, Ludwighaffen.

“Systèmes”, exposition itinérante : Albrigh Knox Art gallery, Buffalo Musée d'art contemporain, Montréal The Brooklyn Museum, New York Center of Fine Arts, Miami.

1967 Galerie Denise René, Paris.

Morellet at Indica Galerie Indica, Londres.

1986 La géométrie dans les spasmes et Géométrie figures hâtives, le Consortium, Dijon, France.

Centre georges Pompidou, Paris, France.

1969 Galerie Swart, Amsterdam, Pays-Bas. Galerie Plus-Kern, Gand, Belgique.

1987 Vive versa - Art contemporain aux Pays-Bas : Lavier – Morellet, Het Rijksmuseum Kröller-Müller, Otterlo.

1970 Galerie Denise René - Hans Mayer, Dusseldorf.

1988 Paysage-Marine, galerie Liliane et Michel Durand-Dessert, Paris Galerie Bruno Fachetti, New York, USA. 1989 Intégration, Musée Denys Puech, Rodez, France.

Galerie Suvremene Umjetnosti, Zagreb.

1971 Bilder Lichtobjekte Kinetic Kunstverein, Frankfort.

François Morellet's - Mords-les, Eat Art galerie, Dusseldorf, Allemagne.

1972 Art cinétique, Galerie 2001, Poitiers, France.

Morellet, Cieslewicz Musée des Beaux-Arts, Grenoble.

1973 Musée des Beaux-Arts, Genève, Suisse.

Multiples de Morellet exposition itinérante organisée par le CNAC. 1974 Paintings 1953/57, Néons 1973, Galerie Lucy Milton, Londres, Angleterre.

1975 Art researc Center, Kansas city, USA. Galerie II Centre, Naples, Italie.

1990 Le naufrage de Malévitch, Domaine de Kerguehennec, Locminé Blériot en dentelle, Musée des Beaux-Arts et de la Dentelle, Calais, France.

Hommage aux tilleuls et à Rodin, Musée Rodin, Paris.

1991 Dessins de 1947 à 1961, Musée d'art moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris.

Grands formats, Saarland Museum, Saarbrücken, Allemagne.

1992 Steel-lifes + Néons canvases, Art fairs, Bâle, Suisse.

Musée Van Reekum, Apeldoorn, Pays-Bas.

143

1993 Steel lifes,Galerie Piero Cavellini, Brescia, Italie.

Dommages respectueus à Denys Puech, Musée Denys Puech, Rodez, France.

1994 "Installation", Ambassade de France, New York, USA. 1995 Neonly, Galerie Mark Müller, Zürich, Suisse.

BaroKonkret, Hochschule für Angewandte Kunst, Vienne.

1996 Rokokolossa, Musée d’art, Bonn, Allemagne.

Werke aus 40 Jahren“, Cabinet de graphisme, Kunsthandel Wolfgang Werner, Brême.

1997 Noendneon et stainless still-life, Galerie Nicholas Davies, New York, USA. François Morellet, peintre amateur, 1945/1968, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Angers, France.

1998 Si j't'attrape (avec Armleder, Boeno, Lavier et Verjux), Galerie Catherine Issert, Saint-Paul, France.

1999 Encres et Lumières, La Cohue, Musée de Vannes, France.

Lunatiques, p rococos, p puissants, p cycles, Galerie Mark Muller, Zürich, Suisse.

2000 FIAC 2000, Galerie Catherine Issert, Paris, France.

Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume, Paris (Rétrospective). Travaux 1962-98, Galerie Dany Keller, Munich, Allemagne.

2001 Morellet discrètement, musée Fabre, Montpellier, France.

Morellet carrément, Carré Ste Anne, Montpellier, France. Galerie Gisèle Linder, Bâle, Suisse. (Rétrospective).

2002 Morellet Musée Würth, Künzelsau, Allemagne.

2003 Quelques systèmes en hommage à Herbin, Musée Matisse, Le Cateau-Cambrésis, France.

2006 Art Paris, Galerie Lélia Mordoch, Paris, France.

2007 François Morellet, Musée d’Art contemporain de Lyon, France.

Blow up 1952-2007, quand j’étais petit je ne faisais pas grand, Musée d’Art moderne de la Ville de Paris, France.

45 années lumière, Château de Villeneuve, Fondation Emile Hugues, Vence, France.

2008 «François Morellet, 60 Random Years of Systems” Galerie Annely Juda Fine Art, Londres, Grande-Bretagne. « Négatif », Galerie Martine et Thibault de la Châtre, Paris, JAME TURRELL

SOLO EXHIBITIONS 1967 Pasadena Art Museum, Pasadena, California, “Jim Turrell,” October 9 to November 9, 1967.

1968 Aimery Langois-Meurine, Geneva, Switzerland, “James Turrell,” 1968 Main and Hill Studio, Santa Monica, California, “Light Projections (Xenon Source),” Summer, 1968.

1969 Main and Hill Studio, Santa Monica, California, “Light Spaces (Existing Outside Light as Source),” Summer 1969.

1970 Main and Hill Studio, Santa Monica, California, The Mendota Stoppages, Summer 1970.

1976 Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, Holland, “Jim Turrell,” April 9 to May 23, 1976.

ARCO Center for Visual Art, Los Angeles, California, “James Turrell, Installation,” November 16 to December 24, 1976.

1977 Heiner Friedrich Gallery, Köln, Germany, Summer.

1980 Herron Gallery, Herron School of Art, Indianapolis, Indiana, “James Turrell, Avaar: A Light Installation,” May 16, 1980 to January 14, 1981.

University of Arizona Museum of Art, Tucson, Arizona, “James Turrell, Iltar,” September 5 to October 12, 1980.

Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, New York, “James Turrell: Light and Space,” October 22 to December 31, 1980.

Leo Castelli Gallery, New York, New York, “Phaedo,” November 29, 1980 to January 15, 1981.

1981 Portland Center for Visual Arts, Portland, Oregon, “James Turrell,” September 19 to October 31, 1981.

1982 Center for Contemporary Art, Seattle, Washington, “James Turrell: Four Installations," January 29 to July 28, 1982.

Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Israel, “James Turrell: Two Spaces,” September 12, 1982 to October 31, 1983.

1983 Hayden Gallery, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Massachusetts, “James Turrell, Batten,” January 21 to February 23, 1983.

Flow Ace Gallery, Venice, California, “Laar: 1976,” April 8 to September 21, 1983.

Mattress Factory, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, “Light Installation,” October 29, 1983 to February 1, 1984 University of Delaware Art Gallery, Newark, Delaware, “James Turrell: Jida, An Installation,” November 21, 1983 to January 21, 1984.

Musée d’Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, Paris, France, “James Turrell,” December 20, 1983 to January 29, 1984.

1984 Flow Ace Gallery, Los Angeles, California, “Aerial Drawings: Roden Crater,” February 28 to April 14, 1984.

Capp Street Project, San Francisco, California, “James Turrell: Light Spaces,” May 15 to June 30, 1984.

144

Marian Locks Gallery, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, “James Turrell, Roden Crater: Drawings from Aerial Survey,” September 14 to October 5, 1984.

La Jolla Museum of Contemporary Art, La Jolla, California, “James Turrell,” April 6, 1990.

Stein-Gladstone Gallery, New York, New York, “James Turrell,” April 21 to May 1990.

P.S. 1 Long Island City, New York, “James Turrell, Meeting,” April 21 to May 1990.

Museum of Modern Art, New York, New York, “James Turrell, First Light: Twenty Etchings,” July 26 to November 13, 1990 Stuart Regan Gallery, Los Angeles, California, “James Turrell, First Light Series,” September 8 to September 29, 1990.

Turske & Turske, Zurich, Switzerland, “James Turrell Part 1, Long Green,” December 9, 1990 to March 30, 1991.

1985 Marian Goodman Gallery, New York, New York, “Deep Sky,” January 11 to February 8, 1985.

Roger Ramsay Gallery, Chicago, Illinois, “Deep Sky,” February 16 to March 7, 1985.

Karl Bornstein Gallery, Santa Monica, California, “James Turrell,” February 26 to March 30, 1985.

Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, California, “James Turrell, Occluded Front,” November 13, 1985 to February 9, 1986.

Bernard Jacobson Gallery, Los Angeles, California, “James Turrell,” December 7, 1984 to January 5, 1985.

1991 Kunstmuseum, Bern, Switzerland, “James Turrell, First Light and Catso White,” January 8 to March 10, 1991.

Rhode Island School of Design, Providence, Rhode Island, “James Turrell: Works from the Afrum and Aperture Series,” January 24 to April 14, 1991.

Williams College Art Museum, Williamstown, Massachusetts, “James Turrell,” February 6 to June 30, 1991.

Indianapolis Museum of Art, Indianapolis, Indiana, “James Turrell,” March 22, 1991.

Espace Lulay, Liege, Belgium, “James Turrell,” March 21, 1991.

Galerie Froment & Putman, Paris, France, “James Turrell,” February 27 to April 6, 1991.

Lisa Sette Gallery, Scottsdale, Arizona, “James Turrell,” April 3 to May 4, 1991.

Friedman Guinness Gallery, Frankfurt, Germany, “James Turrell: Change of State,” April 24 to June 29, 1991.

Confort Moderne, Poitiers, France, “James Turrell, Heavy Water,” May 28 to October 28, 1991.

Turske & Turske, Zurich, Switzerland, James Turrell, Part 2, Up in Smoke,” June 16 to November 24, 1991.

Universidad Internacional Menedez y Pelayo, Santander, Spain, “James Turrell,” July 31 to September 8, 1991.

The Principal Corporation, Des Moines, Iowa, “James Turrell, Last Breath,” August 22, 1991.

Anthony d’Offay Gallery, London, England, “James Turrell,” September 3 to October 5, 1991.

Centro Cultural Arte Contemporaneo, Mexico City, Mexico, “James Turrell, Bloodlust,” October 1991.

Carpenter Center, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, “James Turrell: First Light,” November 1 to November 24, 1991.

Turske & Turske, Zurich, Switzerland, “James Turrell Part 3, Irish Sky Garden,” November 24, 1991 to February 29, 1992.

1985 Marian Goodman Gallery, New York, New York, “Deep Sky,” January 11 to February 8, 1985.

Roger Ramsay Gallery, Chicago, Illinois, “Deep Sky,” February 16 to March 7, 1985.

Karl Bornstein Gallery, Santa Monica, California, “James Turrell,” February 26 to March 30, 1985.

Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, California, “James Turrell, Occluded Front,” November 13, 1985 to February 9, 1986.

Bernard Jacobson Gallery, Los Angeles, California, “James Turrell,” December 7, 1984 to January 5, 1985.

1987 Yvon Lambert Galerie, Paris, France, “James Turrell, Roden Crater Drawings,” January 10 to February 19, 1987.

Phoenix Art Museum, Phoenix, Arizona, “The Roden Crater Project,” January 30 to February 22, 1987.

Kunsthalle, Basel, Switzerland, “James Turrell, Roden Crater Project und Licht-Raum,” May 23 to July 5, 1987.

University Art Gallery, University of California, Riverside, California, “James Turrell, Roden Crater,” September 22 to October 21, 1987.

Lannan Museum, Lake Worth, Florida, “James Turrell,” December 18, 1987 to June 30, 1988.

1988 Roger Ramsay Gallery, Chicago, Illinois, “James Turrell,” April 9 to May 14, 1988.

Museum of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff, Arizona, “James Turrell and Roden Crater,” September 23 to November 23, 1988.

Coconino Center for the Arts, Flagstaff, Arizona, “James Turrell and Roden Crater,” September 23 to November 9, 1988.

Jean Bernier Gallery, Athens, Greece, “James Turrell,” October 6 to November 12, 1988.

1989 Florida State University Gallery and Museum, Tallahassee, Florida, “James Turrell,” March 10 to April 16, 1989.

Security Pacific Gallery, Costa Mesa, California, “James Turrell,” June 14 to December 17, 1989.

Musée des Beaux-Arts de Nîmes, Nîmes, France, “James Turrell, A La Levée du Soir, “ July 8 to October 1, 1989.

Galerie Froment & Putman, Paris, France, "James Turrell: Un Peu Plus Prés Du Ciel, Pierre Restany," November 24, 1989 to January 12, 1990.

1990 Newport Harbor Art Museum, Newport Beach, California, “James Turrell, Rondo,” January 21 to March 18, 1990.

Boulder Art Center, Boulder, Colorado, “James Turrell: ‘Fritto Misto’ & ‘Pleiades,’ Three Installations,” March 30 to June 3, 1990.

1992 Musée d’Art Contemporain, Lyon, France, “James Turrell,” January 8 to March 8, 1992.

Isy Brachot Gallery, Brussels, Belgium, “James Turrell,” January 16 to March 28, 1992.

Gallery Cora Holzl, Düsseldorf, Germany, “James Turrell, First Light,” March 28 to May 19, 1992.

Kunstsammlung für Nordrhein und Westphalen, Düsseldorf, Germany, “James Turrell, Grey Dawn,” April 3, 1992 Kunstverein Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany, “James Turrell, Perception Cells,” April 4 to June 14, 1992.

Sprengel Museum, Hannover, Germany, “James Turrell,” May 16, 1992.

Stroom, The Hague, Holland, “James Turrell,” May 22 to June 30, 1992.

Turske Hue-Williams Gallery, London, England, “James Turrell, Drawings of the Irish Sky Garden,” June 3 to August 10, 1992.

Confort Moderne, Poitiers, France, “James Turrell, Heavy Waters,” August 5 to October 11, 1992.

Fundació Espai Poblenou, Barcelona, Spain, “James Turrell, Deuce

145

Coup,” June 1992.

Wiener Secession, Vienna, Austria, “James Turrell, The Perception Cells,” July 8 to August 9, 1992.

Belvedere, Royal Gardens of Prague Castle, Prague, Czechoslovakia, “James Turrell, The Perceptual Cells,” September 8 to October 21, 1992.

Claremont/Pitzer Colleges, Claremont, California, “James Turrell, A Skyspace,” September 16 to December 18, 1992 Weisser Raum, Hamburg, Germany, “James Turrell,” September 25 to December 28, 1992.

Henry Art Gallery, Seattle, Washington, “James Turrell Works 19671992,” October 8, 1992 to January 3, 1993.

Fuel Gallery, Seattle, Washington, “James Turrell, Drawings 1992,” November 5 to December 23, 1992.

The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Israel, “James Turrell,” November 9, 1992.

Fundación La Caixa, Madrid, Spain, “James Turrell, Sensing Space,” November 12, 1992 to January 17, 1993 Lenbachhaus, Munich, Germany, “James Turrell, Scant Range,” December 12, 1992.

1993 Ace Gallery, Los Angeles, California, “James Turrell,” January to April 25, 1993.

Hayward Gallery, Southbank Centre, London, England, “James Turrell, Air Mass,” April 8 to June 27, 1993.

Anthony D’Offay Gallery, London, England, “James Turrell,” May 12 to June 16, 1993.

Butler Gallery, Kilkenny Castle, Kilkenny, Ireland, “James Turrell, Air Mass,” July 15 to August 16, 1993.

Institute of Contemporary Art, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, “James Turrell, Sensing Space,” September 10 to October 31, 1993.

Marian Locks Gallery, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, “James Turrell,” September 17 to October 31, 1993.

Henry Moore Sculpture Trust, Halifax, England, “James Turrell, The Gasworks,” October 14 to December 22, 1993 Knoedler Gallery, New York, New York, “Drawings from Space,” November 6 to December 2, 1993.

1994 Barbara Gladstone Gallery, New York, New York, “James Turrell,” January 29 to March 16, 1994.

Lisa Sette Gallery, Phoenix, Arizona, “Roden Crater: Realizing a Vision,” March 10 to April 9, 1994.

Crawford Municipal Art Gallery, Cork, Ireland, “James Turrell,” July 22, 1994.

National Sculpture Factory, Cork, Ireland, “James Turrell, The Gasworks,” August 22, 1994.

Galerie Froment & Putman, Paris, France, “James Turrell,” September 30 to November 19, 1994.

Magazin 3, Stockholm, Sweden, “James Turrell,” October 23, 1994 to April 2, 1995.

Atelier Theatre & Music (ATEM), Nanterre, France, “To Be Sung,” November 17, 1994.

Orlèans, France, “To Be Sung,” (ATEM), December, 1994 Aspen Art Center, Aspen, Colorado, “James Turrell,” December 8 to April 9, 1994.

1995 Munich, Germany, The Marstall, (ATEM), “To Be Sung,” January 1995.

Frankfurt, Germany, “To Be Sung,” (ATEM), February 1995 Portside Gallery, Yokohama, Japan, “James Turrell, Backside of the Moon,” March 17 to May 17, 1995.

Berlin, Germany, “To Be Sung,” (ATEM), 1995.

Galerie Jule Kewenig, Frechen-Bachen, Germany, “James Turrell, Red Shift,” May 29 to August 30, 1995.

Fia Art Network, Index Gallery, Osaka, Japan, “James Turrell,” September 6 to 26, 1995.

Städtische Galerie, Goppingen, Germany, “James Turrell,” September 10 to November 15, 1995.

Art Tower Mito, Mito, Japan, “James Turrell,” November 3, 1995 to January 28, 1996.

1996 Hiram Butler Gallery, Houston, Texas, “James Turrell: Drawings,” January 13 to February 29, 1996.

Michael Hue-Williams Fine Art, London, England, “James Turrell,” June 31 to September 20, 1996.

Ace Contemporary Exhibitions, Los Angeles, California, “James Turrell: Models for Autonomous Spaces,” August 20 to September 30, 1996.

Stroom, The Hague, Netherlands, “James Turrell, Kijkowin,” September 21, 1996 to March 20, 1997.

1997 Kunsthaus Bregenz, Bregenz, Austria, “James Turrell,” July 27 to September 6, 1997.

Saitama Prefecture Museum, Urawa, Japan, “James Turrell, Where does the Light in Our Dreams Come From?” October 10 to December 7, 1997.

1998 Stark Gallery, New York, New York, "James Turrell, Between Blue," January 23 to February 14, 1998.

Nagoya City Museum, Nagoya, Japan, “James Turrell, Where does the Light in Our Dreams Come From?” January 31 to March 29, 1998.

Michael Hue-Williams Fine Art, London, England, “James Turrell,” May 20 to June 27, 1998.

The Brown Foundation Gallery: Contemporary Art Museum, Houston, Texas, “James Turrell, Spirit and Light,” June 6 to July 26, 1998.

Orange County Museum of Art, Newport Beach, California, “James Turrell, Sounding,” July 1, 1998 to January 3, 1999 Setagaya Museum, Tokyo, Japan, “James Turrell, Where does the Light in Our Dreams Come From?” August 13 to November 1, 1998.

Museet for Samtidskunst, Oslo, Norway, “James Turrell,” September 12 to November 1, 1998.

Center for Contemporary Art, Ujazdowski Castle, Warsaw, Poland, "James Turrell, Space Division and Wedgework," October 15, 1998 to January 3, 1999.

Barbara Gladstone Gallery, New York, New York, “James Turrell, Lapsed Quaker Ware,” October 31 to December 23, 1998.

MAK, Vienna, Austria, “James Turrell, The Other Horizon,” December 2, 1998 to March 21, 1999.

1999 Newlyn Art Gallery, Newlyn, Penzance, Cornwall, England, “James Turrell, Arcus,” June 18 to August 31, 1999.

Penzance, Cornwall, England, “James Turrell, Elliptic Ecliptic,” July 1 to September 12, 1999.

Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City, Kansas, “James Turrell, Cross Cut,” November 7, 1999 to January 30, 2000.

Zumtobel Staff, Zurich, Switzerland, “James Turrell, Floater,” November 10, 1999 to December 31, 1999.

AD Gallery, New York, New York, “James Turrell, Lapsed Quaker Ware,” November 12, 1999 to January 30, 2000 Galerie Almine Rech, Paris, France, “James Turrell, Hi Test,” November 17, 1999 to February 26, 2000.

2000 Espace Electra, “James Turrell,” Paris, France, April 26.2001 2001 Scottsdale Museum of Contemporary Art, Scottsdale, Arizona, “James

146

Turrell, Infinite Light,” February 11 to September 9, 2001.

Saint Louis Art Museum, Saint Louis, Missouri, “James Turrell,” July 10 to September 30, 2001.

Harley Baldwin Gallery, Aspen, Colorado, “James Turrell,” August 9 to September 30, 2001.

Museum für Moderne Kunst (MMK), Frankfurt, Germany, "James Turrell, Light and Space," September 20 to October 29, 2001 Haus Konstruktiv, Zu.rich, Switzerland, “James Turrell,” September 29, 2001 to April 11, 2002.

Hausler Kulturemanagement, Munich, Germany, "James Turrell," December 1, 2001 to March 28, 2002.

MMK, Frankfurt, Germany, “James Turrell, Light and Space,” September 20 to October 29, 2001.

Valentina Moncada, Rome, Italy, “James Turrell,” May 28 to July 15, 2001.

Michael Hue-Williams Fine Art, London, England, “James Turrell,” April, 2001.

Yorkshire Sculpture Park, Wakefield, England, “James Turrell: Light Installations,” November 5, 2005 to May 14, 2006.

2006 Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, “James Turrell: Alta White,” March 8 to September 25, 2006.

Griffin Contemporary, Santa Monica, CA, “James Turrell: New Work,” May 20 to August 26, 2006.

Louis T. Blouin Foundation, London, United Kingdom, “James Turrell: A Life in Light,” October 13, 2006 to May 27, 2007.

Musée de Grenoble, Grenoble, France, “James Turrell,” November 10 to December 12, 2006.

2007 Häusler Contemporary, Zurich, Switzerland, “James Turrell, The Tall Glass,” March 3 to August 3, 2007.

Pace Wildenstein, New York, New York, “James Turrell: Light Leadings,” March 23 to April 28, 2007.

Albion Gallery, London, England, “James Turrell, Orca Blue,” June 5 to July 20, 2007.

Pomona College Museum of Art, Claremont, California, “James Turrell at Pomona College,” September 4, 2007 to May 17, 2008.

IUAV (Universitá Iuav de Venezia), Gino Valle Gallery, Venice, Italy, “Geometries of Light: The Roden Crater Project by James Turrell,” October 1 to November 9, 2007.

Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York, “James Turrell, Gap,” January 5, 2007 to October 23, 2008.

2002 National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., “James Turrell,” April 8 to September 1, 2002.

Galerie Almine Rech, Paris, France, “James Turrell,” April 9 to July 13, 2002.

Michael Hue-Williams Fine Art, London, England, “James Turrell, Holograms,” May 21 to June 15, 2002.

Mattress Factory, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, “James Turrell, Into the Light,” June 2, 2002 to April 30, 2003.

2003 Henry Art Gallery, Seattle, Washington, “James Turrell, Knowing Light,” March 22 to February 8, 2004.

Sonoma County Museum, Santa Rosa, California, “James Turrell, Light and Land,” June 21, 2003 to January 4, 2004.

Cheryl Haines Gallery, San Francisco, California, “James Turrell, The Light Within,” September 4 to October 25, 2003 Zug Museum of Art, Zug, Switzerland, “James Turrell,” November 29, 2003 to February 29, 2004.

PaceWildenstein Gallery, New York, New York, “James Turrell,” December 2, 2003 to January 10, 2004.

Baldwin Gallery, Aspen, Colorado, “James Turrell, New Holograms,” December 26, 2003 to January 24, 2004.

2008 Baldwin Gallery, Aspen, Colorado, “Light Works 2002-2007,” February 15 to March 9, 2008.

Fondo L’Ambiente Italiano (FAI), at Villa Panza, “James Turrell, Arte Oltre la Luce,” May 16 to August 17, 2008 The High Line, New York, New York, “40th Anniversary of Calvin Klein,” September 7, 2008.

Oroom Gallery, Seoul Total Art Museum, Seoul, and Museé Shium, Seoul, “James Turrell,” October 9 to December 19, 2008.

Unna, Germany, "James Turrell, The Roden Crater," November 27, 2008 to January 31, 2009.

2004 Griffin Contemporary, Santa Monica, CA, “James Turrell: Autonomous Structures,” January 17 to March 13, 2004.

Gallery 400, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, James Turrell: In Light," September 7 to October 30, 2004.

Galerie Almine Rech, Paris, France, “James Turrell,” September 14 to November 6, 2004.

Albion, London, England, “James Turrell: Projection Works 1967-69,” October 14 to December 17, 2004.

Galerie Almine Rech, Paris, France, “James Turrell,” November 13 to December 15, 2004.

Griffin Contemporary, Santa Monica, CA, “James Turrell: Early Light Works,” November 13, 2004 to February 12, 2005.

IVAM, Valencia, Spain, “James Turrell,” December 14, 2004 to February 27, 2005.

2005 Alan Koppel Gallery, Chicago, Illinois, “James Turrell: Transformative Space,” March 25 to May 6, 2005.

PaceWildenstein Gallery, New York, New York, “James Turrell: Light Projections 1968 and Light Works 2005,” July 14 to September 10, 2005.

Tokyo Publishing House, “James Turrell, Projection Work,” September 5 to 22, 2005.

2009 Kulturbetriebe Unna, Center for International Light Art, Unna, Germany, “James Turrell, The Geometry of Light,” February 2 to May 31, 2009.

PaceWildenstein Gallery, New York, New York, “James Turrell: Large Holograms,” September 10 to October 17, 2009 Kunstmuseum Wolfsburg, Germany, “James Turrell: The Wolfsburg Project,” October 24, 2009 to April 5, 2010 (Extended to October 3, 2010).

Häusler Contemporary, Munich, Germany, “James Turrell: The Roden Crater, Sculpture and Photographs,” January 29 to March 28, 2009.

Griffin Contemporary, Santa Monica, California, “James Turrell: Autonomous Structures,” July 25 to August 29, 2009.

2010 Almine Rech Gallery, Brussels, Belgium, “James Turrell,” September 10 to December 21, 2010 Gagosian Gallery, London, England, “James Turrell,” October 12 to December 4, 2010.

2011 Kulturhuset, Järna, Sweden , See! Colour! “James Turrell: The Light Inside,” May 15 to October 2, 2011.

Garage Center for Contemporary Culture, Moscow, Russia, “James Turrell,” June 11 to August 21, 2011.

Kayne Griffin Corcoran Gallery, Santa Monica, California, “James Tur-

147

rell: Present Tense,” September 15 to December 17, 2011.

Häusler Contemporary, Zürich, Switzerland, “James Turrell: Licht, Körper,” November 17, 2011 to February 25, 2012.

2005 “Spyglass,” GALERIE DANIEL TEMPLON, Paris, France “Shortcuts,” ART ROCK, ROCKEFELLER PLAZA, New York, USA.

2012 Pacific Standard Time Performance Festival, Bridges Auditorium, Pomona College, Claremont, CA, “Burning Bridges (restaged),” January 21, 2012.

Hiram Butler Gallery, Houston, Texas, “James Turrell: Six Holograms,” July 7 to August 11, 2012.

Colorado Springs Fine Art Center, Colorado Springs, Colorado, “James Turrell: Trace Elements: Light into Space,” July 14 to September 30, 2012.

Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, “James Turrell, Air Apparent,” October 17, 2012.

Hacienda Ochil, Ochil, Yucatan, Mexico, “James Turrell,” November 14, 2012.

Cenote Santa Maria, Tixcacaltuyub, Yucatan, Mexico, “James Turrell, Agua de Luz,” November 15, 2012.

2006 “Concentration Camp,” ROEBLING HALL New York, USA “Pachamama,” GALERÍA METROPOLITANA, Santiago, Chile.

2013 The Pace Gallery, New York, New York, “James Turrell,” March 15 to April 20, 2013.

Academy Art Museum, Easton, Maryland, "James Turrell Perspectives,” April 20 to July 7, 2013 Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los .Angeles, California, “James Turrell: A Retrospective,” May 23, 2013 to April 6, 2014.

Kayne Griffin Corcoran Gallery, Santa Monica, California, “James Turrell,” May 23 to July 20, 2013.

Galerie Almine Rech, Paris, France, "James Turrell," June 1 to July 27, 2013.

Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Texas, “James Turrell: The Light Inside,” June 9 to September 22, 2013.

The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York, New York, “James Turrell,” June 21 to September 25, 2013.

ReMap 4, Athens, Greece, “James Turrell: Knowing Light,” September 19 to September 30, 2013.

Spencer Museum of Art, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, “ James Turrell: Gard Blue,” September 14, 2013 to May 18, 2014.

Hausler Contemporary Munich, "James Turrell Projections," November 8, 2013 to February 28, 2014.

2014 Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Israel “James Turrell: A Retrospective,” June 1, 2014 to January 3, 2015.

National Gallery of Australia, Canberra, "James Turrell: A Retrospective," December 2014 to April 2015.

I VÁ N N AVA R R O SOLO EXHIBITIONS 1996 “Camping Day,” PUC, Santiago, Chile.

2001 “Big Bang,” GALERÍA ANIMAL, Santiago, Chile.

2002 “Blade Runner,” GASWORKS STUDIOS, London, UK. 2004 “Monuments for D. Flavin,” ROEBLING HALL, New York, USA “Juice Sucker,” CSPS LEGION ARTS, Iowa, USA.

2007 “¿Dónde Están?,” CENTRO CULTURAL MATUCANA 100, Santiago, Chile.

“Propuesta de Monumento para Victor Jara,” GALERÍA MORO, Santiago, Chile.

“Large Wall Hole (project wall)”, JERSEY CITY MUSEUM, New Jersey, USA. 2008 “Homeless Lamp, The Juice Sucker,” FABRIC WORK SHOP & MUSEUM, Philadelphia, USA “Antifurniture,” GALERIE DANIEL TEMPLON, Paris, France “Backstage,” GREENAWAY GALLERY, Adelaide Bank Festival of Arts, Adelaide, Australia.

2009 “Die,” PAUL KASMIN GALLERY, New York, USA. “Nowhere Man,” GALERIE DANIEL TEMPLON, Paris, France “Threshold, 53rd Biennale di Venezia”, CHILEAN PAVILION, Venice, Italy.

“Nowhere Man,” CONTEMPORARY ART CENTER TOWNER, Eastbourne, United Kingdom.

2010 “Tener Dolor en el Cuerpo de Otro,” DISTRITO 4, Madrid, Spain.

“Tierra de Nadie,” CAJA DE BURGOS, Burgos, Spain.

“Missing,” CHAMBRE BLANCHE, Manif d´art 5, Catastrophe? Quebec, Canada.

2011 “UNO Fence”, Prospect.2 at UNO GALLERY, New Orleans, USA. “The Armory Fence,” PAUL KASMIN GALLERY at the Armory Show, New York, USA. “Heaven or Las Vegas,” PAUL KASMIN GALLERY, New York, USA. 2012 “Impenetrables, Art Kabinett,” PAUL KASMIN GALLERY, Art Basel.

Miami, USA. “Iván Navarro: Fluorescent Light Sculptures,” FROST MUSEUM OF ART, Miami, USA. “Light at the End of the Tunnel,” EGERAN GALLERY, Istanbul, Turkey.

“Heaven or Las Vegas,” SCAD MUSEUM OF ART, Savannah, Georgia, USA. “Nacht und Nebel,” FONDAZIONE VOLUME!, Rome, Italy.

2013 “Where is the Next War?” GALERIE DANIEL TEMPLON, Paris, France 2014 “This Land is Your Land,” NORTHPARK CENTER, Dallas, USA. “299 792 458 m/s,” GALLERY HYUNDAI, Seoul, Korea “This Land is Your Land,” MADISON SQUARE PARK, New York, USA. “Nacht und Nebel,” GALERIE DANIEL TEMPLON, Brussels, Belgium.

2015 “Onomatoepopeyas,” CENTRO CULTURAL MATUCANA 100, Santiago, Chile.

“Una Guerra Silenciosa e Imposible,” CORPARTES FOUNDATION, Santiago, Chile.

148

“This Land is Your Land,” NASHER MUSEUM OF ART, Durham, NC.

MUSEO NACIONAL DE ARTES VISUALES, Montevideo, Uruguay.

EL MUSEO DEL BARRIO, New York, USA. MUSEO DE ARTE DE SAN MARCO, Lima, Perú.

SITE SANTA FE, New Mexico, USA. CENTRO CULTURAL MATUCANA 100, Santiago, Chile.

MUSEO DE ARTE MODERNO, Bogotá, Colombia.

ART MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAS, OAS, Washington DC, USA. UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING ART MUSEUM. Wyom.

GROUP EXHIBITIONS 1997 “Arte Joven en Chile (1986-1996),” MUSEO NACIONAL DE BELLAS ARTES, Santiago, Chile.

1998 “Drawings,” ARCHILL GALLERY, Aukland, New Zealand.

2011 “Motion of a Nation,” V.M.21 ARTE CONTEMPORANEA GALLERY, Roma, Italy.

“Prospect.2.” New Orleans, USA. “Lúmens,” FESTES DECENNALS DE LA CANDELA, Valls, Spain.

1999 “The Selected Files,” EL MUSEO DEL BARRIO New York, USA. “Doméstico,” MUSEO DE ARTE CONTEMPORÁNEO DE VALDIVIA, Valdivia, Chile.

2012 “Sculpted Matter,” PAUL KASMIN GALLERY, New York, USA “Neon-Who’s Afraid of Red, Yellow and Blue?” MACRO, Rome, Italy.

“Mouvement et Lumière,” VILLA DATRIS, L’Isle sur Sorgue, France.

“Eleventh Havana Biennial,” CENTRO DE ARTE CONTEMPORÁNEO WIFREDO LAM, Havana, Cuba.

“Every Exit is an Entrance: 30 Years of Exit Art,” EXIT ART, New York, USA. “Neon–Who’s Afraid of Red, Yellow and Blue?,” LA MAISON ROUGE, Paris, France.

1999—2000 Chile – Austria (traveling exhibition).

LANDESGALERIE-OBEROESTERREICH, Linz, Austria.

KÄRNTNER LANDESGALERIE, Innsbruck, Austria.

MUSEO NACIONAL DE BELLAS ARTES, Santiago, Chile.

2000—2001 “The Place Without Limit, Contemporary Art From Chile” (traveling exhibition).

MUSEO DE ARTE MODERNO DE GUADALAJARA, Guadalajara, Mexico.

MUSEO NACIONAL DE ARTE, Lima, Perú.

MUSEO RUBÉN BLADES, Montevideo, Urug.

2013 “Fluorescent Light Sculpture,” FROST ART MUSEUM, Miami, USA. “Light at the End of the Tunnel,” EGERAN GALERI, Istanbul, Turkey.

“Light Show,” HAYWARD GALLERY. London, United Kingdom “Transverso: Instalaciones y nuevos medios en Iberoamérica,” INSTITUTO VALENCIANO DE ARTE MODERNO, Valencia, Spain.

2002 “Overt Operation,” JOSEPH HELMAN GALLERY, New York, USA. “Viology, Violence of Culture & Culture of Violence,” GALERÍA DE LA RAZA, San Francisco, USA. “Sudamericanrockers,” HARTELL GALLERY AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY, Ithica, New York, USA.

2014 “Light Show,” AUCKLAND ART GALLERY TOI O TĀMAKI, Auckland, New Zealand.

“Under the Same Sun: Art From Latin America Today,” SOLOMON R. GUGGENHEIM MUSEUM, New York, USA.

2003 “Brewster 2003,” BREWSTER. New York, USA. “Ricos y Famosos,” MUSEO DE LA SOLIDARIDAD SALVADOR ALLENDE, Santiago, Chile.

“Frankenstein (or, it’s all fun and games until someone loses an eye),” TANYA BONAKDAR GALLERY, New York, USA. 2004 “Produciendo Realidad, Arte e Resistenza Latinoamericana,” PROMETEO ASSOCIAZIONE Lucca, Italy.

Terrorvision, Exit Art. New York, USA. Cile-Italia, Instituto Italo Latino American, Rome, Italy.

Biennale Adriatica di Arti Nuove, San Benedetto del Toronto, Italy.

2005 “Poles Apart / Poles Together,” WHITE BOX AND THE INTERNATIONAL ARTISTS MUSEUM FOR THE 51ST VENICE BIENNALE, Venice, Italy.

“Next Next Art,” BROOKLYN ACADEMY OF MUSIC, New York, USA. “Sept. 11, 1973,” ORCHARD, New York, USA. “Acción Directa: Latin American Social Sphere,” PRAGUE BIENNALE 2, Prague, Czech Republic.

“Transformer,” CENTRO CULTURAL MATUCANA 100, Santiago, Chile.

2005—2009 “The Disappeared” (traveling exhibition) NORTH DAKOTA MUSEUM OF ART, Grand Forks, USA. CENTRO CULTURAL RECOLETA, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

2015 “The Future of Light Art” CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL LIGHT ART UNNA, Germany.

“Light Show,” SHARJAH ART FOUNDATION, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.

“Storylines: Contemporary Art at the Guggenheim,” SOLOMON R. GUGGENHEIM MUSEUM, New York, USA. 2016 “Light Show,” CORPARTES, Santiago, Chile "On the Immense and the Numberless,” DAVID RISLEY GALLERY, Copenhagen Denmark.

LEO VILLAREAL SOLO EXHIBITIONS 2002 Sandra Gering Gallery, NY. Conner Contemporary Art, Washington, DC.

149

2003 Finesilver Gallery, San Antonio, TX.

Eye Candy, Scott White Contemporary Art, La Jolla, CA. Synth, organized by Leo Villareal, White Columns, New York The Next Perfect 10, Sandra Gering Gallery, New York (traveling).

Perfect 10: Ten Years in Soho,Sandra Gering Gallery, New York.

2004 Sandra Gering Gallery, NY. Conner Contemporary Art, Washington, DC.

2002 Sculpture Now, Palm Beach Institute of Contemporary Art, Palm Beach, FL. Light x 8, The Jewish Museum, NY. Interstate, Texas Fine Arts Association, Austin, TX. I Just Cant Pretend, Derek Eller Gallery, NY. Optical Optimism, Galerie Simone Stern, New Orleans, LA. Complexity, Texas Fine Arts Association, Austin, TX. Shine02.org, Online art project sponsored by Amnesty International, organized by Downtown Arts Projects.

2005 Galeria Javier Lopez, Madrid, Spain Marc Selwyn Fine Art, Los Angeles, CA. 2006 Conner Contemporary Art, Washington, DC. 2007 Gering and Lopez Gallery, New York, NY.

2003 High Desert Test Sites, Joshua Tree, CA organized by Andrea Zittel.

Winter Light, Socrates Sculpture Park, Long Island City, NY. In the Gloaming, The Fields Sculpture Park, Ghent, NY. Afterimage, Wood Street Galleries, Pittsburgh, PA. Complexity, Federal Reserve, Washington, DC.

2008 National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. Conner Contemporary Art, Washington, DC. 2009 Galeria Javier Lopez, Madrid, Spain.

2010 Leo Villareal: Survey, San Jose Museum of Art, San Jose, CA, traveling to the Nerman Museum of Contemporary Art, Overland Park, KS, Nevada Museum of Art, Reno, NV, Telfair Museum of Art, Savannah, GA, and Madison Museum of Contemporary Art, Madison, WI. Leo Villareal: Recent Works, Tampa Museum of Art, Tampa, FL. San Jose Museum of Art, San Jose, CA. Tampa Museum of Art, Tampa, FL. 2011 Volume, Gering & López Gallery, New York, NY.

2013 Digital Sublime, Miles C. Horton Jr. Gallery, Center for the Arts at Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA.

2016 Spacetime, Fused Space, San Francisco, CA. GROUP EXHIBITIONS 1997 Elsewhere, Thread Waxing Space, New York.

2000 rooms_for_listening, CCAC Institute, San Francisco, CA Collectors Choice, Exit Art, New York.

City of Lights, curated by Simon Watson and Downtown Arts Projects, Hermes Boutique, New York.

Exposure: The Future of Film Festival, USA Network and Scfi Channel, New York Optical Optimism, Galerie Simone Stern.

2001 Tirana Biennale, Tirana (curated by Miltos Manetas).

2005 Visual Music, LAMoca, Los Angeles and Hirshorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington DC. Extreme Abstraction, Albright Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, NY. Greater New York, PS1 Moma, New York, NY. 2006 Lightworks, Galería Javier López, Madrid, Spain.

Backdrop, Bloomberg SPACE, London, England.

All Digital, Museum of Contemporary Art, Cleveland, OH. Summer Light, Sandra Gering Gallery, New York, NY. Art in America, Arario Gallery, Seoul, Korea.

2012 New Works, Conner Contemporary Art, Washington, DC.

2014 Buckyball, Sandra Gering Gallery, New York, NY.

2004 Optimo, Ballroom, Marfa, Texas curated by Alexander Gray Fiction Love- Ultra New Visions in Contemporary Art, Museum of Contemporary Art, Taipei.

2007 Digital Stories, Centro Galego de Arte Contemporánea (CGAC), Santiago, Spain.

2008 That Was Then... This is Now, PS1 Contemporary Art Center, Long Island City, NY. 2009 Conversations in Lyrical Abstraction: 1958-2009, Conner Contemporary Art, Washington, DC. 2010 Synesthesia, Albuquerque Museum of Art, Albuquerque, NM Contemplating the Void: Interventions in the Guggenheim Museum, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York, NY. 2011 Longitudes de Onda, Espacio de Arte OTR., Madrid, Spain Red (Force Fields), David Richard Contemporary, Santa Fe, NM. January White Sale, curated by Beth Rudin DeWoody, Loretta Howard Gallery, New York, NY Altered States: Jose Alvarez, Yayoi Kusama, Fred Tomaselli and Leo Villareal, Norton Museum of Art, West Palm Beach, FL.

150

2012 Extended Minimalism, Javier Lopez Gallery, Madrid, Spain Motion and Emotion: Contemporary Art from Gerhard Richter to Chakaia Booker, Bowdoin College Museum of Art, Brunswick, ME. Inquisitive Eyes: El Paso Art 1960-2012, El Paso Art Museum of Art, El Paso, TX. 2014 The International Biennial of Contemporary Art of Cartagena de Indias, Cartagena, Colombia Tracking the Cosmos, Simons Center Gallery, Stony Brook University, NY. Luminous Flux, Digital & Geometric Art from the Thoma Foundation, Thoma Foundation, Santa Fe, NM. Spaced Out: Migration to the Interior, Red Bull Studios, New York, NY. 2015 Wonder, Renwick Gallery of the Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, DC. Systems and Corruptions, National Exemplar, New York, NY. 2013—16 Light Show, Hayward Gallery, London, UK. Traveling to: Auckland Art Gallery, Auckland, New Zealand; Museum of Contemporary Art Australia, Sydney, Australia; Sharjah Art Foundation, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates 2016 Into the Ether: Contemporary Light Artists, The Dayton Art Institute, Dayton, OH.

151

1876

Edmund Germer patents the fluorescent lamp.

1925

1926

1878

1874

The first internal frosted lightbulbs were produced.

1911

1938

1867

Georges Claude developed the neon lamp.

Lightolier, Artcraft Fluorescent Lighting Corporation, Globe, fluorescent fixture making.

1856

1854

1853

1909

Albert Munsell, USA, developed a practical system of color notation; Albert Einstein explained the quantum energy states of matter and light.

Peter Cooper Hewitt demonstrates the mercury-vapor lamp.

William Coolidge, USA, developed ductile tungsten wire, making the “modern” incandescent lamp possible.

1905

1901

Sir Joseph Wilson Swan, England, patented his incandescent lamp.

Pavel Yablochkov invents the Yablochkov candle, the first practical carbon arc lamp, for public street lighting in Paris.

Alexander Lodygin, Russia, patents an Incandescent light bulb.

A. E. Becqueel demonstrates the first fluorescent lamp.

Glassblower Heinrich Geissler confines the electric arc in a Geissler tube.

Heinrich Göbel, Germany, invented an incandescent lamp by passing an electric current through a carbonized bamboo filament that was placed inside of a glass bulb.

Ignacy Lukasiewicz invents kerosene lamp.

1800

1792

1780

900 AD

3000 BC

4500 BC

70,000 BCE

French watchmaker Bernard Guillaume Carcel overcomes the disadvantages of the Argand-type lamps with his clockwork fed Carcel lamp.

William Murdoch, Scotland, began experimenting with gas lighting and probably produced the first gas light in this year.

Aimé Argand, a Swiss physicist and chemist greatly improved oil lamp efficiency and performance with improved oils and the use of glass chimneys to draft the flame.

Muhammad ibn Zakariya alRazi, a Persian scholar, invented the kerosene lamp.

Candles were invented.

Oil lamps begin to appear.

Hollow rocks or shells or other natural found objects were filled with moss or similar material that was soaked in animal fat then ignited.

From the Dark Timeline

Philips sells their first Compact Fluorescent Energy Saving Lamps, with integrated conventional ballast.

Philips invents a fluorescent lightbulb that lasts 60,000 hours. The bulb uses magnetic induction.

T5 lamps with cool tip are introduced to become the leading fluorescent lamps with up to 117 lm/W with good color rendering.

These and almost all new fluorescent lamps are to be operated on electronic ballasts only.

Shuji Nakamura at Nichia labs invents first blue and, with additional Phosphor, white LED, and starts an LED boom.

1978

1981

1991

1994

1995

2011

1999

Roscolux Color Filters were introduced providing more than 140 color options for Stage and Studio lighting.

1975

Philips wins L Prize for LED screw-in lamp equivalent to 60W incandescent A-lamp for general use.

New breakthroughs in LED technology improve efficacy and color (white LEDs). First talk of LEDs potentially replacing traditional general lighting sources.

The International Association of Lighting Designers was established to provide education and training for professional lighting designers.

1897

1894

1893

1885

1882

1880

1879

Walther Nernst invents and patents his incandescent lamp, based on solid state electrolytes.

D. McFarlane Moore creates the Moore tube, precursor of electric gas-discharge lamps.

GE introduces first commercial fully enclosed carbon arc lamp. Sealed in glass globes, it lasts 100h and therefore 10 times longer than hitherto carbon arc lamps.

Incandescent gas mantle invented, revolutionises gas lighting.

Introduction of large scale direct current based indoor incandescent lighting and lighting utility with Edison’s first Pearl Street Station.

Edison produced a 16-watt light bulb that lasts 1500 hours.

Thomas Edison and Joseph Wilson Swan patent the carbon-thread incandescent lamp. It lasted 40 hours.

1841

1835

1815

1813

1805

1803

1802

Arc-lighting used as experimental public lighting in Paris.

James Bowman Lindsay demonstrates a light bulb based electric lighting system to the citizens of Dundee.

Humphry Davy invents the miner’s safety lamp.

National Heat and Light Company formed by Fredrich Winzer.

Philips and Lee’s Cotton Mill, Manchester was the first industrial factory to be fully lit by gas.

Humphry Davy remarks first carbon arc when using battery for his electrolysis experiments. First electric lamp, over 10000 lumens and thus 1000 times brighter than candles.

William Murdoch illuminated the exterior of the Soho Foundry with gas.

Keith Lemley Dan Flavin Franรงois Morellet James Turrell Ivรกn Navarro Leo Villareal